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2,731,565,256,866,062,000 | where is episode 7 of game of thrones filmed | Game of Thrones ( season 7 ) - Wikipedia Game of Thrones ( season 7 ) Jump to : navigation , search <Th_colspan="2"> Game of Thrones ( season 7 ) <Td_colspan="2"> Region 1 DVD cover Starring See List of Game of Thrones cast Country of origin United States No. of episodes 7 <Th_colspan="2"> Release Original network HBO Original release July 16 ( 2017 - 07 - 16 ) -- August 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 27 ) <Th_colspan="2"> Season chronology <Td_colspan="2"> ← Previous Season 6 <Td_colspan="2"> List of Game of Thrones episodes The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16 , 2017 , and concluded on August 27 , 2017 . Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each , the seventh season consisted of only seven . Like the previous season , it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series , while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series . The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss . The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines , featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters , Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army , Arya and Bran Stark returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa , and the army of the dead breaching the Wall ( with the help of a reanimated wight dragon ) and entering the Seven Kingdoms . HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21 , 2016 , three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season , and began filming on August 31 , 2016 . The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland , Spain , Croatia and Iceland . Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast , including Peter Dinklage , Nikolaj Coster - Waldau , Lena Headey , Emilia Clarke , and Kit Harington . The season introduces several new cast members , including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper . Contents ( hide ) 1 Episodes 2 Cast 2.1 Main cast 2.2 Guest cast 2.2. 1 In the North , including the Wall 2.2. 2 Beyond the Wall 2.2. 3 In the Riverlands 2.2. 4 In King 's Landing 2.2. 5 In Oldtown 2.2. 6 At Dragonstone 2.2. 7 In flashbacks 3 Production 3.1 Crew 3.2 Writing 3.3 Filming 3.4 Casting 3.5 Episodes 3.6 Promotion 3.7 Music 4 Reception 4.1 Critical reception 4.2 Ratings 5 Release 5.1 Broadcast 5.2 Home media 5.3 Illegal distribution 6 References 7 External links Episodes ( edit ) See also : List of Game of Thrones episodes No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) 61 `` Dragonstone '' Jeremy Podeswa David Benioff & D.B. Weiss July 16 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 16 ) 10.11 <Td_colspan="7"> At the Twins , Arya fatally poisons the remaining lords of House Frey . The White Walkers march toward the Wall , where Tollett allows Bran and Meera inside . At Winterfell , despite Sansa 's disapproval , Jon secures the loyalties of Houses Umber and Karstark , who fought alongside Ramsay in the Battle of the Bastards . At the Citadel , Samwell steals books that reveal a large reservoir of dragonglass in Dragonstone , and sends word to Jon . He later finds Jorah in a cell . In the Riverlands , Arya meets a group of friendly Lannister soldiers , who take her intention to kill Cersei as a joke . Thoros shows Sandor a vision in the fire . The revelation leads him to believe in the Lord of Light . In King 's Landing , Jaime tells Cersei of the crucial need for allies . She welcomes Euron , who proposes marriage to her in exchange for his Iron Fleet and a chance to kill Theon and Yara . Cersei declines citing trust as a concern , so Euron promises to return with a `` gift '' to prove his loyalty . Daenerys arrives at Dragonstone , the home of House Targaryen once occupied by Stannis , with her army and dragons . 62 `` Stormborn '' Mark Mylod Bryan Cogman July 23 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 23 ) 9.27 <Td_colspan="7"> Daenerys sends the Dornishmen with Yara 's fleet to Sunspear and the Unsullied to Casterly Rock , deciding to place King 's Landing under siege . She questions Varys ' loyalty and threatens to burn him alive if he ever betrays her . Melisandre arrives and encourages her to invite Jon Snow to Dragonstone . Grey Worm and Missandei consummate their relationship . Cersei gathers several lords , asking for their fealties and elevating Randyll Tarly as Warden of the South . Qyburn shows Cersei a prototype ballista capable of killing dragons . Arya meets with Hot Pie and learns of Jon 's ascension to King in the North , halting plans to travel to King 's Landing and instead setting course for Winterfell . After receiving Samwell 's letter , Jon leaves for Dragonstone in hopes of convincing Daenerys to support the fight against the White Walkers . He leaves Sansa in charge and aggressively warns Littlefinger to keep his distance . Samwell applies a forbidden treatment on Jorah 's Greyscale infection . Euron 's fleet attacks Yara 's . Obara and Nymeria are killed , while Ellaria , Tyene , and Yara are captured . Theon shows flashes of his time as Reek , hesitating to challenge Euron before fleeing the carnage by jumping into the sea . 63 `` The Queen 's Justice '' Mark Mylod David Benioff & D.B. Weiss July 30 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 30 ) 9.25 <Td_colspan="7"> Jon arrives at Dragonstone . Daenerys demands his fealty . He refuses and focuses instead on convincing her to fight the Army of the Dead . Following Tyrion 's advice , Daenerys grants Jon access to the island 's dragonglass . Melisandre hides her presence from Jon and leaves for Volantis . Bran arrives at Winterfell and reveals his newfound role as the Three - Eyed Raven to Sansa . In King 's Landing , Euron returns with Ellaria and Tyene as a gift for Cersei , who promises to marry him after the war is won . She also awards him co-control of her military alongside Jaime . Cersei administers the same poison to Tyene used to kill Myrcella , forcing Ellaria to watch her daughter 's impending death . In Oldtown , a healed Jorah leaves to find Daenerys . Ebrose forgives Samwell . Grey Worm and the Unsullied attack Casterly Rock , only to find it mostly abandoned . Jaime led most of the Lannister forces in an attack on Highgarden , while Euron 's fleet ambushes and destroys the Unsullied 's ships . The Lannister forces overwhelm Olenna 's army . Jaime induces Olenna to drink poison , offering her a quick and painless death . After drinking it , she confesses to poisoning Joffrey . 64 `` The Spoils of War '' Matt Shakman David Benioff & D.B. Weiss August 6 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 06 ) 10.17 <Td_colspan="7"> Arya returns to Winterfell , where she reunites with Sansa and spars with Brienne , both of whom are unnerved by her exceptional fighting skills . Bran unemotionally bids farewell to Meera , divulging that he is no longer the boy she accompanied through the North . Littlefinger presents Bran with the dagger that was previously used in his attempted assassination . Cersei assures the Iron Bank a full return on their investment , as a train carrying gold from Highgarden is on its way to King 's Landing . In a cave filled with dragonglass , Jon reveals ancient paintings to Daenerys depicting the First Men and the Children of the Forest joining forces against the undead . Later , Daenerys learns of the sacking of Highgarden by Lannister forces and realizes her attack on Casterly Rock was a distraction . Despite Tyrion 's protests , she decides to take action . Led by Daenerys riding Drogon , the Dothraki cavalry catches the Lannister army by surprise and decimate or capture its remaining forces . Drogon is wounded during the fight by a spear fired from the scorpion ballista being manned by Bronn . Jaime mounts a desperate charge on horseback at a vulnerable Daenerys , but Drogon spews fire in time to thwart the attack . Bronn tackles Jaime into the river in time to save him . 65 5 `` Eastwatch '' Matt Shakman Dave Hill August 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 13 ) 10.72 <Td_colspan="7"> Jaime and Bronn return to King 's Landing . Against Tyrion 's advice , Daenerys has Drogon burn Randyll and Dickon Tarly alive for remaining allegiant to Cersei , forcing the other captives to pledge fealty to the former . Jorah arrives at Dragonstone and reunites with Daenerys . Maester Wolkan alerts Jon and the Citadel about the approaching wights to the Eastwatch by the Sea . Jon decides to travel beyond the Wall and capture a wight in order to convince Cersei for a temporary alliance . Davos smuggles Tyrion inside King 's Landing , where he secretly meets with Jaime and offers an armistice , which Cersei accepts , informing Jaime that she is pregnant . Davos rendezvouses with Gendry and returns him to Dragonstone . With the Citadel ignoring Wolkan 's letter , Samwell steals several books and leaves with Gilly and Little Sam . At Winterfell , Littlefinger notices Arya spying on him and leads her to take a letter written by Sansa from his room . Jon , Jorah , and Gendry , joined by the Hound , the Brotherhood , and a group of the Free Folk led by Tormund , leave Eastwatch and pass the Wall , intending to capture a wight as evidence for Cersei that the Army of the Dead is real . 66 6 `` Beyond the Wall '' Alan Taylor David Benioff & D.B. Weiss August 20 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 20 ) 10.24 <Td_colspan="7"> At Winterfell , Littlefinger plots to isolate Sansa . Tensions between Arya and Sansa grow following Arya 's discovery of the letter Sansa sent as a child begging for Robb 's fealty to Joffrey . Sansa discovers Arya 's bag of faces she took from Braavos . At Dragonstone , Tyrion counsels Daenerys about her upcoming negotiations with Cersei . Beyond the Wall , Jon leads a raiding party to capture a wight to bring South as evidence of the White Walkers ' existence . After successfully capturing one , the group is besieged by the White Walker army . Jon has Gendry return to Eastwatch and send a raven to Daenerys to request her help . Thoros freezes to death overnight . Daenerys arrives and saves the group from the wights , with the help of her dragons . The Night King , leader of the White Walkers , throws an ice spear at Viserion , one of Daenerys ' dragons , and kills it . Daenerys flies off , along with the raiding party , but is unable to save Jon . Benjen Stark intervenes and sacrifices himself to allow Jon to escape . When Jon and Daenerys are reunited , Jon pledges himself and the North to Daenerys as Queen . The Night King resurrects Viserion , making the dragon a part of his army . 67 7 `` The Dragon and the Wolf '' Jeremy Podeswa David Benioff & D.B. Weiss August 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 27 ) 12.07 <Td_colspan="7"> At King 's Landing , the wight is presented to the Lannisters . Cersei demands Jon 's neutrality in the Great War , but he upholds his oath to Daenerys , provoking Cersei to leave . Tyrion meets privately with Cersei , apparently persuading her to ally . Cersei later reveals to Jaime that she was lying and instead intends to use the Golden Company of Braavos to secure her hold on Westeros . Disgusted , Jaime deserts her and rides north . Bound for White Harbor , Jon and Daenerys make love . At Dragonstone , Theon earns the respect of his men and leads them to rescue Yara . At Winterfell , Littlefinger sows dissent using Arya 's threatening demeanor with Sansa , who assembles a trial . After listing Littlefinger 's acts of treason against House Stark and the North , Sansa has Arya execute him . Samwell arrives at Winterfell and meets with Bran , where both discuss Jon 's parentage . They realise Jon is a trueborn Targaryen named Aegon and valid heir to the Iron Throne , with his parents -- Rhaegar Targaryen and Lyanna Stark -- having married in secret . At Eastwatch , an undead Viserion damages the Wall , allowing the Army of the Dead to march south . Cast ( edit ) See also : List of Game of Thrones characters Peter Dinklage ( Tyrion Lannister ) Nikolaj Coster - Waldau ( Jaime Lannister ) Lena Headey ( Cersei Lannister ) Emilia Clarke ( Daenerys Targaryen ) Kit Harington ( Jon Snow ) Main cast ( edit ) Peter Dinklage as Tyrion Lannister Nikolaj Coster - Waldau as Jaime Lannister Lena Headey as Cersei Lannister Emilia Clarke as Daenerys Targaryen Kit Harington as Jon Snow Aidan Gillen as Petyr `` Littlefinger '' Baelish Liam Cunningham as Davos Seaworth Sophie Turner as Sansa Stark Maisie Williams as Arya Stark Carice van Houten as Melisandre Nathalie Emmanuel as Missandei Indira Varma as Ellaria Sand Alfie Allen as Theon Greyjoy Gwendoline Christie as Brienne of Tarth Conleth Hill as Varys John Bradley as Samwell Tarly Isaac Hempstead Wright as Bran Stark Hannah Murray as Gilly Kristofer Hivju as Tormund Giantsbane Rory McCann as Sandor `` The Hound '' Clegane Jerome Flynn as Bronn Joe Dempsie as Gendry Iain Glen as Jorah Mormont Guest cast ( edit ) The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7 . They are listed by the region in which they first appear . In the North , including the Wall ( edit ) Richard Dormer as Beric Dondarrion Paul Kaye as Thoros of Myr Ben Crompton as Eddison Tollett Ellie Kendrick as Meera Reed Bella Ramsey as Lyanna Mormont Tim McInnerny as Robett Glover Megan Parkinson as Alys Karstark Daniel Portman as Podrick Payne Richard Rycroft as Maester Wolkan Rupert Vansittart as Yohn Royce Beyond the Wall ( edit ) Vladimir Furdik as the Night King Joseph Mawle as Benjen Stark Neil Fingleton as giant wight Ian Whyte as giant wight In the Riverlands ( edit ) David Bradley as Walder Frey Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie In King 's Landing ( edit ) Pilou Asbæk as Euron Greyjoy Anton Lesser as Qyburn Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson as Gregor Clegane James Faulkner as Randyll Tarly Tom Hopper as Dickon Tarly Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris In Oldtown ( edit ) Jim Broadbent as Archmaester Ebrose At Dragonstone ( edit ) Jacob Anderson as Grey Worm Diana Rigg as Olenna Tyrell Gemma Whelan as Yara Greyjoy Jessica Henwick as Nymeria Sand Rosabell Laurenti Sellers as Tyene Sand Keisha Castle - Hughes as Obara Sand Brendan Cowell as Harrag Staz Nair as Qhono In flashbacks ( edit ) Aisling Franciosi as Lyanna Stark Wilf Scolding as Rhaegar Targaryen Robert Aramayo as Ned Stark Production ( edit ) Crew ( edit ) Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season . The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa ( episodes 1 and 7 ) , Mark Mylod ( episodes 2 and 3 ) , Matt Shakman ( episodes 4 and 5 ) and Alan Taylor ( episode 6 ) . This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season . Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director , with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons . Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer , after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season . She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons , as well as the end of the sixth season . Writing ( edit ) Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter , the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series . According to previous reports , some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin . Filming ( edit ) The shores of Gaztelugatxe were used as a location for filming Season 7 . Filming began on August 31 , 2016 , at Titanic Studios in Belfast , and ended in February 2017 . In an interview with the showrunners , it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming . The showrunners stated `` We 're starting a bit later because , you know , at the end of this season , winter is here , and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more . We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim , gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot . '' Girona , Spain did not return as one of the filming locations . Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing . It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland , Spain and Iceland , with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016 . The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville , Cáceres , Almodóvar del Río , Santiponce , Zumaia and Bermeo . Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika , Las Atarazanas , the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe , an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo . The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum , which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season . Some scenes were filmed in Iceland . Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik , Croatia , which is used for location of King 's Landing . The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta , Canada . Casting ( edit ) Deadline reported on June 21 , 2016 , that the five main cast members , Peter Dinklage , Nikolaj Coster - Waldau , Lena Headey , Emilia Clarke , and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons . It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season . It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation , for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons . On August 31 , 2016 , Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a `` significant '' role . It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast , with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma , who had previously played the role in `` Blood of My Blood '' . The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris , who did not appear in the sixth season , Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie , who last appeared in the fourth season , and Joe Dempsie as Gendry , who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member . Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances . British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season . Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon , Brent Hinds , has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance . This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series , following his appearance ( along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher ) in the fifth season . Episodes ( edit ) On April 21 , 2016 , HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones , just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season . According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss , the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes , stating at the time of the interview that they were `` down to our final 13 episodes after this season . We 're heading into the final lap . '' Director Jack Bender , who worked on the show 's sixth season , said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes . Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame , as Weiss said `` It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule . '' HBO confirmed on July 18 , 2016 , that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes , and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule . Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16 . According to a report by Entertainment Weekly , the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode , with the finale running for 81 minutes . The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode . The first five episodes mostly run longer than average ( 55 minutes ) , at 59 , 59 , 63 , 50 , and 59 minutes respectively . The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale , `` The Winds of Winter '' , which ran 69 minutes . Promotion ( edit ) On July 23 , 2016 , a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con . The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs , and shots of crew members creating sets and props . The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28 , 2016 , showcasing Jon Snow , Sansa Stark and Arya Stark . On March 1 , 2017 , HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for a cross-promotional partnership . At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion . On March 8 , 2017 , HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin , Texas , which teases the battle of `` ice vs. fire '' . Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event , along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams . On March 9 , 2017 , HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16 , 2017 . It was accompanied by a teaser trailer . On March 30 , 2017 , the first official promo for the show was released , highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen , Jon Snow , and Cersei Lannister . On April 20 , 2017 , HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season . On May 22 , 2017 , HBO released several new photos from the new season . On May 23 , 2017 , HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King . The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24 , 2017 . The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever , being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms , in the first 24 hours . The second official trailer was released on June 21 , 2017 . The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12 , 2017 . Music ( edit ) See also : Game of Thrones : Season 7 ( soundtrack ) Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season . Reception ( edit ) Critical reception ( edit ) On Metacritic , the season ( based on the first episode ) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . On Rotten Tomatoes , the seventh season has a 96 percent approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10 , and a 93 % average episode score , with the site 's consensus reading `` After a year - long wait , Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones . '' Game of Thrones ( season 7 ) : Critical reception by episode Season 7 ( 2017 ) : Percentage of positive reviews tracked by the website Rotten Tomatoes Ratings ( edit ) The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release . The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well . In the UK , the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days , setting a new record for Sky Atlantic . Compared to the previous season , HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent . HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region , with a 29 percent climb . In Germany , the show went up 210 percent , in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase . In the United States , the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television , and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included . Over the season , the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform . No . Title Air date Rating / share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( millions ) DVR ( 18 -- 49 ) DVR viewers ( millions ) Total ( 18 -- 49 ) Total viewers ( millions ) `` Dragonstone '' July 16 , 2017 4.7 10.11 1.1 2.62 5.8 12.74 `` Stormborn '' July 23 , 2017 4.3 9.27 1.4 3.08 5.7 12.37 `` The Queen 's Justice '' July 30 , 2017 4.3 9.25 1.1 2.72 5.4 11.97 `` The Spoils of War '' August 6 , 2017 4.6 10.17 1.7 3.76 6.3 13.94 5 `` Eastwatch '' August 13 , 2017 5.0 10.72 1.6 3.67 6.6 14.41 6 `` Beyond the Wall '' August 20 , 2017 4.7 10.24 1.6 3.74 6.3 13.98 7 `` The Dragon and the Wolf '' August 27 , 2017 5.7 12.07 1.4 3.35 7.1 15.44 ^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available , so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead . Game of Thrones : U.S. viewers per episode ( millions ) <Th_colspan="2"> Season Ep. 1 Ep. 2 Ep. 3 Ep. 4 Ep. 5 Ep. 6 Ep. 7 Ep. 8 Ep. 9 Ep. 10 Average 2.22 2.20 2.44 2.45 2.58 2.44 2.40 2.72 2.66 3.04 2.52 3.86 3.76 3.77 3.65 3.90 3.88 3.69 3.86 3.38 4.20 3.80 4.37 4.27 4.72 4.87 5.35 5.50 4.84 5.13 5.22 5.39 4.97 6.64 6.31 6.59 6.95 7.16 6.40 7.20 7.17 6.95 7.09 6.84 5 8.00 6.81 6.71 6.82 6.56 6.24 5.40 7.01 7.14 8.11 6.88 6 7.94 7.29 7.28 7.82 7.89 6.71 7.80 7.60 7.66 8.89 7.69 7 10.11 9.27 9.25 10.17 10.72 10.24 12.07 <Td_colspan="3"> N / A 10.26 Source : Nielsen Media Research Release ( edit ) Broadcast ( edit ) The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries . While in some countries , it aired the day after its first release . Home media ( edit ) The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12 , 2017 . Illegal distribution ( edit ) The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired . On August 4 , 2017 , it was reported that , two days before its original broadcast , the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India , one of HBO 's international network partners . The leaked copy has the `` for internal viewing only '' watermark . On July 31 , 2017 , due to a security breach , HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data . However , `` this was not related to this episode leak '' , according to The Verge . On August 16 , 2017 , four days before its intended release , it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed . Data from by piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming , with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy . On average , each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` HBO Renews Hit Series `` Game of Thrones , '' `` Silicon Valley '' and `` Veep '' for 2017 '' ( Press release ) . HBO . April 21 , 2016 . Archived from the original on August 16 , 2017 . Retrieved April 29 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Opam , Kwame ( March 9 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 7 premieres on July 16th '' . The Verge . Archived from the original on March 9 , 2017 . Retrieved March 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Shows A-Z - game of thrones on hbo '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved April 4 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Hibberd , James ( July 18 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones : HBO announces summer return , 7 episodes '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2016 . Retrieved July 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( May 24 , 2016 ) . `` George R.R. Martin revealed 3 huge shocks to Game of Thrones producers '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2016 . Retrieved March 13 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( July 17 , 2017 ) . `` Sunday cable ratings : ' Game of Thrones ' scores series - best audience with Season 7 premiere '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on July 30 , 2017 . Retrieved July 18 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( July 25 , 2017 ) . `` Sunday cable ratings : ' Phelps vs. Shark ' strong , ' Game of Thrones ' boosts ' Ballers , ' ' Insecure ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on July 25 , 2017 . Retrieved July 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( August 1 , 2017 ) . `` Sunday cable ratings : ' Rick & Morty ' returns strong , more highs for ' Insecure ' and ' Ballers ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on August 1 , 2017 . Retrieved August 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( August 8 , 2017 ) . `` Sunday cable ratings : ' Sharknado 5 ' lacks bite , ' Game of Thrones ' hits total - viewer high '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on August 8 , 2017 . Retrieved August 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( August 15 , 2017 ) . `` Sunday cable ratings : ' Game of Thrones ' scores another series high '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on August 15 , 2017 . Retrieved August 15 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( August 22 , 2017 ) . `` Sunday cable ratings : ' Survivor 's Remorse ' premiere steady , ' Game of Thrones ' down a little '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 22 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Sunday cable ratings : VMAs hit all - time low opposite ' Game of Thrones ' finale '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Emmy ( R ) - and Golden Globe - Winning HBO Series `` Game of Thrones '' Returns for Seventh Season July 16 '' ( Press release ) . HBO . July 7 , 2017 . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Rodman , Sarah ( July 12 , 2017 ) . `` Gendry 's back ! The lost son of King Baratheon will return during the 7th season of ' Game of Thrones ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved July 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kain , Erik ( April 21 , 2017 ) . `` New ' Game Of Thrones ' Photos Hint At Season 7 Clues '' . Forbes . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Game of Thrones star is delighted to be back at Castle Black '' . The Shield Gazette . October 15 , 2016 . Retrieved October 15 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Bryant , Jacob ( April 20 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Season 7 : First Photos '' . Variety . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Cain , Dan ( September 27 , 2017 ) . `` PICTURE EXCLUSIVE : Game Of Thrones cast film battle scenes for new series in Northern Ireland ... a day after scooping 12 awards at the Emmys '' . The Daily Mail . Retrieved September 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` # WinterIsComing # Belfast # Irishthrones Just a casual walk amongst the green fields of Corbet and i bump into these people ! ! '' . Twitter . September 28 , 2016 . Retrieved September 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Megan Parkinson CV '' . Independent Talent . June 22 , 2017 . Retrieved June 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pearson , Ben ( June 13 , 2017 ) . `` New ' Game of Thrones ' Season 7 Photos and Special Effects Featurette '' . / Film . Retrieved July 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` # watchersOTthewall # Irishthrones # Belfast These are a few more sightings of many ! ! Care to work out what the plot might be hehe ? ? '' . Twitter . October 3 , 2016 . Retrieved October 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` @ IrishThrones @ WatchersOTWall @ magnificentMR @ GameOfThrones More pics for your theories ! ! '' . Twitter . October 12 , 2016 . Retrieved October 13 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Evans , Greg ( June 21 , 2017 ) . `` New Game Of Thrones Season 7 Trailer : ' Fight Every Battle ! ' '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved June 21 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Wigler , Josh ( May 24 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Season 7 Trailer : `` The Great War is Here '' `` . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved May 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Collins , Sean T. ( May 24 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Season 7 : Everything We Know So Far '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Hooton , Christopher ( November 18 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 7 spoilers : Tom Hopper lands recast role '' . The Independent . Retrieved November 19 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Busis , Hillary ( April 10 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones : Expect to See a Lot More of Braavos in Season 7 '' . Vanity Fair . Retrieved April 10 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Hibberd , James ( August 31 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones casts Jim Broadbent in first season 7 role '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Collin , Robbie ( April 10 , 2017 ) . `` Jim Broadbent on Game of Thrones , public school , and his ' arrogant , pompous ' Sense Of An Ending role ' '' . Telegraph.co.uk . Retrieved April 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Vineyard , Jennifer ( July 6 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones ' Gemma Whelan on Yara 's Sexuality and Freezing on Set '' . Vulture . Retrieved September 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( June 27 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones : Jessica Henwick 's Sandsnake almost vanished from show '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kurp , Josh ( December 15 , 2016 ) . `` Everyone 's Least Favorite ' Game Of Thrones ' Characters Are Returning In Season 7 '' . Uproxx . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Hibberd , James ( June 29 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 7 directors revealed '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2016 . Retrieved June 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Robinson , Joanna ( June 27 , 2016 ) . `` What We Can Expect from Game of Thrones Season 7 '' . Vanity Fair . Archived from the original on June 28 , 2016 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Noble , Matt ( August 18 , 2015 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' director Jeremy Podeswa dishes Jon Snow death , teases season six ( Exclusive Video ) '' . GoldDerby . Archived from the original on April 3 , 2016 . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Smith , Oliver ( September 23 , 2016 ) . `` The incredible locations that will star in Game of Thrones season 7 '' . Telegraph . London . Archived from the original on January 2 , 2017 . Retrieved January 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Ausiello , Michael ( July 18 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones Season 7 Premiere Pushed to Summer 2017 '' . TVLine . Archived from the original on July 19 , 2016 . Retrieved July 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Li , Shirley ( July 22 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones team on season 7 , who should be on Iron Throne '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on July 23 , 2016 . Retrieved July 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Riefe , Jordan ( February 27 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Parodies Proliferate as Filming Wraps on Season 7 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on February 28 , 2017 . Retrieved February 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( July 6 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones Season 7 Production Delayed '' . TVLine . Archived from the original on July 7 , 2016 . Retrieved July 6 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Trivedi , Sachin ( June 10 , 2016 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Season 7 : Braavos may not be featured ; Multiple battles near castles '' . International Business Times . Archived from the original on June 17 , 2016 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` EMMY ® - AND GOLDEN GLOBE - WINNING HBO SERIES GAME OF THRONES TO BEGIN PRODUCTION ON SEASON SEVEN THIS SUMMER '' ( Press release ) . HBO . July 18 , 2016 . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2016 . Retrieved July 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ZUMAIA Y ZONA NORTE : '' . Facebook . August 31 , 2016 . Archived from the original on August 19 , 2017 . Retrieved September 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Las Atarazanas será escenario del rodaje de la séptima temporada de ' Juego de Tronos ' '' . El Correoweb . September 6 , 2016 . Archived from the original on August 16 , 2017 . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ' Juego de Tronos ' grabará en Trujillo el 18 de noviembre '' . Hoy.es . August 20 , 2016 . Archived from the original on September 2 , 2016 . Retrieved September 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` We have had confirmation that The Dark Hedges at Stranocum in Ireland will be used for # GameOfThrones Season 7 filming this week # KingsRoad '' . Twitter . October 11 , 2016 . Archived from the original on August 19 , 2017 . Retrieved October 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( July 18 , 2016 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones Season 7 '' . Hollywood Reporter . Los Angeles . Archived from the original on December 21 , 2016 . Retrieved December 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` EXCLUSIVE -- Game of Thrones is back in Dubrovnik '' . The Dubrovnik Times . December 14 , 2016 . Archived from the original on July 2 , 2017 . Retrieved July 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Mertz , Emily ( February 27 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' was in Banff to film some scenes with wolves '' . Global News . Archived from the original on August 7 , 2017 . Retrieved August 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( June 21 , 2016 ) . `` ' Game Of Thrones ' Stars Set For Potential Season 8 On HBO With Big Raises '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on June 25 , 2016 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Robinson , Joanna ( June 21 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones : Are These Characters `` Safe '' After Renewing Contracts Through Season 8 ? `` . Vanity Fair . Archived from the original on June 25 , 2016 . Retrieved June 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( November 17 , 2016 ) . `` Robert De Niro 's Making How Much ? ! TV Is Becoming an ATM for Top Talent '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on January 14 , 2017 . Retrieved January 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hooton , Christopher ( January 23 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 7 : Bastille ' film cameo in battle sequence ' '' . The Independent . Archived from the original on January 25 , 2017 . Retrieved January 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Huff , Lauren ( March 12 , 2017 ) . `` Ed Sheeran to Appear in ' Game of Thrones ' Season 7 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on March 13 , 2017 . Retrieved March 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Toney , Jordan ( March 14 , 2017 ) . `` Mastodon 's Brent Hinds is returning back to ' Game of Thrones ' '' . Alternative Press . Archived from the original on March 15 , 2017 . Retrieved March 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( April 21 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones Renewed for Season 7 '' . TVLine . Archived from the original on June 26 , 2016 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Birnbaum , Debra ( April 14 , 2016 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Creators Mull Shorter Final Seasons ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2016 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( April 14 , 2016 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Considering Shorter Final Seasons '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on June 18 , 2016 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Robinson , Joanna ( June 1 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones Director Jack Bender Talks Direwolf Deaths , Lost , and Holding That Door '' . Vanity Fair . Archived from the original on June 23 , 2016 . Retrieved June 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Van Boom , Daniel ( June 8 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' season 7 finale will be pretty damn long '' . CNET . Archived from the original on June 10 , 2017 . Retrieved June 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Tassi , Paul ( June 9 , 2017 ) . `` HBO 's ' Game of Thrones ' Season 7 Finale Is Practically Movie - Length '' . Forbes . Archived from the original on June 9 , 2017 . Retrieved June 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( June 8 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Season 7 Will Have the Show 's Longest Episode Ever '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on June 9 , 2017 . Retrieved June 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Setaro , Shawn ( July 23 , 2016 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Drops Season 7 Teaser '' . Complex . Archived from the original on July 26 , 2016 . Retrieved July 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Roots , Kiberley ( November 28 , 2016 ) . `` Game of Thrones : Does First Season 7 Footage Hint at Stark Reunion ? '' . TVLine . Archived from the original on November 29 , 2016 . Retrieved November 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Vincent , Alice ( November 28 , 2016 ) . `` Starks back on form as Game of Thrones season 7 teaser trailer airs '' . The Daily Telegraph . London , England . Archived from the original on December 2 , 2016 . Retrieved December 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Lieberman , David ( March 1 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game Of Thrones ' Teams With Major League Baseball For Cross Promotions '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on March 2 , 2017 . Retrieved March 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( March 8 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones season 7 first poster teases ice vs. fire '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on March 9 , 2017 . Retrieved March 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Roots , Kimberly ( March 30 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones : Watch the Haunting First Season 7 Teaser Trailer Now '' . TVLine . Archived from the original on March 31 , 2017 . Retrieved March 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( April 20 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones first season 7 photos '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on April 21 , 2017 . Retrieved April 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( May 22 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones unleashes epic season 7 dragon war photo '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on May 25 , 2017 . Retrieved May 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Roots , Kimberly ( May 23 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones Season 7 : The Night King Is Coming in Eerie New Poster '' . TVLine . Archived from the original on May 23 , 2017 . Retrieved May 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( May 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game Of Thrones ' Season 7 Trailer Snags 61 Million Views In First 24 Hours , HBO Says '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on May 25 , 2017 . Retrieved May 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Wigler , Josh ( July 13 , 2017 ) . `` Inside the ' Game of Thrones ' Season 7 Premiere as HBO Brings Winter to Downtown L.A. '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on July 13 , 2017 . Retrieved July 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bradley , Bill ( January 26 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game Of Thrones ' Composer Says You 're Not Hearing What You Think You Are '' . The Huffington Post . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2017 . Retrieved January 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Game of Thrones : Season 7 '' . Metacritic . Archived from the original on July 22 , 2017 . Retrieved July 18 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Game of Thrones : Season 7 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved September 14 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Hibberd , James ( August 2 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones boom : Ratings hit 30 million viewers '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 2 , 2017 . Retrieved August 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Koblin , John ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Finale Sets Ratings Record '' . New York Times . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( July 26 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones , ' ' Nashville ' and ' Orphan Black ' lead the cable Live + 7 ratings for July 10 -- 16 '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on July 27 , 2017 . Retrieved July 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( August 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones , ' ' Descendants 2 ' make big gains in cable Live + 7 ratings for July 17 -- 23 '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on August 4 , 2017 . Retrieved August 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( August 5 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' rules the cable Live + 3 ratings for July 24 -- 30 '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on August 7 , 2017 . Retrieved August 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( August 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Sinner ' premiere triples in cable Live + 7 ratings for July 31 - Aug. 6 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( August 24 , 2017 ) . `` ' Nashville , ' ' Orphan Black ' finales score in cable Live + 7 ratings for Aug. 7 - 13 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Sinner ' makes more strong gains in cable Live + 7 ratings for Aug. 14 - 20 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( September 7 , 2017 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' finale reaches all - time highs : Cable Live + 7 ratings for Aug. 21 - 27 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 7 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Game of Thrones : Season Two Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . June 11 , 2012 . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved April 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Game of Thrones : Season Three Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . June 12 , 2013 . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved April 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Game of Thrones : Season Four Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . June 18 , 2014 . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved April 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Game of Thrones : Season Five Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . June 16 , 2015 . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved April 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Game of Thrones : Season Six Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . June 28 , 2016 . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved April 24 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Game of Thrones : Season Seven Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . August 29 , 2017 . Archived from the original on September 16 , 2017 . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Updated : ' Game of Thrones ' Ratings : Season One '' . TV by the Numbers . June 19 , 2011 . Archived from the original on July 26 , 2017 . Retrieved July 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jump up ^ `` Game of Thrones - ' The Complete 7th Season ' Already Planned for DVD and Blu - ray Disc '' . TVShowsOnDVD . Archived from the original on July 26 , 2017 . Retrieved July 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Dornnush , Jonathon ( September 14 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones : Season 7 Blu - Ray , DVD , Digital Download Release Dates , Bonus Features Announced '' . IGN . Retrieved September 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Price , Rob ( July 21 , 2017 ) . `` The ' Game of Thrones ' season 7 premiere was pirated a staggering 90 million times '' . Business Insider . Archived from the original on July 30 , 2017 . Retrieved July 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( August 4 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones episode 4 leaks online '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 5 , 2017 . Retrieved August 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Plaugic , Lizzie ( July 31 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones script and other HBO episodes reportedly leak online following hack '' . The Verge . Archived from the original on August 5 , 2017 . Retrieved August 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Warren , Tom ( August 4 , 2017 ) . `` Latest Game of Thrones episode leaks online before TV broadcast '' . The Verge . Archived from the original on August 4 , 2017 . Retrieved August 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hooton , Christopher ( August 16 , 2017 ) . `` HBO has accidentally broadcast this week 's Game of Thrones '' . The Independent . Archived from the original on August 16 , 2017 . Retrieved August 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ernesto ( September 5 , 2017 ) . `` Game of Thrones Season 7 Pirated Over a Billion Times '' . TorrentFreak . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Official website -- ( U.S. ) Official website -- ( U.K. ) Game of Thrones -- The Viewers Guide on HBO.com Making Game of Thrones on HBO.com List of Game of Thrones episodes on IMDb List of Game of Thrones episodes at TV.com <Th_colspan="2"> George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire <Td_colspan="2"> A Game of Thrones ( 1996 ) A Clash of Kings ( 1998 ) A Storm of Swords ( 2000 ) A Feast for Crows ( 2005 ) A Dance with Dragons ( 2011 ) The Winds of Winter ( TBA ) Franchise media Novellas Tales of Dunk and Egg ( 1998 -- 2010 ) The Princess and the Queen ( 2013 ) The Rogue Prince ( 2014 ) The Sons of the Dragon ( 2017 ) TV series Episodes Season 1 5 6 7 Awards Characters Music `` Game of Thrones Theme '' `` The Rains of Castamere '' `` The Bear and the Maiden Fair '' `` Light of the Seven '' Catch the Throne Live Concert Experience Soundtracks Season 1 5 6 Title sequence After the Thrones Thronecast Video games A Game of Thrones : Genesis Game of Thrones ( 2012 ) Game of Thrones Ascent Game of Thrones ( 2014 ) Other media The World of Ice & Fire ( 2014 ) Board game Card game ( Second edition ) Comic book series Characters Petyr Baelish Joffrey Baratheon Renly Baratheon Robert Baratheon Stannis Baratheon Tommen Baratheon Ramsay Bolton Roose Bolton Bronn Gregor Clegane Sandor Clegane Khal Drogo Gendry Tormund Giantsbane Gilly Theon Greyjoy Cersei Lannister Jaime Lannister Tyrion Lannister Tywin Lannister Oberyn Martell Melisandre Missandei Jorah Mormont Daario Naharis Ellaria Sand Davos Seaworth Jon Snow High Sparrow Arya Stark Bran Stark Catelyn Stark Ned Stark Rickon Stark Robb Stark Sansa Stark Daenerys Targaryen Viserys Targaryen Samwell Tarly Brienne of Tarth Margaery Tyrell Olenna Tyrell Varys Ygritte World Languages Dothraki Valyrian Themes Iron Throne White Walker Miscellaneous Fandom <Td_colspan="2"> Book <Th_colspan="2"> Game of Thrones episodes <Td_colspan="2"> Seasons : 1 5 6 7 Season 7 `` Dragonstone '' `` Stormborn '' `` The Queen 's Justice '' `` The Spoils of War '' `` Eastwatch '' `` Beyond the Wall '' `` The Dragon and the Wolf '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Game_of_Thrones_(season_7)&oldid=802317045 '' Categories : 2017 American television seasons Game of Thrones Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from August 2017 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from September 2017 Wikipedia articles in need of updating from August 2017 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Official website not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Languages Dansk Deutsch فارسی Français Galego हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Português Română Русский Suomi Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 September 2017 , at 11 : 50 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | 1. Game of Thrones season 7
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-6,354,794,054,205,082,000 | which of the following is closest to the speed of light in a vacuum | Speed of light - wikipedia Speed of light `` Lightspeed '' redirects here . For other uses , see Speed of light ( disambiguation ) and Lightspeed ( disambiguation ) . Speed of light <Td_colspan="2"> Sunlight takes about 8 minutes 17 seconds to travel the average distance from the surface of the Sun to the Earth . <Th_colspan="2"> Exact values metres per second 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299 792 458 Planck length per Planck time ( i.e. , Planck units ) <Th_colspan="2"> Approximate values ( to three significant digits ) kilometres per hour 7009108000000000000 ♠ 1080000000 miles per second 7005186000000000000 ♠ 186 000 miles per hour 7008671000000000000 ♠ 671 000 000 astronomical units per day 173 parsecs per year 0.307 <Th_colspan="2"> Approximate light signal travel times Distance Time one foot 1.0 ns one metre 3.3 ns from geostationary orbit to Earth 119 ms the length of Earth 's equator 134 ms from Moon to Earth 1.3 s from Sun to Earth ( 1 AU ) 8.3 min one light year 1.0 year one parsec 3.26 years from nearest star to Sun ( 1.3 pc ) 4.2 years from the nearest galaxy ( the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy ) to Earth 7011788940000000000 ♠ 25 000 years across the Milky Way 7012315576000000000 ♠ 100 000 years from the Andromeda Galaxy to Earth 2.5 million years from Earth to the edge of the observable universe 46.5 billion years Special relativity Principle of relativity Theory of relativity Doubly special relativity de Sitter invariant special relativity General relativity Foundations ( show ) Simultaneity Relativity of simultaneity Relative motion Frame of reference Inertial frame of reference Rest frame Center - of - momentum frame Speed of light Maxwell 's equations Lorentz transformation Consequences ( show ) Time dilation Gravitational time dilation Relativistic mass Mass -- energy equivalence Length contraction Relativity of simultaneity Relativistic Doppler effect Thomas precession Relativistic disk Bell 's spaceship paradox Ehrenfest paradox Spacetime ( show ) Minkowski spacetime World line Spacetime diagrams Light cone Dynamics ( show ) Proper time Proper mass Lorentz scalar 4 - momentum History Precursors ( show ) Galilean relativity Galilean transformation Aether theories People ( show ) Einstein Sommerfeld Michelson Morley FitzGerald Herglotz Lorentz Poincaré Minkowski Fizeau Abraham Planck von Laue Ehrenfest Tolman Dirac Alternative formulations of special relativity The speed of light in vacuum , commonly denoted c , is a universal physical constant important in many areas of physics . Its exact value is 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299,792,458 metres per second ( approximately 300,000 km / s ( 186,000 mi / s ) ) . It is exact because by international agreement a metre is defined to be the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 / 299792458 second . According to special relativity , c is the maximum speed at which all conventional matter and hence all known forms of information in the universe can travel . Though this speed is most commonly associated with light , it is in fact the speed at which all massless particles and changes of the associated fields travel in vacuum ( including electromagnetic radiation and gravitational waves ) . Such particles and waves travel at c regardless of the motion of the source or the inertial reference frame of the observer . In the special and general theories of relativity , c interrelates space and time , and also appears in the famous equation of mass -- energy equivalence E = mc . The speed at which light propagates through transparent materials , such as glass or air , is less than c ; similarly , the speed of electromagnetic waves in wire cables is slower than c . The ratio between c and the speed v at which light travels in a material is called the refractive index n of the material ( n = c / v ) . For example , for visible light the refractive index of glass is typically around 1.5 , meaning that light in glass travels at c / 1.5 ≈ 200,000 km / s ( 124,000 mi / s ) ; the refractive index of air for visible light is about 1.0003 , so the speed of light in air is about 299,700 km / s ( 186,220 mi / s ) , which is about 90 km / s ( 56 mi / s ) slower than c . For many practical purposes , light and other electromagnetic waves will appear to propagate instantaneously , but for long distances and very sensitive measurements , their finite speed has noticeable effects . In communicating with distant space probes , it can take minutes to hours for a message to get from Earth to the spacecraft , or vice versa . The light seen from stars left them many years ago , allowing the study of the history of the universe by looking at distant objects . The finite speed of light also limits the theoretical maximum speed of computers , since information must be sent within the computer from chip to chip . The speed of light can be used with time of flight measurements to measure large distances to high precision . Ole Rømer first demonstrated in 1676 that light travels at a finite speed ( as opposed to instantaneously ) by studying the apparent motion of Jupiter 's moon Io . In 1865 , James Clerk Maxwell proposed that light was an electromagnetic wave , and therefore travelled at the speed c appearing in his theory of electromagnetism . In 1905 , Albert Einstein postulated that the speed of light c with respect to any inertial frame is a constant and is independent of the motion of the light source . He explored the consequences of that postulate by deriving the theory of relativity and in doing so showed that the parameter c had relevance outside of the context of light and electromagnetism . After centuries of increasingly precise measurements , in 1975 the speed of light was known to be 299 792 458 m / s ( 983 571 056 ft / s ; 186 282.397 mi / s ) with a measurement uncertainty of 4 parts per billion . In 1983 , the metre was redefined in the International System of Units ( SI ) as the distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1 / 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299 792 458 of a second . Contents ( hide ) 1 Numerical value , notation , and units 2 Fundamental role in physics 2.1 Upper limit on speeds 3 Faster - than - light observations and experiments 4 Propagation of light 4.1 In a medium 5 Practical effects of finiteness 5.1 Small scales 5.2 Large distances on Earth 5.3 Spaceflights and astronomy 5.4 Distance measurement 5.5 High - frequency trading 6 Measurement 6.1 Astronomical measurements 6.1. 1 Astronomical unit 6.2 Time of flight techniques 6.3 Electromagnetic constants 6.4 Cavity resonance 6.5 Interferometry 7 History 7.1 Early history 7.2 First measurement attempts 7.3 Connections with electromagnetism 7.4 `` Luminiferous aether '' 7.5 Special relativity 7.6 Increased accuracy of c and redefinition of the metre and second 7.7 Defining the speed of light as an explicit constant 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 11.1 Historical references 11.2 Modern references 12 External links Numerical value , notation , and units The speed of light in vacuum is usually denoted by a lowercase c , for `` constant '' or the Latin celeritas ( meaning `` swiftness , celerity '' ) . In 1856 , Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch had used c for a different constant later shown to equal √ 2 times the speed of light in vacuum . Historically , the symbol V was used as an alternative symbol for the speed of light , introduced by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865 . In 1894 , Paul Drude redefined c with its modern meaning . Einstein used V in his original German - language papers on special relativity in 1905 , but in 1907 he switched to c , which by then had become the standard symbol for the speed of light . Sometimes c is used for the speed of waves in any material medium , and c for the speed of light in vacuum . This subscripted notation , which is endorsed in official SI literature , has the same form as other related constants : namely , μ for the vacuum permeability or magnetic constant , ε for the vacuum permittivity or electric constant , and Z for the impedance of free space . This article uses c exclusively for the speed of light in vacuum . Since 1983 , the metre has been defined in the International System of Units ( SI ) as the distance light travels in vacuum in ⁄ of a second . This definition fixes the speed of light in vacuum at exactly 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299,792,458 m / s . As a dimensional physical constant , the numerical value of c is different for different unit systems . In branches of physics in which c appears often , such as in relativity , it is common to use systems of natural units of measurement or the geometrized unit system where c = 1 . Using these units , c does not appear explicitly because multiplication or division by 1 does not affect the result . Fundamental role in Physics See also : Special relativity and One - way speed of light The speed at which light waves propagate in vacuum is independent both of the motion of the wave source and of the inertial frame of reference of the observer . This invariance of the speed of light was postulated by Einstein in 1905 , after being motivated by Maxwell 's theory of electromagnetism and the lack of evidence for the luminiferous aether ; it has since been consistently confirmed by many experiments . It is only possible to verify experimentally that the two - way speed of light ( for example , from a source to a mirror and back again ) is frame - independent , because it is impossible to measure the one - way speed of light ( for example , from a source to a distant detector ) without some convention as to how clocks at the source and at the detector should be synchronized . However , by adopting Einstein synchronization for the clocks , the one - way speed of light becomes equal to the two - way speed of light by definition . The special theory of relativity explores the consequences of this invariance of c with the assumption that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference . One consequence is that c is the speed at which all massless particles and waves , including light , must travel in vacuum . The Lorentz factor γ as a function of velocity . It starts at 1 and approaches infinity as v approaches c . Special relativity has many counterintuitive and experimentally verified implications . These include the equivalence of mass and energy ( E = mc ) , length contraction ( moving objects shorten ) , and time dilation ( moving clocks run more slowly ) . The factor γ by which lengths contract and times dilate is known as the Lorentz factor and is given by γ = ( 1 − v / c ) , where v is the speed of the object . The difference of γ from 1 is negligible for speeds much slower than c , such as most everyday speeds -- in which case special relativity is closely approximated by Galilean relativity -- but it increases at relativistic speeds and diverges to infinity as v approaches c . For example , a time dilation factor of γ = 2 occurs at a relative velocity of 86.6 % of the speed of light ( v = . 866c ) . Similarly , a time dilation factor of γ = 10 occurs at v = 99.5 % c . The results of special relativity can be summarized by treating space and time as a unified structure known as spacetime ( with c relating the units of space and time ) , and requiring that physical theories satisfy a special symmetry called Lorentz invariance , whose mathematical formulation contains the parameter c . Lorentz invariance is an almost universal assumption for modern physical theories , such as quantum electrodynamics , quantum chromodynamics , the Standard Model of particle physics , and general relativity . As such , the parameter c is ubiquitous in modern physics , appearing in many contexts that are unrelated to light . For example , general relativity predicts that c is also the speed of gravity and of gravitational waves . In non-inertial frames of reference ( gravitationally curved spacetime or accelerated reference frames ) , the local speed of light is constant and equal to c , but the speed of light along a trajectory of finite length can differ from c , depending on how distances and times are defined . It is generally assumed that fundamental constants such as c have the same value throughout spacetime , meaning that they do not depend on location and do not vary with time . However , it has been suggested in various theories that the speed of light may have changed over time . No conclusive evidence for such changes has been found , but they remain the subject of ongoing research . It also is generally assumed that the speed of light is isotropic , meaning that it has the same value regardless of the direction in which it is measured . Observations of the emissions from nuclear energy levels as a function of the orientation of the emitting nuclei in a magnetic field ( see Hughes -- Drever experiment ) , and of rotating optical resonators ( see Resonator experiments ) have put stringent limits on the possible two - way anisotropy . Upper limit on speeds According to special relativity , the energy of an object with rest mass m and speed v is given by γmc , where γ is the Lorentz factor defined above . When v is zero , γ is equal to one , giving rise to the famous E = mc formula for mass -- energy equivalence . The γ factor approaches infinity as v approaches c , and it would take an infinite amount of energy to accelerate an object with mass to the speed of light . The speed of light is the upper limit for the speeds of objects with positive rest mass , and individual photons can not travel faster than the speed of light . This is experimentally established in many tests of relativistic energy and momentum . Event A precedes B in the red frame , is simultaneous with B in the green frame , and follows B in the blue frame . More generally , it is normally impossible for information or energy to travel faster than c . One argument for this follows from the counter-intuitive implication of special relativity known as the relativity of simultaneity . If the spatial distance between two events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by c then there are frames of reference in which A precedes B , others in which B precedes A , and others in which they are simultaneous . As a result , if something were travelling faster than c relative to an inertial frame of reference , it would be travelling backwards in time relative to another frame , and causality would be violated . In such a frame of reference , an `` effect '' could be observed before its `` cause '' . Such a violation of causality has never been recorded , and would lead to paradoxes such as the tachyonic antitelephone . Faster - than - light observations and experiments Main article : Faster - than - light Further information : Superluminal motion There are situations in which it may seem that matter , energy , or information travels at speeds greater than c , but they do not . For example , as is discussed in the propagation of light in a medium section below , many wave velocities can exceed c . For example , the phase velocity of X-rays through most glasses can routinely exceed c , but phase velocity does not determine the velocity at which waves convey information . If a laser beam is swept quickly across a distant object , the spot of light can move faster than c , although the initial movement of the spot is delayed because of the time it takes light to get to the distant object at the speed c . However , the only physical entities that are moving are the laser and its emitted light , which travels at the speed c from the laser to the various positions of the spot . Similarly , a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move faster than c , after a delay in time . In neither case does any matter , energy , or information travel faster than light . The rate of change in the distance between two objects in a frame of reference with respect to which both are moving ( their closing speed ) may have a value in excess of c . However , this does not represent the speed of any single object as measured in a single inertial frame . Certain quantum effects appear to be transmitted instantaneously and therefore faster than c , as in the EPR paradox . An example involves the quantum states of two particles that can be entangled . Until either of the particles is observed , they exist in a superposition of two quantum states . If the particles are separated and one particle 's quantum state is observed , the other particle 's quantum state is determined instantaneously ( i.e. , faster than light could travel from one particle to the other ) . However , it is impossible to control which quantum state the first particle will take on when it is observed , so information can not be transmitted in this manner . Another quantum effect that predicts the occurrence of faster - than - light speeds is called the Hartman effect : under certain conditions the time needed for a virtual particle to tunnel through a barrier is constant , regardless of the thickness of the barrier . This could result in a virtual particle crossing a large gap faster - than - light . However , no information can be sent using this effect . So - called superluminal motion is seen in certain astronomical objects , such as the relativistic jets of radio galaxies and quasars . However , these jets are not moving at speeds in excess of the speed of light : the apparent superluminal motion is a projection effect caused by objects moving near the speed of light and approaching Earth at a small angle to the line of sight : since the light which was emitted when the jet was farther away took longer to reach the Earth , the time between two successive observations corresponds to a longer time between the instants at which the light rays were emitted . In models of the expanding universe , the farther galaxies are from each other , the faster they drift apart . This receding is not due to motion through space , but rather to the expansion of space itself . For example , galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances . Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere , the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light . Propagation of light In classical physics , light is described as a type of electromagnetic wave . The classical behaviour of the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell 's equations , which predict that the speed c with which electromagnetic waves ( such as light ) propagate through the vacuum is related to the distributed capacitance and inductance of the vacuum , otherwise respectively known as the electric constant ε and the magnetic constant μ , by the equation c = 1 ε 0 μ 0 . ( \ displaystyle c = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( \ sqrt ( \ varepsilon _ ( 0 ) \ mu _ ( 0 ) ) ) ) \ . ) In modern quantum physics , the electromagnetic field is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics ( QED ) . In this theory , light is described by the fundamental excitations ( or quanta ) of the electromagnetic field , called photons . In QED , photons are massless particles and thus , according to special relativity , they travel at the speed of light in vacuum . Extensions of QED in which the photon has a mass have been considered . In such a theory , its speed would depend on its frequency , and the invariant speed c of special relativity would then be the upper limit of the speed of light in vacuum . No variation of the speed of light with frequency has been observed in rigorous testing , putting stringent limits on the mass of the photon . The limit obtained depends on the model used : if the massive photon is described by Proca theory , the experimental upper bound for its mass is about 10 grams ; if photon mass is generated by a Higgs mechanism , the experimental upper limit is less sharp , m ≤ 10 eV / c ( roughly 2 × 10 g ) . Another reason for the speed of light to vary with its frequency would be the failure of special relativity to apply to arbitrarily small scales , as predicted by some proposed theories of quantum gravity . In 2009 , the observation of the spectrum of gamma - ray burst GRB 090510 did not find any difference in the speeds of photons of different energies , confirming that Lorentz invariance is verified at least down to the scale of the Planck length ( l = √ ħ G / c ≈ 6965161630000000000 ♠ 1.6163 × 10 m ) divided by 1.2 . In a medium See also : Refractive index In a medium , light usually does not propagate at a speed equal to c ; further , different types of light wave will travel at different speeds . The speed at which the individual crests and troughs of a plane wave ( a wave filling the whole space , with only one frequency ) propagate is called the phase velocity v. An actual physical signal with a finite extent ( a pulse of light ) travels at a different speed . The largest part of the pulse travels at the group velocity v , and its earliest part travels at the front velocity v . The blue dot moves at the speed of the ripples , the phase velocity ; the green dot moves with the speed of the envelope , the group velocity ; and the red dot moves with the speed of the foremost part of the pulse , the front velocity The phase velocity is important in determining how a light wave travels through a material or from one material to another . It is often represented in terms of a refractive index . The refractive index of a material is defined as the ratio of c to the phase velocity v in the material : larger indices of refraction indicate lower speeds . The refractive index of a material may depend on the light 's frequency , intensity , polarization , or direction of propagation ; in many cases , though , it can be treated as a material - dependent constant . The refractive index of air is approximately 1.0003 . Denser media , such as water , glass , and diamond , have refractive indexes of around 1.3 , 1.5 and 2.4 , respectively , for visible light . In exotic materials like Bose -- Einstein condensates near absolute zero , the effective speed of light may be only a few metres per second . However , this represents absorption and re-radiation delay between atoms , as do all slower - than - c speeds in material substances . As an extreme example of light `` slowing '' in matter , two independent teams of physicists claimed to bring light to a `` complete standstill '' by passing it through a Bose -- Einstein condensate of the element rubidium , one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge , Mass. , and the other at the Harvard -- Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , also in Cambridge . However , the popular description of light being `` stopped '' in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms , then re-emitted at an arbitrarily later time , as stimulated by a second laser pulse . During the time it had `` stopped , '' it had ceased to be light . This type of behaviour is generally microscopically true of all transparent media which `` slow '' the speed of light . In transparent materials , the refractive index generally is greater than 1 , meaning that the phase velocity is less than c . In other materials , it is possible for the refractive index to become smaller than 1 for some frequencies ; in some exotic materials it is even possible for the index of refraction to become negative . The requirement that causality is not violated implies that the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant of any material , corresponding respectively to the index of refraction and to the attenuation coefficient , are linked by the Kramers -- Kronig relations . In practical terms , this means that in a material with refractive index less than 1 , the absorption of the wave is so quick that no signal can be sent faster than c . A pulse with different group and phase velocities ( which occurs if the phase velocity is not the same for all the frequencies of the pulse ) smears out over time , a process known as dispersion . Certain materials have an exceptionally low ( or even zero ) group velocity for light waves , a phenomenon called slow light , which has been confirmed in various experiments . The opposite , group velocities exceeding c , has also been shown in experiment . It should even be possible for the group velocity to become infinite or negative , with pulses travelling instantaneously or backwards in time . None of these options , however , allow information to be transmitted faster than c . It is impossible to transmit information with a light pulse any faster than the speed of the earliest part of the pulse ( the front velocity ) . It can be shown that this is ( under certain assumptions ) always equal to c . It is possible for a particle to travel through a medium faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium ( but still slower than c ) . When a charged particle does that in a dielectric material , the electromagnetic equivalent of a shock wave , known as Cherenkov radiation , is emitted . Practical effects of finiteness The speed of light is of relevance to communications : the one - way and round - trip delay time are greater than zero . This applies from small to astronomical scales . On the other hand , some techniques depend on the finite speed of light , for example in distance measurements . Small scales In supercomputers , the speed of light imposes a limit on how quickly data can be sent between processors . If a processor operates at 1 gigahertz , a signal can only travel a maximum of about 30 centimetres ( 1 ft ) in a single cycle . Processors must therefore be placed close to each other to minimize communication latencies ; this can cause difficulty with cooling . If clock frequencies continue to increase , the speed of light will eventually become a limiting factor for the internal design of single chips . Large distances on Earth Given that the equatorial circumference of the Earth is about 7007400750000000000 ♠ 40 075 km and that c is about 7008300000000000000 ♠ 300 000 km / s , the theoretical shortest time for a piece of information to travel half the globe along the surface is about 67 milliseconds . When light is travelling around the globe in an optical fibre , the actual transit time is longer , in part because the speed of light is slower by about 35 % in an optical fibre , depending on its refractive index n . Furthermore , straight lines rarely occur in global communications situations , and delays are created when the signal passes through an electronic switch or signal regenerator . Spaceflights and Astronomy A beam of light is depicted travelling between the Earth and the Moon in the time it takes a light pulse to move between them : 1.255 seconds at their mean orbital ( surface - to - surface ) distance . The relative sizes and separation of the Earth -- Moon system are shown to scale . Similarly , communications between the Earth and spacecraft are not instantaneous . There is a brief delay from the source to the receiver , which becomes more noticeable as distances increase . This delay was significant for communications between ground control and Apollo 8 when it became the first manned spacecraft to orbit the Moon : for every question , the ground control station had to wait at least three seconds for the answer to arrive . The communications delay between Earth and Mars can vary between five and twenty minutes depending upon the relative positions of the two planets . As a consequence of this , if a robot on the surface of Mars were to encounter a problem , its human controllers would not be aware of it until at least five minutes later , and possibly up to twenty minutes later ; it would then take a further five to twenty minutes for instructions to travel from Earth to Mars . NASA must wait several hours for information from a probe orbiting Jupiter , and if it needs to correct a navigation error , the fix will not arrive at the spacecraft for an equal amount of time , creating a risk of the correction not arriving in time . Receiving light and other signals from distant astronomical sources can even take much longer . For example , it has taken 13 billion ( 13 × 10 ) years for light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field images . Those photographs , taken today , capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago , when the universe was less than a billion years old . The fact that more distant objects appear to be younger , due to the finite speed of light , allows astronomers to infer the evolution of stars , of galaxies , and of the universe itself . Astronomical distances are sometimes expressed in light - years , especially in popular science publications and media . A light - year is the distance light travels in one year , around 9461 billion kilometres , 5879 billion miles , or 0.3066 parsecs . In round figures , a light year is nearly 10 trillion kilometres or nearly 6 trillion miles . Proxima Centauri , the closest star to Earth after the Sun , is around 4.2 light - years away . Distance measurement Main article : Distance measurement Radar systems measure the distance to a target by the time it takes a radio - wave pulse to return to the radar antenna after being reflected by the target : the distance to the target is half the round - trip transit time multiplied by the speed of light . A Global Positioning System ( GPS ) receiver measures its distance to GPS satellites based on how long it takes for a radio signal to arrive from each satellite , and from these distances calculates the receiver 's position . Because light travels about 7005300000000000000 ♠ 300 000 kilometres ( 7008299337984000000 ♠ 186 000 mi ) in one second , these measurements of small fractions of a second must be very precise . The Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment , radar astronomy and the Deep Space Network determine distances to the Moon , planets and spacecraft , respectively , by measuring round - trip transit times . High - frequency trading The speed of light has become important in high - frequency trading , where traders seek to gain minute advantages by delivering their trades to exchanges fractions of a second ahead of other traders . For example , traders have been switching to microwave communications between trading hubs , because of the advantage which microwaves travelling at near to the speed of light in air , have over fibre optic signals which travel 30 -- 40 % slower at the speed of light through glass . Measurement There are different ways to determine the value of c . One way is to measure the actual speed at which light waves propagate , which can be done in various astronomical and earth - based setups . However , it is also possible to determine c from other physical laws where it appears , for example , by determining the values of the electromagnetic constants ε and μ and using their relation to c . Historically , the most accurate results have been obtained by separately determining the frequency and wavelength of a light beam , with their product equalling c . In 1983 the metre was defined as `` the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of ⁄ of a second '' , fixing the value of the speed of light at 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299 792 458 m / s by definition , as described below . Consequently , accurate measurements of the speed of light yield an accurate realization of the metre rather than an accurate value of c . Astronomical measurements Measurement of the speed of light using the eclipse of Io by Jupiter Outer space is a convenient setting for measuring the speed of light because of its large scale and nearly perfect vacuum . Typically , one measures the time needed for light to traverse some reference distance in the solar system , such as the radius of the Earth 's orbit . Historically , such measurements could be made fairly accurately , compared to how accurately the length of the reference distance is known in Earth - based units . It is customary to express the results in astronomical units ( AU ) per day . Ole Christensen Rømer used an astronomical measurement to make the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light . When measured from Earth , the periods of moons orbiting a distant planet are shorter when the Earth is approaching the planet than when the Earth is receding from it . The distance travelled by light from the planet ( or its moon ) to Earth is shorter when the Earth is at the point in its orbit that is closest to its planet than when the Earth is at the farthest point in its orbit , the difference in distance being the diameter of the Earth 's orbit around the Sun . The observed change in the moon 's orbital period is caused by the difference in the time it takes light to traverse the shorter or longer distance . Rømer observed this effect for Jupiter 's innermost moon Io and deduced that light takes 22 minutes to cross the diameter of the Earth 's orbit . Aberration of light : light from a distant source appears to be from a different location for a moving telescope due to the finite speed of light . Another method is to use the aberration of light , discovered and explained by James Bradley in the 18th century . This effect results from the vector addition of the velocity of light arriving from a distant source ( such as a star ) and the velocity of its observer ( see diagram on the right ) . A moving observer thus sees the light coming from a slightly different direction and consequently sees the source at a position shifted from its original position . Since the direction of the Earth 's velocity changes continuously as the Earth orbits the Sun , this effect causes the apparent position of stars to move around . From the angular difference in the position of stars ( maximally 20.5 arcseconds ) it is possible to express the speed of light in terms of the Earth 's velocity around the Sun , which with the known length of a year can be converted to the time needed to travel from the Sun to the Earth . In 1729 , Bradley used this method to derive that light travelled 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit ( the modern figure is 10,066 times faster ) or , equivalently , that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth . Astronomical unit An astronomical unit ( AU ) is approximately the average distance between the Earth and Sun . It was redefined in 2012 as exactly 7011149597870700000 ♠ 149 597 870 700 m . Previously the AU was not based on the International System of Units but in terms of the gravitational force exerted by the Sun in the framework of classical mechanics . The current definition uses the recommended value in metres for the previous definition of the astronomical unit , which was determined by measurement . This redefinition is analogous to that of the metre , and likewise has the effect of fixing the speed of light to an exact value in astronomical units per second ( via the exact speed of light in metres per second ) . Previously , the inverse of c expressed in seconds per astronomical unit was measured by comparing the time for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System , with their position calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets . By combining many such measurements , a best fit value for the light time per unit distance could be obtained . For example , in 2009 , the best estimate , as approved by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) , was : light time for unit distance : t = 7002499004783836000 ♠ 499.004 783 836 ( 10 ) s c = 7008299792457999999 ♠ 0.002 003 988 804 10 ( 4 ) AU / s = 7002173144632674000 ♠ 173.144 632 674 ( 3 ) AU / day . The relative uncertainty in these measurements is 0.02 parts per billion ( 6989200000000000000 ♠ 2 × 10 ) , equivalent to the uncertainty in Earth - based measurements of length by interferometry . Since the metre is defined to be the length travelled by light in a certain time interval , the measurement of the light time in terms of the previous definition of the astronomical unit can also be interpreted as measuring the length of an AU ( old definition ) in metres . Time of flight techniques One of the last and most accurate time of flight measurements , Michelson , Pease and Pearson 's 1930 -- 35 experiment used a rotating mirror and a one - mile ( 1.6 km ) long vacuum chamber which the light beam traversed 10 times . It achieved accuracy of ± 11 km / s Diagram of the Fizeau apparatus A method of measuring the speed of light is to measure the time needed for light to travel to a mirror at a known distance and back . This is the working principle behind the Fizeau -- Foucault apparatus developed by Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault . The setup as used by Fizeau consists of a beam of light directed at a mirror 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) away . On the way from the source to the mirror , the beam passes through a rotating cogwheel . At a certain rate of rotation , the beam passes through one gap on the way out and another on the way back , but at slightly higher or lower rates , the beam strikes a tooth and does not pass through the wheel . Knowing the distance between the wheel and the mirror , the number of teeth on the wheel , and the rate of rotation , the speed of light can be calculated . The method of Foucault replaces the cogwheel by a rotating mirror . Because the mirror keeps rotating while the light travels to the distant mirror and back , the light is reflected from the rotating mirror at a different angle on its way out than it is on its way back . From this difference in angle , the known speed of rotation and the distance to the distant mirror the speed of light may be calculated . Nowadays , using oscilloscopes with time resolutions of less than one nanosecond , the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror . This method is less precise ( with errors of the order of 1 % ) than other modern techniques , but it is sometimes used as a laboratory experiment in college physics classes . Electromagnetic constants An option for deriving c that does not directly depend on a measurement of the propagation of electromagnetic waves is to use the relation between c and the vacuum permittivity ε and vacuum permeability μ established by Maxwell 's theory : c = 1 / ( ε μ ) . The vacuum permittivity may be determined by measuring the capacitance and dimensions of a capacitor , whereas the value of the vacuum permeability is fixed at exactly 6993400000000000000 ♠ 4π × 10 H ⋅ m through the definition of the ampere . Rosa and Dorsey used this method in 1907 to find a value of 7008299710000000000 ♠ 299 710 ± 22 km / s . Cavity resonance Electromagnetic standing waves in a cavity . Another way to measure the speed of light is to independently measure the frequency f and wavelength λ of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum . The value of c can then be found by using the relation c = fλ . One option is to measure the resonance frequency of a cavity resonator . If the dimensions of the resonance cavity are also known , these can be used to determine the wavelength of the wave . In 1946 , Louis Essen and A.C. Gordon - Smith established the frequency for a variety of normal modes of microwaves of a microwave cavity of precisely known dimensions . The dimensions were established to an accuracy of about ± 0.8 μm using gauges calibrated by interferometry . As the wavelength of the modes was known from the geometry of the cavity and from electromagnetic theory , knowledge of the associated frequencies enabled a calculation of the speed of light . The Essen -- Gordon - Smith result , 7008299792000000000 ♠ 299 792 ± 9 km / s , was substantially more precise than those found by optical techniques . By 1950 , repeated measurements by Essen established a result of 7008299792500000000 ♠ 299 792. 5 ± 3.0 km / s . A household demonstration of this technique is possible , using a microwave oven and food such as marshmallows or margarine : if the turntable is removed so that the food does not move , it will cook the fastest at the antinodes ( the points at which the wave amplitude is the greatest ) , where it will begin to melt . The distance between two such spots is half the wavelength of the microwaves ; by measuring this distance and multiplying the wavelength by the microwave frequency ( usually displayed on the back of the oven , typically 2450 MHz ) , the value of c can be calculated , `` often with less than 5 % error '' . Interferometry An interferometric determination of length . Left : constructive interference ; Right : destructive interference . Interferometry is another method to find the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation for determining the speed of light . A coherent beam of light ( e.g. from a laser ) , with a known frequency ( f ) , is split to follow two paths and then recombined . By adjusting the path length while observing the interference pattern and carefully measuring the change in path length , the wavelength of the light ( λ ) can be determined . The speed of light is then calculated using the equation c = λf . Before the advent of laser technology , coherent radio sources were used for interferometry measurements of the speed of light . However interferometric determination of wavelength becomes less precise with wavelength and the experiments were thus limited in precision by the long wavelength ( ~ 0.4 cm ( 0.16 in ) ) of the radiowaves . The precision can be improved by using light with a shorter wavelength , but then it becomes difficult to directly measure the frequency of the light . One way around this problem is to start with a low frequency signal of which the frequency can be precisely measured , and from this signal progressively synthesize higher frequency signals whose frequency can then be linked to the original signal . A laser can then be locked to the frequency , and its wavelength can be determined using interferometry . This technique was due to a group at the National Bureau of Standards ( NBS ) ( which later became NIST ) . They used it in 1972 to measure the speed of light in vacuum with a fractional uncertainty of 6991350000000000000 ♠ 3.5 × 10 . History History of measurements of c ( in km / s ) < 1638 Galileo , covered lanterns inconclusive < 1667 Accademia del Cimento , covered lanterns inconclusive 1675 Rømer and Huygens , moons of Jupiter 7005220000000000000 ♠ 220 000 1729 James Bradley , aberration of light 7005301000000000000 ♠ 301 000 1849 Hippolyte Fizeau , toothed wheel 7005315000000000000 ♠ 315 000 1862 Léon Foucault , rotating mirror 7005298000000000000 ♠ 298 000 ± 500 1907 Rosa and Dorsey , EM constants 7005299710000000000 ♠ 299 710 ± 30 1926 Albert A. Michelson , rotating mirror 7005299796000000000 ♠ 299 796 ± 4 1950 Essen and Gordon - Smith , cavity resonator 7005299792500000000 ♠ 299 792. 5 ± 3.0 1958 K.D. Froome , radio interferometry 7005299792500000000 ♠ 299 792. 50 ± 0.10 1972 Evenson et al. , laser interferometry 7005299792456200000 ♠ 299 792. 4562 ± 0.0011 17th CGPM , definition of the metre 7005299792458000000 ♠ 299 792. 458 ( exact ) Until the early modern period , it was not known whether light travelled instantaneously or at a very fast finite speed . The first extant recorded examination of this subject was in ancient Greece . The ancient Greeks , Muslim scholars , and classical European scientists long debated this until Rømer provided the first calculation of the speed of light . Einstein 's Theory of Special Relativity concluded that the speed of light is constant regardless of one 's frame of reference . Since then , scientists have provided increasingly accurate measurements . Early History Empedocles ( c. 490 -- 430 BC ) was the first to propose a theory of light and claimed that light has a finite speed . He maintained that light was something in motion , and therefore must take some time to travel . Aristotle argued , to the contrary , that `` light is due to the presence of something , but it is not a movement '' . Euclid and Ptolemy advanced Empedocles ' emission theory of vision , where light is emitted from the eye , thus enabling sight . Based on that theory , Heron of Alexandria argued that the speed of light must be infinite because distant objects such as stars appear immediately upon opening the eyes . Early Islamic philosophers initially agreed with the Aristotelian view that light had no speed of travel . In 1021 , Alhazen ( Ibn al - Haytham ) published the Book of Optics , in which he presented a series of arguments dismissing the emission theory of vision in favour of the now accepted intromission theory , in which light moves from an object into the eye . This led Alhazen to propose that light must have a finite speed , and that the speed of light is variable , decreasing in denser bodies . He argued that light is substantial matter , the propagation of which requires time , even if this is hidden from our senses . Also in the 11th century , Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī agreed that light has a finite speed , and observed that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound . In the 13th century , Roger Bacon argued that the speed of light in air was not infinite , using philosophical arguments backed by the writing of Alhazen and Aristotle . In the 1270s , Witelo considered the possibility of light travelling at infinite speed in vacuum , but slowing down in denser bodies . In the early 17th century , Johannes Kepler believed that the speed of light was infinite , since empty space presents no obstacle to it . René Descartes argued that if the speed of light were to be finite , the Sun , Earth , and Moon would be noticeably out of alignment during a lunar eclipse . Since such misalignment had not been observed , Descartes concluded the speed of light was infinite . Descartes speculated that if the speed of light were found to be finite , his whole system of philosophy might be demolished . In Descartes ' derivation of Snell 's law , he assumed that even though the speed of light was instantaneous , the denser the medium , the faster was light 's speed . Pierre de Fermat derived Snell 's law using the opposing assumption , the denser the medium the slower light traveled . Fermat also argued in support of a finite speed of light . First measurement attempts In 1629 , Isaac Beeckman proposed an experiment in which a person observes the flash of a cannon reflecting off a mirror about one mile ( 1.6 km ) away . In 1638 , Galileo Galilei proposed an experiment , with an apparent claim to having performed it some years earlier , to measure the speed of light by observing the delay between uncovering a lantern and its perception some distance away . He was unable to distinguish whether light travel was instantaneous or not , but concluded that if it were not , it must nevertheless be extraordinarily rapid . In 1667 , the Accademia del Cimento of Florence reported that it had performed Galileo 's experiment , with the lanterns separated by about one mile , but no delay was observed . The actual delay in this experiment would have been about 11 microseconds . Rømer 's observations of the occultations of Io from Earth The first quantitative estimate of the speed of light was made in 1676 by Rømer ( see Rømer 's determination of the speed of light ) . From the observation that the periods of Jupiter 's innermost moon Io appeared to be shorter when the Earth was approaching Jupiter than when receding from it , he concluded that light travels at a finite speed , and estimated that it takes light 22 minutes to cross the diameter of Earth 's orbit . Christiaan Huygens combined this estimate with an estimate for the diameter of the Earth 's orbit to obtain an estimate of speed of light of 7008220000000000000 ♠ 220 000 km / s , 26 % lower than the actual value . In his 1704 book Opticks , Isaac Newton reported Rømer 's calculations of the finite speed of light and gave a value of `` seven or eight minutes '' for the time taken for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth ( the modern value is 8 minutes 19 seconds ) . Newton queried whether Rømer 's eclipse shadows were coloured ; hearing that they were not , he concluded the different colours travelled at the same speed . In 1729 , James Bradley discovered stellar aberration . From this effect he determined that light must travel 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit ( the modern figure is 10,066 times faster ) or , equivalently , that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth . Connections with electromagnetism See also : History of electromagnetic theory and History of special relativity In the 19th century Hippolyte Fizeau developed a method to determine the speed of light based on time - of - flight measurements on Earth and reported a value of 7008315000000000000 ♠ 315 000 km / s . His method was improved upon by Léon Foucault who obtained a value of 7008298000000000000 ♠ 298 000 km / s in 1862 . In the year 1856 , Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch measured the ratio of the electromagnetic and electrostatic units of charge , 1 / √ ε μ , by discharging a Leyden jar , and found that its numerical value was very close to the speed of light as measured directly by Fizeau . The following year Gustav Kirchhoff calculated that an electric signal in a resistanceless wire travels along the wire at this speed . In the early 1860s , Maxwell showed that , according to the theory of electromagnetism he was working on , electromagnetic waves propagate in empty space at a speed equal to the above Weber / Kohlrausch ratio , and drawing attention to the numerical proximity of this value to the speed of light as measured by Fizeau , he proposed that light is in fact an electromagnetic wave . `` Luminiferous aether '' Hendrik Lorentz ( right ) with Albert Einstein . It was thought at the time that empty space was filled with a background medium called the luminiferous aether in which the electromagnetic field existed . Some physicists thought that this aether acted as a preferred frame of reference for the propagation of light and therefore it should be possible to measure the motion of the Earth with respect to this medium , by measuring the isotropy of the speed of light . Beginning in the 1880s several experiments were performed to try to detect this motion , the most famous of which is the experiment performed by Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley in 1887 . The detected motion was always less than the observational error . Modern experiments indicate that the two - way speed of light is isotropic ( the same in every direction ) to within 6 nanometres per second . Because of this experiment Hendrik Lorentz proposed that the motion of the apparatus through the aether may cause the apparatus to contract along its length in the direction of motion , and he further assumed , that the time variable for moving systems must also be changed accordingly ( `` local time '' ) , which led to the formulation of the Lorentz transformation . Based on Lorentz 's aether theory , Henri Poincaré ( 1900 ) showed that this local time ( to first order in v / c ) is indicated by clocks moving in the aether , which are synchronized under the assumption of constant light speed . In 1904 , he speculated that the speed of light could be a limiting velocity in dynamics , provided that the assumptions of Lorentz 's theory are all confirmed . In 1905 , Poincaré brought Lorentz 's aether theory into full observational agreement with the principle of relativity . Special relativity In 1905 Einstein postulated from the outset that the speed of light in vacuum , measured by a non-accelerating observer , is independent of the motion of the source or observer . Using this and the principle of relativity as a basis he derived the special theory of relativity , in which the speed of light in vacuum c featured as a fundamental constant , also appearing in contexts unrelated to light . This made the concept of the stationary aether ( to which Lorentz and Poincaré still adhered ) useless and revolutionized the concepts of space and time . Increased accuracy of c and redefinition of the metre and second See also : History of the metre In the second half of the 20th century much progress was made in increasing the accuracy of measurements of the speed of light , first by cavity resonance techniques and later by laser interferometer techniques . These were aided by new , more precise , definitions of the metre and second . In 1950 , Louis Essen determined the speed as 7008299792500000000 ♠ 299 792. 5 ± 1 km / s , using cavity resonance . This value was adopted by the 12th General Assembly of the Radio - Scientific Union in 1957 . In 1960 , the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of a particular spectral line of krypton - 86 , and , in 1967 , the second was redefined in terms of the hyperfine transition frequency of the ground state of caesium - 133 . In 1972 , using the laser interferometer method and the new definitions , a group at the US National Bureau of Standards in Boulder , Colorado determined the speed of light in vacuum to be c = 7008299792456200000 ♠ 299 792 456. 2 ± 1.1 m / s . This was 100 times less uncertain than the previously accepted value . The remaining uncertainty was mainly related to the definition of the metre . As similar experiments found comparable results for c , the 15th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1975 recommended using the value 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299 792 458 m / s for the speed of light . Defining the speed of light as an explicit constant In 1983 the 17th CGPM found that wavelengths from frequency measurements and a given value for the speed of light are more reproducible than the previous standard . They kept the 1967 definition of second , so the caesium hyperfine frequency would now determine both the second and the metre . To do this , they redefined the metre as : `` The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 / 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299 792 458 of a second . '' As a result of this definition , the value of the speed of light in vacuum is exactly 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299 792 458 m / s and has become a defined constant in the SI system of units . Improved experimental techniques that prior to 1983 would have measured the speed of light , no longer affect the known value of the speed of light in SI units , but instead allow a more precise realization of the metre by more accurately measuring the wavelength of Krypton - 86 and other light sources . In 2011 , the CGPM stated its intention to redefine all seven SI base units using what it calls `` the explicit - constant formulation '' , where each `` unit is defined indirectly by specifying explicitly an exact value for a well - recognized fundamental constant '' , as was done for the speed of light . It proposed a new , but completely equivalent , wording of the metre 's definition : `` The metre , symbol m , is the unit of length ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum to be equal to exactly 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299 792 458 when it is expressed in the SI unit ms . '' This is one of the proposed changes to be incorporated in the next revision of the SI also termed the New SI . See also Light - second Speed of electricity Speed of gravity Speed of sound Velocity factor Warp factor ( fictional ) Notes Jump up ^ Exact value : ( 7008299792458000000 ♠ 299 792 458 × 60 × 60 × 24 / 7011149597870700000 ♠ 149 597 870 700 ) AU / day Jump up ^ Exact value : ( 7008999992651000000 ♠ 999 992 651 π / 7010102464295000000 ♠ 10 246 429 500 ) pc / y ^ Jump up to : The speed of light in imperial units and US units is based on an inch of exactly 6998254000000000000 ♠ 2.54 cm and is exactly 186,282 miles , 698 yards , 2 feet , and 5 21 / 127 inches per second . Jump up ^ Which is in turn defined to be the length of time occupied by 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation emitted by a cesium - 133 atom in a transition between two specified energy states . Jump up ^ However , the frequency of light can depend on the motion of the source relative to the observer , due to the Doppler effect . Jump up ^ Whereas moving objects are measured to be shorter along the line of relative motion , they are also seen as being rotated . This effect , known as Terrell rotation , is due to the different times that light from different parts of the object takes to reach the observer . Jump up ^ The interpretation of observations on binary systems used to determine the speed of gravity is considered doubtful by some authors , leaving the experimental situation uncertain . Jump up ^ It is thought that the Scharnhorst effect does allow signals to travel slightly faster than c , but the special conditions in which this effect can occur prevent one from using this effect to violate causality . Jump up ^ A typical value for the refractive index of optical fibre is between 1.518 and 1.538 . Jump up ^ The astronomical unit was defined as the radius of an unperturbed circular Newtonian orbit about the Sun of a particle having infinitesimal mass , moving with an angular frequency of 0.017 202 098 95 radians ( approximately ⁄ of a revolution ) per day . Jump up ^ Nevertheless , at this degree of precision , the effects of general relativity must be taken into consideration when interpreting the length . The metre is considered to be a unit of proper length , whereas the AU is usually used as a unit of observed length in a given frame of reference . The values cited here follow the latter convention , and are TDB - compatible . Jump up ^ A detailed discussion of the interferometer and its use for determining the speed of light can be found in Vaughan ( 1989 ) . Jump up ^ According to Galileo , the lanterns he used were `` at a short distance , less than a mile . '' Assuming the distance was not too much shorter than a mile , and that `` about a thirtieth of a second is the minimum time interval distinguishable by the unaided eye '' , Boyer notes that Galileo 's experiment could at best be said to have established a lower limit of about 60 miles per second for the velocity of light . Jump up ^ Between 1960 and 1983 the metre was defined as : `` The metre is the length equal to 7006165076373000000 ♠ 1650763. 73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p and 5d of the krypton 86 atom . '' It was discovered in the 1970s that this spectral line was not symmetric , which put a limit on the precision with which the definition could be realized in interferometry experiments . References Jump up ^ Larson , Ron ; Hostetler , Robert P. ( 2007 ) . Elementary and Intermediate Algebra : A Combined Course , Student Support Edition ( 4th illudtrated ed . ) . Cengage Learning . p. 197 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 618 - 75354 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Base unit definitions : Second '' . physics.nist.gov . Retrieved April 7 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Penrose , R ( 2004 ) . The Road to Reality : A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe . Vintage Books . pp. 410 -- 11 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 679 - 77631 - 4 ... the most accurate standard for the metre is conveniently defined so that there are exactly 299,792,458 of them to the distance travelled by light in a standard second , giving a value for the metre that very accurately matches the now inadequately precise standard metre rule in Paris . Jump up ^ Uzan , J-P ; Leclercq , B ( 2008 ) . The Natural Laws of the Universe : Understanding Fundamental Constants . Springer . pp. 43 -- 4 . ISBN 0 - 387 - 73454 - 6 . Jump up ^ Gibbs , Philip ( 1997 ) . `` How is the speed of light measured ? '' . The Physics and Relativity FAQ . Archived from the original on 2015 - 08 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : Stachel , JJ ( 2002 ) . Einstein from `` B '' to `` Z '' -- Volume 9 of Einstein studies . Springer . p. 226 . ISBN 0 - 8176 - 4143 - 2 . Jump up ^ Gibbs , P ( 2004 ) ( 1997 ) . `` Why is c the symbol for the speed of light ? '' . Usenet Physics FAQ . University of California , Riverside . Archived from the original on 2009 - 11 - 17 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 16 . `` The origins of the letter c being used for the speed of light can be traced back to a paper of 1856 by Weber and Kohlrausch ( ... ) Weber apparently meant c to stand for ' constant ' in his force law , but there is evidence that physicists such as Lorentz and Einstein were accustomed to a common convention that c could be used as a variable for velocity . This usage can be traced back to the classic Latin texts in which c stood for ' celeritas ' meaning ' speed ' . '' Jump up ^ Mendelson , KS ( 2006 ) . `` The story of c '' . American Journal of Physics. 74 ( 11 ) : 995 -- 997 . Bibcode : 2006AmJPh ... 74 ... 995M . doi : 10.1119 / 1.2238887 . 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A Broader View of Relativity : General Implications of Lorentz and Poincaré Invariance ( 2nd ed . ) . World Scientific . pp. 427 -- 8 . ISBN 981 - 256 - 651 - 1 . Jump up ^ Einstein , A ( 1905 ) . `` Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper '' . Annalen der Physik ( in German ) . 17 : 890 -- 921 . Bibcode : 1905AnP ... 322 ... 891E . doi : 10.1002 / andp. 19053221004 . English translation : Perrett , W ; Jeffery , GB ( tr . ) ; Walker , J ( ed . ) . `` On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies '' . Fourmilab . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 27 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Hsu , J-P ; Zhang , YZ ( 2001 ) . Lorentz and Poincaré Invariance . Advanced Series on Theoretical Physical Science . 8 . World Scientific . pp. 543ff . ISBN 981 - 02 - 4721 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Zhang , YZ ( 1997 ) . Special Relativity and Its Experimental Foundations . Advanced Series on Theoretical Physical Science . 4 . World Scientific . pp. 172 -- 3 . ISBN 981 - 02 - 2749 - 3 . 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Bibcode : 1972PhRvL ... 29.1346 E . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRevLett. 29.1346 . ^ Jump up to : Galilei , G ( 1954 ) ( 1638 ) . Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences . Crew , H ; de Salvio A ( trans . ) . Dover Publications . p. 43 . ISBN 0 - 486 - 60099 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : Boyer , CB ( 1941 ) . `` Early Estimates of the Velocity of Light '' . Isis. 33 ( 1 ) : 24 . doi : 10.1086 / 358523 . ^ Jump up to : Foschi , Renato ; Leone , Matteo ( 2009 ) , `` Galileo , measurement of the velocity of light , and the reaction times '' ( PDF ) , Perception , 38 : 1251 -- 9 , doi : 10.1068 / p6263 , retrieved 2015 - 09 - 25 Jump up ^ Magalotti , Lorenzo ( 2001 ) ( 1667 ) , Saggi di Naturali Esperienze fatte nell ' Accademia del Cimento ( digital , online ed . ) , Florence : Istituto e Museo di Storia delle Scienze , pp. 265 -- 266 , retrieved 2015 - 09 - 25 ^ Jump up to : Huygens , C ( 1690 ) . Traitée de la Lumière ( in French ) . Pierre van der Aa . pp. 8 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Michelson , A.A. ( 1927 ) . `` Measurement of the Velocity of Light Between Mount Wilson and Mount San Antonio '' . The Astrophysical Journal . 65 : 1 . Bibcode : 1927ApJ ... 65 ... 1M . doi : 10.1086 / 143021 . Jump up ^ Weiner , John ; Nunes , Frederico ( 2013 ) . Light - Matter Interaction : Physics and Engineering at the Nanoscale ( illustrated ed . ) . OUP Oxford . p. 1 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 856766 - 0 . Extract of page 1 Jump up ^ Sarton , G ( 1993 ) . Ancient science through the golden age of Greece . Courier Dover . p. 248 . ISBN 0 - 486 - 27495 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : MacKay , RH ; Oldford , RW ( 2000 ) . `` Scientific Method , Statistical Method and the Speed of Light '' . Statistical Science . 15 ( 3 ) : 254 -- 78 . doi : 10.1214 / ss / 1009212817 . ( click on `` Historical background '' in the table of contents ) Jump up ^ Gross , CG ( 1999 ) . `` The Fire That Comes from the Eye '' . Neuroscientist. 5 : 58 -- 64 . doi : 10.1177 / 107385849900500108 . 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Jump up ^ Guarnieri , M. ( 2015 ) . `` Two Millennia of Light : The Long Path to Maxwell 's Waves '' . IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine . 9 ( 2 ) : 54 -- 56 , 60 . doi : 10.1109 / MIE. 2015.2421754 . Jump up ^ Kirchhoff , G ( 1857 ) . `` Über die Bewegung der Elektricität '' . Ann . Phys. 178 : 529 -- 544 . Bibcode : 1857AnP ... 178 ... 529K . doi : 10.1002 / andp. 18571781203 . Jump up ^ Giordano , Nicholas J. ( 2009 ) . College physics : reasoning and relationships . Cengage Learning . p. 787 . ISBN 0 - 534 - 42471 - 6 . Extract of page 787 Jump up ^ Bergmann , Peter Gabriel ( 1992 ) . The riddle of gravitation . Courier Dover Publications . p. 17 . ISBN 0 - 486 - 27378 - 4 . Extract of page 17 Jump up ^ Bais , Sander ( 2005 ) . The equations : icons of knowledge . Harvard University Press . p. 40 . ISBN 0 - 674 - 01967 - 9 . Extract of page 40 Jump up ^ O'Connor , JJ ; Robertson , EF ( November 1997 ) . `` James Clerk Maxwell '' . School of Mathematics and Statistics , University of St Andrews . Archived from the original on 2011 - 01 - 28 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 13 . Jump up ^ Michelson , AA ; Morley , EW ( 1887 ) . `` On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether '' . American Journal of Science . 34 : 333 -- 345 . doi : 10.2475 / ajs. s3 - 34.203. 333 . Jump up ^ French , AP ( 1983 ) . Special relativity . Van Nostrand Reinhold . pp. 51 -- 57 . ISBN 0 - 442 - 30782 - 9 . Jump up ^ Darrigol , O ( 2000 ) . Electrodynamics from Ampére to Einstein . Clarendon Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 850594 - 9 . Jump up ^ Galison , P ( 2003 ) . Einstein 's Clocks , Poincaré 's Maps : Empires of Time . W.W. Norton . ISBN 0 - 393 - 32604 - 7 . Jump up ^ Miller , AI ( 1981 ) . Albert Einstein 's special theory of relativity . Emergence ( 1905 ) and early interpretation ( 1905 -- 1911 ) . Addison -- Wesley . ISBN 0 - 201 - 04679 - 2 . Jump up ^ Pais , A ( 1982 ) . Subtle is the Lord : The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 520438 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` Resolution 6 of the 15th CGPM '' . BIPM. 1967 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 13 . Jump up ^ Barger , R. ; Hall , J. ( 1973 ) . `` Wavelength of the 3.39 - μm laser - saturated absorption line of methane '' . Applied Physics Letters. 22 ( 4 ) : 196 . Bibcode : 1973ApPhL ... 22 ... 196B . doi : 10.1063 / 1.1654608 . Jump up ^ `` Resolution 2 of the 15th CGPM '' . BIPM. 1975 . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 09 . Jump up ^ Taylor , EF ; Wheeler , JA ( 1992 ) . Spacetime Physics : Introduction to Special Relativity ( 2nd ed . ) . Macmillan . ISBN 0 - 7167 - 2327 - 1 . Jump up ^ Penzes , WB ( 2009 ) . `` Time Line for the Definition of the Meter '' ( PDF ) . NIST . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 11 . Jump up ^ Adams , S ( 1997 ) . Relativity : An Introduction to Space -- Time Physics . CRC Press . p. 140 . ISBN 0 - 7484 - 0621 - 2 . One peculiar consequence of this system of definitions is that any future refinement in our ability to measure c will not change the speed of light ( which is a defined number ) , but will change the length of the meter ! Jump up ^ Rindler , W ( 2006 ) . Relativity : Special , General , and Cosmological ( 2nd ed . ) . Oxford University Press . p. 41 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 856731 - 6 . Note that ( ... ) improvements in experimental accuracy will modify the meter relative to atomic wavelengths , but not the value of the speed of light ! Jump up ^ `` The `` explicit - constant '' formulation `` . BIPM. 2011 . Archived from the original on 2014 - 08 - 11 . Further reading Historical references Rømer , O ( 1676 ) . `` Démonstration touchant le mouvement de la lumière trouvé par M. Römer de l'Academie Royale des Sciences '' . Journal des sçavans ( in French ) : 223 -- 36 . Archived from the original on 2007 - 07 - 29 . Translated as `` A Demonstration concerning the Motion of Light '' . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . 12 ( 136 ) : 893 -- 4 . 1677 . Bibcode : 1677RSPT ... 12 ... 893 ... doi : 10.1098 / rstl. 1677.0024 . Archived from the original on 2007 - 07 - 29 . Halley , E ( 1694 ) . `` Monsieur Cassini , his New and Exact Tables for the Eclipses of the First Satellite of Jupiter , reduced to the Julian Stile and Meridian of London '' . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . 18 ( 214 ) : 237 -- 56 . doi : 10.1098 / rstl. 1694.0048 . Fizeau , HL ( 1849 ) . `` Sur une expérience relative à la vitesse de propagation de la lumière '' ( PDF ) . Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences ( in French ) . 29 : 90 -- 92 , 132 . Archived from the original on November 25 , 2008 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Foucault , JL ( 1862 ) . `` Détermination expérimentale de la vitesse de la lumière : parallaxe du Soleil '' . Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences ( in French ) . 55 : 501 -- 503 , 792 -- 796 . Michelson , AA ( 1878 ) . `` Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light '' . Proceedings of the American Association of Advanced Science . 27 : 71 -- 77 . Michelson , AA ; Pease , FG ; Pearson , F ( 1935 ) . `` Measurement of the Velocity of Light in a Partial Vacuum '' . Astrophysical Journal . 82 : 26 -- 61 . Bibcode : 1935ApJ ... 82 ... 26M . doi : 10.1086 / 143655 . Newcomb , S ( 1886 ) . `` The Velocity of Light '' . Nature . 34 ( 863 ) : 29 -- 32 . Bibcode : 1886Natur ... 34 ... 29 ... doi : 10.1038 / 034029c0 . Perrotin , J ( 1900 ) . `` Sur la vitesse de la lumière '' . Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences ( in French ) . 131 : 731 -- 4 . Modern references Brillouin , L ( 1960 ) . Wave propagation and group velocity . Academic Press . Jackson , JD ( 1975 ) . Classical Electrodynamics ( 2nd ed . ) . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0 - 471 - 30932 - X . Keiser , G ( 2000 ) . Optical Fiber Communications ( 3rd ed . ) . McGraw - Hill . p. 32 . ISBN 0 - 07 - 232101 - 6 . Ng , YJ ( 2004 ) . `` Quantum Foam and Quantum Gravity Phenomenology '' . In Amelino - Camelia , G ; Kowalski - Glikman , J. Planck Scale Effects in Astrophysics and Cosmology . Springer . pp. 321ff . ISBN 3 - 540 - 25263 - 0 . Helmcke , J ; Riehle , F ( 2001 ) . `` Physics behind the definition of the meter '' . In Quinn , TJ ; Leschiutta , S ; Tavella , P. Recent advances in metrology and fundamental constants . IOS Press . p. 453 . ISBN 1 - 58603 - 167 - 8 . Duff , MJ ( 2004 ) . `` Comment on time - variation of fundamental constants '' . arXiv : hep - th / 0208093 ( hep - th ) . External links Wikiquote has quotations related to : Speed of light `` Test Light Speed in Mile Long Vacuum Tube . '' Popular Science Monthly , September 1930 , p. 17 -- 18 . Definition of the metre ( International Bureau of Weights and Measures , BIPM ) Speed of light in vacuum ( National Institute of Standards and Technology , NIST ) Data Gallery : Michelson Speed of Light ( Univariate Location Estimation ) ( download data gathered by Albert A. Michelson ) Subluminal ( Java applet demonstrating group velocity information limits ) De Mora Luminis at MathPages Light discussion on adding velocities Speed of Light ( University of Colorado Department of Physics ) c : Speed of Light ( Sixty Symbols , University of Nottingham Department of Physics ( video ) ) Usenet Physics FAQ Speed of light illustration ( Speed of light as Live - Counter ) The Speed of Light , BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Barrow , Iwan Morus & Jocelyn Bell Burnell ( In Our Time , 30 Nov. 2006 ) <Th_colspan="2"> Extremes of motion Speed Wave ( Light Sound ) Vehicle Spacecraft Aircraft propeller - based transcontinental FAI records Water - borne vehicle sailing underwater transatlantic Land vehicle ( rocket - based wheel - driven production car ( by speed / by acceleration ) railed motorcycle production motorcycle ( by speed / by acceleration ) British Distance Space ( furthest spacecraft furthest landing on another world furthest travels on another world furthest humans closest spacecraft to the Sun ) Aircraft ( furthest flight highest altitude FAI records ) Deepest Earth ocean dive Endurance Space ( most enduring spaceflight most endurance on another world most time as a person in space most enduring population of a spacecraft ) Aircraft See also Spaceflight records <Th_colspan="3"> Relativity Special relativity Background Principle of relativity Special relativity Doubly special relativity Fundamental concepts Frame of reference Speed of light Hyperbolic orthogonality Rapidity Maxwell 's equations Proper length Proper time Relativistic mass Formulation Galilean relativity Galilean transformation Lorentz transformation Phenomena Time dilation Mass -- energy equivalence Length contraction Relativity of simultaneity Relativistic Doppler effect Thomas precession Relativistic disks Ladder paradox Twin paradox Spacetime Light cone World line Minkowski diagram Biquaternions Minkowski space General relativity Background Introduction Mathematical formulation Fundamental concepts Equivalence principle Riemannian geometry Penrose diagram Geodesics Formulation ADM formalism BSSN formalism Einstein field equations Friedmann equations Linearized gravity Post-Newtonian formalism Raychaudhuri equation Hamilton -- Jacobi -- Einstein equation Ernst equation Tolman -- Oppenheimer -- Volkoff equation Phenomena Black hole Event horizon Frame - dragging Geodetic effect Lenses Singularity Waves Two - body problem BKL singularity Advanced theories Brans -- Dicke theory Kaluza -- Klein Mach 's principle Quantum gravity Solutions Schwarzschild ( interior ) Reissner -- Nordström Gödel Kerr Kerr -- Newman Kasner Friedmann -- Lemaître -- Robertson -- Walker Taub -- NUT Milne pp - wave van Stockum dust Weyl − Lewis − Papapetrou Scientists Einstein Lorentz Hilbert Poincaré Schwarzschild de Sitter Reissner Nordström Weyl Eddington Friedmann Milne Zwicky Lemaître Gödel Wheeler Robertson Bardeen Walker Kerr Chandrasekhar Ehlers Penrose Hawking Taylor Hulse Stockum Taub Newman Yau Thorne Weiss Bondi Misner others <Th_colspan="2"> Special relativity Overviews Introduction Principle of relativity Theory of relativity History Galilean relativity Galilean transformation Aether theories Foundations Relative motion Inertial frame of reference Speed of light Maxwell 's equations Lorentz transformation Consequences Time dilation Relativistic mass Mass -- energy equivalence Length contraction Relativity of simultaneity Relativistic Doppler effect Thomas precession Relativistic disk Bell 's spaceship paradox Ehrenfest paradox Spacetime Minkowski spacetime World line Spacetime diagrams Light cone Dynamics Proper time Proper mass 4 - 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-2,965,373,691,952,642,600 | where does baptism come from in the bible | History of baptism - wikipedia History of baptism Jump to : navigation , search One of the earliest depictions of baptism , Catacombs of San Callisto , third century The Christian rite of baptism has similarities to Tevilah , a Jewish purification ritual of immersing in water which is required for , among other things , conversion , but differs in that Tevilah is repeatable , while baptism is to be performed only once . John the Baptist , who is considered a forerunner to Christianity , used baptism as the central sacrament of his messianic movement . Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism . The earliest Christian baptisms were probably normally by immersion , though other modes may have also been used . By the third and fourth centuries , baptism involved catechetical instruction as well as chrismation , exorcisms , laying on of hands , and recitation of a creed . In the West , Affusion became the normal mode of baptism between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries , though immersion was still practiced into the sixteenth . In the sixteenth century , Martin Luther retained baptism as a sacrament , but Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli considered baptism and the Lord 's supper to be symbolic . Anabaptists denied the validity of infant baptism , which was the normal practice when their movement started and practiced believer 's baptism instead . Several Anabaptist groups , notably the Baptists and Dunkards , have always practiced baptism by immersion as following the Biblical example . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background in Jewish ritual 2 Early Christianity 2.1 Infant Baptism 3 Early Middle Ages 4 Middle Ages 5 Reformation 6 See also 6.1 Related articles and subjects 6.2 People and ritual objects 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Background in Jewish ritual ( edit ) An ancient Mikveh ( bath used for ritual immersion in Judaism ) on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem Main article : Tvilah Although the term `` baptism '' is not used to describe the Jewish rituals , the purification rites in Jewish laws and tradition , called `` Tvilah '' , have some similarity to baptism , and the two have been linked . The `` Tvilah '' is the act of immersion in natural sourced water , called a `` Mikva '' In the Jewish Bible and other Jewish texts , immersion in water for ritual purification was established for restoration to a condition of `` ritual purity '' in specific circumstances . For example , Jews who ( according to the Law of Moses ) became ritually defiled by contact with a corpse had to use the mikvah before being allowed to participate in the Holy Temple . Immersion is required for converts to Judaism as part of their conversion . Immersion in the mikvah represents a change in status in regards to purification , restoration , and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community , ensuring that the cleansed person will not impose uncleanness on property or its owners . It did not become customary , however , to immerse converts to Judaism until after the Babylonian Captivity . This change of status by the mikvah could be obtained repeatedly , while Christian baptism , like circumcision , is , in the general view of Christians , unique and not repeatable . Even the so - called rebaptism by some Christian denominations is not seen by them as a repetition of an earlier valid baptism and is viewed by them as not itself repeatable . During the Second Temple period the Greek noun baptmos was used to refer to ritual washing in Hellenistic Judaism . Early Christianity ( edit ) Main article : Baptism in early Christianity The Baptism of Christ , 1450 ( National Gallery , London ) . John the Baptist adopted baptism as the central sacrament in his messianic movement , seen as a forerunner of Christianity . Baptism has been part of Christianity from the start , as shown by the many mentions in the Acts of the Apostles and the Pauline epistles . Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism . How explicit Jesus ' intentions were and whether he envisioned a continuing , organized Church is a matter of dispute among scholars . There is a scholarly consensus that the earliest Christian baptism was normally by immersion , or at least that this is probable . Some interpret this as meaning total immersion or submersion beneath the water . Among those who take this view are Thomas Schreiner , Everett Ferguson , Di Berardino , Tischler , and Lang Others understand immersion as not necessarily implying submersion beneath the water . Kirsten Marie Hartvigsen distinguishes between immersion and submersion and considers both as possible early - Christian forms of baptism , as does Christian Strecker . Laurie Guy says : `` The church most likely practiced full immersion , partial immersion and affusion at various times and places in the early centuries , with sprinkling being practiced rarely ( and probably only for medical reasons ) during that time period . '' Robin M. Jensen describes the early Christian baptismal ritual as having for basis `` immersion in water ( or a thorough soaking by pouring ) '' , and describes the primitive , first - century ritual as having encompassed both `` application of water ( whether by immersion or by some other means ) and an imposition of hands '' , adding that `` ' Baptism ' originally conveyed the sense of water 's application ( if not also immersion ) in its very definition '' . Other recent studies that see total immersion ( submersion ) as not the only form of baptism utilized by early Christians include Steven J. Schloeder , Charles Thomas , Stanley J. Grenz , and also the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church , and the Oxford Dictionary of the Bible . The theology of baptism attained precision in the 3rd and 4th centuries . While instruction was at first given after baptism , believers were given increasingly specific instructions before being baptized , especially in the face of heresies in the 4th century . By the fourth and fifth centuries , baptism had become a several - week - long rite leading up to the actual baptismal washing on Easter . During this time , catechumens attended several meetings of intensive catechetical instruction , often by the bishop himself , and often accompanied by special prayers , exorcisms , and other rites . Catechumens recited the Creed on Holy Saturday to show that they had completed their catechetical instruction . At dawn following the Paschal Vigil starting the night of Holy Saturday , they were taken to the baptistry where the bishop consecrated the water with a long prayer recounting the types of baptisms . The catechumens disrobed , were anointed with oil , renounced the devil and his works , confessed their faith in the Trinity , and were immersed in the font . They were then anointed with chrism , received the laying on of hands , clothed in white , and led to join the congregation in the Easter celebration . By then , postponement of baptism had become general , and a large proportion of believers were merely catechumens ( Constantine was not baptized until he was dying ) ; but as baptisms of the children of Christians , using an adaptation of the rite intended for adults , became more common than baptisms of adult converts , the number of catechumens decreased . As baptism was believed to forgive sins , the issue of sins committed after baptism arose . Some insisted that apostasy , even under threat of death , and other grievous sins cut one off forever from the Church . As indicated in the writings of Saint Cyprian , others favoured readmitting the `` lapsi '' easily . The rule that prevailed was that they were readmitted only after undergoing a period of penance that demonstrated sincere repentance . What is now generally called the Nicene Creed , longer than the text adopted by the First Council of Nicaea of 325 , and known also as the Niceno - Constantinopolitan Creed because of its adoption in that form by the First Council of Constantinople in 381 , was probably the baptismal creed then in use in Constantinople , the venue of the 381 Council . Infant baptism ( edit ) Main article : Infant Baptism Whether the earliest Christians practiced infant baptism , and thus whether modern Christians should do so , has remained a subject of debate between Christian scholars at least since the earliest clear reference to the practice by Tertullian in the early third century . Some claim that Biblical baptism can be interpreted and thus relative , others support the Biblical literal baptism as a public and personal testimony , without intermediaries , in the case of infants that can not talk for themselves yet . Early Middle Ages ( edit ) Against Pelagius , Augustine insisted that baptism was necessary for salvation even for virtuous people and for children . The baptismal rite was significantly simplified during the sixth , seventh , and eighth centuries as fewer and fewer of those baptized were converts from paganism . The rite became much less important and was conducted very quickly . Prebaptismal catechesis was abandoned , and baptism was usually conducted shortly after birth . Baptism of Augustine of Hippo as represented in a sculptural group in Troyes cathedral ( 1549 ) Middle Ages ( edit ) In 895 , the provincial Council of Tribur commented on the traditional teaching that the triple immersion in baptism was an imitation of Christ for the three days he spent in the tomb , and the rising from the water an imitation of the resurrection of Jesus . The linking of the baptismal immersion in and rising from the water with the burial and resurrection of Jesus arguably goes back to Saint Paul , and the linking of the triple immersion with the three days in the tomb is found in Cyril of Jerusalem ( c. 313 -- 86 ) and Gregory of Nyssa ( c. 335 -- after 394 ) . An 1890 sketch for St. Vladimir 's Cathedral , Kiev : The Baptism of Saint Vladimir by Viktor Vasnetsov . Attendants ( left ) hold Vladimir 's golden royal robes , which he has removed , and the simple white baptismal robe , which he will put on . The 12th century saw the meaning of the word `` sacrament '' narrowed down and restricted to seven rites , among them that of baptism , while other symbolic rites came to be called `` sacramentals '' . In the period between the 12th and the 14th centuries , affusion became the usual manner of administering baptism in Western Europe , though immersion continued to be found in some places even as late as the 16th century . Throughout the Middle Ages , there was therefore considerable variation in the kind of facility required for baptism , from the baptismal pool large enough to immerse several adults simultaneously of the 13th century Baptistery at Pisa , to the half - metre deep basin in the 6th century baptistery of the old Cologne Cathedral . Both East and West considered washing with water and the Trinitarian baptismal formula necessary for administering the rite . Scholasticism referred to these two elements as the matter and the form of the sacrament , employing terms taken from the then prevailing Aristotelian philosophy . The Catechism of the Catholic Church , while teaching the necessity of both elements , nowhere uses these philosophical terms when speaking of any of the sacraments . Reformation ( edit ) Main articles : Lutheranism § Baptism , and Reformed baptismal theology Part of a series on Lutheranism Luther 's rose Book of Concord ( show ) Apostles ' Creed Nicene Creed Athanasian Creed Augsburg Confession Apology of the Augsburg Confession Luther 's Small / Large Catechism Smalcald Articles Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope Formula of Concord Theology ( show ) Justification Law and Gospel Sola gratia Sola scriptura Christology Sanctification Two kingdoms Two states of the Church Priesthood of all believers Divine Providence Marian theology Theology of the Cross Sacramental Union Homosexuality Criticism of Protestantism Sacraments Liturgy ( show ) Baptism Eucharist Confession Confirmation Matrimony Anointing of the Sick Holy Orders Lutheran hymn Organization ( show ) Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference International Lutheran Council Lutheran World Federation Denominations Lutheranism by region History ( show ) Protestant Reformation ( start ) Lutheran orthodoxy Gnesio - Lutherans Pietists Haugeans Laestadians Finnish Awakening Old Lutherans Neo-Lutherans High Church Lutherans Confessional Lutheranism Missionaries ( show ) John Campanius Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg Hans Egede Johann Heinrich Callenberg Johann Phillip Fabricius Paul Henkel John Christian Frederick Heyer Karl Graul Martti Rautanen Wilhelm Sihler F.C.D. Wyneken Hans Paludan Smith Schreuder Lars Olsen Skrefsrud Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen Onesimos Nesib Paul Olaf Bodding Johann Flierl Christian Keyser Bible translators ( show ) Martin Luther Casiodoro de Reina Kjell Magne Yri Onesimos Nesib Aster Ganno Jurij Dalmatin Kristian Osvald Viderø Jákup Dahl Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg Johann Phillip Fabricius William Tyndale John Rogers George Constantine Jozef Roháček Johannes Avetaranian Guðbrandur Þorláksson Ludvig Olsen Fossum Hans Egede / Paul Egede Otto Fabricius Nils Vibe Stockfleth Olaus Petri / Laurentius Petri Martti Rautanen Primož Trubar Jurij Dalmatin Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen Joachim Stegmann Primož Trubar Sebastian Krelj Mikael Agricola Norwegian Bible Society Samuel Ludwik Zasadius Stanislovas Rapolionis Victor Danielsen Jákup Dahl Laurentius Andreae Hans Tausen Olaf M. Norlie Jonas Bretkūnas Hans Paludan Smith Schreuder Antonio Brucioli Mikołaj Jakubica Matthias Bel Johann Ernst Glück William F. Beck Theologians ( show ) Martin Luther / Katharina von Bora Philip Melanchthon Johannes Bugenhagen Johannes Brenz Justus Jonas Hans Tausen Laurentius Petri Olaus Petri Mikael Agricola Matthias Flacius Martin Chemnitz Johann Gerhard Abraham Calovius Johannes Andreas Quenstedt Johann Wilhelm Baier David Hollaz Henry Muhlenberg Lars Levi Laestadius Charles Porterfield Krauth C.F.W. Walther Dietrich Bonhoeffer Paul Tillich Lutheranism portal In the 16th century , Martin Luther considered baptism to be a sacrament . For the Lutherans , baptism is a `` means of grace '' through which God creates and strengthens `` saving faith '' as the `` washing of regeneration '' in which infants and adults are reborn . Since the creation of faith is exclusively God 's work , it does not depend on the actions of the one baptized , whether infant or adult . Even though baptized infants can not articulate that faith , Lutherans believe that it is present all the same . Because it is faith alone that receives these divine gifts , Lutherans confess that baptism `` works forgiveness of sins , delivers from death and the devil , and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this , as the words and promises of God declare . '' In the special section on infant baptism in his Large Catechism , Luther argues that infant baptism pleases God because persons so baptized were reborn and sanctified by the Holy Spirit . Swiss Reformer Huldrych Zwingli differed with the Lutherans by denying that baptism conveys grace to the baptized . Zwingli identified baptism and the Lord 's supper as sacraments , but in the sense of an initiatory ceremony . Awaiting submersion baptism in the Jordan river Anabaptists ( a word that means `` rebaptizers '' ) rejected so thoroughly the tradition maintained by Lutherans as well as Catholics that they denied the validity of baptism outside their group . They `` rebaptized '' converts on the grounds that one can not be baptized without wishing it , and an infant , who does not understand what happens in a baptism ceremony and who has no knowledge of the concepts of Christianity , is not really baptized . They saw as non-biblical the baptism of infants , who can not confess their faith and who , not having yet committed any sins , are not in the same need of salvation . Anabaptists and other Baptist groups do not consider that they rebaptize those who have been baptized as infants , since , in their view , infant baptism is without effect . The Amish , Restoration churches ( Churches of Christ / Christian Church ) , Hutterites , Baptists , Mennonites and other groups descend from this tradition . Pentecostal , charismatic and most non-denominational churches share this view as well . In Reformed baptismal theology , starting with John Calvin , baptism is seen as primarily God 's offer of union with Christ and all his benefits to the baptized . This offer is believed to be intact even when it is not received in faith by the person baptized . Baptism also initiates one into the visible church and the covenant of grace . See also ( edit ) Related articles and subjects ( edit ) Anabaptist Baptism by fire Baptism of desire Baptism of Jesus Baptismal clothing Baptistery Believer 's baptism Catechumen Chrismation Christifideles Conditional baptism Consolamentum Disciple ( Christianity ) Divine filiation Emergency baptism Jesus - Name doctrine Prevenient Grace Sacrament Theophany People and ritual objects ( edit ) Baptismal font Baptistery Chrism Godparent Holy water Holy water in Eastern Christianity John the Baptist Mikvah Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Sookey says it is `` almost certain '' that immersion was used ; and the Global Dictionary of Theology says that it is probable that immersion was the early church 's normal mode of baptism , but that it was not seen as an important issue . Jump up ^ The words `` matter '' and `` form '' are not found in the index , nor do they appear in the definition of the sacraments given in section 1131 . A search of the electronic form of the book finds no instance of the word `` matter '' , and finds `` form '' only in the section 1434 , headed `` The Many Forms of Penance in Christian Life '' , which is not about the sacraments . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Stoltz , Eric ( 2005 ) . `` A Christian Glossary : Baptism '' . The Abraham Project . Retrieved February 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Baptism '' , Jewish Encyclopedia , The only conception of Baptism at variance with Jewish ideas is displayed in the declaration of John , that the one who would come after him would not baptize with water , but with the Holy Ghost ( Mark i . 8 ; John i . 27 ) . Jump up ^ `` Religion & Ethics -- Converting to Judaism '' . UK : BBC . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Num. 19 Jump up ^ Babylonian Talmud , Tractate Chagigah , p. 12 Jump up ^ Sacred texts . Jump up ^ Barnes , Albert , Notes on the Bible , Matthew 3 : 6 . Jump up ^ Pongratz - Lippitt , Christa ( May 5 , 2007 ) . `` Churches mutually recognise baptisms '' . The Tablet . Retrieved February 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Sacrament '' , Encyclopædia Britannica ( online ed . ) , 2009 , retrieved May 20 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Cross & Livingstone 2005 , pp. 151 -- 54 , ' Baptism ' . Jump up ^ Jewett ( 2009 ) , `` Baptism '' , in Murray , Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible , 1 ( rev ed . ) , p. 466 , Lexicographers universally agree that the primary meaning of baptizo G966 is ' to dip ' or ' to immerse `` , and there is a similar consensus of scholarly opinion that both the baptism of John and of the apostles was by immersion . Jump up ^ Schreiner 2007 , p. 81 : ' Most scholars agree that immersion was practiced in the NT , and it is likely that both of these texts allude to the practice , even though baptism is not the main point of either text . ' Jump up ^ Helyer ( 2002 ) , Exploring Jewish literature of the Second Temple Period , p. 481 , Furthermore , modern NT scholars generally concede , regardless of denominational affiliation , that Christian baptism in NT times was by immersion , as it was and still is in Judaism ... Jump up ^ Ferguson 1996 , p. 201 : ' The baptism commanded by Jesus in the making of disciples is an immersion in water . The topic formerly was warmly debated , but in these days there is general scholarly agreement . Several lines of evidence converge in support of the baptismal action as a dipping . ' Jump up ^ Dictionary of the Bible , Eerdman , 2009 , p. 148 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8028 - 2748 - 7 . Jump up ^ Dyrness , William A , ed. ( 2008 ) , Global Dictionary of Theology , Intervarsity Press , p. 101 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8308 - 2454 - 0 . Jump up ^ Schreiner 2007 , p. 82 : ' Submersion under the water in baptism -- which is in Jesus ' name -- indicates that the persons have experienced God 's judgment in Christ . ' Jump up ^ Ferguson 1996 , p. 202 : ' The New Testament descriptions of baptism imply a full bath . ' Jump up ^ Di Berardino ( 2009 ) , We Believe in One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church , p. 88 , It seems also that the profession was articulated in responses that the one being baptized made to the questions of the one baptizing during the baptismal rite , which in general was required to take place through total immersion , in total nudity , in running water ... Jump up ^ Tischler ( 2006 ) , All Things in the Bible : An Encyclopedia of the Biblical World , 1 , p. 57 , In the early days of the Church , total immersion , often in streams or rivers , seems to have been most commonly used ( Mark 1 : 9 ; Acts 8 : 38 ) ... Jump up ^ Lang ( 2007 ) , Everyday biblical literacy : the essential guide to biblical allusions in art , literature , and life , p. 47 , Baptism in the Bible was by immersion , that is , the person went fully under the waters , usually in a river or lake ( harking back to the practice of John in the Jordan River ) ... Jump up ^ Hellholm 2011 , pp. 682 , 699 . Jump up ^ Hellholm 2011 , pp. 1388 -- 89 , 1391 , 1397 , 1422 . Jump up ^ Guy , Laurie ( 2011 ) , Introducing Early Christianity , InterVarsity Press , p. 225 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 83083942 - 1 . Jump up ^ Jensen 2012 , p. 30 . Jump up ^ Jensen 2012 , p. 93 . Jump up ^ Schloeder , Steven J ( 1998 ) , Architecture in Communion , Ignatius Press , p. 113 , ISBN 0 - 89870 - 631 - 9 , In the early Church baptism was by one of four methods : complete submersion of the entire body , immersion of the head , affusion or pouring , or aspersion or sprinkling . Jump up ^ Thomas , Charles ( 1981 ) , Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500 , University of California Press , p. 204 , ISBN 0 - 520 - 04392 - 8 , J.G. Davies has carefully set these out ; and because they are relevant to an archaeological enquiry , we must distinguish them with the same care . The four principal modes are : 1 . Submersion ; or total immersion , where the candidate goes briefly but entirely below the water , on the model of those baptised by John in the River Jordan ; 2 . Immersion ; where the head , as the prime seat of Man 's rational and spiritual being , is in some way submerged , with or without the candidate having to stand in the same container of water ; 3 . Affusion ; ... . Jump up ^ Grenz , Stanley J ( 1994 ) , Theology for the Community of God , p. 530 , Although the descriptions of New Testament baptisms indicate that baptism occurred with both the officiator and the candidate standing in water , they do not state specifically what happened in the act . In fact , critics argue , early Christian art may indicate that water was poured on the head of the baptismal candidate standing in a river or body of water . Jump up ^ `` Immersion '' , Dictionary of the Christian Church , Oxford University Press , 2005 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 280290 - 3 , A method of Baptism , employed at least from the 2nd cent. , whereby part of the candidate 's body was submerged in the baptismal water which was poured over the remainder ... The term is occasionally loosely used to include submersion , from which it is strictly to be distinguished . Jump up ^ `` Baptism '' , Oxford Dictionary of the Bible , Oxford University Press , 2004 ( 1996 ) , ISBN 0 - 19 - 860890 - X , Archaeological evidence from the early centuries shows that baptism was administered sometimes by submersion or immersion ... but also by affusion . ^ Jump up to : Bowker , John ( 1999 ) . The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions . Oxford : Oxford University Press . p. 125 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 866242 - 4 . OCLC 60181672 . ^ Jump up to : `` Catechumen '' , Encyclopædia Britannica ( online ed . ) , 2009 , retrieved May 20 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Old 1992 , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Old 1992 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Cross & Livingstone 2005 , Nicene Creed . Jump up ^ Ferguson , Everett ( 2009 ) . Baptism in the Early Church : History , Theology , and Liturgy in the First Five Centuries . Grand Rapids , Michigan : Wm . B. Eerdmans Publishing . p. 362 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8028 - 2748 - 7 . Jump up ^ Old 1992 , pp. 7 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Jestice , Phyllis G ( 2004 ) , Holy people of the world : a cross-cultural encyclopedia , 3 , pp. 393 -- 94 , ISBN 1 - 57607 - 355 - 6 . Jump up ^ Romans 6 : 3 - 4 Jump up ^ Lukken , Gerard ( 1973 ) , Original Sin in the Roman Liturgy , Brill , p. 143 , ISBN 90 - 04 - 03793 - 4 . Jump up ^ Cross & Livingstone 2005 , Sacrament . Jump up ^ Fanning , William ( 1907 ) . `` Baptism '' . Catholic Encyclopedia . New York City : Robert Appleton Co . Archived from the original on February 28 , 2009 . Retrieved February 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Ristow , Sebastian ( 2005 ) . `` Baptismal Font from the Cologne Baptistery '' . Cologne Cathedral . Retrieved February 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Baptism and Its Purpose '' . Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2009 . Retrieved February 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Luther , Martin ( 2009 ) ( 1529 ) . `` The Sacrament of Holy Baptism '' . Luther 's Small Catechism . Retrieved February 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Luther , Martin ( 2009 ) ( 1529 ) . `` Of Infant Baptism '' . Luther 's Large Catechism . Retrieved February 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Brackney , William H. ( 2006 ) . Baptists in North America : an historical perspective . Blackwell Publishing . p. 22 . ISBN 1 - 4051 - 1865 - 2 . Jump up ^ Riggs 2002 , p. 119 . Jump up ^ Riggs 2002 , p. 120 . Bibliography ( edit ) Cross , Frank Leslie ; Livingstone , Elizabeth A ( 2005 ) , `` Baptism '' , The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church , Oxford : Oxford University Press , ISBN 0 - 19 - 280290 - 9 , OCLC 58998735 . Ferguson , Everett ( 1996 ) , The church of Christ : a biblical ecclesiology for today . Hellholm , David , ed. ( 2011 ) , Ablution , Initiation , and Baptism , et al . Jensen , Robin M ( 2012 ) , Baptismal Imagery in Early Christianity : Ritual , Visual , and Theological Dimensions . Old , Hughes Oliphant ( 1992 ) , The Shaping of the Reformed Baptismal Rite in the Sixteenth Century , Grand Rapids , MI : William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8028 - 2489 - 9 . Riggs , John W. ( 2002 ) . Baptism in the Reformed Tradition : A Historical and Practical Theology . Louisville , KY : Westminster John Knox Press . ISBN 0 - 664 - 21966 - 7 . Schreiner , Thomas ( 2007 ) , Believer 's Baptism : Sign of the New Covenant in Christ , p. 81 . Further reading ( edit ) Baptism , Eucharist , and ministry . Geneva : World Council of Churches. 1982 . ISBN 2 - 8254 - 0709 - 7 . OCLC 9918640 . Chaney , James M. ( 2009 ) . William the Baptist . Oakland , TN : Doulos Resources . p. 160 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4421 - 8560 - 9 . Archived from the original on April 2 , 2011 . `` Baptism '' . Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 ( 11th ed . ) . 1911 . Jungkuntz , Richard ( 1968 ) . The Gospel of Baptism . St. Louis : Concordia Publishing House . OCLC 444126 . Kolb , Robert W. ( 1997 ) . Make Disciples , baptizing : God 's gift of new life and Christian witness . St. Louis : Concordia Seminary . ISBN 0 - 911770 - 66 - 6 . OCLC 41473438 . Linderman , Jim ( 2009 ) . Take Me to the Water : Immersion Baptism in Vintage Music and Photography 1890 -- 1950 . Atlanta : Dust to Digital . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9817342 - 1 - 7 . Matzat , Don ( Spring 1997 ) . `` In Defense of Infant Baptism '' . Issues , Etc . Journal . 2 ( 3 ) . Retrieved February 26 , 2009 . Scaer , David P. ( 1999 ) . Baptism . St. Louis : The Luther Academy . OCLC 41004868 . Schlink , Edmund ( 1972 ) . The Doctrine of Baptism . St. Louis , MO : Concordia Publishing House . ISBN 0 - 570 - 03726 - 3 . OCLC 228096375 . Stookey , Laurence Hull ( 1982 ) . Baptism , Christ 's act in the church . Nashville , TN : Abingdon . ISBN 0 - 687 - 02364 - 5 . OCLC 7924841 . Ware , Kallistos ( 1993 ) . The Orthodox Church . New York : Penguin Books . pp. 277 -- 78 . ISBN 0 - 14 - 014656 - 3 . OCLC 263544700 . Willimon , William H. ( 1980 ) . Remember who you are : baptism , a model for Christian life . Nashville : Upper Room . ISBN 0 - 8358 - 0399 - 6 . OCLC 6485882 . External links ( edit ) Look up βαπτίζω in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . `` Baptism '' , Encyclopædia Britannica ( online ed . ) . `` Water Baptism '' ( PDF ) , Biblicl advanced basics ( PDF ) format = requires url = ( help ) , dispensationally considered . <Th_colspan="2"> ( hide ) Christian soteriology <Td_colspan="2"> Absolution Adoption Assurance Atonement Baptism Calling Conversion Divinization Election Eternal life Faith Forgiveness Glorification Grace Irresistible Imputation Justification Means of grace Monergism Mortification Ordo salutis Perseverance Predestination Recapitulation Reconciliation Redemption Regeneration Repentance Resurrection Salvation Sanctification Synergism Theosis Union with Christ <Td_colspan="2"> Related theology Christology The Trinity Hamartiology Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_baptism&oldid=816142000 '' Categories : Baptism Christian terminology Lutheran sacraments and rites Hidden categories : All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from March 2009 Use mdy dates from June 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2010 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Pages using citations with format and no URL Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 19 December 2017 , at 15 : 24 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | 1. Christian rite of baptism
2. Jewish ritual of immersion (Tvilah)
3. Early Christian baptism by immersion
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4,327,018,922,025,940,500 | what are the six smallest countries in europe | List of European countries by area - wikipedia List of European countries by area Jump to : navigation , search It has been suggested that this article be merged with List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe . ( Discuss ) Proposed since December 2017 . This article duplicates the scope of other articles . Please discuss this issue on the talk page and edit it to conform with Wikipedia 's Manual of Style . ( December 2017 ) Below is a list of all countries in Europe , in order of geographical area . Europe 's total geographical area is 10,288,305 km2 . * -- Note : some countries are transcontinental , meaning , they are only partially located in Europe . Those are ranked according to the size of their parts within Europe only . The list includes only sovereign states . Therefore , for example the United Kingdom is included in place of the four individual home nations . Rank Country Area ( km2 ) Notes Russia * 3,972,400 17,098,242 including North Asia Ukraine 603,628 - France 551,394 643,801 when the overseas departments are included Spain 498,468 505,992 when the Canary Islands , Ceuta and Melilla are included Sweden 449,964 6 Norway 385,178 This includes Svalbard and Jan Mayen 7 Germany 357,168 8 Finland 338,145 9 Poland 312,685 10 Italy 301,338 11 United Kingdom 248,532 Excluding the British Overseas Territories 12 Romania 238,392 13 Belarus 207,600 14 Kazakhstan * 180,000 ( est . ) 2,724,902 including Asian part 15 Greece 131,940 16 Bulgaria 110,994 17 Iceland 102,775 18 Hungary 93,030 19 Portugal 91,568 20 Austria 83,858 21 Czech Republic 78,866 22 Serbia 77,453 23 Ireland 70,273 24 Lithuania 65,300 25 Latvia 64,589 26 Croatia 56,594 27 Bosnia and Herzegovina 51,129 28 Slovakia 49,036 29 Estonia 45,339 30 Denmark 44,493 This includes Faroe Islands ; 2,210,579 including Greenland 31 Switzerland 41,290 32 Netherlands 41,198 Excluding Caribbean Netherlands , Aruba , Curacao and Sint Maarten . 33 Moldova 33,846 34 Belgium 30,510 35 Albania 28,748 36 Macedonia 25,713 37 Turkey * 23,507 783,562 including Asian part 38 Slovenia 20,273 39 Montenegro 13,812 40 Kosovo 10,908 Partially recognized state 41 Azerbaijan * 6,960 86,600 including Asian part 42 Luxembourg 2,586 43 Georgia * 2,428 69,700 including Asian part 44 Andorra 468 45 Malta 316 46 Liechtenstein 160 47 San Marino 61 48 Monaco 1.95 49 Vatican City 0.44 Total 10,141,183 ± 5,000 A bar graph with logarithmic scale , showing the sizes in three categories : Purple = Russia , Green = countries with European area bigger than 10,000 km2 , Red = countries with European area smaller than 10,000 km2 Definition ( edit ) Europe and Asia are contiguous with each other and thus the exact boundary between them is not clearly defined , and often follows historical , political , and cultural definitions rather than geographical . This list uses the modern geographical definition thus excluding Armenia , Georgia and Cyprus , which are sometimes also considered part of Europe , the two Caucasus nations for political and cultural reasons , and Cyprus because all larger islands in the Mediterranean have historically been considered European , regardless of their proximity to the European mainland . Alb . Andorra Austria Azer . Belarus Belg . Bosnia Bulgaria Channel Is. ( UK ) Croatia Cz . Rep . Denmark Estonia Finland France Gib . ( UK ) Germany Georgia Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy IoM ( UK ) S. Mar . Kazakhstan Kos . Latvia Liech . Lithuania Lux . Mac . Malta Moldova Mon . Mont . Nether . Norway Svalbard ( Nor ) Poland Portugal Romania Russia Serbia Slovakia Slo . Spain Sweden Switz - erland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Far . ( Dk ) Vat . Armenia Cyprus Greenland ( Dk ) Adr - iatic Sea Arctic Ocean Baltic Sea Aegean Sea Barents Sea Bay of Biscay Black Sea Caspian Sea Celtic Sea Greenland Sea Baffin Bay Gulf of Cádiz Ligurian Sea Mediterranean Sea North Atlantic Ocean North Sea Norwegian Sea Strait of Gibraltar Clickable map of Europe , showing one of the most commonly used continental boundaries Key : blue : states which straddle the border between Europe and Asia ; green : countries not geographically in Europe , but closely associated with the continent See also ( edit ) List of African countries by area List of Asian countries by area List of Oceanian countries by area List of South American countries by area References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Updated land cover figures '' . ssb.no . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 21 . Jump up ^ The map shows one of the most commonly accepted delineations of the geographical boundaries of Europe , as used by National Geographic and Encyclopædia Britannica . Whether countries are considered in Europe or Asia can vary in sources , for example in the classification of the CIA World Factbook or that of the BBC . Note also that certain countries in Europe , such as France , have territories lying geographically outside Europe , but which are nevertheless considered integral parts of that country . <Th_colspan="2"> Europe articles History Chronology Prehistory Classical antiquity Late antiquity Middle Ages Early modernity World War I & II Pax Europaea Crisis situations and unrest since 2000 By topic Military Sovereignty predecessor states Geography <Td_colspan="2"> Areas and populations Countries by area European microstates Largest metropolitan areas Cities Extreme points Geology Islands Lakes Mountains Rivers Sovereign states and dependent territories by population Villages Politics <Td_colspan="2"> <Td_colspan="2"> Eurosphere International organisations Integration Law Politics Post-Soviet Europe Transatlantic relations Intergovernmental Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ) Council of Europe ( CoE ) Collective Security Treaty Organisation ( CSTO ) GUAM Organization North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ( NATO ) Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe ( OSCE ) statistics European Union Economy relations free trade agreements Education European Economic Area ( EEA ) European Neighbourhood Policy ( ENP ) European Union Customs Union ( EUCU ) Eurozone Foreign relations Members enlargement Politics Schengen Area Statistics Visa policy Economy <Td_colspan="2"> <Td_colspan="2"> History Financial ( and social ) rankings Free trade areas Energy Telecommunications Transport Intergovernmental Central European Free Trade Agreement ( CEFTA ) Customs Union of Belarus , Kazakhstan , and Russia ( CUBKR ) Eurasian Economic Community ( EAEC ) European Free Trade Association ( EFTA ) Sovereign states by Average wage Budget revenues per capita Corruption index GDP ( nominal ) per capita GDP ( PPP ) per capita GNI ( nominal ) per capita GNI ( PPP ) per capita HDI Internet users ( % ) Minimum wage Press Freedom Index Unemployment rate ( % ) Health expense per capita Military spending ( % ) Childhood population ( % ) Urban population ( % ) Life expectancy Electricity use per capita Society <Td_colspan="2"> Etiquette Social ( and financial ) rankings Languages endangered Universities Bologna Process Erasmus Culture Art painting sculpture Architecture Capital of Culture Cinema film festivals Classical music Cuisine Dance Literature Philosophy Religion Christianity Islam Judaism Sport Symbols Demographics Ageing Ethnic groups genetic history Immigration Life expectancy Retirement <Td_colspan="2"> Outline Index Portal Maps Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_European_countries_by_area&oldid=826645674 '' Categories : Lists of countries in Europe Lists by area Lists of countries by geography Hidden categories : Articles to be merged from December 2017 All articles to be merged Articles in need of internal merging All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Talk About Wikipedia Languages Azərbaycanca भोजपुरी Български Français 한국어 Հայերեն Magyar Norsk Русский Simple English Svenska Українська اردو Tiếng Việt ייִדיש Zazaki Edit links This page was last edited on 20 February 2018 , at 07 : 34 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | 1. List of European countries by area
2. Geographical boundaries of Europe
3. Sovereign states in Europe
4. Transcontinental countries in Europe
5. European countries ranked by size |
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in Dataset Viewer.
Abstractive Content-Based Document IDs for Generative Retrieval
Dataset for Summarization-Based Document IDs for Generative Retrieval with Language Models.
@misc{li2024summarizationbaseddocumentidsgenerative,
title={Summarization-Based Document IDs for Generative Retrieval with Language Models},
author={Haoxin Li and Daniel Cheng and Phillip Keung and Jungo Kasai and Noah A. Smith},
year={2024},
eprint={2311.08593},
archivePrefix={arXiv},
primaryClass={cs.CL},
url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2311.08593},
}
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