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"\n\n'''Aristide Joseph Bonaventure Maillol''' (; December 8, 1861 – September 27, 1944) was a French sculptor, painter, and printmaker.\n",
"Aristide Maillol, ''Bas Relief'', terracotta. Exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, New York, Chicago, Boston. Catalogue image (no. 110)\nMaillol was born in Banyuls-sur-Mer, Roussillon. He decided at an early age to become a painter, and moved to Paris in 1881 to study art. After several applications and several years of living with poverty, his enrollment in the École des Beaux-Arts was accepted in 1885, and he studied there under Jean-Léon Gérôme and Alexandre Cabanel. His early paintings show the influence of his contemporaries Pierre Puvis de Chavannes and Paul Gauguin.\n\nGauguin encouraged his growing interest in decorative art, an interest that led Maillol to take up tapestry design. In 1893 Maillol opened a tapestry workshop in Banyuls, producing works whose high technical and aesthetic quality gained him recognition for renewing this art form in France. He began making small terracotta sculptures in 1895, and within a few years his concentration on sculpture led to the abandonment of his work in tapestry.\nMaillol, ''The River'', bronze, 1938-1943, (displayed in Barcelona) in 2009\nIn July 1896, Maillol married Clotilde Narcis, one of his employees at his tapestry workshop. Their only son, Lucian, was born that October.\n\nMaillol’s first major sculpture, ''A Seated Woman'', was modeled after his wife. The first version (in the Museum of Modern Art, New York) was completed in 1902, and renamed ''La Méditerranée''. Maillol, believing that \"art does not lie in the copying of nature\", produced a second, less naturalistic version in 1905. In 1902, the art dealer Ambroise Vollard provided Maillol with his first exhibition.\n\nAir'' cast 1938, Kröller-Müller Museum \nThe subject of nearly all of Maillol's mature work is the female body, treated with a classical emphasis on stable forms. The figurative style of his large bronzes is perceived as an important precursor to the greater simplifications of Henry Moore, and his serene classicism set a standard for European (and American) figure sculpture until the end of World War II.\n\nJosep Pla said of Maillol, \"These archaic ideas, Greek, were the great novelty Maillol brought into the tendency of modern sculpture. What you need to love from the ancients is not the antiquity, it is the sense of permanent, renewed novelty, that is due to the nature and reason.\"\n\nHis important public commissions include a 1912 commission for a monument to Cézanne, as well as numerous war memorials commissioned after World War I.\n\nMaillol served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal (1919–1954) a grant awarded to painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.\n\nHe made a series of woodcut illustrations for an edition of Vergil's ''Eclogues'' published by Harry Graf Kessler in 1926–27. He also illustrated ''Daphnis and Chloe'' by Longus (1937) and ''Chansons pour elle'' by Paul Verlaine (1939).\n\n\nHe died in Banyuls at the age of eighty-three, in an automobile accident. While driving home during a thunderstorm, the car in which he was a passenger skidded off the road and rolled over. A large collection of Maillol's work is maintained at the Musée Maillol in Paris, which was established by Dina Vierny, Maillol's model and platonic companion during the last 10 years of his life. His home a few kilometers outside Banyuls, also the site of his final resting place, has been turned into a museum where a number of his works and sketches are displayed.\n\nThree of his bronzes grace the grand staircase of the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City: ''Summer'' (1910–11), ''Venus Without Arms'' (1920), and'' Kneeling Woman: Monument to Debussy'' (1950–55). The third is the artist's only reference to music, created for a monument at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Claude Debussy's birthplace.\n\nAristide Maillol, ''The Night,'' (1920), Stuttgart\n",
"* ''Flora, Nude'' (1910), Houston, Texas\n* ''L'Air'' (1938)\n",
"\n",
"* Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, “Aristide Maillol, 1861-1944”, New York, Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, 1975.\n* Frèches-Thory, Claire, & Perucchi-Petry, Ursula, ed.: ''Die Nabis: Propheten der Moderne'', Kunsthaus Zürich & Grand Palais, Paris & Prestel, Munich 1993 (German), (French)\n",
"* Lorquin, Bertrand (1995). ''Maillol''. Skira. .\n* Rewald, John (1951). ''The Woodcuts of Aristide Maillol''. New York: Pantheon Books.\n",
"\n\n* \n* Masters of 20th Century Figure Sculpture\n* Maillol Museum\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Works",
"References",
"Sources",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Aristide Maillol |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Antonio Canova''' (; 1 November 1757 – 13 October 1822) was an Italian Neoclassical sculptor, famous for his marble sculptures. Often regarded as the greatest of the Neoclassical artists, his artwork was inspired by the Baroque and the classical revival, but avoided the melodramatics of the former, and the cold artificiality of the latter.\n\n\n",
"\n===Possagno===\nIn 1757, Antonio Canova was born in Possagno to Pietro Canova, a stonecutter. In 1761, his father died. A year later, his mother remarried. As such, in 1762, he was put into the care of his paternal grandfather Pasino Canova, who was a stonemason, owner of a quarry, and was a \"sculptor who specialized in altars with statues and low reliefs in late Baroque style\". He led Antonio into the art of sculpting.\n\nBefore the age of ten, Canova began making models in clay, and carving marble. Indeed, at the age of nine, he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble, which are still extant. After these works, he appears to have been constantly employed under his grandfather.\n\n===Venice===\n''Orpheus'', (1777)\n\nIn 1770, he was an apprentice for two years to Giuseppe Bernardi, who was also known as 'Torretto'. Afterwards, he was under the tutelage of Giovanni Ferrari until he began his studies at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia. At the Academy, he won several prizes. During this time, he was given his first workshop within a monastery by some local monks.\n\nThe Senator Giovanni Falier commissioned Canova to produce statues of Orpheus and Eurydice for his garden – the Villa Falier at Asolo. The statues were begun in 1775, and both were completed by 1777. The pieces explify the late Rococo style. On the year of its completion, both works were exhibited for the Feast of the Ascension in Piazza S. Marco. Widely praised, the works won Canova his first renown among the Venetian elite.\n\nIn 1779, he opened his own studio at Calle Del Traghetto at S. Maurizio,. At this time, Procurator Pietro Vettor Pisani commissioned Canova's first marble statue: a depiction of Daedalus and Icarus. The statue inspired great admiration for his work at the annual art fair; Canova was paid for 100 gold zecchini for the completed work. At the base of the statue, Daedalus' tools are scattered about; these tools are also an allusion to Sculpture, of which the statue is a personification. With such an intention, there is suggestion that Daedalus is a portrait of Canova's grandfather Pasino.\n\n===Rome===\nCanova arrived in Rome, on 28 December 1780. Prior to his departure, his friends had applied to the Venetian senate for a pension. Successful in the application, the stipend allotted amounted to three hundred ducats, limited to three years.\n\nWhile in Rome, Canova spent time studying and sketching the works of Michelangelo.\n\nTheseus and the Minotaur, V&A, London\n\nIn 1781, Girolamo Zulian – the Venetian ambassador to Rome – hired Canova to sculpt ''Theseus and the Minotaur''. The statue depicts the victorious Theseus seated on the lifeless body of a Minotaur. The initial spectators were certain that the work was a copy of a Greek original, and were shocked to learn it was a contemporary work. The highly regarded work is now in the collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum, in London.\n\nBetween 1783 – 1785, Canova arranged, composed, and designed a funerary monument dedicated to Clement XIV for the Church of Santi Apostoli. After another two years, the work met completion in 1787. The monument secured Canova's reputation as the pre-eminent living artist.\n\nIn 1792, he completed another cenotaph, this time commemorating Clement XIII for St. Peter's Basilica. Canova harmonized its design with the older Baroque funerary monuments in the basilica.\n\nIn 1790, he began to work on a funerary monument for Titian, which was eventually abandoned by 1795. During the same year, he increased his activity as a painter.\n\nThe following decade was extremely productive, beginning works such as ''Hercules and Lichas'', ''Cupid and Psyche'', ''Hebe'', ''Tomb of Duchess Maria Christina of Saxony-Teschen'', and ''The Penitent Magdalene''.\n\nIn 1797, he went to Vienna, but only a year later, in 1798, he returned to Possagno for a year.\n\n===France and England===\nBy 1800, Canova was the most celebrated artist in Europe. He systematically promoted his reputation by publishing engravings of his works and having marble versions of plaster casts made in his workshop. He became so successful that he had acquired patrons from across Europe including France, England, Russia, Poland, Austria and Holland, as well as several members from different royal lineages, and prominent individuals. Among his patrons, Napoleon and his family was provided by Canova with much work, producing several depictions between 1803 and 1809. The most notable representations were that of ''Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker'', and ''Venus Victrix'' which was portrayal of Pauline Bonaparte.\n\n''Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker'' had its inception after Canova was hired to make a bust of Napoleon in 1802. The statue was begun in 1803, with Napoleon requesting to be shown in a French General's uniform, Canova rejected this, insisting on an allusion to Mars, the Roman god of War. It was completed in 1806. In 1811, the statue arrived in Paris, but not installed; neither was its bronze copy in the Foro Napoleonico in Milan. In 1815, the original went to the Duke of Wellington, after his victory at Waterloo against Napoleon.\n\n\n\n''Venus Victrix' was originally conceived as a robed and recumbent sculpture of Pauline Borghese in the guise of Diana. Instead, Pauline ordered Canova to make the statue a nude Venus. The work was not intended for public viewing.\n\nOther works for the Napoleon family include, a bust of Napoleon, a statue of Napoleon's mother, and Marie Louise as Concordia.\n\nIn 1802, Canova was assigned the post of 'Inspector-General of Antiquities and Fine Art of the Papal State', a position formerly held by Raphael. One of his activities in this capacity was to pioneer the restoration of the Appian Way by restoring the tomb of Servilius Quartus. In 1808 Canova became an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.\n\nIn 1814, he began his ''The Three Graces''.\n\nIn 1815, he was named 'Minister Plenipotentiary of the Pope,' and was tasked with recovering various works of art that were taken to Paris by Napoleon.\n\n\n\nAlso in 1815, he visited London, and met with Benjamin Haydon. It was after the advice of Canova that the Elgin marbles were acquired by the British Museum, with plaster copies sent to Florence, according to Canova's request.\n\n===Returning to Italy===\nIn 1816, Canova returned to Rome with some of the art Napoleon had taken. He was rewarded with several marks of distinction: he was appointed President of the Accademia di San Luca, inscribed into the \"Golden Book of Roman Nobles\" by the Pope's own hands, and given the title of Marquis of Ischia, alongside an annual pension of 3000 crowns.\n\nIn 1819, he commenced and completed his commissioned work ''Venus Italica'' as a replacement for the Venus de' Medici.\n\nAfter his 1814 proposal to build a personified statue of Religion for St. Peter's Basilica was rejected, Canova sought to build his own temple to house it. This project came to be the Tempio Canoviano. Canova designed, financed, and partly built the structure himself. The structure was to be a testament to Canova's piety. The building's design was inspired by combining the Parthenon and the Pantheon together. On 11 July 1819, Canova laid the foundation stone dressed in red Papal uniform and decorated with all his medals. It first opened in 1830, and was finally completed in 1836. After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, Canova returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he continued to visit Possagno to direct the workmen and encourage them with rewards.\n\nDuring the period that intervened between commencing operations at Possagno and his death, he executed or finished some of his most striking works. Among these were the group ''Mars and Venus'', the colossal figure of Pius VI, the Pietà, the ''St John'', and a colossal bust of his friend, the Count Cicognara.\n\n''George Washington'', plaster replica on display at the North Carolina Museum of History\nIn 1820, he made a statue of George Washington for the state of North Carolina. As recommended by Thomas Jefferson, the sculptor used the marble bust of Washington by Giuseppe Ceracchi as a model. It was delivered on December 24, 1821. The statue was later destroyed by fire in 1831. A plaster replica was sent by the king of Italy in 1910, now on view at the North Carolina Museum of History. A marble copy was sculpted by Romano Vio in 1970, now on view in the rotunda of the capitol building.\n\nIn 1822, he journeyed to Naples, to superintend the construction of wax moulds for an equestrian statue of Ferdinand VII. The adventure was disastrous to his health, but soon became healthy enough to return to Rome. From there, he voyaged to Venice; however, on 13 October 1822, he died there at the age of 64. As he never married, the name became extinct, except through his stepbrothers' lineage of Satori-Canova.\n\nOn 12 October 1822, Canova instructed his brother to use his entire estate to complete the Tempio in Possagno.\n\nOn 25 October 1822, his body was placed in the Tempio Canoviano. His heart was interred at the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice, and his right hand preserved in a vase at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia.\n\nHis memorial service was so grand that it rivaled the ceremony that the city of Florence held for Michelangelo in 1564.\n\nIn 1826, Giovanni Battista Sartori sold Canova's Roman studio and took every plaster model and sculpture to Possagno, where they were installed in the Tempio Canoviano.\n",
"Among Canova's most notable works are:\n\n===''Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss'' (1787)===\nDetail of ''Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss''\n\n\n''Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss'' was commissioned in 1787 by Colonel John Campbell. It is regarded as a masterpiece of Neoclassical sculpture, but shows the mythological lovers at a moment of great emotion, characteristic of the emerging movement of Romanticism. It represents the god Cupid in the height of love and tenderness, immediately after awakening the lifeless Psyche with a kiss.\n\n===''Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker'' (1802–1806)===\n\n\n''Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker'' had its inception after Canova was hired to make a bust of Napoleon in 1802. The statue was begun in 1803, with Napoleon requesting to be shown in a French General's uniform, Canova rejected this, insisting on an allusion to Mars, the Roman god of War. It was completed in 1806. In 1811, the statue arrived in Paris, but not installed; neither was its bronze copy in the Foro Napoleonico in Milan. In 1815, the original went to the Duke of Wellington, after his victory at Waterloo against Napoleon.\n\n===''Perseus Triumphant'' (1804–1806)===\nDetail of ''Perseus with the Head of Medusa''\n''Perseus Triumphant'', sometimes called ''Perseus with the Head of Medusa'', was a statue commissioned by tribune Onorato Duveyriez. It depicts the Greek hero Perseus after his victory over the Gorgon Medusa.\n\nThe statue was based freely to the Apollo Belvedere and the Medusa Rondanini.\n\nNapoleon, after his 1796 Italian Campaign, took the Apollo Belvedere to Paris. In the statue's absence, Pope Pius VII acquired Canova's ''Perseus Triumphant'' and placed the work upon the ''Apollo'''s pedestal. The statue was so successful that when the ''Apollo'' was returned, ''Perseus'' remained as a companion piece.\n\nOne replica of the statue was purchased from Canova by the Polish countess Valeria Tarnowska; it now resides in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.\n\nKarl Ludwig Fernow said of the statue that \"every eye must rest with pleasure on the beautiful surface, even when the mind finds its hopes of high and pure enjoyment disappointed.\"\n\n===''Venus Victrix'' (1805–1808)===\n\n\n''Venus Victrix'' ranks among the most famous of Canova's works. Originally, Canova wished the depictation to be of a robed Diana, but Pauline Borghese insisted to appear as a nude Venus. The work was not intended for public viewing.\n\n===''The Three Graces'' (1814–1817)===\nThe Three Graces''\n\n\nJohn Russell, the 6th Duke of Bedford, commissioned a version of the now famous work. He had previously visited Canova in his studio in Rome in 1814 and had been immensely impressed by a carving of the Graces the sculptor had made for the Empress Josephine. When the Empress died in May of the same year he immediately offered to purchase the completed piece, but was unsuccessful as Josephine’s son Eugène claimed it (his son Maximilian brought it to St. Petersburg, where it can now be found in the Hermitage Museum). Undeterred, the Duke commissioned another version for himself.\n\nThe sculpting process began in 1814 and was completed in 1817. Finally in 1819 it was installed at the Duke’s residence in Woburn Abbey. Canova even made the trip over to England to supervise its installation, choosing for it to be displayed on a pedestal adapted from a marble plinth with a rotating top. This version is now owned jointly by the Victoria and Albert Museum and the National Galleries of Scotland, and is alternately displayed at each.\n",
"\n\nCanova's sculptures fall into three categories: Heroic compositions, compositions of grace, and sepulchral monuments. In each of these, Canova's underlying artistic motivations were to challenge, if not compete, with classical statues.\n\nCanova refused to take in pupils and students, but would hire workers to carve the initial figure from the marble. He had an elaborate system of comparative pointing so that the workers were able to reproduce the plaster form in the selected block of marble. These workers would leave a thin veil over the entire statue so Canova's could focus on the surface of the statue.\n\nWhile he worked, he had people read to him select literary and historical texts.\n\n===Last touch===\n\n\nDuring the last quarter of the eighteenth century, it became fashionable to view art galleries at night by torchlight. Canova was an artist that leapt on the fad and displayed his works of art in his studio by candlelight. As such, Canova would begin to finalize the statue with special tools by candlelight, to soften the transitions between the various parts of the nude. After a little recarving, he began to rub the statue down with pumice stone, sometimes for period longer that weeks or months. If that was not enough, he would use tripoli (rottenstone) and lead.\n\nHe then applied a now unknown chemical-composition of patina onto the flesh of the figure to lighten the skin tone. Importantly, his friends also denied any usage of acids in his process.\n",
"Conversations revolving around the justification of art as superfluous usually invoked the name of Canova.\n\nKarl Ludwig Fernow believed that Canova was not Kantian enough in his aesthetic, because emphasis seemed to have been placed on agreeableness rather than Beauty.\n\nCanova was also faulted for creating works that were artificial in complexity.\n",
"The ''Museo Canoviano'' located in Possagno near Asolo\n\n\n\nCanova spent large parts of his fortune helping young students and sending patrons to struggling sculptors, including Sir Richard Westmacott and John Gibson.\n\nHe was introduced into various orders of chivalry.\n\nThe Romantic period artists buried Canova's name soon after he died, but he is slowly being rediscovered.\n\n===Commemorations===\n*Canova, South Dakota\n*Via Antonio Canova, in Treviso\n",
"\nFile:Antonio Canova from the studio if Canova c.1813.jpg|Antonio Canova from the studio of Canova c.1813\nFile:Tomb of Pope Clement XIII Gregorovius.jpg|Tomb of Clement XIII\nFile:Tomb of Pope Clement XIV Gregorovius.jpg|Tomb of Clement XIV\nFile:Tomb Monument of Pius VI Gregorovius.jpg|Monument to Pius VI\nFile:Amor-Psyche-Canova-JBU02.JPG|''Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss'', Louvre\nFile:Amor-Psyche-Canova-JBU04.JPG|''Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss'', Louvre (detail)\nFile:Perseus Canova Pio-Clementino Inv969.jpg|''Perseus Triumphant'', Vatican\nFile:Theseus and Centaur.jpg|Theseus Fighting the Centaur (1804–1819), Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna\nFile:Jerome & Henrietta busts.jpg|Pair of portrait busts by Canova, c. 1815\nFile:Napoleon-Canova-London JBU01.jpg|''Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker'', Apsley House London\nFile:VenusVictrix.jpg|Pauline Bonaparte as ''Venus Victrix'', now at the Galleria Borghese\nFile:Antonio Canova Cenotaph of Archduchess Maria Christina Augustinerkirche (Wien) panoramic sculpture Austria 2014 photo Paolo Villa August FOTO8412 - FOTO8425auto.jpg|Panorama of Cenotaph to Maria Christina of Austria\nFile:Frith, Francis (1822-1898) - n. 2340 - Tomb of Marie Christine by Canova - Vienna.jpg|Cenotaph to Maria Christina of Austria in the Augustinerkirche\nFile:Canova-Magdalene 45 degree view.jpg|''The Penitent Magdalene'' (Hermitage Museum, ex-Leuchtenberg Gallery)\nFile:Italy, Antonio Canova Medal by Putinati.jpg|Antonio Canova Medal by Francesco Putinati\nFile:Canova-Three Graces 0 degree view.jpg|''The Three Graces'', Hermitage\nBasilica di Santa Maria dei Frari interno - Monumento di Canova.jpg|Monument to Canova in the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, designed by Canova as a mausoleum for the painter Titian\n\n",
"\n\n",
"*\n* .\n* .\n\n'''Attribution:'''\n* \n",
"\n* \n* Canova's ''Three Graces'' (second version) in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London (2000). One of three Flickr photos by ketrin 1407.\n* Canova's ''Perseus and Medusa'' in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (2009). Part of Flickr set by ketrin1407.\n* ''Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution'', a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Canova (see index)\n* Antonio Canova: Photo Gallery\n* Canova's death mask at Princeton\n* Canova museum and plaster cast gallery\n* Canova 2009 Exhibition in Forlì, Italy\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Works",
"Artistic process",
"Criticisms",
"Legacy",
"Gallery",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Antonio Canova |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Ann Arbor''' is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Washtenaw County. The 2010 census recorded its population to be 113,934, making it the sixth largest city in Michigan. \n\nAnn Arbor was founded in 1824, named for wives of the village's founders and the stands of Bur Oak trees. The University of Michigan moved from Detroit to Ann Arbor in 1837, and the city grew at a rapid rate in the early to mid-20th century. During the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as a center for left-wing politics. Ann Arbor became a focal point for political activism and anti-Vietnam War movement, as well as various student movements.\n\nAnn Arbor is home to the University of Michigan, one of the foremost research universities in the United States. The university shapes Ann Arbor's economy significantly as it employs about 30,000 workers, including about 12,000 in the medical center. The city's economy is also centered on high technology, with several companies drawn to the area by the university's research and development infrastructure, and by its graduates.\n",
"\n\nIn about 1774, the Potawatomi founded two villages in the area of what is now Ann Arbor.\n\nAnn Arbor was founded in 1824 by land speculators John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey. On May 25, 1824, the town plat was registered with Wayne County as \"Annarbour;\" this represents the earliest known use of the town's name. Allen and Rumsey decided to name it for their wives, both named Ann, and for the stands of Bur Oak in the of land they purchased for $800 from the federal government at $1.25 per acre. The local Ojibwa named the settlement ''kaw-goosh-kaw-nick'', after the sound of Allen's sawmill.\n\nA view of Ann Arbor looking east toward Liberty and State streets, showing the Burton Memorial Tower, Michigan Theater, the former Borders bookstore No. 1, and several buildings of the University of Michigan\nAnn Arbor became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827, and was incorporated as a village in 1833. The Ann Arbor Land Company, a group of speculators, set aside of undeveloped land and offered it to the state of Michigan as the site of the state capital, but lost the bid to Lansing. In 1837, the property was accepted instead as the site of the University of Michigan, which moved from Detroit.\n\nSince the university's establishment in the city in 1837, the histories of the University of Michigan and Ann Arbor have been closely linked. The town became a regional transportation hub in 1839 with the arrival of the Michigan Central Railroad, and a north—south railway connecting Ann Arbor to Toledo and other markets to the south was established in 1878. Throughout the 1840s and the 1850s settlers continued to come to Ann Arbor. While the earlier settlers were primarily of British ancestry, the newer settlers also consisted of Germans, Irish, and African-Americans. In 1851, Ann Arbor was chartered as a city, though the city showed a drop in population during the Depression of 1873. It was not until the early 1880s that Ann Arbor again saw robust growth, with new immigrants coming from Greece, Italy, Russia, and Poland. Ann Arbor saw increased growth in manufacturing, particularly in milling. Ann Arbor's Jewish community also grew after the turn of the 20th century, and its first and oldest synagogue, Beth Israel Congregation, was established in 1916.\n\nSouth University Avenue caters to young people.\nDuring the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as an important center for liberal politics. Ann Arbor also became a locus for left-wing activism and anti-Vietnam War movement, as well as the student movement. The first major meetings of the national left-wing campus group Students for a Democratic Society took place in Ann Arbor in 1960; in 1965, the city was home to the first U.S. teach-in against the Vietnam War. During the ensuing 15 years, many countercultural and New Left enterprises sprang up and developed large constituencies within the city. These influences washed into municipal politics during the early and mid-1970s when three members of the Human Rights Party (HRP) won city council seats on the strength of the student vote. During their time on the council, HRP representatives fought for measures including pioneering antidiscrimination ordinances, measures decriminalizing marijuana possession, and a rent-control ordinance; many of these remain in effect in modified form. Alongside these liberal and left-wing efforts, a small group of conservative institutions were born in Ann Arbor. These include Word of God (established in 1967), a charismatic inter-denominational movement; and the Thomas More Law Center (established in 1999), a religious-conservative advocacy group.\n\nFollowing a 1956-vote, the city of East Ann Arbor merged with Ann Arbor to encompass the eastern sections of the city.\n\nIn the past several decades, Ann Arbor has grappled with the effects of sharply rising land values, gentrification, and urban sprawl stretching into outlying countryside. On November 4, 2003, voters approved a greenbelt plan under which the city government bought development rights on agricultural parcels of land adjacent to Ann Arbor to preserve them from sprawling development. Since then, a vociferous local debate has hinged on how and whether to accommodate and guide development within city limits. Ann Arbor consistently ranks in the \"top places to live\" lists published by various mainstream media outlets every year. In 2008, it was ranked by CNNMoney.com 27th out of 100 \"America's best small cities\". And in 2010, ''Forbes'' listed Ann Arbor as one of the most liveable cities in the United States.\n",
"The Huron River runs through Ann Arbor.\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water, much of which is part of the Huron River. Ann Arbor is about west of Detroit. Ann Arbor Charter Township adjoins the city's north and east sides. Ann Arbor is situated on the Huron River in a productive agricultural and fruit-growing region. The landscape of Ann Arbor consists of hills and valleys, with the terrain becoming steeper near the Huron River. The elevation ranges from about along the Huron River to on the city's west side, near the intersection of Maple Road and Pauline Blvd. Generally, the west-central and northwestern parts of the city and U-M's North Campus are the highest parts of the city; the lowest parts are along the Huron River and in the southeast. Ann Arbor Municipal Airport, which is south of the city at , has an elevation of .\n\nAnn Arbor's \"Tree Town\" nickname stems from the dense forestation of its parks and residential areas. The city contains more than 50,000 trees along its streets and an equal number in parks. In recent years, the emerald ash borer has destroyed many of the city's approximately 10,500 ash trees. The city contains 157 municipal parks ranging from small neighborhood green spots to large recreation areas. Several large city parks and a university park border sections of the Huron River. Fuller Recreation Area, near the University Hospital complex, contains sports fields, pedestrian and bike paths, and swimming pools. The Nichols Arboretum, owned by the University of Michigan, is a arboretum that contains hundreds of plant and tree species. It is on the city's east side, near the university's Central Campus. Located across the Huron River just beyond the university's North Campus is the university's Matthaei Botanical Gardens, which contains 300 acres of gardens and a large tropical conservatory.\n\nWashington Street looking east to Main Street\nThe Kerrytown Shops, Main Street Business District, the State Street Business District, and the South University Business District are commercial areas in downtown Ann Arbor. Three commercial areas south of downtown include the areas near I-94 and Ann Arbor-Saline Road, Briarwood Mall, and the South Industrial area. Other commercial areas include the Arborland/Washtenaw Avenue and Packard Road merchants on the east side, the Plymouth Road area in the northeast, and the Westgate/West Stadium areas on the west side. Downtown contains a mix of 19th- and early-20th-century structures and modern-style buildings, as well as a farmers' market in the Kerrytown district. The city's commercial districts are composed mostly of two- to four-story structures, although downtown and the area near Briarwood Mall contain a small number of high-rise buildings.\n\nAnn Arbor's residential neighborhoods contain architectural styles ranging from classic 19th-century and early-20th-century designs to ranch-style houses. Among these homes are a number of kit houses built in the early 20th century. Contemporary-style houses are farther from the downtown district. Surrounding the University of Michigan campus are houses and apartment complexes occupied primarily by student renters. Tower Plaza, a 26-story condominium building located between the University of Michigan campus and downtown, is the tallest building in Ann Arbor. The 19th-century buildings and streetscape of the Old West Side neighborhood have been preserved virtually intact; in 1972, the district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and it is further protected by city ordinances and a nonprofit preservation group.\n\n\n\n===Climate===\n\nAnn Arbor has a typically Midwestern humid continental climate (Köppen ''Dfa''), which is influenced by the Great Lakes. There are four distinct seasons: winters are the coldest time of year, with average highs around ; however, summers have average highs around with slightly more precipitation. Spring and autumn are transitional between the two. The area experiences lake effect weather, primarily in the form of increased cloudiness during late fall and early winter. The monthly daily average temperature in July is , while the same figure for January is . Temperatures reach or exceed on 10 days, and drop to or below on 4.6 nights. Precipitation tends to be the heaviest during the summer months, but most frequent during winter. Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to April but occasionally starts in October, averages per season. The lowest recorded temperature was on February 11, 1885 and the highest recorded temperature was on July 24, 1934.\n\n\n",
"\n\n\n\n Racial composition !! 2010 !! 1990 !! 1970 !! 1940\n\n White \n 73.0% \n 82.0% \n 91% \n 95.5%\n\n —Non-Hispanic \n 70.4% \n 80.4% \n - \n -\n\n Black or African American \n 7.7% \n 9.0% \n 6.7% \n 4.1%\n\n Hispanic or Latino (of any race) \n 4.1% \n 2.6% \n 1.3% \n -\n\n Asian \n 14.4% \n 7.7% \n 1.5% \n 0.3%\n\n\nAs of the 2010 U.S. Census, there were 113,394 people, 45,634 households, and 21,704 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,270.33 people per square mile (2653.47/km²). There were 49,982 housing units at an average density of 1,748.0 per square mile (675.0/km²), making it less densely populated than inner-ring Detroit suburbs like Oak Park and Ferndale (and than Detroit proper), but more densely populated than outer-ring suburbs like Livonia or Troy. The racial makeup of the city was 73.0% White (70.4% non-Hispanic White), 7.7% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 14.4% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 1.0% from other races, and 3.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 4.1% of the population.\n\nIn 2013, Ann Arbor had the second-largest community of Japanese citizens in the state of Michigan, numbering 1,541; this figure trailed only that of Novi, which had 2,666 Japanese nationals. In addition, as of 2005, Ann Arbor has a small population of Arab Americans, including several students as well as local Lebanese and Palestinians.\n\nAnn Arbor Property Crime Statistics, 2004\nIn 2000, out of 45,693 households, 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.8% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 52.5% were nonfamilies. 35.5% of households were made up of individuals and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.90. The age distribution was 16.8% under 18, 26.8% from 18 to 24, 31.2% from 25 to 44, 17.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% were 65 or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 97.7 males; while for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.4 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $46,299, and the median income for a family was $71,293 (these figures had risen to $51,232 and $82,293 respectively as of a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $48,880 versus $36,561 for females. The per capita income for the city was $26,419. About 4.6% of families and 16.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.3% of those under age 18 and 5.1% of those age 65 or over.\n",
"The University of Michigan shapes Ann Arbor's economy significantly. It employs about 30,000 workers, including about 12,000 in the medical center. Other employers are drawn to the area by the university's research and development money, and by its graduates. High tech, health services and biotechnology are other major components of the city's economy; numerous medical offices, laboratories, and associated companies are located in the city. Automobile manufacturers, such as General Motors and Visteon, also employ residents.\n\nNickels Arcade interior, looking towards the east\n\nHigh tech companies have located in the area since the 1930s, when International Radio Corporation introduced the first mass-produced AC/DC radio (the Kadette, in 1931) as well as the first pocket radio (the Kadette Jr., in 1933). The Argus camera company, originally a subsidiary of International Radio, manufactured cameras in Ann Arbor from 1936 to the 1960s. Current firms include Arbor Networks (provider of Internet traffic engineering and security systems), Arbortext (provider of XML-based publishing software), JSTOR (the digital scholarly journal archive), MediaSpan (provider of software and online services for the media industries), Truven Health Analytics, and ProQuest, which includes UMI. Ann Arbor Terminals manufactured a video-display terminal called the Ann Arbor Ambassador during the 1980s. Barracuda Networks, which provides networking, security, and storage products based on network appliances and cloud services, opened an engineering office in Ann Arbor in 2008 on Depot St. and recently announced it will move downtown to occupy the building previously used as the Borders headquarters. Duo Security, a cloud-based access security provider protecting thousands of organizations worldwide through two-factor authentication, is headquartered in Ann Arbor.\n\nWebsites and online media companies in or near the city include All Media Guide, the Weather Underground, and Zattoo. Ann Arbor is the home to Internet2 and the Merit Network, a not-for-profit research and education computer network. Both are located in the South State Commons 2 building on South State Street, which once housed the Michigan Information Technology Center Foundation. The city is also home to the headquarters of Google's AdWords program—the company's primary revenue stream. The recent surge in companies operating in Ann Arbor has led to a decrease in its office and flex space vacancy rates. As of December 31, 2012, the total market vacancy rate for office and flex space is 11.80%, a 1.40% decrease in vacancy from one year previous, and the lowest overall vacancy level since 2003. The office vacancy rate decreased to 10.65% in 2012 from 12.08% in 2011, while the flex vacancy rate decreased slightly more, with a drop from 16.50% to 15.02%.\n\nTower Plaza, Ann Arbor's tallest building\nPfizer, once the city's second largest employer, operated a large pharmaceutical research facility on the northeast side of Ann Arbor. On January 22, 2007, Pfizer announced it would close operations in Ann Arbor by the end of 2008. The facility was previously operated by Warner-Lambert and, before that, Parke-Davis. In December 2008, the University of Michigan Board of Regents approved the purchase of the facilities, and the university anticipates hiring 2,000 researchers and staff during the next 10 years. The city is the home of other research and engineering centers, including those of Lotus Engineering, General Dynamics and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Other research centers sited in the city are the United States Environmental Protection Agency's National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory and the Toyota Technical Center. The city is also home to National Sanitation Foundation International (NSF International), the nonprofit non-governmental organization that develops generally accepted standards for a variety of public health related industries and subject areas.\n\nBorders Books, started in Ann Arbor, was opened by brothers Tom and Louis Borders in 1971 with a stock of used books. The Borders chain was based in the city, as was its flagship store until it closed in September 2011. Domino's Pizza's headquarters is near Ann Arbor on Domino's Farms, a Frank Lloyd Wright-inspired complex just northeast of the city. Another Ann Arbor-based company is Zingerman's Delicatessen, which serves sandwiches and has developed businesses under a variety of brand names. Zingerman's has grown into a family of companies which offers a variety of products (bake shop, mail order, creamery, coffee) and services (business education). Flint Ink Corp., another Ann Arbor-based company, was the world's largest privately held ink manufacturer until it was acquired by Stuttgart-based XSYS Print Solutions in October 2005. Avfuel, a global supplier of aviation fuels and services, is also headquartered in Ann Arbor. Aastrom Biosciences, a publicly traded company that develops stem cell treatments for cardiovascular diseases, is also headquartered in Ann Arbor.\n\nMany cooperative enterprises were founded in the city; among those that remain are the People's Food Co-op and the Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan, a student housing cooperative founded in 1937. There are also three cohousing communities—Sunward, Great Oak, and Touchstone—located immediately to the west of the city limits.\n",
"\nSeveral performing arts groups and facilities are on the University of Michigan's campus, as are museums dedicated to art, archaeology, and natural history and sciences. Founded in 1879, the University Musical Society is an independent performing arts organization that presents over 60 events each year, bringing international artists in music, dance, and theater. Since 2001 Shakespeare in the Arb has presented one play by Shakespeare each June, in a large park near downtown. Regional and local performing arts groups not associated with the university include the Ann Arbor Civic Theatre, the Arbor Opera Theater, the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra, the Ann Arbor Ballet Theater, the Ann Arbor Civic Ballet (established in 1954 as Michigan's first chartered ballet company), The Ark, and Performance Network Theatre. Another unique piece of artistic expression in Ann Arbor is the fairy doors. These small portals are examples of installation art and can be found throughout the downtown area.\n\nThe Ann Arbor Hands-On Museum is located in a renovated and expanded historic downtown fire station. Multiple art galleries exist in the city, notably in the downtown area and around the University of Michigan campus. Aside from a large restaurant scene in the Main Street, South State Street, and South University Avenue areas, Ann Arbor ranks first among U.S. cities in the number of booksellers and books sold per capita. The Ann Arbor District Library maintains four branch outlets in addition to its main downtown building. The city is also home to the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.\n\nSeveral annual events—many of them centered on performing and visual arts—draw visitors to Ann Arbor. One such event is the Ann Arbor Art Fairs, a set of four concurrent juried fairs held on downtown streets. Scheduled on Thursday through Sunday of the third week of July, the fairs draw upward of half a million visitors. Another is the Ann Arbor Film Festival, held during the third week of March, which receives more than 2,500 submissions annually from more than 40 countries and serves as one of a handful of Academy Award–qualifying festivals in the United States.\n\nAnn Arbor has a long history of openness to marijuana, given Ann Arbor's decriminalization of cannabis, the large number of medical marijuana dispensaries in the city (one dispensary, called People's Co-op, was directly across the street from Michigan Stadium until zoning forced it to move one mile to the west), the large number of pro-marijuana residents, and the annual Hash Bash: an event that is held on the first Saturday of April. Until (at least) the successful passage of Michigan's medical marijuana law, the event had arguably strayed from its initial intent, although for years, a number of attendees have received serious legal responses due to marijuana use on University of Michigan property, which does not fall under the city's progressive and compassionate ticketing program.\n\nMichigan Stadium\nAnn Arbor is a major scene of college sports, most notably at the University of Michigan, a member of the Big Ten Conference. Several well-known college sports facilities exist in the city, including Michigan Stadium, the largest American football stadium in the world. The stadium was completed in 1927 and cost more than $950,000 to build. It has a 109,901 seating capacity after multiple renovations were made. The stadium is colloquially known as \"The Big House\". Crisler Center and Yost Ice Arena play host to the school's basketball (both men's and women's) and ice hockey teams, respectively. Concordia University, a member of the NAIA, also fields sports teams.\n\nAnn Arbor is represented in the NPSL by semi-pro soccer team AFC Ann Arbor, a club founded in 2014 who call themselves The Mighty Oak.\n\nA person from Ann Arbor is called an \"Ann Arborite\", and many long-time residents call themselves \"townies\". The city itself is often called \"A²\" (\"A-squared\") or \"A2\" (\"A two\") or \"AA\", \"The Deuce\" (mainly by Chicagoans), and \"Tree Town\". With tongue-in-cheek reference to the city's liberal political leanings, some occasionally refer to Ann Arbor as \"The People's Republic of Ann Arbor\" or \"25 square miles surrounded by reality\", the latter phrase being adapted from Wisconsin Governor Lee Dreyfus's description of Madison, Wisconsin. In ''A Prairie Home Companion'' broadcast from Ann Arbor, Garrison Keillor described Ann Arbor as \"a city where people discuss socialism, but only in the fanciest restaurants.\" Ann Arbor sometimes appears on citation indexes as an author, instead of a location, often with the academic degree ''MI'', a misunderstanding of the abbreviation for Michigan. Ann Arbor has become increasingly gentrified in recent years.\n",
"\nAnn Arbor has a council-manager form of government. The City Council has 11 voting members: the mayor and 10 city council members. Two city council members are elected from each of the city's five wards. The mayor and council serve four-year terms. The mayor and one council member from each ward are elected in Presidential election years, and the other five council members are elected in the alternate even-numbered years. The mayor is elected citywide. The mayor is the presiding officer of the City Council and has the power to appoint all Council committee members as well as board and commission members, with the approval of the City Council. The current mayor of Ann Arbor is Christopher Taylor, a Democrat who was elected as mayor in 2014. Day-to-day city operations are managed by a city administrator chosen by the city council.\n\nIn 1960, Ann Arbor voters approved a $2.3 million bond issue to build the current city hall, which was designed by architect Alden B. Dow. The City Hall opened in 1963. In 1995, the building was renamed the Guy C. Larcom, Jr. Municipal Building in honor of the longtime city administrator who championed the building's construction.\n\nAnn Arbor is part of Michigan's 12th congressional district, represented in Congress by Representative Debbie Dingell, a Democrat. On the state level, the city is part of the 18th district in the Michigan Senate, represented by Democrat Rebekah Warren. In the Michigan House of Representatives, representation is split between the 55th district (northern Ann Arbor, part of Ann Arbor Township, and other surrounding areas, represented by Democrat Adam Zemke), the 53rd district (most of downtown and the southern half of the city, represented by Democrat Yousef Rabhi) and the 52nd district (southwestern areas outside Ann Arbor proper and western Washtenaw County, represented by Democrat Donna Lasinski).\n\nAs the county seat of Washtenaw County, the Washtenaw County Trial Court (22nd Circuit Court) is located in Ann Arbor at the Washtenaw County Courthouse on Main Street. This court has countywide general jurisdiction and has two divisions: the Civil/Criminal (criminal and civil matters) and the Family Division (which includes Juvenile Court, Friend of the Court, and Probate Court sections). Seven judges serve on the court.\n\nAnn Arbor also has a local state district court (15th District Court), which serves only the City of Ann Arbor. In Michigan, the state district courts are limited jurisdiction courts which handle traffic violations, civil cases with claims under $25,000, landlord-tenant matters, and misdemeanor crimes.\n\nThe Ann Arbor Federal Building (attached to a post office) on Liberty Street serves as one of the courthouses for the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan and Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit.\n\n===Politics===\nProgressive politics have been particularly strong in municipal government since the 1960s. Voters approved charter amendments that have lessened the penalties for possession of marijuana (1974), and that aim to protect access to abortion in the city should it ever become illegal in the State of Michigan (1990). In 1974, Kathy Kozachenko's victory in an Ann Arbor city-council race made her the country's first openly homosexual candidate to win public office. In 1975, Ann Arbor became the first U.S. city to use instant-runoff voting for a mayoral race. Adopted through a ballot initiative sponsored by the local Human Rights Party, which feared a splintering of the liberal vote, the process was repealed in 1976 after use in only one election. As of May 2016, Democrats hold the mayorship and nine out of the ten council seats. Nationally, Ann Arbor is located in Michigan's 12th congressional district, represented by Democrat Debbie Dingell.\n\n===Crime===\nIn 2015, Ann Arbor was ranked 11th safest among cities in Michigan with a population of over 50,000. It ranked safer than cities such as Royal Oak, Livonia, Canton and Clinton Township. The level of most crimes in Ann Arbor has fallen significantly in the past 20 years. In 1995 there were 294 aggravated assaults, 132 robberies and 43 rapes while in 2015 there were 128 aggravated assaults, 42 robberies and 58 rapes (under the revised definition).\n\nAnn Arbor's crime rate was below the national average in 2000. The violent crime rate was further below the national average than the property crime rate; the two rates were 48% and 11% lower than the U.S. average, respectively.\n",
"\n===Primary and secondary education===\nPublic schools are part of the Ann Arbor Public Schools (AAPS) district. AAPS has one of the country's leading music programs. In September 2008, 16,539 students had been enrolled in the Ann Arbor Public Schools. There were 21 elementary schools, five middle schools (Forsythe, Slauson, Tappan, Scarlett, and Clague) three traditional high schools (Pioneer, Huron, and Skyline), and three alternative high schools (Community High, Stone School, and Roberto Clemente) in the district. The district also operates a K-8 open school program, Ann Arbor Open School, out of the former Mack School. This program is open to all families who live within the district. Ann Arbor Public Schools also operates a preschool and family center, with programs for at-risk infants and children before kindergarten. The district has a preschool center with both free and tuition-based programs for preschoolers in the district.\n\nAnn Arbor is home to several private schools, including the Rudolf Steiner School of Ann Arbor, Clonlara School, Michigan Islamic Academy, and Greenhills School, a prep school. The city is also home to several charter schools such as Central Academy (PreK-12) of the Global Educational Excellence (GEE) charter school company, and Honey Creek Community School.\n\n===Higher education===\nUniversity of Michigan Law School Legal Research Building\nThe University of Michigan dominates the city of Ann Arbor, providing the city with its distinctive college-town character.\n\nOther local colleges and universities include Concordia University Ann Arbor, a Lutheran liberal-arts institution; a campus of the University of Phoenix; and Cleary University, a private business school. Washtenaw Community College is located in neighboring Ann Arbor Township. In 2000, the Ave Maria School of Law, a Roman Catholic law school established by Domino's Pizza founder Tom Monaghan, opened in northeastern Ann Arbor, but the school moved to Ave Maria, Florida in 2009, and the Thomas M. Cooley Law School acquired the former Ave Maria buildings for use as a branch campus.\n",
"One of 39 downtown fire hydrants painted by students. This hydrant's artist was in elementary school; others were in high school or college.\n''The Ann Arbor News'', owned by the Michigan-based Booth Newspapers chain, is the major newspaper serving Ann Arbor and the rest of Washtenaw County. The newspaper ended its 174-year daily print run in 2009, due to economic difficulties and began producing two printed editions a week under the name AnnArbor.com, It resumed using its former name in 2013. It also produces a daily digital edition named Mlive.com. Another Ann Arbor-based publication that has ceased production was the ''Ann Arbor Paper'', a free monthly. Ann Arbor has been said to be the first significant city to lose its only daily paper. The ''Ann Arbor Chronicle'', an online newspaper, covered local news, including meetings of the library board, county commission, and DDA until September 3, 2014.\n\nCurrent publications in the city include the ''Ann Arbor Journal'' (''A2 Journal''), a weekly community newspaper; the ''Ann Arbor Observer'', a free monthly local magazine; and ''Current'', a free entertainment-focused alt-weekly. The ''Ann Arbor Business Review'' covers local business in the area. ''Car and Driver'' magazine and ''Automobile Magazine'' are also based in Ann Arbor. The University of Michigan is served by many student publications, including the independent ''Michigan Daily'' student newspaper, which reports on local, state, and regional issues in addition to campus news.\n\nFour major AM radio stations based in or near Ann Arbor are WAAM 1600, a conservative news and talk station; WLBY 1290, a business news and talk station; WDEO 990, Catholic radio; and WTKA 1050, which is primarily a sports station. The city's FM stations include NPR affiliate WUOM 91.7; country station WWWW 102.9; and adult-alternative station WQKL 107.1. Freeform station WCBN-FM 88.3 is a local community radio/college radio station operated by the students of the University of Michigan featuring noncommercial, eclectic music and public-affairs programming. The city is also served by public and commercial radio broadcasters in Ypsilanti, the Lansing/Jackson area, Detroit, Windsor, and Toledo.\n\nAnn Arbor is part of the Detroit television market. WPXD channel 31, the owned-and-operated Detroit outlet of the ION Television network, is licensed to the city. WHTV channel 18, a MyNetworkTV-affiliated station for the Lansing market, broadcasts from a transmitter in Lyndon Township, west of Ann Arbor. Community Television Network (CTN) is a city-provided cable television channel with production facilities open to city residents and nonprofit organizations. Detroit and Toledo-area radio and television stations also serve Ann Arbor, and stations from Lansing and Windsor, Ontario, can be seen in parts of the area.\n",
"The University of Michigan Medical Center, the only teaching hospital in the city, took the number 1 slot in ''U.S. News & World Report'' for best hospital in the state of Michigan, as of 2015. The University of Michigan Health System (UMHS) includes University Hospital, C.S. Mott Children's Hospital and Women's Hospital in its core complex. UMHS also operates out-patient clinics and facilities throughout the city. The area's other major medical centers include a large facility operated by the Department of Veterans Affairs in Ann Arbor, and Saint Joseph Mercy Hospital in nearby Superior Township.\n\nThe city provides sewage disposal and water supply services, with water coming from the Huron River and groundwater sources. There are two water-treatment plants, one main and three outlying reservoirs, four pump stations, and two water towers. These facilities serve the city, which is divided into five water districts. The city's water department also operates four dams along the Huron River, two of which provide hydroelectric power. The city also offers waste management services, with Recycle Ann Arbor handling recycling service. Other utilities are provided by private entities. Electrical power and gas are provided by DTE Energy. AT&T Inc. is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Cable TV service is primarily provided by Comcast.\n",
"\n===Surface roads and paths===\nThe streets in downtown Ann Arbor conform to a grid pattern, though this pattern is less common in the surrounding areas. Major roads branch out from the downtown district like spokes on a wheel to the highways surrounding the city. The city is belted by three freeways: I-94, which runs along the southern and western portion of the city; U.S. Highway 23 (US 23), which primarily runs along the eastern edge of Ann Arbor; and M-14, which runs along the northern edge of the city. Other nearby highways include US 12 (Michigan Ave.), M-17 (Washtenaw Ave.), and M-153 (Ford Rd.). Several of the major surface arteries lead to the I-94/M-14 interchange in the west, US 23 in the east, and the city's southern areas. The city also has a system of bike routes and paths and includes the nearly complete Washtenaw County Border-to-Border Trail.\n\n===Bus service===\nThe Ann Arbor Area Transportation Authority (AAATA), which brands itself as \"TheRide\", operates public bus services throughout the city and nearby Ypsilanti. A separate zero-fare bus service operates within and between the University of Michigan campuses. Since April 2012, route 98 (the \"AirRide\") connects to Detroit Metro Airport a dozen times a day. There are also limited-stop bus services between Ann Arbor and Chelsea as well as Canton. These two routes, 91 and 92 respectively, are known as the \"ExpressRide\".\n\nGreyhound Lines provides intercity bus service. The Michigan Flyer, a service operated by Indian Trails, cooperates with AAATA for their AirRide and additionally offers bus service to East Lansing. Megabus has direct service to Chicago, Illinois, while a bus service is provided by Amtrak for rail passengers making connections to services in East Lansing and Toledo, Ohio.\n\n===Airports===\nAnn Arbor Municipal Airport is a small, city-run general aviation airport located south of I-94. Detroit Metropolitan Airport, the area's large international airport, is about east of the city, in Romulus. Willow Run Airport east of the city near Ypsilanti serves freight, corporate, and general aviation clients.\n\n===Railroads===\nThe city was a major rail hub, notably for freight traffic between Toledo and ports north of Chicago, Illinois, from 1878 to 1982; however, the Ann Arbor Railroad also provided passenger service from 1878 to 1950. The city was served by the Michigan Central Railroad starting in 1837. The Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti Street Railway, Michigan's first interurban, served the city from 1891 to 1929.\n\nAmtrak, which provides service to the city at the Ann Arbor Train Station, operates the Wolverine train between Chicago and Pontiac, via Detroit. The present-day train station neighbors the city's old Michigan Central Depot, which was renovated as a restaurant in 1970.\n",
"Sister cities sign (missing Remedios, Cuba), S. State St.\nAnn Arbor has seven sister cities:\n* Tübingen, Germany (since 1965)\n* Belize City, Belize (since 1967)\n* Hikone, Shiga, Japan (since 1969)\n**The schools in Ann Arbor and Hikone have regular exchanges.\n* Peterborough, Ontario, Canada (since 1983)\n* Juigalpa, Chontales, Nicaragua (since 1986)\n* Dakar, Senegal (since 1997)\n* Remedios, Cuba (since 2003)\n",
"\n* Ann Arbor staging\n* Ardis Publishing\n* List of people from Ann Arbor\n* Metro Detroit\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n* City's official website\n* Ann Arbor Public Schools Alumni Association\n* Ann Arbor Area Convention and Visitor's Bureau\n* ArborWiki – A wiki for Ann Arbor\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Geography and cityscape",
"Demographics",
"Economy",
"Culture",
"Law and government",
"Education",
"Media",
"Health and utilities",
"Transportation",
"Sister cities",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Ann Arbor, Michigan |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''The Act of Settlement''' is an Act of the Parliament of England that was passed in 1701 to settle the succession to the English and Irish crowns on Protestants only. The next Protestant in line to the throne was the Electress Sophia of Hanover, a granddaughter of James VI of Scotland and I of England. After her the crowns would descend only to her non-Roman Catholic heirs.\n\nThe act was prompted by the failure of King William III and Queen Mary II, as well as of Mary's sister Queen Anne, to produce any surviving children, and the Roman Catholic religion of all other members of the House of Stuart. The line of Sophia of Hanover was the most junior among the Stuarts, but consisted of convinced Protestants. Sophia died on 8 June 1714, before the death of Queen Anne on 1 August 1714. On Queen Anne's death, Sophia's son duly became King George I and started the Hanoverian dynasty in Britain.\n\nThe act played a key role in the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain. England and Scotland had shared a monarch since 1603, but had remained separately governed countries. The Scottish parliament was more reluctant than the English to abandon the House of Stuart, members of which had been Scottish monarchs long before they became English ones. English pressure on Scotland to accept the Act of Settlement was one factor leading to the parliamentary union of the two countries in 1707.\n\nUnder the Act of Settlement anyone who became a Roman Catholic, or who married one, became disqualified to inherit the throne. The act also placed limits on both the role of foreigners in the British government and the power of the monarch with respect to the Parliament of England. Some of those provisions have been altered by subsequent legislation.\n\nAlong with the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement remains today one of the main constitutional laws governing the succession not only to the throne of the United Kingdom, but to those of the other Commonwealth realms, whether by assumption or by patriation. The Act of Settlement cannot be altered in any realm except by that realm's own parliament and, by convention, only with the consent of all the other realms, as it touches on the succession to the shared crown.\n\nThe original documents are deposited in the Lower Saxon State Archives in Hanover, Germany.\n\nFollowing the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending the act came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015, and removed the disqualification arising from marriage to a Roman Catholic.\n",
"Following the Glorious Revolution, the line of succession to the English throne was governed by the Bill of Rights 1689, which declared that the flight of James II from England to France during the revolution amounted to an abdication of the throne and that James' daughter, Mary, Princesses of Orange and her husband William, Prince of Orange (who was also James' nephew), were James' successors, who ruled jointly as William III and Mary II. The Bill of Rights also provided that the line of succession would go through their descendants, then through Mary's sister Princess Anne, and her descendants, and then to the issue of William III by a later marriage (if he were to marry again after the death of Mary II). During the debate, the House of Lords had attempted to append Sophia and her descendants to the line of succession, but the amendment failed in the Commons.\n\nMary II died childless in 1694, after which William III did not remarry. In 1700, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, who was the only child of Princess Anne to survive infancy, died of a fever at the age of 11. Thus, Anne was left as the last remaining legal heir to the throne. The Bill of Rights excluded Catholics from the throne, which ruled out James II and his descendants. However, it did not provide for the further succession after Anne. Parliament thus saw the need to settle the succession on Sophia and her descendants, and thereby guarantee the continuity of the Crown in the Protestant line.\n\nWith religion and lineage initially decided, the ascendancy of William of Orange in 1689 would also bring his partiality to his foreign favourites that followed. By 1701 English jealousy of foreigners was rampant, and action was considered necessary for correction.\n",
"The Act of Settlement provided that the throne would pass to the Electress Sophia of Hanover – a granddaughter of James VI and I and a niece of King Charles I – and her descendants, but it excluded \"all and every Person and Persons who ... is are or shall be reconciled to or shall hold Communion with the See or Church of Rome or shall profess the Popish Religion or shall marry a Papist\". Thus, those who were Roman Catholics, and those who married Roman Catholics, were barred from ascending the throne. Eight additional provisions of the act would only come into effect upon the death of both William and Anne:\n\n* The monarch \"shall join in communion with the Church of England\". This was intended to ensure the exclusion of a Roman Catholic monarch. Along with James II's perceived despotism, his religion was the main cause of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and of the previous linked religious and succession problems which had been resolved by the joint monarchy of William III and Mary II.\n* If a person not native to England comes to the throne, England will not wage war for \"any dominions or territories which do not belong to the Crown of England, without the consent of Parliament\". This was far-sighted, because when a member of the House of Hanover ascended the British throne, he would retain the territories of the Electorate of Hanover in what is now Lower Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. This provision has been dormant since Queen Victoria ascended the throne, because she did not inherit Hanover under the Salic Laws of the German-speaking states.\n* No monarch may leave \"the dominions of England, Scotland, or Ireland\", without the consent of Parliament. This provision was repealed in 1716, at the request of George I who was also the Elector of Hanover and Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg within the Holy Roman Empire; because of this, and also for personal reasons, he wished to visit Hanover from time to time.\n* All government matters within the jurisdiction of the Privy Council were to be transacted there, and all council resolutions were to be signed by those who advised and consented to them. This was because Parliament wanted to know who was deciding policies, as sometimes councillors' signatures normally attached to resolutions were absent. This provision was repealed early in Queen Anne's reign, as many councillors ceased to offer advice and some stopped attending meetings altogether.\n* No foreigner (\"no Person born out of the Kingdoms of England Scotland or Ireland or the Dominions thereunto belonging\"), even if naturalised or made a denizen (unless born of English parents), can be a Privy Councillor or a member of either House of Parliament, or hold \"any Office or Place of Trust, either Civill or Military, or to have any Grant of Lands, Tenements or Hereditaments from the Crown, to himself or to any other or others in Trust for him\". Subsequent nationality laws made naturalised citizens the equal of those native born, but otherwise this provision still applies. It has however been disapplied in particular cases by a number of other statutes.\n* No person who has an office under the monarch, or receives a pension from the Crown, was to be a Member of Parliament. This provision was inserted to avoid unwelcome royal influence over the House of Commons. It remains in force, but with several exceptions. (As a side effect, this provision means that members of the Commons seeking to resign from parliament can get round the age-old prohibition on resignation by obtaining a sinecure in the control of the Crown; while several offices have historically been used for this purpose, two are currently in use: appointments generally alternate between the stewardships of the Chiltern Hundreds and of the Manor of Northstead.)\n* Judges' commissions are valid ''quamdiu se bene gesserint'' (during good behaviour) and if they do not behave themselves, they can be removed only by both Houses of Parliament (or in other Commonwealth realms the one House of Parliament, depending on the legislature's structure.) This provision was the result of various monarchs influencing judges' decisions, and its purpose was to assure judicial independence. This patent was used prior the 1701 but did not prevent Charles I from removing Sir John Walter as Chief Baron of the Exchequer.\n* That \"no Pardon under the Great Seal of England be pleadable to an Impeachment by the Commons in Parliament\". This meant in effect that no pardon by the monarch was to save someone from being impeached by the House of Commons.\n",
"\nFor different reasons, various constitutionalists have praised the Act of Settlement: Henry Hallam called the Act \"the seal of our constitutional laws\" and David Lindsay Keir placed its importance above the Bill of Rights of 1689. Naamani Tarkow has written: \"If one is to make sweeping statements, one may say that, save Magna Carta (more truly, its implications), the Act of Settlement is probably the most significant statute in English history\".\n\n===Kingdom of Great Britain===\nFacsimile of the Act of Settlement sent to Electress Sophia of Hanover\n''Sophia, Electress of Hanover''\n\nThe Act of Settlement was, in many ways, the major cause of the union of Scotland with England and Wales to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Parliament of Scotland was not happy with the Act of Settlement and, in response, passed the Act of Security in 1704, through which Scotland reserved the right to choose its own successor to Queen Anne. Stemming from this, the Parliament of England decided that, to ensure the stability and future prosperity of Great Britain, full union of the two parliaments and nations was essential before Anne's death.\n\nIt used a combination of exclusionary legislation (the Alien Act 1705), politics, and bribery to achieve this within three years under the Act of Union 1707. This success was in marked contrast to the four attempts at political union between 1606 and 1689, which all failed owing to a lack of political will in both kingdoms. By virtue of Article II of the Treaty of Union, which defined the succession to the throne of Great Britain, the Act of Settlement became part of Scots Law as well.\n\n===Succession to the Crown===\nIn addition to James II (who died a few months after the act received royal assent) and his Roman Catholic children, Prince James and the Princess Royal, the act also excluded the descendants of King James's sister, Henrietta, the youngest daughter of Charles I. Henrietta's daughter, Anne, was then the Queen of Sardinia and a Roman Catholic; Jacobite pretenders after 1807 are descended from her.\n\nWith the legitimate descendants of Charles I either childless (in the case of William III and Anne) or Roman Catholic, parliament's choice was limited to the Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover, the daughter of the late Elizabeth of Bohemia, who was the only other child of King James I not to have died in childhood. Elizabeth had borne nine children who reached adulthood, of whom Sophia was the youngest daughter. However, in 1701, Sophia was the senior Protestant with a legitimate claim to the English throne; Parliament passed over senior living representatives of lines which included Elizabeth Charlotte, Duchess of Orléans; Louis Otto, Prince of Salm, and his sisters; Anne Henriette, Princess of Condé; Benedicta Henrietta, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg; and Sophia's sister, Louise Hollandine of the Palatinate because they were all Roman Catholic.\n\n===Removal from the succession due to Catholicism===\nSince the Act's passing the most senior living member of the Royal Family to have married a Roman Catholic, and thereby to have been removed from the line of succession, is Prince Michael of Kent, who married Baroness Marie-Christine von Reibnitz in 1978; he was fifteenth in the line of succession at the time. He was restored to the line of succession in 2015 when the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 came into force, and became 34th in line.\n\nThe next most senior living descendant of the Electress Sophia who had been ineligible to succeed on this ground is George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews, the eldest son of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, who married the Roman Catholic Sylvana Palma Tomaselli in 1988. His son, Lord Downpatrick, converted to Roman Catholicism in 2003 and is the most senior descendant of Sophia to be barred as a result of his religion. More recently, Peter Phillips, the son of Anne, Princess Royal, and eleventh in line to the throne, married Autumn Kelly; Kelly had been brought up as a Roman Catholic, but she converted to Anglicanism prior to the wedding. Had she not done so, Phillips would have forfeited his place in the succession upon their marriage.\n\nExcluding those princesses who have married into Roman Catholic royal families, such as Marie of Edinburgh, Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg and Princess Beatrice of Edinburgh, one member of the Royal Family (that is, with the style of ''Royal Highness'') has converted to Roman Catholicism since the passage of the Act: the Duchess of Kent, wife of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent who converted on 14 January 1994, but her husband did not lose his place in the succession because she was an Anglican at the time of their marriage.\n",
"As well as being part of the law of the United Kingdom, the Act of Settlement was received into the laws of all the countries and territories over which the British monarch reigned. It remains part of the laws of the 16 Commonwealth realms and the relevant jurisdictions within those realms. In accordance with established convention, the Statute of Westminster 1931 and later laws, the Act of Settlement (along with the other laws governing the succession of the Commonwealth realms) may only be changed with the agreement of all the realms (and, in some federal realms, the constituent members of those federations).\n",
"Challenges have been made against the Act of Settlement, especially its provisions regarding Roman Catholics and preference for males. However, legislating for alterations to the Act is a complex process, since the Act is a common denominator in the shared succession of all the Commonwealth realms. The Statute of Westminster 1931 acknowledges by established convention that any changes to the rules of succession may be made only with the agreement of all of the states involved, with concurrent amendments to be made by each state's parliament or parliaments. Further, as the current monarch's eldest child and, in turn, his eldest child, are Anglican males, any change to the succession laws would have no immediate implications. Consequently, there was little public concern with the issues and debate had been confined largely to academic circles until, in November 2010, the announcement that Prince William was to marry. This raised the question of what would happen if he were to produce first a daughter and then a son.\n\n''The Times'' reported on 6 November 1995 that Prince Charles had said on that day to Tony Blair and Paddy Ashdown that \"Catholics should be able to ascend to the British throne\". Ashdown claimed the Prince said: \"I really can't think why we can't have Catholics on the throne\". In 1998, during debate on a Succession to the Crown Bill, Junior Home Office Minister Lord Williams of Mostyn informed the House of Lords that the Queen had \"no objection to the Government's view that in determining the line of succession to the throne, daughters and sons should be treated in the same way\".\n\n===Australia===\nIn October 2011 the Australian federal government was reported to have reached an agreement with all of the states on potential changes to their laws in the wake of amendments to the Act of Settlement. The practice of the Australian states—for example, New South Wales and Victoria—has been, when legislating to repeal some imperial statutes so far as they still applied in Australia, to provide that imperial statutes concerning the royal succession remain in force.\n\nThe legal process required at the federal level remains, theoretically, unclear. The Australian constitution, as was noted during the crisis of 1936, contains no power for the federal parliament to legislate with respect to the monarchy. Everything thus turns upon the status and meaning of clause 2 in the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, which provides: \"The provisions of this Act referring to the Queen shall extend to Her Majesty's heirs and successors in the sovereignty of the United Kingdom.\"\n\nAnne Twomey reviews three possible interpretations of the clause.\n* First: it \"mandates that whoever is the sovereign of the United Kingdom is also, by virtue of this external fact, sovereign of Australia\"; accordingly, changes to British succession laws would have no effect on Australian law, but if the British amendment changed the sovereign, then the new sovereign of the United Kingdom would automatically become the new sovereign of Australia.\n* Second, it is \"merely an interpretative provision\", operating to ensure that references to \"the Queen\" in the Constitution are references to whoever may at the time be the incumbent of the \"sovereignty of the United Kingdom\" as determined with regard to Australia, following the Australia Act 1986, by Australian law.\n* Or, third, it incorporates the United Kingdom rules of succession into the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, which itself can now be altered only by Australia, according to the Australia Act 1986; in that way, the British rules of succession have been patriated to Australia and, with regard to Australia, are subject to amendment or repeal solely by Australian law.\nHowever, Twomey expresses confidence that, if the High Court of Australia were to be faced with the problems of covering clause 2, it would find some way to conclude that, with regard to Australia, the clause is subject solely to Australian law. Canadian scholar Richard Toporoski theorised in 1998 that \"if, let us say, an alteration were to be made in the United Kingdom to the Act of Settlement 1701, providing for the succession of the Crown... it is my opinion that the domestic constitutional law of Australia or Papua New Guinea, for example, would provide for the succession in those countries of the same person who became Sovereign of the United Kingdom.\"\n\nIn practice, when legislating for the Perth Agreement (see below), the Australian governments took the approach of the states requesting, and referring power to, the federal government to enact the legislation on behalf of the states (under paragraph 51(xxxviii) of the Australian Constitution) and the Commonwealth of Australia.\n\n===Canada===\n\n\nIn Canada, where the Act of Settlement () is now a part of Canadian constitutional law, Tony O'Donohue, a Canadian civic politician, took issue with the provisions that exclude Roman Catholics from the throne, and which make the monarch of Canada the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, requiring him or her to be an Anglican. This, he claimed, discriminated against non-Anglicans, including Catholics, who are the largest faith group in Canada. In 2002, O'Donohue launched a court action that argued the Act of Settlement violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, but, the case was dismissed by the court. It found that, as the Act of Settlement is part of the Canadian constitution, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, as another part of the same constitution, does not have supremacy over it. Also, the court noted that, while Canada has the power to amend the line of succession to the Canadian throne, the Statute of Westminster stipulates that the agreement of the governments of the fifteen other Commonwealth realms that share the Crown would first have to be sought if Canada wished to continue its relationship with these countries. An appeal of the decision was dismissed on 16 March 2005. Some commentators state that, as a result of this, any single provincial legislature could hinder any attempts to change this Act, and by extension, to the line of succession for the shared crown of all 16 Commonwealth realms. Others contend that that is not the case, and changes to the succession instituted by an Act of the Parliament of Canada \"in accord with the convention of symmetry that preserves the personal unity of the British and Dominion Crowns\".\n\nWith the announcement in 2007 of the engagement of Peter Phillips to Autumn Kelly, a Roman Catholic and a Canadian, discussion about the Act of Settlement was revived. Norman Spector called in ''The Globe and Mail'' for Prime Minister Stephen Harper to address the issue of the act's bar on Catholics, saying Phillips' marriage to Kelly would be the first time the provisions of the act would bear directly on Canada—Phillips would be barred from acceding to the Canadian throne because he married a Roman Catholic Canadian. (In fact, the Earl of St Andrews had already lost his place in the line of succession when he married the Roman Catholic Canadian Sylvana Palma Tomaselli in 1988. But St Andrews' place in the line of succession was significantly lower than Phillips'.) Criticism of the Act of Settlement due to the Phillips–Kelly marriage was muted when Autumn Kelly converted to Anglicanism shortly before her marriage, thus preserving her husband's place in the line of succession.\n\n===United Kingdom===\n\n\nFrom time to time there has been debate over repealing the clause that prevents Roman Catholics, or those who marry one, from ascending to the British throne. Proponents of repeal argue that the clause is a bigoted anachronism; Cardinal Winning, who was leader of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland, called the act an \"insult\" to Catholics. Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor, the leader of the Roman Catholic Church in England, pointed out that Prince William (later the Duke of Cambridge) \"can marry by law a Hindu, a Buddhist, anyone, but not a Roman Catholic\". Opponents of repeal, such as Enoch Powell and Adrian Hilton, believe that it would lead to the disestablishment of the Church of England as the state religion if a Roman Catholic were to come to the throne. They also note that the monarch must swear to defend the faith and be a member of the Anglican Communion, but that a Roman Catholic monarch would, like all Roman Catholics, owe allegiance to the Pope. This would, according to opponents of repeal, amount to a loss of sovereignty for the Anglican Church.\n\nWhen in December 1978 there was media speculation that Prince Charles might marry a Roman Catholic, Powell defended the provision that excludes Roman Catholics from ascending the throne, claiming his objection was not rooted in religious bigotry but in political considerations. He stated a Roman Catholic monarch would mean the acceptance of a source of authority external to the realm and \"in the literal sense, foreign to the Crown-in-Parliament ... Between Roman Catholicism and royal supremacy there is, as St Thomas More concluded, no reconciliation\". Powell concluded that a Roman Catholic crown would be the destruction of the Church of England because \"it would contradict the essential character of that church\".\n\nHe continued:\nWhen Thomas Hobbes wrote that \"the Papacy is no other than the ghost of the deceased Roman Empire sitting crowned upon the grave thereof\", he was promulgating an enormously important truth. Authority in the Roman Church is the exertion of that ''imperium'' from which England in the 16th century finally and decisively declared its national independence as the ''alter imperium'', the \"other empire\", of which Henry VIII declared \"This realm of England is an empire\" ... It would signal the beginning of the end of the British monarchy. It would portend the eventual surrender of everything that has made us, and keeps us still, a nation.\n\nThe Scottish Parliament unanimously passed a motion in 1999 calling for the complete removal of any discrimination linked to the monarchy and the repeal of the Act of Settlement. The following year, ''The Guardian'' challenged the succession law in court, claiming that it violated the European Convention on Human Rights, which provides,\nThe enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status.\n\nAs the Convention nowhere lists the right to succeed to the Crown as a human right, the challenge was rejected.\n\nAdrian Hilton, writing in ''The Spectator'' in 2003, defended the Act of Settlement as not \"irrational prejudice or blind bigotry\", but claimed that it was passed because \"the nation had learnt that when a Roman Catholic monarch is upon the throne, religious and civil liberty is lost\". He points to the Pope's claiming universal jurisdiction, and Hilton argues that \"it would be intolerable to have, as the sovereign of a Protestant and free country, one who owes any allegiance to the head of any other state\" and contends that, if such situation came about, \"we will have undone centuries of common law\". He said that because the Roman Catholic Church does not recognise the Church of England as an apostolic church, a Roman Catholic monarch who abided by their faith's doctrine would be obliged to view Anglican and Church of Scotland archbishops, bishops, and clergy as part of the laity and therefore \"lacking the ordained authority to preach and celebrate the sacraments\". (Hilton noted that the Church of Scotland's Presbyterian polity does not include bishops or archbishops.) Hilton said a Roman Catholic monarch would be unable to be crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury and notes that other European states have similar religious provisions for their monarchs: Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, whose constitutions compel their monarchs to be Lutherans; the Netherlands, which has a constitution requiring its monarchs be members of the Protestant House of Orange; and Belgium, which has a constitution that provides for the succession to be through Roman Catholic houses.\n\nIn December 2004, a private member's bill—the Succession to the Crown Bill—was introduced in the House of Lords. The government, headed by Tony Blair, blocked all attempts to revise the succession laws, claiming it would raise too many constitutional issues and it was unnecessary at the time. In the British general election the following year, Michael Howard promised to work towards having the prohibition removed if the Conservative Party gained a majority of seats in the House of Commons, but the election was won by Blair's Labour Party. Four years later, plans drawn up by Chris Bryant were revealed that would end the exclusion of Catholics from the throne and end the doctrine of agnatic (male-preference) primogeniture in favour of absolute primogeniture, which governs succession solely on birth order and not on sex. The issue was raised again in January 2009, when a private members bill to amend the Act of Succession was introduced in parliament.\n\n===Across the realms===\n\nIn early 2011 Keith Vaz, a Labour Member of Parliament, introduced to the House of Commons at Westminster a private member's bill which proposed that the Act of Settlement be amended to remove the provisions relating to Roman Catholicism and change the primogeniture governing the line of succession to the British throne from agnatic to absolute cognatic. Vaz sought support for his project from the Canadian Cabinet and Prime Minister Stephen Harper, but the Office of the Prime Minister of Canada responded that the issue was \"not a priority for the government or for Canadians without further elaboration on the merits or drawbacks of the proposed reforms\". Stephenson King, Prime Minister of Saint Lucia, said he supported the idea and it was reported that the government of New Zealand did, as well. The Monarchist League of Canada said at the time to the media that it \"supports amending the Act of Settlement in order to modernize the succession rules\".\n\nLater the same year, the Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Nick Clegg, announced that the government was considering a change in the law. At approximately the same time, it was reported that British Prime Minister David Cameron had written to each of the prime ministers of the other fifteen Commonwealth realms, asking for their support in changing the succession to absolute primogeniture and notifying them he would raise his proposals at that year's Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Perth, Australia. Cameron reportedly also proposed removing the restriction on successors being or marrying Roman Catholics; however, potential Roman Catholic successors would be required to convert to Anglicanism prior to acceding to the throne. In reaction to the letter and media coverage, Harper stated that, this time, he was \"supportive\" of what he saw as \"reasonable modernizations\".\n\nAt CHOGM on 28 October 2011, the prime ministers of the other Commonwealth realms agreed to support Cameron's proposed changes to the Act. The bill put before the Parliament of the United Kingdom would act as a model for the legislation required to be passed in at least some of the other realms, and any changes would only first take effect if the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge were to have a daughter before a son.\n\nThe British group Republic asserted that succession reform would not make the monarchy any less discriminatory. As it welcomed the gender equality reforms, the British newspaper ''The Guardian'' criticized the lack of a proposal to remove the ban on Catholics sitting on the throne, as did Alex Salmond, First Minister of Scotland, who pointed out that \"It is deeply disappointing that the reform of the Act of Settlement of 1701 has stopped short of removing the unjustifiable barrier on a Catholic becoming monarch\". On the subject, Cameron asserted: \"Let me be clear, the monarch must be in communion with the Church of England because he or she is the head of that Church.\"\n\nThe disqualification arising from marriage to a Roman Catholic was removed by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013.\n",
"* List of Australian monarchs\n* List of British monarchs\n* List of Canadian monarchs\n* List of New Zealand monarchs\n* Succession to the British throne\n* Jacobitism\n* Royal Succession Bills and Acts\n* \n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n",
"\n*\n* Text of the Act of Settlement as originally passed, ''The Statutes of the Realm'': vol 7: 1695–1701 (1820), pp. 636–38.\n* Official text of the \"Act of Settlement 1700\" as currently in force in the Australian Capital Territory\n* British Monarchy web page on the Act of Settlement\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Original context",
"Provisions",
"Effects",
"Present status",
"Amendment proposals",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Act of Settlement 1701 |
[
"\n\n\n'''Aircraft hijacking''' (also '''air piracy''' or '''aircraft piracy''', especially within the special aircraft jurisdiction of the United States, and informally as '''skyjacking''') is the unlawful seizure of an aircraft by an individual or a group. In most cases, the pilot is forced to fly according to the orders of the hijackers. Occasionally, however, the hijackers have flown the aircraft themselves, such as the September 11 attacks. In at least three cases, the plane was hijacked by the official pilot or co-pilot.\n\nUnlike the typical hijackings of land vehicles or ships, skyjacking is not usually committed for robbery or theft. Most aircraft hijackers intend to use the passengers as hostages, either for monetary ransom or for some political or administrative concession by authorities. Various motives have driven such occurrences, including demanding the release of certain inmates (notably IC-814), highlighting the grievances of a particular community (notably AF 8969), or political asylum (notably ET 961). Hijackers also have used aircraft as a weapon to target particular locations (notably during the September 11 attacks).\n\nHijackings for hostages commonly produce an armed standoff during a period of negotiation between hijackers and authorities, followed by some form of settlement. Settlements do not always meet the hijackers' original demands. If the hijackers' demands are deemed too great and the perpetrators show no inclination to surrender, authorities sometimes employ armed special forces to attempt a rescue of the hostages (notably Lufthansa Flight 181).\n\nWarning posters in a Central African airport, in French and English. June 2012\n",
"\n* 1929 (unconfirmed): In the ''Fort Worth Star-Telegram'' daily newspaper (morning edition) 19 September 1970, J. Howard \"Doc\" DeCelles states that he was actually the victim of the first skyjacking in December 1929. He was flying a postal route for the Mexican company Transportes Aeras Transcontinentales, ferrying mail from San Luis Potosí to Toreon and then on to Guadalajara. He was approached by Gen. Saturnino Cedillo, governor of the state of San Luis Potosí and one of the last remaining lieutenants of Pancho Villa. Cedillo was accompanied by several other men. He was told through an interpreter that he had no choice in the matter; he had to fly the group to their chosen destination. He stalled long enough to convey the information to his boss, who told him to cooperate. He had no maps, but was guided by the men as he flew above Mexican mountains. He landed on a road as directed, and was held captive for several hours under armed guard. He eventually was released with a \"Buenos\" from Cedillo and his staff. DeCelles kept his flight log, according to the article, but he did not file a report with authorities. He went on to work for the FAA in Fort Worth after his flying career.\n\n===Record-setting hijackings===\n\n* 1931: The first recorded aircraft hijack took place on February 21, 1931, in Arequipa, Peru. Byron Richards, flying a Ford Tri-Motor, was approached on the ground by armed revolutionaries. He refused to fly them anywhere and after a 10-day standoff, Richards was informed that the revolution was successful and he could go in return for flying one group member to Lima.\n* 25 September 1932: a Sikorsky S-38 registration P-BDAD still bearing the titles of Nyrba do Brasil was seized in the company's hangar by three men, who took a fourth as one hostage. None were aviators but they managed to take off. However, the aircraft crashed in São João de Meriti, killing the four men. Apparently, the hijack was related to the events of the Constitutionalist Revolution in São Paulo and it is considered to be the first hijack that took place in Brazil.\n* 1939: The world's first fatal hijacking occurred on 28 October 1939. Earnest P. \"Larry\" Pletch shot Carl Bivens, 39, a flight instructor who was offering Pletch lessons in a yellow Taylor Cub monoplane with tandem controls in the air after taking off in Brookfield, Missouri. Bivens, instructing from the front seat, was shot in the back of the head twice. \"Carl was telling me I had a natural ability and I should follow that line,\" Pletch later confessed to prosecutors in Missouri. \"I had a revolver in my pocket and without saying a word to him, I took it out of my overalls and I fired a bullet into the back of his head. He never knew what struck him.\" The ''Chicago Daily Tribune'' called it \"One of the most spectacular crimes of the 20th century, and what is believed to be the first airplane kidnap murder on record.\" Because it occurred somewhere over three Missouri counties, and involved interstate transport of a stolen airplane, it raised questions in legal circles about where, by whom, and even whether he could be prosecuted. Ernest Pletch pleaded guilty and was sentenced to life in prison without parole. However, his sentence was commuted (probably due to prison overcrowding), and he was released on 1 March 1957, after serving 17 years. He died in Eldredge, Missouri, in June 2001.\n* 1948: The first hijacking of a commercial flight was of the Cathay Pacific ''Miss Macao'' on 17 July 1948.\n* 1956: The first hijacking of a commercial flight with political purposes was of the Lloyd Aereo Boliviano on 26 September 1956. The airplane (DC-4), carried 47 prisoners. They were being transported from Santa Cruz, Bolivia to the town of El Alto, in La Paz. There, a political group was waiting to take them to a concentration camp located in Carahuara de Carangas, Oruro. The 47 prisoners gained control of the aircraft in mid-flight and rerouted the airplane to Tartagal, Argentina. Two of the 47 prisoners took control of the aircraft controls and received instructions to again reroute to Salta, Argentina as the airfield in Tartagal was not big enough for the DC-4. They did and moments later arrived safely to the city of Salta. They told the government of the injustice they were submitted to, and received political asylum.\n* 1968: The longest hijacking of a commercial flight, according to BBC News, was the El Al Flight 426 hijacking by Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) militants on 23 July 1968, lasting 40 days.\n\n===\"Golden Age\"===\n\nThe so-called \"Golden Age\" of skyjacking in the United States ran from 1968 through 1979, and into the 1980s in parts of the world, with attacks tapering off after as new regulations made boarding aircraft with weapons extremely difficult.\n\n===September 11 attacks===\n\nOn September 11, 2001, 19 al-Qaeda Islamic extremists hijacked American Airlines Flight 11, United Airlines Flight 175, American Airlines Flight 77, and United Airlines Flight 93 and crashed them into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, the southwestern side of the Pentagon, and Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania (after passengers acted to stop the hijackers; its intended target was either the White House or the U.S. Capitol) in a terrorist attack. All in all, 2,996 people perished and more than 6,000 others were injured in the attacks. This casualty toll makes the hijackings the most fatal in history.\n\n===Military aircraft hijacking===\nA Pakistan Air Force T-33 trainer was hijacked on August 20, 1971, before the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 in Karachi when a Bengali instructor pilot, Flight Lieutenant Matiur Rahman, knocked out the young Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas with the intention of defecting to India with the plane and national secrets. On regaining consciousness in mid-flight, Minhas struggled for flight control as well as relaying the news of his hijack to the PAF base. In the end of the ensuing struggle he succeeded in crashing his aircraft into the ground near Thatta on seeing no way to prevent the hijack and the defection. He was posthumously awarded Pakistan's highest military award, Nishan-e-Haider (''Sign of the Lion''), for his act of bravery. Matiur Rahman was awarded Bangladesh's highest military award, Bir Sreshtho, for his attempt to defect to join the civil war in East Pakistan (modern-day Bangladesh).\n\n=== Notorious hijackings===\n\n* 1971: A man known only by the alias D. B. Cooper is credited with inspiring both copycat crimes and winning enduring infamy by hijacking an airplane and collecting $200,000 in ransom money and a parachute before jumping. He has never been identified.\n",
"\nMost hijackings will involve the plane landing at a certain destination, followed by the hijackers making negotiable demands. Pilots and flight attendants are still trained to adopt the \"Common Strategy\" tactic, which was approved by the United States FAA. It teaches crew members to comply with the hijackers' demands, get the plane to land safely and then let the security forces handle the situation. Crew members should advise passengers to sit quietly in order to increase their chances of survival. They were also trained not to make any heroic moves that could endanger themselves or other people. The FAA realized that the longer a hijacking persisted, the more likely it would end peacefully with the hijackers reaching their goal; often, during the epidemic of skyjackings in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the end result was an inconvenient but otherwise harmless trip to Cuba for the passengers.\n\nLater examples of active passenger and crew member resistance occurred when passengers and flight attendants of American Airlines Flight 63 from Paris to Miami on December 22, 2001, teamed up to help prevent Richard Reid from igniting explosives hidden in his shoes. Another example is when a few passengers and flight attendants teamed up to subdue Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab who attempted to detonate explosives sewn into his underwear aboard Northwest Flight 253 on December 25, 2009. Flight attendants and pilots now receive extensive anti-hijacking and self-defense training designed to thwart a hijacking or bombing.\n\nIn 2012, six hijackers hijacked Tianjin Airlines flight 7554. Two of the hijackers died from severe injuries sustained during a fight with passengers and crew who attempted to subdue them. A doctor led elderly and children away from the violence. The hijackers had weapons which they used to attack cabin crew and passengers.\n\nSix policemen were on board the aircraft. They helped remove explosives and weapons from the hijackers. A group of resourceful passengers protected the cockpit door using a beverage cart that was rolled in front of the door. The pilot heard screaming and fighting from the cabin. A first class flight attendant was injured trying to stop three hijackers who were in first class from entering the cockpit. Seven passengers were injured during the fights on board the aircraft. It was the first violent hijacking since the 9/11 attacks in North America. When the pilot realized what was happening, he decided to fly the aircraft back to the airport. Once the plane landed, police surrounded it.\n\n===Informing air traffic control===\n\nTo alert air traffic control that an aircraft is being hijacked, a pilot under duress should squawk 7500 or vocally, by radio communication, transmit \"(Aircraft callsign); Transponder seven five zero zero.\" This should be done when possible and safe. An air traffic controller who suspects an aircraft may have been hijacked may ask the pilot to confirm \"squawking assigned code.\" If the aircraft is ''not'' being hijacked, the pilot should ''not'' squawk 7500 and should inform the controller accordingly. A pilot under duress may also elect to respond that the aircraft is not being hijacked, but then neglect to change to a different squawk code. In this case, the controller would make no further requests and immediately inform the appropriate authorities. A complete lack of a response would also be taken to indicate a possible hijacking. Of course, a loss of radio communications may also be the cause for a lack of response, in which case a pilot would usually squawk 7600 anyway.\n\nOn 9/11, the suicide hijackers did not make any attempt to contact ground control to inform anyone about their hijackings, nor engage in any dialogue or negotiations. However, the hijacker-pilot of Flight 11 and the ringleader of the terrorist cell, Mohamed Atta, mistakenly transmitted announcements to ATC, meaning to go through the Boeing 767. Also, onboard flight attendants Amy Sweeney and Betty Ong called the American Airlines office, telling the workers that Flight 11 was hijacked. 9/11 hijacker-pilot Ziad Jarrah aboard Flight 93 also made a similar error when he mistakenly transmitted two announcements to ATC about the hijacking.\n\n===Prevention===\nCockpit doors on most commercial aircraft have been strengthened and are now bullet resistant. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, Austria, the Netherlands and France, air marshals have also been added to some flights to deter and thwart hijackers. Airport security plays a major role in preventing hijackers. Screening passengers with metal detectors and luggage with x-ray machines helps prevent weapons from being taken on an aircraft. Along with the FAA, the FBI also monitors terror suspects. Any person who is seen as a threat to civil aviation is banned from flying.\n",
"According to reports, U.S. fighter pilots have been trained to shoot down hijacked commercial airliners if necessary. Other countries, such as India, Poland, and Russia have enacted similar laws or decrees that allow the downing of hijacked planes. However, in September 2008 the Polish Constitutional Court ruled that the Polish rules were unconstitutional, and voided them.\n\n===India===\nIndia published its new anti-hijacking policy in August 2005. The policy came into force after the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) approved it. The main points of the policy are:\n* Any attempt to hijack will be considered an act of aggression against the country and will prompt a response fit for an aggressor.\n* Hijackers, if captured alive, will be put on trial, convicted, and sentenced to death.\n* Hijackers will be engaged in negotiations only to bring the incident to an end, to comfort passengers and to prevent loss of lives.\n* The hijacked plane will be shot down if it is deemed to become a missile heading for strategic targets.\n* The hijacked plane will be escorted by armed fighter aircraft and will be forced to land.\n* A hijacked grounded plane will not be allowed to take off under any circumstance.\n\nThe list of strategic targets is prepared by the Bureau of Civil Aviation in India. The decision to shoot down a plane is taken by CCS. However, due to the shortage of time, whoever – the prime minister, the defense minister or the home minister – can be reached first will take the call. In situations in which an aircraft becomes a threat while taking off – which gives very little reaction time – a decision on shooting it down may be taken by an Indian Air Force officer not below the rank of Assistant Chief of Air Staff (Operations).\n\n===Germany===\nIn January 2005, a federal law came into force in Germany – the ''Luftsicherheitsgesetz'' – that allowed \"direct action by armed force\" against a hijacked aircraft to prevent a 9/11-type attack. However, in February 2006 the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany struck down these provisions of the law, stating such preventive measures were unconstitutional and would essentially be state-sponsored murder, even if such an act would save many more lives on the ground. The main reasoning behind this decision was that the state would effectively be taking the lives of innocent hostages in order to avoid a terrorist attack. The Court also ruled that the Minister of Defense is constitutionally not entitled to act in terrorism matters, as this is the duty of the state and federal police forces. ''See the German Wikipedia entry, or.''\n\nThe then President of Germany, Horst Köhler, himself urged judicial review of the constitutionality of the Luftsicherheitsgesetz after he signed it into law in 2005.\n",
"\n\n===Tokyo Convention===\n\nThe Tokyo Convention states in Article 11, defining the so-called unlawful takeover of an aircraft, that the parties signing the agreement are obliged, in case of hijacking or a threat of it, to take all the necessary measures in order to regain or keep control over an aircraft. The detailed analysis of the quoted article shows that in order of an unlawful takeover of an aircraft to take place, and at the same time to start the application of the convention, three conditions should be met:\n \n# The hijacking or control takeover of an aircraft must be a result of unlawful use of violence or an attempt to use violence; \n# An aircraft should be \"in flight\" (that is, according to Article 1, paragraph 3 of the Tokyo Convention, from the moment when power is applied for the purpose of take-off until the moment when the landing run ends); \n# The unlawful act must be committed on board an aircraft (that is, by a person on board an aircraft, e.g. a passenger or crew member. In case of an assault \"from the outside\", such an offense would be treated as an act of aviation piracy).\n\nHowever, even without the order of the captain, any crewmember or passenger can take reasonable measures, when he or she has reasonable grounds to believe that such action is necessary to protect the safety of the aircraft, or of people or property therein. The captain may decide to disembark a suspected person on the territory of any country, where the aircraft would land, and that country must agree to that (Articles 8 and 12 of the Convention).\n\nContinuation of the passengers' journey was a provision that first appeared in the Tokyo Convention (Article 11).\n\n===Hague Convention===\nThe Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (known as The Hague Convention) went into effect on 14 October 1971. Article 1 of the Convention defines the offences to which it applies.\n\n===Montreal Convention===\n\n",
"\n*The Hollywood film ''Air Force One'' recounts the fictional story of the hijacking of the famous aircraft by six Russian ultra-nationalist terrorists.\n*The film ''Con Air'' features an aircraft being hijacked by the maximum-security prisoners on board.\n*''The Taking of Flight 847: The Uli Derickson Story'' was a made-for-TV film based on the actual hijacking of TWA Flight 847, as seen through the eyes of the chief flight attendant Uli Derickson. \n*''Passenger 57'' depicts an airline security expert trapped on a passenger jet when terrorists seize control.\n*''Skyjacked'' is a 1972 film about a crazed Vietnam war veteran hijacking an airliner, demanding to be taken to the Soviet Union.\n*The 1986 film ''The Delta Force'' depicted a Special Forces squad tasked with retaking a plane hijacked by Lebanese terrorists.\n*The 2006 film ''Snakes On a Plane'' is a fictional story about aircraft piracy through the in-flight release of venomous snakes.\n*The 2014 film ''Non-Stop'' depicts an aircraft hijacking. The Indian film ''Neerja'' is based on the hijacking of Pan Am Flight 73 in Karachi.\n*In 2016 German television broadcast the film ''\"Terror – Ihr Urteil\"'' (\"Terror – your judgement\"), in which a Bundeswehr pilot had shot down a passenger plane with 164 souls on board, hijacked and heading towards a stadium filled with 70 000 people. Following the broadcast, a public vote was called in Germany, Austria and Switzerland on whether he was guilty or not guilty of murder. 86.9% of viewers voted for not guilty.\n",
"\n* Air pirate\n* Airport security\n* Canadian Air Transport Security Authority\n* Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair\n* El Al\n* Federal Air Marshal Service\n* Federal Bureau of Investigation\n* Federal crime in the United States\n* List of aircraft hijackings\n* List of Cuba–United States aircraft hijackings\n* Palestinian political violence\n* Terrorism\n* Transportation Security Administration (TSA)\n* United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS)\n",
"\n",
"* \"The First Hijacking Myth\" at Fortnight Journal\n* \"America's first highjacking\" at A Blast From the Past\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Dealing with hijackings",
"Shooting down aircraft",
"International law issues",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aircraft hijacking |
[
"\n\n\nThe '''Acropolis of Athens''' (Ancient Greek: Ἀκρόπολις, tr. ''Akrópolis''; , tr. ''Akrópoli Athenón'' ) is an ancient citadel located on an extremely rocky outcrop above the city of Athens and contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic significance, the most famous being the Parthenon. The word acropolis comes from the Greek words (''akron'', \"highest point, extremity\") and (''polis'', \"city\"). Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as \"The Acropolis\" without qualification.\n\nWhile there is evidence that the hill was inhabited as far back as the fourth millennium BC, it was Pericles (c. 495 – 429 BC) in the fifth century BC who coordinated the construction of the site's most important buildings including the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike. The Parthenon and the other buildings were seriously damaged during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War when gunpowder being stored in the Parthenon was hit by a cannonball and exploded.\n",
"\nThe Acropolis of Athens as seen from Mount Lycabettus The wooded Hill of the Nymphs is half-visible on its right, and Philopappos Hill on the left, immediately behind. The Philopappos Monument stands where, in the distant background, the coast of Peloponnese meet the waters of the Saronic Gulf.\nView of the Acropolis from the Agora, 2010\nView of the Acropolis from the Areopagus, 2010\n\n===Early settlement===\nThe Acropolis is located on a flat-topped rock that rises above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about . It was also known as '''Cecropia''', after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king. \nWhile the earliest artifacts date to the Middle Neolithic era, there have been documented habitations in Attica from the Early Neolithic (6th millennium BC). There is little doubt that a Mycenaean megaron stood upon the hill during the late Bronze Age. Nothing of this megaron survives except, probably, a single limestone column-base and pieces of several sandstone steps. Soon after the palace was constructed, a Cyclopean massive circuit wall was built, 760 meters long, up to 10 meters high, and ranging from 3.5 to 6 meters thick. This wall would serve as the main defense for the acropolis until the 5th century. The wall consisted of two parapets built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called ''emplekton'' (Greek: ἔμπλεκτον). The wall follows typical Mycenaean convention in that it followed the natural contour of the terrain and its gate was arranged obliquely, with a parapet and tower overhanging the incomers' right-hand side, thus facilitating defense. There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its north side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. Homer is assumed to refer to this fortification when he mentions the \"strong-built House of Erechtheus\" (''Odyssey'' 7.81). At some point before the 13th century BC, an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge of the Acropolis. This fissure extended some 35 meters to a bed of soft marl in which a well was dug. An elaborate set of stairs was built and the well served as an invaluable, protected source of drinking water during times of siege for some portion of the Mycenaean period. There is no conclusive evidence for the existence of a Mycenean palace on top of the Athenian Acropolis. However, if there was such a palace, it seems to have been supplanted by later building activity.\n\n===Archaic Acropolis===\nAcropolis, Athens.\nNot a lot is known about the architectural appearance of the Acropolis until the Archaic era. In the 7th and the 6th centuries BC, the site was taken over by Kylon during the failed Kylonian revolt, and twice by Peisistratos: all attempts directed at seizing political power by ''coups d'état''. Peisistratos built an entry gate or Propylaea and perhaps embarked on the construction of an earlier temple on the site of the Parthenon where fragments of sculptured limestone have been found as well as the foundations of a large unfinished temple. Nevertheless, it seems that a nine-gate wall, the ''Enneapylon'', had been built around the biggest water spring, the \"Clepsydra\", at the northwestern foot.\n\nA temple to ''Athena Polias'', the tutelary deity of the city, was erected around 570–550 BC. This Doric limestone building, from which many relics survive, is referred to as the ''Hekatompedon'' (Greek for \"hundred–footed\"), ''Ur-Parthenon'' (German for \"original Parthenon\" or \"primitive Parthenon\"), ''H–Architecture'' or ''Bluebeard'' temple, after the pedimental three-bodied man-serpent sculpture, whose beards were painted dark blue. Whether this temple replaced an older one, or just a sacred precinct or altar, is not known. Probably, the ''Hekatompedon'' was built where the Parthenon now stands.\n\nBetween 529–520 BC yet another temple was built by the Peisistratids, the Old Temple of Athena, usually referred to as the ''Arkhaios Neōs'' (ἀρχαῖος νεώς, \"ancient temple\"). This temple of Athena Polias was built upon the ''Doerpfeld'' foundations, between the Erechtheion and the still-standing Parthenon. ''Arkhaios Neōs'' was destroyed by the Persian invasion in 480 BC, however, the temple probably was reconstructed since in 454 BC the treasury of the Delian League was transferred in its opisthodomos. The temple may have been burnt down in 406/405 BC as Xenophon mentions that the old temple of Athena was set on fire. Pausanias does not mention it in his 2nd century AD ''Description of Greece''.\n\nAround 500 BC the ''Ur-Parthenon'' was dismantled to make place for a newer and grander building, the \"Older Parthenon\" (often called ''Pre-Parthenon'', \"early Parthenon\"). Athenians decided to stop the construction of the Olympieion which was related with the tyrant Peisistratos and his sons and instead used the Piraeus limestone destined for the Olympieion to build the Older Parthenon. To accommodate it, the south part of the summit was cleared, made level by adding some 8,000 two-ton blocks of limestone, a foundation deep at some points, and the rest filled with earth kept in place by the retaining wall. However, after the victorious Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, the plan was revised and marble was used instead. The limestone phase of the building is referred to as ''Pre-Parthenon I'', the marble phase as ''Pre-Parthenon II''. In 485 BC, construction stalled to save resources as Xerxes took the throne.\nThe Older Parthenon was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in 480 BC. The building was burned and looted, along with the ''Ancient Temple'' and practically everything else on the rock. After the Persian crisis had subsided, the Athenians incorporated many of the unfinished temple's architectural members (unfluted column drums, triglyphs, metopes, etc.) into the newly built northern curtain wall of the Acropolis, where they serve as a prominent \"war memorial\" and can still be seen today. The devastated site was cleared of debris. Statuary, cult objects, religious offerings and unsalvageable architectural members were buried ceremoniously in several deeply dug pits on the hill, serving conveniently as a fill for the artificial plateau created around the classic Parthenon. This \"Persian debris\" is the richest archaeological deposit excavated on the Acropolis and is well known throughout Greece.\n\n===The Periclean building program===\nThe Parthenon\n\nAfter winning at Eurymedon in 468 BC, Cimon and Themistocles ordered the reconstruction of the southern and northern walls of the Acropolis. Most of the major temples, including the Parthenon, were rebuilt under the leadership of Pericles during the Golden Age of Athens (460–430 BC). Phidias, an Athenian sculptor, and Ictinus and Callicrates, two famous architects, were responsible for the reconstruction.\n\nIn 437 BC, Mnesicles started building the Propylaea, a monumental gate at the western end of the Acropolis with Doric columns of Pentelic marble, partly built upon the old propylaea of Peisistratos. These colonnades were almost finished in 432 BC and had two wings, the northern one decorated with paintings by Polygnotus. Around the same time, south of the Propylaea, building started on the small Ionic Temple of Athena Nike in Pentelic marble with tetrastyle porches, preserving the essentials of Greek temple design. After an interruption caused by the Peloponnesian War, the temple was finished in the time of Nicias' peace, between 421 BC and 409 BC.\n\nThe Propylaea\nConstruction of the elegant temple of Erechtheion in Pentelic marble (421–406 BC) was in accordance with a complex plan which took account of the extremely uneven ground and the need to circumvent several shrines in the area. The entrance, facing east, is lined with six Ionic columns. Unusually, the temple has two porches, one on the northwest corner borne by Ionic columns, the other, to the southwest, supported by huge female figures or Caryatids. The eastern part of the temple was dedicated to Athena Polias, while the western part, serving the cult of the archaic king Poseidon-Erechtheus, housed the altars of Hephaestus and Voutos, brother of Erechtheus. Little is known about the original plan of the interior which was destroyed by fire in the first century BC and has been rebuilt several times.\n\nThe Erechtheum\nDuring the same period, a combination of sacred precincts including the temples of ''Athena Polias'', Poseidon, Erechtheus, Cecrops, Herse, Pandrosos and Aglauros, with its ''Kore Porch'' (Porch of the Maidens) or ''Caryatids' balcony'' was begun. Between the temple of Athena Nike and the Parthenon, there was the Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia (or the Brauroneion), the goddess represented as a bear and worshipped in the deme of Brauron. According to Pausanias, a wooden statue or ''xoanon'' of the goddess and a statue of Artemis made by Praxiteles in the 4th century BC were both in the sanctuary.\n\nBehind the Propylaea, Phidias' gigantic bronze statue of Athena Promachos (\"Athena who fights in the front line\"), built between 450 BC and 448 BC, dominated. The base was high, while the total height of the statue was . The goddess held a lance whose gilt tip could be seen as a reflection by crews on ships rounding Cape Sounion, and a giant shield on the left side, decorated by Mys with images of the fight between the Centaurs and the Lapiths. Other monuments that have left almost nothing visible to the present day are the Chalkotheke, the Pandroseion, Pandion's sanctuary, Athena's altar, Zeus Polieus's sanctuary and, from Roman times, the circular temple of Augustus and Rome.\n\n===Hellenistic and Roman period===\nDuring the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many of the existing buildings in the area of the Acropolis were repaired., due to damage from age, and occasionally, war. Monuments to foreign kings were erected, notably those of the Attalid kings of Pergamon Attalos II (in front of the NW corner of the Parthenon), and Eumenes II, in front of the Propylaia. These were rededicated during the early Roman Empire to Augustus or Claudius (uncertain), and Agrippa, respectively. Eumenes was also responsible for constructing a stoa on the South slope, not unlike that of Attalos in the Agora below.\n\nDuring the Julio-Claudian period, the Temple of Rome and Augustus, a small, round edifice, about 23 meters from the Parthenon, was to be the last significant ancient construction on the summit of the rock. Around the same time, on the North slope, in a cave next to the one dedicated to Pan since the classical period, a sanctuary was founded where the archons dedicated to Apollo on taking office. In 161 AD, on the South slope, the Roman Herodes Atticus built his grand amphitheatre or Odeon. It was destroyed by the invading Herulians a century later but was reconstructed in the 1950s.\n\nDuring the 3rd century, under threat from a Herulian invasion, repairs were made to the Acropolis walls, and the \"Beulé Gate\" was constructed to restrict entrance in front of the Propylaia, thus returning the Acropolis to use as a fortress.\n\n===Byzantine, Latin and Ottoman period===\nDepiction of the Venetian siege of the Acropolis of Athens in 1687.\n\nIn the Byzantine period, the Parthenon was turned into a church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Under the Latin Duchy of Athens, the Acropolis functioned as the city's administrative center, with the Parthenon as its cathedral, and the Propylaia as part of the Ducal Palace. A large tower was added, the \"Frankopyrgos\", demolished in the 19th century.\n\nAfter the Ottoman conquest of Greece, the Parthenon was used as the garrison headquarters of the Turkish army, and the Erechtheum was turned into the Governor's private Harem. The buildings of the Acropolis suffered significant damage during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War. The Parthenon, which was being used as a gunpowder magazine, was hit by artillery fire and severely damaged.\n\nIdealized reconstruction of the Acropolis and Areios Pagos in Athens, Leo von Klenze, 1846\nIn subsequent years, the Acropolis was a site of bustling human activity with many Byzantine, Frankish, and Ottoman structures. The dominant feature during the Ottoman period was a mosque inside the Parthenon, complete with a minaret. Following the Greek War of Independence, most features that dated from the Byzantine, Frankish and Ottoman periods were cleared from the site in an attempt to restore the monument to its original form, \"cleansed\" of all later additions.\n",
"Remains of the Theatre of Dionysus as of 2007\n\nThe entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway called the Propylaea. To the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike. At the centre of the Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). East of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum. South of the platform that forms the top of the Acropolis there are also the remains of the ancient, though often remodelled, Theatre of Dionysus. A few hundred metres away, there is the now partially reconstructed Odeon of Herodes Atticus.\n\nAll the valuable ancient artifacts are situated in the Acropolis Museum, which resides on the southern slope of the same rock, 280 metres from the Parthenon.\n\n\n===Site plan===\nSite plan of the Acropolis at Athens showing the major archaeological remains\n\nImage:AcropolisatathensSitePlan.png|right|500px|alt=Site plan of the Acropolis at Athens\npoly 332 198 447 158 468 217 352 254 Parthenon\npoly 305 130 374 115 385 146 314 167 Old Temple of Athena\npoly 346 116 389 108 375 71 334 82 Erechtheum\npoly 248 137 266 160 252 168 243 151 Statue of Athena Promachos\npoly 104 164 193 115 225 200 158 224 Propylaea\npoly 132 223 152 226 150 257 136 255 Temple of Athena Nike\npoly 168 256 193 261 188 278 166 277 Eleusinion\npoly 191 213 258 199 245 259 185 246 Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion\npoly 248 260 315 276 321 245 255 231 Chalkotheke\npoly 322 78 337 97 343 111 310 122 304 108 Pandroseion\npoly 258 81 281 73 288 96 266 102 Arrephorion\npoly 402 102 428 100 435 120 408 127 Altar of Athena Polias\npoly 462 120 500 96 540 96 533 136 506 146 464 149 Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus\npoly 574 155 641 184 628 212 564 183 Sanctuary of Pandion\npoly 26 384 56 336 88 314 129 313 160 337 174 370 175 399 139 416 72 417 25 402 Odeon of Herodes Atticus\npoly 182 381 462 384 460 419 179 415 Stoa of Eumenes\npoly 395 325 469 309 478 356 406 372 Sanctuary of Asclepius or Asclepieion\npoly 484 397 492 356 516 323 555 297 596 293 642 300 670 311 650 345 683 389 540 457 Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus\npoly 655 343 738 276 807 356 722 425 Odeon of Pericles\npoly 564 460 678 414 684 442 627 505 586 515 Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus\npoly 300 32 332 42 323 67 296 64 Aglaureion\n\n\n#Parthenon\n#Old Temple of Athena\n#Erechtheum\n#Statue of Athena Promachos\n#Propylaea\n#Temple of Athena Nike\n#Eleusinion\n#Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion\n#Chalkotheke\n#Pandroseion\n#Arrephorion\n#Altar of Athena\n#Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus\n#Sanctuary of Pandion\n#Odeon of Herodes Atticus\n#Stoa of Eumenes\n#Sanctuary of Asclepius or Asclepieion\n#Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus\n#Odeon of Pericles\n#Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus\n#Aglaureion\n",
"Looking east toward the Acropolis under construction in summer 2014.\n\nThe Project began in 1975 and is now nearing completion. The aim of the restoration was to reverse the decay of centuries of attrition, pollution, destruction stemming from military use, and misguided past restorations. The project included collection and identification of all stone fragments, even small ones, from the Acropolis and its slopes and the attempt was made to restore as much as possible using reassembled original material (anastylosis), with new marble from Mount Penteli used sparingly. All restoration was made using titanium dowels and is designed to be completely reversible, in case future experts decide to change things. A combination of cutting-edge modern technology and extensive research and reinvention of ancient techniques were used.\n\nThe Parthenon colonnades, largely destroyed by Venetian bombardment in the 17th century, were restored, with many wrongly assembled columns now properly placed. The roof and floor of the Propylaea were partly restored, with sections of the roof made of new marble and decorated with blue and gold inserts, as in the original. Restoration of the Temple of Athena Nike was completed in 2010.\n\nA total of 2,675 tons of architectural members were restored, with 686 stones reassembled from fragments of the originals, 905 patched with new marble, and 186 parts made entirely of new marble. A total of 530 cubic meters of new Pentelic marble were used.\n",
"\nEvery four years, the Athenians held a festival called the Panathenaea that rivaled the Olympic Games in popularity. During the festival, a procession (believed to be depicted on the Parthenon frieze) traveled through the city via the Panathenaic Way and culminated on the Acropolis. There, a new robe of woven wool (''peplos'') was placed on either the statue of Athena Polias in the Erechtheum (during a regular Panathenaea) or on the statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon (during the Great Panathenaea, held every four years).\n\nWithin the later tradition of Western Civilization and classical revival the Acropolis, from at least the mid-18th century on, has often been invoked as a key symbol of the Greek legacy and of the glories of Classical Greece.\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n Pillars of the Acropolis in Athens, Greece.\n",
"\n* The Acropolis of Athens (Greek Government website)\n* The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website)\n* The Acropolis of Athens Virtual Tour\n* The Acropolis Museum and the Goddess Athena\n* The Glafka Project\n* UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens\n* Ancient Athens 3D\n* Excerpt on the geology of Athens from: ''A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean'' by Michael and Reynold Higgins, Cornell University Press, 1996\n* The Acropolis of Athens-Athensguide\n* Tour of Acropolis of Athens, Site of the Parthenon-About.com\n* Athenian Acropolis\n\n;Videos\n* Acropolis of Athens, Full Reconstruction, animation by the Technological Research Institute, University of Santiago de Compostela, on YouTube\n* Timelapse video of Acropolis during Earth Hour 2010 Timelapse showing how the Acropolis of Athens switched off & on the lights during Earth Hour 2010\n* The Acropolis in 1955\n* The Acropolis in 1969\n* Greek Glory A tour of ancient Greek buildings and monuments in Athens in the 1940s\n* Acropolis of Athens from the old Greek TV show \"Ελλάδος Περιήγησις...\" (Greece Tours), 1998 \n* Athens, Greece: Ancient Acropolis and Agora by Rick Steves \n* Three dimensional reconstruction of ancient Acropolis\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Archaeological remains",
"The Acropolis Restoration Project",
"Cultural significance",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Acropolis of Athens |
[
"\n\n'''Johann Adam Weishaupt''' ( 6 February 1748 –) was a German philosopher and founder of the Order of the Illuminati, a secret society.\n",
"Adam Weishaupt was born on 6 February 1748 in Ingolstadt in the Electorate of Bavaria. Weishaupt's father Johann Georg Weishaupt (1717–1753) died when Adam was five years old. After his father's death he came under the tutelage of his godfather Johann Adam Freiherr von Ickstatt who, like his father, was a professor of law at the University of Ingolstadt. Ickstatt was a proponent of the philosophy of Christian Wolff and of the Enlightenment, and he influenced the young Weishaupt with his rationalism. Weishaupt began his formal education at age seven at a Jesuit school. He later enrolled at the University of Ingolstadt and graduated in 1768 at age 20 with a doctorate of law. In 1772 he became a professor of law. The following year he married Afra Sausenhofer of Eichstätt.\n\nAfter Pope Clement XIV’s suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773, Weishaupt became a professor of canon law, a position that was held exclusively by the Jesuits until that time. In 1775 Weishaupt was introduced to the empirical philosophy of Johann Georg Heinrich Feder of the University of Göttingen. Both Feder and Weishaupt would later become opponents of Kantian idealism.\n",
"\n\nOn 1 May 1776 Johann Adam Weishaupt founded the \"Illuminati\" in the Electorate of Bavaria. He adopted the name of \"Brother Spartacus\" within the order. Even Encyclopedia references vary on the goal of the order, such as New Advent saying the Order was not egalitarian or democratic internally, but sought to promote the doctrines of equality and freedom throughout society; while others like Collier's have said the aim was to combat religion and foster rationalism in its place.\n\nThe actual character of the society was an elaborate network of spies and counter-spies. Each isolated cell of initiates reported to a superior, whom they did not know: a party structure that was effectively adopted by some later groups.\n\nWeishaupt was initiated into the Masonic Lodge \"Theodor zum guten Rath\", at Munich in 1777. His project of \"illumination, enlightening the understanding by the sun of reason, which will dispel the clouds of superstition and of prejudice\" was an unwelcome reform. He used Freemasonry to recruit for his own quasi-masonic society, with the goal of \"perfecting human nature\" through re-education to achieve a communal state with nature, freed of government and organized religion. Presenting their own system as pure masonry, Weishaupt and Adolph Freiherr Knigge, who organised his ritual structure, greatly expanded the secret organisation.\n\nContrary to Immanuel Kant's famous dictum that Enlightenment (and Weishaupt's Order was in some respects an expression of the Enlightenment Movement) was the passage by man out of his 'self-imposed immaturity' through daring to 'make use of his own reason, without the guidance of another,' Weishaupt's Order of Illuminati prescribed in great detail everything which the members had obediently to read and think, so that Dr. Wolfgang Riedel has commented that this approach to illumination or enlightenment constituted a degradation and twisting of the Kantian principle of Enlightenment. Riedel writes:\n'The independence of thought and judgement required by Kant ... was specifically prevented by the Order of the Illuminati's rules and regulations. Enlightenment takes place here, if it takes place at all, precisely ''under'' the direction of another, namely under that of the \"Superiors\" of the Order.\n\nWeishaupt's radical rationalism and vocabulary were not likely to succeed. Writings that were intercepted in 1784 were interpreted as seditious, and the Society was banned by the government of Karl Theodor, Elector of Bavaria, in 1784. Weishaupt lost his position at the University of Ingolstadt and fled Bavaria.\n",
"He received the assistance of Duke Ernest II of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (1745–1804), and lived in Gotha writing a series of works on illuminism, including ''A Complete History of the Persecutions of the Illuminati in Bavaria'' (1785), ''A Picture of Illuminism'' (1786), ''An Apology for the Illuminati'' (1786), and ''An Improved System of Illuminism'' (1787). \n\nAfter Weishaupt's Order of Illuminati was banned,Weishaupt did found new order of Illuminati in 1788.\nOrder is still active today.\n",
"\n\nWeishaupt's character and intentions have been variously assessed: from those such as the Abbé Barruel and John Robison who regarded him as a 'human devil' and saw his mission as one of malevolent destructiveness, to those who view him as a humane and benign, albeit wilful, social reformer. Writing on this topic, Dr. Tony Page comments:\n\n\"Weishaupt’s plan was to educate Illuminati followers in the highest levels of humanity and morality (basing his teachings on the supremacy of Reason, allied with the spirit of the Golden Rule of not doing to others what one would not wish done to oneself), so that if Illuminati alumni subsequently attained positions of significance and power (such as in the fields of education and politics), they could exert a benevolent and uplifting influence upon society at large. His project was utopian and naively optimistic, and he himself was certainly not without flaws of character – but neither he nor his plan was evil or violent in and of themselves. It is one of the deplorable and tragic ironies of history that a man who tried to inculcate virtue, philanthropy, social justice and morality has become one of the great hate-figures of 21st-century ‘conspiracy’ thinking.\"\n",
"\nAdam Weishaupt is referred to repeatedly in ''The Illuminatus! Trilogy'', written by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson, as the founder of the Illuminati and as an impostor who killed George Washington and took his place as the first president of the United States. Washington's portrait on the U.S. one-dollar bill is said to actually be Weishaupt's.\n\nAnother version of Adam Weishaupt appears in the extensive comic book novel ''Cerebus the Aardvark'' by Dave Sim, as a combination of Weishaupt and George Washington. He appears primarily in the ''Cerebus'' and ''Church & State I'' volumes. His motives are republican confederalizing of city-states in Estarcion (a pseudo-Europe) and the accumulation of capital unencumbered by government or church.\n\nWeishaupt's name is one of many references made to the Illuminati and other conspiracies in the video game ''Deus Ex'' (2000). The protagonist uncovers a virus engineered by the VersaLife Corporation with its molecular structure in multiples of 17 and 23. An ally of the protagonist notes \"1723. The birth of Adam Weishaupt\" even though this reference is actually incorrect as Weishaupt was born in 1748.\n\nAdam Weishaupt is also mentioned (\"Bush got a ouija to talk to Adam Weishaupt\") by the New York rapper Cage in El-P's \"Accidents Don't Happen\", the ninth track on his album ''Fantastic Damage'' (2002).\n\nAdam Weishaupt is briefly mentioned in Umberto Eco's novel ''The Prague Cemetery''.\n",
"\n===Philosophical works===\n* (1775) ''De Lapsu Academiarum Commentatio Politica''.\n* (1786) ''Über die Schrecken des Todes – eine philosophische Rede''.\n** ''Discours Philosophique sur les Frayeurs de la Mort'' (1788). Gallica\n* (1786) ''Über Materialismus und Idealismus''. Torino\n* (1788) ''Geschichte der Vervollkommnung des menschlichen Geschlechts''.\n* (1788) ''Über die Gründe und Gewißheit der Menschlichen Erkenntniß''.\n* (1788) ''Über die Kantischen Anschauungen und Erscheinungen''.\n* (1788) ''Zweifel über die Kantischen Begriffe von Zeit und Raum''.\n* (1793) ''Über Wahrheit und sittliche Vollkommenheit''.\n* (1794) ''Über die Lehre von den Gründen und Ursachen aller Dinge''.\n* (1794) ''Über die Selbsterkenntnis, ihre Hindernisse und Vorteile''.\n* (1797) ''Über die Zwecke oder Finalursachen''.\n* (1802) ''Über die Hindernisse der baierischen Industrie und Bevölkerung''.\n* (1804) ''Die Leuchte des Diogenes''.\n* (1817) ''Über die Staats-Ausgaben und Auflagen''. Google Books\n* (1818) ''Über das Besteuerungs-System''.\n\n===Works relating to the Illuminati===\n\n*(1786) ''Apologie der Illuminaten'', .\n*(1786) ''Vollständige Geschichte der Verfolgung der Illuminaten in Bayern''.\n*(1786) ''Schilderung der Illuminaten''.\n*(1787) ''Einleitung zu meiner Apologie''.\n*(1787) ''Einige Originalschriften des Illuminatenordens''...\n*(1787) ''Nachtrage von weitern Originalschriften''... Google Books\n*(1787) ''Kurze Rechtfertigung meiner Absichten''.\n*(1787) ''Nachtrag zur Rechtfertigung meiner Absichten''.\n*(1787) ''Apologie des Mißvergnügens und des Übels''.\n*(1787) ''Das Verbesserte System der Illuminaten''.\n*(1788) ''Der ächte Illuminat, oder die wahren, unverbesserten Rituale der Illuminaten''.\n*(1795) ''Pythagoras, oder Betrachtungen über die geheime Welt- und Regierungs-Kunst''.\n\n===Works by Adam Weishaupt in English translation===\n\n*(2008) ''Diogenes’ Lamp, or an Examination of Our Present Day Morality and Enlightenment'', translated by Amelia Gill, The Masonic Book Club.\n*(2014) ''A Brief Justification of My Intentions: Casting Light on the Latest Original Writings'', translated by Dr. Tony Page, Justice Publications, Amazon Kindle.\n*(2014) ''Supplement to the Justification of My Intentions'', translated by Dr. Tony Page, Justice Publications, Amazon Kindle.\n*(2015) ''The Secret School of Wisdom: The Authentic Rituals and Doctrines of the Illuminati'', translated by Jeva Singh-Anand, edited by Josef Wäges and Reinhard Markner, London: Lewis Masonic, 447 pp.\n",
"\n",
"}\n* Biography in ''Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie'' Vol. 41, pp. 539–550 by Daniel Jacoby.\n* A Bavarian Illuminati primer by Trevor W. McKeown.\n* Illuminati entry in The Catholic Encyclopedia, hosted by New Advent.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Founder of the Illuminati",
"Activities in exile",
"Assessment of character and intentions",
"Adam Weishaupt in pop culture",
"Works",
"Notes",
"External links"
] | Adam Weishaupt |
[
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Acorn Electron''' is a budget version of the BBC Micro educational/home computer made by Acorn Computers Ltd. It has 32 kilobytes of RAM, and its ROM includes BBC BASIC v2 along with its operating system.\n\nThe Electron was able to save and load programs onto audio cassette via a supplied converter cable that connected it to any standard tape recorder that had the correct sockets. It was capable of basic graphics, and could display onto either a television set, a colour (RGB) monitor or a \"green screen\" monitor.\n\nFor a short period, the Electron was reportedly the best selling micro in the United Kingdom.\n",
"BASIC prompt after switch-on or hard reset (soft reset was similar but did not contain the Acorn trademark).\n\nAfter Acorn Computer released the BBC Micro, executives believed that the company needed a less-expensive computer for the mass market. In June 1982, cofounder Hermann Hauser was asked about the recently announced £175 Sinclair ZX Spectrum's potential to hurt sales of the BBC Micro. Hauser responded that in the third quarter of that year Acorn would release a new £120-150 computer which \"will probably be called the Electron\", with graphics superior to the Spectrum's and compatibility with BBC Micro software. Acorn's Chris Curry stated that \"the Electron is designed to compete with the Spectrum. The idea is to get the starting price very low, but not preclude expansion in the long term.\" The company reduced the number of chips in the Electron by 90% from the BBC Micro's about 100, with most functionality on a single Uncommitted Logic Array (ULA). Problems with the ULA delayed the Electron, however, and Acorn repeatedly missed deadlines to ship the computer.\n\nAcorn formally announced the Electron at the ''Acorn User'' Exhibition in August 1983, one year after Hauser mentioned the computer, by which time its price had risen to £175 while the Spectrum cost £130. The company expected to ship the Electron before Christmas, and sell 100,000 by February 1984. Reviews were generally favorable, noting its excellent graphics compared to the Commodore 64. While its speed was acceptable compared to the Commodore and competing computers the Electron was, however, much slower than the BBC Micro; ''Popular Computing Weekly'' reported, for example, that BBC Micro games ran \"at less than half the speed, with very significant effects on their appeal\".\n\nThe reduced processor speed was attributable to the use of a 4 bit wide memory system instead of the 8 bit wide memory system of the BBC Micro to reduce cost. The Electron used just 4 64kbit RAM devices instead of the 16 16kbit RAM devices deployed on the BBC Model B. In the BBC Micro, the RAM ran at 2x the speed (4 MHz) of the CPU (2 MHz) allowing the video (screen refresh) and CPU memory access to be cleverly interleaved. On the Electron two accesses had to be made to get an 8 bit word, meaning that the CPU was unable to access its RAM while screen refresh accesses were happening. This reduced the effective CPU speed by as much as a factor of 6. At the same time the BBC Micro B+ was being developed just metres away in the same Laboratory. This model used 8 64kbit RAMs enabling the screen memory to be overlayed with the BASIC and OS ROMs in the processor memory map. This allowed the full 32k byte program RAM to be used in addition to using a 20kbyte memory mapped screen.\n\nThe ULA continued to cause problems, delaying large-scale manufacturing. By October 1983 Acorn had received orders for more than 150,000 units, and expected to produce 25,000 a month before Christmas; the existing backlog would take more than six months to fulfill. Demand for the Electron was high but only two of WH Smith's London branches had inventory. As the company increased production during 1984, however, the British home-computer market greatly weakened; one Acorn executive later said, \"after Christmas 1983 they were just delivering and the company ended up with £43 million of unsaleable stock\". Acorn's Christmas 1984 sales were greatly below expectations and in January 1985 the company reduced the Electron's price to £129. In conjunction with an unsuccessful expansion into the United States, by February Acorn's market capitalization declined 85% from the previous year. Olivetti acquired the company later that year and Dixons Retail acquired the remaining Electron inventory for less than manufacturing cost, ending Acorn's home-computer business.\n\nWith hindsight, the machine lacked the RAM (a typical program would need to fit in only around 20 kB once display memory is subtracted) and processing power to take on the prevailing Spectrum and Commodore 64. Despite this, several features that would later be associated with BBC Master and Archimedes were first features of Electron expansion units, including ROM cartridge slots and the Advanced Disc Filing System, a hierarchical improvement to the BBC's original Disc Filing System.\n\nWhile it may not have been as popular as the Spectrum, Commodore 64 or Amstrad CPC, it did sell in sufficient numbers to ensure that new software was being produced right up until the early 1990s. This meant the Electron had a lifespan not much shorter than those more popular micros and much longer than competitors such as the Oric-1 and Dragon 32.\n",
"\n===Acorn Plus 1===\nAn Acorn Electron with Plus 1 expansion unit attached\nThe Acorn Plus 1 added two ROM cartridge slots, an analogue interface (supporting two channels) and a Centronics parallel port. The analogue interface was normally used for joysticks, the parallel for a printer. The ROM slots could be booted from via the \"Shift+BREAK\" key-combination. (The slot at the front of the interface took priority if both were populated).\n\nAccess to ROM memory occurred at 2 MHz regardless of graphics mode so theoretically programs released on ROM could run at least twice as fast as those released on tape or disc. Despite this all of the games released on ROM were packaged as \"serial ROMS\", from which the micro would load programs into main memory in exactly the same way as if it were loading from tape. This meant that programs did not need to be modified for their new memory location but gave no execution speed benefits.\n\nThe Cartridge-port ROM-slots provided additional control lines, (compared to the lines available via the Edge-connector on the rear of the Electron), such as ROMSTBY, SNDIN, ROMQA, and some additional Voltage sources (+16V) etc. The total number of lines exposed via the Cartridge port almost matched those from the 1 MHz bus of the BBC.\n\nAdditional peripheral cartridge-holders by companies such as P.R.E.S. (via their ARA/ARA2/ASR products) allowed 'Sideways ROM' capability, that allowed the standard Acorn ROM space to be programmatically mapped out for alternative EPROMs, either physically via ZIF Sockets, or 'virtually' via ROM-images loaded into (battery-backed) RAM in the same ROM memory space. This enabled the Electron to achieve the same functionality as that provided by the Expansion-ROM slots under the keyboard and on the bottom-left of the BBC Micro B keyboard.\n\nThe addition of the Plus 1 added a number of new *FX and OSBYTE calls that allowed the OS to read the values from the analogue and parallel interfaces.\n\n====Compatibility====\nThe Plus 1 needed memory page &D for its workspace, and some games used this space. To disable the Plus 1, after pressing BREAK, the following commands could be issued:\n\n *FX163,128,1\n ?&212=&D6\n ?&213=&F1\n ?&2AC=0\n\n===Acorn Plus 2===\nPer a News article on Page #9 of the October 1984 issue of Acorn User, the Acorn 'Plus 2' interface was due to provide Econet capability. This interface did not make it to market.\n\n===Acorn Plus 3===\nAcorn Plus 3, showing the connector and disc drive\nThe Acorn Plus 3 was a hardware module that connected independently of the Plus 1 and provided a double-density 3½\" disc drive connected through a WD1770 drive controller and an ADFS ROM. There were two versions of the Plus 3 produced: A Single-sided and a Double-sided drive version. Because the WD1770 is capable of single density mode and uses the same IBM360 derived floppy disc format as the Intel 8271 found in the BBC Micro, it was also possible to run a DFS filing system with an alternate ROM, such as the P.R.E.S AP4 interface.\n\nThe Plus 3 reset PAGE to &1D00, reducing the amount of free RAM available to user. The ADFS system could be temporarily disabled (and PAGE reset to &E00) via the *NOADFS command. Alternative WD1770-based DFS and ADFS interfaces such as the P.R.E.S AP4 and 'ADFS E00' products left PAGE at &E00, and did not require the presence of the ZYSYSHELP file (see below)\n\nDisks had to be manually mounted and dismounted using the *MOUNT / *DISMOUNT commands, or using the CTRL-A+BREAK key combination. Disks could also be booted from via the standard \"Shift+BREAK\" key-combination, if the ! BOOT file was present on the disk. This behaviour was the same as on the BBC Micro.\n\nThe Plus 3 included an uprated square black power supply unit with mains cord, manufactured by STC, designed and manufactured in England to BS 415 and BS 5850, that was designed to power the Plus 3, in addition to the Electron and the Plus 1 interface as well. This replaced the original cream-coloured \"wall wart\" style power supply, designed to BS 415 and manufactured in Hong Kong.\n\n*'''Original'''; Part no: unknown; input 220/240V AC/50 Hz; output 19V AC/0.737A/14W: '''Usage''': Electron, Electron+Plus1\n*'''Uprated''' Part no: 865-010; input 240V AC/50 Hz 50W; output 21V AC/1.75A/36.75W: '''Usage''': Electron+Plus3, Electron+Plus3+Plus1\n\nThe original Electron Edge-connector was repeated on the back of the Plus3, in addition to a secondary smaller edge-connector, that enabled additional drives to be connected (Shugart-compatible connection). These required their own power-supply. The secondary edge-connector could not power external drives.\n\nRepair note: If the internal power-supply connector, used to power the existing internal 3.5\" drive is damaged, and requires replacement, then the original AMP 800-930 4-pin connector, which was already in short supply during the original production run, may be replaced with a Molex 5264 50-37-5043 \"Mini-SPOX\" connector as an alternative.\n\nIf using the Plus3 in screen modes 0-3, the pseudo-variable TIME would be thrown off, as the interrupts were disabled during disk access in these modes.\n\nPer a News article on page 9 of the October 1984 issue of Acorn User, the Plus 3 was originally designed to have used the Intel 8272 disk controller, (and not 8271, which were in short supply at the time).\n\n====ADFS quirks====\nThe ADFS file format used the bytes Hugo to delimit the directory names on the disc, named after ADFS author Hugo Tyson. Another quirk was the presence of the file ZYSYSHELP which was required by the system, and created during formatting. This was a kludge. Acorn's v1.0 ADFS implementation on the Electron was unreliable when writing to the first few tracks of a floppy disc, so this was a \"fix\" and simply involved writing a file full of garbage to the suspect part. The ADFS would then skip it. Disc corruption could also occur if attempting to use the *COMPACT command without disabling the blinking cursor with the following command:\nVDU23,1,0;0;0;0; This was due to the fact that the *COMPACT command used screen memory (by default) as working space during the operation, and the software-implemented blinking cursor corrupted that memory space. An alternative would be to give arguments to make it use non-screen memory for workspace, for example *COMPACT 40 20 in MODE 6. Tyson recalls that this bug was found during late testing but not fixed in the initial ROM release in order to avoid late changes, as workarounds exist.\n\nDisc formatting was done via the *EFORM command, vs the more familiar *FORM40/*FORM80 DFS commands. Note additionally that the *EFORM command differs from the equivalent *AFORM command for the 1770 ADFS on the BBC Microcomputer. This is possibly as a result of needing to create the ZYSYSHELP file on the Electron. The *EFORM command was only supplied on the Welcome disc that was shipped with the Plus3, and was not included in the ROM.\n\n===First Byte Joystick Interface===\nAs a games machine the Electron shared the same failing as the Sinclair Spectrum in not having a joystick port. This was quickly remedied by First Byte Computers who developed an interface and software which allowed a \"switched\" joystick to be used with the majority of software titles. This interface became very popular and was sold by W.H. Smiths, Boots, Comet and hundreds of independent computer dealers.\n\n===P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 3===\nThe P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 3 with a 3½\" drive\nThe Advanced Plus 3 was very similar to the Acorn Plus 3 but packaged as an ADFS ROM cartridge for the Plus 1 with a disc drive connector at the head. This made it possible to connect a 5¼\" floppy disc drive as used by BBC Micro owners or a more common 3½\" drive.\n\n===P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 5===\n AP5 Provided User Port (all lines), 1 MHz bus and 'Tube' bus capability, enabling second processor usage.\nFor the PRES5, and other similar interfaces, the User Port is usually implemented via a 6522 VIA chip.\n\n===Slogger/Elektuur Turbo Board===\nThe Slogger and Elektuur Turbo Boards were born out of a hack initially devised at Acorn. By moving the lowest 8 kB of RAM outside of reach of the ULA, the CPU could always access it at 2 MHz. The tradeoff was that the screen could not be located in that 8 kB. In practice the operating system ROMs always put the screen into the top 24 kB and as a result this probably only broke compatibility with around 2% of software.\n\nThe Slogger Turbo Board was a professionally fitted upgrade whereas the Elektuur modification was described in an article in Dutch Electronics magazine Elektuur and intended for users to perform at home.\n\nSpeeding up the low portion of memory is particularly useful on 6502 derived machines because that processor has a faster addressing mode for the first 256 bytes and so it is common for software to put any variables involved in time critical sections of program into that region.\n\nIf Acorn had thought to include this small modification in the original Electron design it is likely the machine would have had a much greater impact as it would have nearly doubled the amount of motion possible in games and saved modes 0–3 (including the only 16 colour mode) from being nearly useless due to contended memory timings.\n\n===Slogger Master RAM Board===\nA development of the Turbo Board, the Master RAM Board duplicated the Turbo Board functionality and added a further option of running the micro with 32 kB of shadow RAM in addition to the ordinary 32 kB — giving 64 kB total. Some clever program counter catches meant that the ordinary system ROMs and any software using the OS calls could function without significant modification, making substantially more memory available for BASIC, View, Viewsheet and almost every other business application. By providing extra storage this modification also allowed some games and applications intended for the BBC Micro to function on the Electron despite the lack of a native Mode 7.\n\nApplications could not directly address video memory in this mode without modification, so it was incompatible with most games, although there is no inherent reason why a game could not be written to function in shadow mode.\n\nDuring its decline, Master RAM Boards were added to every Electron in an attempt to increase sales.\n\n===Jafa Systems Mode 7 Display Unit===\nOf the capabilities present in the BBC Micro but absent from the Electron, the teletext-style ''mode 7'' was particularly conspicuous because of the very low memory usage in that mode (just less than 1 kB) and the high number of BBC programs that used it. Jafa Systems provided a number of solutions to redress this deficiency. (Note - the Jafa interface did not provide Teletext interface itself, but it did work in conjunction with specific CEEFAX/Teletext/Prestel adaptors from other manufacturers such as Morley)\n\nThe most basic solution was a pure software system supplied on a ROM cartridge that drew a low resolution approximation of the mode 7 display in a graphics mode. Although cheap and effective in enabling use of some software that only used official ROM entry points for text output, this solution proved very slow because the Electron had to be placed into an 80-byte-pitch display to be able to get anywhere near to reproducing mode 7 and the CPU spent a lot of time drawing approximations of mode 7 characters and graphics that in a hardware solution would be achieved without any CPU processing. It also used up 20 kB of RAM for the graphics display rather than the 1 kB of a hardware mode 7.\n\nTwo solutions with additional hardware were provided. The first used the same graphics processor as the BBC Micro in mode 7 — the SAA5050 — but used software to ensure that it was fed with the correct graphics data. A software ROM would put the machine into an ordinary 40-byte-pitch display. While the ULA would read the display from memory in the usual fashion, the SAA5050 would listen to the data it was reading and produce a mode 7 interpretation of the same information. When necessary the hardware would switch between the graphics output being produced by the micro and that being produced by the add-on.\n\nThe disadvantage to this system is that while the SAA5050 would expect to be repeatedly fed the same 40 bytes of data for every display scanline of each character row, the ULA would read a different set of 40 bytes for every display scanline in order to produce a full graphics display. A software ROM worked around this by duplicating the data intended for a mode 7 display in memory. Although this produced a mode 7 that barely impacted upon CPU performance and gave the same visual quality as the BBC Micro, it remained compatible only with software that used the ROM routines for outputting text and graphics and still used 10 kB of memory for the display.\n\nA second version of the hardware add-on corrected these problems. By adding a CRTC6845 to the package, a full hardware solution was created that did not reduce CPU performance and only used 1 kB of memory for the display. A software ROM was still supplied, but this did no more than expand the hardware ROM so that it knew mode 7 now existed and was able to switch into it.\n\n===Electron Second Processor===\nDuring the latter years, PMS produced a 2nd Processor specifically for the Electron. This provided an alternative to buying the combination of the P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 5 and Acorn 6502 2nd Processor.\n",
"An unusual variant of the Electron was sold by British Telecom Business Systems as the BT Merlin M2105 Communications Terminal. This consisted of a de-badged Electron plus a large expansion unit containing 32 kB of RAM, 48 kB of ROM, a Centronics printer port and a modem. The ROM firmware provided dial-up communications facilities. These were used by the Interflora florists network in the UK for over a decade.\n",
"The hardware of the BBC Micro was emulated by a single customized ULA chip designed by Acorn in conjunction with Ferranti. It had feature limitations such as the inability to output more than one channel of sound or provide teletext mode. By contrast, the BBC Micro was capable of three-way polyphony (plus one noise channel).\n\nThe edge-connector on the rear of the Electron exposed almost all the Bus lines, but not all. (The BBC Micro, courtesy of all its ports, exposed all lines.)\n\nFor Issue 1-4 motherboards, the ULA had an issue similar to those experienced by other socketed CPU's. Over time, the thermal heating and cooling could cause the ULA to rise slightly out of its socket just enough to cause the machine to start exhibiting 'hanging' or other startup-failure issues, such as a continuous 'startup beep'. This was despite a metal cover, and locking-bar mechanism designed to prevent this from occurring. Pushing down on the metal cover to reseat the ULA was normally sufficient to rectify these issues. Issue 5 and 6 boards utilized a different epoxy resin covering directly over the ULA, which resolved this issue.\n\nThe keyboard included a form of single-key keyword input, similar to that used on the Sinclair Spectrum, via the 'func' key. However, unlike the Spectrum, the single-keypress keyword-entry was optional, and keywords could be entered manually if preferred.\n\nThe ULA controlled memory access and was able to provide 32K × 8 bits of addressable RAM using 4 × 64K × 1-bit RAM chips (4164). Due to needing two accesses to each chip instead of one, and the complications of the video hardware also needing access, reading or writing RAM was much slower than on the BBC Micro. This meant that although ROM applications ran at the same speed, there was a substantial speed decrease on applications running from RAM.\n\n===Hardware===\nAcorn ALF03 Data Recorder\n* CPU: MOS Technology 6502A\n* Clock rate: variable. CPU runs at 2 MHz when accessing ROM and 1 MHz or 0.5897 MHz (depending on graphics mode) when accessing RAM due to sharing memory access with the video display circuits. The Electron is widely misquoted as operating at 1.79 MHz after measurements derived from speed testing against the thoroughly 2 MHz BBC Micro for various pieces of 'common software'.\n* Glue logic: Ferranti Semiconductor Custom ULA\n* RAM: 32 kB\n* ROM: 32 kB\n* Text modes: 20×32, 40×25, 40×32, 80×25, 80×32 (all text output produced by software in graphics modes)\n* Graphics modes: 160×256 (4 or 16 colours), 320×256 (2 or 4 colours), 640×256 (2 colours), 320×200 (2 colours — spaced display with two blank horizontal lines following every 8 pixel lines), 640×200 (2 colours — spaced display)\n* Colours: 8 colours (TTL combinations of RGB primaries) + 8 flashing versions of the same colours\n* Sound: 1 channel of sound, 7 octaves; built-in speaker. Software emulation of noise channel supported\n* Dimensions: 16×34×6.5 cm\n* I/O ports: Expansion port, tape recorder connector (1200 baud CUTS variation on the Kansas City standard for data encoding, via a 7-pin circular DIN connector), aerial TV connector (RF modulator), composite video and RGB monitor output\n* Power supply: External PSU, 19V AC\n\n===Quirks===\nExile'' is an example of a game where the developers left non-graphical data visible in the display buffer to gain additional memory space.\nLike the BBC Micro, the Electron was constrained by limited memory resources. Of the 32 kB RAM, 3½ kB was allocated to the OS at startup and at least 10 kB was taken up by the display buffer in contiguous display modes.\n\nDue to the timing of interrupts it was possible to disable either the top 100 or bottom 156 lines of the display with palette changes. Many games took advantage of this, gaining storage by leaving non-graphical data in the disabled area.\n\nOther games would load non-graphical data into the display, leaving it visible as regions of apparently randomly coloured pixels.\n\nAlthough page flipping was a hardware possibility, the limited memory forced most applications to do all their drawing directly to the visible screen, often resulting in graphical flicker or visible redraw. A notable exception is Players' ''Joe Blade'' series.\n\n===Tricks===\n\n====FireTrack: smooth vertical scrolling====\nAlthough programs can alter the position of the screen in memory, the non-linear format of the display means that vertical scrolling can only be done in blocks of 8 pixels without further work.\n\n''FireTrack'' exploits a division in the way the Electron handles its display — of the seven available graphics modes, two are configured so that the final two of every ten scanlines are blank and are not based on the contents of RAM. If 16 scanlines of continuous graphical data are written to a character-block-aligned portion of the screen then they will appear as a continuous block in most modes but in the two non-continuous modes they will be displayed as two blocks of eight scanlines, separated in the middle by two blank scanlines.\n\nIn order to keep track of its position within the display, the Electron maintains an internal display address counter. The same counter is used in both the continuous and non-continuous graphics modes and switching modes mid-frame does not cause any adjustment to the counter.\n\n''FireTrack'' switches from a non-continuous to a continuous graphics mode part way down the display. By using the palette to mask the top area of the display and taking care about when it changes mode it can shift the continuous graphics at the bottom of the display down in two pixel increments because the internal display counter is not incremented on blank scanlines during non-continuous graphics modes.\n\n====Exile: sampled speech====\n''Exile'' turns the Electron's one channel output into a digital speaker for PCM output.\n\nThe speaker can be programmatically switched on or off at any time but is permanently attached to a hardware counter so is normally only able to output a square wave. But if set to a frequency outside the human audible range then the ear can't perceive the square wave, only the difference between the speaker being switched on and off. This gives the effect of a simple toggle speaker similar to that seen in the 48 kB Sinclair ZX Spectrum. ''Exile'' uses this to output 1-bit audio samples.\n\n====Frak! and Zalaga: Polyphonic music====\nAardvark Software's \"Frak!\" and \"Zalaga\" As part of the copy protection, illegal copies of the games would cause a pseudo-polyphonic rendition of Trumpet Hornpipe, the Captain Pugwash theme tune, to play endlessly rather than loading the game properly (Pugwash being a pirate). On the Electron version of Frak!, the tune was the main theme from \"Benny Hill\" (Boots Randolph's \"Yakety Sax\"). The polyphony was achieved via fast note-switching to achieve the necessary chords.\n",
"\nAlthough not as well supported by the biggest software publishers as rivals like the Commodore 64 and Sinclair ZX Spectrum, a good range of games were available for the Electron. The traditional BBC Micro publishers such as Acornsoft, Superior Software and Micro Power offered the widest support. Notable popular games particularly associated with the Electron include:Crystal Castles'' is an example of a popular arcade game officially ported to the Electron (US Gold).\n* ''Starship Command'' (Acornsoft, 1983)\n* ''Chuckie Egg'' (A'n'F, 1984)\n* ''Elite'' (Acornsoft, 1984)\n* the ''Repton'' series (Superior Software, 1985–1989)\n* ''Thrust'' (Superior Software, 1986)\n* ''Exile'' (Superior Software, 1988)\n\nThere were also many popular games officially converted to the Electron from arcade machines (including ''Crystal Castles'', ''Tempest'', ''Commando'', ''Paperboy'' and ''Yie Ar Kung-Fu'') or other home computer systems (including ''Impossible Mission'', ''Jet Set Willy'', ''The Way of the Exploding Fist'', ''Tetris'', ''The Last Ninja'', ''Barbarian'' and ''SimCity'').\n\nDespite Acorn themselves effectively shelving the Electron in 1985, games continued to be developed and released by professional software houses until 1991. There were around 1,400 games released for the Acorn Electron, several thousand extra public domain titles were released on disc through Public Domain libraries. Notable enterprises which produced discs of such software are BBC PD, Electron User Group and HeadFirst PD.\n",
"Three emulators of the machine exist, ElectrEm for Windows/Linux/macOS, Elkulator for Windows/DOS, ElkJS is a browser-based (JavaScript/HTML5) Emulator and the Multi-system emulator MESS. Electron software is predominantly archived in the UEF file format.\n",
"The operating system ROM locations 0xFC00-0xFDFF contain the following text, which is different from the 'thanks' list in the original BBC Model B:\n\n\n\nAdditionally, the last bytes of both the BASIC ROM and 'Plus 3 Interface' ADFS v1.0 ROM include the word \"Roger\", thought to be a reference to Roger Wilson.\n\nThe case was designed by industrial designer Allen Boothroyd of Cambridge Product Design Ltd.\n",
"* Electron User, the most popular Acorn Electron focused magazine\n",
"\n;Notes\n\n Acorn Electron History at 30\n\n",
"\n\n* Electron MODE 7 Photos\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Popular upgrades",
"Merlin M2105",
"Technical information",
"Popular games",
"Emulation",
"Design team",
"See also",
" References ",
"External links"
] | Acorn Electron |
[
"\n\n\n'''''A Fire Upon the Deep''''' is a science fiction novel by American writer Vernor Vinge, a space opera involving superhuman intelligences, aliens, physics, space battles, love, betrayal, genocide, and a conversation medium resembling Usenet. ''A Fire Upon the Deep'' won the Hugo Award in 1993 that tied with ''Doomsday Book'' by Connie Willis.\n\nBesides the normal print book editions, the novel was also included on a CD-ROM sold by ClariNet Communications along with the other nominees for the 1993 Hugo awards. The CD-ROM edition included numerous annotations by Vinge on his thoughts and intentions about different parts of the book, and was later released as a standalone e-book (no longer available).\n",
"The novel is set in various locations in the Milky Way. The galaxy is divided into four concentric volumes called the \"Zones of Thought\"; it is not clear to the novel's characters whether this is a natural phenomenon or an artificially-produced one, but it seems to roughly correspond with galactic-scale stellar density and a Beyond region is mentioned in the Sculptor Galaxy as well. The Zones reflect fundamental differences in basic physical laws, and one of the main consequences is their effect on intelligence, both biological and artificial. Artificial intelligence and automation is most directly affected, in that advanced hardware and software from the Beyond or the Transcend will work less and less well as a ship \"descends\" towards the Unthinking Depths. But even biological intelligence is affected to a lesser degree. The four zones are spoken of in terms of \"low\" to \"high\" as follows:\n\n* The '''Unthinking Depths''' are the innermost zone, surrounding the galactic core. In it, only minimal forms of intelligence, biological or otherwise, are possible. This means that any ship straying into the Depths will be stranded, effectively permanently. Even if the crew did not die immediately—and some forms of life native to \"higher\" Zones would likely do so—they would be rendered incapable of even human intelligence, leaving them unable to operate their ship in any meaningful way.\n* Surrounding the Depths is the '''Slow Zone'''. The Earth (called \"Old Earth\") is located in this Zone, and humanity is said to have originated there, although Earth plays no significant role in the story. Biological intelligence is possible in \"the Slowness\", but not true, sentient, artificial intelligence. Faster-than-light travel may not be initiated in the Slow Zone, i.e., one may \"jump\" into the Slow Zone, but not back out. All ships which find themselves in the Slow Zone are restricted to sub-light speeds. Faster-than-light communication is impossible into or out of the Slow Zone. As the boundaries of the Zones are unknown and subject to change, accidental entry to the Slow Zone is a major interstellar navigational hazard at the \"Bottom\" of the Beyond. Starships which operate near the Beyond/Slow Zone border often have an auxiliary Bussard ramjet drive, so that, if they accidentally stray into the Slow Zone (thus disabling any FTL drive), they will at least have a backup (sub-light) drive to push them back \"up\" to the Beyond. Such ships also tend to include \"coldsleep\" equipment, as it is likely that any such return will still take many subjective lifetimes for most species.\n* The next outermost layer is the '''Beyond''', within which artificial intelligence, faster-than-light travel and faster-than-light communication, and antigravity are possible. A few human civilizations exist in the Beyond, all descended from a single ethnic Norwegian group which managed to travel from the Slow Zone to the Beyond (presumably at sub-light speeds) and thence spread using FTL travel. The original settlement of this group is known as Nyjora; other human settlements in the Beyond include Straumli Realm and Sjandra Kei. In the Beyond, FTL travel is accomplished by making many small \"jumps\" across intervening space, and the efficiency of the drive increases the farther a ship travels from the galactic core. This reflects increases in both drive efficiency and the ship's automation's increased capacity as one moves outward, enabling the computation of longer and longer jumps. The Beyond is not a homogeneous zone—many references are made to, e.g., the \"High Beyond\" or the \"Bottom of the Beyond\", depending on distance to the galactic core. These terms seem to refer to differences in the Zone itself, not just relative distance from the Core, but there are no obvious Zone boundaries within the Beyond the way there are between the Slow Zone and the Beyond, or between the Beyond and the Transcend. Whereas a ship that crosses from the Beyond to the Slow Zone or vice versa will experience a dramatic change in its capabilities, a ship in the Beyond which moves farther from the Core will experience a gradual increase in efficiency (assuming it has the technology to make use of it) until another major shift at the boundary to the Transcend. The Beyond is populated by a very large number of interstellar and intergalactic civilizations which are linked by a faster-than-light communication network, \"the Net\", sometimes cynically called the \"Net of a Million Lies\". The Net does connect with the Transcend, on the off-chance that one of the \"Powers\" that live there deigns to communicate, but has no connections with the Slow Zone, as FTL communication is impossible into or out of that Zone. In the novel, the Net is depicted as working much like the Usenet network in the early 1990s, with transcripts of messages containing header and footer information as one would find in such forums. \n* The outermost layer, containing the galactic halo, is the '''Transcend''', within which incomprehensible, superintelligent beings dwell. When a \"Beyonder\" civilization reaches the point of technological singularity, it is said to \"Transcend\", becoming a \"Power\". Such Powers always seem to relocate to the Transcend, seemingly necessarily, where they become engaged in affairs which remain entirely mysterious to those that remain in the Beyond.\n",
"An expedition from Straumli Realm, an ambitious young human civilization in the high Beyond, investigates a five-billion-year-old data archive in the low Transcend that offers the possibility of unimaginable riches. The expedition's facility, High Lab, is gradually compromised by a dormant superintelligence within the archive later known as the Blight. However, shortly before the Blight's final \"flowering\", two self-aware entities created similarly to the Blight plot to aid the humans before the Blight can escape.\n\nRecognizing the danger of what they have awakened, the researchers at High Lab attempt to flee in two ships, one carrying all the adults and the second carrying all the children in \"coldsleep boxes\". Suspicious, the Blight discovers that the first ship contains a data storage device in its cargo manifest; assuming it contains information that could harm it, the Blight destroys the ship. The second ship escapes. The Blight assumes that it is no threat, but later realizes that it is actually carrying away a \"countermeasure\" against it.\n\nThe ship lands on a distant planet with a medieval-level civilization of dog-like creatures, dubbed \"Tines\", who live in packs as group minds. Upon landing, however, the two surviving adults are ambushed and killed by Tine fanatics known as Flenserists, in whose realm they have landed. The Flenserists capture a young boy named Jefri Olsndot and his wounded sister, Johanna. While Jefri is taken deeper into Flenserist territory, Johanna is rescued by Tine pilgrims who witnessed the ambush and deliver her to a neighboring kingdom ruled by a Tine named Woodcarver. The Flenserists tell Jefri that Johanna had been killed by Woodcarver and exploit him in order to develop advanced technology (such as cannon and radio communication), while Johanna and the knowledge stored in her \"dataset\" device help Woodcarver rapidly develop in turn.\n\nA distress signal from the sleeper ship eventually reaches \"Relay\", a major node in the galactic communications network. A benign transcendent entity named \"Old One\" contacts Relay, seeking information about the Blight and the humans who released it, and reconstitutes a human man named Pham Nuwen from an old wreck to act as its agent, using his doubt of his own memory's veracity to bend him to the Old One's will. Ravna Bergsndot, the only human Relay employee, traces the sleeper ship's signal to the Tines world and persuades her employer to investigate what the human ship took from High Lab, contracting the merchant vessel ''Out of Band II'', owned by two sentient plant Skroderiders, Blueshell and Greenstalk, to transport them.\n\nBefore the mission is launched, the Blight attacks Relay and concurrently kills Old One. As Old One dies, it downloads what information it can into Pham to defeat the Blight, and Pham and Ravna barely escape Relay's destruction in the ''Out of Band II''.\n\nThe Blight expands, taking over races and \"rewriting\" their people to become its agents, murdering several other Powers, and seizing other archives in the Beyond, looking for what was taken. It finally realizes where the danger truly lies and sends a hastily assembled fleet in pursuit of the ''Out of Band II''.\n\nThe humans arrive at the Tines homeworld and ally with Woodcarver to defeat the Flenserists. Pham initiates Countermeasure, which extends the Slow Zone by thousands of light years, enveloping the Blight at the cost of wrecking thousands of uninvolved civilizations and causing trillions of deaths. The humans are stranded on the Tines world, now in the depths of the \"Slow Zone\". Activating the countermeasure costs Pham his life, but just before Pham dies, he realizes that, although his body is a reconstruction, his memories are real. Vinge expands on Pham's backstory in ''A Deepness in the Sky''.\n",
"\n===Aprahanti===\nA race of humanoids with colorful butterfly-like wings who attempt to use the chaos wrought by the Blight to reestablish their waning hegemony. Despite their attractive, delicate appearance, the Aprahanti are an extremely fearsome and vicious species.\n\n===Blight===\nAn ancient, malevolent super-intelligent entity which strives to constantly expand and can easily manipulate electronics and even organic beings.\n\n===Dirokimes===\nAn older race which originally inhabited Sjandra Kei before the arrival of humanity.\n\n===Humans===\nAll humans in the novel (except Pham) are descended from Nyjoran stock. Their ancestors were \"Tuvo-Norsk\" asteroid miners from Old Earth's solar system, which is noted as being on the other side of the galaxy in the Slow Zone. (''Nyjora'' sounds similar to New Norwegian \"New Earth\".) One of the major human habitations is Sjandra Kei, three systems comprising roughly 28 billion individuals. Their main language is Samnorsk, the Norwegian term for a hypothetical unification of the Bokmål and Nynorsk forms of the language. (Vinge indicates in the book's dedication that several key ideas in it came to him while at a conference in Tromsø, Norway.)\n\n===Skroders/Riders/Skroderiders===\nA sessile race of plants with fronds that are used for expression. Five billion years ago, someone gave them wheeled mechanical constructs (skrodes) to move around and to provide short-term memory. It is later revealed that their \"benefactor\" was the Blight, and it is able to corrupt and operate the Riders via their skrodes.\n\n===Tines===\nA canid race, each \"person\" comprising a group mind of 4–8 members, connected by ultrasonic waves. Each \"soul\" can survive and evolve by adding members to replace those who die, potentially for hundreds of years, as Woodcarver does.\n\n===Kalir===\nA race of insectoid humanoids which constitutes one of the \"majority races\" of the Vrinimi organization.\n",
"Vinge first used the concepts of \"Zones of Thought\" in a 1988 novella, ''The Blabber'', which occurs after ''Fire''. Vinge's novel ''A Deepness in the Sky'' (1999) is a prequel to ''A Fire Upon the Deep'' set 20,000 years earlier and featuring Pham Nuwen. Vinge's ''The Children of the Sky'', \"a near-term sequel to ''A Fire Upon the Deep'', set ten years later, was released in October 2011.\n\nVinge's former wife, Joan D. Vinge, has also written stories in the Zones of Thought universe, based on his notes. These include \"The Outcasts of Heaven Belt\", \"Legacy\", and a planned novel featuring Pham Nuwen.\n",
"Vinge's original title for the novel was \"Among the Tines\"; its final title was suggested by his editors.\n",
"''A Fire Upon the Deep'' shared the 1993 Hugo Award for Best Novel with ''Doomsday Book''. The book was nominated for the 1992 Nebula Award for Best Novel, the 1993 John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel, and the 1993 Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.\n",
"Jo Walton wrote: \"Any one of the ideas in ''A Fire Upon the Deep'' would have kept an ordinary writer going for years. For me it's the book that does everything right, the example of what science fiction does when it works. ... ''A Fire Upon the Deep'' remains a favourite and a delight to re-read, absorbing even when I know exactly what’s coming.\"\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* Prologue and first nine chapters at Baen Ebooks\n* ''A Fire Upon the Deep'' at Worlds Without End\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Setting",
"Plot",
"Intelligent species",
"Related works",
"Title",
"Awards and nominations",
"Critical reactions",
"References",
"External links"
] | A Fire Upon the Deep |
[
"\nSpace Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft.\n\n'''Aeronautics''' (from the ancient Greek words ὰήρ ''āēr'', which means \"air\", and ναυτική ''nautikē'' which means \"navigation\", i.e. \"navigation into the air\") is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air flight capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. The British Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of \"aeronautical Art, Science and Engineering\" and \"the profession of Aeronautics (which expression includes Astronautics).\" \n\nWhile the term—literally meaning \"sailing the air\"—originally referred solely to the science of ''operating'' the aircraft, it has since been expanded to include technology, business, and other aspects related to aircraft. \nThe term \"aviation\" is sometimes used interchangeably with aeronautics, although \"aeronautics\" includes lighter-than-air craft such as airships, and includes ballistic vehicles while \"aviation\" technically does not.\n\nA significant part of '''aeronautical science''' is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft.\n",
"\n===Early ideas===\nDesigns for flying machines by Leonardo da Vinci, circa 1490\n\nAttempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings and jumping from a tower with crippling or lethal results.\n\nWiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the study of bird flight. An early example appears in ancient Egyptian texts. Later medieval Islamic scientists also made such studies. The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley in 1799, both began their investigations with studies of bird flight.\n\nMan-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In 1282 the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current. The Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys.\n\nAn early European to provide any scientific discussion of flight was Roger Bacon, who described principles of operation for the lighter-than-air balloon and the flapping-wing ornithopter, which he envisaged would be constructed in the future. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an \"aether\" whose composition he did not know.\n\nIn the late fifteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci followed up his study of birds with designs for some of the earliest flying machines, including the flapping-wing ornithopter and the rotating-wing helicopter. Although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as a four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws. He did at least understand that \"An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object.\" (Newton would not publish the Third law of motion until 1687.) His analysis led to the realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, and his later designs included a mechanical power source such as a spring. Da Vinci's work was lost after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley.\n\n===Balloon flight===\n\nFrancesco Lana de Terzi's flying boat concept c.1670\nThe modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileo's experiments in which he showed that air has weight. Around 1650 Cyrano de Bergerac wrote some fantasy novels in which he described the principle of ascent using a substance (dew) he supposed to be lighter than air, and descending by releasing a controlled amount of the substance. Francesco Lana de Terzi measured the pressure of air at sea level and in 1670 proposed the first scientifically credible lifting medium in the form of hollow metal spheres from which all the air had been pumped out. These would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today; by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, and by venting the lifting containers to lose height. In practice de Terzi's spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases.\nMontgolfier brothers flight, 1784\nFrom the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons. Their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short-lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Mistaking smoke for a kind of steam, they began filling their balloons with hot smoky air which they called \"electric smoke\" and, despite not fully understanding the principles at work, made some successful launches and in 1783 were invited to give a demonstration to the French Academie des Sciences.\n\nMeanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c. 1780 to propose its use as a lifting gas, though practical demonstration awaited a gastight balloon material. On hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers' invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a gastight material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during the filling process.\n\nThe Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the balloon rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design, which brought the paper closer to the fire. On their free flight, De Rozier and d'Arlandes took buckets of water and sponges to douse these fires as they arose. On the other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern. As a result of these exploits, the hot-air ballon became known as the ''Montgolfière'' type and the hydrogen balloon the ''Charlière''.\n\nCharles and the Robert brothers' next balloon, ''La Caroline'', was a Charlière that followed Jean Baptiste Meusnier's proposals for an elongated dirigible balloon, and was notable for having an outer envelope with the gas contained in a second, inner ballonet. On 19 September 1784, it completed the first flight of over 100 km, between Paris and Beuvry, despite the man-powered propulsive devices proving useless.\n\nIn an attempt the next year to provide both endurance and controllability, de Rozier developed a balloon having both hot air and hydrogen gas bags, a design which was soon named after him as the ''Rozière.'' The principle was to use the hydrogen section for constant lift and to navigate vertically by heating and allowing to cool the hot air section, in order to catch the most favourable wind at whatever altitude it was blowing. The balloon envelope was made of goldbeaters skin. The first flight ended in disaster and the approach has seldom been used since.\n\n===Cayley and the foundation of modern aeronautics===\nSir George Cayley (1773-1857) is widely acknowledged as the founder of modern aeronautics. He was first called the \"father of the aeroplane\" in 1846 and Henson called him the \"father of aerial navigation.\" He was the first true scientific aerial investigator to publish his work, which included for the first time the underlying principles and forces of flight.\n\nIn 1809 he began the publication of a landmark three-part treatise titled \"On Aerial Navigation\" (1809–1810). In it he wrote the first scientific statement of the problem, \"The whole problem is confined within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of air.\" He identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: ''thrust'', ''lift'', ''drag'' and ''weight'' and distinguished stability and control in his designs.\n\nHe developed the modern conventional form of the fixed-wing aeroplane having a stabilising tail with both horizontal and vertical surfaces, flying gliders both unmanned and manned.\n\nHe introduced the use of the whirling arm test rig to investigate the aerodynamics of flight, using it to discover the benefits of the curved or cambered aerofoil over the flat wing he had used for his first glider. He also identified and described the importance of dihedral, diagonal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes.\n\nAnother significant invention was the tension-spoked wheel, which he devised in order to create a light, strong wheel for aircraft undercarriage.\n\n===The 19th century===\nDuring the 19th century Cayley's ideas were refined, proved and expanded on. Important investigators included Otto Lilienthal and Horatio Phillips.\n",
"The Eurofighter Typhoon.\nAntonov An-225 ''Mriya'', the largest aeroplane ever built.\nAeronautics may be divided into three main branches comprising Aviation, Aeronautical science and Aeronautical engineering.\n\n===Aviation===\n\n\nAviation is the art or practice of aeronautics. Historically aviation meant only heavier-than-air flight, but nowadays it includes flying in balloons and airships.\n\n===Aeronautical science===\n\nAeronautical science covers the practical theory of aeronautics and aviation, including operations, navigation, air safety and human factors.\n\nA candidate pilot is likely to study for a qualification in aeronautical science.\n\n===Aeronautical engineering===\n\n\nAeronautical engineering covers the design and construction of aircraft, including how they are powered, how they are used and how they are controlled for safe operation.\n\nA major part of aeronautical engineering is aerodynamics, the science of passing through the air.\n\nWith the increasing activity in spaceflight, nowadays aeronautics and astronautics are often combined as aerospace engineering.\n\n==== Aerodynamics ====\n\nThe science of aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft.\n\nThe study of aerodynamics falls broadly into three areas:\n\n''Incompressible flow'' occurs where the air simply moves to avoid objects, typically at subsonic speeds below that of sound (Mach 1).\n\n''Compressible flow'' occurs where shock waves appear at points where the air becomes compressed, typically at speeds above Mach 1.\n\n''Transonic flow'' occurs in the intermediate speed range around Mach 1, where the airflow over an object may be locally subsonic at one point and locally supersonic at another.\n\n=== Rocketry ===\n\nLaunch of Apollo 15 Saturn V rocket: ''T'' - 30 s through ''T'' + 40 s.\n\nA rocket or rocket vehicle is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle which obtains thrust from a rocket engine. In all rockets, the exhaust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction. Rocket engines push rockets forwards simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast.\n\nRockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China. Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology of the Space Age, including setting foot on the moon.\n\nRockets are used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight and exploration of other planets. While comparatively inefficient for low speed use, they are very lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large accelerations and of attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency.\n\nChemical rockets are the most common type of rocket and they typically create their exhaust by the combustion of rocket propellant. Chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks.\n",
"\n",
"\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n\n\n\n* Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's How Things Fly website\n* Aeronautics History in Turkey\n* Aeronautics History - Charles Vivian - 1920 (eLibrary Project - eLib full text)\n* Aerospace courses at MIT OpenCourseWare\n* American Academy of Aeronautics aeronautical science\n* American Helicopter Society\n* American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics\n* Examples of Aeronautic Designs\n* What is aeronautics? The history of world Aeronautics (Russian)\n* Aircraft Design: Synthesis and Analysis\n* ACARE Taxonomy\n* CREating innovative Air transport Technologies for Europe\n* The Gaston and Albert Tissandier Collection in the Rare Book and Special Collections Division in the Library of Congress contains publications relating to the history of aeronautics, (1,800 titles).\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Branches",
" See also ",
" References ",
"External links"
] | Aeronautics |
[
"\n\nThe '''Lumière''' () brothers, '''Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas''' (19 October 1862, Besançon, France – 10 April 1954, Lyon) and '''Louis Jean''' (5 October 1864, Besançon, France – 6 June 1948, Bandol), were among the first filmmakers in history. They patented an improved cinematograph, which in contrast to Thomas Edison's \"peepshow\" kinetoscope allowed simultaneous viewing by multiple parties.\n",
"The Lumière brothers were born in Besançon, France, to Charles-Antoine Lumière (1840–1911) and Jeanne Joséphine Costille Lumière, who were married in 1861 and moved to Besançon, setting up a small photographic portrait studio where Auguste and Louis were born. They moved to Lyon in 1870, where son Edouard and three daughters were born. Auguste and Louis both attended La Martiniere, the largest technical school in Lyon. Their father Charles-Antoine set up a small factory producing photographic plates, but even with Louis and a young sister working from 5 a.m. to 11 p.m. it teetered on the verge of bankruptcy, and by 1882 it looked as if they would fail, but when Auguste returned from military service the boys designed the machines necessary to automate their father's plate production and devised a very successful new photo plate, 'etiquettes bleue', and by 1884 the factory employed a dozen workers.\n\nCinématographe Lumière at the Institut Lumière, France\nWhen their father retired in 1892 the brothers began to create moving pictures. They patented several significant processes leading up to their film camera, most notably film perforations (originally implemented by Emile Reynaud) as a means of advancing the film through the camera and projector. The original cinématographe had been patented by Léon Guillaume Bouly on 12 February 1892. The brothers patented their own version on 13 February 1895. The first footage ever to be recorded using it was recorded on 19 March 1895. This first film shows workers leaving the Lumière factory.\n\nThe Lumières brothers saw film as a novelty and had withdrawn from the film business in 1905. They went on to develop the first practical photographic colour process, the Lumière Autochrome.\n\nTomb of the Lumière brothers in the New Guillotière Cemetery in Lyon\nAuguste died on 10 April 1954 and Louis on 6 June 1948. They are buried in a family tomb in the New Guillotiere Cemetery in Lyon.\n",
"The Lumières held their first private screening of projected motion pictures in 1895. This first screening on 22 March 1895 took place in Paris, at the \"Society for the Development of the National Industry\", in front of an audience of 200 people – among which Léon Gaumont, then director of the Comptoir de la photographie. The main focus of this conference by Louis Lumière were the recent developments in the photograph industry, mainly the research on polychromy (colour photography). It was much to Lumière's surprise that the moving black-and-white images retained more attention than the coloured stills photographs. The American Woodville Latham had screened works of film seven months earlier on 20 May 1895. The first public screening of films at which admission was charged was a program by the Skladanowsky brothers that was held on 1 November 1895, in Berlin.\n\nThe Lumières gave their first paid public screening on 28 December 1895, at Salon Indien du Grand Café in Paris. This history-making presentation featured 10 short films, including their first film, ''Sortie des Usines Lumière à Lyon'' (''Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory'').\n\nLumières ''La Sortie de l'Usine Lumière à Lyon'' 1895 \nEach film is 17 meters long, which, when hand cranked through a projector, runs approximately 50 seconds.\n\n''L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat''\nThe world's first film poster, for 1895's ''L'Arroseur arrosé'' It is believed their first film was recorded that same year (1895) with Léon Bouly's cinématographe device, which was patented the previous year. The date of the recording of their first film is in dispute. In an interview with Georges Sadoul given in 1948, Louis Lumière tells that he shot the film in August 1894. This is questioned by historians (Sadoul, Pinel, Chardère) who consider that a functional Lumière camera didn't exist before the end of 1894, and that their first film was recorded 19 March 1895, and then publicly projected 22 March at the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale in Paris. The cinématographe — a three-in-one device that could record, develop, and project motion pictures — was further developed by the Lumières.\n\nThe public debut at the Grand Café came a few months later and consisted of the following 10 short films (in order of presentation):\n\n#''La Sortie de l'Usine Lumière à Lyon'' (literally, \"the exit from the Lumière factory in Lyon\", or, under its more common English title, ''Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory''), 46 seconds\n#''Le Jardinier (l'Arroseur Arrosé)'' (\"The Gardener\", or \"The Sprinkler Sprinkled\"), 49 seconds\n#''Le Débarquement du Congrès de Photographie à Lyon'' (\"the disembarkment of the Congress of Photographers in Lyon\"), 48 seconds\n#''La Voltige'' (\"Horse Trick Riders\"), 46 seconds\n#''La Pêche aux poissons rouges'' (\"fishing for goldfish\"), 42 seconds\n#''Les Forgerons'' (\"Blacksmiths\"), 49 seconds\n#''Repas de bébé'' (\"Baby's Breakfast\" (lit. \"baby's meal\")), 41 seconds\n#''Le Saut à la couverture'' (\"Jumping Onto the Blanket\"), 41 seconds\n#''La Places des Cordeliers à Lyon'' (\"Cordeliers Square in Lyon\"—a street scene), 44 seconds\n#''La Mer (Baignade en mer)'' (\"the sea bathing in the sea\"), 38 seconds\n\nThe Lumières went on tour with the cinématographe in 1896, visiting Brussels (the first place a film was played outside Paris on the Galleries Saint-Hubert on 1 March 1896), Bombay, London, Montreal, New York City and Buenos Aires.\n\nThe moving images had an immediate and significant influence on popular culture with ''L'Arrivée d'un Train en Gare de la Ciotat'' (literally, \"the arrival of a train at La Ciotat\", but more commonly known as ''Arrival of a Train at a Station'') and ''Carmaux, défournage du coke'' (Drawing out the coke). Their actuality films, or ''actualités'', are often cited as the first, primitive documentaries. They also made the first steps towards comedy film with the slapstick of ''L'Arroseur Arrosé''.\n",
"Autochrome colour picture by Jean-Baptiste Tournassoud of North-African soldiers, Oise, France, 1917.\n\n\nThe brothers stated that \"the cinema is an invention without any future\" and declined to sell their camera to other filmmakers such as Georges Méliès. This made many film makers upset. Consequently, their role in the history of film was exceedingly brief. In parallel with their cinema work they experimented with colour photography. They worked on a number of colour photographic processes in the 1890s including the Lippmann process (interference heliochromy) and their own 'bichromated glue' process, a subtractive colour process, examples of which were exhibited at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1900. This last process was commercialised by the Lumieres but commercial success had to wait for their next colour process. In 1903 they patented a colour photographic process, the ''Autochrome Lumière'', which was launched on the market in 1907. Throughout much of the 20th century, the Lumière company was a major producer of photographic products in Europe, but the brand name, Lumière, disappeared from the marketplace following merger with Ilford. They also invented the colour plate, which really got photography on the road.\n",
"The Lumière Brothers were not the only ones to claim the title of the first cinematographers. The scientific chronophotography devices developed by Eadweard Muybridge, Étienne-Jules Marey and Ottomar Anschütz in the 1880s were able to produce moving photographs, as was William Friese-Greene's 'chronophotographic' system, demonstrated in 1890.Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope (developed by W K-L Dickson), premiered in 1891.\n\nSince 1892, the projected drawings of Émile Reynaud's Théâtre Optique were attracting Paris crowds to the Musée Grévin. Louis Le Prince and Claude Mechant had been shooting moving picture sequences on paper film as soon as 1888, but had never performed a public demonstration. Polish inventor, Kazimierz Prószyński had built his camera and projecting device, called Pleograph, in 1894. Max and Emil Skladanowsky, inventors of the Bioscop, had offered projected moving images to a paying public one month earlier (1 November 1895, in Berlin). Nevertheless, film historians consider the Grand Café screening to be the true birth of the cinema as a commercial medium, because the Skladanowsky brothers' screening used an extremely impractical dual system motion picture projector that was immediately supplanted by the Lumiere cinematographe.\n\nAlthough the Lumière brothers were not the first inventors to develop techniques to create motion pictures, they are often credited as among the first inventors of the technology for cinema as a mass medium, and are among the first who understood how to use it.\n",
"Their house in Lyon is now the Institut Lumière museum.\n\n*1895 in film\n*1896 in film\n*19th century in film\n*History of film\n*L'Idéal Cinéma Jacques Tati in Aniche the oldest still-active cinéma in the world, though not continuously, since 23 November 1905.\n*List of works by Louis Botinelly\n*Place Ambroise-Courtois\n",
"===Notes===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n* Chardère, B. ''Les images des Lumière'' (in French). Paris: Gallimard, 1995. . \n* Chardère, B., G. Borgé, G. and M. Borge. ''Les Lumière'' (in French). Paris: Bibliothèque des Arts, 1985. .\n* Cook, David. ''A History of Narrative Film'' (4th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton, 2004. .\n* Lavédrine, Bertrand and Jean-Paul Gandolfo. ''The Lumière Autochrome: History, Technology, and Preservation''. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2013. .\n* Mast, Gerald and Bruce F. Kawin. ''A Short History of the Movies'' (9th ed.). New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. .\n* Rittaud-Hutinet, Jacques. ''Le cinéma des origines'' (in French). Seyssel, France: Champ Vallon, 1985. .\n",
"\n* \n* \n* The Lumiere Brothers, Pioneers of Cinema\n* Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale\n* \n* \n* '' Major Exhibition Casts New Light on the Lumières'' by David Robinson\n* The films shown at the first public screening (QuickTime format) — 26 December 1895. Also includes a program for the event.\n* Le musée Lumière — Lumière Museum\n* autochrome colour still of the Lumiere Brothers, 1907\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"First film screenings",
"Early colour photography",
"Other early cinematographers",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Auguste and Louis Lumière |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Acts of the Apostles''' (, ''Práxeis tôn Apostólōn''; ), often referred to simply as '''Acts''', is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire.\n\nActs and the Gospel of Luke make up a two-part work, Luke–Acts, by the same anonymous author, usually dated to around 80–90 AD. The first part, the Gospel of Luke, tells how God fulfilled his plan for the world's salvation through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, the promised Messiah. Acts continues the story of Christianity in the 1st century, beginning with Jesus's Ascension to Heaven. The early chapters, set in Jerusalem, describe the Day of Pentecost (the coming of the Holy Spirit) and the growth of the church in Jerusalem. Initially, the Jews are receptive to the Christian message, but soon they turn against the followers of Jesus. Rejected by the Jews, under the guidance of the Apostle Peter the message is taken to the Gentiles. The later chapters tell of Paul's conversion, his mission in Asia Minor and the Aegean, and finally his imprisonment in Rome, where, as the book ends, he awaits trial.\n\nLuke–Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it. Luke–Acts can be also seen as a defense of (or \"apology\" for) the Jesus movement addressed to the Jews: the bulk of the speeches and sermons in Acts are addressed to Jewish audiences, with the Romans featuring as external arbiters on disputes concerning Jewish customs and law. On the one hand Luke portrays the Christians as a sect of the Jews, and therefore entitled to legal protection as a recognised religion; on the other, Luke seems unclear as to the future God intends for Jews and Christians, celebrating the Jewishness of Jesus and his immediate followers while also stressing how the Jews had rejected God's promised Messiah.\n",
"\nRussian icon by Fyodor Zubov, 1660\n\n===Title, unity of Luke–Acts, authorship and date===\nThe title \"Acts of the Apostles\" (Greek ''Praxeis Apostolon'') was first used by Irenaeus in the late 2nd century. It is not known whether this was an existing title or one invented by Irenaeus; it does seem clear, however, that it was not given by the author.\n\nThe Gospel of Luke and Acts make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts. Together they account for 27.5% of the New Testament, the largest contribution attributed to a single author, providing the framework for both the Church's liturgical calendar and the historical outline into which later generations have fitted their idea of the story of Jesus and the early church.\n\nThe author is not named in either volume. According to Church tradition dating from the 2nd century, he was the \"Luke\" named as a companion of the apostle Paul in three of the letters attributed to Paul himself; this view is still sometimes advanced, but \"a critical consensus emphasizes the countless contradictions between the account in Acts and the authentic Pauline letters.\") (An example can be seen by comparing Acts's accounts of Paul's conversion (Acts 9:1–31, 22:6–21, and 26:9–23) with Paul's own statement that he remained unknown to Christians in Judea after that event (Galatians 1:17–24).) He admired Paul, but his theology was significantly different from Paul's on key points and he does not (in Acts) represent Paul's views accurately. He was educated, a man of means, probably urban, and someone who respected manual work, although not a worker himself; this is significant, because more high-brow writers of the time looked down on the artisans and small business people who made up the early church of Paul and were presumably Luke's audience.\n\nThe earliest possible date for the composition of Acts is set by the events with which it ends, Paul's imprisonment in Rome c.63 AD, but an early date is now rarely put forward. The last possible date would be set by its first definite citation by another author, but there is no unanimity on this—some scholars find echoes of Acts in a work from c. 95 AD called I Clement, while others see no indisputable citation until the middle of the 2nd century. The majority of scholars date Luke–Acts to 80–90 AD, on the grounds that it uses Mark as a source and looks back on the destruction of Jerusalem, and does not show any awareness of the letters of Paul (which began circulating late in the century); if, however, it does show awareness of Paul and also of Josephus, then a date early in the 2nd century is more likely. In either case, there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.\n\n===Genre, sources and historicity of Acts===\nLuke (or more accurately the anonymous author of Luke–Acts) aligned his work, Luke–Acts, to the \"narratives\" (διήγησις, ''diēgēsis'') which many others had written, and described his own work as an \"orderly account\" (ακριβώς καθέξης). Acts, the second part, is widely thought of as a history, but it lacks exact analogies in Hellenistic or Jewish literature. The title \"Acts of the Apostles\" (''Prαxeis Apostolon'') would seem to identify it with the genre telling of the deeds and achievements of great men (''praxeis''), but it was not the title given by the author.\n\nLuke seems to have taken as his model the works of two respected Classical authors, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who wrote a well-known history of Rome, and the Jewish historian Josephus, author of a history of the Jews. Like them, he anchors his history by dating the birth of the founder (Romulus for Dionysius, Moses for Josephus, Jesus for Luke) and like them he tells how the founder is born from God, taught authoritatively, and appeared to witnesses after death before ascending to heaven. By and large the sources for Acts can only be guessed at, but Luke would have had access to the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures), the gospel of Mark and the collection of \"sayings of Jesus\" called the Q source. He transposed a few incidents from Mark's gospel to the time of the Apostles—for example, the material about \"clean\" and \"unclean\" foods in Mark 7 is used in Acts 10, and Mark's account of the accusation that Jesus has attacked the Temple (Mark 14:58) is used in a story about Stephen (Acts 6:14).) There are also points of contacts (meaning suggestive parallels but something less than clear evidence) with 1 Peter, the Letter to the Hebrews, and 1 Clement. Other sources can only be inferred from internal evidence—the traditional explanation of the three \"we\" passages, for example, is that they represent eye-witness accounts. The search for such inferred sources was popular in the 19th century, but by the mid-20th it had largely been abandoned.\n\nActs was read as a reliable history of the early church well into the post-Reformation era. By the 17th century, however, biblical scholars began to notice that it was incomplete and tendentious—its picture of a harmonious church is quite at odds with that given by Paul's letters, and it omits important events such as the deaths of both Peter and Paul. The mid-19th-century scholar Ferdinand Baur suggested that Luke had re-written history to present a united Peter and Paul and advance a single orthodoxy against the Marcionites. (Marcion was a 2nd-century heretic who wished to cut Christianity off entirely from the Jews). Baur continues to have enormous influence, but today there is less interest in determining Luke's historical accuracy (although this has never died out) than in understanding his theological program. In How Jesus Became Christian Canadian religious historian Barrie Wilson has renewed Baur's charge that Acts is a work of historical revisionism whose main purpose was to link Paul's new and separate Christ religion to Jesus and Judaism.\n\n===Audience and authorial intent===\nLuke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus-followers gathered in a house to share the Lord's supper. The author assumes an educated Greek-speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco-Roman world at large. He begins his gospel with a preface addressed to Theophilus, informing him of his intention to provide an \"ordered account\" of events which will lead his reader to \"certainty\". He did not write in order to provide Theophilus with historical justification—\"did it happen?\"—but to encourage faith—\"what happened, and what does it all mean?\"\n\nActs (or Luke–Acts) is intended as a work of \"edification.\" Edification means \"the empirical demonstration that virtue is superior to vice,\" but is not all of Luke's purpose. He also engages with the question of a Christian's proper relationship with the Roman Empire, the civil power of the day: could a Christian obey God and also Caesar? The answer is ambiguous. The Romans never move against Jesus or his followers unless provoked by the Jews, in the trial scenes the Christian missionaries are always cleared of charges of violating Roman laws, and Acts ends with Paul in Rome proclaiming the Christian message under Roman protection; at the same time, Luke makes clear that the Romans, like all earthly rulers, receive their authority from Satan, while Christ is ruler of the kingdom of God.\n\n===Manuscripts===\n\nThere are two major textual variants of Luke–Acts, the Western text-type and the Alexandrian. The oldest complete Alexandrian manuscripts date from the 4th century and the oldest Western ones from the 6th, with fragments and citations going back to the 3rd. Western texts of Acts are 6.2–8.4% longer than Alexandrian texts, the additions tending to enhance the Jewish rejection of the Messiah and the role of the Holy Spirit, in ways that are stylistically different from the rest of Acts. These conflicts suggest that Luke–Acts was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century. The majority of scholars prefer the Alexandrian (shorter) text-type over the Western as the more authentic, but this same argument would favour the Western over the Alexandrian for the gospel of Luke, as in that case the, Western version is the shorter. The debate therefore continues.\n",
"Acts 1:1–2a from the 14th century Minuscule 223\n\n===Structure===\nActs has two key structural principles. The first is the geographic movement from Jerusalem, centre of God's Covenantal people, the Jews, to Rome, centre of the Gentile world. This structure reaches back to the author's preceding work, the Gospel of Luke, and is signaled by parallel scenes such as Paul's utterance in Acts 19:21, which echoes Jesus's words 9:51 (Paul has Rome as his destination, as Jesus had Jerusalem). The second key element is the roles of Peter and Paul, the first representing the Jewish Christian church, the second the mission to the Gentiles.\n* Transition: reprise of the preface addressed to Theophilus and the closing events of the gospel (Acts 1–1:26)\n* Petrine Christianity: the Jewish church from Jerusalem to Antioch (Acts 2:1–12:25)\n:: 2:1–8:1 – beginnings in Jerusalem\n:: 8:2–40 – the church expands to Samaria and beyond\n:: 9:1–31 – conversion of Paul\n:: 9:32–12:25 – the conversion of Cornelius, and the formation of the Antioch church\n* Pauline Christianity: the Gentile mission from Antioch to Rome (Acts 13:1–28:21)\n:: 13:1–14:28 – the Gentile mission is promoted from Antioch\n:: 15:1–35 – the Gentile mission is confirmed in Jerusalem\n:: 15:36–28:31 – the Gentile mission, climaxing in Paul's passion story in Rome (21:17–28:31)\n\n===Outline===\n* Dedication to Theophilus (1:1–2)\n* Resurrection appearances (1:3)\n* Great Commission (1:4–8)\n* Ascension (1:9)\n* Second Coming Prophecy (1:10–11)\n* Matthias replaced Judas (1:12–26)\n** the ''Upper Room'' (1:13)\n* Holy Spirit came at Pentecost (2), see also Paraclete\n* Peter healed a crippled beggar (3:1–10)\n* Peter's speech at the Temple (3:11–26)\n* Peter and John before the Sanhedrin (4:1–22)\n** Resurrection of the dead (4:2)\n* Believers' Prayer (4:23–31)\n* Everything is shared (4:32–37)\n* Ananias and Sapphira (5:1–11)\n* Signs and Wonders (5:12–16)\n* Apostles before the Sanhedrin (5:17–42)\n* Seven Deacons appointed (6:1–7)\n* Stephen before the Sanhedrin (6:8–7:60)\n** The \"Cave of the Patriarchs\" was located in Shechem (7:16)\n** \"Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians\" (7:22)\n** First mentioning of Saul (Paul the Apostle) in the Bible (7:58)\n** Paul the Apostle confesses his part in the martyrdom of Stephen (7:58–60)\n* Saul persecuted the Church of Jerusalem (8:1–3)\n* Philip the Evangelist (8:4–40)\n** Simon Magus (8:9–24)\n** Ethiopian eunuch (8:26–39)\n* Conversion of Paul the Apostle (9:1–31, 22:1–22, 26:9–24)\n** Paul the Apostle confesses his active part in the martyrdom of Stephen (22:20)\n* Peter healed Aeneas and raised Tabitha from the dead (9:32–43)\n* Conversion of Cornelius (10:1–8, 24–48)\n* Peter's vision of a sheet with animals (10:9–23, 11:1–18)\n* Church of Antioch founded (11:19–30)\n** term \"Christian\" first used (11:26)\n* James the Great executed (12:1–2)\n* Peter's rescue from prison (12:3–19)\n* Death of Herod Agrippa I in 44 (12:20–25)\n** \"the voice of a god\" (12:22)\n* Mission of Barnabas and Saul (13–14)\n** \"Saul, who was also known as Paul\" (13:9)\n** called \"gods ... in human form\" (14:11)\n* Council of Jerusalem (15:1–35)\n* Paul separated from Barnabas (15:36–41)\n* 2nd and 3rd missions (16–20)\n** Areopagus sermon (17:16–34)\n*** \"God...has set a day\" (17:30–31)\n** Trial before Gallio c. 51–52 (18:12–17)\n* Trip to Jerusalem (21)\n* Before the people and the Sanhedrin (22–23)\n* Before Felix–Festus–Herod Agrippa II (24–26)\n* Trip to Rome (27–28)\n** called a god on Malta (28:6)\n\n===Content===\n\nThe Gospel of Luke began with a prologue addressed to Theophilus; Acts likewise opens with an address to Theophilus and refers to \"my earlier book\", almost certainly the gospel.\n\nThe apostles and other followers of Jesus meet and elect Matthias to replace Judas as a member of The Twelve. On Pentecost, the Holy Spirit descends and confers God's power on them, and Peter, along with John, preaches to many in Jerusalem, and performs Christ-like healings, casting out of evil spirits, and raising of the dead. At first many Jews follow Christ and are baptized, but the Christians begin to be increasingly persecuted by the Jews. Stephen is arrested for blasphemy, and after a trial, is found guilty and stoned by the Jews. Stephen's death marks a major turning point: the Jews have rejected the message, and henceforth it will be taken to the Gentiles.\n\nThe message is taken to the Samaritans, a people rejected by Jews, and to the Gentiles. Saul of Tarsus, one of the Jews who persecuted the Christians, is converted by a vision to become a follower of Christ (an event which Luke regards as so important that he relates it three times). Peter, directed by a series of visions, preaches to Cornelius the Centurion, a Gentile God-fearer, who becomes a follower of Christ. The Holy Spirit descends on Peter and Cornelius, thus confirming that the message of eternal life in Christ is for all mankind. The Gentile church is established in Antioch (north-western Syria, the third-largest city of the empire), and here Christ's followers are first called Christians.\n\nThe mission to the Gentiles is promoted from Antioch and confirmed at meeting in Jerusalem between Paul and the leadership of the Jerusalem church. Paul spends the next few years traveling through western Asia Minor and the Aegean, preaching, converting Gentiles, and founding new churches. On a visit to Jerusalem he is set on by a Jewish mob. Saved by the Roman commander, he is accused by the Jews of being a revolutionary, the \"ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes\", and imprisoned. Paul asserts his right as a Roman citizen, to be tried in Rome and is sent by sea to Rome, where he spends another two years under house arrest, proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching the \"Lord Jesus Christ\". Acts ends abruptly without recording the outcome of Paul's legal troubles.\n",
"Paul's conversion, from ''Livre d'Heures d'Étienne Chevalier'' (c. 1450–1460), Jean Fouquet, in the Château de Chantilly.\n\nPrior to the 1950s, Luke–Acts was seen as a historical work, written to defend Christianity before the Romans or Paul against his detractors; since then, however, the tendency has been to see the work as primarily theological. Luke's theology is expressed primarily through his overarching plot, the way scenes, themes and characters combine to construct his specific worldview. His \"salvation history\" stretches from the Creation to the present time of his readers, in three ages: first, the time of \"the Law and the Prophets\" (Luke 16:16), the period beginning with Genesis and ending with the appearance of John the Baptist (Luke 1:5–3:1); second, the epoch of Jesus, in which the Kingdom of God was preached (Luke 3:2–24:51); and finally the period of the Church, which began when the risen Christ was taken into Heaven, and would end with his second coming.\n\nLuke–Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah promised to the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it. This theme is introduced at the opening of the gospel of Luke, when Jesus, rejected in Nazareth, recalls that the prophets were rejected by Israel and accepted by Gentiles; at the end of the gospel he commands his disciples to preach his message to all nations, \"beginning from Jerusalem.\" He repeats the command in Acts, telling them to preach \"in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the Earth.\" They then proceed to do so, in the order outlined: first Jerusalem, then Judea, then Samaria, then the entire (Roman) world.\n\nFor Luke, the Holy Spirit is the driving force behind the spread of the Christian message, and he places more emphasis on it than do any of the other evangelists. The Spirit is \"poured out\" at Pentecost, on the first Samaritan and Gentile believers, and on disciples who had been baptised only by John the Baptist, each time as a sign of God's approval. The Holy Spirit represents God's power (At his ascension, Jesus tells his followers, \"You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you\"): through it the disciples are given speech to convert thousands in Jerusalem, forming the first church (the term is used for the first time in Acts 5).\n",
"''Saint Paul Writing His Epistles'', ascribed to Valentin de Boulogne, 17th century\n\n===Gospel of Luke===\nAs the second part of the two-part work Luke–Acts, Acts has significant links to the Gospel of Luke. Major turning points in the structure of Acts, for example, find parallels in Luke: the presentation of the child Jesus in the Temple parallels the opening of Acts in the Temple, Jesus's forty days of testing in the wilderness prior to his mission parallel the forty days prior to his Ascension in Acts, the mission of Jesus in Samaria and the Decapolis (the lands of the Samaritans and Gentiles) parallels the missions of the Apostles in Samaria and the Gentile lands, and so on (see Gospel of Luke). These parallels continue through both books.\n\nThere are also differences between Luke and Acts, amounting at times to outright contradiction. For example, the gospel seems to place the Ascension on Easter Sunday, immediately after the Resurrection, while Acts 1 puts it forty days later. There are similar conflicts over the theology. While not seriously questioning the single authorship of Luke–Acts, these differences do suggest the need for caution in seeking too much consistency in books written in essence as popular literature.\n\n===Pauline epistles===\nActs agrees with Paul's letters on the major outline of Paul's career: as Saul he is converted and becomes Paul the Christian missionary and apostle, establishing new churches in Asia Minor and the Aegean and struggling to free Gentile Christians from the Jewish Law. There are also agreements on many incidents, such as Paul's escape from Damascus, where he is lowered down the walls in a basket. But details of these same incidents are frequently contradictory: for example, according to Paul it was a pagan king who was trying to arrest him in Damascus, but according to Luke it was, characteristically, the Jews (2 Corinthians 11:33 and Acts 9:24). Many of the disagreements are not so immediately obvious: Acts speaks of \"Christians\" and \"disciples\", but Paul never uses either term, and there are striking differences in the accounts of Paul's relationship with the Jerusalem church and its leaders (Acts 9–15 vs. Galatians 1–2). Acts omits much from the letters, notably Paul's problems with his congregations (internal difficulties are said to be the fault of the Jews instead), and his apparent final rejection by the church leaders in Jerusalem (Acts has Paul and Barnabas deliver an offering that is accepted, a trip that has no mention in the letters). There are also major differences between Acts and Paul on Christology (the understanding of Christ's nature), eschatology (understanding of the \"last things\"), and apostleship.\n",
"\n\n* Acts of the Apostles (genre)\n* List of Gospels\n* List of omitted Bible verses\n* ''The Lost Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles'', also known as the ''Sonnini Manuscript''\n* Textual variants in the Acts of the Apostles\n* Holy Spirit in the Acts of the Apostles\n",
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"\n\n\n\n* A Brief Introduction to Luke–Acts is available online.\n* ''Book of Acts'' at Bible Gateway (NIV & KJV)\n* Tertullian.org: The Western Text of the Acts of the Apostles (1923) J. M. WILSON, D.D.\n* \n* Various versions\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
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"Introduction",
"Composition and setting",
"Structure and content",
"Theology",
"Comparison with other writings",
"See also",
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] | Acts of the Apostles |
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"\n\n\n\n'''Assyria''' was a major Mesopotamian kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East and the Levant. It existed as a state from perhaps as early as the 25th century BC in the form of the Assur city-state, until its lapse between 612 BC and 599 BC, spanning the Early to Middle Bronze Age through to the late Iron Age. From the end of the seventh century BC to the mid-seventh century AD, it survived as a geopolitical entity, for the most part ruled by foreign powers, although a number of Neo-Assyrian states arose at different times during the Parthian and early Sasanian Empires between the mid-second century BC and late third century AD, a period which also saw Assyria become a major centre of Syriac Christianity and the birthplace of the Church of the East.\n\nCentered on the Tigris in Upper Mesopotamia (modern northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and the northwestern fringes of Iran), the Assyrians came to rule powerful empires at several times. Making up a substantial part of the greater Mesopotamian \"cradle of civilization\", which included Sumer, the Akkadian Empire, and Babylonia, Assyria was at the height of technological, scientific and cultural achievements for its time. At its peak, the Assyrian empire stretched from Cyprus and the East Mediterranean to Iran, and from what is now Armenia and Azerbaijan in the Caucasus, to the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt and eastern Libya.\n\nAssyria is named after its original capital, the ancient city of Aššur, which dates to c. 2600 BC, originally one of a number of Akkadian city states in Mesopotamia. In the 25th and 24th centuries BC, Assyrian kings were pastoral leaders. From the late 24th century BC, the Assyrians became subject to Sargon of Akkad, who united all the Akkadian- and Sumerian-speaking peoples of Mesopotamia under the Akkadian Empire, which lasted from c. 2334 BC to 2154 BC. After its fall from power, the greater remaining part of Assyria was a geopolitical region and province of other empires, although between the mid-2nd century BC and late 3rd century AD a patchwork of small independent Assyrian kingdoms arose in the form of Ashur, Adiabene, Osroene, Beth Nuhadra, Beth Garmai and Hatra.\n\nThe region of Assyria fell under the successive control of the Median Empire, the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Seleucid Empire, the Parthian Empire, the Roman Empire, and the Sasanian Empire. The Arab Islamic Conquest in the mid-seventh century finally dissolved Assyria (Assuristan) as a single entity, after which the remnants of the Assyrian people (by now Christians) gradually became an ethnic, linguistic, cultural and religious minority in the Assyrian homeland, surviving there to this day as an indigenous people of the region.\n",
"Assyria was also sometimes known as Subartu and ''Azuhinum'' prior to the rise of the city-state of Ashur, after which it was Aššūrāyu, and after its fall, from 605 BC through to the late seventh century AD variously as Achaemenid Assyria, and also referenced as Atouria, Ator, Athor, and sometimes as ''Syria'' which etymologically derives from Assyria according to Strabo, ''Syria'' (Greek), ''Assyria'' (Latin) and Asōristān (Middle Persian). \"Assyria\" can also refer to the geographic region or heartland where Assyria, its empires and the Assyrian people were (and still are) centered.\n\nThe indigenous modern Eastern Aramaic-speaking Assyrian Christian ethnic minority in northern Iraq, north east Syria, southeast Turkey and northwest Iran are the descendants of the ancient Assyrians (see Assyrian continuity).\n",
"Letter sent by the high-priest Lu'enna to the king of Lagash (maybe Urukagina), informing him of his son's death in combat, c. 2400 BC, found in Girsu.\nIn prehistoric times, the region that was to become known as Assyria (and Subartu) was home to a Neanderthal culture such as has been found at the Shanidar Cave. The earliest Neolithic sites in Assyria were the Jarmo culture c. 7100 BC and Tell Hassuna, the centre of the ''Hassuna culture'', c. 6000 BC.\n\nThe Akkadian-speaking people (the earliest historically-attested Semitic-speaking people) who would eventually found Assyria appear to have entered Mesopotamia at some point during the latter 4th millennium BC (c. 3500–3000 BC), eventually intermingling with the earlier Sumerian-speaking population, with Akkadian names appearing in written record from as early as the 29th century BC.\n\nDuring the 3rd millennium BC, a very intimate cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians throughout Mesopotamia, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian (a language isolate) on Akkadian, and vice versa, is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium BC as a ''sprachbund''. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere after the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), although Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD, as did use of the Akkadian cuneiform.\n\nThe cities of Assur, Nineveh, Gasur and Arbela together with a number of other towns and cities, existed since at least before the middle of the 3rd millennium BC (c. 2600 BC), although they appear to have been Sumerian-ruled administrative centres at this time, rather than independent states.\n\nGreco-Roman classical writers such as Julius Africanus, Marcus Velleius Paterculus and Diodorus Siculus dated the founding of Assyria to various dates between 2284 BC and 2057 BC, listing the earliest king as Belus or Ninus.\n\nAccording to the Biblical generations of Noah, which appears to have been largely compiled between the 7th and 5th centuries BC, the city of Aššur was allegedly founded by a biblical Ashur the son of Shem, who was deified by later generations as the city's patron god. However, the much older attested Assyrian tradition itself lists the first king of Assyria as the 25th century BC Tudiya, and an early urbanised Assyrian king named Ushpia (c. 2050 BC) as having dedicated the first temple to the god Ashur in the city in the mid-21st century BC. It is highly likely that the city was named in honour of its patron Assyrian god with the same name.\n",
"\n\n===Early period===\n\n\n\n\n\nThe city of Aššur, together with a number of other Assyrian cities, seem to have been established by 2600 BC. However it is likely that they were initially Sumerian-dominated administrative centres. In the late 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagash, then the dominant Sumerian ruler in Mesopotamia, mentions \"smiting Subartu\" (Subartu being the Sumerian name for Assyria). Similarly, in ''c.'' the early 25th century BC, Lugal-Anne-Mundu the king of the Sumerian state of Adab lists Subartu as paying tribute to him.\n\nOf the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is known. In the Assyrian King List, the earliest king recorded was Tudiya. According to Georges Roux he would have lived in the mid 25th century BC, i.e. circa 2450 BC. In archaeological reports from Ebla, it appeared that Tudiya's activities were confirmed with the discovery of a tablet where he concluded a treaty for the operation of a ''karum'' (trading colony) in Eblaite territory, with \"king\" Ibrium of Ebla (who is now known to have been the vizier of Ebla for king Ishar-Damu).\n\nTudiya was succeeded on the list by Adamu, the first known reference to the Semitic name ''Adam'' and then a further thirteen rulers (Yangi, Suhlamu, Harharu, Mandaru, Imsu, Harsu, Didanu, Hanu, Zuabu, Nuabu, Abazu, Belus and Azarah). Nothing concrete is yet known about these names, although it has been noted that a much later Babylonian tablet listing the ancestral lineage of Hammurabi, the Amorite king of Babylon, seems to have copied the same names from Tudiya through Nuabu, though in a heavily corrupted form.\n\nThe earliest kings, such as Tudiya, who are recorded as ''kings who lived in tents'', were independent semi-nomadic pastoralist rulers. These kings at some point became fully urbanised and founded the ''city state'' of Ashur in the mid 21st century BC.\n\n====Akkadian Empire and Neo-Sumerian Empires====\n\n\n\nDuring the Akkadian Empire (2334–2154 BC), the Assyrians, like all the Mesopotamians (and also the Sumerians), became subject to the dynasty of the city state of Akkad, centered in central Mesopotamia. The Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the Great claimed to encompass the surrounding \"four quarters\". The region of Assyria, north of the seat of the empire in central Mesopotamia, had also been known as Subartu by the Sumerians, and the name Azuhinum in Akkadian records also seems to refer to Assyria proper. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. \n\nAssyrian rulers were subject to Sargon and his successors, and the city of Ashur became a regional administrative center of the Empire, implicated by the Nuzi tablets. During this period, the Akkadian-speaking Semites of Mesopotamia came to rule an empire encompassing not only Mesopotamia itself but large swathes of Asia Minor, ancient Iran, Elam, the Arabian Peninsula, Canaan and Syria.\n\nAssyria seems to have already been firmly involved in trade in Asia Minor by this time; the earliest known reference to Anatolian ''karums'' in Hatti was found on later cuneiform tablets describing the early period of the Akkadian Empire (c. 2350 BC). On those tablets, Assyrian traders in Burushanda implored the help of their ruler, Sargon the Great, and this appellation continued to exist throughout the Assyrian Empire for about 1,700 years. The name \"Hatti\" itself even appears in later accounts of his grandson, Naram-Sin, campaigning in Anatolia.\n\nAssyrian and Akkadian traders spread the use of writing in the form of the Mesopotamian cuneiform script to Asia Minor and The Levant (modern Syria and Lebanon). However, towards the end of the reign of Sargon the Great, the Assyrian faction rebelled against him; \"the tribes of Assyria of the upper country—in their turn attacked, but they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them grievously\".\n\nThe Akkadian Empire was destroyed by economic decline and internal civil war, followed by attacks from barbarian Gutian people in 2154 BC. The rulers of Assyria during the period between c. 2154 BC and 2112 BC once again became fully independent, as the Gutians are only known to have administered southern Mesopotamia. However, the king list is the only information from Assyria for this period.\n\nMost of Assyria briefly became part of the Neo-Sumerian Empire (or 3rd dynasty of Ur) founded in c. 2112 BC. Sumerian domination extended as far as the city of Ashur, but appears not to have reached Nineveh and the far north of Assyria. One local ruler (''shakkanakku'') named Zāriqum (who does not appear on any Assyrian king list) is listed as paying tribute to Amar-Sin of Ur. Ashur's rulers appear to have remained largely under Sumerian domination until the mid-21st century BC (c. 2050 BC); the king list names Assyrian rulers for this period and several are known from other references to have also borne the title of ''shakkanakka'' or vassal governors for the neo-Sumerians.\n\n===Old Assyrian Empire===\n\n\n\nThe Old Assyrian Empire is one of four periods in which the history of Assyria is divided, the other three being: the Early Assyrian Period, the Middle Assyrian Period and the New Assyrian Period. Assyria was a major Mesopotamian Afro-Asiatic-speaking kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East. Centered on the Tigris-Euphrates River System in Upper Mesopotamia, the Assyrian people came to rule powerful empires at several times. Making up a substantial part of the \"Cradle of Civilization\", which included Sumer, the Akkadian Empire, and Babylonia, Assyria was at the height of technological, scientific and cultural achievements at its peak. \n\nAt its peak, the Assyrian empire ruled over the what the ancient Mesopotamian religion referred to as the \"Four Corners of the World\": as far north as the Caucasus Mountains within the lands of what is today called the Republic of Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, as far east as the Zagros Mountains within the territory of present-day Islamic Republic of Iran, as far south as the Arabian Desert of today's Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as far west as the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea, and even further to the west in Egypt and eastern Libya.\n\nAssyria is named for its original capital, the ancient city of Aššur, which dates to c. 2600 BC, originally one of a number of Akkadian city states in Mesopotamia. Assyria was also sometimes known as Subartu and Azuhinum prior to the rise of the city-state of Aššūr, after which it was Aššūrāyu, and after its fall. \n\nUshpia (2050–2030 BC) appears to have been the first fully urbanised independent king of Assyria, and is traditionally held to have dedicated temples to the god Ashur in the city of the same name. He was followed by Sulili, Kikkiya and Akiya, of whom little is known aside from Kikkiya conducting various building works in Assur.\n\nAssyria remained strong and secure; when Babylon was sacked and its Amorite rulers deposed by the Hittite Empire, and subsequently fell to the Kassites in 1595 BC, both powers were unable to make any inroads into Assyria, and there seems to have been no trouble between the first Kassite ruler of Babylon, Agum II, and Erishum III (1598–1586 BC) of Assyria, and a mutually beneficial treaty was signed between the two rulers. Shamshi-Adad II (1585–1580 BC), Ishme-Dagan II (1579–1562 BC) and Shamshi-Adad III (1562–1548 BC) seem also to have had peaceful tenures, although few records have thus far been discovered about their reigns. Similarly, Ashur-nirari I (1547–1522 BC) seems not to have been troubled by the newly founded Mitanni Empire in Asia Minor, the Hittite empire, or Babylon during his 25-year reign. He is known to have been an active king, improving the infrastructure, dedicating temples and conducting various building projects throughout the kingdom.\n\n====Decline, 1450–1393 BC====\nThe emergence of the Mitanni Empire in the 16th century BC did eventually lead to a short period of sporadic Mitannian-Hurrian domination in the latter half of the 15th century. The Indo-European-speaking Mitannians are thought to have conquered and formed the ruling class over the indigenous Hurrians of eastern Anatolia. The Hurrians spoke a language isolate, i.e. neither Semitic nor Indo-European.\nAshur-nadin-ahhe I (1450–1431 BC) was courted by the Egyptians, who were rivals of Mitanni, and attempting to gain a foothold in the Near East. Amenhotep II sent the Assyrian king a tribute of gold to seal an alliance against the Hurri-Mitannian empire. It is likely that this alliance prompted Saushtatar, the emperor of Mitanni, to invade Assyria, and sack the city of Ashur, after which Assyria became a sometime vassal state, with Ashur-nadin-ahhe I being deposed by Shaustatar and replaced by his own brother Enlil-nasir II (1430–1425 BC) in 1430 BC, who was then made to pay tribute to the Mitanni. Ashur-nirari II (1424–1418 BC) had an uneventful reign, and appears to have also paid tribute to the Mitanni Empire.\nThe Assyrian monarchy survived, and the Mitannian influence appears to have been short lived.\n\nThey appear not to have been always willing or indeed able to interfere in Assyrian internal and international affairs.\nAshur-bel-nisheshu (1417–1409 BC) seems to have been independent of Mitannian influence, as evidenced by his signing a mutually beneficial treaty with Karaindash, the Kassite king of Babylonia in the late 15th century. He also undertook extensive rebuilding work in Ashur itself, and Assyria appears to have redeveloped its former highly sophisticated financial and economic systems during his reign.\nAshur-rim-nisheshu (1408–1401 BC) also undertook building work, strengthening the city walls of the capital.\nAshur-nadin-ahhe II (1400–1393 BC) also received a tribute of gold and diplomatic overtures from Egypt, probably in an attempt to gain Assyrian military support against Egypt's Mitannian and Hittite rivals in the region. However, the Assyrian king appears not to have been in a strong enough position to challenge Mitanni or the Hittites.\n\nEriba-Adad I (1392–1366 BC), a son of Ashur-bel-nisheshu, ascended the throne in 1392 BC and finally broke the ties to the Mitanni Empire, and instead began to exert Assyrian influence on the Mitanni.\n\n===Middle Assyrian Empire 1392–1056 BC===\n\n\n\nThe Middle period (1365 BC–1056 BC) saw reigns of great kings, such as Ashur-uballit I, Arik-den-ili, Tukulti-Ninurta I and Tiglath-Pileser I. During this period, Assyria overthrew the empire of the Hurri-Mitanni and eclipsed the Hittite Empire, Egyptian Empire, Babylonia, Elam, Canaan and Phrygia in the Near East.\n\nAssyrian troops return after victory.\nBy the reign of Eriba-Adad I (1392–1366 BC) Mitanni influence over Assyria was on the wane. Eriba-Adad I became involved in a dynastic battle between Tushratta and his brother Artatama II and after this his son Shuttarna III, who called himself king of the Hurri while seeking support from the Assyrians. The Hittites, having failed to save Mitanni, allied with Babylon in an unsuccessful economic war against Assyria for many years. Assyria was now a large and powerful empire, and a major threat to Egyptian and Hittite interests in the region, and was perhaps the reason that these two powers, fearful of Assyrian might, made peace with one another.\n\nShalmaneser's son and successor, Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–1207 BC), won a major victory against the Hittites and their king Tudhaliya IV at the Battle of Nihriya and took thousands of prisoners. He then conquered Babylonia, taking Kashtiliash IV as a captive and ruled there himself as king for seven years, taking on the old title \"King of Sumer and Akkad\" first used by Sargon of Akkad. Tukulti-Ninurta I thus became the first Akkadian speaking native Mesopotamian to rule the state of Babylonia, its founders having been foreign Amorites, succeeded by equally foreign Kassites. Tukulti-Ninurta petitioned the god Shamash before beginning his counter offensive. Kashtiliash IV was captured, single-handed by Tukulti-Ninurta according to ''his'' account, who \"trod with my feet upon his lordly neck as though it were a footstool\" and deported him ignominiously in chains to Assyria. The victorious Assyrians demolished the walls of Babylon, massacred many of the inhabitants, pillaged and plundered his way across the city to the Esagila temple, where he made off with the statue of Marduk. \n\nMiddle Assyrian texts recovered at ancient Dūr-Katlimmu, include a letter from Tukulti-Ninurta to his ''sukkal rabi'u'', or grand vizier, Ashur-iddin advising him of the approach of his general Shulman-mushabshu escorting the captive Kashtiliash, his wife, and his retinue which incorporated a large number of women, on his way to exile after his defeat. In the process he defeated the Elamites, who had themselves coveted Babylon. He also wrote an epic poem documenting his wars against Babylon and Elam. He progressed further south into what is today Arabia, conquering the ''pre-Arab'' South Semitic kingdoms of Dilmun and Meluhha. After a Babylonian revolt, he raided and plundered the temples in Babylon, regarded as an act of sacrilege. As relations with the priesthood in Ashur began deteriorating, Tukulti-Ninurta built a new capital city; Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta.\n\nThe Aramaeans of northern and central Syria were the next targets of the Assyrian king, who made his way as far as the sources of the Tigris. The control of the high road to the Mediterranean was secured by the possession of the Hittite town of Pitru at the junction between the Euphrates and Sajur; thence he proceeded to conquer the Canaanite/Phoenician city-states of Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Simyra, Berytus (Beirut), Aradus and finally Arvad where he embarked onto a ship to sail the Mediterranean, on which he killed a ''nahiru'' or \"sea-horse\" (which A. Leo Oppenheim translates as a narwhal) in the sea. He was passionately fond of hunting and was also a great builder. The general view is that the restoration of the temple of the gods Ashur and Hadad at the Assyrian capital of Assur (Ashur) was one of his initiatives.\n\nAshur-bel-kala (1073–1056 BC) kept the vast empire together, campaigning successfully against Urartu and Phrygia to the north and the Arameans to the west. He maintained friendly relations with Marduk-shapik-zeri of Babylon, however upon the death of that king, he invaded Babylonia and deposed the new ruler Kadašman-Buriaš, appointing Adad-apla-iddina as his vassal in Babylon. He built some of the earliest examples of both Zoological Gardens and Botanical Gardens in Ashur, collecting all manner of animals and plants from his empire, and receiving a collection of exotic animals as tributes from Egypt.\n\nLate in his reign, the Middle Assyrian Empire erupted into civil war, when a rebellion was orchestrated by Tukulti-Mer, a pretender to the throne of Assyria. Ashur-bel-kala eventually crushed Tukulti-Mer and his allies, however the civil war in Assyria had allowed hordes of Arameans to take advantage of the situation, and press in on Assyrian controlled territory from the west. Ashur-bel-kala counterattacked them, and conquered as far as Carchemish and the source of the Khabur river, but by the end of his reign many of the areas of Syria and Phoenicia-Canaan to the west of these regions as far as the Mediterranean, previously under firm Assyrian control, were eventually lost to the Assyrian Empire.\n\n====Society and law in the Middle Assyrian Period====\n\nThe Middle Assyrian kingdom was well organized, and in the firm control of the king, who also functioned as the High Priest of Ashur, the state god. He had certain obligations to fulfill in the cult, and had to provide resources for the temples. The priesthood became a major power in Assyrian society. Conflicts with the priesthood are thought to have been behind the murder of king Tukulti-Ninurta I.\n\nThe Middle Assyrian Period was marked by the long wars fought that helped build Assyria into a warrior society. The king depended on both the citizen class and priests in his capital, and the landed nobility who supplied the horses needed by Assyria's military. Documents and letters illustrate the importance of the latter to Assyrian society. Assyria needed less artificial irrigation than Babylonia, and horse-breeding was extensive. Portions of elaborate texts about the care and training of them have been found. Trade was carried out in all directions. The mountain country to the north and west of Assyria was a major source of metal ore, as well as lumber. Economic factors were a common ''casus belli''.\n\nAll free male citizens were obliged to serve in the army for a time, a system which was called the ''ilku''-service. A legal code was produced during the 14th and 13th centuries which, among other things, clearly shows that the social position of women in Assyria was lower than that of neighbouring societies. Men were permitted to divorce their wives with no compensation paid to the latter. If a woman committed adultery, she could be beaten or put to death. It's not certain if these laws were seriously enforced, but they appear to be a backlash against some older documents that granted things like equal compensation to both partners in divorce.\n\nThe women of the king's harem and their servants were also subject to harsh punishments, such as beatings, mutilation, and death. Assyria, in general, had much harsher laws than most of the region. Executions were not uncommon, nor were whippings followed by forced labour. Some offenses allowed the accused a trial under torture or duress. One tablet that covers property rights has brutal penalties for violators. A creditor could force debtors to work for him, but not sell them.\n\nIn the Middle Assyrian Laws, sex crimes were punished identically whether they were homosexual or heterosexual. An individual faced no punishment for penetrating a cult prostitute, someone of an equal social class, or someone whose gender roles were not considered solidly masculine. Such sexual relations were even seen as good fortune. However, homosexual relationships with royal attendants, between soldiers, or with those where a social better was submissive or penetrated were either treated as rape or seen as bad omens, and punishments applied. One historian notes that the laws would not be so detailed \"if homosexual behavior were not a familiar aspect of daily life of early Mesopotamia.\"\n\nAssyrians opposed killing unborn babies. Middle Age-Law states that if a woman aborts her baby, she should be impaled and not buried. She must be convicted by a judge first. If the woman died in the process of aborting the baby, she again was impaled and not buried. If a man hit a woman who was pregnant, and caused a miscarriage, the striker’s wife would be punished the same way. The striker would also pay “life for life”. If the woman died because of the strike the man again would pay “life for life”.\n\n===Assyria during the Bronze Age Collapse, 1055–936 BC===\n\nThe Bronze Age Collapse from 1200 BC to 900 BC was a dark age for the entire Near East, North Africa, Asia Minor, Caucasus, Mediterranean and Balkan regions, with great upheavals and mass movements of people.\n\nAssyria and its empire were not unduly affected by these tumultuous events for some 150 years, perhaps the only ancient power that was not. However, upon the death of Ashur-bel-kala in 1056 BC, Assyria went into a ''comparative'' decline for the next 100 or so years. The empire shrank significantly, and by 1020 BC Assyria appears to have controlled only areas close to Assyria itself, essential to keeping trade routes open in eastern Aramea, south eastern Asia Minor, central Mesopotamia and north western Iran.\n\nNew West Semitic-speaking peoples such as the Arameans, Chaldeans and Suteans moved into areas to the west and south of Assyria, including overrunning much of Babylonia to the south, Indo-European speaking Iranic peoples such as the Medes, Persians, Sarmatians and Parthians moved into the lands to the east of Assyria, displacing the native Kassites and Gutians and pressuring Elam and Mannea (all of which ancient non Indo-European civilisations of Ancient Iran), and to the north in Asia Minor the Phrygians overran that part of the Hittites not already destroyed by Assyria, and Lydia emerged, a new Hurrian state named Urartu arose in the Caucasus, and Cimmerians, Colchians (Georgians) and Scythians around the Black Sea and Caucasus. Egypt was divided and in disarray, and Israelites were battling with other West Asian peoples such as the Amalekites, Moabites, Edomites and Ammonites and the non-Semitic-speaking Peleset/Philistines (who have been conjectured to be one of the so-called Sea Peoples) for the control of southern Canaan. Dorian Greeks usurped the earlier Mycenaean Greeks in western Asia Minor, and the Sea Peoples ravaged the Eastern Mediterranean.\n\nOther new peoples, such as the Sarmatians, Arabs, Nubians and Kushites were to emerge later, during the Neo-Assyrian Empire.\n\nAssyrian horsemen pursue defeated Arabs.\nDespite the apparent weakness of Assyria in comparison to its former might, at heart it in fact remained a solid, well defended nation whose warriors were the best in the world. Assyria, with its stable monarchy, powerful army and secure borders was in a stronger position during this time than potential rivals such as Egypt, Babylonia, Elam, Phrygia, Urartu, Persia, Lydia and Media. Kings such as Ashur-bel-kala, Eriba-Adad II, Ashur-rabi II, Ashurnasirpal I, Tiglath-Pileser II and Ashur-Dan II successfully defended Assyria's borders and upheld stability during this tumultuous time.\n\nAssyrian kings during this period appear to have adopted a policy of maintaining and defending a compact, secure nation and satellite colonies immediately surrounding it, and interspersed this with sporadic punitive raids and invasions of neighbouring territories when the need arose.\n\n===Neo-Assyrian Empire===\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Neo-Assyrian Empire is usually considered to have begun with the accession of Adad-nirari II, in 911 BC, lasting until the fall of Nineveh at the hands of the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes/Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians in 612 BC.\n\nAssyria maintained a large and thriving rural population, combined with a number of well fortified cities, Major Assyrian cities during this period included; Nineveh, Assur, Kalhu (Calah, Nimrud), Arbela (Erbil), Arrapha (Karka, Kirkuk), Dur-Sharrukin, Imgur-Enlil, Carchemish, Harran, Tushhan, Til-Barsip, Ekallatum, Kanesh, Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta, Urhai (Edessa), Guzana, Kahat, Amid (Diyarbakir), Mérida (Mardin, Tabitu, Nuhadra (Dohuk), Ivah, Sepharvaim, Rachae, Purushanda, Sabata, Birtha (Tikrit), Tell Shemshara, Dur-Katlimmu and Shekhna.\n\n====Expansion, 911–627 BC====\nAssyria once more began to expand with the rise of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC. He cleared Aramean and other tribal peoples from Assyria's borders and began to expand in all directions into Anatolia, Ancient Iran, Levant and Babylonia. \n\nAshurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) continued this expansion apace, subjugating much of the Levant to the west, the newly arrived Persians and Medes to the east, annexed central Mesopotamia from Babylon to the south, and expanded deep into Asia Minor to the north. He moved the capital from Ashur to Kalhu (Calah/Nimrud) and undertook impressive building works throughout Assyria. Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC) projected Assyrian power even further, conquering to the foothills of the Caucasus, Israel and Aram-Damascus, and subjugating Persia and the Arabs who dwelt to the south of Mesopotamia, as well as driving the Egyptians from Canaan. It was during the reign of Shalmaneser III that the Arabs and Chaldeans first enter the pages of recorded history.\n\nLittle further expansion took place under Shamshi-Adad V and his successor, the regent queen Semiramis, however when Adad-nirari III came of age, he took the reins of power from mother and set about a relentless campaign of conquest; subjugated the Arameans, Phoenicians, Philistines, Israelites, Neo-Hittites and Edomites, Persians, Medes and Manneans, penetrating as far as the Caspian Sea. He invaded and subjugated Babylonia, and then the migrant Chaldean and Sutean tribes settled in south eastern Mesopotamia whom he conquered and reduced to vassalage.\n\nAssyria then ceased to expand further for a time, until the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III. He created the world's first Professional army, introduced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of Assyria and its vast empire, and reorganised the empire drastically. Tiglath-Pileser III conquered as far as the East Mediterranean, bringing the Greeks of Cyprus, Phoenicia, Judah, Philistia, Samarra and the whole of Aramea under Assyrian control. Not satisfied with merely holding Babylonia in vassalage, Tiglath-Pileser deposed its king and had himself crowned king of Babylon. The imperial, economic, political, military and administrative reforms of Tiglath-Pileser III were to prove a blueprint for future empires, such as those of the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Carthaginians, Byzantines, Arabs and Turks.\n\nShalmaneser V reigned only briefly, but once more drove the Egyptians from southern Canaan, where they were fomenting revolt against Assyria. Sargon II quickly took Samaria, effectively ending the northern Kingdom of Israel and carrying 27,000 people away into captivity into the Israelite diaspora. He was forced to fight a war to drive out the Scythians and Cimmerians who had attempted to invade Assyria's vassal states of Persia and Media. The Neo-Hittite states of northern Syria were conquered, as well as Cilicia. Lydia and Commagene. King Midas of Phrygia, fearful of Assyrian power, offered his hand in friendship. Elam was defeated and Babylonia and Chaldea reconquered. He made a new capital city named Dur Sharrukin. He was succeeded by his son Sennacherib who moved the capital to Nineveh and made the deported peoples work on improving Nineveh's system of irrigation canals. Nineveh was transformed into the largest city in the world at the time.\n\nEsarhaddon had Babylon rebuilt, he imposed a ''vassal treaty'' upon his Persian, Median and Parthian subjects, and he once more defeated the Scythes and Cimmerians. Tiring of Egyptian interference in the Assyrian Empire, Esarhaddon decided to conquer Egypt. In 671 BC he crossed the Sinai Desert, invaded and took Egypt with surprising ease and speed. He drove its foreign Nubian/Kushite and Ethiopian rulers out, destroying the Kushite Empire in the process. Esarhaddon declared himself \"king of Egypt, Libya, and Kush\". Esarhaddon stationed a small army in northern Egypt and describes how; \"All Ethiopians (read Nubians/Kushites) I deported from Egypt, leaving not one left to do homage to me\". He installed native Egyptian princes throughout the land to rule on his behalf.\n\nAssyrian Empire to the death of Ashurbanipal,in dark green the ''pahitu''/''pahutu'' (provinces),in yellow the ''matu'' (subjects kingdoms), in cream color the Babylon kingdom, the yellow points show other subjects kingdoms, the black points show the ''pahitu''/''pahutu'' (provinces) of Babylon kingdom, and the brown letters provinces that existed previously\nUnder Ashurbanipal (669–627 BC), an unusually well educated king for his time who could speak, read and write in Sumerian, Akkadian and Aramaic, Assyrian domination spanned from the Caucasus Mountains (modern Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan) in the north to Nubia, Egypt, Libya and Arabia in the south, and from the East Mediterranean, Cyprus and Antioch in the west to Persia, Cissia and the Caspian Sea in the east.\n\nAshurbanipal's brutal campaign against Elam in 647 BC is recorded in this relief.\n\nUltimately, Assyria conquered Babylonia, Chaldea, Elam, Media, Persia, Urartu (Armenia), Phoenicia, Aramea/Syria, Phrygia, the Neo-Hittite States, the Hurrian lands, Arabia, Gutium, Israel, Judah, Samarra, Moab, Edom, Corduene, Cilicia, Mannea, and Cyprus, and defeated and/or exacted tribute from Scythia, Cimmeria, Lydia, Nubia, Ethiopia and others. At its height, the Empire encompassed the whole of the modern nations of Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Palestine and Cyprus, together with large swathes of Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Sudan, Libya, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan.\n\n====Downfall, 626–605 BC====\nThe Assyrian Empire was severely crippled following the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BC—the nation and its empire descending into a prolonged and brutal series of civil wars involving three rival kings, Ashur-etil-ilani, Sin-shumu-lishir and Sin-shar-ishkun. Egypt's 26th Dynasty, which had been installed by the Assyrians as vassals, quietly detached itself from Assyria, although it was careful to retain friendly relations.\n\nThe Scythians and Cimmerians took advantage of the bitter fighting among the Assyrians to raid Assyrian colonies, with hordes of horse borne marauders ravaging parts of Asia Minor and the Caucasus, where the vassal kings of Urartu and Lydia begged their Assyrian overlord for help in vain. They also raided the Levant, Israel and Judah (where Ashkelon was sacked by the Scythians) and all the way into Egypt whose coasts were ravaged and looted with impunity.\n\nThe Iranic peoples (the Medes, Persians and Parthians), aided by the previous Assyrian destruction of the hitherto dominant Elamites of Ancient Iran, also took advantage of the upheavals in Assyria to coalesce into a powerful Median dominated force which destroyed the ''pre-Iranic'' Assyrian vassal kingdom of Mannea and absorbed the remnants of the pre-Iranic Elamites of southern Iran, and the equally pre-Iranic Gutians, Manneans and Kassites of the Zagros Mountains and the Caspian Sea.\n\nCyaxares (technically a vassal of Assyria), in an alliance with the Scythians and Cimmerians, launched a surprise attack on a civil war beleaguered Assyria in 615 BC, sacking Kalhu (the Biblical Calah/Nimrud) and taking Arrapkha (modern Kirkuk) and Gasur. Nabopolassar, still pinned down in southern Mesopotamia by Assyrian forces, was completely uninvolved in this major breakthrough against Assyria.\n\nDespite the sorely depleted state of Assyria, bitter fighting ensued; throughout 614 BC the alliance of powers continued to gradually make hard fought inroads into Assyria itself, however in 613 BC the Assyrians somehow rallied against the odds and scored a number of counterattacking victories over the Medes-Persians, Babylonians-Chaldeans and Scythians-Cimmerians. This led to the coalition of forces ranged against it to unite and launch a massive combined attack in 612 BC, finally besieging and entering Nineveh in late 612 BC, with Sin-shar-ishkun being slain in the bitter street by street fighting. Despite the loss of almost all of its major cities, and in the face of overwhelming odds, Assyrian resistance continued under Ashur-uballit II (612–605 BC), who fought his way out of Nineveh and coalesced Assyrian forces around Harran (in modern south east Turkey), Carchemish (modern Jarablus in north east Syria) and in the vassal kingdom of Urartu (in modern north eastern Turkey). However, the alliance of powers took Harran in 608 BC, and after a failed bid to recapture the city by the Assyrian king the same year, Carchemish too fell in 605 BC.\n\nSections of the Assyrian army retreated to the western corner of Assyria after the fall of Harran and Carchemish, and a number of Assyrian imperial records survive between 604 BC and 599 BC in and around the Assyrian city of Dur-Katlimmu in what is today north eastern Syria, and so it is possible that remnants of the Assyrian administration and army still continued to hold out in the region for a few years. Certainly by 599 BC at the very latest, Assyria had been destroyed as an independent political entity, although it was to launch major rebellions against the Achaemenid Empire in 546 BC and 520 BC, and remained a geo-political region, ethnic entity and colonised province until the late 7th century AD, with small Assyrian states emerging in the region between the 2nd century BC and 4th century AD.\n\n===Assyria after the empire===\n\n====Achaemenid Assyria, Osroene, Adiabene, Asōristān, Athura and Hatra====\n\n\nAssyria was initially ruled by the short lived Median Empire (605–549 BC) after its fall. In a twist of fate, Nabonidus the last king of Babylon (together with his son and co-regent Belshazzar) was himself an Assyrian from Harran. He had overthrown the short lived Chaldean dynasty in Babylonia, after which the Chaldeans disappeared from history, being fully absorbed into the native population of Babylonia. However, apart from plans to dedicate religious temples in the city of Harran, Nabonidus showed little interest in rebuilding Assyria. Nineveh and Kalhu remained in ruins with only small numbers of Assyrians living within them, conversely a number of towns and cities such as Arrapkha, Guzana, Nohadra and Harran remained intact, and Assur and Arbela (Irbil) were not completely destroyed, as is attested by their later revival. However, Assyria spent much of this short period in a degree of devastation following its fall.\n\n====Achaemenid Assyria (549–330 BC)====\n\n\n\nAfter the Medes were overthrown by the Persians as the dominant force in Ancient Iran, Assyria was ruled by the Persian Achaemenid Empire (as Athura) from 549 BC to 330 BC (see Achaemenid Assyria). Between 546 and 545 BC, Assyria rebelled against the new Persian Dynasty, which had usurped the previous Median dynasty. The rebellion centered around Tyareh was eventually quashed by Cyrus the Great.\n\nAssyria seems to have recovered dramatically, and flourished during this period. It became a major agricultural and administrative centre of the Achaemenid Empire, and its soldiers were a mainstay of the Persian Army. In fact, Assyria even became powerful enough to raise another full-scale revolt against the Persian empire in 520–519 BC.\n\nThe Persians had spent centuries under Assyrian domination (their first ruler Achaemenes and his successors, having been vassals of Assyria), and Assyrian influence can be seen in Achaemenid art, infrastructure and administration. Early Persian rulers saw themselves as successors to Ashurbanipal, and Mesopotamian Aramaic was retained as the ''lingua franca'' of the empire for over two hundred years, and Greek writers such as Thucydides still referred to it as ''the Assyrian language''. Nineveh was never rebuilt however, and 200 years after it was sacked Xenophon reported only small numbers of Assyrians living amongst its ruins. Conversely the ancient city of Assur once more became a rich and prosperous entity.\n\nIt was in 5th century BC Assyria that the Syriac language and Syriac script evolved. Five centuries later these were later to have a global influence as the liturgical language and written script for Syriac Christianity and its accompanying Syriac literature which also emerged in Assyria before spreading throughout the Near East, Asia Minor, The Caucasus, Central Asia, the Indian Subcontinent and China.\n\n====Macedonian and Seleucid Assyria====\nIn 332 BC, Assyria fell to Alexander the Great, the Macedonian Emperor, who called the inhabitants ''Assyrioi''. The Macedonian Empire (332–312) was partitioned in 312 BC. It thereafter became part of the Seleucid Empire (312 BC). It is from this period that the later ''Syria'' vs ''Assyria'' naming controversy arises, the Seleucids applied the name 'Syria' which is a 9th-century BC Indo-Anatolian derivation of 'Assyria' (see Etymology of Syria) not only to Assyria itself, but also to the Levantine lands to the west (historically known as Aram and Eber Nari), which had been part of the Assyrian empire but, the north east corner aside, never a part of Assyria proper.\n\nWhen the Seleucids lost control of Assyria proper, the name ''Syria'' survived but was erroneously applied not only to the land of Assyria itself, but also now to Aramea (also known as Eber Nari) to the west that had once been part of the Assyrian empire, but apart from the north eastern corner, had never been a part of Assyria itself, nor inhabited by Assyrians. This was to lead to both the Assyrians from Northern Mesopotamia and the Arameans and Phoenicians from the Levant being collectively dubbed ''Syrians'' (and later also ''Syriacs'') in Greco-Roman and later European culture, regardless of ethnicity, history or geography.\n\nDuring Seleucid rule, Assyrians ceased to hold the senior military, economic and civil positions they had enjoyed under the Achaemenids, being largely replaced by Greeks. The Greek language also replaced Mesopotamian East Aramaic as the lingua franca of the empire, although this did not affect the Assyrian population themselves, who were not Hellenised during the Seleucid era.\n\nDuring the Seleucid period in southern Mesopotamia, Babylon was gradually abandoned in favour of a new city named Seleucia on the Tigris, effectively bringing an end to ''Babylonia'' as a geo-political entity.\n\n====Parthian Assyria (150 BC – 225 AD)====\nBy 150 BC, Assyria was largely under the control of the Parthian Empire. The Parthians seem to have exercised only loose control over Assyria, and between the mid 2nd century BC and 4th century AD a number of Neo-Assyrian states arose; these included the ancient capital of Assur itself, Adiabene with its capital of Arbela (modern Irbil), Beth Nuhadra with its capital of Nohadra (modern Dohuk), Osroene, with its capitals of Edessa and Amid (modern Sanliurfa and Diyarbakir), Hatra, and \"ܒܝܬܓܪܡܝ\" (Beth Garmai) with its capital at Arrapha (modern Kirkuk).\n\nThese freedoms were accompanied by a major Assyrian cultural revival, and temples to the Assyrian national gods Ashur, Sin, Hadad, Ishtar, Ninurta, Tammuz and Shamash were once more dedicated throughout Assyria and Upper Mesopotamia during this period.\n\nIn addition, Christianity arrived in Assyria soon after the death of Christ and the Assyrians began to gradually convert to Christianity from the ancient Mesopotamian religion during the period between the early first and third centuries. Assyria became an important centre of Syriac Christianity and Syriac Literature, with the Church of the East evolving in Assyria, and the Syriac Orthodox Church partly also, with Osroene becoming the first independent Christian state in history.\n\n====Roman Assyria (116–8)====\n\nHowever, in 116, under Trajan, Assyria and its independent states were briefly taken over by Rome as the province of Assyria. The Assyrian kingdom of Adiabene was destroyed as an independent state during this period. Roman rule lasted only a few years, and the Parthians once more regained control with the help of the Assyrians, who were incited to overthrow the Roman garrisons by the Parthian king. However, a number of Assyrians were conscripted into the Roman Army, with many serving in the region of Hadrians Wall in Roman Britain, and inscriptions in Aramaic made by soldiers have been discovered in Northern England dating from the second century.\n\nWith loose Parthian rule restored, Assyria and its patchwork of states continued much as they had before the Roman interregnum, although Assyria and Mesopotamia as a whole became a front line between the Roman and Parthian empires. Other new religious movements also emerged in the form of gnostic sects such as Mandeanism, as well as the now extinct Manichean religion.\n\n===Christian period===\n\n====Sassanid Assyria (226 – c. 650)====\n\nIn 226, Assyria was largely taken over by the Sasanian Empire. After driving out the Romans and Parthians, the Sassanid rulers set about annexing the independent states within Assyria during the mid- to late 3rd century, the last being Assur itself in the late 250's to early 260's. Christianity continued to spread, and many of the ethnically Assyrian churches that exist today are among the oldest in the world. For example, the Syriac Orthodox Church is purported to have been founded by St Peter himself in 67 AD.\n\nNevertheless, although predominantly Christian, a minority of Assyrians still held onto their ancient Mesopotamian religion until as late as the 10th or 11th century AD. The Assyrians lived in a province known as Asuristan, and the region was on the frontier of the Byzantine and Sassanian empires.\n\nThe land was known as Asōristān (the Sassanid Persian name meaning \"Land of the Assyrians\") during this period, and became the birthplace of the distinct Church of the East (now split into the Assyrian Church of the East, Ancient Church of the East and Chaldean Catholic Church) and a centre of the Syriac Orthodox Church, with a flourishing Syriac (Assyrian) Christian culture which exists there to this day. Temples were still being dedicated to the national god Ashur (as well as other Mesopotamian gods) in his home city, in Harran and elsewhere during the 4th and 5th centuries AD, indicating the ancient pre-Christian Assyrian identity was still extant to some degree.\n\nDuring the Sasanian period, much of what had once been Babylonia in southern Mesopotamia was incorporated into Assyria, and in effect the whole of Mesopotamia came to be known as Asōristān. Parts of Assyria appear to have been semi independent as late as the latter part of the 4th century AD, with a king named Sennacherib II reputedly ruling the northern reaches in 370s AD.\n\n====Arab Islamic conquest (630–780)====\nCenturies of constant warfare between the Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Empire left both empires exhausted, which made both of them open to loss in a war against the Muslim Arab army, under the newfound Rashidun Caliphate. After the early Islamic conquests, Assyria was dissolved as an official administrative entity by an empire. Under Arab rule, Mesopotamia as a whole underwent a gradual process of further Arabisation and the beginning of Islamification, and the region saw a large influx of ''non indigenous'' Arabs, Kurds, Iranian, and Turkic peoples.\n\nHowever, the indigenous Assyrian population of northern Mesopotamia retained their language, religion, culture and identity.\n\nUnder the Arab Islamic empires, the Christian Assyrians were classed as ''dhimmis'', who had certain restrictions imposed upon them. Assyrians were thus excluded from specific duties and occupations reserved for Muslims, they did not enjoy the same political rights as Muslims, their word was not equal to that of a Muslim in legal and civil matters without a Muslim witness, they were subject to payment of a special tax (jizyah) and they were banned from spreading their religion further in Muslim-ruled lands. However, personal matters such as marriage and divorce were governed by the cultural laws of the Assyrians.\n\nFor those reasons, and even during the Sassanian period before Islamic rule, The Assyrian Church of the East formed a church structure that spread Nestorian Christianity to as far away as China, in order to proselytize away from Muslim-ruled regions In Iran and their homeland in Mesopotamia, with evidence of their massive church structure being the Nestorian Stele, an artifact found in China which documented over 100 years of Christian history in China from 600 to 781 AD. Assyrian Christians maintained relations with fellow Christians in Armenia and Georgia throughout the Middle Ages. In the 12th century AD, Assyrian priests interceded on behalf of persecuted Arab Muslims in Georgia. The Assyrian Church structure thrived during the period of 600–1300, and is regarded as a golden age for Assyrians.\n\n====Mongol Empire (1200–1300)====\nThe first signs of trouble for the Assyrians started in the 13th century, when the Mongols first invaded the Near East after the fall of Baghdad in 1258 to Hulagu Khan. Assyrians at first did very well under Mongol rule, as the Shamanist Mongols were sympathetic to them, with Assyrian priests having traveled to Mongolia centuries before. The Mongols in fact spent most of their time oppressing Muslims and Jews, outlawing the practice of circumcision and halal butchery, as they found them repulsive and violent. Therefore, as one of the only groups in the region looked at in a good light, Assyrians were given special privileges and powers, with Hülegü even appointing an Assyrian Christian governor to Erbil (Arbela), and allowing the Syriac Orthodox Church to build a church there.\nAramaic language and Syriac Christianity in the Middle East and Central Asia until being largely annihilated by Tamerlane in the 14th century\n\nHowever, the Mongol rulers in the Near East eventually converted to Islam. Sustained persecutions of Christians throughout the entirety of the Ilkhanate began in earnest in 1295 under the rule of Oïrat amir Nauruz, which affected the indigenous Assyrian Christians greatly. During the reign of the Ilkhan Öljeitü, the Assyrian Christian inhabitants of Erbil seized control of the citadel and much of the city in rebellion against the Muslims. In spring 1310, the Mongol Malik (governor) of the region attempted to seize it from them with the help of the Kurds and Arabs, but was defeated. After his defeat he decided to siege the city. The Assyrians held out for three months, but the citadel was at last taken by Ilkhanate troops and Arab, Turkic and Kurdish tribesmen on July 1, 1310. The defenders of the citadel fought to the last man, and many of the Assyrian inhabitants of the lower town were subsequently massacred.\n\nRegardless of these hardships, the Assyrian people remained numerically dominant in the north of Mesopotamia as late as the 14th century AD, and the city of Assur functioned as their religious and cultural capital. However, in the mid-14th century the Muslim Turk ruler Tamurlane conducted a religiously motivated massacre of the indigenous Assyrian Christians, and worked tirelessly to destroy the vast Assyrian Church structure established throughout the Far East, destroying the entire structure of the church with the exception of the St Thomas Christians of the Malabar Coast in India, whom number 10 million or so in modern times. After Timurs campaign, The Assyrian Cultural and religious capital of Assur was completely destroyed, thousands of Assyrians were massacred, the vast church structure of the Assyrian Church of the East was decimated, and the Assyrian population was from that point on reduced to a small minority living within Muslim dominated lands.\n\n====Breakup of the Assyrian Church (1500–1780)====\nAround 100 years after the massacres by Timur, a religious schism known as the Schism of 1552 occurred among the Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia, when a large number of followers of the Assyrian Church of the East in Amid elected a rival Patriarch named Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa after becoming dissatisfied with the leadership of the Assyrian Church, at this point based in Alqosh. Due to a need for an ordination by a metropolitan bishop, Sulaqa went into communion with the Roman Catholic Church after at first failing to gain acceptance within the Syriac Orthodox Church. Rome named this new church ''The Church of Assyria and Mosul'' and its first leader ''Patriarch of the East Assyrians'' in 1553 AD.\n\nSoon after coming back Sulaqa was assassinated by supporters of the rival patriarch in Alqosh, but was able to form a new church structure and line of succession known as the Shimun Line prior to his death. This group of Assyrians eventually broke off ties with Rome, moved en masse to the Hakkari Mountains, and returned to the Assyrian church they once adhered to prior to the Schism of 1552, while still operating independently from the original Assyrian Church structure based in Alqosh.\n\nA decade or so before the Shimun line broke off ties with Rome, another faction within the Assyrian Church entered into communion with Rome known as the Josephite line, and upon the Shimun line leaving, inherited the now vacant ''Church of Assyria and Mosul'', which was renamed the \"Chaldean Catholic Church\" by The Vatican in 1683. This is now believed to be due to an error by the Roman Catholic Church which already had a history of labelling eastern Christians (including Cypriots) as ''Chaldeans'', but due to that error, some of their followers became known as Chaldean Catholics or Chaldo-Assyrians, despite having absolutely no ethnic, historical, linguistic, cultural or geographic connections whatsoever to the by now long extinct Chaldean tribe of south east Mesopotamia. However, these appellations appear to have only emerged relatively recently, as in the late 19th century, Hormuzd Rassam, himself a member of the Chaldean Catholic Church, states that church members were using the ethnic term Assyrian and the theological term ''Nestorian'' to describe themselves.\n\nLater on in the 1830s the original Assyrian Church of the East structure in Alqosh combined with the Catholic one, creating the modern Chaldean Catholic Church structure, which is ironic considering that the only remaining ethnic Assyrian Church to practice the Assyrian Church of the East denomination was the first one to split from the Assyrian Church of the East back in 1552. There was also another Nestorian Denomination known as the Ancient Church of the East, which split from the Assyrian Church of the East due to reforms passed under the rule of Shimun XXIII Eshai in the 1960s, but with the election of Gewargis III in 2015 the churches had a reconciliation, and reunited.\n\nIn addition to the Eastern Rite Churches, The Syriac Orthodox Church also has a large number of ethnically Assyrian Adherents, who are known sometimes as ''Syriacs'', the term 'Syriac' being etymologically derived from 'Assyrian'. The Syriac Orthodox Church has 5 million adherents across the globe, but is based in Damascus. However, since the 11th century it was based in the Saffron Monastery of Tur Abdin, and prior to that it was based in Antioch. Like the Nestorian churches, schisms also occurred within the Syriac Orthodox Church. In 1626 Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries began to proselytize among the Syriac Orthodox faithful at Aleppo, forming a larger pro-catholic movement within the Syriac Orthodox Church. So in 1662, when the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate had fallen vacant, the Catholic party was able to elect one of its own, Andrew Akijan as Patriarch of the Syriac Church. This provoked a split in the community, and after Akijan’s death in 1677 two opposing patriarchs were elected, with one of those becoming the first Patriarch of the Syriac Catholic Church. This line of succession died out quickly, however, but in 1782 with the election of Michael Jarweh as Patriarch the ''Ignatius'' line has been the head of the Syriac Catholic Church since then, and also has its base in Damascus.\n\n===Modern history===\n\n====Ottoman Empire (1900–1928)====\nThe burning of bodies of Christian Assyrian women during the Assyrian Genocide\nAfter these splits, the Assyrians suffered a number of religiously and ethnically motivated massacres throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Massacres of Badr Khan which resulted in the massacre of over 10,000 Assyrians in the 1840s, culminating in the large scale Hamidian massacres of unarmed men, women and children by Turks and Kurds in the 1890s at the hands of the Ottoman Empire and its associated (largely Kurdish and Arab) militias, which greatly reduced their numbers, particularly in southeastern Turkey where over 25,000 Assyrians were murdered. The Adana massacre of 1909 largely aimed at Armenian Christians also accounted for the murder of some 1,500 Assyrians.\n\nThe Assyrians suffered a further catastrophic series of events during World War I in the form of the religiously and ethnically motivated Assyrian Genocide at the hands of the Ottomans and their Kurdish and Arab allies from 1915 to 1918. Some sources claim that the highest number of Assyrians killed during the period was 750,000, while a 1922 Assyrian assessment set it at 275,000. The Assyrian Genocide ran largely in conjunction with the similarly ethno-religiously motivated Armenian Genocide, Greek Genocide and Great Famine of Mount Lebanon.\n\nIn reaction against Ottoman cruelty, the Assyrians took up arms, and an Assyrian war of independence was fought during World War I which took place in what is today south eastern Turkey, northern Iraq, north western Iran and north eastern Syria. For a time, the Assyrians fought successfully against overwhelming numbers, scoring a number of victories against the Ottomans and Kurds, and also hostile Arab and Iranian groups. However, due to the collapse of the Russian Empire—due to the Russian Revolution—and the similar collapse of the Armenian Defense, the Assyrians were left without allies. As a result, The Assyrians were vastly outnumbered, outgunned, surrounded, cut off, and without supplies. The only option they had was to flee the region into northwest Iran and fight their way, with around 50,000 civilians in tow, to British train lines going to Mandatory Iraq. The sizable Assyrian presence in south eastern Anatolia which had endured for over four millennia was thus reduced to no more than 15,000 by the end of World War I, and by 1924 many of those who remained were forcibly expelled in a display of ethnic cleansing by the Turkish government, with many leaving and later founding villages in the Sapna and Nahla valleys in the Dohuk Governorate of Iraq.\n\nIn 1920 the Assyrian settlements in Mindan and Baquba were attacked by Iraqi Arabs, but the Assyrian tribesmen displayed their military prowess by successfully defeating and driving off the Arab forces. The Assyrians also sided with the British during the Iraqi revolt against the British.\n\nThe Assyrian Levies were founded by the British in 1922, with ancient Assyrian military rankings, such as Rab-shakeh, Rab-talia and Turtanu, being revived for the first time in millennia for this force. The Assyrians were prized by the British rulers for their fighting qualities, loyalty, bravery and discipline, and were used to help the British put down insurrections among the Arabs, Kurds and Turcoman, guard the borders with Iran and Turkey, and protect British military installations. During the 1920s Assyrian levies saw action in effectively defeating Arab and Kurdish forces during anti-British rebellions in Iraq.\n\n====Simele Massacre and World War II (1930–1950)====\nMap of Assyrian populated areas\nAfter Iraq was granted independence by the British in 1933, the Assyrians suffered the Simele Massacre, where thousands of unarmed villagers (men, women and children) were slaughtered by joint Arab-Kurdish forces of the Iraqi Army. The massacres of civilians followed a clash between armed Assyrian tribesmen and the Iraqi army, where the Iraqi forces suffered a defeat after trying to disarm the Assyrians, whom they feared would attempt to secede from Iraq. Armed Assyrian Levies were prevented by the British from going to the aid of these civilians, and the British government then whitewashed the massacres at the League of Nations.\n\nDespite these betrayals, the Assyrians were allied with the British during World War II, with eleven Assyrian companies seeing action in Palestine/Israel and another four serving in Greece, Cyprus and Albania. Assyrians played a major role in the victory over Arab-Iraqi forces at the Battle of Habbaniya and elsewhere in 1941, when the Iraqi government decided to join World War II on the side of Nazi Germany. The British presence in Iraq lasted until 1955, and Assyrian Levies remained attached to British forces until this time, after which they were disarmed and disbanded.\n\nA further persecution of Assyrians took place in the Soviet Union in the late 1940s and early 1950s when thousands of Assyrians settled in Georgia, Armenia and southern Russia were forcibly deported from their homes in the dead of night by Stalin without warning or reason to Central Asia, with most being relocated to Kazakhstan, where a small minority still remain.\n\n====Ba'athism (1966–2003)====\nFlag of the Assyrian Nation (created and used since 1968)\nThe period from the 1940s through to 1963 was a period of respite for the Assyrians in northern Iraq and north east Syria. The regime of Iraqi President Kassim in particular saw the Assyrians accepted into mainstream society. Many urban Assyrians became successful businessmen, a number of Assyrians moved south to cities such as Baghdad, Basra and Nasiriyah to enhance their economic prospects, others were well represented in politics, the military, the arts and entertainment, Assyrian towns, villages, farmsteads and Assyrian quarters in major cities flourished undisturbed, and Assyrians came to excel and be over-represented in sports such as boxing, football, athletics, wrestling and swimming.\n\nHowever, in 1963, the Ba'ath Party took power by force in Iraq, and came to power in Syria the same year. The Baathists, though secular, were Arab nationalists, and set about attempting to Arabize the many non-Arab peoples of Iraq and Syria, including the Assyrians. This policy included refusing to acknowledge the Assyrians as an ethnic group, banning the publication of written material in Eastern Aramaic, and banning its teaching in schools, together with an attempt to ''Arabize'' the ancient pre-Arab heritage of Mesopotamian civilisation.\n\nThe policies of the Baathists have also long been mirrored in Turkey, whose nationalist governments have refused to acknowledge the Assyrians as an ethnic group since the 1920s, and have attempted to Turkify the Assyrians by calling them \"Semitic Turks\" and forcing them to adopt Turkish names and language. In Baathist Syria too, the Assyrian (and Syriac-Aramean) Christians faced pressure to identify as \"Arab Christians\". In Iran, Assyrians continued to enjoy cultural, religious and ethnic rights, but due to the Islamic Revolution of 1979 their community has been diminished.\n\nIn the aftermath of the Iraq War of 2003, Assyrians became the targets of Islamist terrorist attacks and intimidation from both Sunni and Shia groups, as well as criminal kidnapping organisations; forcing many in southern and central Iraq to relocate to safer Assyrian regions in the north of the country or north east Syria.\n\n====Syrian Civil War (2012–present)====\n\nAn Assyrian wedding in Mechelen, Belgium.\nIn recent years, Assyrians in northern Iraq and north east Syria have become the target of attacks amounting to genocide by Islamist militants like ISIL and Nusra Front. In 2014, ISIL attacked Assyrian towns and villages in the Assyrian homelands of northern Iraq and north east Syria, and Assyrians forced from their homes in cities such as Mosul had their houses and possessions stolen, both by ISIL and also by their own former Arab Muslim neighbours. Assyrian Bronze Age and Iron Age monuments and archaeological sites, as well as numerous Assyrian churches and monasteries, have been systematically vandalised and destroyed by ISIL. These include the ruins of Nineveh, Kalhu (Nimrud, Assur, Dur-Sharrukin and Hatra). ISIL destroyed a 3,000 year-old Ziggurat. ISIL destroyed Virgin Mary Church, in 2015 St. Markourkas Church was destroyed and the cemetery was bulldozed.\n\nAssyrians in both Iraq and Syria have responded by forming armed Assyrian militias to defend their territories, and despite being heavily outnumbered and outgunned have had success in driving ISIL from Assyrian towns and villages, and defending others from attack. Armed Assyrian militias have also fought ISIL alongside armed groups of Kurds, Turcoman, Yezidis, Syriac-Aramean Christians, Shabaks, Armenian Christians, Kawilya, Mandeans, Circassians and Shia Muslim Arabs and Iranians. “Dewkh Nawsha”, translates to “the ones who sacrifiace”. The group was formed days after ISIL took over Mosul. The militia is made up of volunteers, who come from all over the Nineveh plain. Dewkh Nawsha is supported by Assyrian Patriotic Party and are led by Wilson Khammu It is estimated that nearly 60 percent of Iraqi Assyrians have fled. Assyrians who have fled have ended up all over the world. 2009 U.S Census Bureau survey, reported that roughly 100,000 have relocated to the United States.\n",
"\n\nAssyria continued to exist as a geopolitical entity until the Arab-Islamic conquest in the mid-7th century. Assyrian identity; personal, family and tribal names; and both the spoken and written evolution of Mesopotamian Aramaic (which still contains many Akkadian loan words and an Akkadian grammatical structure) have survived among the Assyrian people from ancient times to this day. An Assyrian calendar has been revived.\n\n===Language===\n\n\n''The pastime of an Assyrian King'' by F.A. Bridgman\nAssyrian was a dialect of Akkadian language, a member of the eastern branch of the Semitic family and the oldest historically attested of the Semitic languages, which began to appear in written form in the 29th century BC. The first inscriptions in Assyria proper, called Old Assyrian (OA), were made in the Old Assyrian period. The ancient Assyrians also used Sumerian in their literature and liturgy, although to a more limited extent in the Middle- and Neo-Assyrian periods, when Akkadian became the main literary language.\n\nDuring the 3rd millennium BC, a very intimate cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the 3rd millennium BC as a ''sprachbund''. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.\n\nIn the Neo-Assyrian period, the Aramaic language became increasingly common, more so than Akkadian—this was thought to be largely due to the mass deportations undertaken by Assyrian kings, in which large Aramaic-speaking populations, conquered by the Assyrians, were relocated to Assyria and interbred with the Assyrians, and due to the fact that Tiglath-pileser II made it the lingua franca of Assyria and its empire in the 8th century BC.\n\nThe destruction of the Assyrian capitals of Nineveh and Assur by the Babylonians, Medes and their allies, ensured that much of the bilingual elite (but not all) were wiped out. By the 7th century BC, much of the Assyrian population used distinct Akkadian influenced Eastern Aramaic varieties and not Akkadian itself. The last Akkadian inscriptions in Mesopotamia date from the 1st century AD. The Syriac language also emerged in Assyria during the 5th century BC, and during the Christian era, Syriac literature and Syriac script were to become hugely influential.\n\nHowever, the descendant Akkadian influenced Eastern Aramaic dialects from the Neo-Assyrian Empire, as well as Akkadian and Mesopotamian Aramaic personal, tribal, family and place names, still survive to this day among Assyrian people in the regions of northern Iraq, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran and northeast Syria that constituted old Assyria, and are spoken fluently by up to 1,000,000 Assyrians, with a further number having lesser and varying degrees of fluency. These dialects which contain many Akkadian loan words and grammatical features are very different from the now almost extinct Western Aramaic of the Arameans in the Levant and Trans-Jordan, which does not have any Akkadian grammatical structure or loan words.\n\nAfter 90 years of effort, the University of Chicago in 2011 completed an Assyrian dictionary, the style of which is more like an encyclopedia than a dictionary.\n\n===Religion===\n\n====Ancient Assyrian religion====\n\nThe Assyrians, like the rest of the Mesopotamian peoples, followed ancient Mesopotamian religion, with their national god Ashur having the most importance to them during the Assyrian Empire. This religion gradually declined with the advent of Syriac Christianity between the first and tenth centuries.\n\nThe major deities worshipped in Assyria include;\n\n*Adad (Hadad) – storm and rain god\n*Anu or An – god of heaven and the sky, lord of constellations, and father of the gods.The name is dervied from Sumero-Akkadian/ana/, which means heaven; He is considered the father of great gods. In stories, he is menationed as a father, creator, and god; and is believed to be the supreme being.\n*Dagan or Dagon – god of fertility\n*Enki or Ea – god of the Abzu, crafts, water, intelligence, mischief and creation and divine ruler of the Earth and its humans\n*Ereshkigal – goddess of Irkalla, the Underworld\n* Ishtar or Inanna/Astarte – goddess of fertility, love, and war\n*Marduk – patron deity of Babylon who eventually became regarded as the head of the Babylonian pantheon\n*Nabu – god of wisdom and writing\n*Nanshe – goddess of prophecy, fertility and fishing\n*Nergal – god of plague, war, and the sun in its destructive capacity; later husband of Ereshkigal\n*Ninhursag or Mami, Belet-Ili, Ki, Ninmah, Nintu, or Aruru – earth and mother goddess\n*Ninlil – goddess of the air; consort of Enlil\n*Ninurta – champion of the gods, the epitome of youthful vigour, and god of agriculture\n*Nisroch - god of agriculture. Some other religions also consider him the fallen angel or demon.\n*Nusku - The messenger for the Gods. “\"the offspring of the abyss, the creation of Êa,\" and \"the likeness of his father, the first-born of Bel.\" Nusku Was also considered a great commander, counselor of the gods, and protector of gods in heaven. Assyrian kings mention Nusku many times, especially before wars; Nusku was fearless in battle.\n*Shamash or Utu – god of the sun, arbiter of justice and patron of travellers\n*Sin or Nanna – god of the moon. Considered to be the prince of the Gods. Described as having a perfect body: everything from beard to horns is perfect. The name is believed to come from “Zu-ena” but was changed at some point. Zu-ena means “knowledge-lord”. Sin is also mentioned in other religions in Babylonia\n*Tammuz or Dumuzi – god of food and vegetation\n*Tiamat\n\nThe original pagan religion of the Assyrians was widely adhered to until around the 4th century, and survived in pockets until at least the 10th century. However, Assyrians today are exclusively Christian, with most following the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Ancient Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church, Syriac Catholic Church, Assyrian Pentecostal Church and Assyrian Evangelical Church. Assyrians had begun to adopt Christianity (as well as for a time Manicheanism and gnosticism) between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD.\n\n====Christian history of the Assyrian people====\nThe Assyrian people originally adhered to one of two Churches- The Assyrian Church of the East, an East Syrian Rite Church, or the Syriac Orthodox Church, a West Syrian Rite Church. However, now there are nearly 20 different Assyrian Christian Churches including the ones followed by ethnically Malayali Converts in India, known as St Thomas Christians who are not regarded as Assyrians. The first new Church formed around 100 years after the massacres by Timur during the 14th century due to the Schism of 1552, which occurred among the Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia when a large number of Nestorian (followers of the Assyrian Church of the East) Assyrians in Amid elected a rival Patriarch named Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa after becoming dissatisfied with the leadership of the Assyrian Church (at this point based in Alqosh). Due to a need for an official ordination, Sulaqa went into communion with the Roman Catholic Church after at first failing to gain acceptance within the Syriac Orthodox Church. Rome named this new church ''The Church of Assyria and Mosul'' and its first leader ''Patriarch of the East Assyrians'' in 1553 AD.\n\nSoon after coming back Sulaqa was assassinated by supporters of the rival patriarch in Alqosh, but was able to form a new church structure and line of succession known as the Shimun Line prior to his death. This group of Assyrians eventually broke off ties with Rome, moved en masse to the Hakkari Mountains, and returned to the Nestorian faith they once adhered to prior to the Schism of 1552 (although the Shimun line still operated independently from the original Assyrian Church structure based in Alqosh).\n\nA decade or so before the Shimun line broke off ties with Rome, another faction within the Assyrian Church entered into communion with Rome known as the Josephite line, and upon the Shimun line leaving, inherited the now vacant Church of Assyria and Mosul, which was renamed the \"Chaldean Catholic Church\" in 1683. This is now believed to be due to an error by the Catholic Church, but now due to that error their followers became known as Chaldean Catholics or Chaldo-Assyrians despite having no ethnic, historical, linguistic, cultural or geographic connections whatsoever to the by now long extinct Chaldean tribe of south east Mesopotamia.\n\nLater on in the 1830s the original Assyrian Church of the East structure in Alqosh combined with the Chaldean Catholic Jacobite one, creating the modern Chaldean Catholic Church structure, which is ironic considering that the only remaining ethnic Assyrian Church to practice the Assyrian Church of the East denomination until this day is ruled by the Shimun line- the very first Church to split from the Assyrian Church of the East back in 1552. There was also another Nestorian Denomination known as the Ancient Church of the East, which split from the Assyrian Church of the East due to reforms passed under the rule of Shimun XXIII Eshai in the 1960s, but with the election of Gewargis III in 2015 the churches had a reconciliation, and reunited.\n\nThe Syriac Orthodox Church also has a large number of ethnically Assyrian Adherents mainly in the historically Assyrian regions of north east Syria and south east Turkey, who are known as ''Syriacs''. The Syriac Orthodox Church has 5 million adherents across the globe, mostly in India, but is based in Damascus. However, since the 11th century it was based in the Saffron Monastery of Tur Abdin, and prior to that it was based in Antioch. Like the Nestorian churches, schisms also occurred within the Syriac Orthodox Church.\n\nIn 1626 Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries began to proselytize among the Syriac Orthodox faithful at Aleppo, forming a larger pro-catholic movement within the Syriac Orthodox Church. So in 1662, when the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate had fallen vacant, the Catholic party was able to elect one of its own, Andrew Akijan as Patriarch of the Syriac Church. This provoked a split in the community, and after Akijan's death in 1677 two opposing patriarchs were elected, with one of those becoming the first Patriarch of the Syriac Catholic Church. This line of succession died out quickly, however, but in 1782 with the election of Michael Jarweh as Patriarch the ''Ignatius'' line has been the head of the Syriac Catholic Church since then, and also has its base in Damascus.\n\nSome Assyrians converted to Protestantism during the 20th century as well, forming the Assyrian Pentecostal Church and Assyrian Evangelical Church among others.\n\nTherefore, by the end of all the schisms which occurred, the Assyrian people are now followers of the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Ancient Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church, Syriac Catholic Church, Assyrian Pentecostal Church and Assyrian Evangelical Church- in addition to even more sub churches which are located in India that are adherent to the mother sees in the Middle East.\n\n===Architecture===\n\n\n\nAssyrian architecture, like that of Babylonia, was influenced by Sumero-Akkadian styles (and to some degree Mitanni), but early on developed its own distinctive style. Palaces sported colourful wall decorations, and seal-cutting (an art learned from Mittani) developed apace. Schools for scribes taught both the Babylonian and Assyrian dialects of Akkadian, and Sumerian and Akkadian literary works were often copied with an Assyrian flavour.\n\nThe Assyrian dialect of Akkadian was used in legal, official, religious, and practical texts such as medicine or instructions on manufacturing items. During the 13th to 10th centuries, picture tales appeared as a new art form: a continuous series of images carved on square stone steles. Somewhat reminiscent of a comic book, these show events such as warfare or hunting, placed in order from the upper left to the lower right corner of the stele with captions written underneath them. These and the excellent cut seals show that Assyrian art was beginning to surpass that of Babylon. Architecture saw the introduction of a new style of ziggurat, with two towers and colorful enameled tiles.\n\n===Arts and Sciences===\n\n\n\nRelief from Assyrian capital of Dur Sharrukin, showing transport of Lebanese cedar (8th century BC)\nAssyrian art preserved to the present day predominantly dates to the Neo-Assyrian period. Art depicting battle scenes, and occasionally the impaling of whole villages in gory detail, was intended to show the power of the emperor, and was generally made for propaganda purposes. These stone reliefs lined the walls in the royal palaces where foreigners were received by the king. Other stone reliefs depict the king with different deities and conducting religious ceremonies. Many stone reliefs were discovered in the royal palaces at Nimrud (Kalhu) and Khorsabad (Dur-Sharrukin). A rare discovery of metal plates belonging to wooden doors was made at Balawat (Imgur-Enlil).\n\nAssyria. Head of winged bull, 9th c. B.C.; Brooklyn Museum Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection\nAssyrian sculpture reached a high level of refinement in the Neo-Assyrian period. One prominent example is the winged bull lamassu or shedu that guard the entrances to the king's court. These were apotropaic meaning they were intended to ward off evil. C. W. Ceram states in ''The March of Archaeology'' that lamassi were typically sculpted with five legs so that four legs were always visible, whether the image were viewed frontally or in profile.\n\nAlthough works of precious gems and metals usually do not survive the ravages of time, some fine pieces of Assyrian jewelry were found in royal tombs at Nimrud.\n\nThere is ongoing discussion among academics over the nature of the Nimrud lens, a piece of quartz unearthed by Austen Henry Layard in 1850, in the Nimrud palace complex in northern Iraq. A small minority believe that it is evidence for the existence of ancient Assyrian telescopes, which could explain the great accuracy of Assyrian astronomy. Other suggestions include its use as a magnifying glass for jewellers, or as a decorative furniture inlay. The Nimrud Lens is held in the British Museum.\n\nThe Assyrians were also innovative in military technology, with the use of heavy cavalry, sappers, siege engines etc.\n",
"\nAusten Henry Layard in Nineveh, 1852\n\nAchaemenid Assyria (539–330 BC) retained a separate identity, official correspondence being in Imperial Aramaic, and there was even a determined revolt of the two Assyrian provinces of Mada and Athura in 520 BC. Under Seleucid rule, however, Aramaic gave way to Greek as the official administrative language. Aramaic was marginalised as an official language, but remained spoken in both Assyria and Babylonia by the general populace. It also remained the spoken tongue of the indigenous Assyrian/Babylonian citizens of all Mesopotamia under Persian, Greek and Roman rule, and indeed well into the Arab period it was still the language of the majority, particularly in the north of Mesopotamia, surviving to this day among the Assyrian Christians.\n\nBetween 150 BC and 226 AD, Assyria changed hands between the Parthian Empire and the Romans until coming under the rule of the Sasanian Empire from 226–651, where it was known as Asōristān.\n\nA number of at least partly neo-Assyrian kingdoms existed in the area between in the late classical and early Christian period also; Adiabene, Hatra and Osroene.\n\nClassical historiographers and Biblical writers had only retained a fragmented, very dim and often inaccurate picture of Assyria. It was remembered that there had been an Assyrian empire predating the Persian one, but all particulars were lost. Thus Jerome's ''Chronicon'' lists 36 kings of the Assyrians, beginning with Ninus, son of Belus, down to Sardanapalus, the last king of the Assyrians before the empire fell to Arbaces the Median. Almost none of these have been substantiated as historical, with the exception of the Neo-Assyrian and Babylonian rulers listed in the ''Canon of Kings'', beginning with Nabonassar.\n\nThe Assyrians began to form and adopt a distinct Eastern Christianity, with its accompanying Syriac literature, between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD; however, ancient Mesopotamian religion was still alive and well into the fourth century and pockets survived into the 10th century and possibly as late as the 17th century in Mardin. However, the religion is now dead, and the Assyrian people, though still retaining Eastern Aramaic dialects as a mother tongue, are now wholly Christian.\n\nThe modern discovery of Babylonia and Assyria begins with excavations in Nineveh in 1845, which revealed the Library of Ashurbanipal. Decipherment of the cuneiform script was a formidable task that took more than a decade; but, by 1857, the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland was convinced that reliable reading of cuneiform texts was possible. Assyriology has since pieced together the formerly largely forgotten history of Mesopotamia. In the wake of the archaeological and philological rediscovery of ancient Assyria, Assyrian nationalism became increasingly popular among the surviving remnants of the Assyrian people, who have come to strongly identify with ancient Assyria.\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* Achaemenid Assyria\n* Ancient Church of the East\n* Assur\n* Assuristan\n* Assyrian Christians\n* Assyrian Church of the East\n* Assyrian culture\n* Assyrian Evangelical Church\n* Assyrian Genocide\n* Assyrian nationalism\n* Assyrian Pentecostal Church\n* Assyrian people\n* Assyrian struggle for independence\n* Babylonia\n* Chaldea\n* Chaldean Catholic Church\n* Church of the East\n* Eastern Aramaic\n* List of Assyrians\n* Mesopotamian religion\n* Name of Syria\n* Syriac language\n* Syriac Orthodox Church\n\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n\n''Attribution:''\n* \n",
"\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n* Assyria on Ancient History Encyclopedia\n* \"Assyria\", ''LookLex Encyclopedia''\n* Theophilus G. Pinches, ''The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria'' in \"btm\" format\n* Morris Jastrow, Jr., ''The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria: its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature'', London: Lippincott (1915)—a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; also available in layered PDF format\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Names",
"Pre-history",
"History",
"Culture",
"Legacy",
"Notes",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Assyria |
[
"'''Abijah''' ( ''’Ăḇîyāh''; also ''Abiah'', ''Abia''; in modern Hebrew ''Aviya'') is a Biblical Hebrew unisex name that means \"my Father is Yah\".\n",
"The variant used in the Russian language is \"\" (''Aviya''), with \"\" or \"\" (''Abiya''), being older forms. Included into various, often handwritten, church calendars throughout the 17th–19th centuries, it was omitted from the official Synodal Menologium at the end of the 19th century. In 1924–1930, the name (as \"\", a form of \"Abiya\") was included into various Soviet calendars, which included the new and often artificially created names promoting the new Soviet realities and encouraging the break with the tradition of using the names in the Synodal Menologia. In Russian it is only used as a female name. Diminutives of this name include \"\" (''Ava'') and \"\" (''Viya'').\n",
"===Women===\n*Abijah (2 Chronicles 29:1), who married King Ahaz of Judah. She is also called Abi (2 Kings 18:2). Her father's name was Zechariah; she was the mother of King Hezekiah ().\n*A wife of Hezron, one of the grandchildren of Judah (1 Chronicles 2:24).\n\n===Men===\n*Abijah of Judah, also known as Abijam (אבים, ''Abiyam'', \"My Father is Yam Sea\"), who was son of Rehoboam and succeeded him on the throne of Judah (1 Chronicles 3:10, Matthew 1:7, 1 Kings 14:31).\n*A son of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:8).\n*The second son of Samuel (1 Samuel 8:2; 1 Chronicles 6:28). His conduct, along with that of his brother, as a judge in Beersheba, to which office his father had appointed him, led to popular discontent, and ultimately provoked the people to demand a monarchy.\n*A descendant of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, a chief of one of the twenty-four orders into which the priesthood was divided by David (1 Chr. 24:10). The order of Abijah is listed with the priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel and with Joshua. Nehemiah 12:17; 12:1).\n*A son of Jeroboam, the first king of Israel. On account of his severe illness when a youth, his father sent his wife to consult the prophet Ahijah regarding his recovery. The prophet, though blind with old age, knew the wife of Jeroboam as soon as she approached, and under a divine impulse he announced to her that inasmuch as in Abijah alone of all the house of Jeroboam there was found \"some good thing toward the Lord\", he only would come to his grave in peace. As his mother crossed the threshold of the door on her return, the youth died, and \"all Israel mourned for him\" (1 Kings 14:1–18).\n*The head of the eighth of the twenty-four courses into which David divided the priests, and an ancestor of Zecharias the priest, who was the father of John the Baptist (, , ).\n",
"===Notes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n*Н. А. Петровский (N. A. Petrovsky). \"Словарь русских личных имён\" (''Dictionary of Russian First Names''). ООО Издательство \"АСТ\". Москва, 2005. \n*А. В. Суперанская (A. V. Superanskaya). \"Словарь русских имён\" (''Dictionary of Russian Names''). Издательство Эксмо. Москва, 2005. \n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Russian name",
"Old Testament characters",
"References"
] | Abijah |
[
"\n'''Ark''' may refer to:\n\n\n\n",
"\n===Music===\n\n==== Bands ====\n* Ark (Bangladeshi band), a Bangladeshi rock band\n* Ark (Norwegian band), a progressive metal band\n* Ark (British band), a melodic rock band\n* The Ark (Swedish band), a Swedish glam-rock band\n\n==== Albums ====\n* ''Ark'' (Brendan Perry album), a 2010 album by Brendan Perry\n* ''Ark'' (L'Arc-en-Ciel album), by the Japanese rock band L'Arc-en-Ciel\n* ''Ark'' (The Animals album), a 1983 album by The Original Animals\n* ''Ark'' (We Are the Ocean album), a 2015 album by We Are the Ocean\n* ''The Ark'' (album), a bootleg album by Frank Zappa\n* ''The Ark'' (EP), the debut EP of the Swedish band The Ark\n\n==== Songs ====\n* \"The Ark\", a song by Dr. Dog from ''Fate''\n\n====Venues====\n* The Ark (folk venue), a concert venue in the U.S. city of Ann Arbor, Michigan\n\n===Games===\n* ''Ark: Survival Evolved'', a PC video game available on Steam \n",
"* Ark, Bojnord, a village in North Khorasan Province, Iran\n* Ark, Fariman, a village in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran\n* Ark, Jajrom, a village in North Khorasan Province, Iran\n* Ark, Jowayin, a village in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran\n* Ark, Qazvin, a village in Qazvin Province, Iran\n* ARK (Atomska Ratna Komanda), a nuclear command bunker near Konjic, Bosnia and Herzegovina\n* Ark, South Khorasan, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran\n* Ark, Virginia, in Gloucester County, Virginia\n* Ark of Tabriz, an ancient citadel in Tabriz, Iran\n* Ark, an alternative abbreviation for Arkansas\n* Ark, Missouri, a ghost town in the United States\n* The Ark (fortress), a fortress in Bukhara, Uzbekistan\n* The Ark, London, an office block in Hammersmith, London, that looks like a ship\n* The Ark (Antarctica), a rock summit in Antarctica\n",
"* Hebrew 'teva'\n** Noah's Ark, a large boat said to have been built to save the world's animals from a flood\n** Ark of bulrushes, the boat of the infant Moses\n* Hebrew 'aron'\n** Ark of the Covenant, container for the tablets of the Ten Commandments\n** Torah ark, a cabinet used to store a synagogue's Torah scrolls\n",
"* Ark (river boat), a temporary boat used in river transport in eastern North America\n* Ark (search engine), a people search engine\n* Ark (software), an archiving tool\n* Ark Linux, a software distribution founded by Bernhard Rosenkränzer\n* Interstellar ark, a conceptual multi-lifetime space vehicle\n* Archival Resource Key, a kind of URL\n",
"\n===Works of fiction===\n* ''Ark'' (2005 film), a 2005 computer-generated film directed by Kenny Hwang\n* ''Ark'', a 1970 post-apocalyptic short film directed by Rolf Forsberg\n* ''Ark'' (novel), a 2009 novel by Stephen Baxter\n* ''Ark II'', a children's science fiction television series\n* ''The Ark'' (''Doctor Who''), a 1966 ''Doctor Who'' serial\n* \"The Ark\" (''Stargate Atlantis''), an episode of ''Stargate Atlantis''\n* ''The Ark'' (film), a BBC TV film\n* ''ARK'' (1996), a book of poetry by Ronald Johnson\n* ''Ark'' (web series), a 2010 science fiction series by Trey Stokes\n\n===Fictional story elements===\n* The Ark (''Halo''), the construction and control station in video game ''Halo''\n* Ark (Noon Universe), a fictional planet in a series of novels by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky\n* ''Ark'' (Transformers), a spacecraft in the fictional Transformers Universe\n* ARK, Advisors of Rubi-Ka in video game ''Anarchy Online''\n* Ark, teleport facility in video game ''Doom''\n* Ark, freighter in video game ''Eve Online''\n* ARK, space colony in video game ''Sonic Adventure 2''\n* Ark, the main character in video game ''Terranigma''\n* The Ark, the group of space stations housing most the human race in ''The 100''\n",
"* , a prestigious ship name in the British Royal Navy, often the name of the Fleet Flagship, has been given to five ships\n* ''The Ark'' (English ship), a ship used in founding the Province of Maryland\n* ''The Ark'', a ship used as a Scottish Marine Station, now the basis of the University Marine Biological Station Millport\n* The ''Ark'', an unfinished sculpture in the form of a functional ship created by artist Kea Tawana between 1982 and 1988 in Newark, New Jersey\n",
"* Ark (charity), an international children's charity based in the United Kingdom\n* Ark (toy company), a former company\n* ARK Music Factory, a record label based in the U.S. city of Los Angeles, California\n* Ark, a literary prize from the Arkprijs van het Vrije Woord\n* Chicken ark, a mobile shelter for domestic chickens\n* Joan of \"Ark\", occasional misspelling of Joan of Arc, a French martyr and saint who led a rebellion against an English occupation\n* Knowledge ark, a collection of knowledge preserved in such a way that future generations would have access to said knowledge if current means of access were lost\n* The Ark (Duke University), a dance studio at Duke University and former home of The Duke Blue Devils men's basketball team\n",
"* Arc (disambiguation)\n* Arch (disambiguation)\n* ARK (disambiguation)\n* Arkana (disambiguation)\n* ARRC (disambiguation)\n* ARC (disambiguation)\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Media and entertainment",
"Places",
"Religion",
"Technology",
"Fiction",
"Ships",
" Other uses ",
"See also"
] | Ark |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Aphasia''' is an inability to comprehend and formulate language because of damage to specific brain regions. This damage is typically caused by a cerebral vascular accident (stroke), or head trauma, however these are not the only possible causes. To be diagnosed with aphasia, a person's speech or language must be significantly impaired in one (or several) of the four communication modalities following acquired brain injury or have significant decline over a short time period (progressive aphasia). The four communication modalities are auditory comprehension, verbal expression, reading and writing, and functional communication.\n\nThe difficulties of people with aphasia can range from occasional trouble finding words to losing the ability to speak, read, or write; intelligence, however, is unaffected. Expressive language and receptive language can both be affected as well. Aphasia also affects visual language such as sign language. In contrast, the use of formulaic expressions in everyday communication is often preserved. One prevalent deficit in the aphasias is anomia, which is a deficit in word finding ability.\n\nThe term ''aphasia'' implies that one or more communication modalities in the brain have been damaged and are therefore functioning incorrectly. Aphasia does not refer to damage to the brain that results in motor or sensory deficits, which produces abnormal speech; that is, aphasia is not related to the mechanics of speech but rather the individual's language cognition (although a person can have both problems). An individual's \"language\" is the socially shared set of rules as well as the thought processes that go behind verbalized speech. It is not a result of a more peripheral motor or sensory difficulty, such as paralysis affecting the speech muscles or a general hearing impairment.\n\n\n",
"People with aphasia may experience any of the following behaviors due to an acquired brain injury, although some of these symptoms may be due to related or concomitant problems such as dysarthria or apraxia and not primarily due to aphasia. Aphasia symptoms can vary based on the location of damage in the brain. Signs and symptoms may or may not be present in individuals with aphasia and may vary in severity and level of disruption to communication. Often those with aphasia will try to hide their inability to name objects by using words like ''thing''. So when asked to name a pencil they may say it is a thing used to write.\n\n\n* Inability to comprehend language\n* Inability to pronounce, not due to muscle paralysis or weakness\n* Inability to speak spontaneously\n* Inability to form words\n* Inability to name objects (anomia)\n* Poor enunciation\n* Excessive creation and use of personal neologisms\n* Inability to repeat a phrase\n* Persistent repetition of one syllable, word, or phrase (stereotypies)\n* Paraphasia (substituting letters, syllables or words)\n* Agrammatism (inability to speak in a grammatically correct fashion)\n* Dysprosody (alterations in inflexion, stress, and rhythm)\n* Incomplete sentences\n* Inability to read\n* Inability to write\n* Limited verbal output\n* Difficulty in naming\n* Speech disorder\n* Speaking gibberish\n* Inability to follow or understand simple requests\n\n\n===Related behaviors===\nGiven the previously stated signs and symptoms the following behaviors are often seen in people with aphasia as a result of attempted compensation for incurred speech and language deficits:\n* Self-repairs: Further disruptions in fluent speech as a result of mis-attempts to repair erred speech production.\n* Speech disfluencies: Include previously mentioned disfluencies including repetitions and prolongations at the phonemic, syllable and word level presenting in pathological/ severe levels of frequency.\n* Struggle in non-fluent aphasias: A severe increase in expelled effort to speak after a life where talking and communicating was an ability that came so easily can cause visible frustration.\n* Preserved and automatic language: A behavior in which some language or language sequences that were used so frequently, prior to onset, they still possess the ability to produce them with more ease than other language post onset.\n\n===Types===\n\n====Acute====\n\nThe following table summarizes some major characteristics of different acute aphasias:\n\n Type of aphasia\n Repetition\n Naming\n Auditory comprehension\n Fluency\n\n Receptive aphasia\n mild–mod \n mild–severe \ndefective \n fluent paraphasic \n\n Transcortical sensory aphasia\n good \n mod–severe \n poor \n fluent \n\n Conduction aphasia\n poor \n mild \n relatively good \n fluent\n\n Anomic aphasia\n mild \n mod–severe \n mild \n fluent\n\n Expressive aphasia\n mod–severe \n mod–severe \n mild difficulty \n non-fluent, effortful, slow \n\n Transcortical motor aphasia\n good \n mild–severe \n relatively good \n non-fluent \n\n Global aphasia\n severe \n mod-severe \n severe-profound \n non-fluent \n\n Mixed transcortical aphasia\n moderate \n poor \n poor \n non-fluent \n\n\n\n*Individuals with '''receptive''' aphasia may speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create new \"words\" (neologisms). For example, someone with receptive aphasia may say, \"You know that smoodle pinkered and that I want to get him round and take care of him like you want before\", meaning \"The dog needs to go out so I will take him for a walk\". They have poor auditory and reading comprehension, and fluent, but nonsensical, oral and written expression. Individuals with receptive aphasia usually have great difficulty understanding the speech of both themselves and others and are, therefore, often unaware of their mistakes. Receptive language deficits usually arise from lesions in the posterior portion of the left hemisphere at or near Wernicke's area.\n*Individuals with '''transcortical sensory''' aphasia, in principle the most general and potentially among the most complex forms of aphasia, may have similar deficits as in receptive aphasia, but their repetition ability may remain intact.\n*Individuals with '''conduction''' aphasia have deficits in the connections between the speech-comprehension and speech-production areas. This might be caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus, the structure that transmits information between Wernicke's area and Broca's area. Similar symptoms, however, can be present after damage to the insula or to the auditory cortex. Auditory comprehension is near normal, and oral expression is fluent with occasional paraphasic errors. Paraphasic errors include phonemic/literal or semantic/verbal. Repetition ability is poor.\n*Individuals with '''anomic''' aphasia have difficulty with naming. The patients may have difficulties naming certain words, linked by their grammatical type (e.g., difficulty naming verbs and not nouns) or by their semantic category (e.g., difficulty naming words relating to photography but nothing else) or a more general naming difficulty. Patients tend to produce grammatic, yet empty, speech. Auditory comprehension tends to be preserved. Anomic aphasia is the aphasial presentation of tumors in the language zone; it is the aphasial presentation of Alzheimer's disease.\n*Individuals with '''expressive''' aphasia frequently speak short, meaningful phrases that are produced with great effort. Expressive aphasia is thus characterized as a nonfluent aphasia. Affected people often omit small words such as \"is\", \"and\", and \"the\". For example, a person with expressive aphasia may say, \"Walk dog,\" which could mean \"I will take the dog for a walk\", \"You take the dog for a walk\" or even \"The dog walked out of the yard\". Individuals with expressive aphasia are able to understand the speech of others to varying degrees. Because of this, they are often aware of their difficulties and can become easily frustrated by their speaking problems.\n* Individuals with '''transcortical motor''' aphasia have similar deficits as expressive aphasia, except repetition ability remains intact. Auditory comprehension is generally fine for simple conversations, but declines rapidly for more complex conversations. It is associated with right hemiparesis, meaning that there can be paralysis of the patient's right face and arm.\n* Individuals with '''global''' aphasia have severe communication difficulties and will be extremely limited in their ability to speak or comprehend language. They may be totally nonverbal, and/or use only facial expressions and gestures to communicate. It is associated with right hemiparesis, meaning that there can be paralysis of the patient's right face and arm.\n* Individuals with '''mixed transcortical''' aphasia have similar deficits as in global aphasia, but repetition ability remains intact.\n\n====Subcortical====\n* Subcortical aphasias characteristics and symptoms depend upon the site and size of subcortical lesion. Possible sites of lesions include the thalamus, internal capsule, and basal ganglia.\n",
"Regions of the left hemisphere that can give rise to aphasia when damaged\n\nAphasia is most often caused by stroke, but any disease or damage to the parts of the brain that control language can cause aphasia. Some of these can include brain tumors, traumatic brain injury, and progressive neurological disorders. In rare cases, aphasia may also result from herpesviral encephalitis. The herpes simplex virus affects the frontal and temporal lobes, subcortical structures, and the hippocampal tissue, which can trigger aphasia. \nIn acute disorders, such as head injury or stroke, aphasia usually develops quickly. When caused by brain tumor, infection, or dementia, it develops more slowly.\n\nThere are two types of strokes: ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke. An ischemic stroke happens when a person’s artery, which supplies blood to different areas of the brain, becomes blocked with a blood clot. This type of stroke happens 80% of the time. The blood clot may form in the blood vessel, which is called a thrombus, or the blood clot can travel from somewhere else in the blood system that is called an embolus. A hemorrhagic stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures or bursts. Overall, people experience bleeding inside or around brain tissue. This type of stroke happens 20% of the time and is very serious. The most common causes of hemorrhagic stroke are weak vessels, traumatic injury, chronic high blood pressure hypertension, and an aneurysm.\n\nAlthough all of the diseases listed above are potential causes, aphasia will generally only result when there is substantial damage to the left hemisphere (responsible for language function) of the brain, either the cortex (outer layer) and/or the underlying white matter.\n\nSubstantial damage to tissue anywhere within the region shown in blue on the figure below can potentially result in aphasia. Aphasia can also sometimes be caused by damage to subcortical structures deep within the left hemisphere, including the thalamus, the internal and external capsules, and the caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia. The area and extent of brain damage or atrophy will determine the type of aphasia and its symptoms. A very small number of people can experience aphasia after damage to the right hemisphere only. It has been suggested that these individuals may have had an unusual brain organization prior to their illness or injury, with perhaps greater overall reliance on the right hemisphere for language skills than in the general population.\n\nPrimary progressive aphasia (PPA), while its name can be misleading, is actually a form of dementia that has some symptoms closely related to several forms of aphasia. It is characterized by a gradual loss in language functioning while other cognitive domains are mostly preserved, such as memory and personality. PPA usually initiates with sudden word-finding difficulties in an individual and progresses to a reduced ability to formulate grammatically correct sentences (syntax) and impaired comprehension. The etiology of PPA is not due to a stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), or infectious disease; it is still uncertain what initiates the onset of PPA in those affected by it.\n\nFinally, certain chronic neurological disorders, such as epilepsy or migraine, can also include transient aphasia as a prodromal or episodic symptom. Aphasia is also listed as a rare side-effect of the fentanyl patch, an opioid used to control chronic pain.\n",
"Aphasia is best thought of as a collection of different disorders, rather than a single problem. Each individual with aphasia will present with their own particular combination of language strengths and weaknesses. Consequently, it is a major challenge just to document the various difficulties that can occur in different people, let alone decide how they might best be treated. Most classifications of the aphasias tend to divide the various symptoms into broad classes. A common approach is to distinguish between the fluent aphasias (where speech remains fluent, but content may be lacking, and the person may have difficulties understanding others), and the nonfluent aphasias (where speech is very halting and effortful, and may consist of just one or two words at a time).\n\nHowever, no such broad-based grouping has proven fully adequate. There is a huge variation among patients within the same broad grouping, and aphasias can be highly selective. For instance, patients with naming deficits (anomic aphasia) might show an inability only for naming buildings, or people, or colors.\n\nIt is important to note that there are typical difficulties with speech and language that come with normal aging as well. As we age language can become more difficult to process resulting in slowing of verbal comprehension, reading abilities and more likely word finding difficulties. With each of these though, unlike some aphasias, functionality within daily life remains intact.\n\n===Classical-localizationist approaches===\nCortex\nLocalizationist approaches aim to classify the aphasias according to their major presenting characteristics and the regions of the brain that most probably gave rise to them. Inspired by the early work of nineteenth century neurologists Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke, these approaches identify two major subtypes of aphasia and several more minor subtypes:\n\n* Expressive aphasia (also known as \"motor aphasia\" or \"Broca's aphasia\"), which is characterized by halted, fragmented, effortful speech, but relatively well-preserved comprehension. Damage is typically in the anterior portion of the left hemisphere, most notably Broca's area. Individuals with Broca's aphasia often have right-sided weakness or paralysis of the arm and leg, because the left frontal lobe is also important for body movement, particularly on the right side.\n* Receptive aphasia (also known as \"sensory aphasia\" or \"Wernicke's aphasia\"), which is characterized by fluent speech, but marked difficulties understanding words and sentences. Although fluent, the speech may lack in key substantive words (nouns, verbs, adjectives), and may contain incorrect words or even nonsense words. This subtype has been associated with damage to the posterior left temporal cortex, most notably Wernicke's area. These individuals usually have no body weakness, because their brain injury is not near the parts of the brain that control movement.\n* Conduction aphasia, where speech remains fluent, and comprehension is preserved, but the person may have disproportionate difficulty where repeating words or sentences. Damage typically involves the arcuate fasciculus and the left parietal region.\n* Transcortical motor aphasia and transcortical sensory aphasia, which are similar to Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia respectively, but the ability to repeat words and sentences is disproportionately preserved.\n\nRecent classification schemes adopting this approach, such as the \"Boston-Neoclassical Model\", also group these classical aphasia subtypes into two larger classes: the nonfluent aphasias (which encompasses Broca's aphasia and transcortical motor aphasia) and the fluent aphasias (which encompasses Wernicke's aphasia, conduction aphasia and transcortical sensory aphasia). These schemes also identify several further aphasia subtypes, including: anomic aphasia, which is characterized by a selective difficulty finding the names for things; and global aphasia, where both expression and comprehension of speech are severely compromised.\n\nMany localizationist approaches also recognize the existence of additional, more \"pure\" forms of language disorder that may affect only a single language skill. For example, in pure alexia, a person may be able to write but not read, and in pure word deafness, they may be able to produce speech and to read, but not understand speech when it is spoken to them.\n\n===Cognitive neuropsychological approaches===\nAlthough localizationist approaches provide a useful way of classifying the different patterns of language difficulty into broad groups, one problem is that a sizeable number of individuals do not fit neatly into one category or another. Another problem is that the categories, particularly the major ones such as Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia, still remain quite broad. Consequently, even amongst individuals who meet the criteria for classification into a subtype, there can be enormous variability in the types of difficulties they experience.\n\nInstead of categorizing every individual into a specific subtype, cognitive neuropsychological approaches aim to identify the key language skills or \"modules\" that are not functioning properly in each individual. A person could potentially have difficulty with just one module, or with a number of modules. This type of approach requires a framework or theory as to what skills/modules are needed to perform different kinds of language tasks. For example, the model of Max Coltheart identifies a module that recognizes phonemes as they are spoken, which is essential for any task involving recognition of words. Similarly, there is a module that stores phonemes that the person is planning to produce in speech, and this module is critical for any task involving the production of long words or long strings of speech. Once a theoretical framework has been established, the functioning of each module can then be assessed using a specific test or set of tests. In the clinical setting, use of this model usually involves conducting a battery of assessments, each of which tests one or a number of these modules. Once a diagnosis is reached as to the skills/modules where the most significant impairment lies, therapy can proceed to treat these skills.\n\n===Progressive aphasias===\nPrimary progressive aphasia (PPA) is a focal dementia that can be associated with progressive illnesses or dementia, such as \nfrontotemporal dementia / Pick Complex Motor neuron disease, Progressive supranuclear palsy, and Alzheimer's disease, which is the gradual process of progressively losing the ability to think. Gradual loss of language function occurs in the context of relatively well-preserved memory, visual processing, and personality until the advanced stages. Symptoms usually begin with word-finding problems (naming) and progress to impaired grammar (syntax) and comprehension (sentence processing and semantics). People suffering from PPA may have difficulties comprehending what others are saying. They can also have difficulty trying to find the right words to make a sentence. There are three classifications of Primary Progressive Aphasia : Progressive nonfluent aphasia (PNFA), Semantic Dementia (SD), and Logopenic progressive aphasia (LPA)\n\nProgressive Jargon Aphasia is a fluent or receptive aphasia in which the patient's speech is incomprehensible, but appears to make sense to them. Speech is fluent and effortless with intact syntax and grammar, but the patient has problems with the selection of nouns. Either they will replace the desired word with another that sounds or looks like the original one or has some other connection or they will replace it with sounds. As such, patients with jargon aphasia often use neologisms, and may perseverate if they try to replace the words they cannot find with sounds. Substitutions commonly involve picking another (actual) word starting with the same sound (e.g., clocktower - colander), picking another semantically related to the first (e.g., letter - scroll), or picking one phonetically similar to the intended one (e.g., lane - late).\n\n===Deaf aphasia===\nThere have been many instances showing that there is a form of aphasia among deaf individuals. Sign language is, after all, a form of communication that has been shown to use the same areas of the brain as verbal forms of communication. Mirror neurons become activated when an animal is acting in a particular way or watching another individual act in the same manner. These mirror neurons are important in giving an individual the ability to mimic movements of hands. Broca's area of speech production has been shown to contain several of these mirror neurons resulting in significant similarities of brain activity between sign language and vocal speech communication. Facial communication is a significant portion of how animals interact with each other. Humans use facial movements to create, what other humans perceive, to be faces of emotions. While combining these facial movements with speech, a more full form of language is created which enables the species to interact with a much more complex and detailed form of communication. Sign language also uses these facial movements and emotions along with the primary hand movement way of communicating. These facial movement forms of communication come from the same areas of the brain. When dealing with damages to certain areas of the brain, vocal forms of communication are in jeopardy of severe forms of aphasia. Since these same areas of the brain are being used for sign language, these same, at least very similar, forms of aphasia can show in the Deaf community. Individuals can show a form of Wernicke's aphasia with sign language and they show deficits in their abilities in being able to produce any form of expressions. Broca's aphasia shows up in some patients, as well. These individuals find tremendous difficulty in being able to actually sign the linguistic concepts they are trying to express.\n",
"Following are some precautions that should be taken to avoid aphasia, by decreasing the risk of stroke, the main cause of aphasia:\n* Exercising regularly\n* Eating a healthy diet\n* Keeping alcohol consumption low and avoiding tobacco use\n* Controlling blood pressure\n",
"Most acute cases of aphasia recover some or most skills by working with a speech-language pathologist. Recovery and improvement can continue for years after the stroke. After the onset of Aphasia, there is approximately a six-month period of spontaneous recovery; during this time, the brain is attempting to recover and repair the damaged neurons. Improvement varies widely, depending on the aphasia's cause, type, and severity. Recovery also depends on the patient's age, health, motivation, handedness, and educational level.\n\nThere is no one treatment proven to be effective for all types of aphasias. The reason that there is no universal treatment for aphasia is because of the nature of the disorder and the various ways it is presented, as explained in the above sections. Aphasia is rarely exhibited identically, implying that treatment needs to be catered specifically to the individual. Studies have shown that, although there is no consistency on treatment methodology in literature, there is a strong indication that treatment in general has positive outcomes. Therapy for aphasia ranges from increasing functional communication to improving speech accuracy, depending on the person's severity, needs and support of family and friends. Group therapy allows individuals to work on their pragmatic and communication skills with other individuals with aphasia, which are skills that may not often be addressed in individual one-on-one therapy sessions. It can also help increase confidence and social skills in a comfortable setting.\n\nA multi-disciplinary team, including doctors (often a physician is involved, but more likely a clinical neuropsychologist will head the treatment team), physiotherapist, occupational therapist, speech-language pathologist, physical therapist, dietician, and social worker, work together in treating aphasia. For the most part, treatment relies heavily on repetition and aims to address language performance by working on task-specific skills. The primary goal is to help the individual and those closest to them adjust to changes and limitations in communication.\n\nTreatment techniques mostly fall under two approaches:\n#Substitute Skill Model - an approach that uses an aid to help with spoken language, i.e. a writing board\n#Direct Treatment Model - an approach that targets deficits with specific exercises\n\nSeveral treatment techniques include the following:\n*Copy and Recall Therapy (CART) - repetition and recall of targeted words within therapy may strengthen orthographic representations and improve single word reading, writing, and naming\n*Visual Communication Therapy (VIC) - the use of index cards with symbols to represent various components of speech\n*Visual Action Therapy (VAT) - typically treats individuals with global aphasia to train the use of hand gestures for specific items\n*Functional Communication Treatment (FCT) - focuses on improving activities specific to functional tasks, social interaction, and self-expression\n*Promoting Aphasic's Communicative Effectiveness (PACE) - a means of encouraging normal interaction between patients and clinicians. In this kind of therapy the focus is on pragmatic communication rather than treatment itself. Patients are asked to communicate a given message to their therapists by means of drawing, making hand gestures or even pointing to an object \n*Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT) - aims to use the intact melodic/prosodic processing skills of the right hemisphere to help cue retrieval of words and expressive language \n*Other - i.e. drawing as a way of communicating, trained conversation partners\n\nSemantic feature analysis (SFA) -a type of aphasia treatment that targets word-finding deficits. It is based on the theory that neural connections can strengthened by using using related words and phrases that are similar to the target word, to eventually activate the target word in the brain. SFA can be implemented in multiple forms such as verbally, written, using picture cards, etc. The SLP provides prompting questions to the individual with aphasia in order for the person to name the picture provided. Studies show that SFA is an effective intervention for improving confrontational naming.\n\nMelodic Intonation Therapy is used to treat non-fluent aphasia and has proved to be effective in some cases. However, there is still no evidence from randomized controlled trials confirming the efficacy of MIT in chronic aphasia. MIT is used to help people with aphasia vocalize themselves through speech song, which is then transferred as a spoken word. Good candidates for this therapy include left hemisphere stroke patients, non-fluent aphasias such as Broca's, good auditory comprehension, poor repetition and articulation, and good emotional stability and memory. It has been hypothesized that MIT is effective because prosody and singing both rely on areas of the right hemisphere; it may be these right-hemisphere areas that are recruited for natural speech production after intensive training. An alternative explanation is that the efficacy of MIT depends on neural circuits involved in the processing of rhythmicity and formulaic expressions (examples taken from the MIT manual: “I am fine,” “how are you?” or “thank you”); while rhythmic features associated with melodic intonation may engage primarily left-hemisphere subcortical areas of the brain, the use of formulaic expressions is known to be supported by right-hemisphere cortical and bilateral subcortical neural networks.\n\nMore recently, computer technology has been incorporated into treatment options. A key indication for good prognosis is treatment intensity. A minimum of two–three hours per week has been specified to produce positive results. The main advantage of using computers is that it can greatly increase intensity of therapy. These programs consist of a large variety of exercises and can be done at home in addition to face-to-face treatment with a therapist. However, since aphasia presents differently among individuals, these programs must be dynamic and flexible in order to adapt to the variability in impairments. Another barrier is the capability of computer programs to imitate normal speech and keep up with the speed of regular conversation. Therefore, computer technology seems to be limited in a communicative setting, however is effective in producing improvements in communication training.\n\n===Intensity of treatment===\nThe intensity of aphasia therapy is determined by the length of each session, total hours of therapy per week, and total weeks of therapy provided. There is no consensus about what “intense” aphasia therapy entails, or how intense therapy should be to yield the best outcomes. Overall, treatment is considered more intense when total therapy hours per week are increased, and on average, research suggests more intense therapy leads to better outcomes. For example, one study found that patients who were treated for 8.8 hours a week for 11.2 weeks progressed more than patients who were treated 2 hours a week for 22.9 weeks. Results of another study corroborate these findings. The researchers found that patients who received intensive therapy of 100 treatment hours over 62 weeks scored higher on language measures than the control group who received less intensive therapy. Therefore, although there is a general consensus that intense treatment encourages more improvement, there is not a straightforward definition of “intense” treatment.\n\nIntensity of treatment should be individualized based on the recency of stroke, therapy goals, and other patient-specific characteristics such as age, size of lesion, overall health status, and motivation. Each individual reacts differently to treatment intensity and is able to tolerate treatment at different times post-stroke. Some patients cannot tolerate therapy directly after a stroke due to confusion or exhaustion, but may tolerate therapy better later. Intensity of treatment after a stroke should be dependent on the patient’s motivation, stamina, and tolerance for therapy. Level of intensity also depends on therapy goals; for certain goals non-intensive therapy is more beneficial. For example, non-intensive therapy has been found to be more effective than intensive therapy when targeting naming accuracy in patients with anomia. This is because more time in between sessions allows for rehearsal and reinforces long term learning.\n\nIntensity of therapy is also dependent on the recency of stroke. Patients react differently to intense treatment in the acute phase (0–3 months post stroke), sub-acute phase (3–6 months post stroke), or chronic phase (6+ months post stroke). Intensive therapy has been found to be effective for patients with nonfluent and fluent chronic aphasia, but less effective for patients with acute aphasia. Patients with sub-acute aphasia also respond well to intensive therapy of 100 hours over 62 weeks. This suggests patients in the sub-acute phase can improve greatly in language and functional communication measures with intensive therapy compared to regular therapy. Research suggests that intense treatment is most beneficial in the sub-acute or chronic phase, rather than directly post stroke. More research needs to be done to examine the optimal time for providing intense therapy to all aphasic patients.\n\nIntensive therapy can be alternatively characterized by the magnitude of the demands placed on a client within a session. Under this definition, intensive therapy includes a few specific techniques such as Constraint Induced Aphasia Therapy (CIAT) and Speech Intensive Rehabilitation Intervention (SP-I-R-IT). CIAT places high demands on the patient by restricting use of the strongest areas of the patient’s brain and requiring the weakest areas to work harder. Typical CIAT therapy sessions are intense and last for about 3 hours. One study found that when given intensive CIAT therapy, participant performance in verbal communication in everyday life significantly improved. Each participant in the study also showed improvement on at least one subtest within the Aachen Aphasia Test; which assesses language performance and comprehension in aphasia patients. These results suggest that intensive CIAT therapy is effective in patients with moderate, fluent aphasias in the chronic stage of recovery. SP-I-R-IT focuses heavily on speech production strategies and intervention. SPIRIT therapy has been found to be effective; patients participating in intensive SPIRIT therapy improved performance on standardized measures by 15% after 50 weeks of therapy.\n\nOverall, intensity of aphasia treatment is an area that requires more research. Current research suggests that intense treatment is effective, although the definition of “intense” is variable. Most importantly, intensity of treatment should be determined on a case by case basis and should depend upon recency of stroke and the patient’s stamina, tolerance for therapy, motivation, overall health status, and treatment goals.\n",
"\nThere are several outcomes that contribute to a patient's overall outcomes once diagnosed with aphasia including: neuroplasticity, age, overall health status, and patient motivation. Neuroplasticity is the brain's capability of change in response to the environment. Neuroplaticity underlies normal processes such as: typical development, learning & maintaining performance while aging, and the brain's response to a severe injury. Positive outcomes are most prominent when neuroplasticity is maximized for the aphasic patient, and is predicted by the patient's response to the other stated outcomes. The patient's age directly impacts the neuroplasticity the brain can allow, the younger the patient is, the greater plasticity is. Overall health status also greatly impacts outcomes in aphasic patients. If a patient has no underlying health problems, and is young, then they have better outcomes than someone who is older, has severe health issues (such as: obesity, heart disease, cancer, high blood pressure, etc.) in conjunction with aphasia. However, the most important factor affecting the outcomes of a patient with aphasia is a patient's motivation. In order to be successful, regardless of the contributing outcomes, the patient must be highly motivated in order to make the most efficient outcomes. If the patient is not motivated to make positive outcomes in their life after being diagnosed with any type of aphasia, their prognosis to make great improvements is much less than someone who is highly motivated to make positive changes in their life. All of these outcomes contribute to success in Wernicke's, Broca's, Global, and Conduction aphasia, and are detailed below:\n\n===Wernicke's aphasia===\nWernicke’s Aphasia, considered a fluent aphasia, is often the result of trauma to the temporal region of the brain, specifically damage to Wernicke’s area. Trauma can be the result from an array of problems, however it is most commonly seen as a result of stroke Patients who have been diagnosed with Wernicke’s aphasia have fluent speech, but it is the meaning of their utterances that are most notably affected. While their sentence structure remains, the words patients use are often nonsensical\n\nComprehension is severely affected in patients with Wernicke’s aphasia. Wernicke’s area has been thought to be the center of language processing, specifically processing of meaning. While patients are still left with some comprehension, they are not able to repeat a sentence spoken to them or participate in an action requested by another speaker. A case study done by Ellis et al. discussed a patient who underwent several types of testing, one of which was a word-picture test. The conclusion of the test showed that while the patient understood what the image was, he had trouble retrieving the word and understanding the instructions. This case study suggests that it is language comprehension that is affected in Wernicke's aphasia and not a drop in intelligence.\n\nWernicke’s is considered a more severe form of aphasia, and is more commonly seen in older populations. Wernicke's area is in the left posterior temporal region of the brain, which is an important area for processing language comprehension. Wernicke’s aphasia has shown a high recovery rate and frequent evolution to other forms of aphasia. Though some cases of Wernicke’s aphasia have shown greater improvements than more mild forms of aphasia, people with Wernicke’s aphasia may not reach as high a level of speech abilities as those with mild forms of aphasia. Wernicke's aphasia is also referred to as receptive or fluent aphasia, due to the ability to speak grammatically and use appropriate prosody. However, much of what the person with aphasia says does not make sense, and oftentimes they will produce non-existent words and be unaware what they have said. People with Wernicke's aphasia have difficulties understanding the meaning of spoken words and sentences. Those with Wernicke's aphasia remain completely unaware of even their most profound language deficits.\n\n===Broca's aphasia===\n\n(Broca’s and Anomic):\n\nThe term Anomic Aphasia usually refers to patients whose only prevalent symptom is impaired word retrieval in speech and writing. Typically, the spontaneous speech of a person with anomic aphasia is fluent and grammatically correct but contains many word retrieval failures. These failures lead to unusual pauses, talking around the intended word, or substituting a different word for the intended word. Anomic aphasia is the mildest form of aphasia, indicating a likely possibility for better recovery. Patients with Broca’s aphasia may also have difficulty with word retrieval, or anomia. In addition, patients with Broca’s aphasia comprehend spoken and written language better than they can speak or write. These patients self-monitor, are aware of their communicative impairments, and frequently try to repeat or attempt repairs. The preceding factors discussed correlate with a good prognosis for patients with Broca’s aphasia. Many patients with an acute onset of Broca’s aphasia eventually progress to milder forms of aphasia, such as conduction or anomic.\n\nTherapy for Expressive Aphasia (nonfluent) is beneficial, even for patients with severe nonfluent aphasia. A study conducted by Marangolo and co-workers (2013) administered conversational therapy to patients with severe nonfluent aphasia. The results of the study demonstrated a significant increase in the patient’s expressive language. The authors suggested that an intensive conversational therapy program should be considered for patients with moderately severe nonfluent aphasia in order to enhance the patient's quality of life and improve their language expression. In addition, although Anomic Aphasia is seen to be less severe than other aphasias, therapy is still imperative to help decrease the patient’s word finding deficits. A research study conducted by Harnish and co-workers (2014), provided intense treatment to patients with anomic aphasia. Results of the study concluded significant increases in the participant’s expressive language. These results suggest that an intensive intervention program for patients with anomic aphasia provides a surprisingly quick expressive language increase. Specifically, these patients relearned to correctly produce the problematic words after one to three hours of speech-language therapy.\n\n===Global aphasia===\n\nGlobal aphasia is considered a severe impairment in many language aspects since it impacts expressive and receptive language, reading, and writing. Despite these many deficits, there is evidence that has shown individuals benefited from speech language therapy. Even though each case is different, it has been noted that individuals with global aphasia had greater improvements during the second six months following the stroke when compared to the first 6 months. Intense and frequent speech-language therapy had been shown to be more effective, with the addition of daily homework. Improvement has also been shown when the individual was attentive, motivated, and information was presented in multiple ways.\n\nIn one study, 23 individuals that had previously received speech-language therapy, but had been dismissed because further recovery was not expected, participated in intense speech-language therapy. Results showed significant improvements in oral and written noun and sentence production, naming actions, and daily communication.\n\nEven though individuals with global aphasia will not become competent speakers, listeners, writers, or readers, goals can be created to improve the individual’s quality of life. Collins (1991) suggests therapy targeting attainable goals that will have the greatest impact on an individual’s daily life, such as getting reliable yes/no answers or providing the patient gestures. Individuals with global aphasia usually respond well to treatment that includes personally relevant information, which is also important to consider for therapy.\n\n===Conduction aphasia===\nConduction and transcortical aphasias are caused by damage to the white matter tracts. These aphasias spare the cortex of the language centers, but instead create a disconnection between them.\n\nConduction aphasia is caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus. The arcuate fasciculus is a white matter tract that connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. Patients with conduction aphasia typically have good language comprehension, but poor speech repetition and mild difficulty with word retrieval and speech production. Patients with conduction aphasia are typically aware of their errors. The awareness of errors and the milder nature of conduction aphasia compared to other types contributes to a positive outcome. Additionally, a case study completed on a 54-year-old man with a large infarct in the arcuate fasciculus indicated that severe conduction aphasia can be successfully treated. Despite his global deficits, he made a full recovery after 30 months.\n\nTranscortical aphasias include transcortical motor aphasia, transcortical sensory aphasia, and mixed transcortical aphasia. Patients with transcortical motor aphasia typically have intact comprehension and awareness of their errors, but poor word finding and speech production. Patients with transcortical sensory and mixed transcortical aphasia have poor comprehension and unawareness of their errors. Despite poor comprehension and more severe deficits in some transcortical aphasias, small studies have indicated that full recovery is possible for all types of transcortical aphasia. Due to the limited research on outcomes for the specific subtypes of these aphasias, it is more important to focus on the other factors and severity of deficits in order to predict a reasonable outcome.\n",
"To better understand what aphasia is and how it affects both mental and physical aspects of speech, it is important to understand the history first. By knowing more about the history of this disorder, the better chance there is of ruling out potential misnomers of the disorder and possibly discovering new ways of thinking about treatment options. Although the cause for different types of aphasia's are mostly known, the best way to recover is still unknown. Many ancient cultures, such as the Egyptians, believed that the heart was where a person's soul was housed, therefore any issues of expression were caused by injury or tainting of the soul. The first recorded case of aphasia is from an Egyptian papyrus, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, which details speech problems in a person with a traumatic brain injury to the temporal lobe. During the second half of the 19th century, aphasia was a major focus for scientists and philosophers who were working in the beginning stages of the field of psychology.\n\nAphasia was non-medically described in early texts, such as the Bible and writings of Homer, but there was no further mention of what aphasia was or how it occurred at that time. In medical research, speechlessness was described as an incorrect prognosis, and there was no assumption that underlying language complications existed. The earliest recorded medical cases of aphasia were made back in the Middle Ages, where it was thought to be an imbalance of bodily fluids in the brain that caused the inability to speak one's mind. The first medical documents dating back to the late 19th century contain early descriptions of aphasia. Broca and his colleagues were some of the first to write about aphasia, but Wernicke was the first credited to have written extensively about aphasia being a disorder that contained comprehension difficulties. Despite claims of who reported on aphasia first, it was F.J. Gall that gave the first full description of aphasia after studying wounds to the brain, as well as his observation of speech difficulties resulting from vascular lesions.\n\n===Etymology===\n''Aphasia'' is from Greek ''a-'' (\"without\") + ''phásis'' (''φάσις'', \"speech\").\n\nThe word ''aphasia'' comes from the word ἀφασία ''aphasia'', in Ancient Greek, which means \"speechlessness\", derived from ἄφατος ''aphatos'', \"speechless\" from ἀ- ''a-'', \"not, un\" and φημί ''phemi'', \"I speak\".\n",
"\n* Ralph Waldo Emerson\n* Terry Jones\n* Ronald Reagan – caused by late stages of Alzheimer's disease\n* Lee Sedol\n",
"\n* Agnosia\n* Aphasiology\n* Aprosodia\n* Auditory processing disorder\n* Lethologica\n* Lists of language disorders\n* Origin of speech\n\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* \n* Luria's Areas of the Human Cortex Involved in Language Illustrated summary of Luria's book Traumatic Aphasia\n* Video clips showing patients with expressive-type aphasia \n* A video clip with a patient exhibiting receptive aphasia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Signs and symptoms",
"Causes",
"Classification",
"Prevention",
"Management",
"Prognosis",
"History",
"Notable cases",
" See also ",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aphasia |
[
"\n\n\n\nThe '''aorta''' () is the main artery in the human body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits into two smaller arteries (the common iliac arteries). The aorta distributes oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through the systemic circulation.\n",
"\n===Sections===\n Course of the aorta in the thorax (anterior view), starting posterior to the main pulmonary artery, then anterior to the right pulmonary arteries, the trachea and the esophagus, then turning posteriorly to course dorsally to these structures.\nIn anatomical sources, the aorta is usually divided into sections.\n\nOne way of classifying a part of the aorta is by anatomical compartment, where the thoracic aorta (or thoracic portion of the aorta) runs from the heart to the diaphragm. The aorta then continues downward as the abdominal aorta (or abdominal portion of the aorta) diaphragm to the aortic bifurcation.\n\nAnother system divides the aorta with respect to its course and the direction of blood flow. In this system, the aorta starts as the ascending aorta then travels superiorly from the heart and then makes a hairpin turn known as the aortic arch. Following the aortic arch, the aorta then travels inferiorly as the descending aorta. The descending aorta has two parts. The aorta begins to descend in the thoracic cavity, and consequently is known as the thoracic aorta. After the aorta passes through the diaphragm, it is known as the abdominal aorta. The aorta ends by dividing into two major blood vessels, the common iliac arteries and a smaller midline vessel, the median sacral artery.\n\n====Ascending aorta====\n\nThe ascending aorta begins at the opening of the aortic valve in the left ventricle of the heart. It runs through a common pericardial sheath with the pulmonary trunk. These two blood vessels twist around each other, causing the aorta to start out posterior to the pulmonary trunk, but end by twisting to its right and anterior side.\nThe transition from ascending aorta to aortic arch is at the pericardial reflection on the aorta.\n\nAt the root of the ascending aorta, the lumen has three small pockets between the cusps of the aortic valve and the wall of the aorta, which are called the aortic sinuses or the sinuses of Valsalva. The left aortic sinus contains the origin of the left coronary artery and the right aortic sinus likewise gives rise to the right coronary artery. Together, these two arteries supply the heart. The posterior aortic sinus does not give rise to a coronary artery. For this reason the left, right and posterior aortic sinuses are also called left-coronary, right-coronary and non-coronary sinuses.\n\n====Aortic arch====\n\nThe aortic arch loops over the left pulmonary artery and the bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk, to which it remains connected by the ligamentum arteriosum, a remnant of the fetal circulation that is obliterated a few days after birth. In addition to these blood vessels, the aortic arch crosses the left main bronchus. Between the aortic arch and the pulmonary trunk is a network of autonomic nerve fibers, the cardiac plexus or ''aortic plexus''. The left vagus nerve, which passes anterior to the aortic arch, gives off a major branch, the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which loops under the aortic arch just lateral to the ligamentum arteriosum. It then runs back to the neck.\n\nThe aortic arch has three major branches: from proximal to distal, they are the brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid artery, and the left subclavian artery. The brachiocephalic trunk supplies the right side of the head and neck as well as the right arm and chest wall, while the latter two together supply the left side of the same regions.\n\nThe aortic arch ends and the descending aorta begins at the level of the intervertebral disc between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae.\n\n====Thoracic aorta====\n\nThe thoracic descending aorta gives rise to the intercostal and subcostal arteries, as well as to the superior and inferior left bronchial arteries and variable branches to the esophagus, mediastinum, and pericardium. Its lowest pair of branches are the superior phrenic arteries, which supply the diaphragm, and the subcostal arteries for the twelfth rib.\n\n====Abdominal aorta====\n\nThe abdominal aorta gives rise to lumbar and musculophrenic arteries, renal and middle suprarenal arteries, and visceral arteries (the celiac trunk, the superior mesenteric artery and the inferior mesenteric artery). It ends in a bifurcation into the left and right common iliac arteries. At the point of the bifurcation, there also springs a smaller branch, the median sacral artery.\n\n===Development===\nThe ascending aorta develops from the outflow tract which initially starts as a single tube connecting the heart with the aortic arches (which will form the great arteries) in early development, but then is separated into the aorta and the pulmonary trunk. \n\nThe aortic arches start as five pairs of symmetrical arteries connecting the heart with the dorsal aorta, and then undergo a significant remodelling to form the final asymmetrical structure of the great arteries, with the 3rd pair of arteries contributing to the common carotids, the right 4th forming the base and middle part of the right subclavian artery and the left 4th being the central part of the aortic arch. The smooth muscle of the great arteries and the population of cells that form the aorticopulmonary septum that separates the aorta and pulmonary artery is derived from cardiac neural crest. This contribution of the neural crest to the great artery smooth muscle is unusual as most smooth muscle is derived from mesoderm. In fact the smooth muscle within the abdominal aorta is derived from mesoderm, and the coronary arteries, which arise just above the semilunar valves, possess smooth muscle of mesodermal origin. A failure of the aorticopulmonary septum to divide the great vessels results in persistent truncus arteriosus.\n\n===Histology===\nA pig's aorta cut open, also showing some branching arteries.\nThe aorta is an elastic artery, and as such is quite distensible. The aorta consists of a heterogeneous mixture of smooth muscle, nerves, intimal cells, endothelial cells, fibroblast-like cells, and a complex extracellular matrix. The vascular wall consists of several layers known as the tunica externa, tunica media, and tunica intima. The thickness of the aorta requires an extensive network of tiny blood vessels called vasa vasorum, which feed the tunica externa and tunica media outer layers of the aorta. The aortic arch contains baroreceptors and chemoreceptors that relay information concerning blood pressure and blood pH and carbon dioxide levels to the medulla oblongata of the brain. This information is processed by the brain and the autonomic nervous system mediates the homeostatic responses.\n\nWithin the tunica media, smooth muscle and the extracellular matrix are quantitatively the largest components of the aortic vascular wall. The fundamental unit of the aorta is the elastic lamella, which consists of smooth muscle and elastic matrix. The medial layer of the aorta consist of concentric musculoelastic layers (the elastic lamella) in mammals. The smooth muscle component does not dramatically alter the diameter of the aorta but rather serves to increase the stiffness and viscoelasticity of the aortic wall when activated. The elastic matrix dominates the biomechanical properties of the aorta. The elastic matrix forms lamellae, consisting of elastic fibers, collagens (predominately type III), proteoglycans, and glycoaminoglycans.\n\n===Variations===\nVariations may occur in the location of the aorta, and the way in which arteries branch off the aorta. The aorta, normally on the left side of the body, may be found on the right in dextrocardia, in which the heart is found on the right, or situs inversus, in which the location of all organs are flipped.\n\nVariations in the branching of individual arteries may also occur. For example, the left vertebral artery may arise from the aorta, instead of the left common carotid artery.\n\nIn patent ductus arteriosus, a congenital disorder, the fetal ductus arteriosis fails to close, leaving an open vessel connecting the pulmonary artery to the proximal descending aorta.\n",
"Major Aorta anatomy displaying Ascending Aorta, Brachiocephalic trunk, Left Common Carotid Artery, Left Subclavian Artery, Aortic Isthmus, Aortic Arch and Descending Thoracic Aorta\nThe aorta supplies all of the systemic circulation, which means that the entire body, except for the respiratory zone of the lung, receives its blood from the aorta. Broadly speaking, branches from the ascending aorta supply the heart; branches from the aortic arch supply the head, neck and arms; branches from the thoracic descending aorta supply the chest (excluding the heart and the respiratory zone of the lung); and branches from the abdominal aorta supply the abdomen. The pelvis and legs get their blood from the common iliac arteries.\n\n===Blood flow and velocity===\nThe pulsatile nature of blood flow creates a pulse wave that is propagated down the arterial tree, and at bifurcations reflected waves rebound to return to semilunar valves and the origin of the aorta. These return waves create the dicrotic notch displayed in the aortic pressure curve during the cardiac cycle as these reflected waves push on the aortic semilunar valve. With age, the aorta stiffens such that the pulse wave is propagated faster and reflected waves return to the heart faster before the semilunar valve closes, which raises the blood pressure. The stiffness of the aorta is associated with a number of diseases and pathologies, and noninvasive measures of the pulse wave velocity are an independent indicator of hypertension. Measuring the pulse wave velocity (invasively and non-invasively) is a means of determining arterial stiffness. Maximum aortic velocity may be noted as '''Vmax''' or less commonly as '''AoVmax'''.\n\nMean arterial pressure (MAP) is highest in the aorta and the MAP decreases across the circulation from aorta to arteries to arterioles to capillaries to veins back to atrium. The difference between aortic and right atrial pressure accounts for blood flow in the circulation. When the left ventricle contracts to force blood into the aorta, the aorta expands. This stretching gives the potential energy that will help maintain blood pressure during diastole, as during this time the aorta contracts passively. This Windkessel effect of the great elastic arteries has important biomechanical implications. The elastic recoil helps conserve the energy from the pumping heart and smooth out the pulsatile nature created by the heart. Aortic pressure is highest at the aorta and becomes less pulsatile and lower pressure as blood vessels divide into arteries, arterioles, and capillaries such that flow is slow and smooth for gases and nutrient exchange.\n",
"* Aortic aneurysm – mycotic, bacterial (e.g. syphilis), senile, genetic, associated with valvular heart disease\n* Aortic coarctation – pre-ductal, post-ductal\n* Aortic dissection\n* Aortic stenosis\n* Aortitis, inflammation of the aorta that can be seen in trauma, infections, and autoimmune diseaes\n* Atherosclerosis\n* Ehlers–Danlos syndrome\n* Marfan syndrome\n* Trauma, such as traumatic aortic rupture, most often thoracic and distal to the left subclavian artery and often quickly fatal\n* Transposition of the great vessels, see also dextro-Transposition of the great arteries and levo-Transposition of the great arteries\n",
"\nAll amniotes have a broadly similar arrangement to that of humans, albeit with a number of individual variations. In fish, however, there are two separate vessels referred to as aortas. The '''ventral aorta''' carries de-oxygenated blood from the heart to the gills; part of this vessel forms the ascending aorta in tetrapods (the remainder forms the pulmonary artery). A second, '''dorsal aorta''' carries oxygenated blood from the gills to the rest of the body, and is homologous with the descending aorta of tetrapods. The two aortas are connected by a number of vessels, one passing through each of the gills.\nAmphibians also retain the fifth connecting vessel, so that the aorta has two parallel arches.\n",
"The word 'Aorta' stems from the Late Latin '''' from ''aortē'' (), from ''aeirō'', \"I lift, raise\" () This term was first applied by Aristotle when describing the aorta and describes accurately how it seems to be 'suspended' above the heart. \n\nThe function of the aorta has been documented in the Talmud, where it is noted as one of three major vessels entering or leaving the heart, and where perforation is linked to death.\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* — Descending aorta\n* — Abdominal aorta\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Structure",
"Function",
"Clinical relevance",
"In other animals",
"History",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aorta |
[
"\n\n\n'''Abimelech''' (also spelled '''Abimelek''' or '''Avimelech'''; ) was the name of multiple Philistine kings mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.\n",
"The name or title ''Abimelech'' is formed from Hebrew words for \"father\" and \"king,\" and may be interpreted in a variety of ways, including \"Father-King\", \"My father is king,\" or \"Father of a king.\" In the Pentateuch, it is used as a title for kings in the land of Canaan.\n\nAt the time of the Amarna tablets (mid-14th century BC), there was an Egyptian governor of Tyre similarly named Abimilki, who is sometimes speculated to be connected with one or more of the biblical Abimelechs.\n",
"\nAbimelech was most prominently the name of a polytheistic king of Gerar who is mentioned in two of the three wife-sister narratives in Genesis, in connection with both Abraham (chap. 20) and Isaac (chap. 26). \n\nKing Abimelech of Gerar also appears in an extra-biblical tradition recounted in texts such as the ''Kitab al-Magall'', the ''Cave of Treasures'' and the ''Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan'', as one of 12 regional kings in Abraham's time said to have built the city of Jerusalem for Melchizedek.\n",
"\nApart from the king (or kings) of Gerar, the Bible also records this name for:\n*Abimelech, son of Gideon (), proclaimed king after the death of his father ().\n*The father of Abiathar, and high priest in the time of David (). In the parallel passage, , the name is given as Ahimelech; most authorities consider this the more correct reading.\n*The king of Gath better known as Achish, referred to as Abimelech or Achimelech in the title of .\n\nOther literary references include:\n*Abimélech, Satrap of Gaza is a character (baritone) in Saint-Saëns' opera ''Samson and Delilah'' (Weimar, 1877)\n",
"*Abimelech (oratorio)\n*Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"Abimelech of Gerar",
"Other people with this name",
"See also",
"References"
] | Abimelech |
[
"\n\n\n'''Andrew''' \"'''Tridge'''\" '''Tridgell''' (born 28 February 1967) is an Australian computer programmer. He is the author of and a contributor to the Samba file server, and co-inventor of the rsync algorithm.\n\nHe has analysed complex proprietary protocols and algorithms, to allow compatible free and open source software implementations.\n",
"Tridgell was a major developer of the Samba software, analyzing the Server Message Block protocol used for workgroup and network file sharing by Microsoft Windows products. He developed the talloc hierarchical memory allocator, originally as part of Samba.\n\nFor his PhD dissertation, he co-developed rsync, including the rsync algorithm, a highly efficient file transfer and synchronisation tool. He also was the original author of rzip, which uses a similar algorithm to rsync. He developed spamsum, based on locality-sensitive hashing algorithms.\n\nHe is the author of KnightCap, a reinforcement-learning based chess engine.\n\nTridgell was also a leader in hacking the TiVo to make it work in Australia, which uses the PAL video format.\n\nIn April 2005, Tridgell tried to produce free software (now known as SourcePuller) that interoperated with the BitKeeper source code repository. This was cited as the reason that BitMover revoked a license allowing Linux developers free use of their BitKeeper product. Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux kernel, and Tridgell were thus involved in a public debate about the events, in which Tridgell stated that, not having bought or owned BitKeeper – and thus having never agreed to its license – he could not violate it, and was analyzing the protocol ethically, as he had done with Samba. Tridgell's involvement in the project resulted in Torvalds accusing him of playing dirty tricks with BitKeeper. Tridgell claimed his analysis started with simply telneting to a BitKeeper server and typing help.\n\nIn 2011 Tridgell got involved with the software development of ArduPilot Mega, an open source Arduino-based UAV controller board, working on an entry for the UAV Challenge Outback Rescue.\n",
"\nAttending Barker College Hornsby, NSW, Tridgell completed his Higher School Certificate in 1984. Tridgell completed a degree with majors in applied mathematics and physics at the University of Sydney in 1988, before moving to Canberra to complete an Honours degree at the Australian National University, in which he received first class honours in theoretical physics.\n\nTridgell completed a PhD at the Computer Sciences Laboratory of the Australian National University. His original doctorate work was in the area of speech recognition but was never completed. His submitted dissertation 'Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization' was based on his work on the rsync algorithm.\n",
"Tridgell started his career working for Efam Resources from 1987 to 1988, designing computer models of financial markets. His work led to a product named The Options Analyst, which he marketed and sold for five years.\n\nFrom 1988 to 1989, Tridgell worked as a software developer for a company named Sonartech Pty Ltd (now Sonartech Atlas), which developed sonar technologies for Australian submarines. He worked on passive sonar technology.\n\nBetween 1989 and 1990, Tridgell was employed at the Research School of Biological Sciences in the Australian National University, making computer models of physical and biological events and environments such as bushfire spread and population dynamics.\n\nFrom 1991 to 1999, Tridgell held various other positions at the Australian National University, such as UNIX administration, satellite control, and supercomputer research. During this period he was seconded to the Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Computational Systems, where he headed the PIOuS (Parallel Input/Output System) project—later HiDIOS (High-performance Distributed Input/Output System)—for parallel file systems on the Fujitsu AP1000 and AP+ supercomputers. Tridgell also went on to lecture, first as an associate lecturer, and then as a casual lecturer, in the university's Computer Science division. He remains a Visiting Fellow of the University.\n\nIn mid-1999, Tridgell joined the LinuxCare company's office in Canberra as their first Australian employee. He helped to assemble 14 staff for a research and development team known as OzLabs. Linux and open-source companies were quite a new concept at this stage. Tridgell was made a research fellow of LinuxCare in 2000.\n\nIn March 2001, Tridgell joined VA Linux Systems. He worked in the network-attached storage division for VA Linux Systems, making enhancements to Samba and the Linux kernel to provide enhanced performance for their network-attached storage device range.\n\nTridgell continued his work with network-attached storage technologies when he joined Quantum Corporation as a Senior Engineer in the Storage Systems Group. His role once again involved developing functionality and efficiency modifications into Samba to enhance Quantum's GuardianOS-powered Snap Server network-attached storage device. One of the features that he added to Samba at this time was support for Microsoft's Active Directory technology, a new authentication system introduced with Microsoft's Windows 2000 Server product range.\n\nIn 2004, Tridgell was employed by IBM working remotely for the Almaden Research Center. In January 2005, he joined the OSDL on a one-year fellowship; he then returned to IBM. As of 2015 he no longer works for IBM.\n\nSince 2009, Tridgell has co-taught a course titled ''Free and Open Source Software Development'' at the Australian National University.\n",
"* In January 2014, Tridgell was awarded Linux Australia's Rusty Wrench for service to the Australian Open Source community.\n* In October 2003, The Bulletin magazine judged Tridgell to be Australia's smartest Information and Communications Technology person.\n* In January 2006, the Free Software Foundation awarded Tridgell its 2005 Award for the Advancement of Free Software, for his work on Samba, the Linux kernel, and rsync. Tridgell was considered to have furthered an important goal of the free software movement since the founding of GNU, analysing ways for free software to interact with widespread proprietary systems to allow people to more easily move away from those systems.\n* In July 2008, Tridgell was named \"Best Interoperator\" at the Google-O'Reilly Open Source Awards, for his work on Samba and Rsync.\n*Tridgell (along with Jeremy Allison and Volker Lendecke) has been called a \"guru in its traditional Indian meaning\" by IT writer, Sam Varghese.\n",
"\n",
"\n* Andrew Tridgell's website\n* Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization (PhD thesis) – (406kB PDF)\n* Active Directory in Samba 4 'an old story'\n* FOSS folk who make us proud\n* Patent Defence for Free Software, January 2010 presentation transcript\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Projects",
"Academic achievements",
"Employment",
"Awards and honours",
"References",
"External links"
] | Andrew Tridgell |
[
"\n\n'''Applesoft BASIC''' is a dialect of Microsoft BASIC, developed by Marc McDonald and Ric Weiland, supplied with the Apple II series of computers. It supersedes Integer BASIC and is the BASIC in ROM in all Apple II series computers after the original Apple II model. It is also referred to as '''FP BASIC''' (from \"floating point\") because of the Disk Operating System (DOS) command used to invoke it, instead of INT for Integer BASIC. Applesoft BASIC was supplied by Microsoft and its name is derived from the names of both Apple and Microsoft. Apple employees, including Randy Wigginton, adapted Microsoft's interpreter for the Apple II and added several features. The first version of Applesoft was released in 1977 only on cassette tape and lacked proper support for high-resolution graphics. '''Applesoft II''', which was made available on cassette and disk and in the ROM of the Apple II Plus and subsequent models, was released in 1978. It is this latter version, which has some syntax differences from the first as well as support for the Apple II high-resolution graphics modes, that most people mean by the term \"Applesoft\".\n",
"When Steve Wozniak wrote Integer BASIC for the Apple II, he did not implement support for floating point math because he was primarily interested in writing games, a task for which integers alone were sufficient. In 1976, Microsoft had developed Microsoft BASIC, a BASIC interpreter for the MOS Technology 6502, but at the time there was no production computer that used it. Upon learning that Apple had a 6502 machine, Microsoft asked if the company were interested in licensing BASIC, but Steve Jobs replied that Apple already had one. The Apple II was unveiled to the public at the West Coast Computer Faire in April 1977 and became available for sale in June. One of the most common customer complaints about the computer was BASIC's lack of floating-point capability. Integer BASIC is limited to whole numbers between −32768 and 32767 and caused problems for users attempting to write business applications with it. As Wozniak—the only person who understood Integer BASIC well enough to add floating point features—was busy with the Disk II drive and controller and with Apple DOS, Apple turned to Microsoft. Making things more problematic was that the rival TRS-80 and Commodore PET personal computers both had floating point-capable BASIC interpreters from the beginning. The Applesoft license also saved Microsoft from near-bankruptcy when they licensed BASIC to Commodore for the PET in an agreement that proved unexpectedly costly for them.\n\nApple reportedly obtained an eight-year license for Applesoft BASIC from Microsoft for a flat fee of $31,000, renewing it in 1985 through an arrangement that gave Microsoft the rights and source code for Apple's Macintosh version of BASIC. Applesoft was designed to be backwards-compatible with Integer BASIC and uses the core of Microsoft's 6502 BASIC implementation, which includes using the GET command for detecting key presses and not requiring any spaces on program lines. While Applesoft BASIC is slower than Integer BASIC, it has many features that the older BASIC lacks:\n* Atomic strings: A string is no longer an array of characters (as in Integer BASIC and C); it is instead a garbage-collected object (as in Scheme and Java). This allows for string arrays; DIM A$(10) resulted in a vector of ''eleven'' string variables numbered 0–10.\n* Multidimensional arrays (numbers or strings)\n* Single-precision floating point variables with an 8-bit exponent and a 31-bit significand and improved math capabilities, including trigonometry and logarithmic functions\n* Commands for high-resolution graphics\n* DATA statements, with READ and RESTORE commands, for representing numerical and string values in quantity\n* CHR$, STR$, and VAL functions for converting between string and numeric types (both languages did have the ASC function)\n* User-defined functions: simple one-line functions written in BASIC, with a single parameter\n* Error-trapping, allowing BASIC programs to handle unexpected errors by means of a subroutine written in BASIC\nConversely, Applesoft lacked the MOD (remainder) operator that had been present in Integer BASIC.\n\nAdapting BASIC for the Apple II was a tedious job as Apple received a source listing for Microsoft 6502 BASIC which proved to be an extremely buggy mess and also required the addition of Integer BASIC commands. Since Apple had no 6502 assembler on hand, the development team was forced to send the source code over the phone lines to Call Computer, an outfit that offered compiler services. This was an extremely tedious, slow process and after Call Computer lost the source code due to an equipment malfunction, one of the programmers, Cliff Huston, used his own IMSAI 8080 computer to cross assemble the BASIC source.\n\nApplesoft is very similar to Commodore's BASIC 2.0 aside from features inherited from Integer BASIC. There are a few minor differences such as Applesoft's lack of bitwise operators; otherwise most BASIC programs that do not utilize hardware-dependent features will run on both BASICs.\n\nColeco claimed that its Adam home computer's SmartBASIC was source-code compatible with Applesoft. Microsoft licensed a BASIC compatible with Applesoft to VTech for its Laser 128 clone.\n",
"\nWhereas Wozniak originally referred to his Integer BASIC as \"Game BASIC\" (having written it so he could write a Breakout clone for his new computer), few action games were written in Applesoft BASIC for several reasons.\n\nIn that era of carefully counting clock cycles and limited memory, it was inefficient to write speed-dependent programs that ran on a runtime interpreter. The use of \"real\" (floating-point) numbers for all math operations created unnecessary overhead and degraded performance. A common feature of all Microsoft 6502 BASICs is the lack of double-precision variables or true integer math.\n\nBASIC normally always works in single-precision and although a % can be placed after a variable to mark it as integer, its value would merely be converted back into single-precision, slowing down program execution and wasting memory (as each \"%\" required one extra byte of memory). The integer variable type on Microsoft 6502 BASIC was really only designed for arrays because each element would take two bytes (versus, in the case of Applesoft, five for floating-point).\n\nAdditionally, shape tables were a slow alternative to bitmaps. Shape tables were usually even larger than their respective bitmaps in the amount of bit space they consumed. No provision existed for mixing text and graphics, except for the limited \"hardware split screen\" of the Apple II (four lines of text at the bottom of the screen). Many graphics programs thus contained their own bitmap character generator routines. No provision was added in the 128 kB Apple IIe and Apple IIc models' BASIC interpreters for the new machines' extra memory and double-resolution graphics, or for the Apple IIGS's 16-color mode. Beagle Bros offered machine-language workarounds for these problems.\n\nApplesoft BASIC programs were stored as a linked list of lines; a GOTO or GOSUB took O(n) (linear) time, and although Applesoft programs were not very long compared to today's software, on a 1 MHz 6502 this could create a significant bottleneck. Large programs were often written with the most-used subroutines at the top of the program to reduce the processing time for GOSUB calls.\n\nFurthermore, there was no sound support – aside from a PEEK command that can be used to click the speaker. One can also PRINT an ASCII bell character to sound the system alert beep. The language is not fast enough to produce more than a baritone buzz from repeated clicks anyway. Music spanning several octaves can be played by repeated calls to a machine-language tone generator.\n\nApplesoft lacks several commands and functions common to most of the non-6502 Microsoft BASIC interpreters, such as:\n* INSTR (search for a substring in a given string)\n* PRINT USING (formatting numbers in printed output)\n* INKEY$ (check for a keypress without stopping the program) although a PEEK location did provide this functionality.\n* LPRINT (output printed content to a printer instead of the screen)\n\nApplesoft BASIC can only be extended by two means: the ampersand (&) command and the USR() function. These are two features that called machine-language routines stored in memory. Routines that need to be fast or require direct access to arbitrary functions or data in memory can thus be called from a higher-level interpreted BASIC program. The USR() function takes one numerical argument, and can be programmed to derive and return a calculated function value, to be used in a numerical expression. \"&\" was effectively a shorthand for CALL, with an address that would be predefined.\n\nThe 1978 Applesoft II Manual essentially ignored the & command, merely listing it among reserved words in an appendix, and stating, \"The ampersand ( & ) is intended for the computer's internal use only; it is '''not''' a proper APPLESOFT command. This symbol, when executed as an instruction, causes an unconditional jump to location $3F5. Use to recover\", referring to the command's \"hook\" address.\n\nThe 1982 Applesoft manual for the Apple IIe (also in an appendix) did not call it \"improper\", and said slightly more about it, adding to the \"internal use\" clause, \"...and for user-supplied machine-language routines\", but giving no further documentation beyond describing the hook address. In practice it was possible for an ampersand routine to parse code and arguments that followed the & character by calling routines in the BASIC ROM.\n\nApplesoft, like Integer BASIC before it, does not come with any built-in commands for dealing with files or disks, other than a feature to save programs to, and load programs from, cassette tape. The Apple II disk operating system, known simply as DOS, augments the language to provide such abilities.\n\nUnlike in Integer BASIC, Applesoft BASIC variable names are significant only to two letters; they can be made longer, but only the first two letters are used. For instance, \"LOW\" and \"LOSS\" are treated as the same variable, and attempting to assign a value to \"LOSS\" overwrites any value assigned to \"LOW\". Furthermore, because the language used tokenization, a programmer has to avoid using any consecutive letters that are also Applesoft commands or operations (one cannot use the name \"SCORE\" for a variable because it interprets the OR as a Boolean operator, thus rendering it SC OR E, nor can one use \"BACKGROUND\" because the command \"GR\" invokes the low-resolution graphics mode, in this case creating a syntax error).\n\nThe Apple II high-resolution graphics mode is extremely limited; a user is limited to six colors (black, green, violet, orange, blue, and white), two of which do not appear in odd-numbered columns and two that do not appear in even-numbered ones; and white was a combination of two neighboring pixels, supplanting the individual pixel colors. A hardware hack incorporated into the Apple IIe's 80-column character card expands the mode to higher horizontal resolution and opens up the availability of all 16 colors of the lo-res graphics mode. To its benefit, the language allows for easy use of vector graphics, a feature unavailable in the lower-resolution graphics mode.\n\nA deficiency in Applesoft's error-trapping with ONERR means that the system stack would not be reset if an error-handling routine did not invoke RESUME, potentially leading to a crash. Error-handling that does not employ RESUME can avoid the problem with a CALL -3288 or (equivalent) 62248 before exiting the routine.\n\nThrough several early models of the Apple II, Applesoft BASIC does not support the use of lowercase letters in programs, except in strings. (Thus, Applesoft can display lowercase letters, but cannot recognize them as part of a program; thus, PRINT is a valid command but print and Print are unrecognizable and result in a syntax error.)\n",
"Due to a short-cut in the programming of the overflow test when evaluating 16 bit numbers, entering any number from 437760 to 440319 for a new line number at the BASIC prompt will cause Applesoft to crash, usually to a monitor prompt. Entering ''440000'' at the prompt has been used to hack games that are protected against entering commands at the prompt after the program is loaded.\n",
"The original Applesoft, stored in RAM as documented in its Reference Manual of November 1977, has smaller interpreter code than the later Applesoft II, occupying 8½ kb of memory, instead of the 10 kb used by the later Applesoft II. Consequently, it lacks a number of command features developed for the later, mainstream version:\n* All commands supporting Apple's \"high resolution\" graphics (9 total)\n* Error-trapping with ONERR...GOTO and RESUME\n* Machine-routine shorthand call \"&\"\n* Screen-clearing HOME (a call to a system ROM routine)\n* Text-output control NORMAL, INVERSE, FLASH and SPEED=\n* The print-space function SPC() is listed among reserved words in the manual, but is not otherwise documented (the TAB() print-function ''is'' documented)\n* Cassette tape storage of numerical arrays: STORE and RECALL\n* Device response: WAIT\nas well as several the later version would have, that had already been present in Apple's Integer BASIC:\n* Program-line deletion: DEL\n* Machine-routine access: CALL\n* Peripheral device access: IN# and PR# (although IN without \"#\" is listed among reserved words)\n* Memory range control: HIMEM: and LOMEM:\n* Execution tracking for debugging: TRACE and NOTRACE\n* Screen-positioning: HTAB and VTAB\n* Subroutine aborting POP\n* Functions PDL() to read the analog controllers, and SCRN() to read the low-resolution graphics screen (both accessing system ROM routines)\nIn addition, its low-resolution graphics commands have different names from their Integer BASIC/Applesoft II counterparts. All command names are of the form PLTx such that GR, COLOR=, PLOT, HLIN and VLIN are called PLTG, PLTC, PLTP, PLTH, and PLTV, respectively. The command for returning to text mode, known as TEXT in other versions, is simply TEX, and carries the proviso that it has to be the last statement in a program line.\n\nThe USR() function is also defined differently, serving as a stand-in for the absent CALL command. Its argument is not for passing a numerical value to the machine-language routine, but is instead the call-address of the routine itself; there is no \"hook\" to pre-define the address. All of several examples in the manual use the function only to access \"system monitor ROM\" routines, or short user-routines to manipulate the ROM routines. No mention is made of any code to calculate the value returned by the function itself; the function is always shown being assigned to \"dummy\" variables, which, without action to set a value by user-code, just receive a meaningless value handed back to them. Even accessed ROM routines that return values (in examples, those that provide the service of PDL() and SCRN() functions) merely have their values stored, by user-routines, in locations that are separately PEEKed in a subsequent statement.\n\nUnlike in Integer BASIC and Applesoft II, the Boolean operators AND, OR and NOT perform bitwise operations on 16-bit integer values. If they are given values outside that range, an error results.\n\nThe terms OUT and PLT (and the aforementioned IN) appear in the list of reserved words, but are not explained anywhere in the manual.\n",
"Hello World, with inverse video and bell character, run then listed\nHello World in Applesoft BASIC can be entered as the following:\n\n 10TEXT:HOME\n 20?\"HELLO WORLD\"\n\nMultiple commands can be included on the same line of code if separated by a colon (:). The ? can be used in Applesoft BASIC (and almost all versions of Microsoft BASIC) as a shortcut for \"PRINT\", though spelling out the word is not only acceptable but canonical—Applesoft converted \"?\" in entered programs to the same token as \"PRINT\" (thus no memory is actually saved by using \"?\"), thus either appears as \"PRINT\" when a program is listed. The program above appears in a LIST command as:\n\n 10 TEXT : HOME\n 20 PRINT \"HELLO WORLD\"\n\n\n\nWhen Applesoft II BASIC was initially released in mid-1978, it came on cassette tape and could be loaded into memory via the Apple II's machine language monitor. When the enhanced Apple II+ replaced the original II in 1979, Applesoft was now included in ROM and automatically started on power-up if no bootable floppy disk was present. Conversely, Integer BASIC was now removed from ROM and turned into an executable file on the DOS 3.3 disk.\n",
"Microsoft and Apple each developed their own versions of BASIC for the Apple III computer. '''Apple III Microsoft BASIC''' was designed to run on the CP/M platform available for the Apple III. '''Apple Business BASIC''', meanwhile, shipped with the Apple III. Donn Denman ported Applesoft BASIC to SOS and reworked it to take advantage of the extended memory of the Apple III.\n\nBoth languages introduced a number of new or improved features over Applesoft II, some of the same features as each other, and some unique to each. Both languages replace Applesoft II's single-precision floating-point variables using 5-byte storage with the somewhat-reduced-pecision 4-byte variables, while also adding a larger numerical format. Apple III Microsoft BASIC provides double-precision floating-point variables, taking 8 bytes of storage, while Apple Business BASIC offers an extra-long integer type, also taking 8 bytes for storage. Both languages also retain 2-byte integers, and maximum 255-character strings.\n\nOther new features common to both languages include:\n*Incorporation of disk-file commands within the language.\n*Operators for MOD and for integer-division.\n*An optional ELSE clause in IF...THEN statements.\n*HEX$() function for hexadecimal-format output.\n*INSTR function for finding a substring within a string.\n*PRINT USING statement to control format of output. Apple Business BASIC had an option in addition to directly specifying the format with a string expression, of giving the line number where an IMAGE statement gave the formatting expression, similar to a FORMAT statement in FORTRAN.\n\nDifferences of the same features:\n\n\n Apple III Microsoft BASIC\n Apple Business BASIC\n\n integer division operator\n \\ (backslash)\n DIV\n\n reading the keyboard without waiting\n INKEY$ function returns a one-character string representing the last key pressed, or the null string if no new key pressed since last reading\n KBD read-only \"reserved variable\" returns the ASCII code of the last key pressed; the manual fails to document what is returned if no new key pressed since last reading\n\n reassigning a portion of a string variable\n MID$() assignment statement \n SUB$() assignment statement\n\n determining position of text output\n POS() function to read horizontal screen position, and LPOS() function to read horizontal position on printer\n HPOS and VPOS assignable \"reserved variables\" to read or set the horizontal or vertical position for text screen output\n\n accepting hexadecimal-format values\n \"&H\"-formatted expressions\n TEN() function to give numerical value from string representing hexadecimal\n\n result of ASC(\"\")\n(null string operand)\n causes an error\n returns the value −1\n\n\nFeatures specific to each language are described separately below.\n\n===Apple III Microsoft BASIC additional new features===\n*INPUT$() function to replace Applesoft's GET command.\n*LINE INPUT statement to input an entire line of text, regardless of punctuation, into a single string variable.\n*LPRINT and LPRINT USING statements to automatically direct output to paper.\n*LSET and RSET statements to left- or right-justify a string expression within a given string variable's character length.\n*OCT$() function for output, and \"&\"- or \"&O\"-formatted expressions, for manipulating octal notation.\n*SPACE$() function for generating blank spaces outside of a PRINT statement, and STRING$() function to do likewise with any character.\n*WHILE...WEND statements, for loop structures built on general Boolean conditions without an index variable.\n*Bitwise Boolean (16-bit) operations (AND, OR, NOT), with additional operators XOR, EQV, IMP.\n*Line number specification in the RESTORE command.\n*RESUME options of NEXT (to skip to the statement after that which caused the error) or a specified line number (which replaces the idea of exiting error-handling by GOTO-line, thus avoiding Applesoft II's stack error problem).\n*Multiple parameters in user-defined (DEF FN) functions.\n*A return to the old Applesoft One concept of having multiple USR() functions at different addresses, by establishing ten different USR functions, numbered USR0 to USR9, with separate DEF USRx statements to define the address of each. The argument passed to a USRx function can be of any specific type, including string. The returned value can also be of any type, by default the same type as the argument passed.\n\nThere is no support for graphics provided within the language, nor for reading analog controls or buttons; nor is there a means of defining the active window of the text screen.\n\n===Apple Business BASIC additional new features===\nApple Business BASIC eliminates all references to absolute memory addresses. Thus, the POKE command and PEEK() function were not included in the language, and new features replaced the CALL statement and USR() function. Functionality of certain features in Applesoft that had been achieved with various PEEK and POKE locations is now provided by:\n* BUTTON() function to read game-controller buttons\n* WINDOW statement to define the active window of the text screen by its coordinates\n* Aforementioned KBD, HPOS, and VPOS system variables\n\nExternal binary subroutines and functions are now loaded into memory by a single INVOKE disk-command that loads separately-assembled code modules, listing the names of all files to be used. A PERFORM statement is then used to call an INVOKEd procedure by name, with an argument-list. INVOKEd functions would be referenced in expressions by EXFN. (floating-point) or EXFN%. (integer), with the function name appended, plus the argument-list for the function.\n\nGraphics are supported with an INVOKEd module, with features including displaying text within graphics in various fonts, within four different graphics modes available on the Apple III, including the precursor of Apple IIe's double-high-resolution mode.\n",
"* ALF's Formula Transfer Link — speed enhancement for Applesoft BASIC\n* Chinese BASIC — a Chinese-localized version of Applesoft BASIC\n",
"\n",
"* Disassembled ROM\n* AppleSoft BASIC in JavaScript\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"Speed issues, features",
"Bugs",
"Early evolution",
"Sample code",
"BASIC for the Apple III",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Applesoft BASIC |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''''Asterix''''' or '''''The Adventures of Asterix''''' ( or ''Astérix le Gaulois'', ) is a series of French comics. The series first appeared in the Franco-Belgian comics magazine ''Pilote'' on 29 October 1959. It was written by René Goscinny and illustrated by Albert Uderzo until the death of Goscinny in 1977. Uderzo then took over the writing until 2009, when he sold the rights to publishing company Hachette. As of 2015, 36 volumes have been released.\n\nThe series follows the adventures of a village of indomitable Gauls as they resist Roman occupation in 50 BC. They do so by means of a magic potion brewed by their druid Panoramix, named Getafix in the English translations, which temporarily gives the recipient superhuman strength. The protagonists, the title character Asterix, along with his friend Obelix have various adventures. The \"ix\" ending of both names (as well as all the other pseudo-Gaulish \"ix\" names in the series) alludes to the \"rix\" suffix (meaning \"king\") present in the names of many real Gaulish chieftains such as Vercingetorix, Orgetorix and Dumnorix (See below for further explanations of the character names). Many of the stories have them travel to foreign countries, though others are set in and around their village. For much of the history of the series (Volumes 4 through 29), settings in Gaul and abroad alternated, with even-numbered volumes set abroad and odd-numbered volumes set in Gaul, mostly in the village.\n\nThe ''Asterix'' series is one of the most popular Franco-Belgian comics in the world, with the series being translated into over 100 languages, and it is popular in most European countries.\n\nThe success of the series has led to the adaptation of several books into 13 films: nine animated, and four live action (one of which, ''Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra'', was a major box office success in France). There have also been a number of games based on the characters, and a theme park near Paris, Parc Astérix. The very first French satellite, Astérix, launched in 1965, was also named after the comics character. As of October 2009, 325 million copies of 34 ''Asterix'' books had been sold worldwide, making co-creators René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo France's bestselling authors abroad.\n",
"Évariste Vital Luminais (1821 – 1896) paintings of Goths had been rather popular in France and are a possible role model for the ''Asterix'' series.\nPrior to creating the ''Asterix'' series, Goscinny and Uderzo had previously had success with their series ''Oumpah-pah'', which was published in ''Tintin'' magazine.\nAlbert Uderzo drawing Astérix, in 1971.\n''Astérix'' was originally serialised in ''Pilote'' magazine, in the very first issue published on 29 October 1959. In 1961 the first book was put together, titled ''Asterix the Gaul''. From then on, books were released generally on a yearly basis. Their success was exponential; the first book sold 6,000 copies in its year of publication; a year later, the second sold 20,000. In 1963, the third sold 40,000; the fourth, released in 1964, sold 150,000. A year later, the fifth sold 300,000; 1966's ''Asterix and the Big Fight'' sold 400,000 upon initial publication. The ninth ''Asterix'' volume, when first released in 1967, sold 1.2 million copies in two days.\n\nUderzo's first sketches portrayed Asterix as a huge and strong traditional Gaulish warrior. But Goscinny had a different picture in his mind. He visualized Asterix as a shrewd small sized warrior who would prefer intelligence over strength. However, Uderzo felt that the small sized hero needed a strong but dim companion to which Goscinny agreed. Hence, Obelix was born. Despite the growing popularity of ''Asterix'' with the readers, the financial backing for ''Pilote'' ceased. ''Pilote'' was taken over by Georges Dargaud.\n\nWhen Goscinny died in 1977, Uderzo continued the series alone on the demand of the readers who implored him to continue. He continued the series but on a less frequent basis. Most critics and fans of the series prefer Goscinny's albums. Uderzo created his own publishing company, Les Editions Albert-René, which published every album drawn and written by Uderzo alone since then. However, Dargaud, the initial publisher of the series, kept the publishing rights on the 24 first albums made by both Uderzo and Goscinny. In 1990, the Uderzo and Goscinny families decided to sue Dargaud to take over the rights. In 1998, after a long trial, Dargaud lost the rights to publish and sell the albums. Uderzo decided to sell these rights to Hachette instead of Albert-René, but the publishing rights on new albums were still owned by Albert Uderzo (40%), Sylvie Uderzo (20%) and Anne Goscinny (40%).\n\nIn December 2008, Uderzo sold his stake to Hachette, which took over the company.\n\nIn a letter published in the French newspaper ''Le Monde'' in 2009, Uderzo's daughter, Sylvie, attacked her father's decision to sell the family publishing firm and the rights to produce new ''Astérix'' adventures after his death. She said \"...the co-creator of ''Astérix'', France’s comic strip hero, has betrayed the Gaulish warrior to the modern-day Romans – the men of industry and finance”. However, René Goscinny's daughter Anne also gave her agreement to the continuation of the series and sold her rights at the same time. She is reported to have said that \"''Asterix'' has already had two lives: one during my father's lifetime and one after it. Why not a third?\". A few months later, Uderzo appointed three illustrators, who had been his assistants for many years, to continue the series. In 2011, Uderzo announced that a new ''Asterix'' album was due out in 2013, with Jean-Yves Ferri writing the story and Frédéric Mébarki drawing it. A year later, in 2012, the publisher Albert-René announced that Frédéric Mébarki had withdrawn from drawing the new album, due to the pressure he felt in following in the steps of Uderzo. Comic artist Didier Conrad was officially announced to take over drawing duties from Mébarki, with the due date of the new album in 2013 unchanged.\n\nIn January 2015, after the murders of seven cartoonists at the satirical Paris weekly Charlie Hebdo, presumably for their controversial work, ''Astérix'' creator Albert Uderzo came out of retirement to draw two ''Astérix'' pictures honouring the memories of the victims.\n",
"\n\n\nNumbers 1–24, 32 and 34 are by Goscinny and Uderzo. Numbers 25–31 and 33 are by Uderzo alone. Years stated are for their initial album release. Numbers 35–37 are by Jean-Yves Ferri and Didier Conrad.\n\n# ''Asterix the Gaul'' (1961)\n# ''Asterix and the Golden Sickle'' (1962)\n# ''Asterix and the Goths'' (1963)\n# ''Asterix the Gladiator'' (1964)\n# ''Asterix and the Banquet'' (1965)\n# ''Asterix and Cleopatra'' (1965)\n# ''Asterix and the Big Fight'' (1966)\n# ''Asterix in Britain'' (1966)\n# ''Asterix and the Normans'' (1966)\n# ''Asterix the Legionary'' (1967)\n# ''Asterix and the Chieftain's Shield'' (1968)\n# ''Asterix at the Olympic Games'' (1968)\n# ''Asterix and the Cauldron'' (1969)\n# ''Asterix in Spain'' (1969)\n# ''Asterix and the Roman Agent'' (1970)\n# ''Asterix in Switzerland'' (1970)\n# ''The Mansions of the Gods'' (1971)\n# ''Asterix and the Laurel Wreath'' (1972)\n# ''Asterix and the Soothsayer'' (1972)\n# ''Asterix in Corsica'' (1973)\n# ''Asterix and Caesar's Gift'' (1974)\n# ''Asterix and the Great Crossing'' (1975)\n# ''Obelix and Co.'' (1976)\n# ''Asterix in Belgium'' (1979)\n# ''Asterix and the Great Divide'' (1980)\n# ''Asterix and the Black Gold'' (1981)\n# ''Asterix and Son'' (1983)\n# ''Asterix and the Magic Carpet'' (1987)\n# ''Asterix and the Secret Weapon'' (1991)\n# ''Asterix and Obelix All at Sea'' (1996)\n# ''Asterix and the Actress'' (2001)\n# ''Asterix and the Class Act'' (2003)\n# ''Asterix and the Falling Sky'' (2005)\n# ''Asterix and Obelix's Birthday: The Golden Book'' (2009)\n# ''Asterix and the Picts'' (2013)\n# ''Asterix and the Missing Scroll'' (2015)\n# ''Asterix and the Chariot Race'' (2017)\n\n*Non-canonical volumes:\n** ''Asterix Conquers Rome'' (1976)\n** ''How Obelix Fell into the Magic Potion When he was a Little Boy'' (1989)\n\n\n''Asterix Conquers Rome'' is a comics adaptation of the animated film ''The Twelve Tasks of Asterix''. It was released in 1976, and was the 23rd volume to be published, but it has been rarely reprinted and is not considered to be canonical to the series. The only English translations ever to be published were in the ''Asterix Annual 1980'' and as a standalone volume in 1984.\n\nIn 2007, Les Editions Albert René released a tribute volume titled ''Astérix et ses Amis'', a 60-page volume of one-to-four-page short stories. It was a tribute to Albert Uderzo on his 80th birthday by 34 European cartoonists. The volume was translated into nine languages. , it has not been translated into English.\n",
"\nThe main setting for the series is an unnamed coastal village (rumoured to be inspired by Erquy) in Armorica (present-day Brittany), a province of Gaul (modern France), in the year 50 BC. Julius Caesar has conquered nearly all of Gaul for the Roman Republic. The little Armorican village, however, has held out because the villagers can gain temporary superhuman strength by drinking a magic potion brewed by the local village druid, Getafix. His chief is Vitalstatistix.\n\nThe main protagonist and hero of the village is Asterix, who, because of his shrewdness, is usually entrusted with the most important affairs of the village. He is aided in his adventures by his rather fat and slower thinking friend, Obelix, who, because he fell into the druid's cauldron of the potion as a baby, has permanent superhuman strength (because of this, Getafix steadily refuses to allow Obelix to drink the potion, as doing so would have a dangerous and unpredictable result). Obelix is usually accompanied by Dogmatix, his little dog. (Except for Asterix and Obelix, the names of the characters change with the language. For example, Obelix's dog's name is \"Dogmatix\" in English, but \"Idéfix\" in the original French edition.)\n\nAsterix and Obelix (and sometimes other members of the village) go on various adventures both within the village and in far away lands. Places visited in the series include parts of Gaul (Lutetia, Corsica etc.), neighbouring nations (Belgium, Spain, Britain, Germany etc.), and far away lands (North America, Middle East, India etc.).\n\nThe series employs science-fiction and fantasy elements in the more recent books; for instance, the use of extraterrestrials in ''Asterix and the Falling Sky'' and the city of Atlantis in ''Asterix and Obelix All at Sea''.\n",
"\nThe humour encountered in the ''Asterix'' comics is often centring on puns, caricatures, and tongue-in-cheek stereotypes of contemporary European nations and French regions. Much of the humour in the initial Asterix books was French-specific, which delayed the translation of the books into other languages for fear of losing the jokes and the spirit of the story. Some translations have actually added local humour: In the Italian translation, the Roman legionaries are made to speak in 20th century Roman dialect and Obelix's famous \"''Ils sont fous ces romains''\" (\"These Romans are crazy\") is translated as \"Sono pazzi questi romani\", alluding to the Roman abbreviation ''SPQR''. In another example: Hiccups are written onomatopoeically in French as \"hips\", but in English as \"hic\", allowing Roman legionaries in at least one of the English translations to decline their hiccups in Latin (\"hic, haec, hoc\"). The newer albums share a more universal humour, both written and visual.\n\n===Character names===\nAll the fictional characters in ''Asterix'' have names which are puns on their roles or personalities and which follow certain patterns specific to nationality. Certain rules are followed (most of the time) such as Gauls (and their neighbours) having an '-ix' suffix for the males and ending in '-a' for the females, for example, Chief Vitalstatistix (so called due to his portly stature) and his wife Impedimenta (often at odds with the chief). The male Roman names end in '-us', echoing Latin nominitive male singular form, as in Gluteus Maximus, a muscle-bound athlete whose name is literally the butt of the joke. Gothic names (present-day Germany) end in \"-ic\", after Gothic chiefs such as Alaric and Theoderic, for example Rhetoric the interpreter. Greek names end in \"-os\" or \"-es\"; for example, Thermos the restaurateur. British names end in \"-ax\" and are often puns on the taxation associated with the later United Kingdom, such as Valuaddedtax the druid and Selectivemploymentax the mercenary. Other nationalities are treated to Pidgin translations from their language, like Huevos y Bacon, a Spanish chieftain (whose name, meaning eggs and bacon, is often guidebook Spanish for tourists) or literary and other popular media references, like Dubbelosix (a reference to James Bond's codename 007).\n\nMost of these jokes, and hence the names of the characters, are specific to the translation, for example, the druid Getafix is ''Panoramix'' in the original French and ''Miraculix'' in German. Even so, occasionally the wordplay has been preserved: Obelix's dog, known in the original French as ''Idéfix'' (from ''idée fixe'', a \"fixed idea\" or obsession), is called ''Dogmatix'' in English, which not only renders the original meaning strikingly closely (\"dogmatic\") but in fact adds another layer of wordplay with the syllable \"Dog-\" at the beginning of the name.\n\nThe name ''Asterix'', French ''Astérix'', comes from '''', meaning \"asterisk\", which is the typographical symbol '''*''' indicating a footnote, from the Greek word αστήρ (''aster''), meaning a \"star\". His name is usually left unchanged in translations, aside from accents and the use of local alphabets. For example, in Esperanto, Polish, Slovene, Latvian, and Turkish it is ''Asteriks'' (in Turkish he was first named ''Bücür'' meaning \"shorty\", but the name was then changed). Two exceptions include Icelandic, in which he is known as ''Ástríkur'' (\"Rich of love\") and Sinhalese, where he is known as සූර පප්පා (''Soora Pappa''), which can be interpreted as \"Hero\".\n\nFor explanations of some of the other names, see List of ''Asterix'' characters.\n\n===Ethnic stereotypes===\nMany of the Asterix adventures take place in other countries aside from their homeland, Gaul. In every album that takes place abroad they meet (usually modern-day) stereotypes for each country as seen by the French.\n* Goths (Germans) are disciplined and militarists, they are composed of many races that fight each other (which is a reference to Germany before Otto von Bismarck and to East and West Germany after the Second World War) and they wear Pickelhaube helmet of World War I.\n* Helvetians (Swiss) are neutral, eat fondue, are obsessed with cleaning, accurate time-keeping and banks.\n* The Britons (English) are phlegmatic and speak with early 20th century aristocratic slang (like Bertie Wooster). They stop for Tea every day (making it with hot water and a drop of milk until Asterix brings them actual tea leaves), drink lukewarm beer (Bitter), eat tasteless foods with mint sauce (Rosbif) and live in streets containing rows of identical houses. \n* Hispania (Spain) is a place full of tourists. Hispania is the country where people of northern Europe go on vacation (and ask to eat the same food they eat at their homelands), causing tremendous traffic jams in the Roman roads while traveling. Other recurring topics are flamenco and bullfighting or olive oil in gastronomy. Reference is also made to the famous character of Don Quixote.\n*When the Gauls visited North America in Asterix and the Great Crossing, Obelix punches one of the attacking Native Americans with a knockout blow. The warrior sees first American-style emblematic eagles; the second time he sees stars in the formation of the Stars and Stripes; the third time, he sees stars shaped like the United States Air Force roundel. Asterix's idea for getting the attention of a nearby Viking ship (which could take them back to Gaul) by holding up a torch references the Statue of Liberty (which was a gift from France). \n* Corsicans are lazy and irritable patriots who have vendettas against each other and always take their siesta.\n* Greeks eat stuffed grape leaves, drink retsina and always have a cousin right for the job.\n* Normans (Vikings) drink endlessly, they don't know what fear is (which they're trying to discover) and in their country (Scandinavia) night remains for 6 months.\n* Belgians speak with a funny accent and snub the Gauls.\n* Lusitanians (Portuguese) are short in stature and polite (Uderzo said all the Portuguese who he had met were like that).\n* Sumerians, Assyrians, Hittites, Akkadians and Babylonians are at war with each other and attack strangers because they confuse them for their enemies, but they apologize when they realize that the strangers are not their enemies. This is likely a criticism of the constant conflicts between the Middle Eastern peoples.\n* The Jews are all depicted as Yemenite Jews, with dark skin and black eyes and beards, a tribute to Marc Chagall the famous painter whose painting of King David hangs at the Knesset (Israeli Parliament). Asterix's and Obelix's visit to Jerusalem is full of references to the Bible. \n* The Picts (Scots) use a typical dress with kilt (skirt), have the habit of drinking \"malt water\" (whisky) and throw logs (caber tossing) as a popular sport and, of course, the names of the characters all start with Mac.\n\nWhen the Gauls see foreigners speaking their foreign languages, these have different representation in the speech bubbles:\n\n*Iberian: Same as Spanish, inversion of exclamations ('¡') and questions (\"¿\")\n*Goth language: Gothic script (incomprehensible to the Gauls)\n*Viking: Ø and Å instead of O and A (incomprehensible to the Gauls)\n*Amerindian: Pictograms (incomprehensible to the Gauls)\n*Egyptian: Hieroglyphics with footnotes (incomprehensible to the Gauls)\n*Greek: Straight letters, carved\n",
"The various volumes have been translated into more than 100 languages and dialects. Besides the original French language, most albums are available in Estonian, English, Czech, Dutch, German, Galician, Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish, Spanish, Catalan, Basque, Portuguese, Italian, modern Greek, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Turkish, Slovene, Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Latvian, Welsh as well as Latin.\n\nSome albums have also been translated into languages such as Esperanto, Scottish Gaelic, Scots, Indonesian, Persian, Mandarin, Korean, Japanese, Bengali, Afrikaans, Arabic, Hindi, Hebrew, Frisian, Romansch, Vietnamese, Sinhalese, Ancient Greek and even Luxembourgish.\n\nIn France, Finland, and especially in Germany, several volumes were translated into a variety of regional languages and dialects, such as Alsatian, Breton, Chtimi (Picard) and Corsican in France, Bavarian, Swabian and Low German in Germany, and Savo, Karelia, Rauma and Helsinki slang dialects in Finland. Also, in Portugal, a special edition of the first volume, Asterix the Gaul, was translated into local language Mirandese. In Greece, a number of volumes have appeared in the Cretan Greek, Cypriot Greek and Pontic Greek dialects. In the Italian version, while the Gauls speak standard Italian, the legionaries speak in the Romanesque dialect. In former Yugoslavia, \"Forum\" publishing house translated Corsican in \"Asterix in Corsica\" into Montenegrin dialect of Serbo-Croatian (today called Montenegrin language).\n\nIn the Netherlands several volumes were translated into West Frisian, a language related to English spoken in the province of Friesland, into Limburgish, a regional language spoken not only in Dutch Limburg but also in Belgian Limburg and North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany and into Tweants, a dialect in the region of Twente in the eastern province of Overijssel. Hungarian-language books have been issued in Yugoslavia for the Hungarian minority living in Serbia. Although not a fully autonomous dialect, it slightly differs from the language of the books issued in Hungary. In Sri Lanka, the cartoon series was adapted into Sinhala (''Singhalese'') as Sura Pappa, the only Sri Lankan translation of a foreign cartoon that managed to keep the spirit of the original series intact.\n\nMost volumes have been translated into Latin and Ancient Greek with accompanying teachers' guides as a way of teaching these ancient languages.\n\n===English translation===\n\n\nThe translation of the books into English has been done by Derek Hockridge and Anthea Bell, and their English language rendition has been widely praised for maintaining the spirit and humour of the original French version.\n",
"\nThe series has been adapted into various media. There are 13 films, 15 board games, 40 video games, and 1 theme park\n\n===Films===\n\n\nVarious motion pictures based upon the series have been made.\n\n* ''Asterix the Gaul'', 1967, animated, based on the book ''Asterix the Gaul''.\n* ''Asterix and the Golden Sickle'', 1967, animated, based upon the comic book ''Asterix and the Golden Sickle'', incomplete and never released.\n* ''Asterix and Cleopatra'', 1968, animated, based on the book ''Asterix and Cleopatra''.\n* ''The Dogmatix Movie'', 1973, animated, a unique story based on Dogmatix and his animal friends, Albert Uderzo created a comic version of the never released movie in 2003.\n* ''The Twelve Tasks of Asterix'', 1976, animated, a unique story not based on an existing comic.\n* ''Asterix Versus Caesar'', 1985, animated, based on both ''Asterix the Legionary'' and ''Asterix the Gladiator''.\n* ''Asterix in Britain'', 1986, animated, based upon the book ''Asterix in Britain''.\n* ''Asterix and the Big Fight'', 1989, animated, based on both ''Asterix and the Big Fight'' and ''Asterix and the Soothsayer''.\n* ''Asterix Conquers America'', 1994, animated, loosely based upon the comic ''Asterix and the Great Crossing''.\n* ''Asterix & Obelix: Take on Caesar'', 1999, live-action, based primarily upon ''Asterix the Gaul'', ''Asterix and the Soothsayer'', ''Asterix and the Goths'', ''Asterix the Legionary'', and ''Asterix the Gladiator''.\n* ''Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra'', 2002, live-action, based upon the comic book ''Asterix and Cleopatra''.\n* ''Asterix and Obelix in Spain'', 2004, live-action, based upon the comic book ''Asterix in Spain'', incomplete and never released because ''Asterix and the Vikings'' was in production as the first Asterix cartoon since ''Asterix conquers America''.\n* ''Asterix and the Vikings'', 2006, animated, loosely based upon the comic book ''Asterix and the Normans''.\n* ''Asterix at the Olympic Games'', 2008, live-action, loosely based upon the comic book ''Asterix at the Olympic Games''.\n* ''Asterix and Obelix: God Save Britannia'', 2012, live-action, loosely based upon the book ''Asterix in Britain'' and ''Asterix and the Normans''.\n* ''Asterix: The Mansions of the Gods'', 2014 (latest), animated, based upon the comic book ''The Mansions of the Gods'' and is the first animated ''Asterix'' movie in stereoscopic 3D.\n\n===Games===\n\n\nMany gamebooks, board games and video games are based upon the ''Asterix'' series. In particular, many video games were released by various computer game publishers.\n\n===Theme park===\n\n\n\nParc Astérix, a theme park 22 miles north of Paris, based upon the series, was opened in 1989. It is one of the most visited sites in France, with around 1.6 million visitors per year.\n",
"Asterix ham and cheese-flavored potato chips\n*The first French satellite, which was launched in 1965, was named ''Astérix-1'' in honour of Asterix. Asteroids 29401 Asterix and 29402 Obelix were also named in honour of the characters. Coincidentally, the word Asterix/Asterisk originates from the Greek for ''Little Star''.\n*During the campaign for Paris to host the 1992 Summer Olympics Asterix appeared in many posters over the Eiffel Tower.\n*The French company Belin introduced a series of ''Asterix'' crisps shaped in the forms of Roman shields, gourds, wild boar, and bones.\n* In the UK in 1995, ''Asterix'' coins were presented free in every Nutella jar.\n* In 1991, Asterix and Obelix appeared on the cover of ''Time'' for a special edition about France, art directed by Mirko Ilic. In a 2009 issue of the same magazine, Asterix is described as being seen by some as a symbol for France's independence and defiance of globalisation. Despite this, Asterix has made several promotional appearances for fast food chain McDonald's, including one advertisement which featured members of the village enjoying the traditional story-ending feast at a McDonald's restaurant.\n* Version 4.0 of the operating system OpenBSD features a parody of an Asterix story.\n* ''Action Comics'' Number 579, published by DC Comics in 1986, written by Lofficier and Illustrated by Keith Giffen, featured an homage to ''Asterix'' where Superman and Jimmy Olsen are drawn back in time to a small village of indomitable Gauls.\n* In 2005, the Mirror World ''Asterix'' exhibition was held in Brussels. The Belgian post office also released a set of stamps to coincide with the exhibition. A book was released to coincide with the exhibition, containing sections in French, Dutch and English.\n* On 29 October 2009, the Google homepage of a great number of countries displayed a logo (called Google Doodle) commemorating 50 years of ''Asterix''.\n* Although they have since changed, the #2 and #3 heralds in the Society for Creative Anachronism's Kingdom of Ansteorra were the Asterisk and Obelisk Heralds.\n* Asterix and Obelix are the official mascots of the 2017 Ice Hockey World Championships, jointly hosted by France and Germany.\n",
"*List of ''Asterix'' characters\n*Bande dessinée\n*English translations of ''Asterix''\n*List of ''Asterix'' games\n*List of ''Asterix'' volumes\n*Kajko i Kokosz\n*Roman Gaul, after Julius Caesar's conquest of 58–51 BC that consisted of five provinces\n*''Commentarii de Bello Gallico''\n",
"\n",
"\n* ''Astérix'' publications in ''Pilote'' BDoubliées \n* ''Astérix'' albums Bedetheque \n\n",
"\n\n* Official site\n* Asterix the Gaul at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. from the original on 6 April 2012.\n* ''Asterix'' around the World – The many languages\n* Alea Jacta Est (''Asterix'' for grown-ups) Each ''Asterix'' book is examined in detail\n* Les allusions culturelles dans Astérix - Cultural allusions \n* The ''Asterix'' Annotations – album-by-album explanations of all the historical references and obscure in-jokes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"List of titles",
"Synopsis and characters",
"Humour",
"Translations",
"Adaptations",
"Influence in popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"Sources",
"External links"
] | Asterix |
[
"\n\n\nThe '''Arizona Cardinals''' are a professional American football franchise based in the Phoenix metropolitan area. The Cardinals compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the league's National Football Conference (NFC) West division. The Cardinals were founded as the '''Morgan Athletic Club''' in 1898, and are the oldest continuously run professional football team in the United States. The Cardinals play their home games at the University of Phoenix Stadium, which is located in the northwestern suburb of Glendale, Arizona.\n\nThe team was established in Chicago in 1898 and was a charter member of the NFL in . Along with the Chicago Bears, the club is one of two NFL charter member franchises still in operation since the league's founding. (The Green Bay Packers were an independent team until they joined the NFL in 1921.) The club then moved to St. Louis in and played in that city through (sometimes referred to as the \"Football Cardinals\" or the \"Big Red\" to avoid confusion with the Major League Baseball St. Louis Cardinals). Before the season, the team moved west to Tempe, Arizona, a college suburb east of Phoenix, and played their home games for the next 18 seasons at Arizona State University's Sun Devil Stadium. In , the club began playing all home games at the newly constructed University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, although the team's training facility is in Tempe.\n\nThe franchise has won two NFL championships, both while it was based in Chicago. The first occurred in , but is the subject of controversy, with supporters of the Pottsville Maroons believing that Pottsville should have won the title. Their second title, and the first to be won in a championship game, came in , nearly two decades before the first Super Bowl. They returned to the title game to defend in 1948, but lost the rematch 7–0 in a snowstorm in Philadelphia. With Dean Bickerstaff \n\nSince winning the championship in 1947, the team suffered many losing seasons, and currently holds the longest active championship drought of North American sports at 68 consecutive seasons after Major League Baseball's Chicago Cubs ended their 108 year drought in 2016. In 2012 the Cardinals became the first NFL franchise to lose 700 games since its inception. The franchise's all-time win-loss record (including regular season and playoff games) at the conclusion of the 2016 season is ( in the regular season, in the playoffs). They have been to the playoffs ten times and have won seven playoff games, three of which were victories during their run in the 2008–09 NFL playoffs. During that season, they won their only NFC Championship Game since the 1970 AFL–NFL merger, and reached Super Bowl XLIII (losing 27–23 to the Pittsburgh Steelers). The team has also won five division titles (, , , and ) since their 1947–48 NFL championship game appearances. The Cardinals are the only NFL team who have never lost a playoff game at home, with a 5–0 record: the 1947 NFL Championship Game, two postseason victories during the aforementioned 2008–09 NFL playoffs, one during the 2009–10 playoffs, and one during the 2015–16 playoffs.\n\nFrom 1988 through 2012 (except 2005, when they trained in Prescott), the Cardinals conducted their annual summer training camp at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff. The Cardinals moved their training camp to University of Phoenix Stadium in 2013. The stadium was the site of the 2015 Pro Bowl, unlike in past years, where it was held at Aloha Stadium in Honolulu, Hawaii. The stadium also played host to Super Bowls XLII and XLIX.\n",
"\n\n===Chicago===\n\nThe franchise's inception dates back to 1898, when a neighborhood group gathered to play in the Chicago South Side, calling themselves Morgan Athletic Club. Chicago painting and building contractor Chris O'Brien acquired the team, which he relocated to Normal Field on Racine Avenue. The team was known as Racine Normals until 1901, when O'Brien bought used jerseys from the University of Chicago. He described the faded maroon clothing as \"Cardinal red\" and the team became the Racine Street Cardinals. The team eventually became in 1920 a charter member of the American Professional Football Association (APFA), which two years later was rechristened to National Football League (NFL). The team entered the league as the Racine Cardinals, however the name was changed in 1922 to Chicago Cardinals to avoid confusion with the Horlick-Racine Legion who entered the league the same year. Except for 1925, when they were awarded the championship after the Pottsville Maroons were suspended, the Cardinals experienced only minimal success on the playing field during their first 26 seasons in the league. During the post-World War II years, the team reached two straight NFL finals against the Philadelphia Eagles, winning in 1947 – eight months after the death of owner Charles Bidwill – and losing the following year. After years of bad seasons and losing fans to the cross-town rivals Chicago Bears, by the late 1950s the Cardinals were almost bankrupt, and owner Violet Bidwill Wolfner became interested in a relocation.\n\n===St. Louis===\n\nDue to the formation of the rival American Football League, the NFL allowed Bidwill to relocate the team to St. Louis, Missouri, where they became the St. Louis Cardinals (locally, they were called the \"Big Red\" or the \"Football Cardinals\" in order to avoid confusion with the baseball team). During the Cardinals' 28-year stay in St. Louis, they advanced to the playoffs just three times (1974, 1975 & 1982), never hosting or winning in any appearance. The overall mediocrity of the Cardinals, combined with a then-21-year-old stadium, caused game attendance to dwindle, and owner Bill Bidwill decided to move the team to Arizona.\n\n===Arizona===\nNot long after the 1987 NFL season, Bidwill agreed to move to the Phoenix metropolitan area on a handshake deal with state and local officials, and the team became the Phoenix Cardinals. The franchise changed its geographic name from Phoenix to Arizona on March 17, 1994. (Interestingly, the franchise has never played in the city of Phoenix proper.) The 1998 NFL season saw the Cardinals break two long droughts, qualifying for the playoffs for the first time in 16 years. The team got their first postseason win since 1947 by winning the Wild Card Playoffs. In 2008, the Cardinals won the NFC Championship Game to advance to the Super Bowl for the first time in franchise history. They lost Super Bowl XLIII 27–23 to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the final seconds.\n\nAfter their historic 2008 season, the Cardinals posted a 10–6 record in 2009, their first season with 10 wins in Arizona. The Cardinals clinched their second consecutive NFC West title, and were defeated by eventual Super Bowl champion New Orleans Saints 45–14 in the divisional playoffs. The next time they would make the playoffs would be in 2014, when they ended up as a wild card. They set the best regular-season record in the team's history in Arizona at 11–5, but were defeated by the 7–8–1 NFC South champions Carolina Panthers.\n\nThe next year, the Cardinals set a franchise-best 13–3 record, and clinched their first-ever first-round playoff bye as the NFC's second seed. They defeated the Green Bay Packers 26–20 in overtime, giving quarterback Carson Palmer his first playoff victory. The Cardinals then advanced to their second NFC Championship Game in their history, but were blown out by the top-seeded 15–1 Panthers 49–15, committing seven turnovers.\n",
"Phoenix Cardinals uniform: 1989–1995\nArizona Cardinals uniform: 1996–2004\nChicago Cardinals logo.\n\nStarting in , the team had a logo of a cardinal bird perched on the stitches of a football.\n\nThe Cardinals moved to Arizona in , and the flag of Arizona was added to the sleeves the following year. In , the team began wearing red pants with their white jerseys, as new coach Joe Bugel wanted to emulate his former employer, the Washington Redskins, who at the time wore burgundy pants with their white jerseys (the Redskins later returned to their 1970s gold pants with all their jerseys).\n\nIn , the Cardinals participated in the NFL's 75th anniversary throwback uniform program. The jerseys were similar to those of the 1920s Chicago Cardinals, with an interlocking \"CC\" logo and three stripes on each sleeve. The uniform numbers were relocated to the right chest. The pants were khaki to simulate the color and material used in that era. The Cardinals also stripped the logos from their helmets for the two games, at Cleveland (Sept. 18) and home vs. Pittsburgh (Oct. 30).\n\nThe Cardinal head on the helmet was repeated on the white jersey from 1982 to 1995. In 1996, the state flag of Arizona was moved higher on the sleeve after the Cardinal head was eliminated, and black was removed as an accent color, instead replaced with a blue to match the predominant color of the state flag. In 2002, the Cardinals began to wear all-red and all-white combinations, and continued to do so through 2004, prior to the team's makeover.\n\nIn , the team unveiled its first major changes in a century. The cardinal-head logo was updated to look sleeker and meaner than its predecessor. Numerous fans had derisively called the previous version a \"parakeet\". Black again became an accent color after an eight-year absence, while trim lines were added to the outside shoulders, sleeves, and sides of the jerseys and pants. Both the red and white jerseys have the option of red or white pants.\n\nHoping to break a six-game losing streak, the Cardinals wore the red pants for the first time on October 29, 2006, in a game at Lambeau Field against the Green Bay Packers. The Packers won 31–14, and the Cards headed into their bye week with a 1–7 mark. Following the bye week, the Cardinals came out in an all-red combination at home against the Dallas Cowboys and lost, 27–10. Arizona did not wear the red pants for the remainder of the season and won four of their last seven games. However, the following season, in , the Cardinals again wore their red pants for their final 3 home games. They wore red pants with white jerseys in games on the road at the Cincinnati Bengals and Seattle Seahawks. They paired red pants with red jerseys, the all-red combination, for home games against the Detroit Lions, San Francisco 49ers, Cleveland Browns, and St. Louis Rams. The red pants were not worn at all in , but they were used in home games vs. Seattle, Minnesota, and St. Louis in . The red pants were paired with the white road jersey for the first time in three years during a 2010 game at Carolina, but the white jersey/red pants combination has not been used since.\n\nThe Cardinals' first home game in Arizona, in 1988, saw them play in red jerseys. Thereafter, for the next 18 years in Arizona, the Cardinals, like a few other NFL teams in warm climates, wore their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season—forcing opponents to suffer in their darker jerseys during Arizona autumns that frequently see temperatures over 100 °F (38 °C). However, this tradition did not continue when the Cardinals moved from Sun Devil Stadium to University of Phoenix Stadium in 2006, as early-season games (and some home games late in the season) were played with the roof closed. With the temperature inside at a comfortable 70 °F (21 °C), the team opted to wear red jerseys at home full-time. The Cardinals wore white jerseys at home for the first time in University of Phoenix Stadium on August 29, 2008, in a preseason game against the Denver Broncos.\n\nThe Cardinals wore white at home for the first time in a regular season game at University of Phoenix Stadium against the Houston Texans on October 11, . In October 2009, the NFL recognized Breast Cancer Awareness Month, and players wore pink-accented items, including gloves, wristbands, and shoes. The team thought the pink accents looked better with white uniforms than with red.\n\nFrom 1970 through 1983, and again in many seasons between 1989 and 2002, the Cardinals would wear white when hosting the Dallas Cowboys in order to force the Cowboys to don their \"jinxed\" blue jerseys. They have not done this since moving into University of Phoenix Stadium, however.\n\nThe season saw the Cardinals debut a new, alternate black jersey. Prior to its introduction, the Cardinals were the only NFL team without an alternate jersey or throwback kit, save for the NFL's 75th anniversary program in 1994.\n",
"\n",
"\n'''Points Scored''': 489 ()\n\n'''Passing'''\n* '''Passing yards''': 4,671, Carson Palmer ()\n* '''Passing touchdowns''': 35, Carson Palmer ()\n* '''Passes completed''': 401, Kurt Warner ()\n* '''Passes attempted''': 598, Kurt Warner ()\n* '''Longest completed pass''': 98 yards, Doug Russell ()/Ogden Compton ()/Jim Hart () \n* '''Consecutive games with a touchdown pass''': 22, Kurt Warner (–)\n\n'''Rushing'''\n* '''Rushing yards''': 1,605, Ottis Anderson ()\n* '''Rushing attempts''': 337, Edgerrin James ()\n* '''Rushing touchdowns''': 16, David Johnson ()\n* '''Rushing touchdowns (Rookie)''': 10, Tim Hightower ()\n* '''Longest rushing attempt''': 83 yards, John David Crow ()\n* '''Rushing yards per game''': 100.3 yards, Ottis Anderson ()\n\n'''Receiving'''\n* '''Receptions''': 109, Larry Fitzgerald ()\n* '''Receiving yards''': 1,598, David Boston ()\n* '''Receiving touchdowns''': 15, Sonny Randle ()\n\n'''Returns'''\n* '''Punt returns in a season''': 44, Vai Sikahema ()\n* '''Longest punt return''': 99 yards, Patrick Peterson ()\n* '''Longest kickoff return''': 108 yards, David Johnson ()\n\n'''Kicking'''\n* '''Field goals''': 40, Neil Rackers ()\n* '''Points after touchdown (PAT)s converted''': 53, Pat Harder ()\n",
"\n* '''Passing yards''': 34,639, Jim Hart (–)\n* '''Passing touchdowns''': 209, Jim Hart (–)\n* '''Rushing yards''': 7,999, Ottis Anderson (–)\n* '''Rushing touchdowns''': 46, Ottis Anderson (–)\n* '''Receptions''': 1,074, Larry Fitzgerald (–present)\n* '''Receiving yards''': 13,920, Larry Fitzgerald (–present)\n* '''Passes intercepted''': 52, Larry Wilson (–)\n* '''Field goals made''': 282, Jim Bakken (–)\n* '''Points''': 1,380, Jim Bakken (–)\n* '''Total touchdowns''': 103, Larry Fitzgerald (–present)\n* '''Punt return average''': 13.7, Charley Trippi (–)\n* '''Kickoff return average''': 28.5, Ollie Matson (, –)\n* '''Yards per punt average''': 44.9, Jerry Norton (–)\n* '''Sacks''': 66.5, Freddie Joe Nunn (–)\n* '''Tackles''': 785, Eric Hill (1989–1997)\n* '''Wins (coach)''': 45, Ken Whisenhunt (2007–2012)\n",
"\n===Current roster===\n\n\n===Retired numbers===\n\n\n'''Arizona Cardinals retired numbers'''\n\nN°\nPlayer\nPosition\nTenure\nTeam based in\n\n '''8''' \n Larry Wilson \n S \n 1960–1972 \n St. Louis\n\n '''40''' \n Pat Tillman 1 \n S \n 1998–2001 \n Arizona\n\n '''77''' \n Stan Mauldin 1 \n OT \n 1946–1948 \n Chicago\n\n '''88''' \n J. V. Cain 1 \n TE \n 1974–1978 \n St. Louis\n\n '''99''' \n Marshall Goldberg \n HB \n 1939–1943, 1946–1948 \n Chicago\n\n\n'''Notes:'''\n* 1 ''Posthumously retired''.\n\n===Pro Football Hall of Famers===\n\n'''Arizona Cardinals Hall of Famers'''\n\n'''Chicago Cardinals '''\n\nNo.\nPlayer\nPosition(s)\nTenure\nInducted\n\n '''1''' \nJohn \"Paddy\" Driscoll\nQBCoach\n1920–19251920–1922\n1965\n\n '''2''' \n''Walt Kiesling''\nG / DTCoach\n1929–19331944\n1966\n\n '''4''' \nErnie Nevers\nFBCoach\n1929–19311930–1931, 1939\n1963\n\n '''13''' \n''Guy Chamberlin''\nEnd & Coach\n1927–1928\n1965\n\n '''33''' \nOllie Matson\nRB\n1952, 1954–1958\n1972\n\n '''62, 2''' \nCharley Trippi\nRB\n1947–1955\n1968\n\n '''81''' \nDick \"Night Train\" Lane \nCB\n1954–1959\n1974\n\n \n''Jim Thorpe''\nRB\n1928\n1963\n\n – \nCharles Bidwill\n Team Owner\n1933–1947\n1967\n\n – \nJimmy Conzelman\nCoach\n1940–19421946–1948\n1964\n\n – \n''Earl \"Curly\" Lambeau'' \n Coach\n 1950–1951 \n 1963\n\n – \n''''\nCoach\n1953–1954\n1967\n\n '''St. Louis Cardinals '''\n\n '''8''' \nLarry Wilson \nS\n1960–1972\n1978\n\n '''13''' \n''Don Maynard''\nWR\n1973\n1987\n\n '''22''' \nRoger Wehrli\nCB\n1969–1982\n2007\n\n '''72''' \nDan Dierdorf\nT\n1971–1983\n1996\n\n '''81''' \nJackie Smith\nTE\n1963–1977\n1994\n\n '''Arizona Cardinals '''\n\n '''22''' \n''Emmitt Smith''\nRB\n2003–2004\n2010\n\n '''35''' \nAeneas Williams\nCB\n1991–2000\n2014\n\n '''13''' \n ''Kurt Warner'' \n QB\n2005–2009\n2017\n\n''italics'' = played a portion of career with the Cardinals and enshrined representing another team\nDierdorf, Smith, Wehrli and Wilson were members of the St. Louis Football Ring of Fame in The Dome at America's Center when the Rams played there from 1995 to 2015.\n\n===Ring of Honor===\n\n\nPat Tillman's portrait – Faces of the Fallen gallery – Arlington National Cemetery.\nThe Cardinals' Ring of Honor was started in to mark the opening of University of Phoenix Stadium. It honors former Cardinal greats from all eras of the franchise's history. Following is a list of inductees and the dates that they were inducted.\n* Charles Bidwill, Owner (August 12, 2006)\n* Jimmy Conzelman, Coach (August 12, 2006)\n* Dan Dierdorf, T (October 16, 2006)\n* John \"Paddy\" Driscoll, QB (August 12, 2006)\n* Marshall Goldberg, HB (August 12, 2006)\n* Roy Green, DB/WR, (October 2, 2016)\n* Dick \"Night Train\" Lane, DB (August 12, 2006)\n* Ollie Matson, HB (August 12, 2006)\n* Ernie Nevers, FB (August 12, 2006)\n* Pat Tillman, S (November 12, 2006)\n* Charley Trippi, HB/QB (August 12, 2006)\n* Kurt Warner, QB (June 18, 2014)\n* Roger Wehrli, CB (October 14, 2007)\n* Aeneas Williams, CB (November 10, 2008)\n* Adrian Wilson, S (September 27, 2015)\n* Larry Wilson, S (September 10, 2006)\n",
"\n",
"\nThe Cardinals' flagship radio station is KMVP-FM; Dave Pasch, Ron Wolfley, and Paul Calvisi handle the radio broadcast. Spanish-language radio broadcasts are heard on the combo of KQMR/KHOV-FM \"Latino Mix\" under a contract with Univisión, signed in 2015. Prior to 2015, they were heard on KDVA/KVVA-FM \"José FM\", as well as co-owned KBMB AM 710. The Cardinals were the first NFL team to offer all 20 preseason and regular season games on Spanish-language radio, doing so in 2000. Gabriel Trujillo and Rolando Cantú are the Spanish broadcast team. The Cardinals have the most extensive Mexican affiliate network in the NFL, with contracts with Grupo Larsa (in the state of Sonora) and Grupo Radiorama (outside Sonora) and stations in 20 cities, including Hermosillo, Guadalajara and Mexico City.\n\nAs of the 2017 season, NBC affiliate KPNX broadcasts the team's preseason games on television (which, that year, included the Hall of Fame Game broadcast by NBC), called by Pasch and Wolfley, with station anchor Paul Gerke as sideline reporter. The broadcasts are syndicated regionally to KTTU and KMSB-TV in Tucson, and KVVU-TV in Las Vegas.\n\n===English radio affiliates===\n\n\n\n\nFrequency\n\n Phoenix \n KTAR AM \n 620 AM\n\n Phoenix \n KMVP-FM \n 98.7 FM\n\n Safford \n KATO AM \n 1230 AM\n\n Sedona \n KAZM AM \n 780 AM\n\n Lake Havasu City \n KNTR AM \n 980 AM\n\n Prescott \n KQNA AM \n 1130 AM\n\n Prescott \n KDDL FM \n 94.3 FM\n\n Flagstaff \n KVNA AM \n 600 AM\n\n Holbrook \n KZUA-FM \n 92.1 FM\n\n Yuma \n KBLU \n 560 AM\n\n Pinetop \n KNKI FM \n 106.7 FM\n\n Miami \n KIKO AM \n 1340 AM\n\n Tucson \n KEVT AM \n 1210 AM\n\n Kingman \n KGMN-FM \n 100.1 FM\n\n",
"\n",
"* Ziemba, Joe (2010). ''When Football Was Football: The Chicago Cardinals and the Birth of the NFL''. Chicago: Triumph Books \n",
"\n* \n* Arizona Cardinals at NFL.com\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Franchise history",
"Uniforms",
"Season-by-season records",
"Single-season records",
"Cardinals career records",
"Players",
"Current staff",
"Radio and television",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Arizona Cardinals |
[
"\n\nThe '''Atlanta Falcons''' are a professional American football team based in Atlanta, Georgia. The Falcons compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's National Football Conference (NFC) South division. The Falcons joined the NFL in 1965 as an expansion team, after the NFL offered then-owner Rankin Smith a franchise to keep him from joining the rival American Football League (AFL).\n\nIn their 51 years of existence, the Falcons have compiled a record of 350–450–6 (341–437–6 in the regular season and 9–13 in the playoffs), winning division championships in 1980, 1998, 2004, 2010, 2012, and 2016. The Falcons have appeared in two Super Bowls, the first being during the 1998 season in Super Bowl XXXIII, where they lost to the Denver Broncos 34–19, and the second being a 34–28 overtime defeat by the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LI.\n\nThe Falcons played their home games at the Georgia Dome in downtown Atlanta from the 1992 to 2016 NFL seasons. Construction began on Mercedes-Benz Stadium in May 2014, and play began there in the 2017 season. Their headquarters and practice facilities are located at a 50-acre site in Flowery Branch, Georgia.\n.\n",
"\n\n===Professional football comes to Atlanta===\nProfessional football first came to Atlanta in 1962, when the American Football League staged two preseason contests, with one featuring the Denver Broncos vs. the Houston Oilers and the second pitting the Dallas Texans against the Oakland Raiders. Two years later, the AFL held another exhibition, this time with the New York Jets taking on the San Diego Chargers.\n\nIn 1965, after the Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium (then known simply as Atlanta Stadium) was built, the city of Atlanta felt the time was right to start pursuing professional football. One independent group which had been active in NFL exhibition promotions in Atlanta applied for franchises in both the American Football League and the National Football League, acting entirely on its own with no guarantee of stadium rights. Another group reported it had deposited earnest money for a team in the AFL.\n\nWith everyone running in different directions, some local businessmen worked out a deal and were awarded an AFL franchise on June 7, 1965, contingent upon acquiring exclusive stadium rights from city officials. NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle, who had been moving slowly in Atlanta matters, was spurred by the AFL interest and headed on the next plane down to Atlanta to block the rival league's claim on the city of Atlanta. He forced the city to make a choice between the two leagues. By June 30, the city picked Rankin Smith and the NFL.\n\nThe Atlanta Falcons franchise began on June 30, 1965, when NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle granted ownership to 41-year-old Rankin Smith Sr. Smith, an Executive Vice President of Life Insurance Company of Georgia at the time, paid $8.5 million the highest price in NFL history at the time for a franchise. Former commissioner Pete Rozelle and Smith made the deal in about five minutes and the Atlanta Falcons brought the largest and most popular sport to the city of Atlanta. The Atlanta expansion franchise became the 15th NFL franchise, and they were awarded the first pick in the 1966 NFL draft as well as the final pick in each of the first five rounds. The Falcons drafted All-American linebacker Tommy Nobis from the University of Texas with the first pick of the draft, making him the first-ever Falcon. The league also held the 1966 NFL Expansion Draft six weeks later in which the Falcons selected unprotected players from existing franchises. Although the Falcons selected many good players in those drafts, they still were not able to win right away.\n\nThe Atlanta Falcons Football Club received its nickname on August 29, 1965. Miss Julia Elliott, a school teacher from Griffin, Georgia, was singled out from many people who suggested \"Falcons\" as the nickname for the new franchise. Elliott wrote: \"the Falcon is proud and dignified, with great courage and fight. It never drops its prey. It is deadly and has a great sporting tradition.\"\n\n===1966–1977: Early struggles===\nThe Falcons had their first season in , and their first preseason game on August 1, 1966, losing to the Philadelphia Eagles. Under head coach Norb Hecker they lost their first nine regular-season games in 1966 and secured their first victory on the road against the New York Giants. The team finished the 1960s with only 12 wins. The Falcons had their first Monday Night Football game in Atlanta during the season, losing 20–7 to the Miami Dolphins. The only two winning seasons in this twelve-year period were 1971 and 1973.\n\n===1978–1989===\nThe Falcons' defense taking on Denver Broncos quarterback John Elway during a 1985 game.\nIn the 1978 season, the Falcons qualified for the playoffs for the first time and won the Wild Card game against the Eagles 14–13. The following week, they lost to the Dallas Cowboys 27–20 in the Divisional Playoffs.\n\nIn the 1980 season, after a nine-game winning streak, the Falcons posted a franchise then-best record of 12–4 and captured their first NFC West division title. The next week, their dream season ended at home with a loss to the Cowboys 30–27 in the divisional playoffs. In the strike-shortened 1982 season, the Falcons made the playoffs but lost to the Minnesota Vikings, 30–24. Falcons coach Leeman Bennett was fired after the loss. The team would then have losing seasons for the next eight years.\n\n===1989–1996===\nIn 1989, the Falcons drafted cornerback Deion Sanders in the first round, who helped them for the next four years, setting many records for the franchise. \"Neon Deion\" (a.k.a. \"Prime Time\") had a flashy appeal and helped bring media attention to one of the league's most anonymous franchises. Sanders was also famous for playing on major league baseball teams (the New York Yankees and the Atlanta Braves) while simultaneously playing in the NFL.\n\nThe Falcons playing against the Los Angeles Rams during a 1991 away game.\n\nAfter defeating the New Orleans Saints in the NFC Wild Card game, the Falcons' 1991 season ended in a divisional playoff loss to the Washington Redskins. In 1991, the Falcons drafted Brett Favre as the thirty-third overall pick. During his rookie season, he played in two games where he amassed a record of 4 passing attempts with 0 receptions and 2 interceptions. The following February, Favre was traded to the Green Bay Packers.\n\nIn 1992, the Atlanta Falcons opened a new chapter in their history moving into the newly constructed Georgia Dome, where the team has defeated all 31 other NFL teams at least during its time there.\n\n===1997–2000: The Dan Reeves era===\nIn 1998, under recently acquired head coach Dan Reeves, quarterback Chris Chandler and running back Jamal Anderson the \"Dirty Bird\" Falcons had their greatest season to date. On November 8, they beat the New England Patriots 41–10, ending a streak of 22 losses at cold-weather sites. The team finished with a franchise-best 14–2 regular season record and the NFC West division championship. On January 17, 1999, the Falcons upset the top-seeded Vikings at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in the NFC Championship Game 30–27, in an exciting overtime victory. However, in their first-ever Super Bowl appearance, they lost 34–19 to the defending champion Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXIII.\n\nIn the second game of the Falcons 1999 season, running back Jamal Anderson, who had been a key player in the Falcons' 1998 success, suffered a season-ending knee injury. The Falcons finished the season with a very disappointing 5–11 regular season record. In 2000, the Falcons suffered through another horrendous season finishing 4–12 and once again missing the playoffs.\n\n===2001–2006===\nIn the 2001 NFL draft, the Falcons orchestrated a trade with the San Diego Chargers, acquiring the first overall pick (which was used on quarterback Michael Vick) in exchange for wide receiver-return specialist Tim Dwight and the fifth overall pick (used on running back LaDainian Tomlinson).\n\nThe Falcons finished the 2001 season with a record of 7–9 and missed the playoffs. Jessie Tuggle retired following 14 seasons in Atlanta. On December 6, 2001, Arthur M. Blank reached a preliminary agreement with the Falcons' Taylor Smith to purchase the team. In a special meeting prior to Super Bowl XXXVI in New Orleans on February 2, 2002, NFL owners voted unanimously to approve the purchase.\n\nThe 2002 season saw the Falcons return to the playoffs with a regular season record of 9–6–1, tying the Pittsburgh Steelers. It was Vick's first year as the starter, and the team, with newly acquired running back Warrick Dunn, delivered the Green Bay Packers their first home playoff loss ever. A 20-6 loss to the Donovan McNabb-led Philadelphia Eagles the following week, however, ended the Falcons' season.\n\nOn March 19, 2003, the Falcons presented their new logo. During the 2003 preseason Vick broke his leg and missed the first twelve games of the season. After losing 7 straight games, the decision was made to release head coach Dan Reeves. Wade Phillips acted as interim coach for the final 3 games. Although the Falcons won 3 of their last 4 games after the return of Vick, they ended up with a 5–11 record that year. In 2004, a new head coach, Jim L. Mora, was hired and Vick returned for the full season. The Falcons went 11–5, winning their third division title and earning a first-round bye into the playoffs. In the divisional playoffs, the Falcons defeated the St. Louis Rams, 47–17, in the Georgia Dome, advancing to the NFC Championship Game, which they lost to the Eagles, 27–10.\n\nThe Falcons again fell short of achieving back-to-back winning seasons in , going 8–8. In , Michael Vick became the first quarterback in league history to rush for more than 1,000 yards in a season, with 1,039. After finishing the season 7–9, however, coach Jim Mora was dismissed and Bobby Petrino, the University of Louisville's football coach, replaced him. Before the 2007 season began, Vick was suspended indefinitely by the NFL after pleading guilty to charges involving dog fighting in the state of Virginia. On December 10, 2007, Vick received a 23-month prison sentence and was officially cut from the Atlanta roster.\n\n===2007===\n\nFor the 2007 season, the Falcons were forced to start Joey Harrington at quarterback. On December 11, 13 games into his first NFL season as head coach, Bobby Petrino resigned without notice to coach at the University of Arkansas, leaving the beleaguered players only a note in the locker room. Secondary Coach Emmitt Thomas was named interim coach for the final three games of the season on December 12. The Falcons ended the year with a dismal 4–12 record.\n\n===2008–2014: The Mike Smith era===\nMike Smith\nAfter the tumultuous and disappointing 2007 season, the Falcons made a number of moves, hiring a new General Manager and head coach, drafting a new starting quarterback, and signing a starting running back.\n\nOn January 13, 2008, the Falcons named former Patriots director of college football scouting Thomas Dimitroff General Manager. On January 23, Jacksonville Jaguars defensive coach and former linebackers coach for the 2000 Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens Mike Smith was named the Falcons' new head coach. Chargers back-up RB Michael Turner agreed to a 6-year deal, $30 million deal on March 2. On April 26, Matt Ryan (quarterback from Boston College) was drafted third overall in the 2008 NFL draft by the Falcons.\n\n====2008====\n\nThe Falcons finished the 2008 regular season with a record of 11–5, and the #5 seed in the playoffs. On December 21, 2008, Atlanta beat the Minnesota Vikings 24–17 to clinch a wild card spot, earning a trip to the playoffs for the first time since 2004. The Falcons would go on to lose in the wild-card round of the 2008 NFL playoffs to the eventual NFC champion Arizona Cardinals, 30–24.\n\nMatt Ryan started all 16 games in his rookie season and was named the Associated Press Offensive Rookie of the Year. First-year head coach Mike Smith was named 2008 NFL Coach of the Year.\n\n====2009====\n\nAlthough they failed to make the playoffs in 2009 the team rallied to win their final three regular season games to record back-to-back winning seasons for the first time in franchise history. The Falcons defeated the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 20–10 in the final game of the season to improve their record to 9–7.\n\n====2010====\n\nIn 2010, with a regular season record of 13–3, the Falcons secured a third straight winning season, their fourth overall divisional title, and the top overall seed in the NFC playoffs; however, the Falcons were overpowered by the eventual Super Bowl XLV champion Green Bay Packers in the NFC Divisional Playoffs 48–21. The Falcons scored 414 points – the fifth-most in franchise history. The team sent an NFL-high and franchise-best nine players to the 2011 Pro Bowl.\n\n====2011====\n\nThe Falcons made a surprise trade up with the Cleveland Browns in the 2011 NFL draft to select Alabama wide receiver Julio Jones sixth overall. In exchange, the Falcons gave up their first-, second- and fourth-round draft picks in 2011, and their first and fourth draft picks in 2012. Jones, along with teammates Tony Gonzalez and Roddy White, have since been dubbed Atlanta's \"Big Three\" (based on their total number of reception yards). On August 30, 2011, Sports Illustrated senior writer Peter King, who correctly predicted the 2011 Super Bowl, made his predictions for the 2011 season and picked the Falcons to defeat the San Diego Chargers in the 2012 Super Bowl. The Falcons finished the season at 10–6, securing the fifth seed after a Week 17 beatdown of Tampa Bay in which the Falcons pulled their starters after leading 42–0 just 23 minutes into the game.\n\nThe Falcons then went on to play the New York Giants in a 2011 NFC Wild Card Game at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. The first half was a defensive struggle, with the first points coming off of a safety by the Falcons, giving Atlanta a 2–0 lead. In the 2nd quarter, though, Eli Manning connected with Hakeem Nicks for a short touchdown pass to make it 7–2 Giants heading into the 2nd half. Then the Giants took control, as Manning threw for two more TD passes to Mario Manningham and Nicks and the defense completed its shutout of the Falcons to give the New York Giants the win, 24–2, and the Falcons their third straight playoff loss with Matt Ryan and Mike Smith. After the season Defense Coordinator Brian VanGorder accepted a coaching job at Auburn University, and the offensive coordinator Mike Mularkey took the head coaching job in Jacksonville.\n\n====2012====\n\nAtlanta exploded out of the gate, going a franchise best 8–0 and remaining the last unbeaten team in the NFL that year. Their hopes to get an undefeated season came to an end with a 27–31 loss to the division rival Saints. Julio Jones had a remarkable second year, grabbing 10 touchdowns and 1,198 yards. The Falcons finished the season 13–3, and clinched the number one seed in the NFC playoffs.\n\nThe Falcons played the Seattle Seahawks in their first playoff game. Although they went down 28–27 with only 31 seconds left on the clock, Matt Ryan led the team to their first playoff victory, 30–28. It was the only playoff victory in the Mike Smith era.\n\nThe Atlanta Falcons then advanced to face the San Francisco 49ers. The Falcons seized control of the game early with a Matt Bryant field goal, a trio of Matt Ryan touchdown passes caught by Julio Jones and Tony Gonzalez coupled with outstanding defensive play. By the end of the half, the score was 24–14. The tides of the game began to shift in the second half as the 49ers rallied back with a pair of Frank Gore touchdown runs. Atlanta's offense attempted to reply but were ultimately shut down by the 49er defense. A few series later, late in the 4th quarter with little time remaining, Atlanta found themselves in a 4th and 4 situation at the 10-yard line. The Falcons needed just 10 more yards to secure victory and advance to their first Super Bowl berth in 14 years. Matt Ryan fired a pass to Roddy White which was ultimately broken up by inside linebacker NaVorro Bowman, resulting in a 28–24 defeat.\n\n====2013====\n\nFollowing the success of the previous season, the Falcons were an expected Super Bowl contender. However, injuries hampered the team's performance and the team finished the season 4–12. With that, the streak of consecutive winning seasons came to an end and Mike Smith had his first losing season as a head coach. Tony Gonzalez, in his final season in the NFL, was selected to the 2014 Pro Bowl as a starter representing Team Rice. Following the conclusion of the 2012 season, director of player personnel Les Snead departed the team to join the St. Louis Rams and Dave Caldwell, assistant to general manager Thomas Dimitroff, left the team to join the Jacksonville Jaguars. Scott Pioli, former GM of the New England Patriots, was announced as the Falcons' new assistant GM. Mike Smith was given a one-year extension on his contract as head coach. The Falcons had the 6th overall pick in the 2014 NFL draft with which they selected Jake Matthews, who played as offensive tackle for Texas A&M.\n\n====2014====\n\nDespite having another rough season, the Falcons still had an opportunity to qualify for the playoffs at the end of the regular season. The Falcons hosted the Carolina Panthers in their regular season finale, with the winners clinching the NFC South division. Unfortunately, the Falcons lost in a 34–3 blowout as Matt Ryan threw two interceptions that were returned for touchdowns and got sacked six times. The Falcons finished the season 6–10, marking the second consecutive losing season for the team. The following day, Mike Smith was fired after seven seasons as head coach. The Falcons would soon hire Seattle Seahawks defensive coordinator Dan Quinn as the team's 16th head coach. The Falcons had the 8th overall pick in the 2015 NFL draft with which they selected Vic Beasley, a defensive end from Clemson University.\n\n===2015–present: The Dan Quinn era===\n====2015====\n\nDan Quinn\nIn February 2015, the team was investigated by the NFL for alleged use of artificial crowd noise in the Georgia Dome. The Falcons lost a 2016 NFL Draft selection as a result of the league's investigation.\n\nDan Quinn's first season saw a 5–0 start, the team's best start in four years. They would then struggle throughout the rest of the season by losing 8 of their last 11 games, resulting in an 8–8 record. They did, however, give the Panthers their only regular season loss. The Falcons used their first-round pick in the 2016 NFL Draft on safety Keanu Neal from the University of Florida.\n\n====2016====\n\nIn the Falcons' 25th and final season in the Georgia Dome, Atlanta lost their Week 1 game to the Buccaneers 24–31. The Falcons would then win their next four including one over the Panthers, when the franchise set new records. Matt Ryan threw for 503 yards, and Julio Jones caught twelve passes for 300 yards. With a 41–13 thrashing of the San Francisco 49ers in Week 15, the Falcons improved to 9–5 and secured their first winning season since 2012. One week later, the Falcons defeated the Panthers in Charlotte, North Carolina and clinched their first NFC South division title since 2012. In their last regular season game at the Georgia Dome, the Falcons defeated the New Orleans Saints, and secured an 11–5 record and a first round bye.\n\nIn the divisional round of the playoffs, Atlanta defeated the Seahawks 36–20 in the Georgia Dome, and hosted their last game at the Dome against the Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship Game on January 22, 2017. The Falcons defeated the Packers 44–21 to advance to Super Bowl LI as the NFC champions. Atlanta was up 28–3 late in the third quarter, and the New England Patriots scored 31 unanswered points, with the last 6 in the first-ever overtime in the Super Bowl. The Patriots' 25-point comeback was the largest in Super Bowl history.\n\nIn 2016, the Falcons scored 540 points in the regular season, the seventh-most in NFL history, tied with the Greatest Show on Turf (the 2000 St. Louis Rams). However, the Falcons defense gave up 406 points, 27th in the league.\n\n====2017====\n\nThe Falcons moved into their new home, the Mercedes-Benz Stadium, this season. Their first game ever played at the new stadium was a preseason loss to the Arizona Cardinals. The first regular season game at the new stadium was a rematch of the 2016–17 NFC Championship, with Atlanta defeating Green Bay 34–23.\n",
"\nThe Falcons have called only two stadiums home in their 51 years of existence, and will have a third home in their history in the late summer of 2017. The first was the Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium, sharing with the Atlanta Braves Major League Baseball team until 1991. In 1992, the Georgia Dome was built, and the Falcons played there from its opening to the 2016 season. The Dome has been frequently used for college football, including Georgia State football and college bowl games such as the Peach Bowl.\n\nIn an effort to replace the aging Georgia Dome and potentially host a future Super Bowl, team owner Arthur Blank proposed a deal with the city of Atlanta to build a new state-of-the-art stadium not far from where the Georgia Dome is located. Blank will contribute $800 million and the city of Atlanta will contribute an additional $200 million via bonds backed by the city's hotel/motel tax towards the construction of a retractable roof stadium. Blank will contribute additional money for cost overruns if it is needed. The team will provide up to $50 million towards infrastructure costs that weren't included in the construction budget and to retire the remaining debt on the Georgia Dome. In addition, Blank's foundation and the city will each provide $15 million for development in surrounding neighborhoods. Though the total cost of the stadium was initially estimated to be around $1 billion, the total cost was revised to $1.5 billion according to Blank. In March 2013, the Atlanta City Council voted 11–4 in favor of building the stadium. The retractable roof Mercedes-Benz Stadium broke ground in May 2014, and will begin hosting the Falcons' and Atlanta United's Major League Soccer games in 2017.\n",
"Atlanta Falcons uniform: 1971–1989\nAtlanta Falcons uniform: 1997–2002\n\nThe Atlanta Falcons' colors are red, black, silver and white. When the team debuted in 1966, the Falcons wore red helmets with a black falcon crest logo. In the center of the helmet was a center black stripe surrounded by two gold stripes and two white stripes. These colors represented the two college rival schools in the state of Georgia; rival schools Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets (White and Gold) and the Georgia Bulldogs (Red and Black). Although the gold was later taken out, the white remains to this day. They wore white pants and either black or white jerseys. At first, the falcon crest logo was also put on the jersey sleeves, but it was replaced by a red and white stripe pattern four years later. They switched from black to red jerseys in 1971, and the club began to wear silver pants in 1978.\n\nA prototype white helmet was developed for the team prior to the 1974 season but was never worn.\n\nIn 1990, the uniform design changed to black helmets, silver pants, and either black or white jerseys. The numbers on the white jerseys were black, but were changed to red in 1997. (The red numerals could be seen on the away jerseys briefly in 1990.)\n\nBoth the logo and uniforms changed in 2003. The logo was redesigned with red and silver accents to depict a more powerful, aggressive falcon, which now more closely resembles the capital letter ''F''.\n\nAlthough the Falcons still wore black helmets, the new uniforms featured jerseys and pants with red trim down the sides. The uniform design consisted of either black or white jerseys, and either black or white pants. During that same year, a red alternate jersey with black trim was also introduced. The Falcons also started wearing black cleats with these uniforms.\n\nIn 2004, the red jerseys became the primary jerseys, and the black ones became the alternate, both worn with white pants. In select road games, the Falcons wear black pants with white jerseys. The Falcons wore an all-black combination for home games against their archrivals, the New Orleans Saints, winning the first two contests (24–21 in and 36–17 in ), but losing 31–13 in . The Falcons wore the all black combination against the New Orleans Saints for four straight seasons starting in 2004, With the last time being in 2007, losing 34–14. They wore the combination again in 2006, against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Week 2. The Falcons won that game, 14–3. The Falcons also wore their all-black uniform in 2007 against the New York Giants, and in 2008 against the Carolina Panthers and against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (for the second time).\n\nIn the 1980s, the Falcons wore their white uniforms at home most of the time because of the heat. When the Falcons started playing in a dome, the team switched to their dark uniforms for home games but have worn their white uniforms at home a few times since switching to the dome. It was announced at the 2009 state of the franchise meeting that the Falcons would wear 1966 throwback uniforms for a couple games during the 2009 season. The Atlanta Falcons wore 1966 throwback jerseys for two home games in 2009 – against the Carolina Panthers on September 20 and against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on November 29. The Falcons won both of those games. They donned the throwbacks again for 2 games in 2010, against Baltimore and San Francisco, winning both of those games as well.\n",
"===New Orleans Saints===\n\n\nIn every season except for their debut season, the Falcons have shared a division with the New Orleans Saints (first the NFC West, and now the NFC South). Over this time, a heated rivalry has developed between the two cities' franchises. Atlanta leads the series 51–45.\n\n===Carolina Panthers===\n\n\nIn addition, the Falcons share a similar, yet smaller, rivalry with the Carolina Panthers, with both teams having been in the NFC West from the Panthers' founding in 1995 to the NFL realignment in 2002, where they have been in the NFC South since then. The Falcons lead the series 27–17.\n",
"\n===Season-by-season records===\n\n\n===Record vs. opponents===\nIncludes postseason records\n\nSource:\n \n\n St. Louis/Phoenix/Arizona Cardinals \n 14 \n 15 \n 0 \n \n W 38–19 \n November 27, 2016 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n 0–1 postseason\n\n Baltimore Ravens \n 2 \n 3 \n 0 \n \n L 7–29 \n October 19, 2014 \n Baltimore, Maryland \n\n\n Buffalo Bills \n 7 \n 4 \n 0 \n \n W 34–31 (OT)\n December 1, 2013 \n Toronto, Ontario* (Falcons as away team) \n\n\n Carolina Panthers \n 27 \n 17 \n 0 \n \n W 33–16 \n December 24, 2016 \n Charlotte, North Carolina \n\n\n Chicago Bears \n 13 \n 14 \n 0 \n \n W 23–17 \n September 10, 2017 \n Chicago, Illinois \n\n\n Cincinnati Bengals \n 5 \n 8 \n 0 \n \n L 10–24 \n September 14, 2014 \n Cincinnati, Ohio \n\n\n Cleveland Browns \n 3 \n 11 \n 0 \n \n L 24–26 \n November 23, 2014 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n\n\n Dallas Cowboys \n 10 \n 14 \n 0 \n \n W 39–28 \n September 27, 2015 \n Arlington, Texas \n 0–2 postseason\n\n Denver Broncos \n 6 \n 8 \n 0 \n \n W 23–16 \n October 9, 2016 \n Denver, Colorado \n 0–1 postseason\n\n Detroit Lions \n 13 \n 24 \n 0 \n \n W 30-26 \n September 24, 2017 \n Detroit, Michigan \n\n\n Green Bay Packers \n 14 \n 15 \n 0 \n \n W 34–23 \n September 17, 2017 \n Mercedes-Benz Stadium \n 2–2 postseason\n\n Houston Texans \n 2 \n 2 \n 0 \n \n W 48–21 \n October 4, 2015 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n \n\n Baltimore/Indianapolis Colts \n 2 \n 14 \n 0 \n \n L 21–24 \n November 22, 2015 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n\n\n Jacksonville Jaguars \n 3 \n 3 \n 0 \n \n W 23–17 \n December 20, 2015 \n Jacksonville, Florida \n\n\n Kansas City Chiefs \n 3 \n 6 \n 0 \n \n L 28–29 \n December 4, 2016 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n\n\n San Diego/Los Angeles Chargers \n 8 \n 2 \n 0 \n \n L 30–33 (OT) \n October 23, 2016 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n\n\n St. Louis/Los Angeles Rams \n 28 \n 47 \n 2 \n \n W 42–14 \n December 11, 2016 \n Los Angeles, California \n 1–0 postseason\n\n Miami Dolphins \n 4 \n 8 \n 0 \n \n L 23–27 \n September 22, 2013 \n Miami Gardens, Florida \n\n\n Minnesota Vikings \n 10 \n 17 \n 0 \n \n L 10–20 \n November 29, 2015 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n 1–1 postseason\n\n New England Patriots \n 6 \n 8 \n 0 \n \n L 28–34 \n February 5, 2017 \n Houston, Texas* (Falcons as home team) \n 0–1 postseason\n |-\n New Orleans Saints \n 50 \n 45 \n 0 \n \n W 38–32 \n January 1, 2017 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n 1–0 postseason\n\n New York Giants \n 12 \n 11 \n 0 \n \n W 24–20 \n September 20, 2015 \n East Rutherford, New Jersey \n 0–1 postseason\n\n New York Jets \n 6 \n 5 \n 0 \n \n L 28–30 \n October 7, 2013 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n\n\n Los Angeles/Oakland Raiders \n 7 \n 7 \n 0 \n \n W 35–28 \n September 18, 2016 \n Oakland, California \n\n\n Philadelphia Eagles \n 13 \n 16 \n 1 \n \n L 15–24 \n November 13, 2016 \n Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \n 1–2 postseason\n\n Pittsburgh Steelers \n 2 \n 13 \n 1 \n \n L 20–27 \n December 14, 2014 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n\n\n San Francisco 49ers \n 30 \n 46 \n 1 \n \n W 41–13 \n December 18, 2016 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n 1–1 postseason\n\n Seattle Seahawks \n 6 \n 10 \n 0 \n \n W 36–20 \n January 14, 2017 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n 2–0 postseason\n\n Tampa Bay Buccaneers \n 23 \n 24 \n 0 \n \n W 43–28 \n November 3, 2016 \n Tampa, Florida \n\n\n Houston Oilers/Tennessee Titans \n 7 \n 7 \n 0 \n \n W 10–7 \n October 25, 2015 \n Nashville, Tennessee \n\n\n Washington Redskins \n 9 \n 14 \n 1 \n \n W 25–19 (OT) \n October 11, 2015 \n Atlanta, Georgia \n 0–1 postseason\n\n Total \n 350 \n 449 \n 6 \n \n \n \n \n 9–12 ()\n\n\n* *Notes International Series\n\n===Single game records===\n\n*'''Rushing''': Michael Turner, 220 (September 7, 2008)\n*'''Passing''': Matt Ryan, 503 (October 2, 2016)\n*'''Passing touchdowns''': Wade Wilson, 5 (December 13, 1992)\n*'''Receptions''': William Andrews, 15 (September 15, 1981)\n*'''Receiving yards''': Julio Jones, 300 (October 2, 2016)\n*'''Interceptions''': Several Falcons, 2, most recently Robert Alford, 2 (October 2, 2016)\n*'''Field goals''': Norm Johnson, 6 (November 13, 1994)\n*'''Total touchdowns''': T. J. Duckett, 4 (December 12, 2004) and Michael Turner 4 (November 23, 2008)\n*'''Points scored''': T. J. Duckett, 24 (December 12, 2004) and Michael Turner, 24 (November 23, 2008)\n*'''Sacks''': Chuck Smith, 5 (October 12, 1997)\n\n===Single season records===\n* '''Passing attempts''': 651 Matt Ryan (2013)\n* '''Passing completions''': 439 Matt Ryan (2013)\n* '''Passing yards''': 4,944 Matt Ryan (2016)\n* '''Passing touchdowns''': 38 Matt Ryan (2016)\n* '''Passing interceptions''': 25 Bobby Hebert (1996)\n* '''Completion percentage''': 69.9 Matt Ryan (2016)\n* '''Passing rating''': 117.1 Matt Ryan (2016)\n* '''Rushing attempts''': 410 Jamal Anderson (1998)\n* '''Rushing yards''': 1,846 Jamal Anderson (1998)\n* '''Rushing touchdowns''': 17 Michael Turner (2008)\n* '''Receiving catches''': 136 Julio Jones (2015)\n* '''Receiving yards''': 1,871 Julio Jones (2015)\n* '''Receiving touchdowns''': 15 Andre Rison (1993)\n* '''Quarterback sacks''': 16.5 John Abraham (2008)\n* '''Pass interceptions''': 10 Scott Case (1988)\n* '''Field goal attempts''': 40 Jay Feely (2002)\n* '''Field goals made''': 34 Matt Bryant (2016)\n* '''Points''': 158 Matt Bryant (2016)\n* '''Total touchdowns''': 17 Michael Turner (2008)\n\n===Career records===\n* '''Passing attempts''': 5,064 Matt Ryan (2008–present)\n* '''Passing completions''': 3,288 Matt Ryan (2008–present)\n* '''Passing yards''': 37,701 Matt Ryan (2008–present)\n* '''Passing touchdowns''': 240 Matt Ryan (2008–present)\n* '''Passing interceptions''': 141 Steve Bartkowski (1975–85)\n* '''Passing rating''': 93.6 Matt Ryan (2008–present)\n* '''Rushing attempts''': 1,587 Gerald Riggs (1982–88)\n* '''Rushing yards''': 6,631 Gerald Riggs (1982–88)\n* '''Rushing yards by a QB''': 3,859 Michael Vick (2001–2006)\n* '''Rushing touchdowns''': 60 Michael Turner (2008–2012)\n* '''Receiving catches''': 808 Roddy White (2005–2015)\n* '''Receiving yards''': 10,863 Roddy White (2005–2015)\n* '''Receiving touchdowns''': 63 Roddy White (2005–2015)\n* '''Quarterback sacks''': 68.5 John Abraham (2006–2012)\n* '''Pass interceptions''': 39 Rolland Lawrence (1973–80)\n* '''Field goal attempts''': 224 Morten Andersen (1995–2000, 2006–2007)\n* '''Field goals made''': 196 Matt Bryant (2009–present)\n* '''Points''': 892 Matt Bryant (2009–present)\n* '''Total touchdowns''': 63 Roddy White (2005–2015)\n* '''Pass interception return yards''': 658 Rolland Lawrence (1973–80)\n* '''Pass interception returned for touchdowns''': 3 Deion Sanders (1989–1993) and Kevin Mathis (2002–2006)\n* '''Punt return yards''': 1,723 Allen Rossum (2002–2006)\n* '''Kickoff return yards''': 5,489 Allen Rossum (2002–2006)\n* '''Longest punt''': 75 John James (1972–1981) and Harold Alexander (1993–1994)\n* '''Longest field goal''': 59 Morten Andersen (1995–2000, 2006–2007) and Matt Bryant (2009–present)\n",
"\n===Current roster===\n\n\n===Pro Football Hall of Famers===\n\n\n'''Atlanta Falcons Hall of Famers'''\n\nNo.\nPlayer\nPosition\nTenure\nYear inducted\n\n — \n Norm Van Brocklin \n Head Coach \n 1968–1974 \n 1971\n\n '''25''' \n Tommy McDonald \n WR \n 1967 \n 1998\n\n '''29''' \n Eric Dickerson \n RB \n 1993 \n 1999\n\n '''21''' \n Deion Sanders \n CB \n 1989–1993 \n 2011\n\n '''56''' \n Chris Doleman \n DE \n 1994–1995 \n 2012\n\n '''87''' \n Claude Humphrey \n DE \n 1968–1978 \n 2014\n\n '''4''' \n Brett Favre \n QB \n 1991 \n 2016\n\n '''5''' \n Morten Andersen \n K \n 1995–2000, 2006–2007 \n 2017\n\n\nSanders and Humphrey are the only two players in the Hall of Fame that have been inducted based substantially on their service with the Falcons. Andersen spent eight of his 25 NFL seasons with the Falcons, and remains the team's all-time scoring leader, but he also played his first 13 NFL seasons with the New Orleans Saints, also leading that team's career scoring list.\n\n===Retired numbers===\n\n\n'''Atlanta Falcons Retired Numbers'''\n\nNo.\nPlayer\nPosition\nTenure\n\n '''10''' \n Steve Bartkowski \n QB \n 1975–1985 \n\n '''31''' \n William Andrews \n RB \n 1979–1983, 1986 \n\n '''57''' \n Jeff Van Note \n C \n 1969–1986 \n\n '''60''' \n Tommy Nobis \n LB \n 1966–1976 \n\n\n===Ring of Honor===\nThe Atlanta Falcons organization does not officially retire jersey numbers, but considers certain players' jerseys worthy of being honored. The Falcons Ring of Honor, which is featured in the rafters of the Georgia Dome, honors individual players.\n\n\n\n'''Atlanta Falcons Ring of Honor'''\n\nNo.\nPlayer\nPosition\nTenure\nInducted\n\n '''10''' \n Steve Bartkowski \n QB \n 1975–1985 \n 2004\n\n '''21''' \n Deion Sanders \n CB \n 1989–1993 \n 2010\n\n '''31''' \n William Andrews \n RB \n 1979–1983, 1986 \n 2004\n\n '''42''' \n Gerald Riggs \n RB \n 1982–1988 \n 2013\n\n '''57''' \n Jeff Van Note \n C \n 1969–1986 \n 2006\n\n '''58''' \n Jessie Tuggle \n LB \n 1987–2000 \n 2004\n\n '''60''' \n Tommy Nobis \n LB \n 1966–1976 \n 2004\n\n '''78''' \n Mike Kenn \n T \n 1978–1994 \n 2008\n\n '''87''' \n Claude Humphrey \n DE \n 1968–1978 \n 2008\n\n\n===Georgia Sports Hall of Fame===\n\n\n===Starting quarterbacks===\n\n\n===Draft history===\n\n\n\n",
"\n===Head coaches===\n\n\nIn their history, the Atlanta Falcons have had 15 head coaches.\n\n\nCoach\nYears\nRecord\nNotes\n\nNorb Hecker \n 1966–1968 \n 4–26–1 \n\n\nNorm Van Brocklin \n 1968–1974 \n 39–48–3 \n\n\nMarion Campbell \n 1974–1976 \n 6–19 \n\n\nPat Peppler \n 1976 \n 3–6 \n \n\nLeeman Bennett \n 1977–1982 \n 46–41 \n\n\nDan Henning \n 1983–1986 \n 22–41–1 \n\n\nMarion Campbell \n 1987–1989 \n 11–36 \n\n\nJim Hanifan \n 1989 \n 0–4 \n \n\nJerry Glanville \n 1990–1993 \n 27–37 \n\n\nJune Jones \n 1994–1996 \n 19–29 \n\n\nDan Reeves \n 1997–2003 \n 49–59–1 \n\n\nWade Phillips \n 2003 \n 2–1 \n \n\nJim Mora \n 2004–2006 \n 26–22 \n\n\nBobby Petrino \n 2007 \n 3–10 \n \n\nEmmitt Thomas \n 2007 \n 1–2 \n \n\nMike Smith \n 2008–2014 \n 66–46 \n\n\nDan Quinn \n 2015–present \n 19–13 \n \n\n\n===Current staff===\n\n",
"Falcons' flagship radio station is WZGC 92.9 The Game. Wes Durham, son of longtime North Carolina Tar Heels voice Woody Durham, is the Falcons' play-by-play announcer, with former Atlanta Falcons QB and pro football veteran, Dave Archer serving as color commentator.\n\nIn 2014, The CW owned-and-operated station WUPA became the official television station of the Falcons, gaining rights to its preseason games, which are produced by CBS Sports.\n\nIn the regular season, the team's games are seen on Fox's O&O affiliate WAGA. When the Falcons challenge an AFC team, CBS affiliate WGCL will air those games while Sunday night games are televised on WXIA, the local NBC affiliate.\n\n===Radio affiliates===\nMap of radio affiliates.\nSource:\n\n====Georgia====\n\n\n Frequency\n\n Albany \n WSRA-AM \n 1250 AM\n\n Athens \n WRFC-AM \n 960 AM\n\n Atlanta \n WZGC-FM \n 92.9 FM\n\n Brunswick \n WSFN-AM \n 790 AM\n\n Clarkesville \n WDUN-FM \n 102.9 FM\n\n Columbus \n WDAK-AM \n 540 AM\n\n Columbus \n WBOJ \n 1270 AM\n\n Dalton \n WBLJ-AM \n 1230 AM\n\n Douglas \n WDMG-AM \n 860 AM\n\n Gainesville \n WDUN \n 550 AM\n\n Griffin \n WKEU-AM \n 1450 AM\n\n Griffin \n WKEU-FM \n 88.9 FM\n\n Hogansville \n WVCC-AM \n 720 AM\n\n Jesup \n WLOP-AM \n 1370 AM\n\n Jesup \n WIFO-FM \n 105.5 FM\n\n LaGrange \n WMGP-FM \n 98.1 FM\n\n Louisville \n WPEH-AM \n 1420 AM\n\n Louisville \n WPEH-FM \n 92.1 FM\n\n Macon \n WMAC-AM \n 940 AM\n\n Milledgeville \n WMVG-AM \n 1450 AM\n\n Newnan \n WCOH-AM \n 1400 AM\n\n Rome \n WATG-FM \n 95.7 FM\n\n Sandersville \n WJFL-FM \n 101.9 FM\n\n Savannah \n WSEG-AM \n 1400 AM\n\n Savannah \n WSEG-FM \n 104.3 FM\n\n Statesboro \n WPTB-AM \n 850 AM\n\n Swainsboro \n WJAT-AM \n 800 AM\n\n Thomaston \n WTGA-FM \n 101.1 FM\n\n Toccoa \n WNEG-AM \n 630 AM\n\n Valdosta \n WVGA \n 105.9 FM\n\n Vidalia \n WVOP-AM \n 970 AM\n\n Waycross \n WFNS-AM \n 1350 AM\n\n\n====Alabama====\n\n\n Frequency\n\n Foley \n WHEP-AM \n 1310 AM\n\n\n====Mississippi====\n\n\n Frequency\n\n Jackson \n WYAB-FM \n 103.9 FM\n\n\n====South Carolina====\n\n\n Frequency\n\n Clemson \n WCCP-FM \n 104.9 FM\n\n\n====Tennessee====\n\n\n Frequency\n\n Chattanooga \n WALV-FM \n 105.1 FM\n\n",
"* \n* \n",
"\n",
"\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Franchise history",
"Stadiums",
"Logo and uniforms",
"Rivalries",
"Statistics",
"Players",
"Coaching staff",
"Radio and television",
"See also",
"Notes and references",
"External links"
] | Atlanta Falcons |
[
"Mjölnir, the hammer of Thor, is one of the major symbols of Ásatrú.\nHeathenry is a modern Pagan new religious movement that has been active in the United States since at least the early 1970s. Although the term \"Heathenry\" is often employed to cover the entire religious movement, different Heathen groups within the United States often prefer the term \"Ásatrú\" or \"Odinism\" as self-designations.\n\nHeathenry appeared in the United States during the 1960s, at the same time as the wider emergence of modern Paganism in the United States. Among the earliest American group was the Odinist Fellowship, founded by Danish migrant Else Christensen in 1969.\n",
"Ásatrú grew steadily in the United States during the 1960s. In 1969, the Danish Odinist Else Christensen established the Odinist Fellowship from her home in Florida, U.S.A. Heavily influenced by Alexander Rud Mills' writings, she began publication of a magazine, ''The Odinist'', although this focused to a greater extent on right-wing and racialist ideas than theological ones. Stephen McNallen first founded the Viking Brotherhood in the early 1970s, before creating the Ásatrú Free Assembly (AFA) in 1976, which broke up in 1986 amid widespread political disagreements after McNallen's repudiation of neo-Nazis within the group. In the 1990s, McNallen founded the Ásatrú Folk Assembly (AFA), an ethnically oriented Heathen group headquartered in California.\n\nMeanwhile, Valgard Murray and his kindred in Arizona founded the Ásatrú Alliance (AA) in the late 1980s, which shared the AFA's perspectives on race and which published the ''Vor Tru'' newsletter. In 1987, Edred Thorsson and James Chisholm founded The Troth, which was incorporated in Texas. Taking an inclusive, non-racialist view, it soon grew into an international organisation.\n",
"In English usage, the genitive '''' \"of Æsir faith\" is often used on its own to denote adherents (both singular and plural). This term is favored by practitioners who focus on the deities of Scandinavia, although it is problematic as many Asatruar worship deities and entities other than the Æsir, such as the Vanir, Valkyries, Elves, and Dwarves. Other practitioners term their religion ''Vanatrú'', meaning \"those who honour the Vanir\" or ''Dísitrú'', meaning \"those who honour the Goddesses\", depending on their particular theological emphasis.\n\nWithin the community it is sometimes stated that the term ''Ásatrú'' pertains to groups which are not racially focused, while ''Odinism'' is the term preferred by racially oriented groups. However, in practice, there is no such neat division in terminology.\n\nThere are notable differences of emphasis between ''Ásatrú'' as practiced in the US and in Scandinavia. According to Strmiska and Sigurvinsson (2005), American Asatruar tend to prefer a more devotional form of worship and a more emotional conception of the Nordic gods than Scandinavian practitioners, reflecting the parallel tendency of highly emotional forms of Christianity prevalent in the United States.\n",
"Although deeming it impossible to calculate the exact size of the Heathen community in the US, sociologist Jeffrey Kaplan estimated that, in the mid-1990s, there were around 500 active practitioners in the country, with a further thousand individuals on the periphery of the movement. He noted that the overwhelming majority of individuals in the movement were white, male, and young. Most had at least an undergraduate degree, and worked in a mix of white collar and blue collar jobs. From her experience within the community, Snook concurred that the majority of American Heathens were male, adding also that most were also white and middle-aged, but believed that there had been a growth in the proportion of Heathen women in the US since the mid-1990s.\n\nThe Pagan Census project led by Helen A. Berger, Evan A. Leach, and Leigh S. Shaffer gained 60 responses from Heathens in the US, noting that 65% were male and 35% female, which they saw as the \"opposite\" of the rest of the country's Pagan community. The majority had a college education, but were generally less well educated than the wider Pagan community, with a lower median income than the wider Pagan community too. \nSubsequent assessments have suggested a larger support base; 10,000 to 20,000 according to McNallen, and 7,878 according to the 2014 census.\n",
"Ásatrú organizations have memberships which span the entire political and spiritual spectrum. There is a history of political controversy within organized US Ásatrú, mostly surrounding the question of how to deal with such adherents as place themselves in a context of the far right and white supremacy, notably resulting in the fragmentation of the ''Asatru Free Assembly'' in 1986.\n\nExternally, political activity on the part of Ásatrú organizations has surrounded campaigns against alleged religious discrimination, such as the call for the introduction of an Ásatrú \"emblem of belief\" by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs to parallel the Wiccan pentacle granted to the widow of Patrick Stewart in 2006. In May 2013, the \"Hammer of Thor\" was added to the list of United States Department of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers.\n\n===Folkish Ásatrú, Universalism and racialism===\n\n\nHistorically, the main dispute between the national organizations has generally centered on the interpretation of \"Nordic heritage\" as either something cultural, or as something genetic or racial. In the internal discourse within American Ásatrú, this cultural/racial divide has long been known as \"universalist\" vs. \"folkish\" Ásatrú. \n \nThe Troth takes the \"universalist\" position, claiming ''Ásatrú'' as a synonym for \"Northern European Heathenry\" taken to comprise \"many variations, names, and practices, including Theodism, Irminism, Odinism, and Anglo-Saxon Heathenry\". The Asatru Folk Assembly takes the folkish position, claiming that Ásatrú and the Germanic beliefs are ancestral in nature, and as an indigenous religion of the European Folk should only be accessed by the descendants of Europe. In the UK, Germanic Neopaganism is more commonly known as Odinism or as ''Heathenry''. This is mostly a matter of terminology, and US Ásatrú may be equated with UK Odinism for practical purposes, as is evident in the short-lived International Asatru-Odinic Alliance of folkish Ásatrú/Odinist groups.\n\nSome groups identifying as Ásatrú have been associated with national socialist and white nationalist movements. Wotansvolk for example is an explicitly racial form.\n\nMore recently, however, many Ásatrú groups have been taking a harder stance against these elements of their community. Declaration 127, so named for the corresponding stanza of the Hávamál: \"When you see misdeeds, speak out against them, and give your enemies no frið” is a collective statement denouncing and testifying disassociation with the Asatru Folk Assembly for alleged racial and sexually-discriminatory practices and beliefs signed by over 150 Ásatrú religious organizations from over 15 different nations mainly represented on Facebook.\n\n===Discrimination charges===\n\nInmates of the \"Intensive Management Unit\" at Washington State Penitentiary who are adherents of Ásatrú in 2001 were deprived of their Thor's Hammer medallions.\nIn 2007, a federal judge confirmed that Ásatrú adherents in US prisons have the right to possess a Thor’s Hammer pendant. An inmate sued the Virginia Department of Corrections after he was denied it while members of other religions were allowed their medallions.\n\nIn the Georgacarakos v. Watts case Peter N. Georgacarakos filed a pro se civil-rights complaint in the United States District Court for the District of Colorado against 19 prison officials for \"interference with the free exercise of his Ásatrú religion\" and \"discrimination on the basis of his being Ásatrú\".\n",
"\n* Germanic Neopaganism\n* Heathen holidays\n* Neopaganism in German-speaking Europe\n* Ásatrúarfélagið\n* Neopaganism in the United Kingdom\n* Heathenry in Canada\n* Norse mythology\n* Polytheistic reconstructionism\n* Odinism\n",
"\n===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n: \n:\n: \n:\n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n\n",
"\n* Paulas, Rick; How a Thor-Worshipping Religion Turned Racist, Vice Magazine, May 1, 2015 \n* Ásatrú (Germanic Paganism) – ReligionFacts\n* Asatru (Norse Heathenism) – AltReligion\n* Ásatrú (Norse Heathenism) – Religioustolerance\n* Jotun's Bane Kindred\n* Ravencast – The Only Asatru Podcast – Interviews and 101 Information\n* Theodish Belief – General information about Theodism\n* \n* On the development of ''Ásatrú'' in Australia see: \n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Terminology",
"Demographics",
"Politics and controversies",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Heathenry in the United States |
[
"\n\nAn '''ansible''' is a category of fictional device or technology capable of instantaneous or faster-than-light communication. It can send and receive messages to and from a corresponding device over any distance or obstacle whatsoever with no delay. The term ansible is broadly shared across works of several science fiction authors, settings and continuities.\n",
"Ursula K. Le Guin coined the word ''ansible'' in her 1966 novel ''Rocannon's World''. The word is a contraction of \"answerable\", as the device would allow its users to receive answers to their messages in a reasonable amount of time, even over interstellar distances. Her award-winning 1974 novel ''The Dispossessed'', a book in the Hainish Cycle, tells of the invention of the ansible.\n\nLe Guin's ansible was said to communicate \"instantaneously\", but other authors have adopted the name for devices capable only of finite-speed communication, although still faster than light.\n",
"The name of the device has since been borrowed by authors such as Orson Scott Card,\nVernor Vinge, Elizabeth Moon, Jason Jones, Kim Stanley Robinson, L.A. Graf, and Dan Simmons.\n\n=== In Le Guin's work ===\n\nIn ''The Word for World Is Forest'', Le Guin explains that in order for communication to work with any pair of ansibles, at least one \"must be on a large-mass body, the other can be anywhere in the cosmos.\"\n\nIn ''The Left Hand of Darkness'', the ansible \n\nAny ansible may be used to communicate through any other, by setting its coordinates to those of the receiving ansible. They have a limited bandwidth which only allows for at most a few hundred characters of text to be communicated in any transaction of a dialog session, and are attached to a keyboard and small display to perform text messaging.\n\n=== In Card's work ===\nOrson Scott Card's ''Ender's Game'' series uses the term \"ansible\" for his own fictitious communicator, one of the characters explaining that \"...somebody dredged the name ''ansible'' out of an old book somewhere.\" Card's description of the ansible's functions in ''Xenocide'' involves a fictional subatomic particle, the philote. In the \"Enderverse\", the two quarks inside a pi meson can be separated by an arbitrary distance while remaining connected by \"philotic rays\". This concept is similar to quantum teleportation due to entanglement. However, in reality, quark confinement prevents quarks from being separated by any observable distance. The ansible is also featured in the video game ''Advent Rising'', for which Card helped write the story.\n",
"\n* Faster-than-light\n* Interstellar communication\n* No-cloning theorem\n* Tachyon\n* Tachyonic antitelephone\n* Ansible Automation software",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Origin ",
" Use in fiction ",
"See also",
" Footnotes ",
" References "
] | Ansible |
[
"\n\n\n'''Adalbert of Prague''' (; 956 23 April 997), known in Czech by his birth name '''Vojtěch''' (), was a Bohemian missionary and Christian saint. He was the Bishop of Prague and a missionary to the Hungarians, Poles, and Prussians, who was martyred in his efforts to convert the Baltic Prussians to Christianity. He was said to be the composer of ''Bogurodzica'', the oldest known Polish hymn, but this is now thought unlikely, as he did not know the language. St. Adalbert (or St. Vojtěch; , ) was later declared the patron saint of Bohemia, Poland, Hungary and the former polity of Prussia.\n",
"\n===Early Years===\nBorn as ''Vojtěch'' in 952 or ca. 956 in Libice, he belonged to the Slavnik clan, one of the two most powerful families in Bohemia. Bohemian priest Cosmas of Prague (1045–1125) recorded events from his life. His father was Slavník (d. 978–981), a duke ruling a province centred at Libice. His mother was Střezislava (d. 985–987), according to some belonging to the Přemyslid dynasty. He had five brothers: Soběslav, Spytimír, Dobroslav, Pořej, and Čáslav. Cosmas also refers to Radim (later Gaudentius) as a brother; he is believed to have been a half-brother of his father's liaison with another woman, or a near friend. Having survived a grave illness in childhood, his parents decided to dedicate him to the service of God. Adalbert was well educated, having studied for approximately ten years (970-80) in Magdeburg under the tutelage of St. Adalbert of Magdeburg. The young Vojtěch took his tutor's name \"Adalbert\" at his Confirmation.\n\n===Episcopacy===\nMonument to St. Adalbert and his brother Gaudentius, Libice nad Cidlinou, Czech Republic.\nAdalbert on a seal of the chapter of Gniezno Cathedral (Gnesen) \nIn 981 St. Adalbert of Magdeburg died, and his young protege Adalbert returned to Bohemia. Later Bishop Dietmar of Prague ordained him a Roman Catholic priest. In 982, Bishop Dietmar died, and Adalbert, despite being under canonical age, was chosen to succeed him as Bishop of Prague. Amiable and somewhat worldly, he was not expected to trouble the secular powers by making excessive claims for the Church. Although Adalbert was from a wealthy family, he avoided comfort and luxury, and was noted for his charity and austerity. After six years of prayer and preaching, he had made little headway in evangelizing the Bohemians, who maintained deeply embedded pagan beliefs.\n\nAdalbert opposed the participation of Christians in the slave trade and complained of polygamy and idolatry, which were common among the people. Once he started to propose reforms he was met with opposition from both the secular powers and the clergy. His family refused to support Duke Boleslaus in an unsuccessful war against Poland. Adalbert was no longer welcome and eventually forced into exile. In 990 he went to Rome. He lived as a hermit at the Benedictine monastery of Saint Alexis. Five years later, Boleslaus requested that the Pope send Adalbert back to Prague, in hopes of securing his family's support. Pope John XV agreed, with the understanding that Adalbert was free to leave Prague if he continued to encounter entrenched resistance. Adalbert returned as bishop of Prague, where he was initially received with demonstrations of apparent joy. and founded a monastery in Břevnov near the City, it being the first monastery in the Czech territory.\n\nIn 995, the Slavniks' former rivalry with the Přemyslids, who were allied with the powerful Bohemian clan of the Vršovcis, resulted in the storming of the Slavnik town of Libice nad Cidlinou, led by the Přemyslid Boleslaus II the Pious. During the struggle four or five of Adalbert's brothers were killed. The Zličan principality became part of the Přemyslids' estate. Adalbert unsuccessfully attempted to protect a noblewoman caught in adultery. She had fled to a convent, where she was killed. In upholding the right of sanctuary, Bishop Adalbert responded by excommunicating the murderers. Butler suggests that the incident was orchestrated by enemies of his family.\n\nAfter this, Adalbert could not safely stay in Bohemia and escaped from Prague. Strachkvas was eventually appointed to be his successor. However, Strachkvas suddenly died during the liturgy at which he was to accede to his episcopal office in Prague. The cause of his death are still ambiguous. The Pope directed Adalbert to resume his see, but believing that he would not be allowed back, he requested a brief as an itinerant missionary.\n\nAdalbert then traveled to Hungary and probably baptized Géza of Hungary and his son Stephen in Esztergom. Then he went to Poland where he was cordially welcomed by then-Duke Boleslaus I and installed as Bishop of Gniezno.\n\n===Mission and Martyrdom in Prussia===\nPrussians, Gniezno Doors panel\n\nAdalbert again relinquished his diocese, namely that of Gniezno, and set out as a missionary to preach to the inhabitants near Prussia. Bolesław I, Duke (and, later, King) of Poland, sent soldiers with Adalbert on his mission to the Prussians. The Bishop and his companions, including his half-brother Radim (Gaudentius), entered Prussian territory and traveled along the coast of the Baltic Sea to Gdańsk.\n\nSuccess attended his efforts at first, but his imperious manner in commanding the people to abandon paganism irritated them, and at the instigation of one of the pagan priests he was murdered on 23 April 997 on the Baltic Sea coast east of Truso (currently the city of Elbląg) or near Tenkitten and Fischhausen. It is recorded that his body was bought back for its weight in gold by King Boleslaus I of Poland.\n",
"Silver coffin of St. Adalbert, Cathedral in Gniezno\nA few years after his martyrdom, Adalbert was canonized as '''St. Adalbert of Prague.''' His life was written in ''Vita Sancti Adalberti Pragensis'' by various authors, the earliest being traced to imperial Aachen and the Bishop of Liège, Notger von Lüttich, although it was previously assumed that the Roman monk John Canaparius wrote the first ''Vita'' in 999. Another famous biographer of St. Adalbert was St. Bruno of Querfurt who wrote a hagiography of him in 1001-4.\n\nNotably, the Přemyslid rulers of Bohemia initially refused to ransom St. Adalbert's body from the Prussians who murdered him, and therefore it was purchased by Poles. This fact may be explained by the Saint belonging to the Slavniks family which was rival to the Přemyslids. Thus St. Adalbert's bones were preserved in Gniezno, which assisted Boleslaus I of Poland in increasing Polish political and diplomatic power in Europe.\n\nAccording to Bohemian accounts, in 1039 the Bohemian Duke Břetislav I looted the bones of St. Adalbert from Gniezno in a raid and translated them to Prague. According to Polish accounts, however, he stole the wrong relics, namely those of St. Gaudentius, while the Poles concealed St. Adalbert's relics, and consequently remain in Gniezno. In 1127 his severed head, which was not in the original purchase according to ''Roczniki Polskie'', was discovered and translated to Gniezno. In 1928, one of the arms of St. Adalbert, which Bolesław I had given to Holy Roman Emperor Otto III in 1000, was added to the bones preserved in Gniezno. Therefore, today St. Adalbert has two elaborate shrines in the Prague Cathedral and Royal Cathedral of Gniezno, each of which claims to possess his relics, but which of their bones are his authentic relics is unknown. For example, pursuant to both claims the Saint has two skulls. The one in Gniezno was stolen in 1923.\n\nThe massive bronze doors of Gniezno Cathedral, dating from around 1175, are decorated with eighteen reliefs of scenes from the Saint's life. They are the only Romanesque ecclesiastical doors in Europe depicting a cycle illustrating the life of a saint, and therefore are a precious relic documenting Adalbert's martyrdom.\n\n23 April 1997 was the one thousandth anniversary of St. Adalbert's martyrdom. It was commemorated in Poland, Czech Republic, Germany, Russia, and other nations. Representatives of Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Evangelical churches traveled on a pilgrimage to the Saint's tomb located in Gniezno. Pope St. John Paul II visited the cathedral and celebrated a liturgy there in which heads of seven European nations and approximately one million faithful participated.\n\nA ten-meter cross was erected near the village of Beregovoe (formerly Tenkitten), Kaliningrad Oblast where St. Adalbert is thought to have been martyred by the Prussians.\n\n===Churches and parishes named for St. Adalbert===\n\n",
"\n\n* History of the Czech lands in the Middle Ages\n* History of Poland (966–1385)\n* Congress of Gniezno\n* Gniezno Doors\n* St. Adalbert of Magdeburg\n* Statue of Adalbert of Prague, Charles Bridge\n",
"\n",
"*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*Donald Attwater and Catherine R. John, ''The Penguin Dictionary of Saints'', Third Edition (New York: Penguin Books, 1993); .\n",
" \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Veneration and Relics",
"See also",
"References",
"Sources",
"External links"
] | Adalbert of Prague |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Ælfheah''' (c. 953 – 19 April 1012) was an Anglo-Saxon Bishop of Winchester, later Archbishop of Canterbury. He became an anchorite before being elected abbot of Bath Abbey. His reputation for piety and sanctity led to his promotion to the episcopate, and eventually, to his becoming archbishop. Ælfheah furthered the cult of Dunstan and also encouraged learning. He was captured by Viking raiders in 1011 and killed by them the following year after refusing to allow himself to be ransomed. Ælfheah was canonised as a saint in 1078. Thomas Becket, a later Archbishop of Canterbury, prayed to him just before his own murder in Canterbury Cathedral.\n",
"Purportedly born in Weston on the outskirts of Bath, Ælfheah became a monk early in life. His birth took place around 953. He first entered the monastery of Deerhurst, but then moved to Bath, where he became an anchorite. He was noted for his piety and austerity, and rose to become abbot of Bath Abbey. The 12th century chronicler William of Malmesbury recorded that Ælfheah was a monk and prior at Glastonbury Abbey, but this is not accepted by all historians. Indications are that Ælfheah became abbot at Bath by 982, perhaps as early as around 977. He perhaps shared authority with his predecessor Æscwig after 968.\n\nProbably due to the influence of Dunstan, the Archbishop of Canterbury (959–988), Ælfheah was elected Bishop of Winchester in 984, and was consecrated on 19 October that year. While bishop he was largely responsible for the construction of a large organ in the cathedral, audible from over a mile (1600 m) away and said to require more than 24 men to operate. He also built and enlarged the city's churches, and promoted the cult of Swithun and his own predecessor, Æthelwold of Winchester. One act promoting Æthelwold's cult was the translation of Æthelwold's body to a new tomb in the cathedral at Winchester, which Ælfheah presided over on 10 September 996.\n\nFollowing a Viking raid in 994, a peace treaty was agreed with one of the raiders, Olaf Tryggvason. Besides receiving danegeld, Olaf converted to Christianity and undertook never to raid or fight the English again. Ælfheah may have played a part in the treaty negotiations, and it is certain that he confirmed Olaf in his new faith.\n\nIn 1006 Ælfheah succeeded Ælfric as Archbishop of Canterbury, taking Swithun's head with him as a relic for the new location. He went to Rome in 1007 to receive his pallium—symbol of his status as an archbishop—from Pope John XVIII, but was robbed during his journey. While at Canterbury he promoted the cult of Dunstan, ordering the writing of the second ''Life of Dunstan'', which Adelard of Ghent composed between 1006 and 1011. He also introduced new practices into the liturgy, and was instrumental in the Witenagemot's recognition of Wulfsige of Sherborne as a saint in about 1012.\n\nÆlfheah sent Ælfric of Eynsham to Cerne Abbey to take charge of its monastic school. He was present at the council of May 1008 at which Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York, preached his ''Sermo Lupi ad Anglos'' (''The Sermon of the Wolf to the English''), castigating the English for their moral failings and blaming the latter for the tribulations afflicting the country.\n\nIn 1011 the Danes again raided England, and from 8–29 September they laid siege to Canterbury. Aided by the treachery of Ælfmaer, whose life Ælfheah had once saved, the raiders succeeded in sacking the city. Ælfheah was taken prisoner and held captive for seven months. Godwine (Bishop of Rochester), Leofrun (abbess of St Mildrith's), and the king's reeve, Ælfweard were captured also, but the abbot of St Augustine's Abbey, Ælfmær, managed to escape. Canterbury Cathedral was plundered and burned by the Danes following Ælfheah's capture.\n",
"Ælfheah refused to allow a ransom to be paid for his freedom, and as a result was killed on 19 April 1012 at Greenwich (then in Kent, now part of London), reputedly on the site of St Alfege's Church. The account of Ælfheah's death appears in the E version of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'': \n\nÆlfheah was the first Archbishop of Canterbury to die a violent death. A contemporary report tells that Thorkell the Tall attempted to save Ælfheah from the mob about to kill him by offering everything he owned except for his ship, in exchange for Ælfheah's life; Thorkell's presence is not mentioned in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', however. Some sources record that the final blow, with the back of an axe, was delivered as an act of kindness by a Christian convert known as \"Thrum.\" Ælfheah was buried in St Paul's Cathedral. In 1023 his body was moved by King Cnut to Canterbury, with great ceremony. Thorkell the Tall was appalled at the brutality of his fellow raiders, and switched sides to the English king Æthelred the Unready following Ælfheah's death.\n",
"Pope Gregory VII canonised Ælfheah in 1078, with a feast day of 19 April. Lanfranc, the first post-Conquest archbishop, was dubious about some of the saints venerated at Canterbury. He was persuaded of Ælfheah's sanctity, but Ælfheah and Augustine of Canterbury were the only pre-conquest Anglo-Saxon archbishops kept on Canterbury's calendar of saints. Ælfheah's shrine, which had become neglected, was rebuilt and expanded in the early 12th century under Anselm of Canterbury, who was instrumental in retaining Ælfheah's name in the church calendar. After the 1174 fire in Canterbury Cathedral, Ælfheah's remains together with those of Dunstan were placed around the high altar, at which Thomas Becket is said to have commended his life into Ælfheah's care shortly before his martyrdom during the Becket controversy. The new shrine was sealed in lead, and was north of the high altar, sharing the honour with Dunstan's shrine, which was located south of the high altar. A ''Life of Saint Ælfheah'' in prose and verse was written by a Canterbury monk named Osbern, at Lanfranc's request. The prose version has survived, but the ''Life'' is very much a hagiography: many of the stories it contains have obvious Biblical parallels, making them suspect as a historical record.\n\nIn the late medieval period, Ælfheah's feast day was celebrated in Scandinavia, perhaps because of the saint's connection with Cnut. Few church dedications to him are known, with most of them occurring in Kent and one each in London and Winchester; as well as St Alfege's Church in Greenwich, a nearby hospital (1931–1968) was named after him. In the town of Solihull in the West Midlands St Alphege Church is dedicated to Ælfheah dating back to approximately 1277. In 1929 a new church in Bath was dedicated to Ælfheah, under the name Alphege, designed by Giles Gilbert Scott in homage to the ancient Roman church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin.\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n*\n\n",
"* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Death",
"Veneration",
"Notes",
"Citations",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Ælfheah of Canterbury |
[
"\nIn mathematics, an '''associative algebra''' is an algebraic structure with compatible operations of addition, multiplication (assumed to be associative), and a scalar multiplication by elements in some field. The addition and multiplication operations together give ''A'' the structure of a ring; the addition and scalar multiplication operations together give ''A'' the structure of a vector space over ''K''. In this article we will also use the term ''K''-algebra''' to mean an associative algebra over the field ''K''. A standard first example of a ''K''-algebra is a ring of square matrices over a field ''K'', with the usual matrix multiplication. \n\nIn this article associative algebras are assumed to have a multiplicative unit, denoted 1; they are sometimes called '''unital associative algebras''' for clarification. In some areas of mathematics this assumption is not made, and we will call such structures non-unital associative algebras. We will also assume that all rings are unital, and all ring homomorphisms are unital.\n\nMany authors consider the more general concept of an associative algebra over a commutative ring ''R'', instead of a field: An '''''R''-algebra''' is an ''R''-module with an associative ''R''-bilinear binary operation, which also contains a multiplicative identity. For examples of this concept, if ''S'' is any ring with center ''C'', then ''S'' is an associative ''C''-algebra.\n\n\n",
"\nLet ''R'' be a fixed commutative ring (so ''R'' could be a field). An '''associative ''R''-algebra''' (or more simply, an '''''R''-algebra''') is an additive abelian group ''A'' which has the structure of both a ring and an ''R''-module in such a way that the scalar multiplication satisfies\n:\nfor all ''r'' ∈ ''R'' and ''x'', ''y'' ∈ ''A''. Furthermore, ''A'' is assumed to be unital, which is to say it contains an element 1 such that\n:\nfor all ''x'' ∈ ''A''. Note that such an element 1 must be unique.\n\nIn other words, ''A'' is an ''R''-module together with (1) an ''R''-bilinear map ''A'' × ''A'' → ''A'', called the multiplication, and (2) the multiplicative identity, such that the multiplication is associative:\n:\nfor all ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' in ''A''. (Technical note: the multiplicative identity is a datum, while associativity is a property. By the uniqueness of the multiplicative identity, \"unitarity\" is often treated like a property.) If one drops the requirement for the associativity, then one obtains a non-associative algebra.\n\nIf ''A'' itself is commutative (as a ring) then it is called a '''commutative ''R''-algebra'''.\n\n=== As a monoid object in the category of modules ===\nThe definition is equivalent to saying that a unital associative ''R''-algebra is a monoid object in '''''R''-Mod''' (the monoidal category of ''R''-modules). By definition, a ring is a monoid object in the category of abelian groups; thus, the notion of an associative algebra is obtained by replacing the category of abelian groups with the category of modules.\n\nPushing this idea further, some authors have introduced a \"generalized ring\" as a monoid object in some other category that behaves like the category of modules. Indeed, this reinterpretation allows one to avoid making an explicit reference to elements of an algebra ''A''. For example, the associativity can be expressed as follows. By the universal property of a tensor product of modules, the multiplication (the ''R''-bilinear map) corresponds to a unique ''R''-linear map\n:.\nThe associativity then refers to the identity:\n:\n\n===From ring homomorphisms===\nAn associative algebra amounts to a ring homomorphism whose image lies in the center. Indeed, starting with a ring ''A'' and a ring homomorphism whose image lies in the center of ''A'', we can make ''A'' an ''R''-algebra by defining\n:\nfor all ''r'' ∈ ''R'' and ''x'' ∈ ''A''. If ''A'' is an ''R''-algebra, taking ''x'' = 1, the same formula in turn defines a ring homomorphism whose image lies in the center.\n\nIf ''A'' is commutative then the center of ''A'' is equal to ''A'', so that a commutative ''R''-algebra can be defined simply as a homomorphism of commutative rings.\n\nThe ring homomorphism η appearing in the above is often called a structure map. In the commutative case, one can consider the category whose objects are ring homomorphisms ''R'' → ''A''; i.e., commutative ''R''-algebras and whose morphisms are ring homomorphisms ''A'' → ''A'' that are under ''R''; i.e., ''R'' → ''A'' → ''A'' is ''R'' → ''A'' (i.e., the coslice category of the category of commutative rings under ''R''.) The prime spectrum functor Spec then determines an anti-equivalence of this category to the category of affine schemes over Spec ''R''.\n\nHow to weaken the commutativity assumption is a subject matter of noncommutative algebraic geometry and, more recently, of derived algebraic geometry. See also: generic matrix ring.\n",
"A homomorphism between two ''R''-algebras is an ''R''-linear ring homomorphism. Explicitly, is an '''associative algebra homomorphism''' if\n:\n:\n:\n:\n\nThe class of all ''R''-algebras together with algebra homomorphisms between them form a category, sometimes denoted '''''R''-Alg'''.\n\nThe subcategory of commutative ''R''-algebras can be characterized as the coslice category ''R''/'''CRing''' where '''CRing''' is the category of commutative rings.\n",
"The most basic example is a ring itself; it is an algebra over its center or any subring lying in the center. In particular, any commutative ring is an algebra over any of its subrings. Other examples abound both from algebra and other fields of mathematics.\n\n'''Algebra'''\n*Any ring ''A'' can be considered as a '''Z'''-algebra. The unique ring homomorphism from '''Z''' to ''A'' is determined by the fact that it must send 1 to the identity in A. Therefore, rings and '''Z'''-algebras are equivalent concepts, in the same way that abelian groups and '''Z'''-modules are equivalent. \n*Any ring of characteristic ''n'' is a ('''Z'''/''n'''''Z''')-algebra in the same way.\n*Given an ''R''-module ''M'', the endomorphism ring of ''M'', denoted End''R''(''M'') is an ''R''-algebra by defining (''r''·φ)(''x'') = ''r''·φ(''x'').\n*Any ring of matrices with coefficients in a commutative ring ''R'' forms an ''R''-algebra under matrix addition and multiplication. This coincides with the previous example when ''M'' is a finitely-generated, free ''R''-module.\n* The square ''n''-by-''n'' matrices with entries from the field ''K'' form an associative algebra over ''K''. In particular, the 2 × 2 real matrices form an associative algebra useful in plane mapping.\n* The complex numbers form a 2-dimensional associative algebra over the real numbers.\n* The quaternions form a 4-dimensional associative algebra over the reals (but not an algebra over the complex numbers, since the complex numbers are not in the center of the quaternions).\n* The polynomials with real coefficients form an associative algebra over the reals.\n* Every polynomial ring ''R''''x''1, ..., ''x''''n'' is a commutative ''R''-algebra. In fact, this is the free commutative ''R''-algebra on the set {''x''1, ..., ''x''''n''}.\n* The free ''R''-algebra on a set ''E'' is an algebra of polynomials with coefficients in ''R'' and noncommuting indeterminates taken from the set ''E''.\n*The tensor algebra of an ''R''-module is naturally an ''R''-algebra. The same is true for quotients such as the exterior and symmetric algebras. Categorically speaking, the functor which maps an ''R''-module to its tensor algebra is left adjoint to the functor which sends an ''R''-algebra to its underlying ''R''-module (forgetting the ring structure).\n* Given a commutative ring ''R'' and any ring ''A'' the tensor product ''R''⊗'''Z'''''A'' can be given the structure of an ''R''-algebra by defining ''r''·(''s''⊗''a'') = (''rs''⊗''a''). The functor which sends ''A'' to ''R''⊗'''Z'''''A'' is left adjoint to the functor which sends an ''R''-algebra to its underlying ring (forgetting the module structure).\n\n'''Representation theory'''\n* The universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra is an associative algebra that can be used to study the given Lie algebra.\n* If ''G'' is a group and ''R'' is a commutative ring, the set of all functions from ''G'' to ''R'' with finite support form an ''R''-algebra with the convolution as multiplication. It is called the group algebra of ''G''. The construction is the starting point for the application to the study of (discrete) groups.\n* If ''G'' is an algebraic group (e.g., semisimple complex Lie group), then the coordinate ring of ''G'' is the Hopf algebra ''A'' corresponding to ''G''. Many structures of ''G'' translate to those of ''A''.\n\n'''Analysis'''\n* Given any Banach space ''X'', the continuous linear operators ''A'' : ''X'' → ''X'' form an associative algebra (using composition of operators as multiplication); this is a Banach algebra.\n* Given any topological space ''X'', the continuous real- or complex-valued functions on ''X'' form a real or complex associative algebra; here the functions are added and multiplied pointwise.\n* The set of semimartingales defined on the filtered probability space (Ω,''F'',(''F''''t'')''t'' ≥ 0,P) forms a ring under stochastic integration.\n* The Weyl algebra\n\n'''Geometry and combinatorics'''\n* The Clifford algebras, which are useful in geometry and physics.\n* Incidence algebras of locally finite partially ordered sets are associative algebras considered in combinatorics.\n",
";Subalgebras: A subalgebra of an ''R''-algebra ''A'' is a subset of ''A'' which is both a subring and a submodule of ''A''. That is, it must be closed under addition, ring multiplication, scalar multiplication, and it must contain the identity element of ''A''.\n;Quotient algebras: Let ''A'' be an ''R''-algebra. Any ring-theoretic ideal ''I'' in ''A'' is automatically an ''R''-module since ''r''·''x'' = (''r''1''A'')''x''. This gives the quotient ring ''A''/''I'' the structure of an ''R''-module and, in fact, an ''R''-algebra. It follows that any ring homomorphic image of ''A'' is also an ''R''-algebra.\n;Direct products: The direct product of a family of ''R''-algebras is the ring-theoretic direct product. This becomes an ''R''-algebra with the obvious scalar multiplication.\n;Free products: One can form a free product of ''R''-algebras in a manner similar to the free product of groups. The free product is the coproduct in the category of ''R''-algebras.\n;Tensor products: The tensor product of two ''R''-algebras is also an ''R''-algebra in a natural way. See tensor product of algebras for more details.\n",
"\nAn associative algebra over ''K'' is given by a ''K''-vector space ''A'' endowed with a bilinear map ''A''×''A''→''A'' having 2 inputs (multiplicator and multiplicand) and one output (product), as well as a morphism ''K''→''A'' identifying the scalar multiples of the multiplicative identity. If the bilinear map ''A''×''A''→''A'' is reinterpreted as a linear map (i. e., morphism in the category of ''K''-vector spaces) ''A''⊗''A''→''A'' (by the universal property of the tensor product), then we can view an associative algebra over ''K'' as a ''K''-vector space ''A'' endowed with two morphisms (one of the form ''A''⊗''A''→''A'' and one of the form ''K''→''A'') satisfying certain conditions which boil down to the algebra axioms. These two morphisms can be dualized using categorial duality by reversing all arrows in the commutative diagrams which describe the algebra axioms; this defines the structure of a coalgebra.\n\nThere is also an abstract notion of F-coalgebra, where ''F'' is a functor. This is vaguely related to the notion of coalgebra discussed above.\n",
"\nA representation of an algebra ''A'' is an algebra homomorphism ρ: ''A'' → End(''V'') from ''A'' to the endomorphism algebra of some vector space (or module) ''V''. The property of ρ being an algebra homomorphism means that ρ preserves the multiplicative operation (that is, ρ(''xy'')=ρ(''x'')ρ(''y'') for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''A''), and that ρ sends the unity of ''A'' to the unity of End(''V'') (that is, to the identity endomorphism of ''V'').\n\nIf ''A'' and ''B'' are two algebras, and ρ: ''A'' → End(''V'') and τ: ''B'' → End(''W'') are two representations, then there is a (canonical) representation ''A B'' → End(''V W'') of the tensor product algebra ''A B'' on the vector space ''V W''. However, there is no natural way of defining a tensor product of two representations of a single associative algebra in such a way that the result is still a representation of that same algebra (not of its tensor product with itself), without somehow imposing additional conditions. Here, by ''tensor product of representations'', the usual meaning is intended: the result should be a linear representation of the same algebra on the product vector space. Imposing such additional structure typically leads to the idea of a Hopf algebra or a Lie algebra, as demonstrated below.\n\n===Motivation for a Hopf algebra===\nConsider, for example, two representations and . One might try to form a tensor product representation according to how it acts on the product vector space, so that\n\n:\n\nHowever, such a map would not be linear, since one would have\n\n:\n\nfor ''k'' ∈ ''K''. One can rescue this attempt and restore linearity by imposing additional structure, by defining an algebra homomorphism Δ: ''A'' → ''A'' ⊗ ''A'', and defining the tensor product representation as\n\n:\n\nSuch a homomorphism Δ is called a comultiplication if it satisfies certain axioms. The resulting structure is called a bialgebra. To be consistent with the definitions of the associative algebra, the coalgebra must be co-associative, and, if the algebra is unital, then the co-algebra must be co-unital as well. A Hopf algebra is a bialgebra with an additional piece of structure (the so-called antipode), which allows not only to define the tensor product of two representations, but also the Hom module of two representations (again, similarly to how it is done in the representation theory of groups).\n\n===Motivation for a Lie algebra===\n\nOne can try to be more clever in defining a tensor product. Consider, for example,\n\n:\n\nso that the action on the tensor product space is given by\n\n:.\n\nThis map is clearly linear in ''x'', and so it does not have the problem of the earlier definition. However, it fails to preserve multiplication:\n\n:.\n\nBut, in general, this does not equal\n\n:.\n\nThis shows that this definition of a tensor product is too naive; the obvious fix is to define it such that it is antisymmetric, so that the middle two terms cancel. This leads to the concept of a Lie algebra.\n",
"\nSome authors use the term \"associative algebra\" to refer to structures which do not necessarily have a multiplicative identity, and hence consider homomorphisms which are not necessarily unital. \n\nAn example of a non-unital associative algebra is given by the set of all functions ''f'': '''R''' → '''R''' whose limit as ''x'' nears infinity is zero.\n",
"* Abstract algebra\n* Algebraic structure\n* Algebra over a field\n",
"\n",
"* \n* James Byrnie Shaw (1907) A Synopsis of Linear Associative Algebra, link from Cornell University Historical Math Monographs.\n* Ross Street (1998) '' Quantum Groups: an entrée to modern algebra'', an overview of index-free notation.\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Definition ",
"Algebra homomorphisms",
"Examples",
"Constructions",
"Coalgebras",
"Representations",
"Non-unital algebras",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References"
] | Associative algebra |
[
"In mathematics, the '''axiom of regularity''' (also known as the '''axiom of foundation''') is an axiom of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory that states that every non-empty set ''A'' contains an element that is disjoint from ''A''. In first-order logic, the axiom reads:\n: .\nThe axiom implies that no set is an element of itself, and that there is no infinite sequence (''an'') such that ''ai+1'' is an element of ''ai'' for all ''i''. With the axiom of dependent choice (which is a weakened form of the axiom of choice), this result can be reversed: if there are no such infinite sequences, then the axiom of regularity is true. Hence, the axiom of regularity is equivalent, given the axiom of dependent choice, to the alternative axiom that there are no downward infinite membership chains.\n\nThe axiom of regularity was introduced by ; it was adopted in a formulation closer to the one found in contemporary textbooks by . Virtually all results in the branches of mathematics based on set theory hold even in the absence of regularity; see chapter 3 of . However, regularity makes some properties of ordinals easier to prove; and it not only allows induction to be done on well-ordered sets but also on proper classes that are well-founded relational structures such as the lexicographical ordering on \n\nGiven the other axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the axiom of regularity is equivalent to the axiom of induction. The axiom of induction tends to be used in place of the axiom of regularity in intuitionistic theories (ones that do not accept the law of the excluded middle), where the two axioms are not equivalent.\n\nIn addition to omitting the axiom of regularity, non-standard set theories have indeed postulated the existence of sets that are elements of themselves.\n",
"\n===No set is an element of itself===\nLet ''A'' be a set, and apply the axiom of regularity to {''A''}, which is a set by the axiom of pairing. We see that there must be an element of {''A''} which is disjoint from {''A''}. Since the only element of {''A''} is ''A'', it must be that ''A'' is disjoint from {''A''}. So, since ''A'' ∈ {''A''}, we cannot have ''A'' ∈ ''A'' (by the definition of disjoint).\n\n===No infinite descending sequence of sets exists===\nSuppose, to the contrary, that there is a function, ''f'', on the natural numbers with ''f''(''n''+1) an element of ''f''(''n'') for each ''n''. Define ''S'' = {''f''(''n''): ''n'' a natural number}, the range of ''f'', which can be seen to be a set from the axiom schema of replacement. Applying the axiom of regularity to ''S'', let ''B'' be an element of ''S'' which is disjoint from ''S''. By the definition of ''S'', ''B'' must be ''f''(''k'') for some natural number ''k''. However, we are given that ''f''(''k'') contains ''f''(''k''+1) which is also an element of ''S''. So ''f''(''k''+1) is in the intersection of ''f''(''k'') and ''S''. This contradicts the fact that they are disjoint sets. Since our supposition led to a contradiction, there must not be any such function, ''f''.\n\nThe nonexistence of a set containing itself can be seen as a special case where the sequence is infinite and constant.\n\nNotice that this argument only applies to functions ''f'' that can be represented as sets as opposed to undefinable classes. The hereditarily finite sets, Vω, satisfy the axiom of regularity (and all other axioms of ZFC except the axiom of infinity). So if one forms a non-trivial ultrapower of Vω, then it will also satisfy the axiom of regularity. The resulting model will contain elements, called non-standard natural numbers, that satisfy the definition of natural numbers in that model but are not really natural numbers. They are fake natural numbers which are \"larger\" than any actual natural number. This model will contain infinite descending sequences of elements. For example, suppose ''n'' is a non-standard natural number, then and , and so on. For any actual natural number ''k'', . This is an unending descending sequence of elements. But this sequence is not definable in the model and thus not a set. So no contradiction to regularity can be proved.\n\n===Simpler set-theoretic definition of the ordered pair===\nThe axiom of regularity enables defining the ordered pair (''a'',''b'') as ''a'',''a'',''b''. See ordered pair for specifics. This definition eliminates one pair of braces from the canonical Kuratowski definition (''a'',''b'') = .\n\n=== Every set has an ordinal rank ===\nThis was actually the original form of von Neumann's axiomatization.\n\n=== For every two sets, only one can be an element of the other ===\nLet ''X'' and ''Y'' be sets. Then apply the axiom of regularity to the set {''X'',''Y''}. We see there must be an element of {''X'',''Y''} which is also disjoint from it. It must be either ''X'' or ''Y''. By the definition of disjoint then, we must have either ''Y'' is not an element of ''X'' or vice versa.\n",
"Let the non-empty set ''S'' be a counter-example to the axiom of regularity; that is, every element of ''S'' has a non-empty intersection with ''S''. We define a binary relation ''R'' on ''S'' by , which is entire by assumption. Thus, by the axiom of dependent choice, there is some sequence (''an'') in ''S'' satisfying ''anRan+1'' for all ''n'' in '''N'''. As this is an infinite descending chain, we arrive at a contradiction and so, no such ''S'' exists.\n",
"Regularity was shown to be relatively consistent with the rest of ZF by and , meaning that if ZF without regularity is consistent, then ZF (with regularity) is also consistent. For his proof in modern notation see for instance.\n\nThe axiom of regularity was also shown to be independent from the other axioms of ZF(C), assuming they are consistent. The result was announced by Paul Bernays in 1941, although he did not publish a proof until 1954. The proof involves (and led to the study of) Rieger-Bernays permutation models (or method), which were used for other proofs of independence for non-well-founded systems ( and ).\n",
"Naive set theory (the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension and the axiom of extensionality) is inconsistent due to Russell's paradox. In early formalizations of sets, mathematicians and logicians have avoided that contradiction by replacing the axiom schema of comprehension with the much weaker axiom schema of separation. However, this step alone takes one to theories of sets which are considered too weak. So some of the power of comprehension was added back via the other existence axioms of ZF set theory (pairing, union, powerset, replacement, and infinity) which may be regarded as special cases of comprehension. So far, these axioms do not seem to lead to any contradiction. Subsequently, the axiom of choice and the axiom of regularity were added to exclude models with some undesirable properties. These two axioms are known to be relatively consistent.\n\nIn the presence of the axiom schema of separation, Russell's paradox becomes a proof that there is no set of all sets. The axiom of regularity (with the axiom of pairing) also prohibits such a universal set, however this prohibition is redundant when added to the rest of ZF. If the ZF axioms without regularity were already inconsistent, then adding regularity would not make them consistent.\n\nThe existence of Quine atoms (sets that satisfy the formula equation ''x'' = {''x''}, i.e. have themselves as their only elements) is consistent with the theory obtained by removing the axiom of regularity from ZFC. Various non-wellfounded set theories allow \"safe\" circular sets, such as Quine atoms, without becoming inconsistent by means of Russell's paradox.\n",
"In ZF it can be proven that the class , called the von Neumann universe, is equal to the class of all sets. This statement is even equivalent to the axiom of regularity (if we work in ZF with this axiom omitted). From any model which does not satisfy axiom of regularity, a model which satisfies it can be constructed by taking only sets in .\n\n wrote that \"The idea of rank is a descendant of Russell's concept of ''type''\". Comparing ZF with type theory, Alasdair Urquhart wrote that \"Zermelo's system has the notational advantage of not containing any explicitly typed variables, although in fact it can be seen as having an implicit type structure built into it, at least if the axiom of regularity is included. The details of this implicit typing are spelled out in #|Zermelo 1930, and again in a well-known article of George Boolos #|Boolos 1971.\" \n\n went further and claimed that:\n\n\n\nIn the same paper, Scott shows that an axiomatic system based on the inherent properties of the cumulative hierarchy turns out to be equivalent to ZF, including regularity.\n",
"\nThe concept of well-foundedness and rank of a set were both introduced by Dmitry Mirimanoff (1917) cf. and . Mirimanoff called a set ''x'' \"regular\" (French: \"ordinaire\") if every descending chain ''x'' ∋ ''x1'' ∋ ''x2'' ∋ ... is finite. Mirimanoff however did not consider his notion of regularity (and well-foundedness) as an axiom to be observed by all sets ; in later papers Mirimanoff also explored what are now called non-well-founded sets (\"extraordinaire\" in Mirimanoff's terminology) .\n\n and pointed out that non-well-founded sets are superfluous (on p. 404 in van Heijenoort's translation) and in the same publication von Neumann gives an axiom (p. 412 in translation) which excludes some, but not all, non-well-founded sets . In a subsequent publication, gave the following axiom (rendered in modern notation by A. Rieger):\n\n: .\n",
"*Non-well-founded set theory\n",
"\n* \n* \n* reprinted in \n*\n*\n*\n* \n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* \n* \n*\n* \n* Reprinted in ''From Frege to Gödel'', van Heijenoort, 1967, in English translation by Stefan Bauer-Mengelberg, pp. 291–301.\n*\n* \n*; translation in \n*\n*\n*; translation in \n",
"*https://web.archive.org/web/20021118032213/http://www.trinity.edu/cbrown/topics_in_logic/sets/sets.html contains an informative description of the axiom of regularity under the section on Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory.\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Elementary implications of regularity",
"The axiom of dependent choice and no infinite descending sequence of sets implies regularity",
" Regularity and the rest of ZF(C) axioms ",
" Regularity and Russell's paradox ",
" Regularity, the cumulative hierarchy, and types ",
" History ",
"See also",
" References ",
"External links"
] | Axiom of regularity |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''AIX''' ('''Advanced Interactive eXecutive''', pronounced ) is a series of proprietary Unix operating systems developed and sold by IBM for several of its computer platforms. Originally released for the IBM 6150 RISC workstation, AIX now supports or has supported a wide variety of hardware platforms, including the IBM RS/6000 series and later POWER and PowerPC-based systems, IBM System i, System/370 mainframes, PS/2 personal computers, and the Apple Network Server.\n\nAIX is based on UNIX System V with 4.3BSD-compatible extensions. It is one of six commercial operating systems that have versions certified to The Open Group's UNIX 03 standard (the others being macOS, Solaris, Inspur K-UX, HP-UX, and eulerOS ).\n\nThe AIX family of operating systems debuted in 1986, became the standard operating system for the RS/6000 series on its launch in 1990, and is still actively developed by IBM. It is currently supported on IBM Power Systems alongside IBM i and Linux.\n\nAIX was the first operating system to have a journaling file system, and IBM has continuously enhanced the software with features such as processor, disk and network virtualization, dynamic hardware resource allocation (including fractional processor units), and reliability engineering ported from its mainframe designs.\n",
"IBM RS/6000 AIX file servers used for ''ibm.com'' in the 1990s\nAIX Version 4 console login prompt\n\nUnix started life at AT&T's Bell Labs research center in the early 1970s, running on DEC minicomputers. By 1976, the operating system was in use at various academic institutions, including Princeton, where Tom Lyon and others ported it to the S/370, to run as a guest OS under VM/370. This port would later grow out to become UTS, a mainframe Unix offering by IBM's competitor Amdahl Corporation.\nIBM's own involvement in Unix can be dated to 1979, when it assisted Bell Labs in doing its own Unix port to the 370 (to be used as a build host for the 5ESS switch's software). In the process, IBM made modifications to the TSS/370 hypervisor to better support Unix.\n\nIt took until 1985 for IBM to offer its own Unix on the S/370 platform, IX/370, which was developed by Interactive Systems Corporation and intended by IBM to compete with Amdahl UTS. The operating system offered special facilities for interoperating with PC/IX, Interactive/IBM's version of Unix for IBM PC compatible hardware, and was licensed at $10,000 per sixteen concurrent users.\n\nAIX Version 1, introduced in 1986 for the IBM 6150 RT workstation, was based on UNIX System V Releases 1 and 2. In developing AIX, IBM and Interactive Systems Corporation (whom IBM contracted) also incorporated source code from 4.2 and 4.3 BSD UNIX.\n\nAmong other variants, IBM later produced AIX Version 3 (also known as '''AIX/6000'''), based on System V Release 3, for their POWER-based RS/6000 platform. Since 1990, AIX has served as the primary operating system for the RS/6000 series (later renamed ''IBM eServer pSeries'', then ''IBM System p'', and now ''IBM Power Systems''). AIX Version 4, introduced in 1994, added symmetric multiprocessing with the introduction of the first RS/6000 SMP servers and continued to evolve through the 1990s, culminating with AIX 4.3.3 in 1999. Version 4.1, in a slightly modified form, was also the standard operating system for the Apple Network Server systems sold by Apple Computer to complement the Macintosh line.\n\nIn the late 1990s, under Project Monterey, IBM and the Santa Cruz Operation planned to integrate AIX and UnixWare into a single 32-bit/64-bit multiplatform UNIX with particular emphasis on running on Intel IA-64 (Itanium) architecture CPUs. A beta test version of AIX 5L for IA-64 systems was released, but according to documents released in the ''SCO v. IBM'' lawsuit, less than forty licenses for the finished Monterey Unix were ever sold before the project was terminated in 2002. In 2003, the SCO Group alleged that (among other infractions) IBM had misappropriated licensed source code from UNIX System V Release 4 for incorporation into AIX; SCO subsequently withdrew IBM's license to develop and distribute AIX. IBM maintains that their license was irrevocable, and continued to sell and support the product until the litigation was adjudicated.\n\nAIX was a component of the 2003 ''SCO v. IBM'' lawsuit, in which the SCO Group filed a lawsuit against IBM, alleging IBM contributed SCO's intellectual property to the Linux codebase. The SCO Group, who argued they were the rightful owners of the copyrights covering the Unix operating system, attempted to revoke IBM's license to sell or distribute the AIX operating system. In March 2010, a jury returned a verdict finding that Novell, not the SCO Group, owns the rights to Unix.\n\nAIX 6 was announced in May 2007, and it ran as an open beta from June 2007 until the general availability (GA) of AIX 6.1 on November 9, 2007. Major new features in AIX 6.1 included full role-based access control, workload partitions (which enable application mobility), enhanced security (Addition of AES encryption type for NFS v3 and v4), and Live Partition Mobility on the POWER6 hardware.\n\nAIX 7.1 was announced in April 2010, and an open beta ran until general availability of AIX 7.1 in September 2010. Several new features, including better scalability, enhanced clustering and management capabilities were added. AIX 7.1 includes a new built-in clustering capability called Cluster Aware AIX. AIX is able to organize multiple LPARs through the multipath communications channel to neighboring CPUs, enabling very high-speed communication between processors. This enables multi-terabyte memory address range and page table access to support global petabyte shared memory space for AIX POWER7 clusters so that software developers can program a cluster as if it were a single system, without using message passing (i.e. semaphore-controlled Inter-process Communication). AIX administrators can use this new capability to cluster a pool of AIX nodes. By default, AIX V7.1 pins kernel memory and includes support to allow applications to pin their kernel stack. Pinning kernel memory and the kernel stack for applications with real-time requirements can provide performance improvements by ensuring that the kernel memory and kernel stack for an application is not paged out.\n\nAIX 7.2 was announced in October 2015, and released in December 2015. AIX 7.2 principal feature is the Live Kernel Update capability which allows OS fixes to replace the entire AIX kernel with no impact to applications. AIX 7.2 was also restructured to remove obsolete components. The networking component, bos.net.tcp.client was repackaged to allow additional installation flexibility. Unlike AIX 7.1, AIX 7.2 is only supported on systems based on POWER7 or later processors.\n",
"\n===IBM 6150 RT===\nThe original AIX (sometimes called '''AIX/RT''') was developed for the IBM 6150 RT workstation by IBM in conjunction with Interactive Systems Corporation, who had previously ported UNIX System III to the IBM PC for IBM as PC/IX. According to its developers, the AIX source (for this initial version) consisted of one million lines of code. Installation media consisted of eight 1.2M floppy disks. The RT was based on the ROMP microprocessor, the first commercial RISC chip. This was based on a design pioneered at IBM Research (the IBM 801) .\n\nOne of the novel aspects of the RT design was the use of a microkernel, called Virtual Resource Manager (VRM). The keyboard, mouse, display, disk drives and network were all controlled by a microkernel. One could \"hotkey\" from one operating system to the next using the Alt-Tab key combination. Each OS in turn would get possession of the keyboard, mouse and display. Besides AIX v2, the PICK OS also included this microkernel.\n\nMuch of the AIX v2 kernel was written in the PL/8 programming language, which proved troublesome during the migration to AIX v3. AIX v2 included full TCP/IP networking, as well as SNA and two networking file systems: NFS, licensed from Sun Microsystems, and Distributed Services (DS). DS had the distinction of being built on top of SNA, and thereby being fully compatible with DS on the IBM midrange AS/400 and mainframe systems. For the graphical user interfaces, AIX v2 came with the X10R3 and later the X10R4 and X11 versions of the X Window System from MIT, together with the Athena widget set. Compilers for Fortran and C were available. One of the more popular desktop applications was the PageMaker desktop publishing software.\n\n===IBM PS/2 series===\nAIX PS/2 running on Virtual PC\n\n'''AIX PS/2''' (also known as '''AIX/386''') was developed by Locus Computing Corporation under contract to IBM. AIX PS/2, first released in 1987, ran on IBM PS/2 personal computers with Intel 386 and compatible processors.\n\nThe product was announced in September 1988 with a baseline tag price of $595, although some utilities like uucp were included in a separate Extension package priced at $250. nroff and troff for AIX were also sold separately in a Text Formatting System package priced at $200. The TCP/IP stack for AIX PS/2 retailed for another $300. The X Window package was priced at $195, while the C and FORTRAN compilers each had a price tag of $275. Locus also made available their DOS Merge virtual machine environment for AIX, which could run MS DOS 3.3 applications inside AIX; DOS Merge was sold separately for another $250. IBM also offered a $150 AIX PS/2 DOS Server Program, which provided file server and print server services for client computers running PC DOS 3.3.\n\nThe last version of PS/2 AIX is 1.3. It was released in 1992 and announced to add support for non-IBM (non-microchannel) computers as well. Support for PS/2 AIX ended in March 1995.\n\n===IBM mainframes===\nIn 1988, IBM announced '''AIX/370''', also developed by Locus Computing. AIX/370 was IBM's third attempt to offer Unix-like functionality for their mainframe line, specifically the System/370 (the prior versions were a TSS/370-based Unix system developed jointly with AT&T c.1980, and '''VM/IX''', a VM/370-based system developed jointly with Interactive Systems Corporation c.1984). AIX/370 was released in 1990 with functional equivalence to System V Release 2 and 4.3BSD as well as IBM enhancements. With the introduction of the ESA/390 architecture, AIX/370 was replaced by '''AIX/ESA''' in 1991, which was based on OSF/1, and also ran on the System/390 platform. This development effort was made partly to allow IBM to compete with Amdahl UTS. Unlike AIX/370, AIX/ESA ran both natively as the host operating system, and as a guest under VM. AIX/ESA, while technically advanced, had little commercial success, partially because UNIX functionality was added as an option to the existing mainframe operating system, MVS, which became MVS/ESA OpenEdition in 1999.\n\n\n===IA-64 systems===\nAs part of Project Monterey, IBM released a beta test version of AIX 5L for the IA-64 (Itanium) architecture in 2001, but this never became an official product due to lack of interest.\n\n===Apple Network Servers===\nThe Apple Network Server systems were PowerPC-based systems designed by Apple Computer to have numerous high-end features that standard Apple hardware did not have, including swappable hard drives, redundant power supplies, and external monitoring capability. These systems were more or less based on the Power Macintosh hardware available at the time but were designed to use AIX (versions 4.1.4 or 4.1.5) as their native operating system in a specialized version specific to the ANS.\n\nAIX was only compatible with the Network Servers and was not ported to standard Power Macintosh hardware. Not to be confused is A/UX, Apple's earlier version of Unix for 68k-based Macintoshes.\n\n===POWER/PowerPC-based systems===\nAIX RS/6000 servers running ''ibm.com'' in early 1998\nAIX RS/6000 servers running ''ibm.com'' in early 1998\n\nThe release of AIX version 3 (sometimes called '''AIX/6000''') coincided with the announcement of the first POWER1-based IBM RS/6000 models in 1990.\n\nAIX v3 innovated in several ways on the software side. It was the first operating system to introduce the idea of a journaling file system, JFS, which allowed for fast boot times by avoiding the need to ensure the consistency of the file systems on disks (see fsck) on every reboot. Another innovation was shared libraries which avoid the need for static linking from an application to the libraries it used. The resulting smaller binaries used less of the hardware RAM to run, and used less disk space to install. Besides improving performance, it was a boon to developers: executable binaries could be in the tens of kilobytes instead of a megabyte for an executable statically linked to the C library. AIX v3 also scrapped the microkernel of AIX v2, a contentious move that resulted in v3 containing no PL/I code and being somewhat more \"pure\" than v2.\n\nOther notable subsystems included:\n\n* IRIS GL, a 3D rendering library, the progenitor of OpenGL. IRIS GL was licensed by IBM from SGI in 1987, then still a small company which had sold only one thousand machines to date. SGI also provided the low-end graphics card for the RS/6000, capable of drawing 20,000 gouraud-shaded triangles per second. The high-end graphics card was designed by IBM, a follow-on to the mainframe-based IBM 5080, capable of rendering 990,000 vectors per second.\n* PHIGS, another 3D rendering API, popular in automotive CAD/CAM circles, and at the core of CATIA.\n* Full implementation of version 11 of the X Window System, together with Motif as the recommended widget collection and window manager.\n* Network file systems: NFS from Sun; AFS, the Andrew File System; and DFS, the Distributed File System.\n* NCS, the Network Computing System, licensed from Apollo Computer (later acquired by HP).\n* DPS on-screen display system. This was notable as a \"plan B\" in case the X11+Motif combination failed in the marketplace. However, it was highly proprietary, supported only by Sun, NeXT, and IBM. This cemented its failure in the marketplace in the face of the open systems challenge of X11+Motif and its lack of 3D capability.\n\n, AIX runs on IBM Power, System p, System i, System p5, System i5, eServer p5, eServer pSeries and eServer i5 server product lines, as well as IBM BladeCenter blades and IBM PureFlex compute nodes based on Power Architecture technology.\n\n====POWER7 AIX features====\nAIX 7.1 fully exploits systems based on POWER7 processors include the Active Memory Expansion feature, which increases system flexibility where system administrators can configure logical partitions (LPARs) to use less physical memory. For example, an LPAR running AIX appears to the OS applications to be configured with 80 GB of physical memory but the hardware actually only consumes 60 GB of physical memory. Active Memory Expansion is a virtual memory compression system which employs memory compression technology to transparently compress in-memory data, allowing more data to be placed into memory and thus expanding the memory capacity of POWER7 systems. Using Active Memory Expansion can improve system utilization and increase a system’s throughput. AIX 7 automatically manages the size of memory pages used to automatically use 4 KB, 64 KB or a combination of those page sizes. This self-tuning feature results in optimized performance without administrative effort.\n\n====POWER8 AIX features====\nAIX 7.2 exploits POWER8 hardware features including accelerators and eight-way hardware multithreading.\n",
"The default login banner for AIX 5.3 on PowerPC\n\n=== Version history ===\n\n\n\n Version !! Release date !! End of support date\n\n \n 2001-05-04\n 2012-04-30\n\n \n 2007-11-09\n 2017-04-30\n\n \n 2010-09-10\n 2022-04-30\n\n \n 2015-12-01\n \n\n \n\n\n===POWER/PowerPC releases===\n* AIX V7.2, October 5, 2015\n** Live update for Interim Fixes, Service Packs and Technology Levels replaces the entire AIX kernel without impacting applications\n** Flash based filesystem caching\n** Cluster Aware AIX automation with repository replacement mechanism\n** SRIOV-backed VNIC, or dedicated VNIC virtualized network adapter support \n** RDSv3 over RoCE adds support of the Oracle RDSv3 protocol over the Mellanox Connect RoCE adapters\n** Requires POWER7 or newer CPUs\n* AIX V7.1, September 10, 2010\n** Support for 256 cores / 1024 threads in a single LPAR\n** The ability to run AIX V5.2 or V5.3 inside of a Workload Partition\n** An XML profile based system configuration management utility\n** Support for export of Fibre Channel adapters to WPARs\n** VIOS disk support in a WPAR\n** Cluster Aware AIX\n** AIX Event infrastructure\n** Role-based access control (RBAC) with domain support for multi-tenant environments\n* AIX V6.1, November 9, 2007\n** Workload Partitions (WPARs) operating system-level virtualization\n** Live Application Mobility\n** Live Partition Mobility\n** Security\n*** Role Based Access Control RBAC\n*** AIX Security Expert a system and network security hardening tool\n*** Encrypting JFS2 filesystem\n*** Trusted AIX\n*** Trusted Execution\n** Integrated Electronic Service Agent for auto error reporting\n** Concurrent Kernel Maintenance\n** Kernel exploitation of POWER6 storage keys\n** ProbeVue dynamic tracing\n** Systems Director Console for AIX\n** Integrated filesystem snapshot\n** Requires POWER4 or newer CPUs\n** AIX 6 withdrawn from Marketing effective April 2016 and from Support effective April, 2017\n* AIX 5L 5.3, August 13, 2004, end of support April 30, 2012\n** NFS Version 4\n** Advanced Accounting\n** Virtual SCSI\n** Virtual Ethernet\n** Exploitation of Simultaneous multithreading (SMT)\n** Micro-Partitioning enablement\n** POWER5 exploitation\n** JFS2 quotas\n** Ability to shrink a JFS2 filesystem\n** Kernel scheduler has been enhanced to dynamically increase and decrease the use of virtual processors.\n* AIX 5L 5.2, October 18, 2002, end of support April 30, 2009\n** Ability to run on the IBM BladeCenter JS20 with the PowerPC 970\n** Minimum level required for POWER5 hardware\n** MPIO for Fibre Channel disks\n** iSCSI Initiator software\n** Participation in Dynamic LPAR\n** Concurrent I/O (CIO) feature introduced for JFS2 released in Maintenance Level 01 in May 2003\n* AIX 5L 5.1, May 4, 2001, end of support April 1, 2006\n** Ability to run on an IA-64 architecture processor, although this never went beyond beta.\n** Minimum level required for POWER4 hardware and the last release that worked on the Micro Channel architecture\n** 64-bit kernel, installed but not activated by default\n** JFS2\n** Ability to run in a Logical Partition on POWER4\n** The L stands for Linux affinity\n** Trusted Computing Base (TCB)\n** Support for mirroring with striping\n* AIX 4.3.3, September 17, 1999\n** Online backup function\n** Workload Manager (WLM)\n** Introduction of topas utility\n* AIX 4.3.2, October 23, 1998\n* AIX 4.3.1, April 24, 1998\n** First TCSEC security evaluation, completed December 18, 1998\n* AIX 4.3, October 31, 1997\n** Ability to run on 64-bit architecture CPUs\n** IPv6\n** Web-based System Manager\n* AIX 4.2.1, April 25, 1997\n** NFS Version 3\n** Y2K-compliant \n* AIX 4.2, May 17, 1996\n* AIX 4.1.5, November 8, 1996\n* AIX 4.1.4, October 20, 1995\n* AIX 4.1.3, July 7, 1995\n** CDE 1.0 became the default GUI environment, replacing Motif Window Manager.\n* AIX 4.1.1, October 28, 1994\n* AIX 4.1, August 12, 1994\n** AIX Ultimedia Services introduced (multimedia drivers and applications)\n* AIX 4.0, 1994\n** Run on RS/6000 systems with PowerPC processors and PCI busses.\n* AIX 3.2 1992\n* AIX 3.1, (General Availability) February 1990\n** Journaled File System (JFS) filesystem type\n* AIX 3.0 1989 (Early Access) \n** LVM (Logical Volume Manager) was incorporated into OSF/1, and in 1995 for HP-UX, and the Linux LVM implementation is similar to the HP-UX LVM implementation.\n** SMIT was introduced.\n\n===IBM System/370 releases===\n\n===IBM PS/2 releases===\n* AIX PS/2 v1.3, October 1992\n** Withdrawn from sale in US, March 1995\n** Patches supporting IBM ThinkPad 750C family of notebook computers, 1994\n** Patches supporting non PS/2 hardware and systems, 1993\n* AIX PS/2 v1.2.1, May 1991\n* AIX PS/2 v1.2, March 1990\n* AIX PS/2 v1.1, March 1989\n AIX PS/2 (1-16 User Option) $ 795\n AIX PS/2 (1-2 User Option) 595\n AIX PS/2 Extensions 275\n AIX PS/2 DOS Merge 275\n AIX PS/2 Usability Services 275\n AIX PS/2 Text Formatting System 220\n AIX PS/2 X-Windows 214\n AIX PS/2 VS FORTRAN 302\n AIX PS/2 VS Pascal 302\n AIX PS/2 C Language 302\n AIX PS/2 Application\n Development Toolkit 192\n AIX PS/2 Workstation\n Host Interface Program 441\n AIX PS/2 Transmission Control\n Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) 330\n AIX PS/2 INmail (1)/INed (2)/INnet (1)/FTP 275\n AIX Access for DOS Users 164\n X-Windows for IBM DOS 214\n\n===IBM RT releases===\n* AIX RT v2.2.1, March 1991\n* AIX RT v2.2, March 1990\n* AIX RT v2.1, March 1989\n** X-Windows included on installation media \n* AIX RT v1.1, 1986\n",
"The Common Desktop Environment, AIX's default graphical user interface \n\nThe default shell was Bourne shell up to AIX version 3, but was changed to KornShell (ksh88) in version 4 in view of XPG4 and POSIX compliance.\n\n===Graphical===\nThe Common Desktop Environment (CDE) is AIX's default graphical user interface. As part of Linux Affinity and the free AIX Toolbox for Linux Applications (ATLA), open-source KDE Plasma Workspaces and GNOME desktop are also available.\n\n===System Management Interface Tool===\n\nThe initial menu, when running in text mode\nSMIT is the System Management Interface Tool for AIX. It allows a user to navigate a menu hierarchy of commands, rather than using the command line. Invocation is typically achieved with the command smit. Experienced system administrators make use of the F6 function key which generates the command line that SMIT will invoke to complete it.\nSMIT also generates a log of commands that are performed in the smit.script file. The smit.script file automatically records the commands with the command flags and parameters used. The smit.script file can be used as an executable shell script to rerun system configuration tasks. SMIT also creates the smit.log file, which contains additional detailed information that can be used by programmers in extending the SMIT system.\n\nsmit and smitty refer to the same program, though smitty invokes the text-based version, while smit will invoke an X Window System based interface if possible; however, if smit determines that X Window System capabilities are not present, it will present the text-based version instead of failing. Determination of X Window System capabilities is typically performed by checking for the existence of the DISPLAY variable.\n",
"'''Object Data Manager''' ('''ODM''') is a database of system information integrated into AIX, analogous to the registry in Microsoft Windows. A good understanding of the ODM is essential for managing AIX systems.\n\nData managed in ODM is stored and maintained as objects with associated attributes. Interaction with ODM is possible via application programming interface (API) library for programs, and command-line utilities such us ''odmshow'', ''odmget'', ''odmadd'', ''odmchange'' and ''odmdelete'' for shell scripts and users. SMIT and its associated AIX commands can also be used to query and modify information in the ODM. \n\nExample of information stored in the ODM database are:\n*Network configuration\n*Logical volume management configuration\n*Installed software information\n*Information for logical devices or software drivers\n*List of all AIX supported devices\n*Physical hardware devices installed and their configuration\n*Menus, screens and commands that SMIT uses\n",
"* AOS, IBM's educational-market port of 4.3BSD\n* IBM PowerHA SystemMirror (formerly HACMP)\n* List of Unix systems\n* nmon\n* Operating systems timeline\n* Service Update Management Assistant\n* Vital Product Data (VPD)\n",
"\n",
"* IBM AIX\n* AIX Release Life Cycle View\n* AIX support lifecycle information\n* AIX Strength to Strength, summary of new functional enhancements in AIX and related products.\n* AIX Service and support best practices \n* AIX Linkedin group \n* AIX Fix Central\n* AIX User Groups\n* Submit AIX Request for Enhancements\n* AIX Toolbox for Linux Applications\n* AIX version 7.2 Knowledge Center\n* AIX version 7.1 knowledge center\n* AIX version 6.1 information center\n* AIX version 6.1 overview\n* AIX version 5.3 Documentation\n* AIX Virtual User Group \n* AIX/ESA V2R2 General Information\n* IBM Systems AIX Magazine \n* IBM Electronic Service Agent\n* AIX Health Check\n* Rootvg.net - Independent Portal for AIX & POWER\n* AIX shell accounts \n* AIX Commands, Tools, Scripts and Explanations\n* 80-page marketing booklet from 1989 explaining IBM's AIX vision at the time\n* ODM programming documentation at IBM\n* Object Data Manager (ODM) in AIX 6.1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Supported hardware platforms",
"Versions",
"User interfaces",
"Database",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | IBM AIX |
[
"\n\n'''AppleTalk''' was a proprietary suite of networking protocols developed by Apple Inc. for their Macintosh computers. AppleTalk includes a number of features that allow local area networks to be connected with no prior setup or the need for a centralized router or server of any sort. Connected AppleTalk-equipped systems automatically assign addresses, update the distributed namespace, and configure any required inter-networking routing.\n\nAppleTalk was released in 1985, and was the primary protocol used by Apple devices through the 1980s and 1990s. Versions were also released for the IBM PC and compatibles and the Apple IIGS. AppleTalk support was also available in most networked printers (especially laser printers), some file servers, and a number of routers.\n\nThe rise of TCP/IP during the 1990s led to a reimplementation of most of these types of support on that protocol, and AppleTalk became unsupported as of the release of Mac OS X v10.6 in 2009. Many of AppleTalk's more advanced autoconfiguration features have since been introduced in Bonjour, while Universal Plug and Play serves similar needs.\n",
"\n===AppleNet===\nAfter the release of the Apple Lisa computer in January 1983, Apple invested considerable effort in the development of a local area networking (LAN) system for the machines. Known as '''AppleNet''', it was based on the seminal Xerox XNS protocol stack but running on a custom 1 Mbit/s coaxial cable system rather than Xerox's 2.94 Mbit/s Ethernet. AppleNet was announced early in 1983 with a fall introduction at the target price of $500 for plug-in AppleNet cards for the Lisa and the Apple II.\n\nAt that time, early LAN systems were just coming to market, including Ethernet, Token Ring and ARCNET. This was a topic of major commercial effort at the time, dominating shows like the National Computer Conference (NCC) in Anaheim in May 1983. All of the systems were jockeying for position in the market, but even at this time Ethernet's widespread acceptance suggested it was to become a ''de facto'' standard. It was at this show that Steve Jobs asked Gursharan Sidhu a seemingly innocuous question, \"Why has networking not caught on?\"\n\nFour months later, in October, AppleNet was cancelled. At the time, they announced that \"Apple realized that it's not in the business to create a networking system. We built and used AppleNet in-house, but we realized that if we had shipped it, we would have seen new standards coming up.\" In January, Jobs announced that they would instead be supporting IBM's Token Ring, which he expected to come out in a \"few months\".\n\n===AppleBus===\nThrough this period, Apple was deep in development of the Macintosh computer. During development, engineers had made the decision to use the Zilog 8530 serial controller chip (SCC) instead of the lower cost and more common UART to provide serial port connections. The SCC cost about $5 more than a UART, but offered much higher speeds up to 250 kilobits per second (or higher with additional hardware) and internally supported a number of basic networking-like protocols like IBM's Bisync.\n\nThe SCC was chosen because it would allow multiple devices to be attached to the port. Peripherals equipped with similar SCCs could communicate using the built-in protocols, interleaving their data with other peripherals on the same bus. This would eliminate the need for more ports on the back of the machine, and allowed for the elimination of expansion slots for supporting more complex devices. The initial concept was known as '''AppleBus''', envisioning a system controlled by the host Macintosh polling \"dumb\" devices in a fashion similar to the modern Universal Serial Bus.\n\n===AppleBus networking===\nThe Macintosh team had already begun work on what would become the LaserWriter, and had considered a number of other options of how to share these expensive machines and other resources. A series of memos from Bob Belleville clarified these concepts, outlining the Mac, LaserWriter and a file server system which would become Macintosh Office. By late 1983 it was clear that IBM's Token Ring would not be ready in time for the launch of the Mac, and might miss the launch of these other products as well. In the end, Token Ring would not ship until October 1985.\n\nJobs' earlier question to Sidhu had already sparked a number of ideas. When AppleNet was cancelled in October, Sidhu led an effort to develop a new networking system based on the AppleBus hardware. This new system would not have to conform to any existing preconceptions, and was designed to be worthy of the Mac - a system that was user-installable, had zero-configuration, and no fixed network addresses - in short, a true plug-and-play network. Considerable effort was needed, but by the time the Mac was released, the basic concepts had been outlined, and some of the low-level protocols were on their way to completion. Sidhu mentioned the work to Belleville only two hours after the Mac was announced.\n\nThe \"new\" AppleBus was announced in early 1984, allowing direct connection from the Mac or Lisa through a small box that plugged into the serial port and connected via cables to the next computer upstream and downstream. Adaptors for Apple II and Apple III were also announced. Apple also announced that AppleBus networks could be attached to, and would appear to be a single node within, a Token Ring system. Details of how this would work were sketchy.\n\n===AppleTalk===\nJust prior to its release in early 1985, AppleBus was renamed '''AppleTalk'''. The system had a number of limitations, including a speed of only 230.4 kbit/s, a maximum distance of 1000 feet from end to end, and only 32 nodes per LAN. But as the basic hardware was built into the Mac, adding nodes only cost about $50 for the adaptor box. In comparison, Ethernet or Token Ring cards cost hundreds or thousands of dollars. Additionally, the entire networking stack required only about 6 kB of RAM, allowing it to run on any Mac.\n\nThe relatively slow speed of AppleTalk allowed further reductions in cost. Instead of using RS-422's balanced transmit and receive circuits, the '''AppleTalk Personal Network''' cabling used a single common electrical ground, which limited speeds to about 500 kbit/s, but allowed one conductor to be removed. This meant that common three-conductor cables could be used for wiring. Additionally, the adaptors were designed to be \"self-terminating\", meaning that nodes at the end of the network could simply leave their last connector unconnected. There was no need for the wires to be connected back together into a loop, nor the need for hubs or other devices.\n\nThe system was designed for future expansion; the addressing system allowed for expansion to 255 nodes in a LAN (although only 32 could be used at that time), and by using \"bridges\" (which came to be known as \"routers\", although technically not the same) one could interconnect LANs into larger collections. \"Zones\" allowed devices to be addressed within a bridge-connected internet. Additionally, AppleTalk was designed from the start to allow use with any potential underlying physical link.\n\nThe main advantage of AppleTalk was that it was completely maintenance-free. To join a device to a network, you simply plugged the adaptor into the machine, then connected a cable from it to any free port on any other adaptor. AppleTalk's internal protocols negotiated a working network address number, automatically gave the computer a human-readable name, and collected up a list of the names and types of other machines on the network so the user could browse the devices through the GUI-based Chooser. AppleTalk was so easy to use that ad-hoc networks tended to appear whenever multiple Macs were in the same room. Apple would later use this in an advertisement showing a network being created between two seats in an airplane.\n\n===PhoneNet and other adaptors===\nA thriving 3rd party market for AppleTalk devices developed over the next few years. One particularly notable example was an alternate adaptor designed by BMUG and commercialized by Farallon as PhoneNet in 1987. This was essentially a replacement for Apple's connector that had conventional phone jacks instead of Apple's round connectors. PhoneNet allowed AppleTalk networks to be connected together using normal telephone wires, and with very little extra work, could run analog phones and AppleTalk on a single four-conductor phone cable.\n\nOther companies took advantage of the SCC's ability to read external clocks in order to support higher transmission speeds, up to 1 Mbit/s. In these systems the external adaptor also included its own clock, and used that to signal the SCC's clock input pins. The best known such system was Centram's '''FlashTalk''', which ran at 768 kbit/s, and was intended to be used with their TOPS networking system. A similar solution was the 850 kbit/s '''DaynaTalk''', which used a separate box that plugged in between the computer and a normal LocalTalk/PhoneNet box. Dayna also offered a PC expansion card that ran up to 1.7 Mbit/s when talking to other Dayna PC cards. Several other systems also existed with even higher performance, but these often required special cabling that was incompatible with LocalTalk/PhoneNet, and also required patches to the networking stack that often caused problems.\n\n===EtherTalk, TokenTalk and AppleShare===\nBy 1987 Ethernet was clearly winning the standards battle over Token Ring, and in the middle of that year Apple introduced '''EtherTalk 1.0''' for the newly released Macintosh II computer. The package included both a NuBus card with Ethernet ports and a new Network control panel that allowed the user to select which physical connection to use for networking (from \"Built-in\" or \"EtherTalk\"). The release's new networking stack also expanded the system to allow a full 255 nodes per LAN. With its release, AppleTalk Personal Network was renamed '''LocalTalk'''. Token Ring would eventually be supported with the similar '''TokenTalk''' product, which used the same Network control panel and underlying software. Many third party companies would introduce compatible Ethernet and Token Ring cards that used these same drivers.\n\nThe appearance of EtherTalk also led to a problem: Networks with new and old Macs needed some way to communicate between each other. This could be as simple as a network of Ethernet Mac IIs trying to talk to a LaserWriter. Apple had considered the problem, and AppleTalk included the possibility for a low-cost LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridge, but they felt it would be a low-volume product and left it to third parties. A number of companies responded, both existing communications vendors like Hayes and Cisco Systems, as well as newly formed companies like Kinetics. Contrary to Apple's belief these would be low-volume, by the end of 1987, 130,000 such systems were in use. AppleTalk was at that time the most used networking system in the world, with over three times the installations of any other vendor.\n\n1987 also marked the introduction of the AppleShare product, a dedicated file server that ran on any Mac with 512 kB of RAM or more. A common AppleShare machine was the Mac Plus with an external SCSI hard drive. AppleShare was the #3 network operating system in the late 1980s, behind Novell NetWare and Microsoft's MS-Net. AppleShare was effectively the replacement for the failed Macintosh Office efforts, which had been based on a dedicated file server device.\n\n===AppleTalk Phase II and other developments===\nA significant re-design was released in 1989 as '''AppleTalk Phase II'''. In many ways, Phase II can be considered an effort to make the earlier version (never called Phase I) more generic. LANs could now support more than 255 nodes, and zones were no longer associated with physical networks, but were entirely virtual constructs used simply to organize nodes. For instance, one could now make a \"Printers\" zone that would list all the printers in an organization, or one might want to place that same device in the \"2nd Floor\" zone to indicate its physical location. Phase II also included changes to the underlying inter-networking protocols to make them less \"chatty\", which had previously been a serious problem on networks that bridged over wide-area networks.\n\nBy this point Apple had a wide variety of communications products under development, and many of these were announced along with AppleTalk Phase II. These included updates to EtherTalk and TokenTalk, AppleTalk software and LocalTalk hardware for the IBM PC, EtherTalk for Apple's A/UX operating system allowing it to use LaserPrinters and other network resources, and the Mac X.25 and MacX products.\n\nEthernet had become almost universal by 1990, and it was time to build Ethernet into Macs direct from the factory. However, the physical wiring used by these networks was not yet completely standardized. Apple solved this problem using a single port on the back of the computer into which the user could plug an adaptor for any given cabling system. This '''FriendlyNet''' system was based on the industry-standard Attachment Unit Interface or AUI, but deliberately chose a non-standard connector that was smaller and easier to use, which they called \"Apple AUI\", or '''AAUI'''. FriendlyNet was first introduced on the Quadra 700 and Quadra 900 computers, and used across much of the Mac line for some time. As with LocalTalk, a number of 3rd party FriendlyNet adaptors quickly appeared.\n\nAs 10BASE-T became the de facto cabling system for Ethernet, second-generation Power Macintosh machines added a 10BASE-T port in addition to AAUI. The PowerBook 3400c and lower-end Power Macs also added 10BASE-T. The Power Macintosh 7300/8600/9600 were the final Macs to include AAUI, and 10BASE-T became universal starting with the Power Macintosh G3 and PowerBook G3.\n\n===The capital-I Internet===\nIn 1988 Apple had released MacTCP, a system that allowed the Mac to support TCP/IP on machines with suitable Ethernet hardware. However, this left many universities with the problem of supporting IP on their many LocalTalk-equipped Macs. Stanford University pioneered development of MacIP, which allowed IP packets to be routed over LocalTalk networks with the support of a suitable \"gateway\" machine. These were initially custom devices, but it was soon common to include MacIP support in LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridges. MacTCP would not become a standard part of the Classic Mac OS until 1994, by which time it also supported SNMP and PPP.\n\nFor some time in the early 1990s, the Mac was a primary client on the rapidly expanding Internet. Among the better known programs in wide use were Fetch, Eudora, eXodus, NewsWatcher and the NCSA packages, especially NCSA Mosaic and its offspring, Netscape Navigator. Additionally, a number of server products appeared that allowed the Mac to host Internet content. Through this period, Macs had about 2 to 3 times as many clients connected to the Internet as any other platform, despite the relatively small overall marketshare.\n\nAs the world quickly moved to IP for both LAN and WAN uses, Apple was faced with maintaining two increasingly outdated code bases on an ever-wider group of machines as well as the introduction of the PowerPC based machines. This led to the Open Transport efforts, which re-implemented both MacTCP and AppleTalk on an entirely new code base adapted from the Unix standard STREAMS. Early versions had problems and did not become stable for some time. By that point, Apple was deep in their ultimately doomed Copland efforts.\n\n===Legacy and abandonment===\nWith the purchase of NeXT and subsequent development of Mac OS X, AppleTalk was strictly a legacy system. Support was added to OS X in order to provide support for the large number of existing AppleTalk devices, notably laser printers and file shares, but alternate connection solutions common in this era, notably USB for printers, limited their demand. As Apple abandoned many of these product categories, and all new systems were based on IP, AppleTalk became less and less common. AppleTalk support was finally removed from the MacOS in Mac OS X v10.6 in 2009.\n\nHowever, the loss of AppleTalk did not reduce the desire for networking solutions that combined its ease-of-use with IP routing. Apple has led development of many such efforts, from the introduction of the AirPort router to the development of the Zero configuration networking system and their implementation of it, Bonjour.\n",
"\nThe AppleTalk design rigorously followed the OSI model of protocol layering. Unlike most of the early LAN systems, AppleTalk was not built using the archetypal Xerox XNS system. The intended target was not Ethernet, and it did not have 48-bit addresses to route. Nevertheless, many portions of the AppleTalk system have direct analogs in XNS.\n\nOne key differentiation for AppleTalk was it contained two protocols aimed at making the system completely self-configuring. The ''AppleTalk address resolution protocol'' (''AARP'') allowed AppleTalk hosts to automatically generate their own network addresses, and the ''Name Binding Protocol'' (''NBP'') was a dynamic system for mapping network addresses to user-readable names. Although systems similar to AARP existed in other systems, Banyan VINES for instance, nothing like NBP has existed until recently.\n\nBoth AARP and NBP had defined ways to allow \"controller\" devices to override the default mechanisms. The concept was to allow routers to provide the information or \"hardwire\" the system to known addresses and names. On larger networks where AARP could cause problems as new nodes searched for free addresses, the addition of a router could reduce \"chattiness.\" Together AARP and NBP made AppleTalk an easy-to-use networking system. New machines were added to the network by plugging them and optionally giving them a name. The NBP lists were examined and displayed by a program known as the ''Chooser'' which would display a list of machines on the local network, divided into classes such as file-servers and printers.\n",
"An AppleTalk address was a 4-byte quantity. This consisted of a two-byte network number, a one-byte node number, and a one-byte socket number. Of these, only the network number required any configuration, being obtained from a router. Each node dynamically chose its own node number, according to a protocol (originally the LocalTalk Link Access Protocol LLAP and later the AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol, AARP) which handled contention between different nodes accidentally choosing the same number. For socket numbers, a few well-known numbers were reserved for special purposes specific to the AppleTalk protocol itself. Apart from these, all application-level protocols were expected to use dynamically-assigned socket numbers at both the client and server end.\n\nBecause of this dynamism, users could not be expected to access services by specifying their address. Instead, all services had ''names'' which, being chosen by humans, could be expected to be meaningful to users, and also could be sufficiently long to minimize the chance of conflicts.\n\nAs NBP names translated to an address, which included a socket number as well as a node number, a name in AppleTalk mapped directly to a ''service'' being provided by a machine, which was entirely separate from the name of the machine itself. Thus, services could be moved to a different machine and, so long as they kept the same service name, there was no need for users to do anything different in order to continue accessing the service. And the same machine could host any number of instances of services of the same type, without any network connection conflicts.\n\nContrast this with ''A records'' in the DNS, where a name translates to a machine's address, not including the port number that might be providing a service. Thus, if people are accustomed to using a particular machine name to access a particular service, their access will break when the service is moved to a different machine. This can be mitigated somewhat by insistence on using ''CNAME records'' indicating service rather than actual machine names to refer to the service, but there is no way of guaranteeing that users will follow such a convention. Some newer protocols, such as Kerberos and Active Directory use DNS SRV records to identify services by name, which is much closer to the AppleTalk model.\n",
"\n\n=== AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol ===\nAARP resolves AppleTalk addresses to link layer, usually MAC, addresses. It is functionally equivalent to ARP.\n\nAARP is a fairly simple system. When powered on, an AppleTalk machine broadcasts an ''AARP probe packet'' asking for a network address, intending to hear back from controllers such as routers. If no address is provided, one is picked at random from the \"base subnet\", 0. It then broadcasts another packet saying \"I am selecting this address\", and then waits to see if anyone else on the network complains. If another machine has that address, it will pick another address, and keep trying until it finds a free one. On a network with many machines it may take several tries before a free address is found, so for performance purposes the successful address is \"written down\" in NVRAM and used as the default address in the future. This means that in most real-world setups where machines are added a few at a time, only one or two tries are needed before the address effectively become constant.\n\n=== AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol ===\nThis was a comparatively late addition to the AppleTalk protocol suite, done when it became clear that a TCP-style reliable connection-oriented transport was needed. Significant differences from TCP were:\n* a connection attempt could be rejected\n* there were no \"half-open\" connections; once one end initiated a tear-down of the connection, the whole connection would be closed (''i.e.'', ADSP is full-duplex, not dual simplex).\n\n=== Apple Filing Protocol ===\nThe Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), formerly AppleTalk Filing Protocol, is the protocol for communicating with AppleShare file servers. Built on top of AppleTalk Session Protocol (for legacy AFP over DDP) or the Data Stream Interface (for AFP over TCP), it provides services for authenticating users (extensible to different authentication methods including two-way random-number exchange) and for performing operations specific to the Macintosh HFS filesystem. AFP is still in use in macOS, even though most other AppleTalk protocols have been deprecated.\n\n=== AppleTalk Session Protocol ===\nASP was an intermediate protocol, built on top of ATP, which in turn was the foundation of AFP. It provided basic services for requesting responses to arbitrary ''commands'' d performing out-of-band status queries. It also allowed the server to send asynchronous ''attention'' messages to the client.\n\n=== Datagram Delivery Protocol ===\nDDP was the lowest-level data-link-independent transport protocol. It provided a datagram service with no guarantees of delivery. All application-level protocols, including the infrastructure protocols NBP, RTMP and ZIP, were built on top of DDP. AppleTalk's DDP corresponds closely to the Network layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model.\n\n=== Name Binding Protocol ===\nName Binding Protocol was a dynamic, distributed system for managing AppleTalk names. When a service started up on a machine, it registered a name for itself as chosen by a human administrator. At this point, NBP provided a system for checking that no other machine had already registered the same name. Later, when a client wanted to access that service, it used NBP to query machines to find that service. NBP provided browseability (\"what are the names of all the services available?\") as well as the ability to find a service with a particular name. Names were human readable, containing spaces, upper and lower case letters, and including support for searching.\n\n===AppleTalk Echo Protocol===\nAEP (AppleTalk Echo Protocol) is a transport layer protocol designed to test the reachability of network nodes. AEP generates packets to be sent to the network node and is identified in the Type field of a packet as an AEP packet. The packet is first passed to the source DDP. After it is identified as an AEP packet, it is forwarded to the node where the packet is examined by the DDP at the destination. After the packet is identified as an AEP packet, the packet is then copied and a field in the packet is altered to create an AEP reply packet, and is then returned to the source node.\n\n=== Printer Access Protocol ===\nPAP was the standard way of communicating with PostScript printers. It was built on top of ATP. When a PAP connection was opened, each end sent the other an ATP request which basically meant \"send me more data\". The client's response to the server was to send a block of PostScript code, while the server could respond with any diagnostic messages that might be generated as a result, after which another \"send-more-data\" request was sent. This use of ATP provided automatic flow control; each end could only send data to the other end if there was an outstanding ATP request to respond to.\n\nPAP also provided for out-of-band status queries, handled by separate ATP transactions. Even while it was busy servicing a print job from one client, a PAP server could continue to respond to status requests from any number of other clients. This allowed other Macintoshes on the LAN that were waiting to print to display status messages indicating that the printer was busy, and what the job was that it was busy with.\n\n=== Routing Table Maintenance Protocol ===\nRTMP was the protocol by which routers kept each other informed about the topology of the network. This was the only part of AppleTalk that required periodic unsolicited broadcasts: every 10 seconds, each router had to send out a list of all the network numbers it knew about and how far away it thought they were.\n\n=== Zone Information Protocol ===\nZIP was the protocol by which AppleTalk network numbers were associated with zone names. A ''zone'' was a subdivision of the network that made sense to humans (for example, \"Accounting Department\"); but while a network number had to be assigned to a topologically-contiguous section of the network, a zone could include several different discontiguous portions of the network.\n",
"\nFarallon PhoneNET adapter.\nThe initial default hardware implementation for AppleTalk was a high-speed serial protocol known as ''LocalTalk'' that used the Macintosh's built-in RS-422 ports at 230.4 kbit/s. LocalTalk used a splitter box in the RS-422 port to provide an upstream and downstream cable from a single port. The topology was a bus: cables were daisy-chained from each connected machine to the next, up to the maximum of 32 permitted on any LocalTalk segment. The system was slow by today's standards, but at the time the additional cost and complexity of networking on PC machines was such that it was common that Macs were the only networked personal computers in an office. Other larger computers, such as UNIX or VAX workstations, would commonly be networked via Ethernet.\n\nOther physical implementations were also available. One common replacement for LocalTalk was ''PhoneNet'', a 3rd party solution (from a company called Farallon, now called Netopia, acquired by Motorola in 2007) that also used the RS-422 port and was indistinguishable from LocalTalk as far as Apple's LocalTalk port drivers were concerned, but ran over the two unused wires in standard four-wire phone cabling. PhoneNet was considerably less expensive to install and maintain. Ethernet and Token Ring was also supported, known as ''EtherTalk'' and ''TokenTalk'' respectively. EtherTalk in particular gradually became the dominant implementation method for AppleTalk as Ethernet became generally popular in the PC industry throughout the 1990s. Besides AppleTalk and TCP/IP, any Ethernet network could also simultaneously carry other protocols such as DECnet and IPX.\n",
"{| class=\"wikitable\"\nOSI Model\nCorresponding AppleTalk layers\n\nApplication\nApple Filing Protocol (AFP)\n\nPresentation\nApple Filing Protocol (AFP)\n\nSession\nZone Information Protocol (ZIP)AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP)AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP)\n\nTransport\nAppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP)AppleTalk Echo Protocol (AEP)Name Binding Protocol (NBP)Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP)\n\nNetwork\nDatagram Delivery Protocol (DDP)\n\nData link\nEtherTalk Link Access Protocol (ELAP)LocalTalk Link Access Protocol (LLAP) TokenTalk Link Access Protocol (TLAP) Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)\n\nPhysical\nLocalTalk driverEthernet driverToken Ring driverFDDI driver\n\n",
"\n\n\nAppleTalk version\nApple Filing Protocol\nCorresponds to\nNotes\n\n56\n\nSystem 7.0\n\n\n57.0.4\n\nSystem 7.12\n\n\n58.1.1\n\nSystem 7.1.2\n\n\n58.1.3\n\nSystem 7.5\n\n\n60.3\n\nMac OS 7.6.1\nOpen Transport 1.3\n\n60.0a6\n\nMac OS 8.6\n Open Transport 2.0.3\n\n\n3.0\nMac OS X 10.0.3\n\n\n\n2.1, 2.0 and even 1.1\nMac OS X v10.2\n\n\n\n2.2, 3.0 and 3.1\nMac OS X v10.3\n\n\n\n3.2\nMac OS X v10.4\n\n\n",
"When AppleTalk was first introduced, the dominant office computing platform was the PC compatible running MS-DOS. Apple introduced the AppleTalk PC Card in early 1987, allowing PCs to join AppleTalk networks and print to LaserWriter printers. A year later AppleShare PC was released, allowing PCs to access AppleShare file servers.\n\nThe \"TOPS Teleconnector\" MS-DOS networking system over AppleTalk system enabled MS-DOS PCs to communicate over AppleTalk network hardware; it comprised an AppleTalk interface card for the PC and a suite of networking software allowing such functions as file, drive and printer sharing. As well as allowing the construction of a PC-only AppleTalk network, it allowed communication between PCs and Macs with TOPS software installed. (Macs without TOPS installed could use the same network but only to communicate with other Apple machines.) The Mac TOPS software did not match the quality of Apple's own either in ease of use or in robustness and freedom from crashes, but the DOS software was relatively simple to use in DOS terms, and was robust.\n\nThe BSD and Linux operating systems support AppleTalk through an open source project called Netatalk, which implements the complete protocol suite and allows them to both act as native file or print servers for Macintosh computers, and print to LocalTalk printers over the network.\n\nThe Windows Server operating systems supported AppleTalk starting with Windows NT and ending after Windows Server 2003. Miramar included AppleTalk in its PC MacLAN product which was discontinued by CA in 2007. GroupLogic continues to bundle its AppleTalk protocol with its ExtremeZ-IP server software for Macintosh-Windows integration which supports Windows 2008 Server and Windows Vista as well prior versions. HELIOS Software GmbH offers a proprietary implementation of the AppleTalk protocol stack, as part of their HELIOS UB2 server. This is essentially a File and Print Server suite that runs on a whole range of different platforms.\n\nIn addition, Columbia University released the Columbia AppleTalk Package (CAP) which implemented the protocol suite for various Unix flavors including Ultrix, SunOS, *BSD and IRIX. This package is no longer actively maintained.\n",
"*Netatalk is a free, open-source implementation of the AppleTalk suite of protocols.\n*Network File System\n*Remote File System\n*Samba\n*Server Message Block\n",
"\n",
"\n===Citations===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
" Design ",
" Addressing ",
" Protocols ",
" Physical implementation ",
" Networking model ",
"Versions",
"Cross-platform solutions",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References"
] | AppleTalk |
[
"\n\nFig. 1: AVL tree with balance factors (green)\n\nIn computer science, an '''AVL tree''' is a self-balancing binary search tree. It was the first such data structure to be invented. In an AVL tree, the heights of the two child subtrees of any node differ by at most one; if at any time they differ by more than one, rebalancing is done to restore this property. Lookup, insertion, and deletion all take time in both the average and worst cases, where is the number of nodes in the tree prior to the operation. Insertions and deletions may require the tree to be rebalanced by one or more tree rotations.\n\nThe AVL tree is named after its two Soviet inventors, Georgy Adelson-Velsky and Evgenii Landis, who published it in their 1962 paper \"An algorithm for the organization of information\".\n\nAVL trees are often compared with red–black trees because both support the same set of operations and take time for the basic operations. For lookup-intensive applications, AVL trees are faster than red–black trees because they are more strictly balanced. Similar to red–black trees, AVL trees are height-balanced. Both are, in general, neither weight-balanced nor μ-balanced for any μ≤1⁄2; that is, sibling nodes can have hugely differing numbers of descendants.\n",
"\n===Balance factor===\nIn a binary tree the ''balance factor'' of a node N is defined to be the height difference\n:NNN \nof its two child subtrees. A binary tree is defined to be an ''AVL tree'' if the invariant\n:N\nholds for every node N in the tree.\n\nA node N with N is called \"left-heavy\", one with N is called \"right-heavy\", and one with N is sometimes simply called \"balanced\".\n\n;Remark\nIn the sequel, because there is a one-to-one correspondence between nodes and the subtrees rooted by them, we sometimes leave it to the context whether the name of an object stands for the node or the subtree.\n\n===Properties===\nBalance factors can be kept up-to-date by knowing the previous balance factors and the change in height – it is not necessary to know the absolute height. For holding the AVL balance information, two bits per node are sufficient.\n\nThe height of an AVL tree with nodes lies in the interval:\n: \nwith the golden ratio √, , and .\nThis is because an AVL tree of height contains at least nodes where is the Fibonacci sequence with the seed values , .\n",
"Read-only operations of an AVL tree involve carrying out the same actions as would be carried out on an unbalanced binary search tree, but modifications have to observe and restore the height balance of the subtrees.\n\n===Searching===\n\nSearching for a specific key in an AVL tree can be done the same way as that of a normal unbalanced binary search tree. In order for search to work effectively it has to employ a comparison function which establishes a total order (or at least a total preorder) on the set of keys. The number of comparisons required for successful search is limited by the height and for unsuccessful search is very close to , so both are in .\n\n===Traversal===\n\nOnce a node has been found in an AVL tree, the ''next'' or ''previous'' node can be accessed in amortized constant time. Some instances of exploring these \"nearby\" nodes require traversing up to links (particularly when navigating from the rightmost leaf of the root’s left subtree to the root or from the root to the leftmost leaf of the root’s right subtree; in the AVL tree of figure 1, moving from node P to the ''next but one'' node Q takes 3 steps). However, exploring all nodes of the tree in this manner would visit each link exactly twice: one downward visit to enter the subtree rooted by that node, another visit upward to leave that node’s subtree after having explored it. And since there are links in any tree, the amortized cost is , or approximately 2.\n\n===Insert===\n\nWhen inserting an element into an AVL tree, you initially follow the same process as inserting into a Binary Search Tree. More explicitly: In case a preceding search has not been successful the search routine returns the tree itself with indication EMPTY and the new node is inserted as root. Or, if the tree has not been empty the search routine returns a node and a direction (left or right) where the returned node does not have a child. Then the node to be inserted is made child of the returned node at the returned direction.\n\nAfter this insertion it is necessary to check each of the node’s ancestors for consistency with the invariants of AVL trees: this is called \"retracing\". This is achieved by considering the balance factor of each node.\n\nSince with a single insertion the height of an AVL subtree cannot increase by more than one, the temporary balance factor of a node after an insertion will be in the range For each node checked, if the temporary balance factor remains in the range from –1 to +1 then only an update of the balance factor and no rotation is necessary. However, if the temporary balance factor becomes less than –1 or greater than +1, the subtree rooted at this node is AVL unbalanced, and a rotation is needed. The various cases of rotations are described in section Rebalancing.\n\nIn figure 1, by inserting the new node Z as a child of node X the height of that subtree Z increases from 0 to 1.\n\n;Invariant of the retracing loop for an insertion\nThe height of the subtree rooted by Z has increased by 1. It is already in AVL shape.\n\n for (X = parent(Z); X != null; X = parent(Z)) { // Loop (possibly up to the root)\n // BalanceFactor(X) has to be updated:\n if (Z == right_child(X)) { // The right subtree increases\n if (BalanceFactor(X) > 0) { // X is right-heavy\n // ===> the temporary BalanceFactor(X) == +2\n // ===> rebalancing is required.\n G = parent(X); // Save parent of X around rotations\n if (BalanceFactor(Z) the temporary BalanceFactor(X) == –2\n // ===> rebalancing is required.\n G = parent(X); // Save parent of X around rotations\n if (BalanceFactor(Z) > 0) // Left Right Case\n N = rotate_LeftRight(X,Z); // Double rotation: Left(Z) then Right(X)\n else // Left Left Case\n N = rotate_Right(X,Z); // Single rotation Right(X)\n // After rotation adapt parent link\n }\n else {\n if (BalanceFactor(X) > 0) {\n BalanceFactor(X) = 0; // Z’s height increase is absorbed at X.\n break; // Leave the loop\n }\n BalanceFactor(X) = –1;\n Z=X; // Height(Z) increases by 1\n continue;\n }\n }\n // After a rotation adapt parent link:\n // N is the new root of the rotated subtree\n // Height does not change: Height(N) == old Height(X)\n parent(N) = G;\n if (G != null) {\n if (X == left_child(G))\n left_child(G) = N;\n else\n right_child(G) = N;\n break;\n }\n else {\n tree->root = N; // N is the new root of the total tree\n break;\n }\n \n // There is no fall thru, only break; or continue;\n }\n // Unless loop is left via break, the height of the total tree increases by 1.\n\nIn order to update the balance factors of all nodes, first observe that all nodes requiring correction lie from child to parent along the path of the inserted leaf. If the above procedure is applied to nodes along this path, starting from the leaf, then every node in the tree will again have a balance factor of −1, 0, or 1.\n\nThe retracing can stop if the balance factor becomes 0 implying that the height of that subtree remains unchanged.\n\nIf the balance factor becomes ±1 then the height of the subtree increases by one and the retracing needs to continue.\n\nIf the balance factor temporarily becomes ±2, this has to be repaired by an appropriate rotation after which the subtree has the same height as before (and its root the balance factor 0).\n\nThe time required is for lookup, plus a maximum of retracing levels ( on average) on the way back to the root, so the operation can be completed in time.\n\n===Delete===\nThe preliminary steps for deleting a node are described in section Binary search tree#Deletion.\nThere, the effective deletion of the subject node or the replacement node decreases the height of the corresponding child tree either from 1 to 0 or from 2 to 1, if that node had a child.\n\nStarting at this subtree, it is necessary to check each of the ancestors for consistency with the invariants of AVL trees. This is called \"retracing\".\n\nSince with a single deletion the height of an AVL subtree cannot decrease by more than one, the temporary balance factor of a node will be in the range from −2 to +2.\nIf the balance factor remains in the range from −1 to +1 it can be adjusted in accord with the AVL rules. If it becomes ±2 then the subtree is unbalanced and needs to be rotated. The various cases of rotations are described in section Rebalancing.\n\n;Invariant of the retracing loop for a deletion\nThe height of the subtree rooted by N has decreased by 1. It is already in AVL shape.\n\n for (X = parent(N); X != null; X = G) { // Loop (possibly up to the root)\n G = parent(X); // Save parent of X around rotations\n // BalanceFactor(X) has not yet been updated!\n if (N == left_child(X)) { // the left subtree decreases\n if (BalanceFactor(X) > 0) { // X is right-heavy\n // ===> the temporary BalanceFactor(X) == +2\n // ===> rebalancing is required.\n Z = right_child(X); // Sibling of N (higher by 2)\n b = BalanceFactor(Z);\n if (b the temporary BalanceFactor(X) == –2\n // ===> rebalancing is required.\n Z = left_child(X); // Sibling of N (higher by 2)\n b = BalanceFactor(Z);\n if (b > 0) // Left Right Case\n N = rotate_LeftRight(X,Z); // Double rotation: Left(Z) then Right(X)\n else // Left Left Case\n N = rotate_Right(X,Z); // Single rotation Right(X)\n // After rotation adapt parent link\n }\n else {\n if (BalanceFactor(X) == 0) {\n BalanceFactor(X) = –1; // N’s height decrease is absorbed at X.\n break; // Leave the loop\n }\n N = X;\n BalanceFactor(N) = 0; // Height(N) decreases by 1\n continue;\n }\n }\n // After a rotation adapt parent link:\n // N is the new root of the rotated subtree\n parent(N) = G;\n if (G != null) {\n if (X == left_child(G))\n left_child(G) = N;\n else\n right_child(G) = N;\n if (b == 0)\n break; // Height does not change: Leave the loop\n }\n else {\n tree->root = N; // N is the new root of the total tree\n continue;\n }\n // Height(N) decreases by 1 (== old Height(X)-1)\n }\n // Unless loop is left via break, the height of the total tree decreases by 1.\n\nThe retracing can stop if the balance factor becomes ±1 meaning that the height of that subtree remains unchanged.\n\nIf the balance factor becomes 0 then the height of the subtree decreases by one and the retracing needs to continue.\n\nIf the balance factor temporarily becomes ±2, this has to be repaired by an appropriate rotation. It depends on the balance factor of the sibling Z (the higher child tree) whether the height of the subtree decreases by one or does not change (the latter, if Z has the balance factor 0).\n\nThe time required is for lookup, plus a maximum of retracing levels ( on average) on the way back to the root, so the operation can be completed in time.\n\n===Set operations and bulk operations===\nIn addition to the single-element insert, delete and lookup operations, several set operations have been defined on AVL trees: union, intersection and set difference. Then fast ''bulk'' operations on insertions or deletions can be implemented based on these set functions. These set operations rely on two helper operations, ''Split'' and ''Join''. With the new operations, the implementation of AVL trees can be more efficient and highly-parallelizable.\n\n*''Join'': The function ''Join'' is on two AVL trees and and a key will return a tree containing all elements in , as well as . It requires to be greater than all keys in and smaller than all keys in . If the two trees differ by height at most one, ''Join'' simply create a new node with left subtree , root and right subtree . Otherwise, suppose that is higher than for more than one (the other case is symmetric). ''Join'' follows the right spine of until a node which is balanced with . At this point a new node with left child , root and right child is created to replace c. The new node satisfies the AVL invariant, and its height is one greater than . The increase in height can increase the height of its ancestors, possibly invalidating the AVL invariant of those nodes. This can be fixed either with a double rotation if invalid at the parent or a single left rotation if invalid higher in the tree, in both cases restoring the height for any further ancestor nodes. ''Join'' will therefore require at most two rotations. The cost of this function is the difference of the heights between the two input trees.\n*''Split'': To split an AVL tree into two smaller trees, those smaller than key ''x'', and those larger than key ''x'', first draw a path from the root by inserting ''x'' into the AVL. After this insertion, all values less than ''x'' will be found on the left of the path, and all values greater than ''x'' will be found on the right. By applying ''Join'', all the subtrees on the left side are merged bottom-up using keys on the path as intermediate nodes from bottom to top to form the left tree, and the right part is asymmetric. The cost of ''Split'' is order of , the height of the tree.\n\nThe union of two AVLs and representing sets and , is an AVL that represents . The following recursive function computes this union:\n\n '''function''' union(t1, t2):\n '''if''' t1 = nil:\n '''return''' t2\n '''if''' t2 = nil:\n '''return''' t1\n t, t> ← split t2 on t1.root\n '''return''' join(t1.root,union(left(t1), t),union(right(t1), t>))\n\nHere, ''Split'' is presumed to return two trees: one holding the keys less its input key, one holding the greater keys. (The algorithm is non-destructive, but an in-place destructive version exists as well.)\n\nThe algorithm for intersection or difference is similar, but requires the ''Join2'' helper routine that is the same as ''Join'' but without the middle key. Based on the new functions for union, intersection or difference, either one key or multiple keys can be inserted to or deleted from the AVL tree. Since ''Split'' calls ''Join'' but does not deal with the balancing criteria of AVL trees directly, such an implementation is usually called the \"join-based\" implementation.\n\nThe complexity of each of union, intersection and difference is for AVLs of sizes and . More importantly, since the recursive calls to union, intersection or difference are independent of each other, they can be executed in parallel with a parallel depth . When , the join-based implementation has the same computational DAG as single-element insertion and deletion.\n",
"If during a modifying operation (e.g. insert, delete) a (temporary) height difference of more than one arises between two child subtrees, the parent subtree has to be \"rebalanced\". The given repair tools are the so-called tree rotations, because they move the keys only \"vertically\", so that the (\"horizontal\") in-order sequence of the keys is fully preserved (which is essential for a binary-search tree).\n\nLet Z be the child higher by 2 (see figures 4 and 5). Two flavors of rotations are required: simple and double. Rebalancing can be accomplished by a simple rotation (see figure 4) if the inner child of Z, that is the child with a child direction opposite to that of Z, (t23 in figure 4, Y in figure 5) is ''not higher'' than its sibling, the outer child t4 in both figures. This situation is called \"Right Right\" or \"Left Left\" in the literature.\n\nOn the other hand, if the inner child (t23 in figure 4, Y in figure 5) of Z ''is'' higher than t4 then rebalancing can be accomplished by a double rotation (see figure 5). This situation is called \"Right Left\" because X is right- and Z left-heavy (or \"Left Right\" if X is left- and Z is right-heavy). From a mere graph-theoretic point of view, the two rotations of a double are just single rotations. But they encounter and have to maintain other configurations of balance factors. So, in effect, it is simpler – and more efficient – to specialize, just as in the original paper, where the double rotation is called Большое вращение (lit. ''big turn'') as opposed to the simple rotation which is called Малое вращение (lit. ''little turn''). But there are alternatives: one could e.g. update all the balance factors in a separate walk from leaf to root.\n\nThe cost of a rotation, both simple and double, is constant.\n\nFor both flavors of rotations a mirrored version, i.e. rotate_Right or rotate_LeftRight, respectively, is required as well.\n\n===Simple rotation===\nFigure 4 shows a Right Right situation. In its upper half, node X has two child trees with a balance factor of +2. Moreover, the inner child t23 of Z is not higher than its sibling t4. This can happen by a height increase of subtree t4 or by a height decrease of subtree t1. In the latter case, also the pale situation where t23 has the same height as t4 may occur.\n\nThe result of the left rotation is shown in the lower half of the figure. Three links (thick edges in figure 4) and two balance factors are to be updated.\n\nAs the figure shows, before an insertion, the leaf layer was at level h+1, temporarily at level h+2 and after the rotation again at level h+1. In case of a deletion, the leaf layer was at level h+2, where it is again, when t23 and t4 were of same height. Otherwise the leaf layer reaches level h+1, so that the height of the rotated tree decreases.\n\nFig. 4: Simple rotation''rotate_Left''(''X'',''Z'')\n;Code snippet of a simple left rotation\n\n\n Input: \n X = root of subtree to be rotated left\n\n \n Z = its right child, not left-heavy\n\n \n with height == X\n\nResult: \n new root of rebalanced subtree\n\n\n node* rotate_Left(node* X,node* Z) {\n // Z is by 2 higher than its sibling\n t23 = left_child(Z); // Inner child of Z\n right_child(X) = t23;\n if (t23 != null)\n parent(t23) = X;\n \n left_child(Z) = X;\n parent(X) = Z;\n \n // 1st case, BalanceFactor(Z) == 0, only happens with deletion, not insertion:\n if (BalanceFactor(Z) == 0) { // t23 has been of same height as t4\n BalanceFactor(X) = +1; // t23 now higher\n BalanceFactor(Z) = –1; // t4 now lower than X\n } else // 2nd case happens with insertion or deletion:\n {\n BalanceFactor(X) = 0;\n BalanceFactor(Z) = 0;\n }\n \n return Z; // return new root of rotated subtree\n }\n\n\n===Double rotation===\nFigure 5 shows a Right Left situation. In its upper third, node X has two child trees with a balance factor of +2. But unlike figure 4, the inner child Y of Z is higher than its sibling t4. This can happen by a height increase of subtree t2 or t3 (with the consequence that they are of different height) or by a height decrease of subtree t1. In the latter case, it may also occur that t2 and t3 are of same height.\n\nThe result of the first, the right, rotation is shown in the middle third of the figure. (With respect to the balance factors, this rotation is not of the same kind as the other AVL single rotations, because the height difference between Y and t4 is only 1.) The result of the final left rotation is shown in the lower third of the figure. Five links (thick edges in figure 5) and three balance factors are to be updated.\n\nAs the figure shows, before an insertion, the leaf layer was at level h+1, temporarily at level h+2 and after the double rotation again at level h+1. In case of a deletion, the leaf layer was at level h+2 and after the double rotation it is at level h+1, so that the height of the rotated tree decreases.\n\nFig. 5: Double rotation ''rotate_RightLeft''(''X'',''Z'')= ''rotate_Right'' around ''Z'' followed by''rotate_Left'' around ''X''\n;Code snippet of a right-left double rotation\n\n\n Input: \n X = root of subtree to be rotated\n\n \n Z = its right child, left-heavy\n\n \n with height == X\n\nResult: \n new root of rebalanced subtree\n\n\n node* rotate_RightLeft(node* X,node* Z) {\n // Z is by 2 higher than its sibling\n Y = left_child(Z); // Inner child of Z\n // Y is by 1 higher than sibling\n t3 = right_child(Y);\n left_child(Z) = t3;\n if (t3 != null)\n parent(t3) = Z;\n right_child(Y) = Z;\n parent(Z) = Y;\n t2 = left_child(Y);\n right_child(X) = t2;\n if (t2 != null)\n parent(t2) = X;\n left_child(Y) = X;\n parent(X) = Y;\n \n // 1st case, BalanceFactor(Y) > 0, happens with insertion or deletion:\n if (BalanceFactor(Y) > 0) { // t3 was higher\n BalanceFactor(X) = –1; // t1 now higher\n BalanceFactor(Z) = 0;\n } else // 2nd case, BalanceFactor(Y) == 0, only happens with deletion, not insertion:\n if (BalanceFactor(Y) == 0) {\n BalanceFactor(X) = 0;\n BalanceFactor(Z) = 0;\n } else // 3rd case happens with insertion or deletion:\n { // t2 was higher\n BalanceFactor(X) = 0;\n BalanceFactor(Z) = +1; // t4 now higher\n }\n BalanceFactor(Y) = 0;\n \n return Y; // return new root of rotated subtree\n }\n\n",
"Both AVL trees and red–black (RB) trees are self-balancing binary search trees and they are related mathematically. Indeed, every AVL tree can be colored red–black, but there are RB trees which are not AVL balanced. For maintaining the AVL resp. RB tree's invariants, rotations play an important role. In the worst case, even without rotations, AVL or RB insertions or deletions require inspections and/or updates to AVL balance factors resp. RB colors. RB insertions and deletions and AVL insertions require from zero to three tail-recursive rotations and run in amortized time, thus equally constant on average. AVL deletions requiring rotations in the worst case are also on average. RB trees require storing one bit of information (the color) in each node, while AVL trees mostly use two bits for the balance factor, although, when stored at the children, one bit with meaning «lower than sibling» suffices. The bigger difference between the two data structures is their height limit.\n\nFor a tree of size \n*an AVL tree’s height is at most\n*:\n:where the golden ratio, and .\n*an RB tree’s height is at most \n*: .\n\nAVL trees are more rigidly balanced than RB trees with an asymptotic relation ≈0.720 of the maximal heights. For insertions and deletions, Ben Pfaff shows in 79 measurements a relation of between 0.677 and 1.077 with median ≈0.947 and geometric mean ≈0.910.\n",
"*Trees\n*Tree rotation\n*Red–black tree\n*Splay tree\n*Scapegoat tree\n*B-tree\n*T-tree\n*List of data structures\n",
"\n",
"* Donald Knuth. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. . Pages 458–475 of section 6.2.3: Balanced Trees.\n",
"\n\n*\n* AVL tree demonstration (HTML5/Canvas)\n* AVL tree demonstration (requires Flash)\n* AVL tree demonstration (requires Java)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Definition",
"Operations",
"Rebalancing",
"Comparison to other structures",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | AVL tree |
[
"acyclic aliphatic compound or non-aromatic (butane) Cyclic aliphatic/non-aromatic compound (cyclobutane)\n\nIn organic chemistry, hydrocarbons (compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen) are divided into two classes: aromatic compounds and '''aliphatic compounds''' (; G. ''aleiphar'', fat, oil) also known as non-aromatic compounds. Aliphatics can be cyclic, but only aromatic compounds contain an especially stable ring of atoms, such as benzene. Aliphatic compounds can be saturated, like hexane, or unsaturated, like hexene and hexyne. Open-chain compounds (whether straight or branched) contain no rings of any type, and are thus aliphatic.\n",
"\nAliphatic compounds can be saturated, joined by single bonds (alkanes), or unsaturated, with double bonds (alkenes) or triple bonds (alkynes). Besides hydrogen, other elements can be bound to the carbon chain, the most common being oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine. \n\nThe least complex aliphatic compound is methane (CH4).\n",
"\nMost aliphatic compounds are flammable, allowing the use of hydrocarbons as fuel, such as methane in Bunsen burners and as liquefied natural gas (LNG), and acetylene in welding.\n",
"\nThe most important aliphatic compounds are:\n\n* n-, iso- and cyclo-alk'''an'''es (saturated hydrocarbons)\n* n-, iso- and cyclo-alk'''en'''es and -alk'''yn'''es (unsaturated hydrocarbons).\n\nImportant examples of low-molecular aliphatic compounds can be found in the list below (sorted by the number of carbon-atoms):\n\n\n\n Formula \n Name \n Structural Formula \n Chemical Classification\n\n CH4 \n Methane \n 75px \n Alkane\n\n C2H2 \n Acetylene \n 75px \n Alkyne\n\n C2H4 \n Ethylene \n 75px \n Alkene\n\n C2H6 \n Ethane \n 75px \n Alkane \n\n C3H4 \n Propyne \n 75px \n Alkyne \n\n C3H6 \n Propene \n 100px \n Alkene \n\n C3H8 \n Propane \n 100px \n Alkane\n\n C4H6 \n 1,2-Butadiene(CAS# 590-19-2) \n 100px \n Diene \n\n C4H6 \n 1-Butyne \n 100px \n Alkyne \n\n C4H8 \n 1-Butene \n 65px \n Alkene \n\n C4H10 \n Butane \n 100px \n Alkane \n\n C6H10 \n Cyclohexene \n 40px \n Cycloalkene \n\n C5H12 \n ''n''-pentane \n 75px \n Alkane \n\n C7H14 \n Cycloheptane \n 50px \n Cycloalkane \n\n C7H14 \n Methylcyclohexane \n 75px \n Cyclohexane \n\n C8H8 \n Cubane \n 75px \n Cyclobutane \n\n C9H20 \n Nonane \n 100px \n Alkane \n\n C10H12 \n Dicyclopentadiene \n 125px \n Diene, Cycloalkene\n\n C10H16 \n Phellandrene \n 50px50px \n Terpene, Diene Cycloalkene \n\n C10H16 \n α-Terpinene \n 90px \n Terpene, Cycloalkene, Diene \n\n C10H16 \n Limonene \n 50px50px \n Terpene, Diene, Cycloalkene \n\n C11H24 \n Undecane \n 125px \n Alkane \n\n C30H50 \n Squalene \n 125px \n Terpene, Polyene \n\nC2nH4n \n Polyethylene \n 75px \n Alkane \n\n",
"\n* Aromatic compound\n",
"\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Structure ",
" Properties ",
" Examples of aliphatic compounds / non-aromatic ",
" See also ",
"References"
] | Aliphatic compound |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Astrology''' is the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial objects as a means for divining information about human affairs and terrestrial events. Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, and has its roots in calendrical systems used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications. Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and some – such as the Indians, Chinese, and Maya – developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. Western astrology, one of the oldest astrological systems still in use, can trace its roots to 19th–17th century BCE Mesopotamia, from which it spread to Ancient Greece, Rome, the Arab world and eventually Central and Western Europe. Contemporary Western astrology is often associated with systems of horoscopes that purport to explain aspects of a person's personality and predict significant events in their lives based on the positions of celestial objects; the majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems.\n\nThroughout most of its history astrology was considered a scholarly tradition and was common in academic circles, often in close relation with astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine. It was present in political circles, and is mentioned in various works of literature, from Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer to William Shakespeare, Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca.\n\nDuring the 20th century and following the wide-scale adoption of the scientific method, astrology has been challenged successfully on both theoretical and experimental grounds, and has been shown to have no scientific validity or explanatory power. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in it has largely declined. While polling studies have demonstrated that approximately 25% of Americans, Canadians, and Britons say they continue to believe that star and planet positions affect their lives, astrology is now recognized as pseudoscience.\n",
"\nMarcantonio Raimondi engraving, 15th century\n\nThe word ''astrology'' comes from the early Latin word ''astrologia'', which derives from the Greek —from ἄστρον ''astron'' (\"star\") and -λογία ''-logia'', (\"study of\"—\"account of the stars\"). ''Astrologia'' later passed into meaning 'star-divination' with ''astronomia'' used for the scientific term.\n",
"\n\n''The Zodiac Man'' a diagram of a human body and astrological symbols with instructions explaining the importance of astrology from a medical perspective. From a 15th-century Welsh manuscript\n\nMany cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and the Indians, Chinese, and Maya developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. In the West, astrology most often consists of a system of horoscopes purporting to explain aspects of a person's personality and predict future events in their life based on the positions of the sun, moon, and other celestial objects at the time of their birth. The majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems.\n\nAstrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, with roots in calendrical systems used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications. A form of astrology was practised in the first dynasty of Mesopotamia (1950–1651 BCE). Chinese astrology was elaborated in the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE). Hellenistic astrology after 332 BCE mixed Babylonian astrology with Egyptian Decanic astrology in Alexandria, creating horoscopic astrology. Alexander the Great's conquest of Asia allowed astrology to spread to Ancient Greece and Rome. In Rome, astrology was associated with 'Chaldean wisdom'. After the conquest of Alexandria in the 7th century, astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars, and Hellenistic texts were translated into Arabic and Persian. In the 12th century, Arabic texts were imported to Europe and translated into Latin. Major astronomers including Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler and Galileo practised as court astrologers. Astrological references appear in literature in the works of poets such as Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer, and of playwrights such as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare.\n\nThroughout most of its history, astrology was considered a scholarly tradition. It was accepted in political and academic contexts, and was connected with other studies, such as astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine. At the end of the 17th century, new scientific concepts in astronomy and physics (such as heliocentrism and Newtonian mechanics) called astrology into question. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in astrology has largely declined.\n\n=== Ancient world ===\n\n\nAstrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaning in the sky. Early evidence for humans making conscious attempts to measure, record, and predict seasonal changes by reference to astronomical cycles, appears as markings on bones and cave walls, which show that lunar cycles were being noted as early as 25,000 years ago. This was a first step towards recording the Moon's influence upon tides and rivers, and towards organising a communal calendar. Farmers addressed agricultural needs with increasing knowledge of the constellations that appear in the different seasons—and used the rising of particular star-groups to herald annual floods or seasonal activities. By the 3rd millennium BCE, civilisations had sophisticated awareness of celestial cycles, and may have oriented temples in alignment with heliacal risings of the stars.\n\nScattered evidence suggests that the oldest known astrological references are copies of texts made in the ancient world. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa thought to be compiled in Babylon around 1700 BCE. A scroll documenting an early use of electional astrology is doubtfully ascribed to the reign of the Sumerian ruler Gudea of Lagash (c. 2144 – 2124 BCE). This describes how the gods revealed to him in a dream the constellations that would be most favourable for the planned construction of a temple. However, there is controversy about whether these were genuinely recorded at the time or merely ascribed to ancient rulers by posterity. The oldest undisputed evidence of the use of astrology as an integrated system of knowledge is therefore attributed to the records of the first dynasty of Mesopotamia (1950–1651 BCE). This astrology had some parallels with Hellenistic Greek (western) astrology, including the zodiac, a norming point near 9 degrees in Aries, the trine aspect, planetary exaltations, and the dodekatemoria (the twelve divisions of 30 degrees each). The Babylonians viewed celestial events as possible signs rather than as causes of physical events.\n\nThe system of Chinese astrology was elaborated during the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) and flourished during the Han Dynasty (2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE), during which all the familiar elements of traditional Chinese culture – the Yin-Yang philosophy, theory of the five elements, Heaven and Earth, Confucian morality – were brought together to formalise the philosophical principles of Chinese medicine and divination, astrology and alchemy.\n\n==== Ancient objections ====\n\nThe Roman orator Cicero objected to astrology\n\nCicero stated the twins objection (that with close birth times, personal outcomes can be very different), later developed by Saint Augustine. He argued that since the other planets are much more distant from the earth than the moon, they could have only very tiny influence compared to the moon's. He also argued that if astrology explains everything about a person's fate, then it wrongly ignores the visible effect of inherited ability and parenting, changes in health worked by medicine, or the effects of the weather on people.\n\nPlotinus argued that since the fixed stars are much more distant than the planets, it is laughable to imagine the planets' effect on mankind should depend on their position with respect to the zodiac. He also argues that the interpretation of the moon's conjunction with a planet as good when the moon is full, but bad when the moon is waning, is clearly wrong, as from the moon's point of view, half of her surface is always in sunlight; and from the planet's point of view, waning should be better, as then the planet sees some light from the moon, but when the moon is full to us, it is dark, and therefore bad, on the side facing the planet.\n\nFavorinus argued that it was absurd to imagine that stars and planets would affect human bodies in the same way as they affect the tides, and equally absurd that small motions in the heavens cause large changes in people's fates. Sextus Empiricus argued that it was absurd to link human attributes with myths about the signs of the zodiac. Carneades argued that belief in fate denies free will and morality; that people born at different times can all die in the same accident or battle; and that contrary to uniform influences from the stars, tribes and cultures are all different.\n\n=== Hellenistic Egypt ===\n\n\nPtolemy's ''Tetrabiblos'', translated into Latin by Plato of Tivoli|alt=Ptolemy's ''Tetrabiblos'', the Hellenistic text that founded Western astrology\nIn 525 BCE, Egypt was conquered by the Persians. The 1st century BCE Egyptian Dendera Zodiac shares two signs – the Balance and the Scorpion – with Mesopotamian astrology.\n\nWith the occupation by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, Egypt became Hellenistic. The city of Alexandria was founded by Alexander after the conquest, becoming the place where Babylonian astrology was mixed with Egyptian Decanic astrology to create Horoscopic astrology. This contained the Babylonian zodiac with its system of planetary exaltations, the triplicities of the signs and the importance of eclipses. It used the Egyptian concept of dividing the zodiac into thirty-six decans of ten degrees each, with an emphasis on the rising decan, and the Greek system of planetary Gods, sign rulership and four elements. 2nd century BCE texts predict positions of planets in zodiac signs at the time of the rising of certain decans, particularly Sothis. The astrologer and astronomer Ptolemy lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy's work the ''Tetrabiblos'' formed the basis of Western astrology, and, \"...enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more.\"\n\n=== Greece and Rome ===\n\nThe conquest of Asia by Alexander the Great exposed the Greeks to ideas from Syria, Babylon, Persia and central Asia. Around 280 BCE, Berossus, a priest of Bel from Babylon, moved to the Greek island of Kos, teaching astrology and Babylonian culture. By the 1st century BCE, there were two varieties of astrology, one using horoscopes to describe the past, present and future; the other, theurgic, emphasising the soul's ascent to the stars. Greek influence played a crucial role in the transmission of astrological theory to Rome.\n\nThe first definite reference to astrology in Rome comes from the orator Cato, who in 160 BCE warned farm overseers against consulting with Chaldeans, who were described as Babylonian 'star-gazers'. Among both Greeks and Romans, Babylonia (also known as Chaldea) became so identified with astrology that 'Chaldean wisdom' became synonymous with divination using planets and stars. The 2nd-century Roman poet and satirist Juvenal complains about the pervasive influence of Chaldeans, saying, \"Still more trusted are the Chaldaeans; every word uttered by the astrologer they will believe has come from Hammon's fountain.\"\n\nOne of the first astrologers to bring Hermetic astrology to Rome was Thrasyllus, astrologer to the emperor Tiberius, the first emperor to have had a court astrologer, though his predecessor Augustus had used astrology to help legitimise his Imperial rights.\n\n=== Medieval world ===\n\n==== Hindu ====\n\nThe main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the '''', and ''Sārāvalī'' by .\nThe ''Horāshastra'' is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the later 8th century. The ''Sārāvalī'' likewise dates to around 800 CE. English translations of these texts were published by N.N. Krishna Rau and V.B. Choudhari in 1963 and 1961, respectively.\n\n==== Islamic ====\n\n\nLatin translation of Abū Maʿshar's ''De Magnis Coniunctionibus'' ('Of the great conjunctions'), Venice, 1515\n\nAstrology was taken up by Islamic scholars following the collapse of Alexandria to the Arabs in the 7th century, and the founding of the Abbasid empire in the 8th. The second Abbasid caliph, Al Mansur (754–775) founded the city of Baghdad to act as a centre of learning, and included in its design a library-translation centre known as ''Bayt al-Hikma'' 'House of Wisdom', which continued to receive development from his heirs and was to provide a major impetus for Arabic-Persian translations of Hellenistic astrological texts. The early translators included Mashallah, who helped to elect the time for the foundation of Baghdad, and Sahl ibn Bishr, (''a.k.a.'' ''Zael''), whose texts were directly influential upon later European astrologers such as Guido Bonatti in the 13th century, and William Lilly in the 17th century. Knowledge of Arabic texts started to become imported into Europe during the Latin translations of the 12th century.\n\n==== Europe ====\n\nDante Alighieri meets the Emperor Justinian in the Sphere of Mercury, in Canto 5 of the ''Paradiso''\n\n\nThe first astrological book published in Europe was the ''Liber Planetis et Mundi Climatibus'' (\"Book of the Planets and Regions of the World\"), which appeared between 1010 and 1027 AD, and may have been authored by Gerbert of Aurillac. Ptolemy's second century AD ''Tetrabiblos'' was translated into Latin by Plato of Tivoli in 1138. The Dominican theologian Thomas Aquinas followed Aristotle in proposing that the stars ruled the imperfect 'sublunary' body, while attempting to reconcile astrology with Christianity by stating that God ruled the soul. The thirteenth century mathematician Campanus of Novara is said to have devised a system of astrological houses that divides the prime vertical into 'houses' of equal 30° arcs, though the system was used earlier in the East. The thirteenth century astronomer Guido Bonatti wrote a textbook, the ''Liber Astronomicus'', a copy of which King Henry VII of England owned at the end of the fifteenth century.\n\nIn ''Paradiso'', the final part of the ''Divine Comedy'', the Italian poet Dante Alighieri referred \"in countless details\" to the astrological planets, though he adapted traditional astrology to suit his Christian viewpoint, for example using astrological thinking in his prophecies of the reform of Christendom.\n\n==== Medieval objections ====\n\nThe medieval theologian Isidore of Seville criticised the predictive part of astrology\n\nIn the seventh century, Isidore of Seville argued in his ''Etymologiae'' that astronomy described the movements of the heavens, while astrology had two parts: one was scientific, describing the movements of the sun, the moon and the stars, while the other, making predictions, was theologically erroneous. In contrast, John Gower in the fourteenth century defined astrology as essentially limited to the making of predictions. The influence of the stars was in turn divided into natural astrology, with for example effects on tides and the growth of plants, and judicial astrology, with supposedly predictable effects on people. The fourteenth century sceptic Nicole Oresme however included astronomy as a part of astrology in his ''Livre de divinacions''. Oresme argued that current approaches to prediction of events such as plagues, wars, and weather were inappropriate, but that such prediction was a valid field of inquiry. However, he attacked the use of astrology to choose the timing of actions (so-called interrogation and election) as wholly false, and rejected the determination of human action by the stars on grounds of free will. The friar Laurens Pignon (c. 1368–1449) similarly rejected all forms of divination and determinism, including by the stars, in his 1411 ''Contre les Devineurs''. This was in opposition to the tradition carried by the Arab astronomer Albumasar (787-886) whose ''Introductorium in Astronomiam'' and ''De Magnis Coniunctionibus'' argued the view that both individual actions and larger scale history are determined by the stars.\n\n=== Renaissance and Early Modern ===\n\nRobert Fludd's ''Utriusque Cosmi Historia'', 1617\n\nRenaissance scholars commonly practised astrology. Gerolamo Cardano cast the horoscope of king Edward VI of England, while John Dee was the personal astrologer to queen Elizabeth I of England. Catherine de Medici paid Michael Nostradamus in 1566 to verify the prediction of the death of her husband, king Henry II of France made by her astrologer Lucus Gauricus. Major astronomers who practised as court astrologers included Tycho Brahe in the royal court of Denmark, Johannes Kepler to the Habsburgs, Galileo Galilei to the Medici, and Giordano Bruno who was burnt at the stake for heresy in Rome in 1600. The distinction between astrology and astronomy was not entirely clear. Advances in astronomy were often motivated by the desire to improve the accuracy of astrology.\n\nEphemerides with complex astrological calculations, and almanacs interpreting celestial events for use in medicine and for choosing times to plant crops, were popular in Elizabethan England. In 1597, the English mathematician and physician Thomas Hood made a set of paper instruments that used revolving overlays to help students work out relationships between fixed stars or constellations, the midheaven, and the twelve astrological houses. Hood's instruments also illustrated, for pedagogical purposes, the supposed relationships between the signs of the zodiac, the planets, and the parts of the human body adherents believed were governed by the planets and signs. While Hood's presentation was innovative, his astrological information was largely standard and was taken from Gerard Mercator's astrological disc made in 1551, or a source used by Mercator.\n\nEnglish astrology had reached its zenith by the 17th century. Astrologers were theorists, researchers, and social engineers, as well as providing individual advice to everyone from monarchs downwards. Among other things, astrologers could advise on the best time to take a journey or harvest a crop, diagnose and prescribe for physical or mental illnesses, and predict natural disasters. This underpinned a system in which everything—people, the world, the universe—was understood to be interconnected, and astrology co-existed happily with religion, magic and science.\n\n=== Enlightenment period and onwards ===\n\nDuring the Enlightenment, intellectual sympathy for astrology fell away, leaving only a popular following supported by cheap almanacs. One English almanac compiler, Richard Saunders, followed the spirit of the age by printing a derisive ''Discourse on the Invalidity of Astrology'', while in France Pierre Bayle's ''Dictionnaire'' of 1697 stated that the subject was puerile. The Anglo-Irish satirist Jonathan Swift ridiculed the Whig political astrologer John Partridge.\n\nAstrology saw a popular revival starting in the 19th century, as part of a general revival of spiritualism and—later, New Age philosophy, and through the influence of mass media such as newspaper horoscopes. Early in the 20th century the psychiatrist Carl Jung developed some concepts concerning astrology, which led to the development of psychological astrology.\n",
"Advocates have defined astrology as a symbolic language, an art form, a science, and a method of divination. Though most cultural astrology systems share common roots in ancient philosophies that influenced each other, many use methods that differ from those in the West. These include Hindu astrology (also known as \"Indian astrology\" and in modern times referred to as \"Vedic astrology\") and Chinese astrology, both of which have influenced the world's cultural history.\n\n=== Western ===\n\n\nWestern astrology is a form of divination based on the construction of a horoscope for an exact moment, such as a person's birth. It uses the tropical zodiac, which is aligned to the equinoctial points.\n\nWestern astrology is founded on the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies such as the Sun, Moon and planets, which are analysed by their movement through signs of the zodiac (twelve spatial divisions of the ecliptic) and by their aspects (based on geometric angles) relative to one another. They are also considered by their placement in houses (twelve spatial divisions of the sky). Astrology's modern representation in western popular media is usually reduced to sun sign astrology, which considers only the zodiac sign of the Sun at an individual's date of birth, and represents only 1/12 of the total chart.\n\nThe horoscope visually expresses the set of relationships for the time and place of the chosen event. These relationships are between the seven 'planets', signifying tendencies such as war and love; the twelve signs of the zodiac; and the twelve houses. Each planet is in a particular sign and a particular house at the chosen time, when observed from the chosen place, creating two kinds of relationship. A third kind is the aspect of each planet to every other planet, where for example two planets 120° apart (in 'trine') are in a harmonious relationship, but two planets 90° apart ('square') are in a conflicted relationship. Together these relationships and their interpretations supposedly form \"...the language of the heavens speaking to learned men.\"\n\nAlong with tarot divination, astrology is one of the core studies of Western esotericism, and as such has influenced systems of magical belief not only among Western esotericists and Hermeticists, but also belief systems such as Wicca that have borrowed from or been influenced by the Western esoteric tradition. Tanya Luhrmann has said that \"all magicians know something about astrology,\" and refers to a table of correspondences in Starhawk's ''The Spiral Dance'', organised by planet, as an example of the astrological lore studied by magicians.\n\n=== Hindu ===\n\n\nPage from an Indian astrological treatise, c. 1750\n\nThe earliest Vedic text on astronomy is the ''Vedanga Jyotisha''; Vedic thought later came to include astrology as well.\n\nHindu natal astrology originated with Hellenistic astrology by the 3rd century BCE, though incorporating the Hindu lunar mansions. The names of the signs (e.g. Greek 'Krios' for Aries, Hindi 'Kriya'), the planets (e.g. Greek 'Helios' for Sun, astrological Hindi 'Heli'), and astrological terms (e.g. Greek 'apoklima' and 'sunaphe' for declination and planetary conjunction, Hindi 'apoklima' and 'sunapha' respectively) in Varaha Mihira's texts are considered conclusive evidence of a Greek origin for Hindu astrology. The Indian techniques may also have been augmented with some of the Babylonian techniques.\n\n=== Chinese and East-Asian ===\n\nChinese astrology has a close relation with Chinese philosophy (theory of the three harmonies: heaven, earth and man) and uses concepts such as yin and yang, the Five phases, the 10 Celestial stems, the 12 Earthly Branches, and shichen (時辰 a form of timekeeping used for religious purposes). The early use of Chinese astrology was mainly confined to political astrology, the observation of unusual phenomena, identification of portents and the selection of auspicious days for events and decisions.\n\nThe constellations of the Zodiac of western Asia and Europe were not used; instead the sky is divided into Three Enclosures (三垣 sān yuán), and Twenty-eight Mansions (二十八宿 èrshíbā xiù) in twelve Ci (十二次). The Chinese zodiac of twelve animal signs is said to represent twelve different types of personality. It is based on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (the shichen). The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and the cycle proceeds through 11 other animals signs: the Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig. Complex systems of predicting fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season, and birth hours, such as ''ziping'' and Zi Wei Dou Shu () are still used regularly in modern-day Chinese astrology. They do not rely on direct observations of the stars.\n\nThe Korean zodiac is identical to the Chinese one. The Vietnamese zodiac is almost identical to Chinese zodiac except the second animal is the ''Water Buffalo'' instead of the ''Ox'', and the fourth animal is the ''Cat'' instead of the ''Rabbit''. The Japanese have since 1873 celebrated the beginning of the new year on 1 January as per the Gregorian Calendar. The Thai zodiac begins, not at Chinese New Year, but either on the first day of fifth month in the Thai lunar calendar, or during the Songkran festival (now celebrated every 13–15 April), depending on the purpose of the use.\n",
"\n\n=== Ancient ===\n\nSt. Augustine (354430) believed that the determinism of astrology conflicted with the Christian doctrines of man's free will and responsibility, and God not being the cause of evil, but he also grounded his opposition philosophically, citing the failure of astrology to explain twins who behave differently although conceived at the same moment and born at approximately the same time.\n\n=== Medieval ===\n\nSome of the practices of astrology were contested on theological grounds by medieval Muslim astronomers such as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) and Avicenna. They said that the methods of astrologers conflicted with orthodox religious views of Islamic scholars, by suggesting that the Will of God can be known and predicted in advance. For example, Avicenna's 'Refutation against astrology', ''Risāla fī ibṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm'', argues against the practice of astrology while supporting the principle that planets may act as agents of divine causation. Avicenna considered that the movement of the planets influenced life on earth in a deterministic way, but argued against the possibility of determining the exact influence of the stars. Essentially, Avicenna did not deny the core dogma of astrology, but denied our ability to understand it to the extent that precise and fatalistic predictions could be made from it. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in his ''Miftah Dar al-SaCadah'', also used physical arguments in astronomy to question the practice of judicial astrology. He recognised that the stars are much larger than the planets, and argued:\n\n\n\n=== Modern ===\n\nThe Catechism of the Catholic Church maintains that divination, including predictive astrology, is incompatible with modern Catholic beliefs such as free will:\n\n\n",
"\n\nPopper proposed falsifiability as something that distinguishes science from non-science, using astrology as the example of an idea that has not dealt with falsification during experiment\n\nThe scientific community rejects astrology as having no explanatory power for describing the universe, and considers it a pseudoscience. Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions. There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict well understood, basic aspects of biology and physics. Those who continue to have faith in astrology have been characterised as doing so \"...in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary.\"\n\nConfirmation bias is a form of cognitive bias, a psychological factor that contributes to belief in astrology. Astrology believers tend to selectively remember predictions that turn out to be true, and do not remember those that turn out false. Another, separate, form of confirmation bias also plays a role, where believers often fail to distinguish between messages that demonstrate special ability and those that do not. Thus there are two distinct forms of confirmation bias that are under study with respect to astrological belief.\n\n=== Demarcation ===\n\nUnder the criterion of falsifiability, first proposed by philosopher of science Karl Popper, astrology is a pseudoscience. Popper regarded astrology as \"pseudo-empirical\" in that \"it appeals to observation and experiment,\" but \"nevertheless does not come up to scientific standards.\" In contrast to scientific disciplines, astrology has not responded to falsification through experiment.\n\nIn contrast to Popper, the philosopher Thomas Kuhn argued that it was not lack of falsifiability that makes astrology unscientific, but rather that the process and concepts of astrology are non-empirical. Kuhn thought that, though astrologers had, historically, made predictions that categorically failed, this in itself does not make it unscientific, nor do attempts by astrologers to explain away failures by claiming that creating a horoscope is very difficult. Rather, in Kuhn's eyes, astrology is not science because it was always more akin to medieval medicine; they followed a sequence of rules and guidelines for a seemingly necessary field with known shortcomings, but they did no research because the fields are not amenable to research, and so \"they had no puzzles to solve and therefore no science to practise.\" While an astronomer could correct for failure, an astrologer could not. An astrologer could only explain away failure but could not revise the astrological hypothesis in a meaningful way. As such, to Kuhn, even if the stars could influence the path of humans through life astrology is not scientific.\n\nThe philosopher Paul Thagard asserts that astrology cannot be regarded as falsified in this sense until it has been replaced with a successor. In the case of predicting behaviour, psychology is the alternative. To Thagard a further criterion of demarcation of science from pseudoscience is that the state-of-the-art must progress and that the community of researchers should be attempting to compare the current theory to alternatives, and not be \"selective in considering confirmations and disconfirmations.\" Progress is defined here as explaining new phenomena and solving existing problems, yet astrology has failed to progress having only changed little in nearly 2000 years. To Thagard, astrologers are acting as though engaged in normal science believing that the foundations of astrology were well established despite the \"many unsolved problems,\" and in the face of better alternative theories (psychology). For these reasons Thagard views astrology as pseudoscience.\n\nFor the philosopher Edward W. James, astrology is irrational not because of the numerous problems with mechanisms and falsification due to experiments, but because an analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is infused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning.\n\n\n\n=== Effectiveness ===\n\nAstrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity. Where it has made falsifiable predictions under controlled conditions, they have been falsified. One famous experiment included 28 astrologers who were asked to match over a hundred natal charts to psychological profiles generated by the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) questionnaire. The double-blind experimental protocol used in this study was agreed upon by a group of physicists and a group of astrologers nominated by the National Council for Geocosmic Research, who advised the experimenters, helped ensure that the test was fair and helped draw the central proposition of natal astrology to be tested. They also chose 26 out of the 28 astrologers for the tests (two more volunteered afterwards). The study, published in ''Nature'' in 1985, found that predictions based on natal astrology were no better than chance, and that the testing \"...clearly refutes the astrological hypothesis.\"\n\nIn 1955, the astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin stated that though he had failed to find evidence that supported indicators like zodiacal signs and planetary aspects in astrology, he did find positive correlations between the diurnal positions of some planets and success in professions that astrology traditionally associates with those planets. The best-known of Gauquelin's findings is based on the positions of Mars in the natal charts of successful athletes and became known as the ''Mars effect''. A study conducted by seven French scientists attempted to replicate the claim, but found no statistical evidence. They attributed the effect to selective bias on Gauquelin's part, accusing him of attempting to persuade them to add or delete names from their study.\n\nGeoffrey Dean has suggested that the effect may be caused by self-reporting of birth dates by parents rather than any issue with the study by Gauquelin. The suggestion is that a small subset of the parents may have had changed birth times to be consistent with better astrological charts for a related profession. The number of births under astrologically undesirable conditions was also lower, indicating that parents choose dates and times to suit their beliefs. The sample group was taken from a time where belief in astrology was more common. Gauquelin had failed to find the Mars effect in more recent populations, where a nurse or doctor recorded the birth information.\n\nDean, a scientist and former astrologer, and psychologist Ivan Kelly conducted a large scale scientific test that involved more than one hundred cognitive, behavioural, physical, and other variables—but found no support for astrology. Furthermore, a meta-analysis pooled 40 studies that involved 700 astrologers and over 1,000 birth charts. Ten of the tests—which involved 300 participants—had the astrologers pick the correct chart interpretation out of a number of others that were not the astrologically correct chart interpretation (usually three to five others). When date and other obvious clues were removed, no significant results suggested there was any preferred chart.\n\n=== Lack of mechanisms and consistency ===\n\nTesting the validity of astrology can be difficult, because there is no consensus amongst astrologers as to what astrology is or what it can predict. Most professional astrologers are paid to predict the future or describe a person's personality and life, but most horoscopes only make vague untestable statements that can apply to almost anyone.\n\nMany astrologers claim that astrology is scientific, while some have proposed conventional causal agents such as electromagnetism and gravity. Scientists reject these mechanisms as implausible since, for example, the magnetic field, when measured from earth, of a large but distant planet such as Jupiter is far smaller than that produced by ordinary household appliances.\n\nWestern astrology has taken the earth's axial precession (also called precession of the equinoxes) into account since Ptolemy's ''Almagest'', so the 'first point of Aries', the start of the astrological year, continually moves against the background of the stars. The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars, and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated sign, astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations. Charpak and Broch, noting this, referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as being \"...empty boxes that have nothing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency or correspondence with the stars.\" Sole use of the tropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made, by the same astrologers, to the Age of Aquarius, which depends on when the vernal point enters the constellation of Aquarius.\n\nAstrologers usually have only a small knowledge of astronomy, and often do not take into account basic principles—such as the precession of the equinoxes, which changes the position of the sun with time. They commented on the example of Élizabeth Teissier, who claimed that, \"The sun ends up in the same place in the sky on the same date each year,\" as the basis for claims that two people with the same birthday, but a number of years apart, should be under the same planetary influence. Charpak and Broch noted that, \"There is a difference of about twenty-two thousand miles between Earth's location on any specific date in two successive years,\" and that thus they should not be under the same influence according to astrology. Over a 40 years period there would be a difference greater than 780,000 miles.\n",
"\n\n\n=== Western politics and society ===\n\nIn the West, political leaders have sometimes consulted astrologers. For example, the British intelligence agency MI5 employed Louis de Wohl as an astrologer after claims surfaced that Adolf Hitler used astrology to time his actions. The War Office was \"...interested to know what Hitler's own astrologers would be telling him from week to week.\" In fact, de Wohl's predictions were so inaccurate that he was soon labelled a \"complete charlatan,\" and later evidence showed that Hitler considered astrology \"complete nonsense.\" After John Hinckley's attempted assassination of US President Ronald Reagan, first lady Nancy Reagan commissioned astrologer Joan Quigley to act as the secret White House astrologer. However, Quigley's role ended in 1988 when it became public through the memoirs of former chief of staff, Donald Regan.\n\nThere was a boom in interest in astrology in the late 1960s. The sociologist Marcello Truzzi described three levels of involvement of \"Astrology-believers\" to account for its revived popularity in the face of scientific discrediting. He found that most astrology-believers did not claim it was a scientific explanation with predictive power. Instead, those superficially involved, knowing \"next to nothing\" about astrology's 'mechanics', read newspaper astrology columns, and could benefit from \"tension-management of anxieties\" and \"a cognitive belief-system that transcends science.\" Those at the second level usually had their horoscopes cast and sought advice and predictions. They were much younger than those at the first level, and could benefit from knowledge of the language of astrology and the resulting ability to belong to a coherent and exclusive group. Those at the third level were highly involved and usually cast horoscopes for themselves. Astrology provided this small minority of astrology-believers with a \"''meaningful'' view of their universe and gave them an ''understanding'' of their place in it.\" This third group took astrology seriously, possibly as a ''sacred canopy'', whereas the other two groups took it playfully and irreverently.\n\nIn 1953, the sociologist Theodor W. Adorno conducted a study of the astrology column of a Los Angeles newspaper as part of a project examining mass culture in capitalist society. Adorno believed that popular astrology, as a device, invariably leads to statements that encouraged conformity—and that astrologers who go against conformity, by discouraging performance at work etc., risk losing their jobs. Adorno concluded that astrology is a large-scale manifestation of systematic irrationalism, where individuals are subtly led—through flattery and vague generalisations—to believe that the author of the column is addressing them directly. Adorno drew a parallel with the phrase opium of the people, by Karl Marx, by commenting, \"occultism is the metaphysic of the dopes.\"\n\nA 2005 Gallup poll and a 2009 survey by the Pew Research Center reported that 25% of US adults believe in astrology. According to data released in the National Science Foundation's 2014 ''Science and Engineering Indicators'' study, \"Fewer Americans rejected astrology in 2012 than in recent years.\" The NSF study noted that in 2012, \"slightly more than half of Americans said that astrology was 'not at all scientific,' whereas nearly two-thirds gave this response in 2010. The comparable percentage has not been this low since 1983.\"\n\n=== India and Japan ===\n\nBirth (in blue) and death (in red) rates of Japan since 1950, with the sudden drop in births during hinoeuma year (1966)\n\nIn India, there is a long-established and widespread belief in astrology. It is commonly used for daily life, particularly in matters concerning marriage and career, and makes extensive use of electional, horary and karmic astrology. Indian politics have also been influenced by astrology. It is still considered a branch of the Vedanga. In 2001, Indian scientists and politicians debated and critiqued a proposal to use state money to fund research into astrology, resulting in permission for Indian universities to offer courses in Vedic astrology.\n\nOn February 2011, the Bombay High Court reaffirmed astrology's standing in India when it dismissed a case that challenged its status as a science.\n\nIn Japan, strong belief in astrology has led to dramatic changes in the fertility rate and the number of abortions in the years of ''Fire Horse''. Adherents believe that women born in ''hinoeuma'' years are unmarriageable and bring bad luck to their father or husband. In 1966, the number of babies born in Japan dropped by over 25% as parents tried to avoid the stigma of having a daughter born in the hinoeuma year.\n\n=== Literature and music ===\n\nJohn Lyly's astrological play, ''The Woman in the Moon'', 1597\n\nThe fourteenth-century English poets John Gower and Geoffrey Chaucer both referred to astrology in their works, including Gower's ''Confessio Amantis'' and Chaucer's ''The Canterbury Tales''. Chaucer commented explicitly on astrology in his ''Treatise on the Astrolabe'', demonstrating personal knowledge of one area, judicial astrology, with an account of how to find the ascendant or rising sign.\n\nIn the fifteenth century, references to astrology, such as with similes, became \"a matter of course\" in English literature.\n\nIn the sixteenth century, John Lyly's 1597 play, ''The Woman in the Moon'', is wholly motivated by astrology, while Christopher Marlowe makes astrological references in his plays ''Doctor Faustus'' and ''Tamburlaine'' (both c. 1590), and Sir Philip Sidney refers to astrology at least four times in his romance ''The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia'' (c. 1580). Edmund Spenser uses astrology both decoratively and causally in his poetry, revealing \"...unmistakably an abiding interest in the art, an interest shared by a large number of his contemporaries.\" George Chapman's play, ''Byron's Conspiracy'' (1608), similarly uses astrology as a causal mechanism in the drama. William Shakespeare's attitude towards astrology is unclear, with contradictory references in plays including ''King Lear'', ''Antony and Cleopatra'', and ''Richard II''. Shakespeare was familiar with astrology and made use of his knowledge of astrology in nearly every play he wrote, assuming a basic familiarity with the subject in his commercial audience. Outside theatre, the physician and mystic Robert Fludd practised astrology, as did the quack doctor Simon Forman. In Elizabethan England, \"The usual feeling about astrology ... was that it is the most useful of the sciences.\"\n\nCalderón de la Barca's ''Astrologo Fingido'', Madrid, 1641\n\nIn seventeenth century Spain, Lope de Vega, with a detailed knowledge of astronomy, wrote plays that ridicule astrology. In his pastoral romance ''La Arcadia'' (1598), it leads to absurdity; in his novela ''Guzman el Bravo'' (1624), he concludes that the stars were made for man, not man for the stars. Calderón de la Barca wrote the 1641 comedy ''Astrologo Fingido'' (The Pretended Astrologer); the plot was borrowed by the French playwright Thomas Corneille for his 1651 comedy ''Feint Astrologue''.\n\nThe most famous piece of music influenced by astrology is the orchestral suite ''The Planets''. Written by the British composer Gustav Holst (1874–1934), and first performed in 1918, the framework of ''The Planets'' is based upon the astrological symbolism of the planets. Each of the seven movements of the suite is based upon a different planet, though the movements are not in the order of the planets from the Sun. The composer Colin Matthews wrote an eighth movement entitled ''Pluto, the Renewer'', first performed in 2000. In 1937, another British composer, Constant Lambert, wrote a ballet on astrological themes, called ''Horoscope''. In 1974, the New Zealand composer Edwin Carr wrote ''The Twelve Signs: An Astrological Entertainment'' for orchestra without strings. Camille Paglia acknowledges astrology as an influence on her work of literary criticism ''Sexual Personae'' (1990).\n\nAstrology features strongly in Eleanor Catton's ''The Luminaries'', recipient of the 2013 Man Booker Prize.\n",
"\n\n\n* Barnum effect\n* List of astrological traditions, types, and systems\n* List of topics characterised as pseudoscience\n",
"\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* Digital International Astrology Library (ancient astrological works)\n* Carl Sagan on Astrology\n* The most complete bibliography exclusively devoted to astrology ( www.biblioastrology.com)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Etymology ",
" History ",
" Principles and practice ",
" Theological viewpoints ",
" Scientific analysis and criticism ",
" Cultural impact ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" Sources ",
" Further reading ",
" External links "
] | Astrology |
[
"\n\n'''Abyssinia''' may refer to:\n\n\n",
"\n* The Ethiopian Empire, which was historically known as Abyssinia, a nation that comprised the northern half of present-day Ethiopia. Note that \"Abyssinia\" does not refer to the ancient Kingdom of Aksum \"Axumite Empire\".\n* Ethiopia, the modern nation remains known by its ''pars pro toto'' Abyssinia (used in limited context, for example in literature) \n\n=== Jurisdictions and events ===\n\n* Abyssinia Crisis, a Mussolini-engineered occupation and colonialism of Eastern Africa (1935–1944)\n* Apostolic Vicariate of Abyssinia (initially Apostolic Prefecture of Abyssinia, later Apostolic Vicariate of Addis Abeba, Apostolic Exarchate of Addis Abeba, ultimately Metropolitanate ''sui iuris'' of Addis Abeba), the former Eastern Catholic missionary\n",
"\n* SS ''Abyssinia'', an 1870 Canadian Pacific steamship\n* HMS ''Abyssinia'' (1870), a British armoured ship\n",
"\n* ''Abyssinia'' (musical)\n* \"Abyssinia\", a song by the Patti Smith Group on ''Radio Ethiopia''\n",
"\n* Abyssinia (battle honour)\n* \"Abyssinia, Henry\", the 72nd episode of the television series M*A*S*H\n* Abyssinian (disambiguation)\n",
"\n* History of Ethiopia\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Place ",
" Vessels ",
" Music ",
" Other uses ",
" See also "
] | Abyssinia |
[
"\nIn abstract algebra, a field extension ''L''/''K'' is called '''algebraic''' if every element of ''L'' is algebraic over ''K'', i.e. if every element of ''L'' is a root of some non-zero polynomial with coefficients in ''K''. Field extensions that are not algebraic, i.e. which contain transcendental elements, are called '''transcendental'''.\n\nFor example, the field extension '''R'''/'''Q''', that is the field of real numbers as an extension of the field of rational numbers, is transcendental, while the field extensions '''C'''/'''R''' and '''Q'''(√2)/'''Q''' are algebraic, where '''C''' is the field of complex numbers.\n\nAll transcendental extensions are of infinite degree. This in turn implies that all finite extensions are algebraic. The converse is not true however: there are infinite extensions which are algebraic. For instance, the field of all algebraic numbers is an infinite algebraic extension of the rational numbers.\n\nIf ''a'' is algebraic over ''K'', then ''K''''a'', the set of all polynomials in ''a'' with coefficients in ''K'', is not only a ring but a field: an algebraic extension of ''K'' which has finite degree over ''K''. The converse is true as well, if ''K''''a'' is a field, then ''a'' is algebraic over ''K''. In the special case where ''K'' = '''Q''' is the field of rational numbers, '''Q'''''a'' is an example of an algebraic number field.\n\nA field with no nontrivial algebraic extensions is called algebraically closed. An example is the field of complex numbers. Every field has an algebraic extension which is algebraically closed (called its algebraic closure), but proving this in general requires some form of the axiom of choice.\n\nAn extension ''L''/''K'' is algebraic if and only if every sub ''K''-algebra of ''L'' is a field.\n",
"The class of algebraic extensions forms a distinguished class of field extensions, that is, the following three properties hold:\n# If ''E'' is an algebraic extension of ''F'' and ''F'' is an algebraic extension of ''K'' then ''E'' is an algebraic extension of ''K''.\n# If ''E'' and ''F'' are algebraic extensions of ''K'' in a common overfield ''C'', then the compositum ''EF'' is an algebraic extension of ''K''.\n# If ''E'' is an algebraic extension of ''F'' and ''E''>''K''>''F'' then ''E'' is an algebraic extension of ''K''.\n\nThese finitary results can be generalized using transfinite induction: \n\n \n\nThis fact, together with Zorn's lemma (applied to an appropriately chosen poset), establishes the existence of algebraic closures.\n",
"\nModel theory generalizes the notion of algebraic extension to arbitrary theories: an embedding of ''M'' into ''N'' is called an '''algebraic extension''' if for every ''x'' in ''N'' there is a formula ''p'' with parameters in ''M'', such that ''p''(''x'') is true and the set\n\n:\n\nis finite. It turns out that applying this definition to the theory of fields gives the usual definition of algebraic extension. The Galois group of ''N'' over ''M'' can again be defined as the group of automorphisms, and it turns out that most of the theory of Galois groups can be developed for the general case.\n",
"* Integral element\n* Lüroth's theorem\n* Galois extension\n* Separable extension\n* Normal extension\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Properties",
"Generalizations",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
"References"
] | Algebraic extension |
[
"\n\n\n'''Ani DiFranco''' (; born '''Angela Maria DiFranco'''; September 23, 1970) is an American singer, multi-instrumentalist, poet, songwriter and businesswoman. She has released more than 20 albums. DiFranco has received positive feedback from critics for much of her career.\n\nAlthough DiFranco's music has been classified as folk rock and alternative rock she has added punk, funk, hip hop and jazz influences. DiFranco created her own record label, Righteous Babe, giving her significant creative freedom.\n\nDiFranco supports many social and political movements by performing benefit concerts, appearing on benefit albums and speaking at rallies. Through the Righteous Babe Foundation DiFranco has backed grassroots cultural and political organizations supporting causes including abortion rights to gay visibility. She counts famed American folk singer and songwriter Pete Seeger among her mentors.\n",
"DiFranco was born in Buffalo, New York, the daughter of Elizabeth (Ross) and Dante Americo DiFranco, who had met while attending MIT. Her father was of Italian descent, and her mother was from Montreal. DiFranco started playing Beatles covers at local bars and busking with her guitar teacher, Michael Meldrum, at the age of nine. By 14 she was penning her own songs. She played them at bars and coffee houses throughout her teens. DiFranco graduated from the Buffalo Academy for Visual and Performing Arts high school at 16 and began attending classes at Buffalo State College. She was living alone, having moved out of her mother's apartment after she became an emancipated minor when she was 15.\n\nDiFranco was only 18 when she started her own record company, Righteous Babe Records, in 1989. She released her self-titled debut album in the winter of 1990, shortly after relocating to New York City. There, she took poetry classes at The New School where she met poet Sekou Sundiata who was to become a friend and mentor. She toured steadily for the next 15 years, pausing only to record albums. Appearances at Canadian folk festivals and increasingly larger venues in the U.S. reflected her increasing popularity on the North American folk and roots scene.\n\nIn September 1995, DiFranco participated in a concert at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland Ohio, inaugurating the opening of the Woody Guthrie Archives in New York City. She later released a CD on Righteous Babe of the concert entitled \"Til We Outnumber Em\" (featuring artists such as DiFranco, Billy Bragg, Ramblin' Jack Elliott, Arlo Guthrie, Indigo Girls, Dave Pirner, Tim Robbins, and Bruce Springsteen) with 100% of proceeds going to the Woody Guthrie Foundation and Archives and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum educational department.\n\nDiFranco toured solo throughout the early and mid 1990s and also as a duo with Canadian drummer Andy Stochansky. Bassist Sara Lee joined the touring group in 1996. Their rapport during live shows is showcased on the 1997 album ''Living in Clip''. DiFranco would later release Lee's solo album ''Make It Beautiful'' on Righteous Babe.\n\nIn 1998, Stochansky left to pursue a solo career as a singer-songwriter. A new touring ensemble consisting of Jason Mercer on bass, Julie Wolf on keyboards, and Daren Hahn on drums, augmented at times by a horn section, accompanied DiFranco on tour between 1998 and 2002.\n\nThe 1990s were a period of heightened exposure for DiFranco, as she continued playing ever larger venues around the world and attracted international attention of the press, including cover stories in ''Spin, Ms., ''and'' Magnet, ''among others, as well as appearances on MTV and VH1. Her playfully ironic cover of the Bacharach/David song \"Wishin' and Hopin appeared under the opening titles of the film ''My Best Friend's Wedding''.\nShe guest starred on an 1998 episode of the Fox sitcom King of the Hill, as the voice of Peggy's feminist guitar teacher, Emily.\nBeginning in 1999, Righteous Babe Records began releasing albums by other artists including Sekou Sundiata, Michael Meldrum, Arto Lindsay, Bitch and Animal, That One Guy, Utah Phillips, Hamell on Trial, Andrew Bird, Kurt Swinghammer, Sara Lee, Buddy Wakefield, Anais Mitchell and Nona Hendryx.\n\nOn September 11, 2001, DiFranco was in Manhattan and later penned the poem \"Self Evident\" about the experience. The poem was featured in the book ''It's a Free Country: Personal Freedom in America After September 11, ''edited by Danny Goldberg, Victoria Goldberg, and Robert Greenwald. The poem's title also became the name of DiFranco's first book of poetry released exclusively in Italy by Minimum Fax. It was later featured in a book of her poetry published in the U.S. by Seven Stories press, entitled ''Verses''. DiFranco has written and performed many spoken-word pieces throughout her career and was showcased as a poet on the HBO series ''Def Poetry'' in 2005\n\nHer father died early in the summer of 2004. In July 2005, DiFranco developed tendonitis and took a nine-month hiatus from touring.\n\nOn September 11, 2007, she released the first retrospective of her career, a two disc compilation entitled ''Canon'' and simultaneously released a retrospective collection of poetry book ''Verses''. ''Red Letter Year'' was released on September 30, 2008.\nDiFranco performing in 2008\n\nDiFranco performed a live webcast from Ex'pression College for Digital Arts on June 24, 2010. She debuted a selection of new material, including the songs \"Which Side Are You On?\" (a reworking of the Florence Reece song with different lyrics penned by DiFranco), \"Life Boat\", \"Unworry\", \"Promiscuity\", \"Splinter\", \"Amendment\", \"See See...\" and \"Hearse\".\n\nDiFranco's touring band and recordings have featured the bass player Todd Sickafoose since her 2005 release ''Knuckle Down ''(co-produced by Joe Henry) and in turns other musicians such as Allison Miller, Andy Borger, Herlin Riley, and Terence Higgins on drums and Mike Dillon on percussion and vibes.\n\nIn 2009 DiFranco appeared at Pete Seeger's 90th birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden, debuting her revamped version of the 1930s labor anthem \"Which Side Are You On?\" in a duet with Bruce Cockburn and also duetting with Kris Kristofferson on the folk classic \"There's a Hole in the Bucket\".\n\nDiFranco released an album of new material on January 17, 2012, titled ''¿Which Side Are You On?''. It includes collaborations with Pete Seeger, Ivan Neville, Cyril Neville, Skerik, Adam Levy, Righteous Babe recording artist Anaïs Mitchell, CC Adcock, and a host of New Orleans-based horn players known for their work in such outfits as Galactic, Bonerama, and Rebirth Brass Band.\n\nAni DiFranco, RZA, and Steve Albini at ''The New Yorker'' festival in September 2005.\n\n===Relationships===\nDiFranco identifies herself as bisexual, and has written songs about love and sex with women and men. She addressed the controversy about her sexuality with the song \"In or Out\". In 1998, she married sound engineer Andrew Gilchrist in a Unitarian Universalist service in Canada. DiFranco and Gilchrist divorced five years later.\n\nDiFranco gave birth to a daughter, Petah Lucia DiFranco Napolitano, at her Buffalo home on January 20, 2007. She married the child's father, Mike Napolitano, also her regular producer, in 2009.\n\nIn an interview on September 13, 2012, DiFranco mentioned that she was pregnant with her second child. She gave birth to a second child, son Dante DiFranco Napolitano, on April 6, 2013.\n\nDiFranco and her husband currently reside in the Bywater neighborhood of New Orleans.\n",
"DiFranco has been a critical success for much of her career, though not a commercial one by major label standards, with a career album average of 72 on Metacritic. ''Living in Clip'', DiFranco's 1998 double live album, is the only one to achieve gold record status to date. DiFranco has been praised by the ''Buffalo News'' as the \"Buffalo's leading lady of rock music\".\n\nStarting in 2003, DiFranco was nominated four consecutive times for Best Recording Package at the Grammy Awards, winning in 2004, for ''Evolve''.\n\nOn July 21, 2006, DiFranco received the \"Woman of Courage Award\" at the National Organization for Women (NOW) Conference and Young Feminist Summit in Albany, New York. Past winners have included singer and actress Barbra Streisand and Sen. Barbara Boxer, D-Calif. DiFranco is one of the first musicians to receive the award, given each year to a woman who has set herself apart by her contributions to the feminist movement.\n\nIn 2009, DiFranco became a Woody Guthrie Award recipient, as a voice of positive social change.\n",
"\n===Style===\nDiFranco's guitar playing is often characterized by a signature staccato style, rapid fingerpicking and many alternate tunings. She delivers many of her lines in a speaking style notable for its rhythmic variation. Her lyrics, which often include alliteration, metaphor, word play and a more or less gentle irony, have also received praise for their sophistication.\nDiFranco in concert\n\nAlthough DiFranco's music has been classified as both folk rock and alternative rock, she has reached across genres since her earliest albums incorporating first punk, then funk, hiphop, and jazz influences.\n\nWhile primarily an acoustic guitarist she has used a variety of instruments and styles: brass instrumentation was prevalent in 1998's ''Little Plastic Castle''; a simple walking bass in her 1997 cover of Hal David and Burt Bacharach's \"Wishin' and Hopin' \"; strings on the 1997 live album ''Living in Clip'' and 2004's ''Knuckle Down''; and electronics and synthesisers in 1999's ''To the Teeth'' and 2006's ''Reprieve''.\n\nDiFranco herself noted that \"folk music is not an acoustic guitar – that's not where the heart of it is. I use the word 'folk' in reference to punk music and rap music. It's an attitude, it's an awareness of one's heritage, and it's a community. It's subcorporate music that gives voice to different communities and their struggle against authority.\"\n\n===Musical collaborations, cover versions, and samples===\nDiFranco has also collaborated with a wide range of artists. In 1997 she appeared on Canadian songwriter Bruce Cockburn's ''Charity of Night'' album. In 1998 she produced fellow folksinger Dan Bern's album ''Fifty Eggs''.\n\nShe developed a deep association with folksinger and social activist Utah Phillips throughout the mid-1990s, sharing her stage and her audience with the older musician until his death in 2008 and resulting in two collaborative albums: ''The Past Didn't Go Anywhere'', 1996, and ''Fellow Workers'',1999 (with liner notes by Howard Zinn). ''The Past'' is built around Phillips's storytelling, an important part of his art that had not previously been documented on recordings; on the album, DiFranco provides musical settings for his speaking voice. The followup, ''Fellow Workers'', was recorded live in Daniel Lanois's Kingsway Studio in New Orleans and features Phillips fronting DiFranco's touring band for a collection of songs and stories.\n\nPrince recorded two songs with DiFranco in 1999, \"Providence\" on her ''To the Teeth'' album, and \"I Love U, But I Don't Trust U Anymore\" on Prince's ''Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic'' album. Funk and soul jazz musician Maceo Parker and rapper Corey Parker have both appeared on DiFranco's albums and featured appearances by her on theirs. Parker and Di Franco toured together in 1999.\n\nShe has appeared on several compilations of the songs of Pete Seeger and frequented his Hudson Clearwater Revival Festival. In 2001 she appeared on Brazilian artist Lenine's album ''Falange Canibal''. In 2002 her rendition of Greg Brown's \"The Poet Game\" appeared on ''Going Driftless: An Artist’s Tribute to Greg Brown''. Also in 2002 she recorded a duet with Jackie Chan of the Irving Gordon song \"Unforgettable\" for a record of unlikely collaborations entitled ''When Pigs Fly: Songs You Never Thought You’d Hear''.\n\nIn 2005 she appeared on Dar Williams' record ''My Better Self'', dueting on William's cover of Pink Floyd's \"Comfortably Numb\". She performed with Cyndi Lauper on \"Sisters of Avalon\" a track from Lauper's 2005 ''The Body Acoustic'' album. In 2006 she produced Hamell on Trial's album ''Songs for Parents Who Enjoy Drugs''. In 2008 she appeared on Todd Sickafoose's album ''Tiny Resisters''. In 2010 she co-produced a track with Margaret Cho called \"Captain Cameltoe\" for the comedian's ''Cho Dependant'' album. In 2011 she appeared on Rob Wasserman's album ''Note of Hope'', an exploration of the writings of Woody Guthrie with musical accompaniment, though the track in which she appeared, \"Voice\", was actually recorded 13 years earlier. Also in 2011 she duetted with Greg Dulli on the Twilight Singers record ''Dynamite Steps''.\n\nOther artists have covered and sampled DiFranco's work throughout the years. Her spoken word poem \"Self Evident\" was covered by Public Enemy founder Chuck D's group called Impossebulls. Alana Davis had some commercial success with DiFranco's song 32 Flavors.\n\nSamples from the track \"Coming Up\" were used by DJ Spooky in his album ''Live Without Dead Time'', produced for AdBusters Magazine in 2003.\n\n===Lyrics, politics and religion===\nAlthough much of DiFranco's material is autobiographical, it is often also strongly political. Many of her songs are concerned with contemporary social issues such as racism, sexism, sexual abuse, homophobia, reproductive rights, poverty, and war. In 2008, she donated a song to Aid Still Required's CD to assist with the restoration of the devastation done to Southeast Asia from the 2004 tsunami.\nThe combination of personal and political is partially responsible for DiFranco's early popularity among politically active college students, particularly those of the left wing, some of whom set up fan pages on the web to document DiFranco's career as early as 1994. DiFranco's rapid rise in popularity in the mid-1990s was fueled mostly by personal contact and word of mouth rather than mainstream media.\n\nDiFranco has expressed political views outside of her music. During the 2000 U.S. presidential election, she actively supported and voted for Green Party candidate Ralph Nader. She supported Dennis Kucinich in the 2004 and 2008 Democratic primaries. Kucinich appeared with her at a number of concerts across the country during both primary seasons. DiFranco went on to perform at the 2008 Democratic National Convention.\n\nDiFranco has described herself as an atheist. On the subject of religion, DiFranco has stated:\n\n\n===Label independence===\nAni cites her anti-corporate ethos for the main reason she decided to start her own label. This has allowed her a considerable degree of creative freedom over the years, including, for example, providing all instrumentals and vocals and recording the album herself at her home on an analog 8-track reel to reel, and handling much of the artwork and packaging design for her 2004 album ''Educated Guess''. She has referenced this independence from major labels in song more than once, including \"The Million You Never Made\" (''Not a Pretty Girl''), which discusses the act of turning down a lucrative contract, \"The Next Big Thing\" (''Not So Soft''), which describes an imagined meeting with a label head-hunter who evaluates the singer based on her looks, and \"Napoleon\" (''Dilate''), which sympathizes sarcastically with an unnamed friend who did sign with a label.\n\nThe business grew organically starting in 1990 with the first cassette tape. Connections were made when women in colleges started duplicating and sharing tapes. Offers to play at colleges started coming in and her popularity grew largely by word of mouth and through women's groups or organizations. Zango and Goldenrod, two music distributors specializing in women's music, started carrying DiFranco's music. In general they sold music to independent music stores and women's book stores. In 1995 Righteous Babe Records signed with Koch International for DiFranco's release of ''Not a Pretty Girl''. Her records could then be found in large and small record stores alike.\n\nDiFranco has occasionally joined with Prince in discussing publicly the problems associated with major record companies. Righteous Babe Records employs a number of people in her hometown of Buffalo. In a 1997 open letter to ''Ms. magazine'' she expressed displeasure that what she considers a way to ensure her own artistic freedom was seen by others solely in terms of its financial success.\n",
"From the earliest days of her career, Ani DiFranco has lent her voice and her name to a broad range of social movements, performing benefit concerts, appearing on benefit albums, speaking at rallies, and offering info table space to organizations at her concerts and the virtual equivalent on her website, among other methods and actions. In 1999 she created her own not-for-profit organization; as the Buffalo News has reported,\"Through the Righteous Babe Foundation, DiFranco has backed various grassroots cultural and political organizations, supporting causes ranging from abortion rights to gay visibility.\"\n\nDuring the first Gulf War, DiFranco participated in the anti-war movement. In the early 1993 she played Pete Seeger's Clearwater Folk Festival for the first time. In 1998 she was a featured performer in the Dead Man Walking benefit concert series raising money for Sister Helen Prejean's \"Not in Our Name\" anti-death penalty organization. DiFranco's commitment to opposing the death penalty is longstanding; she has also been a long time supporter of the Southern Center for Human Rights.\n\nIn 2004 DiFranco visited Burma in order to learn about the Burmese resistance movement and the country's fight for democracy. During her travels she met with then-detained resistance leader Aung San Suu Kyi. Her song \"In The Way\" was later featured on For the Lady, a benefit CD that donated all proceeds to the United States Campaign for Burma.\n\nOn the home front, DiFranco has also been outspoken defender of democracy. During the 2004 presidential primaries, she openly and enthusiastically supported liberal, anti-war Democrat Dennis Kucinich. Congressman Kucinich appeared on stage with her at several concerts and she spoke positively about him from the stage at many more of her concerts. After the primary season ended, and Kerry was the clear Democratic candidate, DiFranco wrote an open letter of conditional support for independent candidate Ralph Nader. The same year she launched a \"Vote, Dammit\" tour of swing states encouraging audience members to register to vote. In 2005 she lobbied Congress against the proliferation of nuclear power in general and the placement of nuclear waste dumps on Indian land in particular. In 2008 she backed candidate Dennis Kucinich in his bid for the presidency.\n\nIn 2002 Righteous Babe Records established the \"Aiding Buffalo's Children\" program in conjunction with members of the local community to raise funds for Buffalo's imperiled public school system. To kick off the program, DiFranco donated \"a day's pay\"—the performance fee from her concert that year at Shea's Performing Arts Center— to ABC and challenged her fans to do the same. Aiding Buffalo's Children has since been folded into the Community Foundation of Greater Buffalo, contributing to a variety of charitable funds.\n\nIn 2005 when Hurricane Katrina devastated DiFranco's newly adopted home town of New Orleans she collected donations from fans around the world through The Righteous Babe Store website for the Katrina Piano Fund, helping musicians replace instruments lost in the hurricane, raising over $47,500 for the cause.\n\nIn 2010 when the BP Oil Spill crippled the Gulf she donated her talents to the \"For Our Coast”benefit concert joining Marianne Faithfull, C.C. Adcock and others at the Acadiana Center for the Arts Theater in Lafayette, raising money for Gulf Aid Acadiana, and the Gulf Aid show with Lenny Kravitz, Mos Def, and many more at Mardi Gras World River City in New Orleans, both shows raising money to help protect the wetlands, clean up the coast and to assist the fishermen and their families affected by the spill.\n\nDiFranco also sits on the board for The Roots of Music, founded by Rebirth Brass Band drummer Derrick Tabb. The organization fills a void in music education in New Orleans educational institutions by providing free Marching Band instruction to area children in addition to academic tutoring and mentoring.\n\nDiFranco joined about 500,000 people at the March for Women's Lives in DC in April 2004 to voice her support for women's rights. As an honored guest she marched in the front row for the three-mile route, along with Margaret Cho, Janeane Garofalo, Whoopi Goldberg, Gloria Steinem and many others. Later in the day, Ani played a few songs on the main stage in front of the Capitol, including \"Your Next Bold Move\".\n\nScot Fisher, Righteous Babe label president and DiFranco's longtime manager, has been a longtime advocate of the preservation movement in Buffalo. In 1999 he and DiFranco purchased a decaying church on the verge of demolition in downtown Buffalo and began the lengthy process of restoring it. In 2006 the building opened its doors again, first briefly as \"The Church\" and then as \"Babeville,” housing two concert venues, the record label's business office, and Hallwalls Contemporary Arts Center.\n",
"In 2013 DiFranco was criticized on social media and faced \"a great deal of outcry\" after the announcement that she was hosting a three-day artists' workshop billed as the \"Righteous Retreat\" at Iberville Parish's Nottoway Plantation in White Castle, Louisiana. Nottoway was one of the largest plantations in the South, and features the largest antebellum mansion. Its operator and founder John Randolph owned over 155 slaves in the year 1860. The grounds are now operated as a luxury resort. Critics charged that the resort's promotional material attempts to portray the plantation owner in a positive light, to downplay the suffering of the slaves, and to \"sanitize\" and \"romanticize\" the history of slavery for commercial gain. DiFranco's choice of venue for the retreat was called \"a very blatant display of racism\" on a petition at change.org that collected more than 2,600 signatures.\n\nOn December 29, 2013 DiFranco issued a statement that she was cancelling the retreat, stating that \"i am not unaware of the mechanism of white privilege or the fact that i need to listen more than talk when it comes to issues of race. if nottoway is simply not an acceptable place for me to go and try to do my work in the eyes of many, then let me just concede before more divisive words are spilled. ... i think many positive and life-affirming connections would have been made at this conference, in its all of its complexity of design. i do not wish to reinvent the righteous retreat at this point to eliminate the stay at the Nottoway Plantation. at this point I wish only to cancel.\" The singer's statements were called \"remarkably unapologetic\" on Jezebel, and \"a variety of excuses and justifications\" by Ebony,. Additionally, a piece at The Guardian said the announcement made \"much of the idea that this was all a mistake, with no indication of remorse.\"\n\nDiFranco issued an apology on January 2, 2014 following continued criticism. In it, she wrote \"..i would like to say i am sincerely sorry. it is obvious to me now that you were right - all those who said we can't in good conscience go to that place and support it or look past for one moment what it deeply represents. i needed a wake up call and you gave it to me.\"\n",
"{|class=\"wikitable\"\n\n Year !! Nominated work !! Award !! Result\n\n 1997 \n \"Shy\" \n Grammy Awards, Best Female Rock Vocal Performance \n \n\n 1998 \n \"Glass House\" \n Grammy Awards, Best Female Rock Vocal Performance \n \n\n 1999 \n \"Little Plastic Castle\" \n Gay/Lesbian American Music Awards/ Best Rock/ Alternative Song \n \n\n 1999 \n Ani DiFranco \n Gay/Lesbian American Music Awards/ OutMusic Award \n \n\n 1999\nAni DiFranco \n Gay/Lesbian American Music Awards/ Female Artist of the Year \n \n\n 2000 \n \"Hello Birmingham\" \n Planned Parenthood Maggie Award for Media Excellence\n \n\n 2000 \n \"Jukebox\" \n Grammy Awards, Best Rock Vocal Performance- Female \n \n\n 2000 \n ''Fellow Workers'' \n Grammy Awards, Best Contemporary Folk Album\n \n\n 2000\n Ani DiFranco \n Gibson Guitar Award, Best Acoustic Artist Female \n \n\n 2004 \n ''Evolve'' \n Grammy Awards, Best Recording Package \n \n\n 2004 \n Ani DiFranco \n Southern Center for Human Rights, Human Rights Award \n \n\n 2005 \n ''Educated Guess'' \n Grammy Awards, Best Contemporary Folk Album \n \n\n 2005 \n ''Educated Guess'' \n Grammy Awards, Best Recording Package \n \n\n 2006 \n''Knuckle Down'' \n Grammy Awards, Best Recording Package \n \n\n 2006 \n Ani DiFranco \n National Organization of Women, Woman of Courage Award \n \n\n 2007 \n ''Reprieve'' \n Grammy Awards, Best Recording Package \n \n\n 2008 \n \"State of Mind\" \n BMI Cable Award \n \n\n 2009 \n Ani DiFranco \nWoodie Guthrie Award \n \n\n 2013 \n Ani DiFranco \n Winnipeg Folk Festival Artistic Achievement Award \n \n\n",
"\n\n===Studio albums===\n*''Ani DiFranco'' (1990)\n*''Not So Soft'' (1991)\n*''Imperfectly'' (1992)\n*''Puddle Dive'' (1993)\n*''Out of Range'' (1994)\n*''Not a Pretty Girl'' (1995)\n*''Dilate'' (1996)\n*''Little Plastic Castle'' (1998)\n*''Up Up Up Up Up Up'' (1999)\n*''To the Teeth'' (1999)\n*''Revelling/Reckoning'' (2001)\n*''Evolve'' (2003)\n*''Educated Guess'' (2004)\n*''Knuckle Down'' (2005)\n*''Reprieve'' (2006)\n*''Red Letter Year'' (2008)\n*''¿Which Side Are You On?'' (2012)\n*''Allergic to Water'' (2014)\n*''Binary'' (2017)\n\n====With Utah Phillips====\n*''The Past Didn't Go Anywhere'' (1996)\n*''Fellow Workers'' (1999)\n\n===Live albums===\n* 1994 – ''An Acoustic Evening With''\n* 1994 – ''Women in (E)motion'' (German Release)\n* 1997 – ''Living in Clip''\n* 2002 – ''So Much Shouting, So Much Laughter''\n* 2004 – ''Atlanta – 10.9.03'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2004 – ''Sacramento – 10.25.03'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2004 – ''Portland – 4.7.04'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2005 – ''Boston – 11.16.03'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2005 – ''Chicago – 1.17.04'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2005 – ''Madison – 1.25.04'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2005 – ''Rome – 11.15.04'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2006 – ''Carnegie Hall – 4.6.02'' (Official Bootleg series No. 1 – available in stores)\n* 2007 – ''Boston – 11.10.06'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2008 – ''Hamburg – 10.18.07'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2009 – ''Saratoga, CA – 9.18.06'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2009 – ''Chicago – 9.22.07'' (Official Bootleg series #1)\n* 2010 – ''Live at Bull Moose Music'' (Limited edition)\n* 2012 – ''Buffalo – April 22, 2012'' (Official Bootleg series #2)\n* 2013 – ''London – October 29, 2008'' (Official Bootleg series #2)\n* 2014 – ''Ridgefield, CT – November 18, 2009'' (Official Bootleg series #2)\n* 2014 – ''Harrisburg, PA – January 23, 2008'' (Official Bootleg series #2)\n* 2015 – ''New York, NY – March 30, 1995'' (Official Bootleg series #2)\n* 2016 – ''Glenside, PA – November 11, 2012'' (Official Bootleg series #2)\n* 2016 – ''Melbourne, FL – January 19, 2016'' (Official Bootleg series #2)\n\n===EPs===\n* 1996 – ''More Joy, Less Shame''\n* 1999 – ''Little Plastic Remixes'' (limited distribution)\n* 2000 – ''Swing Set''\n* 2016 – ''Play God''\n\n===Videos===\n* 2002 – ''Render: Spanning Time with Ani DiFranco''\n* 2004 – ''Trust''\n* 2008 – ''Live at Babeville''\n\n===Compilations===\n* 1993 – ''Like I Said: Songs 1990–91''\n* 1995 – ''Live from Mountain Stage, Vol. 8'' – \"Buildings & Bridges (live)”\n* 1996 – ''Women's Work'' – \"Cradle and All (live)”\n* 1996 – ''Women: Live from Mountain Stage''- “Egos Like Hairdos (live)”\n* 1997 – ''Divine Divas: A World of Women’s Voices''- “Amazing Grace”\n* 1998 – ''Live at World Café Vol. 6''- “Buildings & Bridges (live)”\n* 1998 – ''Modern Day Storytellers'' – “Buildings & Bridges”\n* 1998 – ''Rare on Air Vol. 4'' (KCRW) – “Gravel (live)”\n* 1998 – ''Where Have All the Flowers Gone: Songs of Pete Seeger'' – “My Name is Lisa Kalvelage”\n* 1998 – ''Women of Spirit''- “Done Wrong”\n* 1999 – ''Respect: A Century of Women in Music''- “32 Flavors”\n* 2000 – ''Badlands: A Tribute to Bruce Springsteen’s Nebraska''- “Used Cars”\n* 2000 – ''Best of Hard Rock Café Live'' – “Little Plastic Castle (live)”\n* 2000 – '''Til We Outnumber 'Em'' – Performed \"Do Re Mi\" solo and \"Ramblin' Round\" with Indigo Girls; Producer\n* 2001 – ''Live @ The World Café Vol. 10'' – “32 Flavors”\n* 2001 – ''Best of Sessions at West 54th'' – “32 Flavors”\n* 2002 – ''Gascd'' – “Your Next Bold Move”\n* 2002 – ''Going Driftless: An Artist Tribute to Greg Brown''- “The Poet Game”\n* 2002 – ''When Pigs Fly: Songs You Never Thought You’d Hear'' – \"Unforgettable\" w/ Jackie Chan\n* 2003 – ''Peace Not War'' – “Self Evident”\n* 2004 – ''Peace Not War Vol. 2'' – “Animal”\n* 2004 – ''For the Lady'' – \"In the Way\"\n* 2005 – ''Bonnaroo Music Festival 2004'' (CD & DVD) – “Evolve (live)”\n* 2006 – ''Music Is Hope''- \"Napoleon (remix)\"\n* 2006 – ''Dead Man Walking: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture'' – “Crime for Crime”, “Fuel”, “Up Up Up Up Up Up”, she didnt appear on this album, she did however\n* 2007 – ''Canon''\n* 2007 – ''Sowing the Seed: The 10th Anniversary Appleseed Recordings'' – “Waist Deep in the Big Muddy”\n* 2007 – ''Cool as Folk: Cambridge Folk Festival'' – “Cradle and All (live)”\n* 2009 – ''Singing Through the Hard Times: A Utah Phillips Celebration'' – “The International”\n* 2011 – ''Note of Hope: A Celebration of Woody Guthrie'' – “Voice”\n* 2011 – ''Every Mother Counts – \"Present/Infant\" (Remix)\n* 2012 – ''Occupy This Album'' – “Which Side Are You On? (a capella)”\n\n===Other contributions===\n* 1989 – ''Demo tape'' (unreleased)\n* 2001 - John Gorka - ''The Company You Keep'' - backing vocals on \"Oh Abraham\"\n* 2006 – Jason Karaban – ''Doomed to Make Choices''\n* 2008 – Dr. John – ''The City That Care Forgot'' - Contributed backing vocals to the title track.\n* 2009 – Jason Karaban – ''Sobriety Kills''\n* 2010 – Anaïs Mitchell – ''Hadestown''\n* 2010 – Preservation Hall Jazz Band – ''Preservation: An Album to Benefit Preservation Hall & The Preservation Hall Music Outreach Program'' - Featured on “Freight Train”\n* 2011 – Twilight Singers – ''Dynamite Steps'' - Featured on \"Blackbird and the Fox\"\n",
"* 2004 – ''Self-evident: poesie e disegni''\n* 2007 – ''Verses''\n",
"* Righteous Babe Records\n* The Roots of Music\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* The Righteous Babe homepage\n* \n* \n* Ani DiFranco at Rolling stone\n* \n* Ani DiFranco featured in award-winning documentary film\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life and career",
"Critical reception",
"Music",
"Activism",
"2014 Righteous Retreat",
"Awards and nominations",
"Discography{{anchor|Discography}}",
" Poetry ",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Ani DiFranco |
[
"An '''Aromatic hydrocarbon''' or Arene is a hydrocarbon with alternating double and single bonds between carbon atoms forming rings.\n\n'''Arene''' may also refer to:\n\n*an aromatic hydrocarbon\n*''Arene'' (gastropod), a genus of marine snails in the family Areneidae\n*Arene (mythology), the wife of Aphareus and mother of Idas and Lynceus in Greek mythology\n*Arene, Elis, an ancient town in Elis, Greece, also known as Makistos, Samia or Samiko\n*a French surname, Arène, derived from the Latin (h)arena, meaning sand \n",
"*Paul Arène (1843–1896), Provençal poet and French writer\n*Jean Arènes (1898–1960), French botanist who described many new species of the genus Dombeya\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"People with the surname"
] | Arene (disambiguation) |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Aesthetics''' ( or ; also spelled '''æsthetics''' and '''esthetics''') is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty.\n\nIn its more technically epistemological perspective, it is defined as the study of subjective and sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as \"critical reflection on art, culture and nature\". In modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory: one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic.\n",
"The word ''aesthetic'' is derived from the Greek (''aisthetikos'', meaning \"esthetic, sensitive, sentient, pertaining to sense perception\"), which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι (''aisthanomai'', meaning \"I perceive, feel, sense\"). The term \"aesthetics\" was appropriated and coined with new meaning by the German philosopher Alexander Baumgarten in his dissertation ''Meditationes philosophicae de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus'' (\"Philosophical considerations of some matters pertaining the poem\") in 1735,\neven though his later definition in the fragment ''Aesthetica'' (1750) is more often referred to as the first definition of modern aesthetics.\n",
"\n\nFor some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object (not necessarily an art object), while artistic judgement refers to the recognition, appreciation or criticism of art or an art work.\n\nPhilosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an autonomous entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses (i. e. the etymology of aesthetics) and art is as such free of any moral or political purpose. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics: art as knowledge or art as action, but aesthetics is neither epistemology nor ethics.\n",
"\n===Aesthetic judgment===\nJudgments of aesthetic value rely on our ability to discriminate at a sensory level. Aesthetics examines our affective domain response to an object or phenomenon.\nImmanuel Kant, writing in 1790, observes of a man \"If he says that canary wine is agreeable he is quite content if someone else corrects his terms and reminds him to say instead: It is agreeable to ''me'',\" because \"Everyone has his own (sense of) taste\". The case of \"beauty\" is different from mere \"agreeableness\" because, \"If he proclaims something to be beautiful, then he requires the same liking from others; he then judges not just for himself but for everyone, and speaks of beauty as if it were a property of things.\"\n\nAesthetic judgments usually go beyond sensory discrimination. For David Hume, delicacy of taste is not merely \"the ability to detect all the ingredients in a composition\", but also our sensitivity \"to pains as well as pleasures, which escape the rest of mankind.\" (Essays Moral Political and Literary. Indianapolis, Literary Classics 5, 1987.) Thus, the sensory discrimination is linked to capacity for pleasure. For Kant \"enjoyment\" is the result when pleasure arises from sensation, but judging something to be \"beautiful\" has a third requirement: sensation must give rise to pleasure by engaging our capacities of reflective contemplation. Judgments of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectual all at once.\n\nViewer interpretations of beauty may on occasion be observed to possess two concepts of value: aesthetics and taste. Aesthetics is the philosophical notion of beauty. Taste is a result of an education process and awareness of elite cultural values learned through exposure to mass culture. Bourdieu examined how the elite in society define the aesthetic values like taste and how varying levels of exposure to these values can result in variations by class, cultural background, and education. According to Kant in his book on the ''Critique of Judgment'', beauty is subjective and universal; thus certain things are beautiful to everyone. In the opinion of Władysław Tatarkiewicz, there are six conditions for the presentation of art: beauty, form, representation, reproduction of reality, artistic expression and innovation. However, one may not be able to pin down these qualities in a work of art.\n\n====Factors involved in aesthetic judgment====\nRainbows often have aesthetic appeal.\n\nJudgments of aesthetical values seem often to involve many other kinds of issues as well. Responses such as disgust show that sensory detection is linked in instinctual ways to facial expressions, and even behaviours like the gag reflex. Yet disgust can often be a learned or cultural issue too; as Darwin pointed out, seeing a stripe of soup in a man's beard is disgusting even though neither soup nor beards are themselves disgusting. Aesthetic judgments may be linked to emotions or, like emotions, partially embodied in our physical reactions. Seeing a sublime view of a landscape may give us a reaction of awe, which might manifest physically as an increased heart rate or widened eyes. These unconscious reactions may even be partly constitutive of what makes our judgment a judgment that the landscape is sublime.\n\nLikewise, aesthetic judgments may be culturally conditioned to some extent. Victorians in Britain often saw African sculpture as ugly, but just a few decades later, Edwardian audiences saw the same sculptures as being beautiful. Evaluations of beauty may well be linked to desirability, perhaps even to sexual desirability. Thus, judgments of aesthetic value can become linked to judgments of economic, political, or moral value. In a current context, one might judge a Lamborghini to be beautiful partly because it is desirable as a status symbol, or we might judge it to be repulsive partly because it signifies for us over-consumption and offends our political or moral values.\n\nAesthetic judgments can often be very fine-grained and internally contradictory. Likewise aesthetic judgments seem often to be at least partly intellectual and interpretative. It is what a thing means or symbolizes for us that is often what we are judging. Modern aestheticians have asserted that will and desire were almost dormant in aesthetic experience, yet preference and choice have seemed important aesthetics to some 20th-century thinkers. The point is already made by Hume, but see Mary Mothersill, \"Beauty and the Critic's Judgment\", in The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics, 2004. Thus aesthetic judgments might be seen to be based on the senses, emotions, intellectual opinions, will, desires, culture, preferences, values, subconscious behaviour, conscious decision, training, instinct, sociological institutions, or some complex combination of these, depending on exactly which theory one employs.\n\n====Are different art forms beautiful, disgusting, or boring in the same way?====\nA third major topic in the study of aesthetic judgments is how they are unified across art forms. We can call a person, a house, a symphony, a fragrance, and a mathematical proof beautiful. What characteristics do they share which give them that status? What possible feature could a proof and a fragrance both share in virtue of which they both count as beautiful? What makes a painting beautiful is quite different from what makes music beautiful, which suggests that each art form has its own language for the judgement of aesthetics.\n\nAt the same time, there is seemingly quite a lack of words to express oneself accurately when making an aesthetic judgment. An aesthetic judgment cannot be an empirical judgement. Therefore, due to impossibility for precision, there is confusion about what interpretations can be culturally negotiated. Due to imprecision in the standard English language, two completely different feelings experienced by two different people can be represented by an identical verbal expression. Wittgenstein stated this in his lectures on aesthetics and language games.\n\nA collective identification of beauty, with willing participants in a given social spectrum, may be a socially negotiated phenomenon, discussed in a culture or context. Is there some underlying unity to aesthetic judgment and is there some way to articulate the similarities of a beautiful house, beautiful proof, and beautiful sunset? Defining it requires a description of the entire phenomenon, as Wittgenstein argued in his lectures on aesthetics. Likewise there has been long debate on how perception of beauty in the natural world, especially perception of the human form as beautiful, is supposed to relate to perceiving beauty in art or artefacts. This goes back at least to Kant, with some echoes even in St. Bonaventure. \n\n\n===Aesthetic universals===\nThe philosopher Denis Dutton identified six universal signatures in human aesthetics:\n\n# Expertise or virtuosity. Humans cultivate, recognize, and admire technical artistic skills.\n# Nonutilitarian pleasure. People enjoy art for art's sake, and don't demand that it keep them warm or put food on the table.\n# Style. Artistic objects and performances satisfy rules of composition that place them in a recognizable style.\n# Criticism. People make a point of judging, appreciating, and interpreting works of art.\n# Imitation. With a few important exceptions like abstract painting, works of art simulate experiences of the world.\n# Special focus. Art is set aside from ordinary life and made a dramatic focus of experience.\n\nArtists such as Hirschhorn have indicated that there are too many exceptions to Dutton's categories. For example, the installations of the contemporary artist Thomas Hirschhorn deliberately eschew technical virtuosity. People can appreciate a Renaissance Madonna for aesthetic reasons, but such objects often had (and sometimes still have) specific devotional functions. \"Rules of composition\" that might be read into Duchamp's ''Fountain'' or John Cage's ''4′33″'' do not locate the works in a recognizable style (or certainly not a style recognizable at the time of the works' realization). Moreover, some of Dutton's categories seem too broad: a physicist might entertain hypothetical worlds in his/her imagination in the course of formulating a theory. Another problem is that Dutton's categories seek to universalize traditional European notions of aesthetics and art forgetting that, as André Malraux and others have pointed out, there have been large numbers of cultures in which such ideas (including the idea \"art\" itself) were non-existent.\n\n===Aesthetic ethics===\nAesthetic ethics refers to the idea that human conduct and behaviour ought to be governed by that which is beautiful and attractive. John Dewey has pointed out that the unity of aesthetics and ethics is in fact reflected in our understanding of behaviour being \"fair\"—the word having a double meaning of attractive and morally acceptable. More recently, James Page has suggested that aesthetic ethics might be taken to form a philosophical rationale for peace education.\n",
"During the first half of the twentieth century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning ''the intentional fallacy''. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist.\n\nIn 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled \"The Intentional Fallacy\", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or \"intended meaning\" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.\n\nIn another essay, \"The Affective Fallacy,\" which served as a kind of sister essay to \"The Intentional Fallacy\" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay \"Literature in the Reader\" (1970).\n\nAs summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay \"The Creation of Art\": \"Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic.\" These authors contend that: \"Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work.\"\n\nGaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: \"Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works.\" They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, \"The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself.\"\n",
"A large number of derivative forms of aesthetics have developed as contemporary and transitory forms of inquiry associated with the field of aesthetics which include the post-modern, psychoanalytic, scientific, and mathematical among others.\n\n===Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis===\nExample of the Dada aesthetic, Marcel Duchamp's ''Fountain'' 1917\n\nEarly-twentieth-century artists, poets and composers challenged existing notions of beauty, broadening the scope of art and aesthetics. In 1941, Eli Siegel, American philosopher and poet, founded Aesthetic Realism, the philosophy that reality itself is aesthetic, and that \"The world, art, and self explain each other: each is the aesthetic oneness of opposites.\"\n\nVarious attempts have been made to define Post-Modern Aesthetics. The challenge to the assumption that beauty was central to art and aesthetics, thought to be original, is actually continuous with older aesthetic theory; Aristotle was the first in the Western tradition to classify \"beauty\" into types as in his theory of drama, and Kant made a distinction between beauty and the sublime. What was new was a refusal to credit the higher status of certain types, where the taxonomy implied a preference for tragedy and the sublime to comedy and the Rococo.\n\nCroce suggested that \"expression\" is central in the way that beauty was once thought to be central. George Dickie suggested that the sociological institutions of the art world were the glue binding art and sensibility into unities. Marshall McLuhan suggested that art always functions as a \"counter-environment\" designed to make visible what is usually invisible about a society. Theodor Adorno felt that aesthetics could not proceed without confronting the role of the culture industry in the commodification of art and aesthetic experience. Hal Foster attempted to portray the reaction against beauty and Modernist art in ''The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture''. Arthur Danto has described this reaction as \"kalliphobia\" (after the Greek word for beauty, κάλλος ''kallos''). André Malraux explains that the notion of beauty was connected to a particular conception of art that arose with the Renaissance and was still dominant in the eighteenth century (but was supplanted later). The discipline of aesthetics, which originated in the eighteenth century, mistook this transient state of affairs for a revelation of the permanent nature of art. Brian Massumi suggests to reconsider beauty following the aesthetical thought in the philosophy of Deleuze and Guattari. Walter Benjamin echoed Malraux in believing aesthetics was a comparatively recent invention, a view proven wrong in the late 1970s, when Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake analyzed links between beauty, information processing, and information theory. Dennis Dutton in \"The Art Instinct\" also proposed that an aesthetic sense was a vital evolutionary factor.\n\nJean-François Lyotard re-invokes the Kantian distinction between taste and the sublime. Sublime painting, unlike kitsch realism, \"... will enable us to see only by making it impossible to see; it will please only by causing pain.\"\n\nSigmund Freud inaugurated aesthetical thinking in Psychoanalysis mainly via the \"Uncanny\" as aesthetical affect. Following Freud and Merleau-Ponty, Jacques Lacan theorized aesthetics in terms of sublimation and the Thing.\n\nThe relation of Marxist aesthetics to post-modern aesthetics is still a contentious area of debate.\n\n===Recent aesthetics===\nGuy Sircello has pioneered efforts in analytic philosophy to develop a rigorous theory of aesthetics, focusing on the concepts of beauty, love and sublimity. In contrast to romantic theorists Sircello argued for the objectivity of beauty and formulated a theory of love on that basis.\n\nBritish philosopher and theorist of conceptual art aesthetics, Peter Osborne, makes the point that \"'post-conceptual art' aesthetic does not concern a particular type of contemporary art so much as the historical-ontological condition for the production of contemporary art in general ...\". Osborne noted that contemporary art is 'post-conceptual in a public lecture delivered in 2010.\n\nGary Tedman has put forward a theory of a subjectless aesthetics derived from Karl Marx's concept of alienation, and Louis Althusser's antihumanism, using elements of Freud's group psychology, defining a concept of the 'aesthetic level of practice'.\n\nGregory Loewen has suggested that the subject is key in the interaction with the aesthetic object. The work of art serves as a vehicle for the projection of the individual's identity into the world of objects, as well as being the irruptive source of much of what is uncanny in modern life. As well, art is used to memorialize individuated biographies in a manner that allows persons to imagine that they are part of something greater than themselves.\n\n===Aesthetics and science===\nInitial image of a Mandelbrot set zoom sequence with continuously coloured environment\n\nThe field of experimental aesthetics was founded by Gustav Theodor Fechner in the 19th century. Experimental aesthetics in these times had been characterized by a subject-based, inductive approach. The analysis of individual experience and behaviour based on experimental methods is a central part of experimental aesthetics. In particular, the perception of works of art, music, or modern items such as websites or other IT products is studied. Experimental aesthetics is strongly oriented towards the natural sciences. Modern approaches mostly come from the fields of cognitive psychology or neuroscience (neuroaesthetics).\n\nIn the 1970s, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake were among the first to analyze links between aesthetics, information processing, and information theory.\n\nIn the 1990s, Jürgen Schmidhuber described an algorithmic theory of beauty which takes the subjectivity of the observer into account and postulates: among several observations classified as comparable by a given subjective observer, the aesthetically most pleasing one is the one with the shortest description, given the observer's previous knowledge and his particular method for encoding the data. This is closely related to the principles of algorithmic information theory and minimum description length. One of his examples: mathematicians enjoy simple proofs with a short description in their formal language. Another very concrete example describes an aesthetically pleasing human face whose proportions can be described by very few bits of information, drawing inspiration from less detailed 15th century proportion studies by Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer. Schmidhuber's theory explicitly distinguishes between what's beautiful and what's interesting, stating that interestingness corresponds to the first derivative of subjectively perceived beauty. Here the premise is that any observer continually tries to improve the predictability and compressibility of the observations by discovering regularities such as repetitions and symmetries and fractal self-similarity. Whenever the observer's learning process (which may be a predictive neural network; see also Neuroesthetics) leads to improved data compression such that the observation sequence can be described by fewer bits than before, the temporary interestingness of the data corresponds to the number of saved bits. This compression progress is proportional to the observer's internal reward, also called curiosity reward. A reinforcement learning algorithm is used to maximize future expected reward by learning to execute action sequences that cause additional interesting input data with yet unknown but learnable predictability or regularity. The principles can be implemented on artificial agents which then exhibit a form of artificial curiosity.\n\n===Truth in beauty and mathematics===\nMathematical considerations, such as symmetry and complexity, are used for analysis in theoretical aesthetics. This is different from the aesthetic considerations of applied aesthetics used in the study of mathematical beauty. Aesthetic considerations such as symmetry and simplicity are used in areas of philosophy, such as ethics and theoretical physics and cosmology to define truth, outside of empirical considerations. Beauty and Truth have been argued to be nearly synonymous, as reflected in the statement \"Beauty is truth, truth beauty\" in the poem Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats, or by the Hindu motto \"Satyam Shivam Sundaram\" (Satya (Truth) is Shiva (God), and Shiva is Sundaram (Beautiful)). The fact that judgments of beauty and judgments of truth both are influenced by processing fluency, which is the ease with which information can be processed, has been presented as an explanation for why beauty is sometimes equated with truth. Indeed, recent research found that people use beauty as an indication for truth in mathematical pattern tasks. However, scientists including the mathematician David Orrell and physicist Marcelo Gleiser have argued that the emphasis on aesthetic criteria such as symmetry is equally capable of leading scientists astray.\n\n===Computational approaches===\nSince about 2005, computer scientists have attempted to develop automated methods to infer aesthetic quality of images. Typically, these approaches follow a machine learning approach, where large numbers of manually rated photographs are used to \"teach\" a computer about what visual properties are of relevance to aesthetic quality. The Acquine engine, developed at Penn State University, rates natural photographs uploaded by users.\n\nNotable in this area is Michael Leyton, professor of psychology at Rutgers University. Leyton is the president of the International Society for Mathematical and Computational Aesthetics and the\nInternational Society for Group Theory in Cognitive Science and has developed a generative theory of shape.\n\nThere have also been relatively successful attempts with regard to chess and music. A relation between Max Bense's mathematical formulation of aesthetics in terms of \"redundancy\" and \"complexity\" and theories of musical anticipation was offered using the notion of Information Rate.\n\n===Evolutionary aesthetics===\n\nEvolutionary aesthetics refers to evolutionary psychology theories in which the basic aesthetic preferences of ''Homo sapiens'' are argued to have evolved in order to enhance survival and reproductive success. One example being that humans are argued to find beautiful and prefer landscapes which were good habitats in the ancestral environment. Another example is that body symmetry and proportion are important aspects of physical attractiveness which may be due to this indicating good health during body growth. Evolutionary explanations for aesthetical preferences are important parts of evolutionary musicology, Darwinian literary studies, and the study of the evolution of emotion.\n\n===Applied aesthetics===\n\n\nAs well as being applied to art, aesthetics can also be applied to cultural objects such as crucifix or tools. Aesthetic coupling between art-objects and medical topics was made by speakers working for the US Information Agency This coupling was made to reinforce the learning paradigm when English-language speakers used translators to address audiences in their own country. These audiences were generally not fluent in the English language. It can also be used in topics as diverse as mathematics, gastronomy, fashion and website design.\n",
"The philosophy of aesthetics as a practice has been criticized by some sociologists and writers of art and society. Raymond Williams argues that there is no unique and or individual aesthetic object which can be extrapolated from the art world, but that there is a continuum of cultural forms and experience of which ordinary speech and experiences may signal as art. By \"art\" we may frame several artistic \"works\" or \"creations\" as so though this reference remains within the institution or special event which creates it and this leaves some works or other possible \"art\" outside of the frame work, or other interpretations such as other phenomenon which may not be considered as \"art\".\n\nPierre Bourdieu disagrees with Kant's idea of the \"aesthetic\". He argues that Kant's \"aesthetic\" merely represents an experience that is the product of an elevated class habitus and scholarly leisure as opposed to other possible and equally valid \"aesthetic\" experiences which lay outside Kant's narrow definition.\n\nTimothy Laurie argues that theories of musical aesthetics \"framed entirely in terms of appreciation, contemplation or reflection risk idealizing an implausibly unmotivated listener defined solely through musical objects, rather than seeing them as a person for whom complex intentions and motivations produce variable attractions to cultural objects and practices\".\n",
"* Art periods\n* History of aesthetics before the 20th century\n* Mise en scène\n* Theory of art\n",
"\n",
"\n* Mario Perniola, ''20th Century Aesthetics. Towards A Theory of Feeling'', translated by Massimo Verdicchio, London-New Delhi-New York-Sydney, Bloomsbury, 2013, .\n* \n* ''Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics''. Edited by Hans Rainer Sepp and Lester Embree. (Series: Contributions To Phenomenology, Vol. 59) Springer, Dordrecht / Heidelberg / London / New York 2010. \n* Theodor W. Adorno, ''Aesthetic Theory'', Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1997.\n* Ayn Rand, ''The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature'', New York, NY, New American Library, 1971\n* Derek Allan, ''Art and the Human Adventure, Andre Malraux's Theory of Art'', Rodopi, 2009\n* Derek Allan. Art and Time, Cambridge Scholars, 2013.\n* Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., ''The New Story of Science: mind and the universe'', Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. (has significant material on Art, Science and their philosophies)\n* John Bender and Gene Blocker ''Contemporary Philosophy of Art: Readings in Analytic Aesthetics'' 1993.\n* René Bergeron. ''L'Art et sa spiritualité''. Québec, QC.: Éditions du Pelican, 1961.\n* Christine Buci-Glucksmann (2003), ''Esthétique de l'éphémère'', Galilée. (French)\n* Noël Carroll (2000), ''Theories of Art Today'', University of Wisconsin Press.\n* Mario Costa (1999) (in Italian), L'estetica dei media. Avanguardie e tecnologia, Milan: Castelvecchi, .\n* Benedetto Croce (1922), ''Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic.\n* E. S. Dallas (1866), ''The Gay Science'', 2 volumes, on the aesthetics of poetry.\n* Danto, Arthur (2003), ''The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art'', Open Court.\n* Stephen Davies (1991), ''Definitions of Art.''\n* Terry Eagleton (1990), ''The Ideology of the Aesthetic.'' Blackwell. \n* Susan Feagin and Patrick Maynard (1997), Aesthetics. Oxford Readers.\n* Penny Florence and Nicola Foster (eds.) (2000), ''Differential Aesthetics''. London: Ashgate. \n* Berys Gaut and Dominic McIver Lopes (eds.), ''Routledge Companion to Aesthetics''. 3rd edition. London and New York: Routledge, 2013.\n* Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert (1995), ''Einführung in die Ästhetik'', Munich, W. Fink.\n* David Goldblatt and Lee B. Brown, ed. (2010), ''Aesthetics: A Reader in the Philosophy of the Arts.'' 3rd edition. Pearson Publishing.\n* Theodore Gracyk (2011), ''The Philosophy of Art: An Introduction''. Polity Press.\n* Greenberg, Clement (1960), \"Modernist Painting\", ''The Collected Essays and Criticism 1957–1969'', The University of Chicago Press, 1993, 85-92.\n* Evelyn Hatcher (ed.), ''Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art.'' 1999\n* Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1975), ''Aesthetics. Lectures on Fine Art'', trans. T.M. Knox, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.\n* Hans Hofmann and Sara T Weeks; Bartlett H Hayes; Addison Gallery of American Art; ''Search for the real, and other essays'' (Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1967) \n* Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.), ''Art History and Visual Studies''. Yale University Press, 2002. \n* Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher (eds.), ''Women Artists at the Millennium''. Massachusetts: October Books/MIT Press, 2006. \n* Kant, Immanuel (1790), Critique of Judgement, Translated by Werner S. Pluhar, Hackett Publishing Co., 1987.\n* Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) ''Encyclopedia of Aesthetics''. New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 4 voll., pp. XVII-521, pp. 555, pp. 536, pp. 572; 2224 total pages; 100 b/w photos; . Covers philosophical, historical, sociological, and biographical aspects of Art and Aesthetics worldwide.\n* Alexander J. Kent, \"Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?\" The Cartographic Journal, 42(2) 182-8, 2005.\n* Søren Kierkegaard (1843), ''Either/Or'', translated by Alastair Hannay, London, Penguin, 1992\n* Peter Kivy (ed.), ''The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics.'' 2004\n* Carolyn Korsmeyer (ed.), ''Aesthetics: The Big Questions.'' 1998\n* Lyotard, Jean-François (1979), ''The Postmodern Condition'', Manchester University Press, 1984.\n* Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1969), ''The Visible and the Invisible'', Northwestern University Press.\n* David Novitz (1992), ''The Boundaries of Art.''\n* Mario Perniola, ''The Art and Its Shadow'', foreword by Hugh J. Silverman, translated by Massimo Verdicchio, London-NewYork, Continuum, 2004.\n* Robert Pirsig, ''Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values'', 1974, paperpack, or hardback first edition \n* Griselda Pollock, \"Does Art Think?\" In: Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) ''Art and Thought''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2003. 129-174. .\n* Griselda Pollock, ''Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive''. Routledge, 2007. .\n* Griselda Pollock, ''Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts''. Routledge, 1996. .\n* George Santayana (1896), ''The Sense of Beauty. Being the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory.'' New York, Modern Library, 1955.\n* Elaine Scarry, ''On Beauty and Being Just.'' Princeton, 2001. \n* Friedrich Schiller, (1795), ''On the Aesthetic Education of Man''. Dover Publications, 2004.\n* Alan Singer and Allen Dunn (eds.), ''Literary Aesthetics: A Reader.'' Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2000. \n* Jadranka Skorin-Kapov, ''The Intertwining of Aesthetics and Ethics: Exceeding of Expectations, Ecstasy, Sublimity''. Lexington Books, 2016. \n* Władysław Tatarkiewicz, ''A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics'', The Hague, 1980. \n* Władysław Tatarkiewicz, ''History of Aesthetics'', 3 vols. (1–2, 1970; 3, 1974), The Hague, Mouton.\n* Markand Thakar ''Looking for the 'Harp' Quartet: An Investigation into Musical Beauty''. University of Rochester Press, 2011.\n* Leo Tolstoy, ''What Is Art?'', Penguin Classics, 1995.\n* The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Aesthetics\n* John M. Valentine, ''Beginning Aesthetics: An Introduction To The Philosophy of Art.'' McGraw-Hill, 2006. \n* von Vacano, Diego, \"The Art of Power: Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory,\" Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007.\n* Thomas Wartenberg, ''The Nature of Art.'' 2006.\n* John Whitehead, ''Grasping for the Wind.'' 2001.\n* Ludwig Wittgenstein, ''Lectures on aesthetics, psychology and religious belief'', Oxford, Blackwell, 1966.\n* Richard Wollheim, ''Art and its objects'', 2nd edn, 1980, Cambridge University Press, \n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n",
"\n\n* \n* \n* \n* Aesthetics in Continental Philosophy article in the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''\n* Medieval Theories of Aesthetics article in the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''\n* Revue online ''Appareil''\n* Postscript 1980– Some Old Problems in New Perspectives\n* Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation\n* More about Art, culture and Education\n* An history of aesthetics\n* The Concept of the Aesthetic\n* Aesthetics entry in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n* Philosophy of Aesthetics entry in the Philosophy Archive\n* Washington State Board for Community & Technical Colleges: Introduction to Aesthetics\n* Art Perception Complete pdf version of art historian David Cycleback's book.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"Aesthetics and the philosophy of art",
"Aesthetic judgment, universals and ethics",
"New Criticism and ''The Intentional Fallacy''",
"Derivative forms of aesthetics",
"Criticism",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Aesthetics |
[
"\n\n\n\nMap of the Roman Empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138), showing the then homeland of the Angles (''Anglii'') on the Jutland peninsula in today's Germany and Denmark\n\nThe '''Angles''' () were one of the main Germanic peoples who settled in Great Britain in the post-Roman period. They founded several of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England, and their name is the root of the name ''England''. The name comes from the district of Angeln, an area located on the Baltic shore of what is now Schleswig-Holstein.\n",
"The name of the Angles may have been first recorded in Latinised form, as ''Anglii'', in the ''Germania'' of Tacitus. It is thought to derive from the name of the area they originally inhabited: ''Angeln'' in modern German, ''Angel'' in Danish. This name has been hypothesised to originate from the Germanic root for \"narrow\" (compare German and Dutch ''eng'' = \"narrow\"), meaning \"the Narrow Water\", i.e. the Schlei estuary; the root would be angh, \"tight\". Another theory is that the name meant \"hook\", as in angling for fish; Indo-European linguist Julius Pokorny derives it from *ang-, \"bend\" (see ankle). \n\nDuring the 9th century, all invading Germanic tribes were referred to as ''Englisc'', who were speakers of Old English (which was known as ''Englisc'', ''Ænglisc'' or ''Anglisc''). ''Englisc'' also goes back to Proto-Indo-European ''*h₂enǵʰ-'', meaning 'narrow'. In any case, the Angles may have been called such because they were a fishing people or were originally descended from such, and therefore England would mean 'land of the fishermen', and English would be 'the fishermen's language'.\n\nGregory the Great in an epistle simplified the Latinised name ''Anglii'' to ''Angli'', the latter form developing into the preferred form of the word. The country remained ''Anglia'' in Latin. Alfred the Great's translation of Orosius' history of the world uses ''Angelcynn'' (-kin) to describe England and the English people; Bede used ''Angelfolc'' (-folk); there are also such forms as ''Engel'', ''Englan'' (the people), ''Englaland'', and ''Englisc'', all showing i-mutation.\n",
"\n===Tacitus===\nThe map shows both the Angels and the Schwansen peninsulas\nPossible locations of the Angles and Jutes before their migration to Britain.\n\nThe earliest recorded mention of the Angles may be in chapter 40 of Tacitus's ''Germania'' written around AD 98. Tacitus describes the \"Anglii\" as one of the more remote Suebic tribes compared to the Semnones and Langobardi, who lived on the Elbe and were better known to the Romans. He grouped the Angles with several other tribes in that region, the Reudigni, Aviones, Varini, Eudoses, Suarini and Nuitones. These were all living behind ramparts of rivers and woods and therefore inaccessible to attack.\n\nHe gives no precise indication of their geographical situation but states that, together with the six other tribes, they worshiped Nerthus, or Mother Earth, whose sanctuary was located on \"an island in the Ocean\". The Eudoses are the Jutes, these names probably refer to localities in Jutland or on the Baltic coast. The coast contains sufficient estuaries, inlets, rivers, islands, swamps and marshes to have been then inaccessible to those not familiar with the terrain, such as the Romans, who considered it unknown, inaccessible, with a small population and of little economic interest.\n\nThe majority of scholars believe that the Anglii lived on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, probably in the southern part of the Jutish peninsula. This view is based partly on Old English and Danish traditions regarding persons and events of the 4th century, and partly on the fact that striking affinities to the cult of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to be found in pre-Christian Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion.\n\n===Ptolemy===\nPtolemy writing in around AD150, in his atlas ''Geography'' (2.10), describes the ''Sueboi Angeilloi'', Latinised to ''Suevi Angili'', further south, living in a stretch of land between the northern Rhine and central Elbe, but apparently not touching either river, with the Suebic Langobardi on the Rhine to their west, and the Suebic Semnones on the Elbe stretching to their east.\n\nThese Suevi Angili would have been in Lower Saxony or near it, but they are not coastal. The three Suebic peoples are separated from the coastal Chauci, (between Ems and Elbe), and Saxones, (east of the Elbe mouth), by a series of tribes including, between Weser and Elbe, the Angrivarii, \"Laccobardi\" (probably another reference to Langobardi, but taken by Ptolemy from another source), and Dulgubnii. South of the Saxons, and east of the Elbe, Ptolemy lists \"Ouirounoi\" (Latinised as Viruni, and probably the Varini) and Teutonoari, which either denotes \"the Teuton men\", or else it denotes people living in the area where the Teutons had previously lived (who Ptolemy places still living to the east of the Teutonoari). Ptolemy describes the coast to the east of the Saxons as inhabited by the Farodini, a name not known from any other sources.\n\nOwing to the uncertainty of this passage, there has been much speculation regarding the original home of the Anglii. One theory is that they or part of them dwelt or moved among other coastal people perhaps confederated up to the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the ancient canton of Engilin) on the Unstrut valleys below the Kyffhäuserkreis, from which region the ''Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum'' is believed by many to have come. The ethnic names of Frisians and Warines are also attested in these Saxon districts.\n\nA second possible solution is that these Angles of Ptolemy are not those of Schleswig at all. According to Julius Pokorny the Angri- in Angrivarii, the -angr in Hardanger and the Angl- in Anglii all come from the same root meaning \"bend\", but in different senses. In other words, the similarity of the names is strictly coincidental and does not reflect any ethnic unity beyond Germanic.\n\nOn the other hand, Gudmund Schütte, in his analysis of Ptolemy, believes that the Angles have simply been moved by an error coming from Ptolemy's use of imperfect sources. He points out that Angles are placed correctly just to the northeast of the Langobardi, but that these have been duplicated, so that they appear once, correctly, on the lower Elbe, and a second time, incorrectly, at the northern Rhine.\n",
"\nManuscript of Bede\nBede states that the Anglii, before coming to Great Britain, dwelt in a land called Angulus, \"which lies between the province of the Jutes and the Saxons, and remains unpopulated to this day.\" Similar evidence is given by the ''Historia Brittonum''. King Alfred the Great and the chronicler Æthelweard identified this place with the district that is now called Angeln, in the province of Schleswig (Slesvig) (though it may then have been of greater extent), and this identification agrees with the indications given by Bede.\n\nIn the Norwegian seafarer Ohthere of Hålogaland's account of a two-day voyage from the Oslo fjord to Schleswig, he reported the lands on his starboard bow, and Alfred appended the note \"on these islands dwelt the ''Engle'' before they came hither\". Confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named Wermund and Offa of Angel, from whom the Mercian royal family claimed descent and whose exploits are connected with Angeln, Schleswig, and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the 5th century, the Anglii invaded Great Britain, after which time their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of the legal code issued to the Thuringians: ''Lex Anglorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum''.\n\nThe Angles are the subject of a legend about Pope Gregory I, who happened to see a group of Angle children from Deira for sale as slaves in the Roman market. As the story would later be told by the Anglo-Saxon monk and historian Bede, Gregory was struck by the unusual appearance of the slaves and asked about their background. When told they were called \"''Anglii''\" (Angles), he replied with a Latin pun that translates well into English: “''Bene, nam et angelicam habent faciem, et tales angelorum in caelis decet esse coheredes''” (\"It is well, for they have an angelic face, and such people ought to be co-heirs of the angels in heaven\"). Supposedly, this encounter inspired the Pope to launch a mission to bring Christianity to their countrymen.\n",
"The province of Schleswig has proved rich in prehistoric antiquities that date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries. A large cremation cemetery has been found at Borgstedt, between Rendsburg and Eckernförde, and it has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling those found in pagan graves in England. Of still greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsberg moor (in Angeln) and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments, articles of clothing, agricultural implements, etc., and in Nydam even ships. By the help of these discoveries, Angle culture in the age preceding the invasion of Britannia can be pieced together.\n",
"\nAngles, Saxons and Jutes throughout England\nAccording to sources such as the ''History'' of Bede, after the invasion of Britannia, the Angles split up and founded the kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. H.R. Loyn has observed in this context that \"a sea voyage is perilous to tribal institutions\", and the apparently tribe-based kingdoms were formed in England. In early times there were two northern kingdoms (Bernicia and Deira) and two midland ones (Middle Anglia and Mercia), which had by the 7th century resolved themselves into two Angle kingdoms, viz., Northumbria and Mercia. Northumbria held suzerainty amidst the Teutonic presence in the British Isles in the 7th century, but was eclipsed by the rise of Mercia in the 8th century. Both kingdoms fell in the great assaults of the Danish Viking armies in the 9th century. Their royal houses were effectively destroyed in the fighting, and their Angle populations came under the Danelaw. Further south, the Saxon kings of Wessex withstood the Danish assaults. Then in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, the kings of Wessex defeated the Danes and liberated the Angles from the Danelaw. They united their house in marriage with the surviving Angle royalty, and were accepted by the Angles as their kings. This marked the passing of the old 'Anglo-Saxon' world and the dawn of the \"English\" as a new people. The regions of East Anglia and Northumbria are still known by their original titles. Northumbria once stretched as far north as what is now southeast Scotland, including Edinburgh, and as far south as the Humber Estuary.\n\nThe rest of that people stayed at the centre of the Angle homeland in the northeastern portion of the modern German ''Bundesland'' of Schleswig-Holstein, on the Jutland Peninsula. There, a small peninsular area is still called \"Angeln\" today and is formed as a triangle drawn roughly from modern Flensburg on the Flensburger Fjord to the City of Schleswig and then to Maasholm, on the Schlei inlet.\n",
"\n* Angeln\n* Anglo-Saxons\n* East Anglia\n* Kingdom of East Anglia\n* List of ancient Germanic peoples\n* Mercia\n* Northumbria\n",
"\n\n",
"* . \n* .\n* . \n* .\n* \n* \n* \n\n'''Attribution:'''\n* \n",
"* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Name",
"Greco-Roman historiography",
"Medieval historiography",
"Archaeology",
"Anglian kingdoms in England",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading"
] | Angles |
[
"The very first \"kit\" version of the Aster CT-80 running Newdos/80. The 64x16 TRS-80 mode screen uses only a small part of the monitor screen, because the letters are the same size as the 80×25 CP/M screen. This was one of the things that was fixed soon after with the redesign to a commercial product.\nThe '''Aster CT-80''', an early (1982) home/personal computer developed by the small Dutch company MCP (later renamed to '''Aster Computers'''), was sold in its first incarnation as a kit for hobbyists. Later it was sold ready to use. It consisted of several Eurocard PCB's with DIN 41612 connectors, and a backplane all based on a 19-inch rack configuration. It was the first commercially available Dutch personal/home computer. The Aster computer could use the software written for the popular Tandy TRS-80 computer while fixing many of the problems of that computer, but it could also run CP/M software, with a big amount of free memory Transient Program Area, (TPA) and a full 80×25 display, and it could be used as a Videotext terminal. Although the Aster was a clone of the TRS-80 Model I it was in fact more compatible with the TRS-80 Model III, and ran all the software of these systems including games. It also had a built in speaker which was compatible with such games software.\n",
"Three models were sold. The first model (launched June 1982) looked like the later IBM PC (which came on the market years later), a rectangular base unit with two floppy drives on the front, and a monitor on top with a separate detachable keyboard. The second incarnation was a much smaller unit the width of two 5¼\" floppy drives stacked on top of each other, and the third incarnation looked like a flattened Apple with a built-in keyboard.\n\nAll units ran much faster than the original TRS-80, at 4 MHz, (with a software selectable throttle to the original speed for compatibility purposes) and the display supported upper and lower case, hardware snow suppression (video ram bus arbitration logic), and an improved character font set. The floppy disk interface supported dual density, and disk capacities up to 800 KB, more than four times the capacity of the original TRS-80. A special version of NewDos/80, (an improved TRS-DOS compatible Disk operating system) was used to support these disk capacities when using the TRS-80 compatibility mode.\n\nFor the educational market a version of the first model was produced with a new plastic enclosure (the First Asters had an all-metal enclosure) that also had an opening on the top in which a cassette recorder could be placed. This model was used in a cluster with one Aster (with disk drives) for the teacher, and eight disk less versions for the pupils. The pupils could download software from the teachers computer through a network based on a fast serial connection, as well as sending back their work to the teachers computer. There was also hardware in place through which the teacher could see the display of each pupils screen on his own monitor.\n",
"The Aster used 64KB of RAM memory and had the unique feature of supporting two fundamentally different internal architectures: when turned on without a boot floppy or with a TRS-DOS floppy, the Aster would be fully TRS-80 compatible, with 48KB or RAM. When the boot loader detected a CP/M floppy, the Aster would reconfigure its internal memory architecture on the fly to optimally support CP/M with 60 KB free RAM for programs (TPA) and an 80 x 25 display. This dual-architecture capability only existed on one other TRS-80 clone, the LOBO Max-80.\n\nWith a special configuration tool, the CT-80 could reconfigure its floppy drivers to read and write the floppies of about 80 other CP/M systems.\n\nA third mode was entered with a special boot floppy which turned the Aster into a Videotex terminal with a 40x25 display and a Videotex character set, The software used the built in RS232 interface of the Aster to control a modem through which it could contact a Prestel service provider.\n",
"\nMost Aster CT-80's (about 10 thousand of them) were sold to schools for computer education, in a project first known as the \"honderd scholen project\" (one hundred schools project), but which later involved many more than just one hundred schools. MCP received this order from the Dutch government because their computer met all the technical and other demands, including the demand that the computers should be of Dutch origin and should be built in the Netherlands. Another important demand was that the computers could be used in a network (Aster developed special software and hardware for that). Later however the Government turned around and gave 50% of the order to Philips and their P2000 homecomputer even though the P2000 did not meet all the technical demands, was made in Austria and did not have network hard nor software.\n",
"\nAster computers was based in the small town of Arkel near the town of Gorinchem.\nInitially Aster computer b.v. was called MCP (Music print Computer Product), because it was specialized in producing computer assisted printing of sheet music. The director of the company was interested in Microprocessor technology and noticed there was a market for selling kits to computer building amateurs, so they started selling electronic kits to hobbyists, and employed four persons at that time . They also assembled kits for people without soldering skills, especially the \"junior Computer\" from Elektor (a copy of the KIM-1), and the ZX80 from Sinclair. Among the kits sold there were also alternative floppy disk drives for TRS-80 computers. But these needed the infamous TRS-80 expansion interface, which was very expensive, and had a very unreliable floppy disk controller because it used the WD1771 floppy disc controller chip without an external \"data separator\". To fix this problem MCP developed a small plugin board which could be plugged into the socket for the WD1771, and which contained a data separator, and a socket for the WD1791 to support dual-density operation. Still, the expansion interface was expensive and due to its design it was also unreliable. So they decided to also develop their own alternative in the form of an improved floppy disk controller and printer interface that could be built right into a floppy disk enclosure. The lack of RAM expansion offered by this solution was solved by a service in which the 16 KB RAM chips inside the base unit would be replaced by 64 KB RAM chips.\nWhile this went on MCP renamed itself to ''MCP CHIP'' but ran into problems with the German computer magazine ''CHIP'', and had to return to its former name. At that time MCP did also sell imported home computers like the TRS-80, the Video Genie, (another TRS-80 clone), the Luxor ABC 80 and the Apple II.\nThey also sold the exotic Olivetti M20, a very early 16-bit personal computer that was one of the very few systems to use a Z8000 CPU.\n\nAfter designing their own fully functional replacement for the TRS-80 expansion interface (which was never commercialized) the company realized that they could do better than just re-designing the expansion interface. They observed that the TRS-80 was a great computer but it lacked in several areas. The display logic and resulting display 'snow' was irritating, as was the missing lower case support, the CPU speed could be improved, the quality and layout of the keyboard was bothersome, and the floppy disk capacity and reliability was low. Also the more interesting software offered for CP/M systems could not run well on a TRS-80. So they decided to design a TRS-80 and CP/M software-compatible computer system, which (following the lead of Apple Computer) they decided to name after a \"typical Dutch flower\". So they called it the Aster CT-80 ('''C'''P/M/'''T'''andy'''-'''19'''80'''). Why they went with Aster, and not the more well known Tulip is unknown, perhaps they thought it would be to presumptuous, or perhaps the fact that \"Aster\" is also a Dutch girls' name has something to do with it. Remarkably \"Aster\" was also the name given to a Dutch Supercomputer much later, in 2002.\n\nThe first version of the Aster consisted of four \"Eurocard's\", one Z80 CPU card with 64 KB memory, one Motorola MC6845-based video card, one double density floppy disk controller card and one \"keyboard/RS232/cassette interface\" card. Plus a \"backplane card\", (which connected all the other cards) and a keyboard. And was intended for hobbyists, to be sold as a kit consisting of the parts and the PCB's for the computer and attached keyboard. After selling a few kits, MCP became convinced there was a much bigger market for an improved model sold as a completed working system. However the original kit version lacked many features that prevented its use as a serious computer system. Because the original designer had left the company another employee completely redesigned most of the system, (adding a display snow remover circuit, true 80/64 column text mode support, (with different size letters for TRS-80 and CP/M mode, so that in TRS-80 mode the full screen was also used, not just a 64×16 portion of the 80×25 screen) with an improved font set (adding \"gray scale\" version of the TRS-80 mozaik graphics and many special PETSCII like characters), and a more flexible and reliable floppy disk controller and keyboard interface plus many other small improvements), also an enclosure was developed for the main computer system, (in the form of a 19-inch rack for the Eurocards) and for two floppy disk drives and the power supply. A software engineer was hired to write the special \"dual boot mode\" BIOS and the special CP/M BIOS. The \"dual boot mode\" BIOS actually discovered whether a TRS-DOS, or Aster CP/M disk was placed in the drive, and would, depending on the type of disk, reorganise the internal memory architecture of the system, to either be 100% TRS-80 compatible or optimally support CP/M, with as much \"workspace\" as possible, and the 80×25 video mode. It also was responsible for switching to ROM BASIC when the system was turned on with the break key pressed, and later supported a primitive LAN system, using the RS232 port with modified cabling. The very first of the ready made computers were sold with the \"kit\" versions of the euro cards, the version with redesigned cards came a month or so later.\n\nSoon the little shop became much too small and they moved to a much larger factory building nearby (formerly a window glass factory), and started mass-producing the Aster for a period of a few years, in which time its staff grew twentyfold.\n\nAfter the Aster having been a few years on the Market Tandy released its own improved model, the TRS-80 Model III computer which solved many of the same problems that the Aster also had solved, but the model 3 still did not fully support CP/M as the Aster did. In the meantime IBM had released its original IBM PC, which incidentally looked remarkably like the Asters base with floppy drives + separate keyboard set-up.\n\nThe Aster was chosen for Dutch schools by the Dutch ministry of education, in a set-up with eight disk-less Asters, and one Aster with high-capacity floppy drives all connected by a LAN based on the Aster's high-speed serial port hardware, and special cables that permitted that any single computer on the LAN could broadcast to all other computers. The floppy based system was operated by the teacher who could send programs from his floppy disk, and data, to the student's disk-less systems thanks to the special BIOS in those systems. The students could send programs and data back to the teacher through the same LAN, or could save to a cassette recorder built into the disk-less units. Through a special \"video-switch\" the teacher was also able to see a copy of each student's display on his own screen. About a thousand of such systems were sold for many hundreds of Dutch schools.\n\nBecause of cash flow problems (resulting from growing too fast, insufficient financial backing, technical problems, and a sudden problem with Z80 processor deliveries) the company suddenly folded even before it came to full fruition.\n\nPerhaps the Aster computer inspired another Dutch computer firm to name their computer after another typical Dutch flower—the Tulip's Tulip System-1 which appeared about the same time Aster folded.\n\nMost of the engineers who designed the hardware and software of the Aster went on to design hardware and software for the (then new) MSX system for a company called \"Micro Technology b.v.\".\n",
"\nTo enhance and modernize the Aster CT-80 the company also designed three alternative video display adapters to supplement or replace the TRS-80 compatible video card, (due to the modular nature of the Aster it was simply a matter of changing the video card, and/or CPU card to upgrade the system).\n* A very High resolution monochrome video card with blitter and hardware text line and arc drawing capability, was designed for CAD applications, based on the NEC µPD7220 chip designed for graphic terminals, but was also used by some personal computers like the DEC Rainbow, and notably also for the Tulip System I.\n* A colour video card with sprite capability based on the same video chip (the TMS9918) as the TI99/4 and MSX computers, designed for gaming, and more creative and colorful educational software. A working prototype of this card was finished.\n* A replacement card for the original TRS-80 compatible video card, software compatible to the original one, but with added color and very high resolution capabilities. was also on the drawing board. Based on a newer, slightly more flexible, version of the Asters original Motorola MC6845 video chip, the Rockwell 6545, it worked by adding a new video mode, one with the ability to reprogram an extended, (2048 characters instead of 256 characters) version of the character set, supported by an extended character memory of the video card that did not use one (8 bit) byte per character, but an 11 bit \"word\", so it could address each one of the available 2048 unique programmable characters. This meant it could provide a separate programmable character for all of the 1024 (64x16) or 2000 (80x25) characters on the screen. By filling the character pointer memory with values from zero to 1919 this essentially turned the text mode display into a very high resolution graphics mode, with the \"font memory\", acting as the high resolution Raster graphics video memory. Because the characters were 8 x 12 pixels this meant that video resolutions of 512 x 192 pixels (in 64x16 character mode), or 640 x 300 pixels (in 80x24 character mode) were created, which was quite high for the time. The \"double width\" mode of the TRS-80 was also supported, so 256 x 192 pixels (in 32x16 character mode), or 320 x 300 pixels (in 40x24 character mode) were also possible. The video card also supported 16 foreground and 16 background colors per character, by providing one byte per character position (2K) of \"color ram\". One nibble of such a byte then controlled the foreground color, and the other nibble controlled the background color, a system very similar to the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, in fact in the 256x192 mode the display mode was virtually identical to the video of the Sinclair ZX Spectrum. The color memory was also available in the \"normal\" TRS-80 and CP/M text modes, which meant that existing TRS-80 and CP/M software could be easily modified to add color. This video card would also support fast scrolling of high resolution color screens for games, because it had the indirection of the character pointers, so it was possible to quickly scroll the high resolution display, (or use other effects) by simply manipulating the 1920/1024 bytes of text video instead of the 24.576 bytes of high resolution video memory.\n\nA hard disk interface was also in the works, which would, add a SCSI interface, and the necessary software. A working prototype was developed that added a 40MB hard disk.\n\nOn the software front, work was being done to implement the replacement for the aging \"user interface\" of CP/M, (the Command Console Processor CCP ) with the more modern ZCPR.\n\nFinally a replacement for the aging Z80 processor was being developed in the form of an Intel 8086 board, and additional 512K 16 bit memory boards. Such replacements of CPU and memory system components were possible because the Aster CT-80 was designed to use a backplane that was designed to support both 8 and 16 bit processors, and used a modular Eurocard based design with slots to spare for expansion. In theory the system could support the Z80 and the 8086 simultaneously. Plans were formulated to support CP/M-86 and even MS-DOS.\n\nUnfortunately none of these extensions to the system became available because the company folded before any of them could be released.\n",
"* Pictures of the Aster CT-80 model one from a Spanish computer museum, the educational model with an opening for a cassette player is the one on the right\n* A picture of the Aster CT-80 model two used for a business application\n* A picture of the Aster CT-80 model three without cover (Computermuseumgroningen does not have this item anymore)\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Models",
"Working modes",
"Sales",
"Company",
"Unreleased add ons",
"External links",
"Notes"
] | Aster CT-80 |
[
"'''Arthur Wellesley''' may refer to:\n\n*Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769–1852), Anglo-Irish soldier and statesman\n*Arthur Wellesley, 2nd Duke of Wellington (1807–1884), British soldier and nobleman\n*Arthur Wellesley, 4th Duke of Wellington (1849–1934), British soldier and nobleman\n*Arthur Wellesley, 5th Duke of Wellington (1876–1941), British soldier and nobleman\n*Arthur Wellesley, Marquess of Douro (born 1978), grandson of the 8th Duke\n*Arthur Wellesley Hughes (1870–1950), also known as Arthur Wellesley, Canadian musician and composer\n",
"* Arthur (disambiguation)\n* Wellesley (disambiguation)\n* Duke of Wellington (disambiguation)\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"See also"
] | Arthur Wellesley |
[
"\nThese are '''lists of animated television series'''. Animated television series are television programs produced by means of animation. Animated series produced for theaters are not included in this lists; for those, see List of animated short series. These lists include compilation series of theatrical shorts such as ''The Bugs Bunny Show'' since they often feature some new wrap-around animation.\n",
"*List of animated television series of the 1940s and 1950s\n*List of animated television series of the 1960s\n*List of animated television series of the 1970s\n*List of animated television series of the 1980s\n*List of animated television series of the 1990s\n*List of animated television series of the 2000s\n*List of animated television series of the 2010s\n",
"*List of animated television series created for syndication\n*List of animated television series by episode count\n*List of children animated series\n*List of adult animated television series\n*List of prime time animated television series\n*List of anime series by episode count\n*List of anime franchises by episode count\n*List of American animated television series\n*List of British animated television series\n*List of Canadian animated television series\n*List of French animated television series\n*List of Italian animated television series\n*List of Flash animated television series\n*List of animated television programs with LGBT characters\n",
"* 日本のテレビアニメ作品一覧 - Lists of Japanese animated television series on Japanese Wikipedia\n* Don Markstein's Toonopedia – Very large index page\n* The Big Cartoon Database\n* 80sCartoons – Nostalgia for those who grew up in the 1980s in the West\n* Anime sorted by release date, JP Works DB\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Lists by decade",
"Other lists",
"External links"
] | List of animated television series |
[
"\n\n\nThe '''Atlanta Braves''' are an American professional baseball franchise based in the Atlanta metropolitan area. The franchise competes in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the National League (NL) East division. The Braves played home games at Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium from 1966 to 1996, and Turner Field from 1997 to 2016. Since 2017, their home stadium has been SunTrust Park, a new stadium 10 miles (16 km) northwest of downtown Atlanta in the Cumberland neighborhood of Cobb County. The Braves play spring training games in Lake Buena Vista, Florida. In January 2017, the Braves announced a formal agreement to move their spring training home to North Port, Florida. \n\nThe \"Braves\" name, which was first used in 1912, originates from a term for a Native American warrior. They are nicknamed \"the ''Bravos''\", and often referred to as \"America's Team\" in reference to the team's games being broadcast on the nationally available TBS from the 1970s until 2007, giving the team a nationwide fan base.\n\nFrom 1991 to 2005, the Braves were one of the most successful teams in baseball, winning division titles an unprecedented 14 consecutive times (omitting the strike-shortened 1994 season in which there were no official division champions), and producing the greatest pitching rotation in the history of baseball. The Braves won the NL West 1991–93 and the NL East 1995–2005, and they returned to the playoffs as the National League Wild Card in 2010. The Braves advanced to the World Series five times in the 1990s, winning the title in 1995. Since their debut in the National League in 1876, the franchise has won 17 divisional titles, 17 National League pennants, and three World Series championships—in 1914 as the Boston Braves, in 1957 as the Milwaukee Braves, and in 1995 in Atlanta. The Braves are the only Major League Baseball franchise to have won the World Series in three different home cities.\n\nThe Braves and the Chicago Cubs are the National League's two remaining charter franchises. The Braves were founded in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1871, as the '''Boston Red Stockings''' (not to be confused with the American League's Boston Red Sox). The team states it is \"the oldest continuously operating professional sports franchise in America.\"\n\nAfter various name changes, the team eventually began operating as the '''Boston Braves''', which lasted for most of the first half of the 20th century. Then, in 1953, the team moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and became the '''Milwaukee Braves''', followed by the final move to Atlanta in 1966. The team's tenure in Atlanta is noted for Hank Aaron breaking Babe Ruth's career home run record in 1974.\n",
"\n\n===Boston (1871–1952)===\n\n\n====1871–1913====\n1873 Boston Red Stockings team picture; it finished first with a record of 43–16\n\nThe Cincinnati Red Stockings, established in 1869 as the first openly all-professional baseball team, voted to dissolve after the 1870 season. Player-manager Harry Wright, with brother George and two other Cincinnati players, then went to Boston, Massachusetts at the invitation of Boston Red Stockings founder Ivers Whitney Adams to form the nucleus of the ''Boston Red Stockings'', a charter member of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (NAPBBP). The original Boston Red Stockings team and its successors can lay claim to being the oldest continuously playing team in American professional sports. (The only other team that has been organized as long, the Chicago Cubs, did not play for the two years following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.) Two young players hired away from the Forest City club of Rockford, Illinois, turned out to be the biggest stars during the NAPBBP years: pitcher Al Spalding (founder of Spalding sporting goods) and second baseman Ross Barnes.\n\nLed by the Wright brothers, Barnes, and Spalding, the Red Stockings dominated the National Association, winning four of that league's five championships. The team became one of the National League's charter franchises in 1876, sometimes called the \"''Red Caps''\" (as a new Cincinnati Red Stockings club was another charter member). \n\nThe Boston Red Caps played in the first game in the history of the National League, on Saturday, April 22, 1876, defeating the Athletics, 6–5.\n\n1888 Boston Beaneaters\nAlthough somewhat stripped of talent in the National League's inaugural year, Boston bounced back to win the 1877 and 1878 pennants. The Red Caps/Beaneaters were one of the league's dominant teams during the 19th century, winning a total of eight pennants. For most of that time, their manager was Frank Selee. Boston came to be called the ''Beaneaters'' in 1883, while retaining red as the team color. The 1898 team finished 102–47, a club record for wins that would stand for almost a century. Stars of those 1890s Beaneater teams included the \"Heavenly Twins\", Hugh Duffy and Tommy McCarthy, as well as \"Slidin'\" Billy Hamilton.\n\nHugh Duffy played with the franchise from 1892 to 1900 and won the third Triple Crown in MLB history\nThe team was decimated when the American League's new Boston entry set up shop in 1901. Many of the Beaneaters' stars jumped to the new team, which offered contracts that the Beaneaters' owners did not even bother to match. They only managed one winning season from 1900 to 1913, and lost 100 games five times. In 1907, the Beaneaters (temporarily) eliminated the last bit of red from their stockings because their manager thought the red dye could cause wounds to become infected (as noted in ''The Sporting News Baseball Guide'' during the 1940s when each team's entry had a history of its nickname(s). The American League club's owner, Charles Taylor, wasted little time in adopting Red Sox as his team's first official nickname (up to that point they had been called by the generic \"Americans\"). Media-driven nickname changes to the ''Doves'' in 1907 and the ''Rustlers'' in 1911 did nothing to change the National League club's luck. The team became the ''Braves'' for the first time in 1912. Their owner, James Gaffney, was a member of New York City's political machine, Tammany Hall, which used an Indian chief as their symbol.\n\n====1914: Miracle====\n\n\nTwo years later, the Braves put together one of the most memorable seasons in baseball history. After a dismal 4–18 start, the Braves seemed to be on pace for a last place finish. On July 4, 1914, the Braves lost both games of a doubleheader to the Brooklyn Dodgers. The consecutive losses put their record at 26–40 and the Braves were in last place, ''15 games'' behind the league-leading New York Giants, who had won the previous three league pennants. After a day off, the Braves started to put together a hot streak, and from July 6 through September 5, the Braves went 41–12. On September 7 and 8, the Braves took two of three games from the New York Giants and moved into first place. The Braves tore through September and early October, closing with 25 wins against six losses, while the Giants went 16–16. They were the only team, under the old eight-team league format, to win a pennant after being in last place on the Fourth of July. They were in last place as late as July 18, but were close to the pack, moving into fourth on July 21 and second place on August 12.\n\nBill James was 2–0 in the 1914 World Series, and the Braves recorded the first sweep in World Series history\nDespite their amazing comeback, the Braves entered the World Series as a heavy underdog to Connie Mack's Philadelphia A's. Nevertheless, the Braves swept the Athletics—the first unqualified sweep in the young history of the modern World Series (the 1907 Series had one tied game) to win the world championship. Meanwhile, Johnny Evers won the Chalmers Award.\n\nThe Braves played the World Series (as well as the last few games of the 1914 season) at Fenway Park, since their normal home, the South End Grounds, was too small. However, the Braves' success inspired owner Gaffney to build a modern park, Braves Field, which opened in August 1915. It was the largest park in the majors at the time, with 40,000 seats and a very spacious outfield. The park was novel for its time; public transportation brought fans right to the park.\n\n====1915–1953====\nAfter contending for most of 1915 and 1916, the Braves only twice posted winning records from 1917 to 1932. The lone highlight of those years came when Judge Emil Fuchs bought the team in 1923 to bring his longtime friend, pitching great Christy Mathewson, back into the game. However, Mathewson died in 1925, leaving Fuchs in control of the team.\n\nFuchs was committed to building a winner, but the damage from the years prior to his arrival took some time to overcome. The Braves finally managed to be competitive in 1933 and 1934 under manager Bill McKechnie, but Fuchs' revenue was severely depleted due to the Great Depression.\n\nLooking for a way to get more fans and more money, Fuchs worked out a deal with the New York Yankees to acquire Babe Ruth, who had started his career with the Red Sox. Fuchs made Ruth team vice president, and promised him a share of the profits. He was also granted the title of assistant manager, and was to be consulted on all of the Braves' deals. Fuchs even suggested that Ruth, who had long had his heart set on managing, could take over as manager once McKechnie stepped down—perhaps as early as 1936.\n\nAt first, it appeared that Ruth was the final piece the team needed in 1935. On opening day, he had a hand in all of the Braves' runs in a 4–2 win over the Giants. However, that proved to be the only time the Braves were over .500 all year. Events went downhill quickly. While Ruth could still hit, he could do little else. He could not run, and his fielding was so terrible that three of the Braves' pitchers threatened to go on strike if Ruth were in the lineup. It soon became obvious that he was vice president and assistant manager in name only and Fuchs' promise of a share of team profits was hot air. In fact, Ruth discovered that Fuchs expected him to invest some of ''his'' money in the team.\n\nSeeing a franchise in complete disarray, Ruth retired on June 1—only six days after he clouted what turned out to be the last three home runs of his career. He had wanted to quit as early as May 12, but Fuchs wanted him to hang on so he could play in every National League park. The Braves finished 38–115, the worst season in franchise history. Their .248 winning percentage is the third-worst in baseball history, and the second-worst in National League history (behind only the 1899 Cleveland Spiders).\n\nFuchs lost control of the team in August 1935, and the new owners tried to change the team's image by renaming it the ''Boston Bees''. This did little to change the team's fortunes. After five uneven years, a new owner, construction magnate Lou Perini, changed the nickname back to the Braves. He immediately set about rebuilding the team. World War II slowed things down a little, but the team rode the pitching of Warren Spahn to impressive seasons in 1946 and 1947.\n\nSpahn (right) with Johnny Sain\nIn 1948, the team won the pennant, behind the pitching of Spahn and Johnny Sain, who won 39 games between them. The remainder of the rotation was so thin that in September, ''Boston Post'' writer Gerald Hern wrote this poem about the pair:\n\n:''First we'll use Spahn''\n:''then we'll use Sain''\n:''Then an off day''\n:''followed by rain''\n:''Back will come Spahn''\n:''followed by Sain''\n:''And followed''\n:''we hope''\n:''by two days of rain.''\n\nThe poem received such a wide audience that the sentiment, usually now paraphrased as ''\"Spahn and Sain and pray for rain\"'', entered the baseball vocabulary. However, in the 1948 season, the Braves actually had the same record in games that Spahn and Sain started that the team had overall, in terms of winning percentage.\n\nThe 1948 World Series, which the Braves lost in six games to the Indians, turned out to be the Braves' last hurrah in Boston. In 1950, Sam Jethroe became the team's first African American player, making his major league debut on April 18. Amid four mediocre seasons, attendance steadily dwindled until, on March 13, 1953, Perini, who had recently bought out his original partners, announced he was moving the team to Milwaukee, where the Braves had their top farm club, the Brewers. Milwaukee had long been a possible target for relocation. Bill Veeck had tried to return his St. Louis Browns there earlier the same year (Milwaukee was the original home of that franchise), but his proposal had been voted down by the other American League owners.\n\n===Milwaukee (1953–1965)===\n\n\nMilwaukee went wild over the Braves, who were welcomed as genuine heroes. The Braves finished 92–62 in their first season in Milwaukee, and drew a then-NL record 1.8 million fans. The success of the team was noted by many owners. Not coincidentally, the Philadelphia Athletics, St. Louis Browns, Brooklyn Dodgers, and New York Giants would leave their original hometowns within the next five years.\n\nMilwaukee Braves cap logo\nAs the 1950s progressed, the reinvigorated Braves became increasingly competitive. Sluggers Eddie Mathews and Hank Aaron drove the offense (they would hit a combined 1,226 home runs as Braves, with 850 of those coming while the franchise was in Milwaukee), often aided by another power hitter, Joe Adcock, while Warren Spahn, Lew Burdette, and Bob Buhl anchored the rotation. The 1956 Braves finished second, only one game behind the Brooklyn Dodgers.\n\nIn 1957, the Braves celebrated their first pennant in nine years spearheaded by Aaron's MVP season, as he led the National League in home runs and RBI. Perhaps the most memorable of his 44 round-trippers that season came on September 23, a two-run walk-off home run that gave the Braves a 4–2 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals and clinched the League championship. The team then went on to its first World Series win in over 40 years, defeating the powerful New York Yankees of Berra, Mantle, and Ford in seven games. One-time Yankee Burdette, the Series MVP, threw three complete game victories against his former team, giving up only two earned runs.\n\nIn 1958, the Braves again won the National League pennant and jumped out to a three games to one lead in the World Series against the New York Yankees once more, thanks in part to the strength of Spahn's and Burdette's pitching. But the Yankees stormed back to take the last three games, in large part to World Series MVP Bob Turley's pitching.\n\nThe 1959 season saw the Braves finish the season in a tie with the Los Angeles Dodgers, both with 86–68 records. Many residents of Chicago and Milwaukee were hoping for a Sox-Braves Series, as the cities are only about apart, but it was not to be because Milwaukee fell in a best-of-3 playoff with two straight losses to the Dodgers. The Dodgers would go on to defeat the Chicago White Sox in the World Series.\n\nMilwaukee Braves logo (1953–1956)\nThe next six years were up-and-down for the Braves. The 1960 season featured two no-hitters by Burdette and Spahn, and Milwaukee finished seven games behind the Pittsburgh Pirates, who ultimately were to win the World Series that year, in second place, one year after the Braves were on the winning end of the 13-inning near-perfect game of Pirates pitcher Harvey Haddix. The 1961 season saw a drop in the standings for the Braves down to fourth, despite Spahn recording his 300th victory and pitching another no-hitter that year.\n\nAaron hit 45 home runs in 1962, a Milwaukee career high for him, but this did not translate into wins for the Braves, as they finished fifth. The next season, Aaron again hit 44 home runs and notched 130 RBI, and Spahn was once again the ace of the staff, going 23–7. However, none of the other Braves produced at that level, and the team finished in the lower half of the league, or \"second division\", for the first time in its short history in Milwaukee.\n\nThe Braves were somewhat mediocre as the 1960s began, but fattened up on the expansion New York Mets and Houston Colt .45s. To this day, the Milwaukee Braves are the only major league team who played more than one season and never had a losing record.\n\nPerini sold the Braves to a Chicago-based group led by William Bartholomay in 1962. Almost immediately Bartholomay started shopping the Braves to a larger television market. Keen to attract them, the fast-growing city of Atlanta, led by Mayor\nIvan Allen, Jr. constructed a new $18 million, 52,000-seat ballpark in less than one year, Atlanta Stadium, which was officially opened in 1965 in hopes of luring an existing major league baseball and/or NFL/AFL team. After the city failed to lure the Kansas City A's to Atlanta (the A's would move to Oakland in 1968), the Braves announced their intention to move to Atlanta for the 1965 season. However, an injunction filed in Wisconsin kept the Braves in Milwaukee for one final year. In 1966, the Braves completed the move to Atlanta.\n\nEddie Mathews is the only Braves player to have played for the organization in all three cities that they have been based in. Mathews played with the Braves for their last season in Boston, the team's entire tenure in Milwaukee, and their first season in Atlanta.\n\n===Atlanta (1966–present)===\n\n====1966–1974====\nThe Braves were a .500 team in their first few years in Atlanta; 85–77 in 1966, 77–85 in 1967, and 81–81 in 1968. The 1967 season was the Braves' first losing season since 1952, their last year in Boston. In 1969, with the onset of divisional play, the Braves won the first-ever National League West Division title, before being swept by the \"Miracle Mets\" in the National League Championship Series. They would not be a factor during the next decade, posting only two winning seasons between 1970 and 1981 – in some cases, fielding teams as bad as the worst Boston teams.\n\nThe fence over which Hank Aaron hit his 715th career home run still exists outside of Turner Field.\nIn the meantime, fans had to be satisfied with the achievements of Hank Aaron. In the relatively hitter-friendly confines and higher-than-average altitude of Atlanta Stadium (\"The Launching Pad\"), he actually increased his offensive production. Atlanta also produced batting champions in Rico Carty (in 1970) and Ralph Garr (in 1974). In the shadow of Aaron's historical home run pursuit, was the fact that three Atlanta sluggers hit 40 or more home runs in 1973 – Darrell Evans, Davey Johnson and, of course, Aaron.\n\nBy the end of the 1973 season, Aaron had hit 713 home runs, one short of Ruth's record. Throughout the winter he received racially motivated death threats, but stood up well under the pressure. The next season, it was only a matter of time before he set a new record. On April 4, opening day, he hit No.714 in Cincinnati, and on April 8, in front of his home fans and a national television audience he finally beat Ruth's mark with a home run to left-center field off left-hander Al Downing of the Los Angeles Dodgers. Aaron spent most of his career as a Milwaukee and Atlanta Brave before asking to be traded to the Milwaukee Brewers, while Ruth finished his career as a Boston Brave. In fact, until Barry Bonds eclipsed the 714 home runs hit by Babe Ruth in 2006, the top two home run hitters in Major League history had at one time been Braves.\n\n====1976–1977: Ted Turner buys the team====\nMedia magnate Ted Turner purchased the team in 1976, and played a large role in the team's operation.\n\nIn 1976, the team was purchased by media magnate Ted Turner, owner of superstation WTBS, as a means to keep the team (and one of his main programming staples) in Atlanta. The financially strapped Turner used money already paid to the team for their broadcast rights as a down-payment. It was then that Atlanta Stadium was renamed Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium. Turner quickly gained a reputation as a quirky, hands-on baseball owner. On May 11, 1977, Turner appointed himself manager, but because MLB passed a rule in the 1950s barring managers from holding a financial stake in their teams, Turner was ordered to relinquish that position after one game (the Braves lost 2–1 to the Pittsburgh Pirates to bring their losing streak to 17 games).\n\nTurner used the Braves as a major programming draw for his fledgling cable network, making the Braves the first franchise to have a nationwide audience and fan base. WTBS marketed the team as \"The Atlanta Braves: America's Team\", a nickname that still sticks in some areas of the country, especially the South. Among other things, in 1976 Turner suggested the nickname \"Channel\" for pitcher Andy Messersmith and jersey number 17, in order to promote the television station that aired Braves games. Major League Baseball quickly nixed the idea.\n\n====1978–1990====\nPhil Niekro played with the Braves from 1964 to 1983 and in 1987; he holds the MLB record for most wins by a knuckleball pitcher\n\nAfter three straight losing seasons, Bobby Cox was hired for his first stint as manager for the 1978 season. He promoted 22-year-old slugger Dale Murphy into the starting lineup. Murphy hit 77 home runs over the next three seasons, but he struggled on defense, unable to adeptly play either catcher or first base. In 1980, Murphy was moved to center field and demonstrated excellent range and throwing ability, while the Braves earned their first winning season since 1974. Cox was fired after the 1981 season and replaced with Joe Torre, under whose leadership the Braves attained their first divisional title since 1969. Strong performances from Bob Horner, Chris Chambliss, pitcher Phil Niekro, and short relief pitcher Gene Garber helped the Braves, but no Brave was more acclaimed than Murphy, who won both a Most Valuable Player and a Gold Glove award. Murphy also won an MVP award the following season, but the Braves began a period of decline that defined the team throughout the 1980s. Murphy, excelling in defense, hitting, and running, was consistently recognized as one of the league's best players, but the Braves averaged only 65 wins per season between 1985 and 1990. Their lowest point came in 1988, when they lost 106 games. The 1986 season saw the return of Bobby Cox as general manager. Also in 1986, the team stopped using their Indian-themed mascot, Chief Noc-A-Homa.\n\n====1991–2005: Division dominance====\n\n=====1991–1994=====\n\n\nCox returned to the dugout as manager in the middle of the 1990 season, replacing Russ Nixon. The Braves finished the year with the worst record in baseball, at 65–97. They traded Dale Murphy to the Philadelphia Phillies after it was clear he was becoming a less dominant player. Pitching coach Leo Mazzone began developing young pitchers Tom Glavine, Steve Avery, and John Smoltz into future stars. That same year, the Braves used the number one overall pick in the 1990 MLB draft to select Chipper Jones, who became one of the best hitters in team history. Perhaps the Braves' most important move was not on the field, but in the front office. Immediately after the season, John Schuerholz was hired away from the Kansas City Royals as general manager.\n\nThe following season, Glavine, Avery, and Smoltz would be recognized as the best young pitchers in the league, winning 52 games among them. Meanwhile, behind position players David Justice, Ron Gant and unexpected league Most Valuable Player and batting champion Terry Pendleton, the Braves overcame a 39–40 start, winning 55 of their final 83 games over the last three months of the season and edging the Los Angeles Dodgers by one game in one of baseball's more memorable playoff races. The \"Worst to First\" Braves, who had not won a divisional title since 1982, captivated the city of Atlanta (and the entire southeast) during their improbable run to the flag. They defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates in a very tightly contested seven-game NLCS only to lose the World Series, also in seven games, to the Minnesota Twins. The series, considered by many to be one of the greatest ever, was the first time a team that had finished last in its division one year went to the World Series the next; both the Twins and Braves accomplished the feat.\n\nDespite the 1991 World Series loss, the Braves' success would continue. In 1992, the Braves returned to the NLCS and once again defeated the Pirates in seven games, culminating in a dramatic game seven win. Francisco Cabrera's two-out single that scored David Justice and Sid Bream capped a three-run rally in the bottom of the ninth inning that gave the Braves a 3–2 victory. It was the first time in post season history that the tying and winning runs had scored on a single play in the ninth inning. The Braves lost the World Series to the Toronto Blue Jays, however. In 1993, the Braves signed Cy Young Award winning pitcher Greg Maddux from the Chicago Cubs, leading many baseball insiders to declare the team's pitching staff the best in baseball. The 1993 team posted a franchise-best 104 wins after a dramatic pennant race with the San Francisco Giants, who won 103 games. The Braves needed a stunning 55–19 finish to edge out the Giants, who led the Braves by nine games in the standings as late as August 11. However, the Braves fell in the NLCS to the Philadelphia Phillies in six games.\n\nIn 1994, in a realignment of the National League's divisions following the 1993 expansion, the Braves moved to the Eastern Division. This realignment was the main cause of the team's heated rivalry with the New York Mets during the mid-to-late 1990s.\n\nThe player's strike cut short the 1994 season, prior to the division championships, with the Braves six games behind the Montreal Expos with 48 games left to play.\n\n=====1995–2005=====\nThe Braves returned strong the following strike-shortened (144 games instead of the customary 162) year and beat the Cleveland Indians in the 1995 World Series. This squelched claims by many Braves critics that they were the \"Buffalo Bills of Baseball\" (January 1996 issue of ''Beckett Baseball Card Monthly''). With this World Series victory, the Braves became the first team in Major League Baseball to win world championships in three different cities. With their strong pitching as a constant, the Braves appeared in the and 1999 World Series (losing both to the New York Yankees, managed by Joe Torre, a former Braves manager), and had a streak of division titles from 1991 to 2005 (three in the Western Division and eleven in the Eastern) interrupted only in 1994 when the strike ended the season early. Pitching was not the only constant in the Braves organization —Cox was the Braves' manager, while Schuerholz remained the team's GM until after the 2007 season when he was promoted to team president. Terry Pendleton finished his playing career elsewhere, but returned to the Braves system as the hitting coach.\n\nIn October 1996, Time Warner acquired Ted Turner's Turner Broadcasting System and all of its assets, including its cable channels and the Atlanta Braves. Over the next few years, Ted Turner's presence as owner of the team would diminish.\n\nThe 1995 World Series Commissioner's Trophy on display in the Ivan Allen Jr. Braves Museum and Hall of Fame at Turner Field\nA 95–67 record in produced a ninth consecutive division title. However, a sweep by the St. Louis Cardinals in the National League Division Series prevented the Braves from reaching the NL Championship Series.\n\nIn 2001, Atlanta won the National League East division yet again, swept the Houston Astros in the NLDS, then lost to the Arizona Diamondbacks in the National League Championship Series four games to one. One memorable game the Braves played that year came on September 21, when they played rival New York Mets in the first major professional sporting event held in New York City since 9/11.\n\nIn 2002, 2003 and 2004, the Braves won the Eastern division again, but lost in the NLDS in all three years in the same fashion: 3 games to 2 to the San Francisco Giants, Chicago Cubs, and Houston Astros.\n\n=====Cy Young dominance=====\nSix National League Cy Young Awards in the 1990s were awarded to three Braves pitchers:\n* In 1991, left-handed pitcher Tom Glavine received his first award.\n* Right-handed pitcher Greg Maddux won four in a row, three of them with the Braves from 1993 through 1995. His first award came in 1992 with the Cubs.\n* In 1996, right-handed pitcher John Smoltz received his only Cy Young Award.\n* In 1998, Glavine won his second.\n\n=====2005: A new generation=====\n\n\nIn 2005, the Braves won the Division championship for the 14th consecutive time from 1991 to 2005. 14 consecutive division titles stands as the record for all major league baseball. The 2005 title marked the first time any MLB team made the postseason with more than 4 rookies who each had more than 100 ABs (Wilson Betemit, Brian McCann, Pete Orr, Ryan Langerhans, Jeff Francoeur). Catcher Brian McCann, right fielder Jeff Francoeur, and pitcher Kyle Davies all grew up in the suburbs of Atlanta. The large number of rookies to debut in 2005 were nicknamed the \"Baby Braves\" by fans and became an Atlanta-area sensation, helping to lead the club to a record of 90–72.\n\nHowever, the season would end on a sour note as the Braves lost the National League Division Series to the Astros in four games. In Game 4, with the Braves leading by 5 in the eighth inning, the Astros battled back with a Lance Berkman grand slam and a two-out, ninth inning Brad Ausmus home run off of Braves closer Kyle Farnsworth. The game did not end until the 18th inning, becoming the longest game in playoff history at 5 hours 50 minutes. Chris Burke ended the marathon with a home run off of Joey Devine.\n\nAfter the 2005 season, the Braves lost their long-time pitching coach Leo Mazzone, who left to go to the Baltimore Orioles. Roger McDowell took his place in the Atlanta dugout. Unable to re-sign shortstop Rafael Furcal, the Braves acquired shortstop Édgar Rentería from the Boston Red Sox.\n\n====2006: Struggles====\n\nAndruw Jones at bat for the Braves in 2006\n\nIn 2006, the Braves did not perform at the level they had grown accustomed to. Due to an offensive slump, injuries to their starting rotation, and subpar bullpen performances, the Braves compiled a 6–21 record during June, the worst month ever in Atlanta with a winning percentage of .222; this was only better than the woeful Boston Braves in May 1935 (4–20) with a .166 winning percentage.\n\nAfter the break, the Braves came out with their bats swinging, setting many franchise records. They won five straight, sweeping the Padres and taking two from the Cardinals, tallying a total of 65 runs in that span. The 65 runs in five games is the best by the franchise since 1897, when the Boston Beaneaters totaled 78, including 25 in one game and 21 in another, from May 31 – June 3; the 2006 Braves also became the first team since the 1930 New York Yankees to score ten runs or more in five straight games. The Braves had a total of 81 hits during their five-game run and 98 hits in their last six games, going back to an 8–3 victory over Cincinnati on July 9, the last game before the All-Star break. Additionally, Chipper Jones was able to maintain a 20-game hitting streak and tie Paul Waner's 69-year-old Major League record with a 14-game extra-base hit streak.\n\nHowever, on September 18, the New York Mets' win over the Florida Marlins mathematically eliminated the Braves from winning the NL East, ending the Atlanta Braves' 11-year reign over the NL East. On September 24, the Braves' loss to the Colorado Rockies mathematically eliminated the Braves from winning the NL Wild Card, making 2006 the first year that the Braves would not compete in the postseason since 1990, not counting the strike-shortened 1994 season. Also, a loss to the Mets on September 28 guaranteed the Braves their first losing season since 1990. Although the Braves won two of their last three games against the Astros, including rookie Chuck James besting Roger Clemens, Atlanta finished the season in third place, one game ahead of the Marlins, at 79–83.\n\n====Sale to Liberty Media====\nIn December 2005, team owner Time Warner, who inherited the Braves after purchasing TBS in 1996, announced it was placing the team for sale. Liberty Media began negotiations to purchase the team.\n\nIn February 2007, after more than a year of negotiations, Time Warner agreed to a deal that would sell the Braves to Liberty Media Group (a company which owned a large amount of stock in Time Warner, Inc.), pending approval by 75 percent of MLB owners and the Commissioner of Baseball, Bud Selig. The deal included the exchange of the Braves, valued in the deal at $450 million, a hobbyist magazine publishing company, and $980 million cash, for 68.5 million shares of Time Warner stock held by Liberty Media, then worth approximately $1.48 billion. Team President Terry McGuirk anticipated no change in the current front office structure, personnel, or day-to-day operations of the Braves. Liberty Media is not expected to take any type of \"active\" ownership in terms of day-to-day operations.\n\nOn May 16, 2007, Major League Baseball's owners approved the sale of the Braves from Time Warner to Liberty Media. The Braves are one of only two Major League Baseball teams under majority corporate ownership (and the only NL team with this distinction); the other team is the Toronto Blue Jays (owned by Canadian media conglomerate Rogers Communications).\n\n====2007: More struggles====\n\n\nBrian McCann bats for Atlanta in July 2007\n\nOn July 5, Chipper Jones surpassed Dale Murphy for the Atlanta club record of 372 home runs by belting two against the Los Angeles Dodgers.\n\nAfter struggling during the second half of the 2007 season, Atlanta finished over .500 and missed the post season again. On October 12, 2007, John Schuerholz stepped down as General Manager to take over as team president. Assistant GM Frank Wren took over as General Manager.\n\n====2009: The return of solid pitching====\n\nKenshin Kawakami pitching for the Braves in 2009\n\nOn December 4, 2008, the Atlanta Braves received Javier Vázquez and Boone Logan, while the Chicago White Sox received prospects catcher Tyler Flowers, shortstop Brent Lillibridge, third baseman Jon Gilmore and pitcher Santos Rodriguez. On January 13, 2009, the Braves signed Japanese pitcher Kenshin Kawakami to a three-year deal, and two days later signed free agent pitcher Derek Lowe to a four-year contract. During the course of the offseason, the Braves signed veteran pitcher and former Brave Tom Glavine, while losing long-time Brave John Smoltz to the Boston Red Sox.\n\nOn February 25, 2009, just before the start of spring training, Atlanta agreed to terms on a one-year contract with free-agent outfielder Garret Anderson. The additional outfield depth allowed the Braves to trade Josh Anderson to the Detroit Tigers for minor league pitcher Rudy Darrow on March 30, 2009.\n\nOn June 3, 2009, the Braves acquired Nate McLouth from the Pittsburgh Pirates for prospects Jeff Locke, Charlie Morton and Gorkys Hernández. They also released veteran pitcher Tom Glavine. On July 10, 2009, the Braves traded outfielder Jeff Francoeur to the New York Mets for outfielder Ryan Church. On July 31, 2009, hours before the trade deadline, the Braves and Boston Red Sox swapped 1st basemen: Atlanta dealt Casey Kotchman to Boston and reacquired Adam LaRoche, whom the Braves had traded away during the 2006–07 off-season to Pittsburgh.\n\nThe Braves made a late-season surge, coming within 2 games of the wild card leading Colorado Rockies in late September. On October 1, 2009 with the Braves four games back, Colorado beat the Milwaukee Brewers 9–2 to clinch the wild card spot and end the Braves' 2009 postseason hopes.\n\n====2010: Cox's final season====\n\nBraves manager Bobby Cox retired in 2010 after 25 years of management\n\nThe 2010 Atlanta Braves Season features the Braves' attempt to reclaim a postseason berth for the first time since 2005. The Braves were once again skippered by Bobby Cox, now in his 25th and final season managing the team. The Braves started the 2010 season slowly and had a nine-game losing streak in April. Then they had a nine-game winning streak from May 26 through June 3, the Braves longest since 2000 when they won 16 in a row. On May 31, the Atlanta Braves defeated the then-first place Philadelphia Phillies at Turner Field to take sole possession of first place in the National League East standings, a position they had maintained through the middle of August. The last time the Atlanta Braves led the NL East on August 1 was in 2005. On July 13, 2010 at the 2010 MLB All-Star Game in Anaheim, Braves catcher Brian McCann was awarded the All-Star Game MVP Award for his clutch two-out, three-run double in the seventh inning to give the National League its first win in the All-Star Game since 1996. He became the first Brave to win the All-Star Game MVP Award since Fred McGriff did so in 1994. The Braves made two deals before the trade deadline to acquire Álex González, Rick Ankiel and Kyle Farnsworth from the Toronto Blue Jays and Kansas City Royals, giving up shortstop Yunel Escobar, pitchers Jo-Jo Reyes and Jesse Chavez, outfielder Gregor Blanco and three minor leaguers. On August 18, 2010 they traded three pitching prospects for first baseman Derrek Lee from the Chicago Cubs. On August 22, 2010 against the Chicago Cubs, Mike Minor struck out 12 batters across 6 innings; an Atlanta Braves single game rookie strikeout record. The Braves dropped to second in the NL East in early September, but won the NL Wild Card. They lost to the San Francisco Giants in the National League Division Series in four games. Every game of the series was determined by one run. After the series-clinching victory for the Giants in Game 4, Bobby Cox was given a standing ovation by the fans, also by players and coaches of both the Braves and Giants.\n\n====2011: Fredi González takes over====\n\ncloser Craig Kimbrel pitching in 2011\n\nOn October 13, 2010, the Atlanta Braves announced that Fredi González would replace long-time Braves manager Bobby Cox as manager of the team in 2011. The announcement came just two days after the 2010 Braves were eliminated from the postseason. It was also announced that pitching coach Roger McDowell, third-base coach Brian Snitker, and bullpen coach Eddie Pérez would retain their current positions, while former hitting coach Terry Pendleton would replace Glenn Hubbard as the first-base coach and newcomer Carlos Tosca would become the new bench coach. Hubbard and former bench coach Chino Cadahia were not offered positions on the new coaching staff. Larry Parrish was hired as hitting coach on October 29, 2010.\n\nOn November 16, 2010 in an offseason trade, the Braves acquired Dan Uggla from the Florida Marlins in exchange for left-handed reliever Mike Dunn and infielder Omar Infante. According to Elias Sports Bureau, the Braves had an all-time franchise win-loss record over .500 for the first time since 1923 after their win over the Houston Astros on June 11, 2011. The Braves franchise became the third franchise in MLB history to reach 10,000 wins with their win over the Washington Nationals on July 15, 2011. On July 31, 2011, just sixteen days after registering their 10,000th win, the Florida Marlins defeated the Braves by a score of 3–1, handing the team the 10,000th loss in franchise history. The Braves become only the second team in big league history with 10,000 losses after the Philadelphia Phillies reached the plateau in 2007.\n\nPlayers from the Braves' farm system, such as Freddie Freeman and Brandon Beachy, played regularly with the big league club, while Julio Teherán, Randall Delgado, and Mike Minor were called up for spot starts. With late season injuries to starters Jair Jurrjens and Tommy Hanson, these three young pitchers made their way into the starting rotation in their absence. Eight players made their major league debuts for the team in 2011.\n\n=====September collapse=====\nThe Braves led the National League Wild Card standings for much of the 2011 season, with the division-rival Philadelphia Phillies firmly in control of first place in the National League East. The Braves entered the final month of the regular season 25 games above .500 with a record of 80–55 and an -game lead in the Wild Card standings. The nearest team trailing them, the St. Louis Cardinals, who also trailed the National League Central-leading Milwaukee Brewers by games at the time, were considered a long-shot to gain a spot in the postseason. Just days prior on August 26, the Cardinals found themselves games behind and in third place.\n\nWith 27 games to play, the Braves went 9–18 in September to finish the season with a record of 89–73. The Cardinals, meanwhile, went 18–8 to finish at 90–72. Braves closer Craig Kimbrel, who had not surrendered a single earned run in July or August, carried a 4.76 ERA in September with three blown saves. After being dominant in his role for much of the season, Braves setup man Jonny Venters posted a 5.11 September ERA. These sharp declines in both relievers led many critics to question the handling of the bullpen by Braves manager Fredi González. Veteran starter Derek Lowe posted a win-loss record of 0–5 in September with an ERA of 8.75. Shortly into the offseason, Lowe would be traded to the Cleveland Indians. The Braves starters lasted six or more innings only three times over the last 23 games. Over the last five games, all of which were losses for the Braves, the team managed to score only seven runs. Braves catcher Brian McCann, often regarded as the best offensive catcher in the Majors, hit only .183 with two home runs in September. The offense as a whole hit for only a .235 batting average and a .300 on-base percentage in September, both second-worst in the National League. The .195 RISP average by Braves hitters was second worst in the Majors. Hitting coach Larry Parrish was fired two days following the last game of the season.\n\n====2012: Chipper's last season====\nChipper Jones salutes the crowd at Turner Field prior to his final regular season game on September 30, 2012. Jones announced he would retire after 19 seasons with the Braves\n\nIn 2012, the Braves began their 138th season after an upsetting end to the 2011 season. On March 22, the Braves announced that third baseman Chipper Jones would retire following the 2012 season after 19 Major League seasons with the team. The Braves also lost many key players through trades or free agency, including pitcher Derek Lowe, shortstop Alex González, and outfielder Nate McLouth. To compensate for this, the team went on to receive many key players such as outfielder Michael Bourn, along with shortstops Tyler Pastornicky and Andrelton Simmons. To fill the void of a quality starting pitcher left by Lowe (as well as a mid-season injury to Brandon Beachy), manager Fredi González elected relief pitcher Kris Medlen to the starting pitching rotation. The Braves went on to win every game Medlen started, setting the MLB record for most consecutive wins when a single pitcher starts (total of 23). Atlanta stayed close to the Washington Nationals in the race to win the National League East title. They also stayed on top of the National League Wild Card race. Washington ended up winning their first division title in franchise history, but the Braves remained in first place of the NL wild card race. Keeping with a new MLB rule for the 2012 season, the top two wild card teams in each league must play each other in a playoff game before entering into the Division Series.\n\nThe Braves played the St. Louis Cardinals in the first ever Wild Card Game. The Braves were behind 6–3 in the bottom of the eighth inning when Andrelton Simmons hit a fly ball to left field that dropped in between the Cardinals shortstop and left fielder. Umpire Sam Holbrook called Simmons out, citing the infield fly rule. Had an infield fly not been called, Simmons would have been credited with a single and Atlanta would have had the bases loaded with one out. Fans at Turner Field began to litter the field with debris, prompting the game to be delayed for 19 minutes. The Braves lost the game 6–3, ending their season.\n\n====2013: Braves win the East====\n\nEvan Gattis catching for the Braves in 2013\n\nDuring the offseason following a gut wrenching exit against the St. Louis Cardinals in the Wild Card Game, the Braves spent the 2012–2013 offseason revamping and retooling their offense. The Braves turned heads across baseball by acquiring B.J. Upton from the Tampa Bay Rays, signing him to a 5-year $75.25 million contract and making him their starting center fielder, and uniting him with his younger brother Justin Upton from the Arizona Diamondbacks in a seven player trade that sent fan favorite utility man Martín Prado to the Diamondbacks, they also filled a need for a new Third Baseman in Chris Johnson after the retirement of Chipper Jones the previous year. The Braves began the 2013 season with a hot start in April by going 17–9 for the month, which saw the emergence of rookie sensation Evan Gattis, while taking hold of first place in the National League East division, a lead they would never relinquish for the rest of the season. The Braves suffered many injuries to key players throughout the season, including injuries to Jason Heyward, Brian McCann, Freddie Freeman, Eric O'Flaherty, Jonny Venters, Ramiro Pena and others, but found a way to win despite these blows to the team. Leading up to the All Star break, First Baseman Freddie Freeman was voted in to play for the 2013 National League All-Star Team, in the 2013 All Star Game, which he did not play. The Braves also witnessed the emergence of rookie pitcher Julio Teherán after much hype during Spring training. From July 26 to August 10, the Braves won 14 games in a row. The winning streak was the longest of its kind since April–May 2000.\n\nOn June 28, 2013 the Atlanta Braves retired former third baseman Chipper Jones' jersey, number 10, before the game against the Arizona Diamondbacks. He was honored before 51,300 fans at Turner Field in Atlanta. He served as a staple of the Braves franchise for 19 years before announcing his retirement at the beginning of the 2012 season. Chipper Jones played his last regular season game for the Braves on September 30, 2012.\n\nThe Braves opened up a 15-game lead on the Washington Nationals in the National League East on September 3, 2013, riding that lead en route to its first division title since 2005, the last of 14 straight division titles. This was also Braves manager Fredi González's first division title since beginning his managerial career in 1990; including his first since becoming the manager of the Braves after the 2010 season. The Braves clinched the 18th division title in team history on September 22, 2013 after a Nationals loss to the Marlins in the first game of a double header; the Braves also won their game that day, beating the Chicago Cubs 5–2 at Wrigley Field.\n\nAfter clinching the division title, they lost to the Dodgers 3–1 in the Division Series.\n\n====2014: Losing season====\nJason Heyward runs the bases in 2014\n\nOn November 11, 2013, the Braves announced that they would vacate Turner Field for a new stadium in Cobb County, in the northwest suburbs outside of Atlanta in 2017. The move is to follow the expiration of the Braves' 20-year lease on Turner Field in 2016. The new stadium is to be constructed in a public/private partnership. During the offseason the Braves signed few of their young talents to multi year contracts; Craig Kimbrel (4 years/$42M), Freddie Freeman (8 years/$135M), Kris Medlen (1 year/$5.8M), Jason Heyward (2 years/$13.3M), Julio Teherán (6 years/$32.4M) and Andrelton Simmons (7 years/$58M).\n\nThe Braves finished the season in a distant second place with a 79–83 record, which was their first losing season since 2008 and only their third since 1990.\n\n====2015–2016: Rebuilding====\nPrior to the 2015 season, the Braves fired their General Manager Frank Wren, and John Hart replaced him as interim general manager, choosing to only take the title of President of Baseball Operations. The Braves promptly traded Gold Glove Award winner Jason Heyward to the St. Louis Cardinals along with pitcher Jordan Walden for pitchers Shelby Miller and Tyrell Jenkins. Hart would then trade All Star left fielder Justin Upton to the San Diego Padres for Max Fried, Jace Peterson, Dustin Peterson, and Mallex Smith. Catcher Evan Gattis and minor league prospect James Hoyt were traded to the Houston Astros for minor leaguers Mike Foltynewicz, Rio Ruiz, and Andrew Thurman. A day before the season began, the Braves made a final trade involving former All- Star Craig Kimbrel and outfielder Melvin Upton Jr.. They were traded to the San Diego Padres for outfielders Cameron Maybin and Carlos Quentin along with two minor league players. By the beginning of the season, the Braves did 11 trades in all.\n\nPrior to the start of the 2016 regular season, the Braves continued their offseason rebuilding by trading Andrelton Simmons to the Los Angeles Angels for Erick Aybar, and pitching prospects Sean Newcomb and Chris Ellis and $2.5 million. They agreed to 1 year contracts with Kelly Johnson, Chris Withrow, and Arodys Vizcaino, and agreed to terms on a minor league contract for Carlos Torres and Jeff Francoeur. The Braves would end up purchasing the Major League contract of Francoeur.\n\nOn April 13, 2016, Hector Olivera was arrested and charged with the assault of a woman at the team hotel when the Braves were in Washington D.C. facing the Nationals. He was placed on Administrative Leave by Major League Baseball and was placed on the Braves Restricted List until further disciplinary action is given.\n\nThe Braves began the season on a nine-game losing streak, which is the worst opening by the franchise since 1988, when they dropped the first 10 games of that season.\n\nAfter a 9–28 start in 2016, Fredi González was fired on May 17 and replaced by third base coach Brian Snitker as interim general manager. Snitker replaced González once before in the 2006–07 off-season as the Braves third base coach when González left the Braves to manage the Marlins.\n\nThe Braves finished the season 68–93 and in last place in NL East.\n\nDuring the 2016 off-season, the Braves signed pitchers R.A. Dickey and Bartolo Colón and promoted interim manager Brian Snitker to full-time manager.\n\n\n\n====2017: SunTrust Park====\nSunTrust Park prior to its first regular season game\nThe Braves opened their new stadium, SunTrust Park, on April 14, 2017 with a four-game sweep of the San Diego Padres.\n",
"Over its 138 seasons, the Braves franchise has won a total of three World Series Championships, one in each of the three cities they have played in.\n\n\n\n Season\n Manager\n Opponent\n Series Score\n Record\n\n1914 (Boston)\n George Stallings \n Philadelphia Athletics \n 4–0 \n 94–59 \n\n1957 (Milwaukee)\n Fred Haney \n New York Yankees \n 4–3 \n 95–59\n\n1995 (Atlanta)\n Bobby Cox \n Cleveland Indians \n 4–2 \n 90–54 \n\n '''Total World Series championships:'''\n\n '''3'''\n\n",
"\n===New York Mets===\n\n\nThe Braves–Mets rivalry is a rivalry between the two teams, featuring the Braves and the New York Mets as they both play in the National League East.\n\nAlthough their first major confrontation occurred when the Mets swept the Braves in the 1969 NLCS, en route to their first World Series championship, the first playoff series won by an expansion team (also the first playoff appearance by an expansion team), the rivalry did not become especially heated until the 1994 season when division realignment put both the Mets and the Braves in the NL East division. During this time the Braves became one of the most dominant teams in professional baseball, earning 14 straight division titles through 2005, including five world series berths, and one world series championship during the 1995 season. The rivalry remained heated through the early 2000s.\n\n===Philadelphia Phillies===\nWhile their rivalry with the Philadelphia Phillies lacks the history and hatred of the Mets, it has been the more important one in the last decade. Between 1993 and 2013, the two teams reigned almost exclusively as NL East champions, the exceptions being in 2006, when the Mets won their first division title since 1988 (no division titles were awarded in 1994 due to the player's strike), and in 2012, when the Washington Nationals claimed their first division title since 1981 when playing as the Montreal Expos. The Phillies 1993 championship was also part of a four-year reign of exclusive division championships by the Phillies and the Pittsburgh Pirates, their in-state rivals. While rivalries are generally characterized by mutual hatred, the Braves and Phillies deeply respect each other. Each game played (18 games in 2011) is vastly important between these two NL East giants, but at the end of the day, they are very similar organizations. Overall, the Braves have one more National League East division title than the Phillies, having won 12 times each since 1969, with the Braves holding it for eleven consecutive years from 1995 through 2005.\n\n\n",
"\n\n\n Martín Prado wearing the home uniform\n Ben Sheets wearing the away uniform\n Freddie Freeman wearing the first alternate home uniform\n Gregor Blanco wearing the second alternate home uniform\n Michael Bourn wearing the alternate away uniform\n\n\n\nThe Braves currently have five different game baseball uniform combinations. The home uniforms consist of a standard white uniform, a red, military appreciation jersey worn with the standard white pants, and a cream alternate uniform. The road uniforms consist of a standard gray uniform, and an alternate navy blue jersey worn with the standard gray pants.\n\nThe white home uniform, introduced in 1987, is the primary home uniform. The jersey has \"Braves\" written in script across the chest with the tomahawk logo underneath. The jersey also includes piping around the collar and down the front of the jersey and around the bottom of the sleeves. Player numbers appear on the back of the jersey with a nameplate above. The Braves script, player numbers, and piping are red with a navy blue border. The tomahawk is primarily red with blue and yellow detail and a navy blue border. The white pants have identical piping to the jersey about the belt loops and down the outside seam of the pants. The player names consist of navy blue lettering sewn to a white nameplate. The player names originally used vertically arched lettering but, since 2006, the team has used radially arched lettering. The white uniform is paired with the standard home cap. It is a red brimmed, navy blue cap with a white embroidered \"script A\" logo. The home batting helmet is identical to the primary home cap.\n\nThe gray road uniforms are the primary road uniform. The uniforms are identical to the white home uniforms with the exception of the \"Braves\" script, which is replaced by the \"Atlanta\" script. Player names are sewn to a gray nameplate. The primary uniforms are very similar to the uniforms that the Braves wore from 1946 to 1965—during their latter years in Boston and throughout their tenure in Milwaukee.\n\nThe red, military appreciation jersey was introduced on February 5, 2014. The jerseys feature navy blue piping with a white border, the Braves script in blue with white stars, and the American Flag on the left sleeve. The updated red jerseys will not include the tomahawk logo. The jerseys will be worn for five home games in 2014: April 26 vs. the Cincinnati Reds (military family night), June 13 vs. the LA Angels of Anaheim (celebrating the Army), July 26 vs. the San Diego Padres (celebrating the Marines), Aug. 30 vs. the Miami Marlins (celebrating the Navy), and September 19 vs. NY Mets (celebrating the Air Force). The jerseys will be paired with camouflage caps. The military appreciation jerseys replace the red jerseys introduced in 2005. Worn with the white pants, these jerseys included the same elements as the white jerseys, with the Braves script, player numbers, and piping in navy blue with a white border. The tomahawk was primarily blue, with red and yellow detail and a white border. The player names consisted of white lettering sewn to a red nameplate. These jerseys were paired with an alternate home cap, which was a red brimmed, navy blue cap with a red, embroidered \"script A\" logo with a tomahawk, outlined in white. The alternate cap did not have a matching batting helmet. The red alternate jerseys were worn for Sunday home games from 2005 to 2011. The only exceptions to this were the opening game of the 2005 NLDS, which was played on a Wednesday, and on Memorial Day in 2006. The 2006 Memorial Day game is also the only time the red jerseys were paired with the primary home cap. With the introduction of the cream uniform in 2012, the red jerseys were worn for Friday night home games from 2012 to 2013. However, the Braves chose to wear the traditional white jerseys for their 2012 home opener, which took place on Friday, April 13.\n\nThe cream alternate uniforms were introduced in February 2012 as a tribute to the Braves' first season in Atlanta in 1966. The jersey includes the \"Braves\" script across the breastplate, but the player number replaces the tomahawk underneath the \"Braves\" script on the left placket. Player numbers and the \"Braves\" script are in red with a navy blue border. The player names consist of navy blue lettering sewn to a cream nameplate. The jersey has a thin, navy piping about the collar and down the front of the jersey. There is no piping around the sleeves. The cream pants include piping identical to the jersey down the outside seam. The left sleeve of the jersey has a \"crossed tomahawk\" logo that replaces the \"screaming Indian\" logo that appeared on the 1966 jerseys. The new logo has two, primarily red, crossed tomahawks. Underneath the tomahawks is a blue circle outlined in red, with \"1876\" in red above (commemorating the year the franchise was founded), and \"Atlanta Braves\" in white below. The cream uniforms are paired with the standard home cap and are worn for Saturday and Sunday home games.\n\nThe alternate navy blue road jerseys were introduced on opening night of the 2008 season against the Washington Nationals. Worn with the gray road pants, the jerseys feature the \"Atlanta\" script on the breastplate in navy blue with a white outline. The tomahawk is primarily navy blue with red and yellow detail and a white border. The player numbers are blue with white borders and the player names are white letters sewn to a navy blue nameplate. The navy blue jerseys have no piping either on the sleeves or around the collar.\n\nFrom 1987 to 2008, the red brimmed, primary home cap was also worn on the road. However, when the navy blue jerseys were introduced in 2008, they were paired with a navy blue cap, similar to the team's road cap worn from 1966 to 1971. While the red brimmed cap was still primarily worn with the gray road uniforms, the team sometimes wore the navy blue cap with the gray jerseys, and the red brimmed cap was occasionally worn with the navy blue jerseys. The red brimmed home batting helmets were also worn on the road from 1987 through 2008. Beginning in 2009, the navy blue cap became the official road cap and was paired with a navy blue road batting helmet.\n\nUnlike the home uniforms, which are worn based on a schedule, the road uniforms are chosen on game day by the starting pitcher. However, they are also subject to Major League Baseball rules requiring the road team to wear uniforms that contrast with the uniforms worn by the home team. Due to this rule, the gray uniforms are worn when the home team chooses to wear navy blue, and sometimes when the home team chooses to wear black.\n",
"From 1912 to 1989 the Braves logo consisted of the head of an Indian warrior. From 1912 to 1956 it was an Indian with a headdress, and thereafter a laughing Indian with a mohawk and one feather in his hair. In 1990 the logo was changed to just the word \"Braves\" in cursive with a tomahawk below it.\n\n",
"\n===Awards===\n\n\n===Team records===\n\n\n===Team captains===\n*Johnny Evers 1914–1917\n*Eddie Mathews 1965–1966\n*Hank Aaron 1969–1974\n*Dale Murphy 1987–1990\n\n===Retired numbers===\n\n\nThe Braves have retired eleven numbers in the history of the franchise, including most recently Chipper Jones' number 10 in 2013, John Smoltz's number 29 in 2012, Bobby Cox's number 6 in 2011, Tom Glavine's number 47 in 2010, and Greg Maddux's number 31 in 2009. Additionally, Hank Aaron's 44, Dale Murphy's 3, Phil Niekro's 35, Eddie Mathews' 41, Warren Spahn's 21 and Jackie Robinson's 42, which is retired for all of baseball with the exception of Jackie Robinson Day, have also been retired. The color and design of the retired numbers reflect the uniform design at the time the person was on the team, excluding Robinson.\n\n\nOf the ten Braves whose numbers have been retired, all who are eligible for the National Baseball Hall of Fame have been elected with the exception of Murphy, whose eligibility has expired. Jones is not eligible until 2018.\n\n===Braves Hall of Fame===\n\n\n===Baseball Hall of Famers===\n\n\n\n\n===Ford C. Frick Award recipients (broadcasters)===\n\n\n===Georgia Sports Hall of Fame===\n\n\n\n'''Braves in the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame'''\n\nNo.\nPlayer\nPosition\nTenure\nNotes\n\n — \n Paul Richards \n GM \n 1967–1972 \n \n\n — \n John Schuerholz \n GMPresident \n 1990–20072007–present \n \n\n — \n Skip Caray \n Broadcaster \n 1976–2008 \n\n\n — \n George Stallings \n Manager \n 1913–1920 \n Born in Augusta\n\n 3 \n Dale Murphy \n OF \n 1976–1990 \n \n\n 4 \n Jo-Jo White \n Coach \n 1963–1966 \n Born in Red Oak\n\n 5, 31 \n Whit Wyatt \n Coach \n 1958–1967 \n Born in Kensington, attended Georgia Tech\n\n 6 \n Bobby Cox \n Manager \n 1978–19811990–2010 \n \n\n 10 \n Chipper Jones \n 3B/LF \n 1993–2012 \n \n\n 13 \n Blue Moon Odom \n P \n 1975 \n Elected mainly on his performance with Oakland A's, grew up in Macon\n\n 29 \n John Smoltz \n P \n 1988–19992001–2008 \n \n\n 32 \n Ernie Johnson \n PBroadcaster \n 1950, 1952–19581962–1999 \n \n\n 35 \n Phil Niekro \n P \n 1964–1983, 1987 \n \n\n 36 \n Bob Hendley \n P \n 1961–1963 \n Born in Macon\n\n 44 \n Hank Aaron \n RF \n 1954–1974 \n \n\n",
"\n===Current roster===\n\n",
"\n\n\n\nLevel\nTeam\nLeague\nLocation\n\n ''AAA''\n Gwinnett Braves\n International League\n Lawrenceville, Georgia\n\n ''AA''\n Mississippi Braves\n Southern League\n Pearl, Mississippi\n\n ''Advanced A''\n Florida Fire Frogs\n Florida State League\n Kissimmee, Florida\n\n ''A''\n Rome Braves\n South Atlantic League\n Rome, Georgia\n\n''Rookie''\n Danville Braves\n Appalachian League\n Danville, Virginia\n\n GCL Braves\n Gulf Coast League\n Lake Buena Vista, Florida\n\n DSL Braves\n Dominican Summer League\n Dominican Republic\n\n",
"{| style=\"text-align:left; vertical-align:top;\"\n\n\n\n\n '''Home Attendance at Turner Field''''''\n\n '''Year'''\n '''Total Attendance''' \n '''Game Average''' \n '''Stadium Capacity by %''' \n '''Major League Rank by #''' \n''' Major League Rank by %'''\n\n 1997\n 3,464,488 \n 42,771\n \n \n\n 1998\n 3,360,860\n 41,492\n \n \n\n 1999\n 3,284,897\n 40,554\n \n \n\n 2000\n 3,234,304\n 39,930\n \n \n\n 2001\n 2,823,530\n 34,858\n 69.6%\n 12th\n 15th\n\n 2002\n 2,603,484\n 32,142\n 64.2%\n 13th\n 14th\n\n 2003\n 2,401,084\n 30,393\n 60.7%\n 10th\n 14th\n\n 2004\n 2,327,565\n 29,399\n 58.7%\n 16th\n 21st\n\n 2005\n 2,521,167\n 31,126\n 62.9%\n 16th\n 19th\n\n 2006\n 2,550,524\n 31,488\n 63.6%\n 14th\n 16th\n\n 2007\n 2,745,207\n 33,891\n 67.7%\n 14th\n 16th\n\n 2008\n 2,532,834\n 31,270\n 62.4%\n 14th\n 19th\n\n 2009\n 2,373,631\n 29,304\n 58.5%\n 15th\n 17th\n\n 2010\n 2,510,119\n 30,989\n 61.9%\n 13th\n 17th\n\n 2011\n 2,372,940\n 30,037\n 60.4%\n 15th\n 20th\n\n 2012\n 2,420,171\n 29,879\n 60.1%\n 15th\n 21st\n\n 2013\n 2,548,679\n 31,465\n 63.3%\n 13th\n 21st\n\n 2014\n 2,354,305\n 29,065\n 58.4%\n 18th\n 23rd\n\n 2015\n 2,001,392\n 25,017\n 50.3%\n 24th\n 28th\n\n 2016\n 2,020,914\n 24,949\n 50.3%\n 22nd\n 28th\n\n\n",
"\n\nAfter years of stability, the Braves have faced a period of transition in their radio and television coverage.\n\nThe 2007 season was the last for Braves baseball on the TBS Superstation. TBS showed 70 games throughout the country, then cleared the decks to make way for a new national broadcast package that began in earnest with the 2007 postseason, and expanded to Sunday afternoon games in 2008. Until his dismissal in 2009, Chip Caray, one of the Braves' current broadcasters, called play-by-play for the national package, which includes the Division Series every season and alternating coverage of the ALCS and NLCS. Caray is joined by Joe Simpson, who has provided color commentary for the Braves since 1992.\n\nBraves baseball had been on TBS since it was WTCG in 1972 and had been a cornerstone of the national superstation since it began in 1976. WPCH-TV/Peachtree TV, formerly WTBS Atlanta, still carried Braves games after 2007, but only in parts of the Southern United States. After the transfer of the channel's operations from Time Warner to Meredith Corporation, all Peachtree TV games were simulcast on Fox Sports South outside of the Peachtree TV coverage area in 2011 and 2012. On February 27, 2013, it was announced that Fox Sports South and SportSouth (now called Fox Sports Southeast) would carry every regionally televised Braves game exclusively, ending the team's partnership with WPCH-TV after 40 years.\n\nAfter the 2004 season, longtime radio flagship station 750 WSB was replaced by WGST 640AM. Due to WGST's weak signal at night, which fails to cover the entire Atlanta metropolitan area, all games began to be simulcast on FM radio when the rights were transferred. The games first appeared on 96.1 WKLS (formerly \"96 Rock\") in 2005, but moved to country music station 94.9 WUBL (\"94.9 The Bull\") in 2007 after WKLS underwent a change in format from classic rock to active rock and became Project 9–6–1. As of the 2009 season, the Braves returned to WKLS on the FM frequency but remained on WGST on AM. It was announced that for the 2010 season, the Braves will be flagshipped on WCNN 680 The Fan and in Atlanta on the AM dial and WNNX 100.5 FM.\n\nThe Atlanta Braves radio network currently serves 134 radio stations across the Southern United States, including 20 in Alabama, 4 in Florida, 68 in Georgia, 1 in Mississippi, 13 in North Carolina, 14 in South Carolina, and 14 in Tennessee.\n\nSince 2009, the radio announcers have been former Brewers announcer Jim Powell and Don Sutton. Sutton was released after the 2006 season and called Washington Nationals games on television from 2007 to 2008, but he has since returned for the 2009 season. Longtime Braves voices Skip Caray and Pete Van Wieren were the primary play-by-play voices of Braves baseball until Skip's sudden death on August 3, 2008, and Van Wieren's retirement after the 2008 season.\n",
"\n===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Citations===\n\n",
"* \n* \n",
"\n\n* \n* Team index page at Baseball Reference\n* Milwaukee Braves informational website\n* Sports Illustrated Atlanta Braves Page\n* ESPN Atlanta Braves Page\n* History of the Boston Braves on MassHistory.com\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"World Series championships",
"Major rivalries",
"Uniforms",
"Logos",
"Achievements",
"Players",
"Minor league affiliates",
"Home attendance at Turner Field",
"Radio and television",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Atlanta Braves |
[
"\nThe '''Atari ST''' is a line of home computers from Atari Corporation and the successor to the Atari 8-bit family. The initial ST model, the 520ST, saw limited release in April-June 1985 and was widely available in July. The Atari ST is the first personal computer to come with a bitmapped color GUI, using a version of Digital Research's GEM released in February 1985. The 1040ST, released in 1986, is the first personal computer to ship with a megabyte of RAM in the base configuration and also the first with a cost-per-kilobyte of less than US$1.\n\nThe Atari ST is part of a mid-1980s generation of home computers that have 16 or 32-bit processors, 256 KiB or more of RAM, and mouse-controlled graphical user interfaces. It includes the Macintosh, Commodore Amiga, Apple IIGS, and, in certain markets, the Acorn Archimedes. \"ST\" officially stands for \"Sixteen/Thirty-two\", which refers to the Motorola 68000's 16-bit external bus and 32-bit internals.\n\nThe ST was sold with either Atari's color monitor or the less expensive monochrome monitor. The system's two color graphics modes are only available on the former while the highest resolution mode needs the monochrome monitor.\n\nIn some markets, particularly Germany, the machine gained a strong foothold as a small business machine for CAD and desktop publishing work. Thanks to its built-in MIDI ports, the ST enjoyed success for running music-sequencer software and as a controller of musical instruments among both amateurs and well-known musicians.\n\nThe ST was superseded by the Atari STE, Atari TT, Atari MEGA STE, and Falcon computers.\n",
"The Atari ST was born from the rivalry between home-computer makers Atari, Inc. and Commodore International.\n\n=== Amiga contract ===\nJay Miner, one of the original designers for the custom chips found in the Atari 2600 and Atari 8-bit family, tried to convince Atari management to create a new chipset for a video game console and computer. When his idea was rejected, Miner left Atari to form a small think tank called Hi-Toro in 1982 and began designing the new \"Lorraine\" chipset. The company, which was later renamed Amiga Corporation, was pretending to sell video game controllers to deceive competition while it developed a Lorraine-based computer.\n\nAmiga ran out of capital to complete Lorraine's development, and Atari, owned by Warner Communications, paid Amiga to continue development work. In return Atari received exclusive use of the Lorraine design for one year as a video game console. After one year Atari would have the right to add a keyboard and market the complete computer, designated the 1850XLD. As Atari was heavily involved with Disney at the time, it was later code-named \"Mickey\", and the 256K memory expansion board was codenamed \"Minnie\".\n\n=== Tramiel Technology ===\nAfter leaving Commodore International in January 1984, Jack Tramiel formed Tramel Technology with his sons and other ex-Commodore employees and, in April, began planning a new computer. The company initially considered the National Semiconductor NS320xx microprocessor but was disappointed with its performance. This started the move to the 68000. The lead designer of the Atari ST was ex-Commodore employee Shiraz Shivji, who had previously worked on the Commodore 64's development.\n\nTramiel learned that Warner wanted to sell Atari which, in mid-1984, was losing about a million dollars per day. Interested in Atari's overseas manufacturing and worldwide distribution network for his new computer, Tramiel negotiated with Warner in May and June 1984. He secured funding and bought Atari's Consumer Division (which included the console and home computer departments) in July. As executives and engineers left Commodore to join Tramiel's new Atari Corporation, Commodore responded by filing lawsuits against four former engineers for theft of trade secrets.\n\nThe Tramiels did not purchase the employee contracts when they bought the assets of Atari Inc., so one of their first acts was to interview Atari Inc. employees to decide whom to hire at what was essentially a brand new company. This company was originally called TTL (Tramiel Technologies Limited), later renamed to Atari Corp. At the time of the purchase of Atari Inc's assets, there were roughly 900 employees remaining from a high point of 10,000. After the interviews, approximately 100 employees were hired to work at Atari Corp.\n\nAt one point a custom sound processor called AMY was a planned component for the new ST computer design, but the chip needed more time to complete, so AMY was dropped in favor of an off-the-shelf Yamaha sound chip.\n\nIt was during this time in late July/early August that Leonard Tramiel discovered the original Amiga contract, which required Amiga Corporation to deliver the Lorraine chipset to Atari on June 30, 1984. Amiga Corp. had sought more monetary support from investors in spring 1984 (among them Tramel Technology, which wished to replace nearly everyone at Amiga).\n\n=== Commodore and Amiga ===\nHaving heard rumors that Tramiel was negotiating to buy Atari, Amiga Corp. entered into discussions with Commodore. The discussions led to Commodore wanting to purchase Amiga Corporation outright, which Commodore believed would cancel any outstanding contracts, including Atari's. Instead of Amiga Corp. delivering Lorraine to Atari, Commodore delivered a check of $500,000 to Atari on Amiga's behalf, in effect returning the funds Atari invested into Amiga for the chipset. Tramiel countersued Amiga Corp. on August 13, 1984. He sought damages and an injunction to bar Amiga (and effectively Commodore) from producing anything with its technology.\n\nAt Commodore, the Amiga team was in limbo during the summer of 1984 because of the lawsuit. No word on the status of the chipset, the Lorraine computer, or the team's fate was known. In the fall of 1984, Commodore informed the team that the Lorraine project was active again, the chipset was to be improved, the operating system (OS) developed, and the hardware design completed. While Commodore announced the Amiga 1000 with the Lorraine chipset in July 1985, the delay gave Atari, with its many former Commodore engineers, time to deliver the first Atari ST units in June 1985. In March 1987, the two companies settled the dispute out of court in a closed decision.\n\n=== Operating system ===\nWith the hardware design nearing completion, the Atari team started looking at solutions for the operating system. Soon after the Atari buyout, Microsoft approached Tramiel with the suggestion that they port Windows to the platform, but the delivery date was out by two years, far too long for their needs. Another possibility was Digital Research, who was working on a new GUI-based system then known as Crystal, soon to become GEM. Another option was to write a new operating system in-house, but this was rejected as Atari management was unsure whether the company had the required expertise to do so.\n\nDigital Research was fully committed to the Intel platform, so a team from Atari was sent to the Digital Research headquarters to work with the \"Monterey Team\" which comprised a mixture of Atari and Digital Research engineers. Atari's Leonard Tramiel was the Atari person overseeing \"Project Jason\" (a.k.a. The Operating System) for the Atari ST line of computers. The name came from the original designer and developer, Jason Loveman.\n\nGEM was based on CP/M-68K, essentially a direct port of CP/M to the 68000. By 1985, CP/M was becoming increasingly outdated; it did not support sub-directories, for example. Digital Research was also in the process of building a new DOS-like operating system specifically for GEM, ''GEMDOS'', and there was some discussion of whether or not a port of GEMDOS could be completed in time for product delivery in June. The decision was eventually taken to port it, resulting in a GEMDOS file system which became part of Atari TOS (''The Operating System'' and colloquially known as the ''Tramiel Operating System''). This gave the ST a fast, hierarchical file system, essential for hard drives, plus programmers had function calls similar to IBM PC DOS. The character set is based on codepage 437.\n\nBesides the original TOS operating system, a number of third-party OSes were developed or ported to the Atari ST. Among Unix clones, Idris, Minix had an Atari ST port and the Mint OS was developed specifically for the Atari ST.\n",
"After six months of intensive effort following Tramiel's takeover, Atari announced the 520ST at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas in January 1985. ''InfoWorld'' described prototypes shown at computer shows as a \"typical Commodore-64-style, corner-cutting, low-cost Jack Tramiel product\", but Atari unexpectedly displayed the ST at Atlanta COMDEX in May. Due to its similarities to the original Apple Macintosh and Tramiel's role in its development, it was quickly nicknamed the '''Jackintosh'''. Atari's rapid development of the ST amazed many, but others were more skeptical, citing the ST's \"cheap\" appearance, Atari's uncertain financial health, and the poor relations the Tramiel-led Commodore had with software developers.\n\nAs early as 1981, Adam Osborne wrote that while Tramiel \"deserves credit for what he has been able to accomplish\", \"the microcomputer industry abounds with horror stories describing the way Commodore treats its dealers and its customers.\" In 1984 ''Ahoy!'' had written that Tramiel \"had never been able to establish very good relations with computer dealers ... Under his reign, computer retailers have accused Commodore of treating them as harshly as if they were suppliers or competitors\". After purchasing Atari, ''Computer Gaming World'' stated that his poor reputation likely made computer stores reluctant to deal with the company, hurting its distribution of the ST. One retailer said, \"If you can believe Lucy when she holds the football for Charlie Brown, you can believe Jack Tramiel\", and another said that because of its experience with Tramiel \"Our interest in Atari is zero, zilch\". Neither Atari nor Commodore was able to persuade large chains like ComputerLand or BusinessLand to sell their products, but observers criticized Atari's erratic discussion of its stated plans for the new computer, quickly shifting from using mass merchandisers to specialty computer stores to both; Atari executives could not name any computer stores that would carry the ST when asked at COMDEX. One analyst stated after attending a meeting with the company, \"We've seen marketing strategies changed before our eyes\".\n\nAlthough the more than 30 companies exhibiting ST software at Las Vegas COMDEX in November 1985—while the Amiga had almost none—surprised the industry, Tramiel's poor reputation also influenced potential developers of software for his computer. One stated that \"Dealing with Commodore was like dealing with Attila the Hun. I don't know if Tramiel will be following his old habits ... I don't see a lot of people rushing to get software on the machine.\" Large business-software companies like Lotus, Ashton-Tate, and Microsoft did not promise software for either the ST or Amiga, and the majority of software companies were hesitant to support another platform beyond the IBM PC, Apple, and Commodore 64; \"These days, if I were a consumer, I'd stick to companies Apple and IBM I know will be around\", said Philippe Kahn of Borland. ''The New York Times'' reported after Atlanta COMDEX that \"more than 100 software titles will be available for the ST, most written by small software houses that desperately need work\", and contrasted the \"small, little-known companies\" at Las Vegas with the larger ones like Electronic Arts and Activision which planned Amiga programs.\n\nTrip Hawkins of Electronic Arts said \"I don't think Atari understands the software business. I'm still skeptical about its resources and its credibility.\" Although Michael Berlyn of Infocom promised that his company would quickly publish all of its games for the new computer, he doubted that many others would soon do so. Other companies such as Spinnaker Software and Lifetree Software were more positive. Both promised to soon release ST software, with the former reporting that \"Atari has a vastly improved attitude toward software developers. They are eager to give us technical support and machines\", and the latter stating \"we are giving Atari high priority\". Some, such as Software Publishing Corporation, were unsure of whether to develop for the ST or the Amiga, while John C. Dvorak wrote that the public saw both Commodore and Atari as selling \"cheap disposable\" game machines, in part because of their computers' sophisticated graphics.\n\n=== Success ===\nAtari ST advertisements stated \"America, We Built It For You\", and quoted Atari president Sam Tramiel: \"We promised. We delivered. With pride, determination, and good old ATARI know how\". Although Atari was out of cash, sales of its 8-bit computers were \"very, very slow\" according to Jack Tramiel, and employees feared that he would shut the company down, the 520ST shipped during spring 1985 to the press, developers, and user groups, and in early July 1985 for general retail sales, saving the company. By November the company stated that it had sold more than 50 thousand 520STs, \"with U.S. sales alone well into five figures\". As with the Atari 2600, conversions of popular Atari arcade games were a major factor in the Atari ST's success. The machine had gone from concept to store shelves in a little under a year. Atari had originally intended to release versions with 128 KB and 256 KB of RAM as the ''130ST'' and ''260ST'' respectively. However, with the OS loaded from floppy into RAM, there would be little or no room left over for applications to run. The 260ST did make its way into Europe on a limited basis.\n\nThe ST supports a monochrome or color monitor. The color hardware supports two different resolutions, 320 × 200 with 16 out of 512 colors, or 640 × 200 with 4 out of 512 colors. The monochrome monitor was less expensive and has a single resolution of 640 × 400 at 70 Hz. The attached monitor determines available resolutions, so software either supports both types of monitors or only works with one. Color is required by a majority of games. Unlike the Amiga, Commodore 64, and Atari's own 8-bit computers, the ST does not have hardware-supported sprites.\n\nEarly models shipped with Atari Logo and ''TOS'' on disk; although the operating system occupies 206K RAM, but models were designed with six ROM sockets allow easy upgrading to the future ROM-based ''TOS''. These became available only a few months later and were included in all new machines as well as being available as an upgrade for older machines. By late 1985 the machines were also upgraded with the addition of an RF modulator (for TV display), a version known as the 520STM. ST systems before the Mega ST range have no battery-backed clock.\n\nAtari had originally intended to include GEM's GDOS (Graphical Device Operating System), which allowed programs to send GEM VDI (Virtual Device Interface) commands to drivers loaded by GDOS. This allowed developers to send VDI instructions to other devices simply by pointing to it. However, GDOS was not ready at the time the ST started shipping and was included in software packages and later ST machines. Later versions of GDOS supported vector fonts.\n\nThe face of J.R. \"Bob\" Dobbs\nA limited set of GEM fonts were also included within the ROMs. These fonts also feature a standard 8x8 pixel graphical character set for the ST (the main in-ROM \"font\" for GEM and text-mode TOS operations in color modes) containing standard numbers, letters, symbols, accented characters, and four unusual characters which can be placed together in a square, forming a facsimile of the face of J. R. \"Bob\" Dobbs (the figurehead of the Church of the Subgenius).\n\nThe ST was less expensive than most machines, including the Macintosh Plus, and tended to be faster than most. Largely as a result of the price/performance factor, the ST would go on to be a fairly popular machine, notably in European markets where the foreign-exchange rates amplified prices. Indeed, the company's English advertising strapline of the era was \"power without the price\". In fact, an Atari ST and terminal emulation software was much cheaper than a Digital VT220 terminal, which was commonly needed by offices with central computers.\n",
"\n=== Original housing ===\nThe Atari 520ST\n\nThe original 520ST case design was created by Ira Velinsky Atari's chief Industrial Designer. The ST is basically wedge-shaped, featuring bold angular lines and a series of grilles cut into the rear for airflow. The keyboard has soft tactile feedback and rhomboid-shaped function keys across the top. The 520ST is an all-in-one unit, similar to earlier home computers like the Commodore 64, but with a larger keyboard with cursor keys and a numeric keypad.\n\nThe 520ST uses an external power brick.\n\n=== Port connections ===\nAtari 520ST ports\nAtari ST mouse (2000)\n\nThe 520ST features a large number of ports mounted at the rear of the machine that remained largely unchanged over the ST's history.\n\n* Standard ports:\n** RS-232c serial port (DB25 male, operating as basic 9-conductor DTE)\n** Centronics printer port (DB25 female, officially compliant only with the most basic unidirectional standard with a single, \"Busy\" input line; unofficially offering some bidirectional capabilities)\n** Atari joystick ports (DE-9 male) for the mouse and game controllers\n** 2 MIDI ports (5-pin DIN, \"IN\" and \"OUT/THRU\")\n* ST-specific ports:\n** Monitor port (custom 13-pin DIN, 12 of the pins in a rectangular pattern, carrying signals for both RGB and monochrome monitors, monophonic audio and, in later models, composite video)\n** ACSI (similar to SCSI) DMA port (custom-sized 19-pin D-sub, for hard disks and laser printers, capable of up to 2 MByte/s with efficient programming)\n** Floppy port (standard if rare 14-pin DIN, listed as operating at 250 kbit/s)\n** ST cartridge port (double-sided 40-contact edge connector socket, for 128 KB ROM cartridges)\n\nBecause of its bi-directional design, the Centronics printer port can be used for joystick input, and several games make use of available adaptors that plugged into the printer socket, providing two additional 9-pin joystick ports.\n\n===Floppy drive===\n\nAtari initially used single-sided disk drives that could store up to 360 kB. Later drives were double-sided and stored 720 kB. Some commercial software, particularly games, shipped by default on single-sided disks, even supplying two 360kB floppies instead of a single double-sided one, for fear of alienating early adopters.\n\nAnother sticking point with the ST's floppy drives was that, whilst double-sided drive equipped STs could happily read discs formatted under MS-DOS on IBM PCs, PCs could not themselves read Atari disks, because the initial versions of TOS could recognise, read, and write to but not themselves create discs in the same particular specification used and indeed demanded by MS-DOS because of different field usage on the FAT filesystem. Achieving successful data interchange between the two platforms using floppies thus required pre-formatting dedicated file transfer discs under MS-DOS, and copying the necessary data onto them from any unsuitable Atari formatted discs. This formatting issue was soon resolved by the emergence of third-party formatting and file copier software, MS-DOS disc imaging software capable of reading the unusual formats used by the ST and various other machines (such as the Commodore Amiga) and, a few years later, Atari's own version 1.4 (and later) TOS upgrades.\n\n=== STF and STFM models ===\nAtari 1040STF\n\nAtari later upgraded the basic design in 1986 with the ''1040STF'' (also written ''STF''). The machine is generally similar to the earlier 520ST, but moved the power supply and a double-sided floppy drive into the rear of the housing of the computer, as opposed to being external. This added to the size of the machine, but reduced cable clutter in the back. The joystick/mouse ports, formerly on the right side of the machine where the disk drive now sat, were moved to a niche underneath the keyboard.\n\nThe ''1040ST'' was the first personal computer shipped with a base RAM configuration of 1 MB. When the list price was reduced to $999 in the U.S. it appeared on the cover of ''BYTE'' in March 1986 as the first computer to break the $1000/megabyte price barrier; ''Compute!'' noted that, in fact, the ''1040ST'' was the first computer to break the $2500/megabyte price barrier. However, the ST remained generally the same internally over the majority of its several-year lifespan. The choice of model numbers was inherited from the model numbers of the ''XE series'' of the Atari 8-bit family of computers. A limited number of 1040STFs shipped with a single-sided floppy drive.\n\nThe same basic design was also used for a cut-down version, the 512 kB ''520STFM'', which replaced the earlier 520ST models in the market. The early 'STF' machines lack the 'M' modulator that allows a TV to be used and will only work with a monitor.\n\n=== Mega models ===\nInitial sales were strong, especially in Europe where Atari sold 75% of its computers. Germany became Atari's strongest market, with small business users using them for desktop publishing and CAD.\n\nTo address this growing market segment, Atari came up with the ''ST1''. Debuted at Comdex in 1986, it was received favorably. Renamed the ''Mega'', this new machine includes a high-quality detached keyboard, a stronger case to support the weight of a monitor, and an internal bus expansion connector. A 20 MB hard drive called the SH204 could be purchased as an option and stacked below or above the main case of the Mega. The upcoming SLM804 laser printer would not come with a processor or memory, reducing costs. It would attach to the Mega through the ST DMA port and require the Mega computer to render the pages. As TOS was not a multitasking OS, this meant the computer could not be used while printing. Initially equipped with 2 or 4 MB (a 1 MB version, the ''Mega 1'' would later follow), the Mega machines would complement the Atari laser printer for a low-cost desktop publishing package, which received acclaim and was featured on the cover of Computer Shopper magazine.\n\nA custom blitter co-processor was to be included to speed the performance of some graphics operations on the screen, but due to delays it was eventually released on the ''Mega 2'' and ''Mega 4'' machines. Developers wanting to use it had to detect for it in their programs because it was not present on all machines. However, properly written programs using the screen VDI commands can use the blitter seamlessly, since GEM API is a higher-level interface to ''TOS''.\n",
"\n=== STE models ===\nIn late 1989, Atari released the 520STE and 1040STE (also written STE), enhanced version of the ST with improvements to the multimedia hardware and operating system. It features an increased color palette of 4,096 colors from the ST's 512 (though the maximum displayable palette of these without programming tricks was still limited to 16 in the lowest 320x200 resolution, and even fewer in higher resolutions), Genlock support, and a blitter co-processor (stylized as \"BLiTTER\") which can quickly move large blocks of data (most particularly, graphics data) around in RAM. The STE was the first Atari with PCM audio; using a new chip, it added the ability to play back 8-bit (signed) samples at 6258 Hz, 12517 Hz, 25033 Hz and even 50066 Hz. The channels are arranged as either a mono track or a track of LRLRLRLR... bytes. RAM was now much more simply upgradable via SIMMs.\n\nTwo enhanced joystick ports were added (two normal joysticks can be plugged into each port with an adapter), with the new connectors placed in more easily accessed locations on the side of the case. The enhanced joystick ports were re-used in Atari's Jaguar console and are compatible.\n\nThe STE models initially had software and hardware conflicts resulting in some applications and video games written for the ST line being unstable or even completely unusable, primarily caused by programming direct hardware calls which bypassed the operating system. Furthermore, even having a joystick plugged in would sometimes cause strange behavior with a few applications (such as the WYSIWYG word-processor application 1st Word Plus). Very little use was made of the extra features of the STE: STE-enhanced and STE-only software was rare.\n\nThe last STE machine, the ''Mega STE'', is an STE in a grey Atari TT case that had a switchable 16 MHz, dual-bus design (16-bit external, 32-bit internal), optional Motorola 68881 FPU, built-in 3½-inch floppy disk drive, VME expansion slot, a network port (very similar to that used by Apple's LocalTalk) and an optional built-in 3½\" hard drive. It also shipped with TOS 2.00 (better support for hard drives, enhanced desktop interface, memory test, 1.44 MB floppy support, bug fixes). It was marketed as more affordable than a TT but more powerful than an ordinary ST.\n\n=== Atari TT ===\n\n\nIn 1990, Atari released the high-end workstation-oriented ''Atari TT030'', based on a 32 MHz Motorola 68030 processor. The \"TT\" name (\"Thirty-two/Thirty-two\") continued the nomenclature system as the 68030 chip had full 32-bit wide buses both internally and externally. Originally planned with a 68020 CPU, the TT included improved graphics and more powerful support chips. The case was a new design with an integrated hard-drive enclosure.\n\n=== Atari Falcon ===\n\n\nThe final ST computer is the multimedia-capable ''Atari Falcon030''. Like the TT, this was also 68030-based, operating at 16 MHz, but with improved video modes and an on-board Motorola 56001 audio digital signal processor. The Falcon, like the Atari STE, supports sampling frequencies above 44.1 kHz; the sampling master clock is 98340 Hz, which can be divided by a number between 2 and 16 to get the actual sampling frequencies. Apart from these frequencies, it is also able to play the STE sample frequencies (up to 50066 Hz) in 8 or 16 bit, mono/stereo, all by using the same DMA interface as the STE, with a few additions. The Falcon can both play back and record samples; it has 8 mono channels / 4 stereo channels; thus this allowed musicians to use the computer for harddisk recording. Although the 68030 microprocessor is capable of using 32-bit memory, the Falcon uses a 16-bit bus which affects performance, but also served to reduce its cost. In another cost-reduction measure, Atari shipped the Falcon in an inexpensive case much like that of the STF and STE. Aftermarket upgrade kits were available that allowed the Falcon to be put in a desktop or rack-mount case, with the keyboard separate.\n\nReleased in 1992, the Falcon was discontinued by Atari the following year. In Europe, C-Lab licensed the Falcon design from Atari, and released the C-Lab Falcon Mk I (the same as Atari's Falcon except for some slight modifications to the audio circuitry), Mk II (as Mk I but with an internal 500 MB SCSI hard disk) and Mk X (as Mk II but in a desktop case).\n",
"\nIn 1993, Atari ceased development on the ST computers to focus on the Jaguar.\n\nFollowing the exit of Atari from the computer market, Medusa Computer Systems manufactured some powerful 3rd-party Atari Falcon/TT-compatible machines that used 68040 and 68060 processors, based on multimedia (particularly audio, but also video), CAD, and office uses.\n\nDespite the lack of a hardware supplier, there is a small active community dedicated to keeping the ST platform alive. There have been advancements in the operating system, software emulators (for Windows, Mac, & Linux), and some hardware developments. There are accelerator cards, such as the CT60 & CT63, which is a 68060 based accelerator card for the Falcon, and there is the Atari Coldfire Project, which aims at developing an Atari-clone based on the Coldfire processor. Milan Computer of Germany also made 68040 and 68060-based Atari clones that can run either Atari TOS 4.5 or Milan Computer's MultiTOS operating system.\n",
"As with the Atari 8-bit computers, software publishers attributed their reluctance to produce Atari ST products in part to—as ''Compute!'' reported in 1988—the belief in the existence of a \"higher-than-normal amount of software piracy\". That year WordPerfect threatened to discontinue the Atari ST version of its word processor because the company discovered that pirate bulletin board systems (BBSs) were distributing it, causing ''ST-Log'' to warn that \"we had better put a stop to piracy ''now'' ... it can have harmful effects on the longevity and health of your computer\". In 1989 magazines published a letter by Gilman Louie, head of Spectrum Holobyte. He stated that he had been warned by competitors that releasing a game like ''Falcon'' on the ST would fail because BBSs would widely disseminate it. Within 30 days of releasing the non-copy protected ST version, the game was available on BBSs with maps and code wheels. Because the ST market was smaller than that for the IBM PC it was more vulnerable to piracy which, Louie said, seemed to be better organized and more widely accepted for the ST. He reported that the Amiga version sold in six weeks twice as much as the ST version in nine weeks, and that the Mac and PC versions had four times the sales. ''Computer Gaming World'' stated \"This is certainly the clearest exposition ... we have seen to date\" of why software companies produced less software for the ST than for other computers.\n\n=== Music and sound ===\nThe ST has built-in MIDI ports, and there was plenty of MIDI-related software for use professionally in music studios, or by amateur enthusiasts. The popular Windows/Macintosh applications ''Cubase'' and ''Logic Pro'' originated on the Atari ST (the latter as ''Notator Logic'', preceded by ''Creator'', ''Notator'' and ''Notator-SL''). Another popular and powerful ST music sequencer application, Dr. T's ''KCS'', contains a \"Multi-Program Environment\" that allows ST users to run other applications, such as the synthesizer patch editing software XoR (now known as Unisyn on the Macintosh), from within the sequencer application.\n\nMusic tracker software was popular on the ST, such as the ''TCB Tracker'', aiding the production of quality music from the Yamaha synthesizer ('chiptunes').\n\nAn innovative music composition program that combines the sample playing abilities of a tracker with conventional music notation (which was usually only found in MIDI software) is called ''Quartet'' (after its four-note polyphonic tracker, which displays one monophonic stave at a time on color screens).\n\nDue to the ST having comparatively large amounts of memory for the time, sound sampling packages became a realistic proposition. The Microdeal ''Replay Professional'' product features a sound sampler that cleverly uses the ST cartridge port to read in parallel from the cartridge port from the ADC. For output of digital sound, it uses the on-board frequency output, sets it to 128 kHz (inaudible) and then modulates the amplitude of that.\n\nAnother program that had success on the ST platform is ''MasterTracks Pro'' from Passport Designs, of Half Moon Bay, CA., that was first put out by Don Williams for the Macintosh. When the ST died, a PC version continued that one could port MIDI to using the generic .MID format. GVox bought out Passport, and continues the program for Windows and macOS along with the other Passport product, the notation program ''Encore''.\n\n=== Software titles ===\nBatteries Included \n\nAlso popular on the ST was professional desktop publishing software, such as ''PageStream'' and ''Calamus''; office tools such as word processors (''WordPerfect'', ''Microsoft Write'', ''AtariWorks'', ''WordWriter ST'', First Word shipped with the machine and its Plus continuation, and others); spreadsheets (''3D-Calc'', ''LDW Power'', ''LDW Power 2'', ''LOGiSTiX Senior'', ''PowerLedger ST'', ''SwiftCalc ST'', ''VIP Professional'', and others); turnkey programs (''Mail-Pro'', ''Sales-Pro 6'', ''Video-Pro'', and others); database programs (''A-Calc Prime'', ''Data Manager'', ''Data Manager Professional'', ''DBMan V'', ''Base Two'', ''H&DBase'', ''Informer II'', ''DB Master One'', ''SBT Database Accounting Library'' (''dLedger'', ''dInvoice'', ''dOrder'', ''dPurchases'', and ''dPayables)'', ''Superbase Personal'', ''Superbase Professional'', ''Tracker ST'', and others); and various CAD and CAM tools from amateur hobbyist to professional grade (Campus CAD, DynaCADD, Leonard ST, Technobox CAD/2...): all being largely targeted at, or even limited to owners of high-resolution monochrome monitors.\n\nGraphics programs such as ''NEOchrome'', Degas & Degas Elite, ''Canvas'', ''Deluxe Paint'', and ''Cyber Paint'' (which author Jim Kent would later evolve into ''Autodesk Animator'') featured advanced features such as 3D design and animation. One paint program, ''Spectrum 512'', uses the ST's rapid palette switching ability to expand the maximum number of colors to be displayed on-screen at once to 512 (up to 46 in each scan line the STE never had a Spectrum4096, but other more minor applications filled this speciality niche, one even going so far as to program the shifter chip to palette shift at a rate enabling a display of 19200 colors).\n\n3D computer graphics applications (like ''Cyber Studio''s ''CAD-3D'', which author Tom Hudson would later develop into Autodesk ''3D Studio''), brought 3D modelling, sculpting, scripting, and most important, computer animation (using delta-compression) to the desktop. Video-capture and -editing applications using special video-capture 'dongles' connected using the cartridge port low frame rate, mainly silent and monochrome, but progressing to sound and basic color (in still frames) by the end of the machine's life. At the end, Spectrum 512 and CAD-3D teamed up to produce realistic 512-color textured 3D renderings, but processing was slow, and Atari's failure to deliver a machine with a math coprocessor had Hudson and Yost looking towards the PC as the future before a finished product could be delivered to the consumer.\n\nThe Atari ST was the computer upon which today's prevalent graphical touchscreen point of sale software for restaurants was originally developed. This software was created by Gene Mosher under the ViewTouch copyright and trademark. It does not feature the Atari ST's GEM graphical user interface but, instead, features an application specific graphical user interface and widget framework which he developed using, in part, the Neochrome paint program.\n\n=== Software development ===\nThe Atari ST has a wide variety of languages and tools for development. 68000 assemblers (MadMac from Atari Corp, HiSoft Systems's Devpac, TurboAss, GFA-Assembler), Pascal (OSS Personal Pascal, Maxon Pascal, PurePascal), Modula-2, C compilers (like Turbo C, Alcyon C, Lattice C, Megamax C, Mark Williams C, GNU C, Aztec C, AHCC), LISP, Prolog, Logo, and others.\n\nThe initial development kit from Atari included a computer and manuals. At $5,000, this discouraged many from developing software for the ST. Later, the Atari Developer's Kit consisted of software and manuals (no hardware) for $300. Included with the kit were a resource kit, C compiler (first Alcyon C, then Mark Williams C), debugger, and 68000 assembler (plus the non-disclosure agreement).\n\nThe ST came bundled with a system disk that contained ST BASIC, the first BASIC for the ST. However, due to its poor performance, users favored other BASICs, such as HiSoft BASIC, GFA BASIC, FaST BASIC (notable for being one of the few programs to be supplied as a ROM cartridge), DBASIC, and ''STOS'', which then inspired and led to the creation of AMOS on the Amiga, and was powerful enough that it was used (with a compiler, opposed to its usual runtime interpreter) for the production of at least two commercial titles and a host of good quality shareware and public domain games. In the late years of the Atari ST Omikron Basic was bundled with it in Germany.\n\n=== Games ===\n\nThe ST enjoyed success in gaming due to the low cost, fast performance, and colorful graphics.\n\nNotable individuals who developed games on the ST include Peter Molyneux, Doug Bell, Jeff Minter, Éric Chahi, Jez San, and David Braben. An early real-time 3D role-playing video game, ''Dungeon Master'', was first developed and released on the ST, and was the best-selling software ever produced for the platform. Simulation games like ''Falcon'' and ''Flight Simulator II'' made use of the enhanced graphics found in the ST machines, as did many arcade ports. One game, ''MIDI Maze'', uses the MIDI ports to connect up to 16 machines for interactive networked play. Games simultaneously released on the Amiga that had identical graphics and sound were often accused by video game magazines of simply being ST ports. The critically acclaimed game ''Another World'' was originally released for ST and Amiga in 1991 with the Polygonal engine developed on the ST and the rotoscoped animations created on the Amiga (the two games are very similar on both systems).\n\nGarry Kasparov became the first player to register the commercial ''ChessBase'', a popular commercial database program produced for storing and searching records of games of chess. The first version was built for Atari ST with his collaboration in January 1987. In his autobiography ''Child of Change'', he regards this facility as ''the most important development in chess research since printing''.\n\n=== Utilities ===\nUtility software was available to drive hardware add-ons such as video digitisers. Office Productivity and graphics software was also bundled with the ST (HyperPaint II by Dimitri Koveos, HyperDraw by David Farmborough, 3D-Calc spreadsheet by Frank Schoonjans, and several others commissioned by Bob Katz, later of Electronic Arts).\n\nThere was a thriving output of public domain and shareware software which was distributed by, in the days long before public internet access, public domain software libraries that advertised in magazines and on popular dial-up bulletin board systems.\n\nRemarkably, a modest core fanbase for the system, supporting a dwindling number of good quality print magazines, survived to the mid-'90s and the birth of the modern, publicly accessible Internet as we know it. Despite the limited graphics, memory, and temporary hard-storage capabilities of the system, several email, FTP, telnet, IRC, and even full-blown graphical World Wide Web browser applications were available and usable on the ST.\n\nThere were also DOS emulators released in the late 1980s. ''PC-Ditto'' came in two versions, software-only-, and a hardware version that plugs into the cartridge slot or kludges internally. After running the PC-Ditto software, a DOS boot disk is required to load the system. Both allow users to run DOS programs in CGA mode, though much more slowly than on an IBM PC. Other options are the ''PC-Speed'' (NEC V30), ''AT-Speed'' (Intel 80286) and ''ATonce-386SX'' (Intel 80386sx) hardware emulator boards.\n",
"The ST's low cost, built-in MIDI ports, and fast, low-latency response times made it a favorite with musicians:\n\n* German electronic music pioneers Tangerine Dream relied heavily on the Atari ST in the studio and for live performances during the late 1980s and 1990s.\n* The album notes for Mike Oldfield's ''Earth Moving'' state that it was recorded using an Atari ST and C-Lab MIDI software.\n* The Fatboy Slim album ''You've Come A Long Way, Baby'' has an Atari ST in the large foldout picture of Fatboy Slim's studio.\n* Electronic music artists Mike Paradinas and Luke Vibert started out writing music on Atari STs.\n* In the Paris performance of Jean Michel Jarre's album ''Waiting for Cousteau'', musicians have attached Atari ST machines with unidentified MIDI software to their keyboards, as could be seen in the TV live show and video recordings.\n* White Town's \"Your Woman\", which reached #1 in the UK singles charts, was created using an Atari ST.\n* The Utah Saints used STs during the recording of both of their albums, ''Utah Saints'' and ''Two''\n* Atari Teenage Riot named itself after the brand and programmed most of their music on an Atari ST, including the entire album ''Is This Hyperreal?'' (June, 2011).\n* Cabaret Voltaire founder Richard H. Kirk said in 2016 that he continues to write music on an Atari 1040ST with a sequencer called C-Lab. \n",
"All STs are made up of both custom and commercial chips:\n\n* Custom chips:\n** ''ST Shifter'' ''\"Video shift register chip\"'' Enables bitmap graphics using 32 KB of contiguous memory for all resolutions. Screen address has to be a multiple of 256.\n** ''ST GLU'' ''\"Generalized Logic Unit\"'' Control logic for the system used to connect the ST's chips. Not part of the data path, but needed to bridge chips with each other.\n** ''ST MMU'' ''\"Memory Management Unit\"'' Provides signals needed for CPU/blitter/DMA and Shifter to access dynamic RAM. Even memory accesses are given to CPU/blitter/DMA while odd cycles are reserved for DRAM refresh or used by Shifter for displaying contents of the frame buffer.\n** ''ST DMA'' ''\"Direct Memory Access\"'' Used for floppy and hard drive data transfers. Can directly access main memory in the ST.\n* Support chips:\n** ''MC6850P ACIA'' ''\"Asynchronous Common Interface Adapter\"'' Enables the ST to directly communicate with MIDI devices and keyboard (two chips used). for MIDI, for keyboard.\n** ''MC68901 MFP'' ''\"Multi Function Peripheral\"'' Used for interrupt generation/control, serial and misc. control input signals. Atari TT030 has two ''MFP'' chips.\n** ''WD-1772-PH'' ''\"Western Digital Floppy Disk Controller\"'' Floppy controller chip.\n** ''YM2149F PSG'' ''\"Programmable Sound Generator\"'' Provides three—voice sound synthesis, also used for floppy signalling, serial control output and printer parallel port.\n** ''HD6301V1'' ''\"Hitachi keyboard processor\"'' Used for keyboard scanning and mouse/joystick ports.\n\n=== ST/STF/STM/STFM ===\nAs originally released in the ''520ST'':\n\n* CPU: Motorola 68000 16-/32-bit CPU @ 8 MHz. 16-bit data/32-bit internal/24-bit address.\n* RAM: 512 KB or 1 MB\n* Display modes (60 Hz NTSC, 50 Hz PAL, 71.2 Hz monochrome):\n** Low resolution: 320 × 200 (16 color), palette of 512 colors\n** Medium resolution: 640 × 200 (4 color), palette of 512 colors\n** High resolution: 640 × 400 (mono), monochrome\n* Sound: Yamaha YM2149 3-voice squarewave plus 1-voice white noise mono Programmable Sound Generator\n* Drive: Single-sided 3½\" floppy disk drive, 360 kB capacity when formatted to standard 9 sector, 80 track layout.\n* Ports: TV out (on ST-M and ST-FM models, NTSC or PAL standard RF modulated), MIDI in/out (with 'out-thru'), RS-232 serial, Centronics parallel (printer), monitor (RGB or Composite Video color and mono, 13-pin DIN), extra disk drive port (14-pin DIN), DMA port (ACSI port, Atari Computer System Interface) for hard disks and Atari Laser Printer (sharing RAM with computer system), joystick and mouse ports (9-pin MSX standard)\n* Operating System: TOS v1.00 (TOS meaning The Operating System) with the Graphics Environment Manager (GEM) WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer) GUI\n\nVery early machines included the OS on a floppy disk due to it not being ready to be burned to ROM (like the Amiga 1000 had). This early version of TOS was bootstrapped from a very small core boot ROM, but this was quickly replaced with (expanded capacity) ROM versions of TOS 1.0 when it was ready. (This change was also greatly welcomed as older ST machines with memory below 512 kB suffered, as GEM loaded its entire 192 kB code into RAM when booting the desktop). Having the OS loaded from disk was due to Atari trying to rush the machines to market without ironing out all the bugs in the OS. Soon after this change, most production models became STFs, with an integrated single- (520STF/512 kB RAM) or double-sided (1040STF/1024 kB RAM) double density floppy disk drive built-in, but no other changes. The next later models used an upgraded version of TOS: 1.02 (also known as TOS 1.2). Another early addition (after about 6 months) was an RF Modulator that allows the machine to be hooked to a color TV when run in its low or medium resolution (525/625 line 60/50 Hz interlace, even on RGB monitors) modes, greatly enhancing the machine's saleability and perceived value (no need to buy a prohibitively expensive, even if exceptionally crisp and clear, monitor). These models were known as the ''520STM'' (or ''520STM''). Later ''F'' and ''FM'' models of the 520 had a built in double-sided disk drive instead of a single-sided one.\n\n=== STE ===\nAs originally released in the ''520STE/1040STE'':\n\n* All of the features of the 520STFM/1040STFM\n* Extended palette of 4,096 available colors to choose from\n* BLiTTER chip for copy/fill/clear large data blocks in memory (max write rate of 4 MB/s)\n* Hardware-support for horizontal and vertical fine scrolling and split screen (using the Shifter video chip)\n* DMA sound chip with 2-channels stereo 8-bit PCM sound at 6.25/12.5/25/50 kHz and stereo RCA audio-out jacks (using enhancements to the Shifter video chip to support audio shifting)\n* National LMC 1992 audio controller chip, allowing adjustable left/right/master volume and bass and treble EQ via a Microwire interface\n* Memory: 30-pin SIMM memory slots (SIPP packages in earliest versions) allowing upgrades up to 4 MB Allowable memory sizes including only 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 2.5 and 4.0 MB due to configuration restraints (however, 2.5 MB is not officially supported and has compatibility problems). Later 3rd-party upgrade kits allow a maximum of 14MB w/Magnum-ST, bypassing the stock MMU with a replacement unit and the additional chips on a separate board fitting over it.\n* Ability to synchronise the video-timings with an external device so that a video Genlock device can be used without having to make any modifications to computer's hardware\n* Analogue joypad ports (2), with support for devices such as paddles and light pens in addition to joysticks/joypads. The Atari Jaguar joypads and Power Pad joypads (gray version of Jaguar joypads marketed for the STE and Falcon) can be used without an adapter. Two standard Atari-style digital joysticks could be plugged into each analogue port with an adapter.\n* TOS 1.06 (also known as TOS 1.6) or TOS 1.62 (which fixed some major backwards-compatibility bugs in TOS 1.6) in two socketed 128 kB ROM chips.\n* Socketed PLCC 68000 CPU\n",
"The members of the ST family are listed below, in rough chronological order:\n\n; 520ST: Original model with 512 KB RAM, external power supply, no floppy disk drive. The early models had only a bootstrap ROM and TOS had to be loaded from disk.\n; 520ST+: early 520STs with 1 MB of RAM, but without floppy disk\n; 260ST: originally intended to be a 256 kB variant, but actually sold in small quantities in Europe with 512 KB. Used after the release of the 520ST+ to differentiate the cheaper 512 KB models from the 1 MB models. Because the early 520ST's were sold with TOS on disk, but this used up 192 KB or RAM so the machine only had around 256KB left.\n; 520STM: a 520ST with a built-in modulator for TV output, 512 KB RAM.\n; 520STFM: a 520STM with a newly redesigned motherboard in a larger case with a built-in floppy disk drive (in some cases a single sided drive only), and 512 KB RAM.\n; 1040STF: a 520STFM with 1 MB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk drive, but without RF modulator\n; 1040STFM: a 520STFM with 1 MB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk drive with RF modulator\n; Mega ST (MEGA 1, MEGA 2, MEGA 4): redesigned motherboard with 1, 2 or 4 MB of RAM, respectively, in a much improved \"pizza box\" case with a detached keyboard. All MEGA mainboards have a PLCC socket for the BLiTTER chip and some early models did not include the BLiTTER chip. They also included a real-time clock and internal expansion connector. Some early MEGA 2 had a MEGA 4 mainboard with half of the memory chip places unpopulated and the MEGA 2 can be upgraded by adding the additional DRAM chips and some resistors for the control lines. The MEGA 1 mainboards had a redesigned memory chip area and could not be upgraded in this way as there are only places for the 1 MByte DRAM chips.\n; 520STE and 1040STE: a 520STFM/1040STFM with enhanced sound, a BLiTTER chip, and a 4096-color palette, in the older 1040 style all-in-one case\n; Mega STE: same hardware as 1040STE except for a faster 16 MHz processor with 16K cache, an onboard SCSI controller, additional faster RS232 port, VME expansion port, in an ST gray version of the TT case\n; STacy: a portable (but definitely not laptop) version of the ST with the complete ST keyboard, an LCD screen simulating 640x400 hi-res, and a mini-trakball intended mostly for travellers and musicians because of the backlight screen and its built-in midi ports. Originally designed to operate on 12 standard C cell flashlight batteries for portability, when Atari finally realized how quickly the machine would use up a set of batteries (especially when rechargeable batteries of the time supplied insufficient power compared to the intended alkalines), they simply glued the lid of the battery compartment shut.\n; ST BOOK: a later portable ST, more portable than the STacy, but sacrificing several features in order to achieve this notably the backlight, and internal floppy disk drive. Files were meant to be stored on a small amount (one megabyte) of internal flash memory 'on the road' and transferred using serial or parallel links, memory flashcards or external (and externally powered) floppy disk to a desktop ST once back indoors. The screen is highly reflective for the time, but still hard to use indoors or in low light, it is fixed to the 640 × 400 1-bit mono mode, and no external video port was provided. Despite its limitations, it gained some popularity, particularly amongst musicians.\n\n=== Unreleased ===\n; 130ST: intended to be a 128 KB variant. Announced at the 1985 CES alongside the 520ST but never produced.\n; 4160STE: as 1040STE but with 4 MB of RAM. Never officially released except a small quantity of development units. Labels were sent out to dealers to affix to machines that had been upgraded to 4 MB.\n\n=== Related systems ===\nAtari ABAQ, or Atari Transputer Workstation: A standalone machine developed in conjunction with Perihelion Hardware, containing modified ST hardware and up to 17 transputers capable of massively parallel operations for tasks such as ray tracing.\n\n=== Clones ===\n* GE-Soft Eagle: TT clone but with 32 MHz system bus Article in SOS, June 1995\n",
"* SF354: Single-sided double-density 3½-inch floppy drive (360 kB) with external power supply\n* SF314: Double-sided double-density 3½-inch floppy drive (720 kB) with external power supply\n* PS3000: Combined 12-inch color monitor and 360k 3½-inch floppy drive (SF354). Speaker. Manufactured by JVC in limited quantity (~1000), only a few working models remain.\n* SM124: Monochrome monitor, 12-inch screen, 640 × 400 pixels, 70 Hz refresh\n* SM125: Monochrome monitor, 12-inch screen, up/down/sideways swivel stand, speaker, 640x400 pixels, 70 Hz refresh\n* SM147: Monochrome monitor, 14-inch screen, no speaker, replacement for SM124\n* SC1224: Color monitor, 12-inch screen, 640 × 200 pixels plus speaker\n* SC1425: Color monitor, 14-inch screen, One speaker on the left of screen, a jack to plug ear-listeners\n* SC1435: Color monitor, 14-inch screen, stereo speakers, replacement for SC1224 (rebadged Magnavox 1CM135)\n* SM195: Monochrome monitor, 19-inch screen for TT030. 1280 × 960 pixels. 70 Hz refresh\n* SH204: External hard drive, 20 MB MFM drive, \"shoe box\" case made of metal\n* SH205: External hard drive, Mega ST matching case, 20 MB MFM 3.5-inch (Tandon TM262) or 5.25-inch (Segate ST225) drive with ST506 interface (became later the Megafile 20)\n* Megafile 20, 30, 60: External hard drive, Mega ST matching case, ACSI bus; Megafile 30 and 60 had a 5.25-inch RLL (often a Seagate ST238R 30 MByte or Seagate ST277R 60 MByte drive) with ST506 interface\n* Megafile 44: Removable cartridge drive, ACSI bus, Mega ST matching case\n* SLM804: Laser printer, connected through ACSI DMA port, used ST's memory and processor to build pages for printing\n* SLM605: Laser printer, connected through ACSI DMA port, smaller than SLM805\n",
"*Bitstream Speedo Fonts – the fonts included in the Atari ST\n",
"\n",
"\n* Atarimania: Atari ST software preservation project\n* \"The little green desktop\"\n* BYTE Magazine September 1986, Atari ST Software Development\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Origins ",
" Debut and release ",
" Design ",
" Later models ",
" Aftermath ",
" Software ",
"Popularity with musicians",
" Technical specifications ",
" Models ",
" Peripherals ",
"See also",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Atari ST |
[
"\nThe following is a list of current and past, nonclassified notable artificial intelligence projects.\n\n",
"\n===Brain-inspired===\n* Blue Brain Project, an attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level.\n* Google Brain A deep learning project part of Google X attempting to mimic human-level intelligence.\n* NuPIC, an open source implementation by Numenta of its cortical learning algorithm.\n\n===Cognitive architectures===\n* 4CAPS, developed at Carnegie Mellon University under Marcel A. Just\n* ACT-R, developed at Carnegie Mellon University under John R. Anderson.\n* AIXI, Universal Artificial Intelligence developed by Marcus Hutter at IDSIA and ANU.\n* CALO, a DARPA-funded, 25-institution effort to integrate many artificial intelligence approaches (natural language processing, speech recognition, machine vision, probabilistic logic, planning, reasoning, many forms of machine learning) into an AI assistant that learns to help manage your office environment.\n* CHREST, developed under Fernand Gobet at Brunel University and Peter C. Lane at the University of Hertfordshire.\n* CLARION the cognitive architecture, developed under Ron Sun at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and University of Missouri.\n* CoJACK, an ACT-R inspired extension to the JACK multi-agent system that adds a cognitive architecture to the agents for eliciting more realistic (human-like) behaviors in virtual environments.\n* Copycat, by Douglas Hofstadter and Melanie Mitchell at the Indiana University.\n* DUAL, developed at the New Bulgarian University under Boicho Kokinov.\n* EPIC, developed under David E. Kieras and David E. Meyer (both University of Michigan Ph.D. graduates) at the University of Michigan.\n* The H-Cogaff architecture, which is a special case of the CogAff schema; see Taylor & Sayda, and Sloman refs below.\n* FORR developed by Susan L. Epstein at The City University of New York.\n* IDA and LIDA, implementing Global Workspace Theory, developed under Stan Franklin at the University of Memphis.\n* OpenCog Prime, developed using the OpenCog Framework.\n* Procedural Reasoning System (PRS), developed by Michael Georgeff and Amy L. Lansky at SRI International.\n* Psi-Theory developed under Dietrich Dörner at the Otto-Friedrich University in Bamberg, Germany.\n* R-CAST, developed at the Pennsylvania State University.\n* Soar, developed under Allen Newell and John Laird at Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Michigan.\n* Society of mind and its successor the Emotion machine proposed by Marvin Minsky.\n* Subsumption architectures, developed e.g. by Rodney Brooks (though it could be argued whether they are ''cognitive'').\n\n===Games===\n* AlphaGo, software developed by Google that plays the Chinese board game Go.\n* Chinook, a computer program that plays English draughts; the first to win the world champion title in the competition against humans.\n* Deep Blue, a chess-playing computer developed by IBM which beat Garry Kasparov in 1997.\n* Stockfish AI, an open source chess engine currently ranked the highest in many computer chess rankings.\n* FreeHAL, a self-learning conversation simulator (chatterbot) which uses semantic nets to organize its knowledge to imitate a very close human behavior within conversations.\n* TD-Gammon, a program that learned to play world-class backgammon partly by playing against itself (temporal difference learning with neural networks).\n\n===Knowledge and reasoning===\n* Braina, an intelligent personal assistant application with a voice interface for Windows OS.\n* Cyc, an attempt to assemble an ontology and database of everyday knowledge, enabling human-like reasoning.\n* Eurisko, a language by Douglas Lenat for solving problems which consists of heuristics, including some for how to use and change its heuristics.\n* Google Now, an intelligent personal assistant with a voice interface in Google's Android and Apple Inc.'s iOS, as well as Google Chrome web browser on personal computers.\n* James, an intelligent personal assistant application that understand questions in several languages and with mixed languages in same question. \n* Microsoft Cortana, an intelligent personal assistant with a voice interface in Microsoft's various Windows 10 editions.\n* Mycin, an early medical expert system.\n* Open Assistant, an evolving open source artificial intelligence agent able to interact in basic conversation and automate an increasing number of tasks.\n* Open Mind Common Sense, a project based at the MIT Media Lab to build a large common sense knowledge base from online contributions.\n* P.A.N., a publicly available text analyzer.\n* Siri, an intelligent personal assistant and knowledge navigator with a voice-interface in Apple Inc.'s iOS.\n* SNePS, a simultaneously a logic-based, frame-based, and network-based knowledge representation, reasoning, and acting system.\n* Viv (software) a new AI invented by the creators of Siri\n* Holmes a new AI created by Wipro\n* Watson, a question answering system developed by IBM. Has played the Jeopardy! game show.\n* Wolfram Alpha, an online service that answers queries by computing the answer from structured data.\n\n===Motion and manipulation===\n* Cog, a robot developed by MIT to study theories of cognitive science and artificial intelligence, now discontinued.\n* AIBO, the robot pet for the home, grew out of Sony's Computer Science Laboratory (CSL).\n\n=== Music===\n* Melomics, a bioinspired technology for music composition and synthetisation of music, where computers do not mimic musicians, but develop their own style.\n\n===Natural language processing===\n\n* AIML, an XML dialect for creating natural language software agents.\n* Apache Joshua, a statistical machine translation decoder for phrase-based, hierarchical, and syntax-based machine translation, written in Java.\n* Apache Lucene, a high-performance, full-featured text search engine library written entirely in Java.\n* Apache OpenNLP, a machine learning based toolkit for the processing of natural language text. It supports the most common NLP tasks, such as tokenization, sentence segmentation, part-of-speech tagging, named entity extraction, chunking and parsing.\n* Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity (A.L.I.C.E.), an award-winning natural language processing chatterbot.\n* Cleverbot, successor to Jabberwacky, now with 170m lines of conversation, Deep Context, fuzziness and parallel processing.Cleverbot learns from around 2 million user interactions per month.\n* ELIZA, a famous 1966 computer program by Joseph Weizenbaum, which parodied person-centered therapy.\n* InfoTame, a text analysis search engine originally developed by the KGB for sorting communications intercepts.\n* Jabberwacky, a chatterbot by Rollo Carpenter, aiming to simulate a natural human chat.\n* Mycroft, a free and open-source intelligent personal assistant that uses a natural language user interface.\n* PARRY, another early chatterbot, written in 1972 by Kenneth Colby, attempting to simulate a paranoid schizophrenic.\n* SHRDLU, an early natural language processing computer program developed by Terry Winograd at MIT from 1968 to 1970.\n* Snatchbot.me, a 2015 start-up, aspire to 'crowd-source' AI in chatbots via the public creation of hundreds of thousands of chatbots.\n* SYSTRAN, a machine translation technology by a company of the same name, used by Yahoo!, AltaVista and Google, among others.\n\n===Other===\n*Synthetic Environment for Analysis and Simulations (SEAS), a model of the real world used by Homeland security and the United States Department of Defense that uses simulation and AI to predict and evaluate future events and courses of action.\n",
"\n===Software libraries===\n* Apache Mahout, a library of scalable machine learning algorithms.\n* Deeplearning4j, an open-source, distributed deep learning framework written for the JVM. \n* OpenNN, a comprehensive C++ library implementing neural networks.\n* TensorFlow, an open-source software library for machine learning.\n* Torch_(machine_learning), an open-source software library for machine learning.\n\n===GUI frameworks===\n* Encog, a neural network and artificial intelligence framework available for Java, .Net, and Silverlight.\n* Neural Designer, a commercial deep learning tool for predictive analytics.\n* Neuroph, a Java neural network framework.\n* OpenCog, a GPL-licensed framework for artificial intelligence written in C++, Python and Scheme.\n* RapidMiner, an environment for machine learning and data mining, now developed commercially.\n* Weka, a free implementation of many machine learning algorithms in Java.\n\n===Cloud services===\n* Data Applied, a web based data mining environment.\n* Grok, a service that ingests data streams and creates actionable predictions in real time.\n* Microsoft Cognitive Services, cloud-based APIs that you can embed into your apps for computer vision, NLP, search, and more.\n* Watson, a pilot service by IBM to uncover and share data-driven insights, and to spur cognitive applications.\n\n===Machine Learning As A Service===\n* Apache PredictionIO, is an open source Machine Learning Server built on top of state-of-the-art open source stack for developers and data scientists create predictive engines for any machine learning task.\n",
"* Comparison of cognitive architectures\n",
"\n",
"* AI projects on GitHub\n* AI projects on SourceForge\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Specialized projects",
"Multipurpose projects",
"See also",
" References ",
"External links"
] | List of artificial intelligence projects |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Aaliyah Dana Haughton''' (; January 16, 1979 – August 25, 2001) was an American singer, actress, and model. She was born in Brooklyn, New York, and raised in Detroit, Michigan. At the age of 10, she appeared on the television show ''Star Search'' and performed in concert alongside Gladys Knight. At age 12, Aaliyah signed with Jive Records and her uncle Barry Hankerson's Blackground Records. Hankerson introduced her to R. Kelly, who became her mentor, as well as lead songwriter and producer of her debut album, ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number''. The album sold three million copies in the United States and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). After facing allegations of an illegal marriage with R. Kelly, Aaliyah ended her contract with Jive and signed with Atlantic Records.\n\nAaliyah worked with record producers Timbaland and Missy Elliott for her second album, ''One in a Million'', which sold 3 million copies in the United States and over eight million copies worldwide. In 2000, Aaliyah appeared in her first film, ''Romeo Must Die''. She contributed to the film's soundtrack, which spawned the single \"Try Again\". The song topped the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 solely on airplay, making Aaliyah the first artist in ''Billboard'' history to achieve this goal. \"Try Again\" earned Aaliyah a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female R&B Vocalist. After completing ''Romeo Must Die'', Aaliyah filmed her role in ''Queen of the Damned''. She released her third and final album, ''Aaliyah'', in July 2001.\n\nOn August 25, 2001, Aaliyah and eight others were killed in a plane crash in the Bahamas after filming the music video for the single \"Rock the Boat\". The pilot, Luis Morales III, was unlicensed at the time of the accident and toxicology tests revealed that he had traces of cocaine and alcohol in his system. Aaliyah's family later filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Blackhawk International Airways, which was settled out of court. Aaliyah's music has continued to achieve commercial success with several posthumous releases. Aaliyah has sold an estimated 24 to 32 million albums worldwide. She has been credited for helping redefine contemporary R&B, pop and hip hop, earning her the nicknames \"Princess of R&B\" and \"Queen of Urban Pop\". She is listed by ''Billboard'' as the tenth most successful female R&B artist of the past 25 years and 27th most successful R&B artist in history.\n",
"Aaliyah Dana Haughton was born on January 16, 1979, in Brooklyn, New York, and was the younger child of Diane and Michael \"Miguel\" Haughton (1951–2012). She was African American, and had Native American (Oneida) heritage from a grandmother. Her name has been described as a female version of the Arabic \"Ali\"; however, the original Arabic and Jewish name \"Aliya (Hebrew: אליה)\" derived from the Hebrew word \"aliyah (Hebrew: עלייה)\", and meant \"highest, most exalted one, the best.\" Regardless of origin, the singer was highly fond of her Semitic name, expressing support by calling it \"beautiful\" and asserting that she was \"very proud of it,\" and she thus spent her entire life striving to live up to her name every day. At a young age, Aaliyah was enrolled in voice lessons by her mother. She started performing at weddings, church choir and charity events. When she was five years old, her family moved to Detroit, Michigan, where she was raised along with her older brother, Rashad. She attended a Catholic school, Gesu Elementary, where in first grade, she received a part in the stage play ''Annie''. From then on, she was determined to become an entertainer. In Detroit, her father began working in the warehouse business, one of his brother-in-law Barry Hankerson's widening interests. Her mother stayed home and raised Aaliyah and her brother.\n\nThroughout her life, she had a good relationship with her brother, which traced back to their childhood as Rashad reflected that growing up with Aaliyah was \"amazing\". He recalled her running around their home singing and that never being annoying due to her having a \"beautiful voice\". She and her brother became close with their cousin Jomo Hankerson, since growing up, they lived \"about five blocks apart\". Jomo walked Aaliyah and Rashad to their home from school when their mother was not able to pick them up and recalled the Haughton household being filled with music. Aaliyah's family was very close due to the struggles of her grandparents and when the Haughtons moved to Detroit, the Hankersons were ready to take them in if necessary. These same bonds led to ties in the music industry, under the Blackground Records label.\n\nAaliyah's mother was a vocalist, and her uncle, Barry Hankerson, was an entertainment lawyer who had been married to Gladys Knight. As a child, Aaliyah traveled with Knight and worked with an agent in New York to audition for commercials and television programs, including ''Family Matters''; she went on to appear on ''Star Search'' at the age of ten. Aaliyah chose to begin auditioning while her mother made the decision to have her surname dropped. She auditioned for several record labels and at age 11 appeared in concerts alongside Knight. She had several pet animals in during her childhood, which included ducks, snakes and iguanas. Her cousin Jomo had a pet alligator, which Aaliyah felt was too much, remarking, \"that was something I wasn't going to stroke.\"\n\nHer grandmother died in 1991. Years after her death, Aaliyah said her grandmother supported everyone in the family and always wanted to hear her sing, as well as admitting that she \"spoiled\" her and her brother Rashad \"to death.\" She also enjoyed Aaliyah's singing and would have Aaliyah to sing for her. Aaliyah stated that she thought of her grandmother whenever she fell into depression. Aaliyah's hands reminded her of her aunt, who died when she was \"very young\" and Aaliyah referred to her as an \"amazingly beautiful woman\".\n",
"When she was growing up, Aaliyah attended Detroit schools and believed she was well-liked, but got teased for her short stature. She recalled coming into her own prior to age 15 and grew to love her height. Her mother would tell her to be happy that she was small and compliment her. Other children disliked Aaliyah, but she did not stay focused on them. \"You always have to deal with people who are jealous, but there were so few it didn't even matter. The majority of kids supported me, which was wonderful. When it comes to dealing with negative people, I just let it in one ear and out the other. Those people were invisible to me.\" Even in her adult life, she considered herself small. She had \"learned to accept and love\" herself and added: \"... the most important thing is to think highly of yourself because if you don't, no one else will\".\n\nDuring her audition for acceptance to the Detroit High School for the Fine and Performing Arts Aaliyah sung the song \"Ave Maria\" in its entirety in the Italian language.\n\nAaliyah, who maintained a perfect 4.0 grade point average when graduating from Detroit High School for the Fine and Performing Arts, felt education was important. She saw fit to keep her grades up despite the pressures and time constraints brought on her during the early parts of her career. She labeled herself as a perfectionist and recalled always being a good student. Aaliyah reflected: \"I always wanted to maintain that, even in high school when I first started to travel. I wanted to keep that 4.0. Being in the industry, you know, I don't want kids to think, 'I can just sing and forget about school.' I think it's very important to have an education, and even more important to have something to fall back on.\" She did this in her own life, as she planned to \"fall back on\" another part of the entertainment industry. She believed that if she could teach music history or open her own school to teach that or drama if she did not make a living as a recording artist because, as she reasoned, \"when you pick a career it has to be something you love\".\n",
"\n=== 1991–1995: ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number'' ===\nAaliyah was introduced to R. Kelly (pictured), who became her mentor, as well as lead songwriter and producer on her debut album.\nAfter Hankerson signed a distribution deal with Jive Records, he signed Aaliyah to his Blackground Records label at the age of 12. Hankerson later introduced her to recording artist and producer R. Kelly, who became Aaliyah's mentor, as well as lead songwriter and producer of her first album, which was recorded when she was 14. Aaliyah's debut album, ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number'', was released under her mononym \"Aaliyah\", by Jive and Blackground Records on May 24, 1994; the album debut at number 24 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart, selling 74,000 copies in its first week. It ultimately peaked at number 18 on the ''Billboard'' 200 and sold over three million copies in the United States, where it was certified two times Platinum by the RIAA. In Canada, the album sold over 50,000 copies and was certified gold by the CRIA. Aaliyah's debut single, \"Back & Forth\", topped the ''Billboard'' Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart for three weeks and was certified Gold by the RIAA. The second single, a cover of The Isley Brothers' \"At Your Best (You Are Love)\", peaked at number six on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and was also certified Gold by the RIAA. The title track, \"Age Ain't Nothing but a Number\", peaked at number 75 on the Hot 100. Additionally, she released \"The Thing I Like\" as part of the soundtrack to the 1994 film ''A Low Down Dirty Shame''.\n\n''Age Ain't Nothing But a Number'' received generally favorable reviews from music critics. Some writers noted that Aaliyah's \"silky vocals\" and \"sultry voice\" blended with Kelly's new jack swing helped define R&B in the 1990s. Her sound was also compared to that of female quartet En Vogue. Christopher John Farley of ''Time'' magazine described the album as a \"beautifully restrained work\", noting that Aaliyah's \"girlish, breathy vocals rode calmly on R. Kelly's rough beats\". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic felt that the album had its \"share of filler\", but described the singles as \"slyly seductive\". He also claimed that the songs on the album were \"frequently better\" than that of Kelly's second studio album, ''12 Play''. The single \"At Your Best (You Are Love)\" was criticized by ''Billboard'' for being out of place on the album and for its length.\n\n=== 1996–1999: ''One in a Million'' ===\n\nIn 1996, Aaliyah left Jive Records and signed with Atlantic Records. She worked with record producers Timbaland and Missy Elliott, who contributed to her second studio album, ''One in a Million''. Missy Elliott recalled Timbaland and herself being nervous to work with Aaliyah, since Aaliyah had already released her successful début album while Missy Elliott and Timbaland were just starting out. Missy Elliott also feared she would be a diva, but reflected that Aaliyah \"came in and was so warming; she made us immediately feel like family.\"\nThe album yielded the single \"If Your Girl Only Knew\", which topped the ''Billboard'' Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs for two weeks. It also generated the singles \"Hot Like Fire\" and \"4 Page Letter\". The following year, Aaliyah was featured on Timbaland & Magoo's debut single, \"Up Jumps da Boogie\". ''One in a Million'' peaked at number 18 on the ''Billboard'' 200, selling 3 million copies in the United States and over eight million copies worldwide.\nThe album was certified double platinum by the RIAA on June 16, 1997, denoting shipments of two million copies. The month prior to ''One in a Million''s release, on May 5, 1997, music publisher Windswept Pacific filed a lawsuit in U.S. District Court against Aaliyah claiming she had illegally copied Bobby Caldwell's \"What You Won't Do for Love\" for the single \"Age Ain't Nothing but a Number\".\n\nAaliyah attended the Detroit High School for the Fine and Performing Arts, where she majored in drama and graduated in 1997 with a 4.0 GPA. Aaliyah began her acting career that same year; she played herself in the police drama television series ''New York Undercover''. During this time, Aaliyah participated in the Children's Benefit Concert, a charity concert that took place at the Beacon Theatre in New York. Aaliyah also became the spokesperson for Tommy Hilfiger Corporation. In 1997 Aaliyah performed the Christmas carol What Child Is This at the annual holiday special Christmas in Washington. She contributed on the soundtrack album for the Fox Animation Studios animated feature ''Anastasia'', performing a cover version of \"Journey to the Past\" which earned songwriters Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flaherty a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. Aaliyah performed the song at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony and became the youngest singer to perform at the event. The song \"Are You That Somebody?\" was featured on the ''Dr. Dolittle'' soundtrack, which earned Aaliyah her first Grammy Award nomination. The song peaked at number 21 on the Hot 100.\n\n=== 2000: ''Romeo Must Die'' ===\nIn 1999, Aaliyah landed her first film role in ''Romeo Must Die'', released March 22, 2000. Aaliyah starred opposite martial artist Jet Li, playing a couple who fall in love amid their warring families. It grossed US$18.6 million in its first weekend, ranking number two at the box office. Aaliyah purposely stayed away from reviews of the film to \"make it easier on\" herself, but she heard \"that people were able to get into me, which is what I wanted.\" In contrast, some critics felt there was no chemistry between her and Jet Li, as well as viewing the film was too simplistic. This was echoed by Elvis Mitchell of ''The New York Times'', who wrote that while Aaliyah was \"a natural\" and the film was conceived as a spotlight for both her and Li, \"they have so little chemistry together you'd think they're putting out a fire instead of shooting off sparks. Her role was well received by Glen Oliver by IGN who liked that she did not portray her character \"as a victimized female\" but instead \"as a strong female who does not come across as an over-the-top Women's Right Advocate.\"\n\nIn addition to acting, Aaliyah served as an executive producer of the film's soundtrack, where she contributed four songs. \"Try Again\" was released as a single from the soundtrack; the song topped the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, making Aaliyah the first artist to top the chart based solely on airplay; this led the song to be released in a 12\" vinyl and 7\" single. The music video won the Best Female Video and Best Video from a Film awards at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards. It also earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female R&B Vocalist. The soundtrack went on to sell 1.5 million copies in the United States.\n\n=== 2001: ''Aaliyah'' ===\nAfter completing ''Romeo Must Die'', Aaliyah began to work on her second film, ''Queen of the Damned''. She played the role of an ancient vampire, Queen Akasha, which she described as a \"manipulative, crazy, sexual being\". Prior to her death, she expressed the possibility of recording songs for the film's soundtrack and welcomed the possibility of collaborating with Jonathan Davis. She was scheduled to film for the sequels of ''The Matrix'' as the character Zee.\n\nIn May 2001, Shaquille O'Neal admitted that his remarks where he claimed to have engaged in sexual intercourse with Aaliyah, Cindy Crawford and Venus Williams were false after making the allegations during an appearance on a radio station and apologized to the three. All three denied the claims. The following month, June 2001, Aaliyah posed for a photo shoot with Eric Johnson. Johnson kept the images in his \"private personal archive\" for thirteen years before providing digital copies of 13 Aaliyah photographs to an online photography magazine and authorizing the publication to use the photographs for a story they were doing on Aaliyah. Not long after, he filed a lawsuit claiming ABC had infringed his rights since the corporation authorized further reproduction by reproducing them online.\n\nAaliyah released her self-titled album, ''Aaliyah'', in July 2001. It debuted at number two on the ''Billboard'' 200, selling 187,000 copies in its first week. The first single from the album, \"We Need a Resolution\", peaked at number 59 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. She finished recording the album in March 2001 after a year of recording tracks that began in March of the previous year. At the time she started recording the album, Aaliyah's publicist disclosed the album's release date as most likely being in October 2000.\nFilming for ''Queen of the Damned'' delayed the release of ''Aaliyah''. Aaliyah enjoyed balancing her singing and acting careers. Though she called music a \"first\" for her, she also had been acting since she was young and had wanted to begin acting \"at some point in my career,\" but \"wanted it to be the right time and the right vehicle\" and felt ''Romeo Must Die'' \"was it\".\n\n''Aaliyah'' was released five years after ''One in a Million''. Aaliyah had not intended for the albums to have such a gap between them. \"I wanted to take a break after ''One in a Million'' to just relax, think about how I wanted to approach the next album. Then, when I was ready to start back up, \"Romeo\" happened, and so I had to take another break and do that film and then do the soundtrack, then promote it. The break turned into a longer break than I anticipated.\" Connie Johnson of the ''Los Angeles Times'' argued that Aaliyah having to focus on her film career may have caused her to not give the album \"the attention it merited.\" Collaborator Timbaland concurred, stating that he was briefly in Australia to work on the album while Aaliyah was filming and did not feel the same production had gone into ''Aaliyah'' as ''One in a Million'' had. He also said Virgin Records had rushed the album and Aaliyah had specifically requested Missy Elliott and Timbaland work on ''Aaliyah'' with her.\n\nThe week after Aaliyah's death, her third studio album, ''Aaliyah'', rose from number 19 to number one on the ''Billboard'' 200. \"Rock the Boat\" was released as a posthumous single. The music video premiered on BET's ''Access Granted''; it became the most viewed and highest rated episode in the history of the show. The song peaked at number 14 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and number two on the ''Billboard'' Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It was also included on the ''Now That's What I Call Music! 8'' compilation series; a portion of the album's profits was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund. Promotional posters for ''Aaliyah'' that had been put up in major cities such as New York and Los Angeles became makeshift memorials for grieving fans.\n\n\"More than a Woman\" and \"I Care 4 U\" were released as posthumous singles and peaked within the top 25 of the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. The album was certified double Platinum by the RIAA and sold 2.6 million copies in the United States. \"More than a Woman\" reached number one on the UK singles chart making Aaliyah the first female deceased artist to reach number one on the UK singles chart. \"More than a Woman\" was replaced by George Harrison's \"My Sweet Lord\" which is the only time in the UK singles chart's history where a dead artist has replaced another dead artist at number one. In July 2001, she allowed MTV's show ''Diary'' behind-the-scenes access to her life and stated \"I am truly blessed to wake up every morning to do something that I love; there is nothing better than that.\" She continued, \"Everything is worth it – the hard work, the times when you're tired, the times when you are a bit sad. In the end, it's all worth it because it really makes me happy. I wouldn't trade it for anything else in the world. I've got good friends, a beautiful family and I've got a career. I thank God for his blessings every single chance I get.\"\n\nAaliyah was signed to appear in several future films, including ''Honey'', a romantic film titled ''Some Kind of Blue'', and a Whitney Houston-produced remake of the 1976 film ''Sparkle''. Whitney Houston recalled Aaliyah being \"so enthusiastic\" about the film and wanting to appear in the film \"so badly\". Houston also voiced her belief that Aaliyah was more than qualified for the role and the film was shelved after she died, since Aaliyah had \"gone to a better place\". Studio officials of Warner Brothers stated that Aaliyah and her mother had both read the script for ''Sparkle''. According to them, Aaliyah was passionate about playing the lead role of a young singer in a girl group.\nThe film was released in 2012, eleven years after Aaliyah's death. Before her death, Aaliyah had filmed part of her role in ''The Matrix Reloaded'' and was scheduled to appear in ''The Matrix Revolutions'' as Zee. Aaliyah told ''Access Hollywood'' that she was \"beyond happy\" to have landed the role.\nThe role was subsequently recast to Nona Gaye. Aaliyah's scenes were included in the tribute section of the ''Matrix Ultimate Collection'' series.\n\nIn November 2001, Ronald Isley stated that Aaliyah and the Isley Brothers had discussed a collaboration prior to her death. She had previously covered the Isley Brothers' single \"At Your Best (You Are Love)\". By 2001, Aaliyah had enjoyed her now seven-year career and felt a sense of accomplishment. \"This is what I always wanted,\" she said of her career in ''Vibe'' magazine. \"I breathe to perform, to entertain, I can't imagine myself doing anything else. I'm just a really happy girl right now. I honestly love every aspect of this business. I really do. I feel very fulfilled and complete.\"\n",
"\n=== Voice and style ===\n\nAaliyah had the vocal range of a soprano. With the release of her debut single \"Back & Forth\", Dimitri Ehrlich of ''Entertainment Weekly'' expressed that Aaliyah's \"silky vocals are more agile than those of self-proclaimed queen of hip-hop soul Mary J. Blige.\" In her review for Aaliyah's second studio album ''One in a Million'' ''Vibe'' magazine, music critic Dream Hampton said that Aaliyah's \"deliciously feline\" voice has the same \"pop appeal\" as Janet Jackson's. Aaliyah described her sound as \"street but sweet\", which featured her \"gentle\" vocals over a \"hard\" beat. Though Aaliyah did not write any of her own material, her lyrics were described as in-depth. She incorporated R&B, pop and hip hop into her music. Her songs were often uptempo and at the same time often dark, revolving around \"matters of the heart\". After her R. Kelly-produced debut album, Aaliyah worked with Timbaland and Missy Elliott, whose productions were more electronic. Sasha Frere-Jones of ''The Wire'' finds Aaliyah's \"Are You That Somebody?\" to be Timbaland's \"masterpiece\" and exemplary of his production's start-stop rhythms, with \"big half-second pauses between beats and voices\". Keith Harris of ''Rolling Stone'' cites \"Are You That Somebody?\" as \"one of '90s R&B's most astounding moments\".\n\nAaliyah's songs have been said to have \"crisp production\" and \"staccato arrangements\" that \"extend genre boundaries\" while containing \"old-school\" soul music. Kelefah Sanneh of ''The New York Times'' called Aaliyah \"a digital diva who wove a spell with ones and zeroes\", and writes that her songs comprised \"simple vocal riffs, repeated and refracted to echo the manipulated loops that create digital rhythm\", as Timbaland's \"computer-programmed beats fitted perfectly with her cool, breathy voice to create a new kind of electronic music.\" When she experimented with other genres on ''Aaliyah'', such as Latin pop and heavy metal, ''Entertainment Weekly''s Craig Seymour panned the attempt. While Analyzing her eponymous album British publication NME (New Musical Express) felt that Aaliyah's radical third album was intended to consolidate her position as U.S.R&B's most experimental artist. As her albums progressed, writers felt that Aaliyah matured, calling her progress a \"declaration of strength and independence\". ABC News noted that Aaliyah's music was evolving from the punchy pop influenced Hip hop and R&B to a more mature, introspective sound on her third album. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described her eponymous album, ''Aaliyah'', as \"a statement of maturity and a stunning artistic leap forward\" and called it one of the strongest urban soul records of its time. She portrayed \"unfamiliar sounds, styles and emotions\", but managed to please critics with the contemporary sound it contained. Ernest Hardy of ''Rolling Stone'' felt that Aaliyah reflected a stronger technique, where she gave her best vocal performance. Prior to her death, Aaliyah expressed a desire to learn about the burgeoning UK garage scene she had heard about at the time.\n\n=== Influences ===\nAs an artist, Aaliyah often voiced that she was inspired by a number of performers. These include Michael Jackson, Stevie Wonder, Sade, En Vogue, Nine Inch Nails, Korn, Prince, Naughty by Nature, Johnny Mathis, Janet Jackson and Barbra Streisand. Aaliyah expressed that Michael Jackson's ''Thriller'' was her \"favorite album\" and that \"nothing will ever top ''Thriller''.\" She stated that she admired Sade because \"she stays true to her style no matter what ... she's an amazing artist, an amazing performer ... and I absolutely love her.\" Aaliyah expressed she had always desired to work with Janet Jackson, whom she had drawn frequent comparison to over the course of her career, stating \"I admire her a great deal. She's a total performer ... I'd love to do a duet with Janet Jackson.\" Jackson reciprocated Aaliyah's affections, commenting \"I've loved her from the beginning because she always comes out and does something different, musically.\" Jackson also stated she would have enjoyed collaborating with Aaliyah.\n\n=== Image ===\nAaliyah focused on her public image throughout her career. She often wore baggy clothes and sunglasses, stating that she wanted to be herself. She described her image as being \"important ... to differentiate yourself from the rest of the pack\". She often wore black clothing, starting a trend for similar fashion among women in United States and Japan. Aaliyah's fashionable style has been credited for being an influence on new fashion trend's called \"Health Goth\" and \"Ghetto Goth\" also known as GHE20 GOTH1K Aaliyah participated in fashion designer Tommy Hilfiger's All America Tour and was featured in Tommy Jean ads, which depicted her in boxer shorts, baggy jeans and a tube top. Hilfiger's brother, Andy, called it \"a whole new look\" that was \"classy but sexy\". Carson Daly A former VJ on MTV's Total Request Live commented on Aaliyah's style by saying that she was \"cutting edge\" ,\"always one step ahead of the curve\" and that \"the TRL audience looks to her to figure out what's hot and what's new\".\n\nWhen she changed her hairstyle, Aaliyah took her mother's advice to cover her left eye, much like Veronica Lake. The look has become known as her signature and been referred to as fusion of \"unnerving emotional honesty\" and \"a sense of mystique\". In 1998, she hired a personal trainer to keep in shape, and exercised five days a week and ate diet foods. Aaliyah was praised for her \"clean-cut image\" and \"moral values\". Robert Christgau of ''The Village Voice'' wrote of Aaliyah's artistry and image, \"she was lithe and dulcet in a way that signified neither jailbait nor hottie—an ingenue whose selling point was sincerity, not innocence and the obverse it implies.\"\n\nAaliyah was viewed by others as a role model. Emil Wilbekin, described by CNN as \"a friend of Aaliyah's\" and follower of her career, explained: \"Aaliyah is an excellent role model, because she started her career in the public eye at age 15 with a gold album entitled ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number''. And then her second album, ''One in a Million'' went double platinum. She had the leading role in ''Romeo Must Die'', which was a box office success. She's won numerous awards, several MTV music video awards, and aside from her professional successes, many of her lyrics are very inspirational and uplifting. She also carried herself in a very professional manner. She was well spoken. She was beautiful, but she didn't use her beauty to sell her music. She used her talent. Many young hip-hop fans greatly admire her.\"\n\nShe also was seen by others as a sex symbol. Aaliyah did not have a problem with being considered one. \"I know that people think I'm sexy and I am looked at as that, and it is cool with me,\" she stated. \"It's wonderful to have sex appeal. If you embrace it, it can be a very beautiful thing. I am totally cool with that. Definitely. I see myself as sexy. If you are comfortable with it, it can be very classy and it can be very appealing.\" The single \"We Need a Resolution\" was argued to have transformed \"the once tomboy into a sexy grown woman\". Aaliyah mentioned that her mother, during her childhood, would take pictures of her and notice a sex appeal. She reinforced her mother's belief by saying that she did feel \"sexy for sure\" and that she embraced it and was comfortable with this view of her.\n",
"In her spare time, she was mostly a home person, which dated back to her younger years, but on occasion went out and played laser tag. She reasoned this was due to her liking \"the simple things in life\". Despite having a prosperous career that allowed her to purchase the vehicle she wanted, Aaliyah revealed during her final interview on August 21, 2001 on ''106 & Park'' that she had never owned a car due to living in New York City and hiring a car or driver on a regular basis.\n\n=== Family ===\nAaliyah's family played a major role in the course of her career. Aaliyah's father Michael Haughton, who died in 2012, served as her personal manager. Her mother assisted her in her career while brother Rashad Haughton and cousin Jomo Hankerson worked with her consistently. Her father's illness ended his co-management of Aaliyah with her mother Diane Haughton. She ran all of her decisions by Rashad.\n\nAaliyah was known to have usually been accompanied by members of her family and the \"Rock the Boat\" filming was credited by Rashad Haughton as being the first and only time her family was not present. In October 2001, Rashad stated: \"It really boggles everyone that from Day One, every single video she ever shot there's always been myself or my mother or my father there. The circumstances surrounding this last video were really strange because my mother had eye surgery and couldn't fly. That really bothered her because she always traveled. My dad had to take care of my mom at that time. And I went to Australia to visit some friends. We really couldn't understand why we weren't there. You ask yourself maybe we could have stopped it. But you can't really answer the question. There's always gonna be that question of why.\" Her friend Kidada Jones said in the last year of her life her parents had given her more freedom and she had talked about wanting a family. \"She wanted to have a family, and we talked about how we couldn't wait to kick back with our babies.\"\n\nGladys Knight, who had been married to Aaliyah's uncle Barry Hankerson, was essential to the start of Aaliyah's career as she gave her many of her earlier performances. One of their last conversations concerned Aaliyah having difficulty with \"another young artist\" that she was trying to work with. Knight felt the argument was \"petty\" and insisted that she remain being who she was in spite of the conflict.\n\n=== Illegal marriage ===\nWith the release of ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number'', rumors circulated of a relationship between Aaliyah and R. Kelly. Shortly after, there was speculation about a secret marriage with the release of ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number'' and the adult content that Kelly had written for Aaliyah. ''Vibe'' magazine later revealed a marriage certificate that listed the couple married on August 31, 1994, in Sheraton Gateway Suites in Rosemont, Illinois. Aaliyah, who was 15 at the time, was listed as 18 on the certificate; the illegal marriage was annulled in February 1995 by her parents. The pair continued to deny marriage allegations, stating that neither was married. One particular allegation among the rumor was that Aaliyah wedded R. Kelly without her parents' knowledge.\n\nAaliyah reportedly developed a friendship with R. Kelly during the recording of her debut album. As she recalled to ''Vibe'' magazine in 1994, she and R. Kelly would \"go watch a movie\" and \"go eat\" when she got tired and would then \"come back and work\". She described the relationship between her and R. Kelly as being \"rather close.\" In 2016, Kelly said that he was in love with Aaliyah as he was with \"anybody else.\"\nIn December 1994, Aaliyah told the ''Sun-Times'' that whenever she was asked about being married to R. Kelly, she urged them not to believe \"all that mess\" and that she and R. Kelly were \"close\" and \"people took it the wrong way.\"\nIn his 2011 book ''The Man Behind the Man: Looking From the Inside Out'', Demetrius Smith Sr., a former member of R. Kelly's entourage, wrote that R. Kelly told him \"in a voice that sounded as if he wanted to burst into tears\" that he thought Aaliyah was pregnant.\n\nJamie Foster Brown in the 1994 issue of ''Sister 2 Sister'' wrote that \"R. Kelly told me that he and Aaliyah got together and it was just magic.\" Brown also reported hearing about a relationship between them. \"I've been hearing about Robert and Aaliyah for a while—that she was pregnant. Or that she was coming and going in and out of his house. People would see her walking his dog, 12 Play, with her basketball cap and sunglasses on. Every time I asked the label, they said it was platonic. But I kept hearing complaints from people about her being in the studio with all those men. At 15,\" Brown said. \"you have all those hormones and no brains attached to them.\"\n\nAaliyah admitted in court documents that she had lied about her age. In May 1997, she filed suit in Cook County seeking to have all records of the marriage expunged because she was not old enough under state law to get married without her parents' consent. It was reported that she cut off all professional and personal ties with R. Kelly after the marriage was annulled and ceased having contact with him. In 2014, Jomo Hankerson stated that Aaliyah \"got villainized\" over her relationship with R. Kelly and the scandal over the marriage made it difficult to find producers for her second album. \"We were coming off of a multi-platinum debut album and except for a couple of relationships with Jermaine Dupri and Puffy, it was hard for us to get producers on the album.\" Hankerson also expressed confusion over why \"they were upset\" with Aaliyah given her age at the time.\n\nAaliyah was known to avoid answering questions regarding R. Kelly following the professional split. During an interview with Christopher John Farley, she was asked if she was still in contact with him and if she would ever work with him again. Farley said Aaliyah responded with a \"firm, frosty\" 'No' to both of the questions. ''Vibe'' magazine said Aaliyah changed the subject anytime \"you bring up the marriage with her\". A spokeswoman for Aaliyah told the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' in 2000 that when \"R. Kelly comes up, she doesn't even speak his name, and nobody's allowed to ask about it at all\". Kelly later commented that Aaliyah had opportunities to address the pair's relationship after they separated professionally but chose not to.\n\nR. Kelly would have other allegations made about him regarding underage girls in the years following her death and his marriage to Aaliyah was used to evidence his involvement with them. He refused to discuss his relationship with her, citing that she was dead. \"Out of respect for her, and her mom and her dad, I will not discuss Aaliyah. That was a whole other situation, a whole other time, it was a whole other thing, and I'm sure that people also know that.\" Aaliyah's mother Diane Haughton reflected that everything \"that went wrong in her life\" began with her relationship with R. Kelly. The allegations have been said to have done \"little to taint Aaliyah's image or prevent her from becoming a reliable '90s hitmaker with viable sidelines in movies and modeling.\"\n\n=== Engagement ===\nAaliyah was dating co-founder of Roc-A-Fella Records Damon Dash at the time of her death and, though they were not formally engaged, in interviews given after Aaliyah's death, Dash claimed the couple had planned to marry. Aaliyah and Dash met through his accountant and formed a friendship. Dash has said he is unsure of how he and Aaliyah started dating and that the two just understood each other. \"I don't know how we got involved, just spending time, you know, we just saw things the same and it was new, you know what I mean? Meeting someone that is trying to do the same thing you are doing in the urban market, in the same urban market place but not really being so urban. It was just; her mind was where my mind was. She understood me and she got my jokes. She thought my jokes were funny.\"\n\nDash expressed his belief that Aaliyah was the \"one\" and claimed the pair were not officially engaged, but had spoken about getting married prior to her death.\nAaliyah publicly never addressed the relationship between her and Dash as being anything but platonic. In May 2001, she hosted a party for Dash's 30th birthday at a New York City club, where they were spotted together and Dash was seen escorting her to a bathroom. Addressing this, Aaliyah stated that she and Dash were just \"very good friends\" and chose to \"keep it at that\" for the time being. Just two weeks before her death, Aaliyah traveled from New Jersey to East Hampton, New York to visit Dash at the summer house he shared with Jay Z.\n\nThe couple were separated for long periods at a time, as Dash recalled that Aaliyah continuously shot films and would be gone for months often to come back shortly and continue her schedule. Dash was also committed to \"his own thing\", which did not make matters any better. Despite this, they were understanding that the time they had together was special. Dash remembered they would \"be in a room full of people talking to each other and it felt like everyone was listening but it would be just us. It would be like we were the only ones in the room\". Dash always felt their time together was essential and Aaliyah was the person he was interested in being with, which is why, as he claimed, they had begun speaking about engagement. The relationship was mentioned in the lyrics of Jay-Z's remix to her song \"Miss You\", released after her death.\n",
"\nOn August 25, 2001, at 6:50 p.m. (EDT), Aaliyah and the members of the record company boarded a twin-engine Cessna 402B (registration N8097W) at the Marsh Harbour Airport in Abaco Islands, the Bahamas, to travel to the Opa-locka Airport in Florida, after they completed filming the music video for \"Rock the Boat\". They had a flight scheduled the following day, but with filming finishing early, Aaliyah and her entourage were eager to return to the United States and made the decision to leave immediately. The designated airplane was smaller than the Cessna 404 on which they had originally arrived, but the whole party and all of the equipment were accommodated on board. The plane crashed shortly after takeoff, about from the end of the runway and exploded.\n\nAaliyah and the eight others on board—pilot Luis Morales III, hair stylist Eric Forman, Anthony Dodd, security guard Scott Gallin, family friend Keith Wallace, make-up stylist Christopher Maldonado, and Blackground Records employees Douglas Kratz and Gina Smith—were all killed. Gallin survived the initial impact and spent his last moments worrying about Aaliyah's condition, according to ambulance drivers. The plane was identified as being owned by Florida-based company Skystream by Kathleen Bergen, spokeswoman for the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in Atlanta. Initial reports of the crash identified Luis Morales as \"L Marael\".\n\nAccording to findings from an inquest conducted by the coroner's office in the Bahamas, Aaliyah suffered from \"severe burns and a blow to the head\", in addition to severe shock and a weak heart. The coroner theorized that she went into such a state of shock that even if she had survived the crash, her recovery would have been nearly impossible given the severity of her injuries. The bodies were taken to the morgue at Princess Margaret Hospital in Nassau, where they were kept for relatives to help identify them. Some of the bodies were badly burned in the crash.\n\nAs the subsequent investigation determined, when the aircraft attempted to depart, it was over its maximum take-off weight by and was carrying one excess passenger, according to its certification.\nThe National Transportation Safety Board report stated that \"the airplane was seen lifting off the runway, and then nose down, impacting in a marsh on the south side of the departure end of runway 27 and then exploding in flames.\" It indicated that the pilot was not approved to fly the plane. Morales falsely obtained his FAA license by showing hundreds of hours never flown, and he may also have falsified how many hours he had flown in order to get a job with his employer, Blackhawk International Airways. Additionally, toxicology tests performed on Morales revealed traces of cocaine and alcohol in his system.\n\nAaliyah's funeral services were held on August 31, 2001, at the Frank E.Campbell Funeral Home and St. Ignatius Loyola Church in Manhattan. Her body was set in a silver-plated copper-deposit casket, which was carried in a glass horse-drawn hearse. An estimated 800 mourners were in attendance at the procession. Among those in attendance at the private ceremony were Missy Elliott, Timbaland, Gladys Knight, Lil' Kim and Sean Combs. After the service, 22 white doves were released to symbolize each year of Aaliyah's life. Aaliyah was initially entombed in a crypt at the Ferncliff Mausoleum in Hartsdale, New York; she was later moved to a private room at the left end of a corridor in the Rosewood Mausoleum. The inscription at the bottom of Aaliyah's portrait at the funeral read: \"We Were Given a Queen, We Were Given an Angel.\"\n\nAfter Aaliyah's death, the German newspaper ''Die Zeit'' published excerpts from an interview done shortly before her death, in which she described a recurring dream: \"It is dark in my favorite dream. Someone is following me. I don't know why. I'm scared. Then suddenly I lift off. Far away. How do I feel? As if I am swimming in the air. Free. Weightless. Nobody can reach me. Nobody can touch me. It's a wonderful feeling.\"\n",
"Immediately after Aaliyah's death, there was uncertainty over whether the music video for \"Rock the Boat\" would ever air. It made its world premiere on BET's ''Access Granted'' on October 9, 2001. She won two posthumous awards at the American Music Awards of 2002; Favorite Female R&B Artist and Favorite R&B/Soul Album for ''Aaliyah''. Her second and final film, ''Queen of the Damned'', was released in February 2002. Before its release, Aaliyah's brother, Rashad, re-dubbed some of her lines during post-production. It grossed US$15.2 million in its first weekend, ranking number one at the box office. On the first anniversary of Aaliyah's death, a candlelight vigil was held in Times Square; millions of fans observed a moment of silence; and throughout the United States, radio stations played her music in remembrance. In December 2002, a collection of previously unreleased material was released as Aaliyah's first posthumous album, ''I Care 4 U''. A portion of the proceeds was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund, a program that benefits the Revlon UCLA Women's Cancer Research Program and Harlem's Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. It debuted at number three on the ''Billboard'' 200, selling 280,000 copies in its first week. The album's lead single, \"Miss You\", peaked at number three on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and topped the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. In August of the following year, clothing retailer Christian Dior donated profits from sales in honor of Aaliyah.\n\nIn 2005, Aaliyah's second compilation album, ''Ultimate Aaliyah'' was released in the UK by Blackground Records. ''Ultimate Aaliyah'' is a three disc set, which included a greatest hits audio CD and a DVD. Andy Kellman of AllMusic remarked \"''Ultimate Aaliyah'' adequately represents the shortened career of a tremendous talent who benefited from some of the best songwriting and production work by Timbaland, Missy Elliott, and R. Kelly.\" A documentary movie ''Aaliyah Live in Amsterdam'' was released in 2011, shortly before the tenth anniversary of Aaliyah's death. The documentary, by Pogus Caesar, contained previously unseen footage shot of her career beginnings in 1995 when she was appearing in the Netherlands.\n\nIn March 2012, music producer Jeffrey \"J-Dub\" Walker announced on his Twitter account that a song \"Steady Ground\", which he produced for Aaliyah's third album, would be included in the forthcoming posthumous Aaliyah album. This second proposed posthumous album would feature this song using demo vocals, as Walker claims the originals were somehow lost by his sound engineer. Aaliyah's brother Rashad later refuted Walker's claim, claiming that \"no official album is being released and supported by the Haughton family.\"\nOn August 5, 2012, a song entitled \"Enough Said\" was released online. The song was produced by Noah \"40\" Shebib and features Canadian rapper Drake. Four days later, Jomo Hankerson confirmed a posthumous album is being produced and that it was scheduled to be released by the end of 2012 by Blackground Records. The album was reported to include 16 unreleased songs and have contributions from Aaliyah's longtime collaborators Timbaland and Missy Elliott, among others. On August 13, Timbaland and Missy Elliott dismissed rumors about being contacted or participating for the project. Elliott's manager Mona Scott-Young said in a statement to ''XXL'', \"Although Missy and Timbaland always strive to keep the memory of their close friend alive, we have not been contacted about the project nor are there any plans at this time to participate. We've seen the reports surfacing that they have been confirmed to participate but that is not the case. Both Missy and Timbaland are very sensitive to the loss still being felt by the family so we wanted to clear up any misinformation being circulated.\" Elliott herself said, \"Tim and I carry Aaliyah with us everyday, like so many of the people who love her. She will always live in our hearts. We have nothing but love and respect for her memory and for her loved ones left behind still grieving her loss. They are always in our prayers.\"\n\nIn June 2013, Aaliyah was featured on a new track by Chris Brown, titled \"Don't Think They Know\"; with Aaliyah singing the song's hook. The video features dancing holographic versions of Aaliyah. The song appears on Brown's sixth studio album, ''X''. Timbaland voiced his disapproval for \"Enough Said\" and \"Don't Think They Know\" in July 2013. He exclaimed, \"Aaliyah music only work with its soulmate, which is me\". Soon after, Timbaland apologized to Chris Brown over his remarks, which he explained were made due to Aaliyah and her death being a \"very sensitive subject\".\nIn January 2014, producer Noah \"40\" Shebib confirmed that the posthumous album was shelved due to the negative reception surrounding Drake's involvement. Shebib added, \"Aaliyah's mother saying, 'I don't want this out' was enough for me ... I walked away very quickly.\"\n\nAaliyah's vocals were reported to be featured on the T-Pain mixtape, ''The Iron Way'', on the track \"Girlfriend\", but were pulled after being met with criticism by fans and many in attendance at a New York listening session that he hosted for the project. In response to the criticism, T-Pain questioned if Aaliyah's legacy was driven by her death and claimed that were she still alive, she would be seen as trying to emulate Beyoncé. According to T-Pain, he was given her vocals from a session she had done prior to her death after being approached to work on a track for a posthumous Aaliyah album and completing the song, calling the exchange \"just like a swap.\"\n\nShe was featured on the Tink track \"Million\", which was released in May 2015 and contained samples from her song \"One in a Million\". Collaborator Timbaland was involved in the song's creation, having previously claimed that Aaliyah appeared to him in a dream and stressed that Tink was \"the one\".\n\nIn August 2015, Timbaland confirmed that he had unreleased vocals from Aaliyah and stated a \"sneak peek\" would be coming soon.\n\nIn September 2015, ''Aaliyah by Xyrena'', an official tribute fragrance was announced.\n\nOn December 19, 2015, Timbaland uploaded a snippet of a new Aaliyah song title \"He Keeps Me Shakin\" on his Instagram account and said it would be released December 25, 2015, on the Timbaland mixtape ''King Stays King''. On August 24, 2017 MAC Cosmetics announced that an Aaliyah collection will be made available in the summer of 2018 \n",
"Aaliyah has been credited for helping redefine R&B, pop and hip hop in the 1990s, \"leaving an indelible imprint on the music industry as a whole.\" According to ''Billboard'', Aaliyah revolutionized R&B with her sultry mix of pop, soul and hip hop. In a 2001 review of her eponymous album, ''Rolling Stone'' professed that Aaliyah's impact on R&B and pop has been enormous. Steve Huey of AllMusic wrote Aaliyah ranks among the \"elite\" artists of the R&B genre, as she \"played a major role in popularizing the stuttering, futuristic production style that consumed hip-hop and urban soul in the late 1990s.\" Bruce Britt of \"music world\" on Broadcast Music, Inc's. website stated that by combining \"schoolgirl charm with urban grit\", Aaliyah helped define the teen-oriented sound that has resulted in contemporary pop phenom's like Brandy, Christina Aguilera and Destiny's Child.\n\nDescribed as one of \"R&B's most important artists\" during the 1990s, her second studio album, ''One in a Million'', became one of the most influential R&B albums of the decade. Music critic Simon Reynolds cited \"Are You That Somebody?\" as \"the most radical pop single\" of 1998. Kelefah Sanneh of ''The New York Times'' wrote that rather than being the song's focal point, Aaliyah \"knew how to disappear into the music, how to match her voice to the bass line\", and consequently \"helped change the way popular music sounds; the twitchy, beat-driven songs of Destiny's Child owe a clear debt to 'Are You That Somebody'.\" Sanneh asserted that by the time of her death in 2001, Aaliyah \"had recorded some of the most innovative and influential pop songs of the last five years.\" Music publication ''Popdust'' called Aaliyah an unlikely queen of the underground due mainly to her influence on the underground alternative music scene, which consists of heavy sampling and references to her music by underground artists. ''Popdust'' also mentioned that the forward-thinking music Aaliyah did with Timbaland and the experimental music being made by many underground alternative artists are somewhat cut from the same cloth. While compiling a list of artists that take cues from Aaliyah, MTV Hive mentioned that it's easy to spot her influence on underground movements like dubstep, strains of indie pop, and lo-fi R&B movements. With sales of 8.1 million albums in the United States and an estimated 24 to 32 million albums worldwide, Aaliyah earned the nicknames \"Princess of R&B\" and \"Queen of Urban Pop\", as she \"proved she was a muse in her own right\". Ernest Hardy of ''Rolling Stone'' dubbed her as the \"undisputed queen of the midtempo come-on\". Aaliyah has been referred to as a pop icon and a R&B icon for her impact and contributions to those respective genres. Japanese pop singer Hikaru Utada has said several times that \"It was when I heard Aaliyah's ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number'' that I got hooked on R&B.\", after which Utada released her debut album ''First Love'' with heavy R&B influences. Another Japanese pop singer Crystal Kay has expressed how she admired Aaliyah when she was growing up and how she would practice dancing while watching her music videos.\n\nAaliyah was honored at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards by Janet Jackson, Missy Elliott, Timbaland, Ginuwine and her brother, Rashad, who all paid tribute to her. In the same year, the United States Social Security Administration ranked the name Aaliyah one of the 100 most popular names for newborn girls. Aaliyah was ranked as one of \"The Top 40 Women of the Video Era\" in VH1's 2003 ''The Greatest'' series. She was also ranked at number 18 on BET's \"Top 25 Dancers of All Time\". Aaliyah appeared on both 2000 and 2001 list of ''Maxim'' Hot 100 in position 41 and the latter at 14. In 2002 VH1 created the 100 sexiest artist list and Aaliyah was ranked at number 36. In memory of Aaliyah, the Entertainment Industry Foundation created the Aaliyah Memorial Fund to donate money raised to charities she supported. In December 2009, ''Billboard'' magazine ranked Aaliyah at number 70 on its Top Artists of the Decade, while her eponymous album was ranked at number 181 on the magazine's Top 200 Albums of the Decade. She is listed by ''Billboard'' as the tenth most successful female R&B artist of the past 25 years, and 27th most successful R&B artist overall. In 2012, VH1 ranked her number 48 in \"VH1's Greatest Women in Music\". Also in 2012, Aaliyah was ranked at number 10 on Complex magazine's 100 hottest female singers of all-time list and number 22 on their 90 hottest women of the 90's list. In 2014, ''NME'' (''New Musical Express'') ranked Aaliyah at number 18 on NME's 100 most influential artist list. Aaliyah's dress that she wore at the 2000 MTV Video Music Award's was featured in the most memorable fashion moments at the VMA's list by the fashion publication Harper's Bazaar In October 2015 Aaliyah was featured in the 10 women who became Denim Style icons list created by the fashion publication Vogue.\n\nAaliyah's music has influenced numerous artists including Adele, The Weeknd, Ciara, Beyoncé, Monica, Chris Brown, Rihanna, Azealia Banks, Sevyn Streeter, Keyshia Cole, J. Cole, Kelly Rowland, Zendaya, Rita Ora, The xx, Arctic Monkeys, Speedy Ortiz, Chelsea Wolfe, Haim, Angel Haze, Kiesza, Naya Rivera, Cassie, Hayley Williams, Jessie Ware, Yeasayer, Bebe Rexha, Omarion, and Years & Years frontman Olly Alexander. Canadian R&B singer Keshia Chanté who was said to play as her in her pending biopic back in 2008, complimented the singer's futuristic style in music and fashion.\nChanté backed out of the biopic after speaking to Diane Haughton, but has expressed a willingness to do the project if \"the right production comes along and the family's behind it\". Keisha also mentioned that Aaliyah had been part of her life \"since I was 6.\"\nR&B singer and friend Brandy said about the late singer \"She came out before Monica and I did, she was our inspiration. At the time, record companies did not believe in kid acts and it was just inspiring to see someone that was winning and winning being themselves. When I met her I embraced her, I was so happy to meet her.\" Rapper Drake said that the singer has had the biggest influence on his career. He also has a tattoo of the singer on his back. Solange Knowles remarked on the tenth anniversary of her death that she idolized Aaliyah and proclaimed that she would never be forgotten. Adam Levine, the lead vocalist of the pop rock group Maroon 5, remembers that listening to \"Are You That Somebody?\" convinced him to pursue a more soulful sound than that of his then-band Kara's Flowers. Erika Ramirez, associate editor of Billboard.com, said at the time of Aaliyah's career \"there weren't many artists using the kind of soft vocals the ways she was using it, and now you see a lot of artists doing that and finding success,\" her reasoning for Aaliyah's continued influence on current artists. She argued that Aaliyah's second album ''One in a Million'' was \"very much ahead of its time, with the bass and electro kind of R&B sounds that they produced\", referring to collaborators Timbaland and Missy Elliott and that the sound, which \"really stood out\" at its time, was being replicated.\n\nIn 2012, British singer-songwriter Katy B released the song ''Aaliyah'' as a tribute to Aaliyah's legacy and lasting impression on R&B music. The song first appeared on Katy B's ''Danger'' EP and featured Jessie Ware on guest vocals. In 2016, Swedish singer-songwriter Erik Hassle released a song titled \"If Your Man Only Knew\" which serves as a tribute to Aaliyah's 1996 single \"If Your Girl Only Knew\".\n\nThere has been continuing belief that Aaliyah would have achieved greater career success had it not been for her death. Emil Wilbekin mentioned the deaths of The Notorious B.I.G. and Tupac Shakur in conjunction with hers and added: \"Her just-released third album and scheduled role in a sequel to ''The Matrix'' could have made her another Janet Jackson or Whitney Houston\". Director of ''Queen of the Damned'' Michael Rymer said of Aaliyah, \"God, that girl could have gone so far\" and spoke of her having \"such a clarity about what she wanted. Nothing was gonna step in her way. No ego, no nervousness, no manipulation. There was nothing to stop her.\"\n\nOn July 18, 2014, it was announced that Alexandra Shipp replaced Zendaya for the role of Aaliyah for the Lifetime TV biopic movie ''Aaliyah: The Princess of R&B'', which premiered on November 15, 2014. Zendaya drew criticism because people felt that she was too light skinned and did not greatly resemble Aaliyah. She voiced her strong respect for Aaliyah before dropping out of the project. She explained her choice to withdraw from the film in videos on Instagram. Aaliyah's family has been vocal in their disapproving of the film. Her cousin Jomo Hankerson stated the family would prefer a \"major studio release along the lines\" of ''What's Love Got to Do with It'', the biopic based on the life of Tina Turner. Aaliyah's family has consulted a lawyer to stop Lifetime from using \"any of the music, or any of the photographs and videos\" they own and Jomo Hankerson claimed the TV network \"didn't reach out.\" On August 9, 2014, it was announced that Chattrisse Dolabaille and Izaak Smith had been cast as Aaliyah's collaborators Missy Elliott and Timbaland. Dolabaille received criticism for her appearance in comparison with that of Missy Elliot. Despite negative reviews, the film's premiere drew 3.2 million viewers, becoming the second highest rated television movie of 2014.\nIn February 2015, a tribute dinner was held for Aaliyah by The Sugar Club in Dublin, Ireland.\n",
"\n\n\n===Studio albums===\n* ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number'' (1994)\n* ''One in a Million'' (1996)\n* ''Aaliyah'' (2001)\n",
"{| class=\"wikitable plainrowheaders\"\n+ List of film and television roles\n\n Title\n Year\n Medium\n Role\n Notes\n\n ''Star Search''\n 1989\n TV show\n Herself\n 1 episode\n\n ''All That''\n 1995; 1997\nTV series\nHerself (Musical guest)\n 2 episodes\n\n ''New York Undercover''\n 1997\n Season 3, episode 65: \"Fade Out\"\n\n ''Romeo Must Die''\n 2000\nFeature film\n Trish O'Day\n Film debut\n\n ''Queen of the Damned''\n 2002\n Queen Akasha\n Posthumous release\n\n",
"\n* List of artists who reached number one in the United States\n* List of awards and nominations received by Aaliyah\n* List of fatalities from aviation accidents\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Aaliyah biography at Biography.com\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Early life ",
" Education ",
" Career ",
" Artistry ",
" Personal life ",
" Death ",
" Posthumous career ",
" Legacy ",
" Discography ",
" Filmography ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" Sources ",
" External links "
] | Aaliyah |
[
"\n\n \nAn '''armour''' (British English) or '''armor''' (American English; see spelling differences) is a protective covering that is used to prevent damage from being inflicted to an object, individual or vehicle by direct contact weapons or projectiles, usually during combat, or from damage caused by a potentially dangerous environment or action (e.g., cycling, construction sites, etc.).\n\nPersonal armour is used to protect soldiers and war animals. Vehicle armour is used on warships and armoured fighting vehicles.\n\nA second use of the term '''armour''' describes armoured forces, armoured weapons, and their role in combat. After the evolution of armoured warfare, mechanised infantry and their weapons came to be referred to collectively as \"armour\".\n",
"''Portrait of a Gentleman in armour with two pages.'' Paris Bordone.\nThe word \"armour\" began to appear in the Middle Ages as a derivative of Old French. It is dated from 1297 as a \"mail, defensive covering worn in combat\". The word originates from the Old French ''armure'', itself derived from the Latin ''armatura'' meaning \"arms and/or equipment\", with the root ''armare'' meaning \"arms or gear\".\n",
"\n\nArmour has been used throughout recorded history. It has been made from a variety of materials, beginning with rudimentary leather protection and evolving through mail and metal plate into today's modern composites. For much of military history the manufacture of metal personal armour has dominated the technology and employment of armour. Armour drove the development of many important technologies of the Ancient World, including wood lamination, mining, metal refining, vehicle manufacture, leather processing, and later decorative metal working. Its production was influential in the industrial revolution, and furthered commercial development of metallurgy and engineering. Armour was the single most influential factor in the development of firearms, which in turn revolutionised warfare.\n\n=== History ===\nThe Dendra panoply, Mycenaean Greek armour, circa 1400 BC\n\nSignificant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of its production. For instance, plate armour first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper. Also, modern militaries usually do not equip their forces with the best armour available because it would be prohibitively expensive. At times the development of armour has paralleled the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armourers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.\n\nWell-known armour types in European history include the lorica hamata, lorica squamata, and the lorica segmentata of the Roman legions, the mail hauberk of the early medieval age, and the full steel plate harness worn by later medieval and renaissance knights, and breast and back plates worn by heavy cavalry in several European countries until the first year of World War I (1914–15). The samurai warriors of feudal Japan utilised many types of armour for hundreds of years up to the 19th century.\n\n==== Early ====\nCuirasses and helmets were manufactured in Japan as early as the 4th century.''Tankō'', worn by foot soldiers and ''keikō'', worn by horsemen were both pre-samurai types of early Japanese armour constructed from iron plates connected together by leather thongs. Japanese lamellar armour (''keiko'') passed through Korea and reached Japan around the 5th century. These early Japanese lamellar armours took the form of a sleeveless jacket, leggings and a helmet.\n\nArmour did not always cover all of the body; sometimes no more than a helmet and leg plates were worn. The rest of the body was generally protected by means of a large shield. Examples of armies equipping their troops in this fashion were the Aztecs (13th to 15th century CE).\n\nIn East Asia many types of armour were commonly used at different times by various cultures including, scale armour, lamellar armour, laminar armour, plated mail, mail, plate armour and brigandine. Around the dynastic Tang, Song, and early Ming Period, cuirasses and plates (mingguangjia) were also used, with more elaborate versions for officers in war. The Chinese, during that time used partial plates for \"important\" body parts instead of covering their whole body since too much plate armour hinders their martial arts movement. The other body parts were covered in cloth, leather, lamellar, or Mountain pattern. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armour was made out of various animals, with more exotic ones such as the rhinoceros.\n\nMail, sometimes called \"chainmail\", made of interlocking iron rings is believed to have first appeared some time after 300 BC. Its invention is credited to the Celts, the Romans were thought to have adopted their design.\n\nGradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces. The coat of plates was developed, an armour made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat.\n\n===== 13th century Italian =====\nEarly plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th–15th century, were made of iron. Iron armour could be carburised or case hardened to give a surface of harder steel. Plate armour became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labour and labour had become much more expensive after the Black Death, though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate.\n\nThe small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the bascinet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 14th century.\n\nbarded war horses, 16th century\nProbably the most recognised style of armour in the World became the plate armour associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages, but continuing to the early 17th century Age of Enlightenment in all European countries.\n\nBy about 1400 the full harness of plate armour had been developed in armouries of Lombardy. Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armour.\n\nIn the early 15th century, advances in weaponry allowed infantry to defeat armoured knights on the battlefield. The quality of the metal used in armour deteriorated as armies became bigger and armour was made thicker, necessitating breeding of larger cavalry horses. If during the 14–15th centuries armour seldom weighed more than 15 kg, then by the late 16th century it weighed 25 kg. The increasing weight and thickness of late 16th century armour therefore gave substantial resistance.\n\nIn the early years of low velocity firearms, full suits of armour, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. Crossbow bolts, if still used, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet unless fired from close range. In effect, rather than making plate armour obsolete, the use of firearms stimulated the development of plate armour into its later stages. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending arquebuseers without being easily killed. Full suits of armour were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 18th century. It was the only way they could be mounted and survey the overall battlefield with safety from distant musket fire.\n\nThe horse was afforded protection from lances and infantry weapons by steel plate barding. This gave the horse protection and enhanced the visual impression of a mounted knight. Late in the era, elaborate barding was used in parade armour.\n\n==== Later ====\n''Elements of a Light-Cavalry Armor'', ca. 1510, Metropolitan Museum of Art\nGradually, starting in the mid-16th century, one plate element after another was discarded to save weight for foot soldiers.\n\nBack and breast plates continued to be used throughout the entire period of the 18th century and through Napoleonic times, in many European (heavy) cavalry units, until the early 20th century. From their introduction, muskets could pierce plate armour, so cavalry had to be far more mindful of the fire. In Japan armour continued to be used until the end of the samurai era, with the last major fighting in which armour was used happening in 1868. Samurai armour had one last short lived use in 1877 during the Satsuma Rebellion.\n\nThough the age of the knight was over, armour continued to be used in many capacities. Soldiers in the American Civil War bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected body armour for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely—some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives, but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their weight on long marches as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.\n\nAt the start of World War I, thousands of the French Cuirassiers rode out to engage the German Cavalry. By that period, the shiny armour plate was covered in dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic style helmets. Their armour was meant to protect only against sabres and light lances. The cavalry had to beware of high velocity rifles and machine guns, unlike the foot soldiers, who at least had a trench to protect them.\n\n==== Present ====\nToday, ballistic vests, also known as flak jackets, made of ballistic cloth (e.g. kevlar, dyneema, twaron, spectra etc.) and ceramic or metal plates are common among police forces, security staff, corrections officers and some branches of the military.\n\nThe US Army has adopted Interceptor body armour, which uses Enhanced Small Arms Protective Inserts (E-S.A.P.I) in the chest, sides and back of the armour. Each plate is rated to stop a range of ammunition including 3 hits from a 7.62×51 NATO AP round at a range of . Dragon Skin body armour is another ballistic vest which is currently in testing with mixed results.\n\n\nFile:GayaironarmorFINAL.JPG|Early Korean armour of Gaya, its nickname as the kingdom of Steel. Iron helmet and cuirass. 5th century. National Museum of Korea.\nFile:Ancient German armour helmet.jpg|Medieval Germanic helmet.\nFile:Medieval horse armour.jpg|Medieval horse armour on display at Museum of Islamic Art, Doha in Qatar.\nFile:Maximilienne-p1000557.jpg|Plate armour\nFile:January 20 riot cops D.C..jpg|Riot police with body protection against blows\n\n",
"\n\nThe first modern production technology for armour plating was used by navies in the construction of the Ironclad warship, reaching its pinnacle of development with the battleship. The first tanks were produced during World War I. Aerial armour has been used to protect pilots and aircraft systems since the First World War.\n\nIn modern ground forces' usage, the meaning of armour has expanded to include the role of troops in combat. After the evolution of armoured warfare, mechanised infantry were mounted in armoured fighting vehicles and replaced light infantry in many situations. In modern armoured warfare, armoured units equipped with tanks and infantry fighting vehicles serve the historic role of both the battle cavalry, light cavalry and dragoons, and belong to the armoured branch.\n\n=== History ===\n\n==== Ships ====\n\nHMS ''Warrior'' during her third commission between 1867 and 1871\n\nThe first ironclad battleship, with iron armour over a wooden hull, ''La Gloire'', was launched by the French Navy in 1859 prompting the British Royal Navy to build a counter. The following year they launched HMS ''Warrior'', which was twice the size and had iron armour over an iron hull. After the first battle between two ironclads took place in 1862 during the American Civil War, it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the unarmoured line-of-battle ship as the most powerful warship afloat.\n\nIronclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defence ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel which carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.\n\nThe rapid pace of change in the ironclad period meant that many ships were obsolete as soon as they were complete, and that naval tactics were in a state of flux. Many ironclads were built to make use of the ram or the torpedo, which a number of naval designers considered the crucial weapons of naval combat. There is no clear end to the ironclad period, but towards the end of the 1890s the term ''ironclad'' dropped out of use. New ships were increasingly constructed to a standard pattern and designated battleships or armoured cruisers.\n\n==== Trains ====\nAn armoured train from 1915\n\nArmoured trains saw use during the 19th century in the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the First and Second Boer Wars (1880–81 and 1899–1902),the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921); the First (1914–1918) and Second World Wars (1939–1945) and the First Indochina War (1946–1954). The most intensive use of armoured trains was during the Russian Civil War (1918–1920).\n\nArmoured cars saw use during World wars 1 and 2.\n\nDuring the Second Boer War on 15 November 1899, Winston Churchill, then a war-correspondent, was travelling on board an armoured train when it was ambushed by ''Boer commandos''. Churchill and many of the train's garrison were captured, though many others escaped, including wounded placed on the train's engine.\n\n==== Armoured fighting vehicles ====\n\n\nAncient siege engines were usually protected by wooden armour, often covered with wet hides or thin metal to prevent being easily burned.\n\nMedieval war wagons were horse-drawn wagons that were similarly armoured. These contained guns or crossbowmen that could fire through gun-slits.\n\nThe first modern AFVs were armoured cars, developed circa 1900. These started as ordinary wheeled motor-cars protected by iron shields, typically mounting a machine gun.\n\nDuring World War I, the stalemate of trench warfare during on the Western Front spurred the development of the tank. It was envisioned as an armoured machine that could advance under fire from enemy rifles and machine guns, and respond with its own heavy guns. It utilized caterpillar tracks to cross ground broken up by shellfire and trenches.\n\n==== Aircraft ====\nWith the development of effective anti-aircraft artillery in the period before the Second World War, military pilots, once the \"knights of the air\" during the First World War, became far more vulnerable to ground fire. As a response armour plating was added to aircraft to protect aircrew and vulnerable areas such as fuel tanks and engine.\n\n==== Present ====\nUS Military's M1 Abrams MBT uses composite, reactive, and cage armour\n\nTank armour has progressed from the Second World War armour forms, now incorporating not only harder composites, but also reactive armour designed to defeat shaped charges. As a result of this, the main battle tank (MBT) conceived in the Cold War era can survive multiple RPG strikes with minimal effect on the crew or the operation of the vehicle. The light tanks that were the last descendants of the light cavalry during the Second World War have almost completely disappeared from the world's militaries due to increased lethality of the weapons available to the vehicle-mounted infantry.\n\nThe armoured personnel carrier (APC) was devised during World War I. It allows the safe and rapid movement of infantry in a combat zone, minimising casualties and maximising mobility. APCs are fundamentally different from the previously used armoured half-tracks in that they offer a higher level of protection from artillery burst fragments, and greater mobility in more terrain types. The basic APC design was substantially expanded to an Infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) when properties of an armoured personnel carrier and a light tank were combined in one vehicle.\n\nNaval armour has fundamentally changed from the Second World War doctrine of thicker plating to defend against shells, bombs and torpedoes. Passive defence naval armour is limited to kevlar or steel (either single layer or as spaced armour) protecting particularly vital areas from the effects of nearby impacts. Since ships cannot carry enough armour to completely prevent penetration by anti-ship missiles, they depend more on destroying an incoming missile before it hits, or causing it to miss its target.\n\nAlthough the role of the ground attack aircraft significantly diminished after the Korean War, it re-emerged during the Vietnam War, and in the recognition of this, the US Air Force authorised the design and production of what became the A-10 dedicated anti-armour and ground-attack aircraft that first saw action in the Gulf War.\n",
"\n* Battledress\n* Bomb suit\n* Linothorax\n* Powered exoskeleton\n* Rolled homogeneous armour\n",
"\n",
"\n*\"Ballistic Protection Levels.\" BulletproofME.com Body Armor. ArmorUP L.P., n.d. 19 Oct. 2014\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
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"Introduction",
" Etymology ",
" Personal ",
" Vehicle ",
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" References "
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"\n\n M1128 Mobile Gun System is an example of a wheeled AFV with a large calibre gun\nAn MRAP Cougar HE in testing with land mines set off around it\n\nAn '''armoured fighting vehicle''' ('''AFV''') is an armed combat vehicle protected by armour, generally combining operational mobility with tactical offensive and defensive capabilities. AFVs can be wheeled or tracked. Tanks, armoured cars, armoured self-propelled guns, and armoured personnel carriers are all examples of AFVs. It is not uncommon for AFVs in general to be simply referred to as \"armour\".\n\nThe concept of a highly mobile and protected fighting unit has been around for centuries; from Hannibal's war elephants to Leonardo's war machines, military strategists endeavoured to maximize the mobility and survivability of their soldiers. Armoured fighting vehicles are classified according to their intended role on the battlefield and characteristics. This classification is not absolute; at different times different countries will classify the same vehicle in different roles. For example, armoured personnel carriers were generally replaced by infantry fighting vehicles in a similar role, but the latter has some capabilities lacking in the former. There may also be hybrid vehicles, such as the Stryker family of AFVs; the M1128 Mobile Gun System, an armoured car which mounts a large 105 mm gun normally used in tank destroyers and tanks, but can theoretically be reconfigured to the M1126 Infantry Carrier Vehicle.\n\nSuccessful general-purpose armoured fighting vehicles often also serve as the base of a whole family of specialized vehicles, for example, the M113 and MT-LB tracked carriers, and the MOWAG Piranha wheeled AFV.\n\n\n",
"Battle of Zama by Henri-Paul Motte, 1890\nThe AFV classification did not exist prior to the key innovations leading to the invention of the internal combustion engine, armour plating, the continuous track and the advent of armoured warfare in the 20th century.\n\n=== History ===\nA Helepolis-like Siege Engine showing ballistae, stairs and movement capstan\nModern armoured fighting vehicles represent the realization of an ancient concept - that of providing troops with mobile protection and firepower. Armies have deployed war machines and cavalries with rudimentary armour in battle for millennia. Use of these animals and engineering designs sought to achieve a balance between the conflicting paradoxical needs of mobility, firepower and protection.\n\n==== Siege machines ====\nModel of a vehicle sketched by Leonardo da Vinci\nSiege engines, such as battering rams and siege towers, would often be armoured in order to protect their crews from enemy action. Polyidus of Thessaly developed a very large movable siege tower, the ''helepolis'', as early as 340 BC, and Greek forces used such structures in the Siege of Rhodes (305 BC).\n\nThe idea of a protected fighting vehicle has been known since antiquity. Frequently cited is Leonardo da Vinci's 15th-century sketch of a mobile, protected gun-platform; the drawings show a conical, wooden shelter with apertures for cannons around the circumference. The machine was to be mounted on four wheels which would be turned by the crew through a system of hand cranks and cage (or \"lantern\") gears. Leonardo claimed: \"I will build armored wagons which will be safe and invulnerable to enemy attacks. There will be no obstacle which it cannot overcome.\" Modern replicas have demonstrated that the human crew would have been able to move it over only short distances.\n\n==== War wagons ====\nHussite forces in Bohemia developed war wagons - medieval weapon-platforms - around 1420 during the Hussite Wars. These heavy wagons were given protective sides with firing slits; their heavy firepower came from either a cannon or from a force of hand-gunners and crossbowmen, supported by infantry using pikes and flails. Heavy arquebuses mounted on wagons were called ''arquebus à croc''. These carried a ball of about .\n\n==== Armed cars ====\nF.R. Simms' Motor Scout, built in 1898 as an armed car\nThe first modern AFVs were armed cars, dating back virtually to the invention of the motor car. The British inventor F.R. Simms designed and built the Motor Scout in 1898. It was the first armed, petrol-engine powered vehicle ever built. It consisted of a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a Maxim machine gun mounted on the front bar. An iron shield offered some protection for the driver from the front, but it lacked all-around protective armour.\n\n==== Armoured car development ====\nF.R. Simms' 1902 Motor War Car, the first armoured car to be built\nThe armoured car was the first modern fully armoured fighting vehicle. The first of these was the Simms' Motor War Car, designed by Simms and built by Vickers, Sons & Maxim in 1899. The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3.3-litre 16 hp Cannstatt Daimler engine giving it a maximum speed of around . The armament, consisting of two Maxim guns, was carried in two turrets with 360° traverse.\n\nAnother early armoured car of the period was the French Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the ''Salon de l'Automobile et du cycle'' in Brussels, on 8 March 1902. The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss machine gun, and with 7 mm armour for the gunner. Armoured cars were first used in large numbers on both sides during World War I as scouting vehicles.\n\n==== Tank development ====\n\n\nMark V* tank\nThe development of the AFV took a great leap forward during World War I, when Britain and France developed the tracked tank to break the stalemate on the Western Front. The tank was envisioned as an armoured machine that could cross ground under fire from machine guns and respond with fire from mounted guns. It was to move on caterpillar tracks to enable it to cross ground broken up by shellfire and trenches.\n\nIn Great Britain, the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, formed the Landships Committee on 20 February 1915. The Director of Naval Construction for the Royal Navy, Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt, was appointed to head the Committee in view of his experience with the engineering methods it was felt might be required. The first design, Little Willie, ran for the first time in September 1915 and served to develop the form of the track, but an improved design - better able to cross trenches - swiftly followed, and in January 1916 the prototype, nicknamed \"Mother\", was adopted as the design for future tanks. Production models of \"Male\" tanks (armed with naval cannon and machine guns) and \"Females\" (carrying only machine-guns) would go on to fight in history's first tank action at the Somme in September 1916. Great Britain produced about 2,600 tanks of various types during the war.\n\nIn 1916 the French pioneered the use of a full 360° rotating turret in a tank for the first time, designing the Renault FT light tank, with the turret containing the tank's main armament. In addition to the traversible turret, another innovative feature of the FT was its engine located at the rear. This pattern, with the gun located in a mounted turret and the engine at the back, became the standard for most succeeding tanks across the world. The FT was the most numerous tank of the War; over 3,000 were made by late 1918.\n\n==== Troop transport development ====\nThe Mark IX tank, the first armoured personnel carrier\nThe tank eventually proved highly successful, and as technology improved it became a weapon that could cross large distances at much higher speeds than supporting infantry and artillery. The need to provide the units that would fight alongside the tank led to the development of a wide range of specialised AFVs, especially during the Second World War (1939-1945).\n\nThe Armoured personnel carrier, designed to transport infantry troops to the frontline, emerged towards the end of World War I. During the first actions with tanks it had become clear that close contact with infantry was essential in order to secure ground won by the tanks. Troops on foot were vulnerable to enemy fire, but they could not be transported in the tank because of the intense heat and noxious atmosphere. In 1917 Lieutenant G.R. Rackham was ordered to design an armoured vehicle that could fight and carry troops or supplies. The Mark IX tank was built by Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., although just three vehicles were finished at the time of the Armistice in November 1918, and only 34 were built in total.\n\n==== Tankette development ====\nDifferent tank classifications emerged in the interwar period. The tankette was conceived as a mobile, two-man model, mainly intended for reconnaissance. In 1925 Sir John Carden and Vivian Loyd produced the first such design – the Carden Loyd tankette. Tankettes saw use in the Italian Royal Army during the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935-1936), the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), and almost everywhere Italian soldiers fought during World War II. The Imperial Japanese Army used tankettes for jungle warfare.\n\n==== Self-propelled artillery development ====\nBritish Gun Carrier Mark I (60 pdr)\nThe British Gun Carrier Mark I, the first Self-propelled artillery, was fielded in 1917. It was based on the first tank, the British Mark I, and carried a heavy field-gun. The next major advance was the Birch gun (1925), developed for the motorised warfare experimental brigade (the Experimental Mechanized Force). This mounted a field gun, capable of the usual artillery trajectories, on a tank-style chassis.\n\nDuring World War II, most major military powers developed self-propelled artillery vehicles. These had mounted guns on a tracked chassis (often that of an obsolete or superseded tank) and provided an armoured superstructure to protect the gun and its crew. The first British design, \"Bishop\", carried the 25 pdr gun-howitzer, but in a mounting that severely limited the gun's performance. It was replaced by the more effective Sexton. The Germans built many lightly armored self-propelled anti-tank guns using captured French equipment (for example Marder I), their own obsolete light tank chassis (Marder II), or ex-Czech chassis (Marder III). These led to better-protected tank destroyers, built on a medium-tank chassis such as the Jagdpanzer IV or the Jagdpanther.\n\n==== Anti-aircraft vehicle development ====\nThe Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon debuted in WWI. The German 77 mm anti-aircraft gun was truck-mounted and used to great effect against British tanks, and the British QF 3 inch 20 cwt was mounted on trucks for use on the Western Front. Although the Birch gun was a general purpose artillery piece on an armoured tracked chassis, it was capable of elevation for anti-aircraft use. Vickers Armstrong developed one of the first SPAAGs based on the chassis of the Mk.E 6-ton light tank/Dragon Medium Mark IV tractor, mounting a Vickers QF-1 \"Pom-Pom\" gun of 40 mm. The Germans fielded the SdKfz 10/4 and 6/2, cargo halftracks mounting single 20 mm or 37 mm AA guns (respectively) by the start of the War.\n\n==== Self-propelled multiple rocket-launcher development ====\nRocket launchers such as the Soviet Katyusha originated in the late 1930s. The Wehrmacht fielded self-propelled rocket artillery in World War II - the Panzerwerfer and Wurfrahmen 40 equipped half-track armoured fighting vehicles. \n\n==== Cold War AFV development ====\nBy the end of World War II, most modern armies had vehicles to carry infantry, artillery and anti-aircraft weaponry. Most modern AFVs are superficially similar in design to their World War II counterparts, but with significantly better armour, weapons, engines, electronics, and suspension. The increase in the capacity of transport aircraft makes possible and practicable the transport of AFVs by air. Many armies are replacing some or all of their traditional heavy vehicles with lighter airmobile versions, often with wheels instead of tracks.\n\n=== Design ===\n\n\n==== Armour ====\n\nThe level of armour protection between AFVs varies greatly – a main battle tank will normally be designed to take hits from other tank guns and anti-tank missiles, whilst light reconnaissance vehicles are often only armoured \"just in case\". Whilst heavier armour provides better protection, it makes vehicles less mobile (for a given engine power), limits its air-transportability, increases cost, uses more fuel and may limit the places it can go – for example, many bridges may be unable to support the weight of a main battle tank. A trend toward composite armour is taking place in place of steel – composites are stronger for a given weight, allowing the tank to be lighter for the same protection as steel armour, or better protected for the same weight. Armour is being supplemented with active protection systems on a number of vehicles, allowing the AFV to protect itself from incoming projectiles.\n\nThe level of protection also usually varies considerably throughout the individual vehicle too, depending on the role of the vehicle and the likely direction of attack. For example, a main battle tank will usually have the heaviest armour on the hull front and the turret, lighter armour on the sides of the hull and the thinnest armour on the top and bottom of the tank. Other vehicles – such as the MRAP family – may be primarily armoured against the threat from IEDs and so will have heavy, sloped armour on the bottom of the hull.\n\n==== Weaponry ====\nWeaponry varies by a very wide degree between AFVs – lighter vehicles for infantry carrying, reconnaissance or specialist roles may have only a Cannon or Machine gun (or no armament at all), whereas heavy self propelled artillery will carry large guns, mortars or rocket launchers. These weapons may be mounted on a pintle, affixed directly to the vehicle or placed in a turret or cupola.\n\nThe greater the recoil a weapon on an AFV is, the larger the turret ring needs to be. A larger turret ring necessitates a larger vehicle. To avoid listing to the side, turrets are usually located at the centre of the vehicle on vehicles that are capable of amphibious operations.\n\nGrenade launchers provide a versatile launch platform for a plethora of munitions including, smoke, phosphorus, tear gas, illumination, anti-personnel, infrared and radar-jamming rounds.\n\nTurret stabilization is an important capability because it enables firing on the move and prevents crew fatigue.\n\n==== Engine ====\nModern AFVs have primarily used either petrol (gasoline) or diesel piston engines. More recently gas turbines have been used. Most early AFVs used petrol engines, as they offer a good power-to-weight ratio. However, they fell out of favour during World War Two due to the flammability of the fuel.\n\nMost current AFVs are powered by a diesel engine; modern technology including the use of turbo-charging help to overcome the lower power-to-weight ratio of diesel engines compared to petrol.\n\nGas turbine (turboshaft) engines offer a very high power-to-weight ratio and were starting to find favour in the late 20th century – however they offer very poor fuel consumption and as such some armies are switching from gas turbines back to diesel engines (i.e. the Russian T-80 used a gas turbine engine, whereas the later T-90 does not). The US M1 Abrams is a notable example of a gas turbine powered tank.\n",
"Notable armoured fighting vehicles extending from post-World War I to today.\n\n=== Tank ===\n\nThe tank is an all terrain AFV designed to fill almost all battlefield roles and to engage enemy forces by the use of direct fire in the frontal assault role. Though several configurations have been tried, particularly in the early experimental \"golden days\" of tank development, a standard, mature design configuration has since emerged to a generally accepted pattern. This features a main tank gun or artillery gun, mounted in a fully rotating turret atop a tracked automotive hull, with various additional secondary weapon systems throughout.\n\nPhilosophically, the tank is, by its very nature, an offensive weapon. Being a protective encasement with at least one gun position, it is essentially a pillbox or small fortress (though these are static fortifications of a purely defensive nature) that can move toward the enemy – hence its offensive utility. Psychologically, the tank is a force multiplier that has a positive morale effect on the infantry it accompanies. It also instills fear in the opposing force who can often hear and even feel their arrival.\n\n==== Tank classifications ====\nTanks were classified either by size or by role.\n\nClassification by relative size was common, as this also tended to influence the tanks' role.\n* Light tanks are smaller tanks with thinner armour and lower-powered guns, allowing for better tactical mobility and ease of strategic transport. These are intended for armoured reconnaissance and skirmishing, artillery observation, expeditionary warfare and supplementing airborne or naval landings. Light tanks are typically cheaper to build and maintain, but fare poorly against heavier tanks. They may be held in reserve for exploiting any breakthroughs in enemy lines, with the goal of disrupting communications and supply lines.\n* Medium tanks are mid-sized tanks with adequate armour and guns, and fair mobility, allowing for a balance of fighting abilities, mobility, cost, and transportability.\n* Heavy tanks are larger tanks with thick armour and more powerful guns, but less mobile. They were intended to be more than a match for typical enemy medium tanks, easily penetrating their armour while being much less susceptible to their attacks. Heavy tanks cost more to both build and maintain, and may be notable difficult to transport.\nOver time, tanks tended to be designed with heavier armour and weapons, increasing the weight of all tanks, so these classifications are relative to the average for the nation's tanks for any given period. An older tank design might be reclassified over time, such as a tank being first deployed as a medium tank, but in later years relegated to light tank roles.\n\nTanks were also classified by roles that were independent of size, such as cavalry tank, cruiser tank, fast tank, infantry tank, tank destroyer, \"assault\" tank, or \"breakthrough\" tank. Military theorists initially tended to assign tanks to traditional military infantry, cavalry, and artillery roles, but later developed more specialized roles unique to tanks.\n\nIn modern use, the heavy tank has fallen out of favour, being supplanted by more heavily armed and armoured descendant of the medium tanks – the universal main battle tank. The light tank has, in many armies, lost favour to cheaper, faster, lighter armoured cars; however, light tanks (or similar vehicles with other names) are still in service with a number of forces as reconnaissance vehicles, most notably the Russian Marines with the PT-76, the British Army with the Scimitar, and the Chinese Army with the Type 63.\n\n\n==== Main battle tank ====\nT-90 ''Bhisma'' with appliqué reactive armor and standard main gun\n\nModern main battle tanks or \"universal tanks\" incorporate recent advances in automotive, artillery, armour, and electronic technology to combine the best characteristics of the historic medium and heavy tanks into a single, all around type. They are also the most expensive to mass-produce. It is distinguished by its high level of firepower, mobility and armour protection relative to other vehicles of its era. It can cross comparatively rough terrain at high speeds, but its heavy-dependency on fuel, maintenance, and ammunition makes it logistically demanding. It has the heaviest armour of any AFVs on the battlefield, and carries a powerful precision-guided munition weapon systems that may be able to engage a wide variety of both ground targets and air targets. Despite significant advances in anti-tank warfare, it still remains the most versatile and fearsome land-based weapon-systems of the 21st-century, valued for its shock action and high survivability.\n\n\n==== Tankette ====\nWiesel 1A1 MK with autocannon\n\nA tankette is a tracked armed and armoured vehicle resembling a small \"ultra-light tank\" roughly the size of a car, mainly intended for light infantry support or scouting. They were one or two-man vehicles armed with a machine gun. Colloquially it may also simply mean a \"small tank\".\n\nTankettes were designed and built by several nations between the 1920s and 1940s. They were very popular with smaller countries. Some saw some combat (with limited success) in World War II. However, the vulnerability of their light armour eventually caused the concept to be abandoned.\n\n==== ''Super''-heavy tank ====\n\nThe term \"super-heavy tank\" has been used to describe armoured fighting vehicles of extreme size, generally over 75 tonnes. Programs have been initiated on several occasions with the aim of creating an invincible siegeworks/breakthrough vehicle for penetrating enemy formations and fortifications without fear of being destroyed in combat. Examples were designed in World War I and World War II (such as the Panzer VIII Maus), along with a few in the Cold War. However, few working prototypes were built and there are no clear evidence any of these vehicles saw combat, as their immense size would have made most designs impractical.\n\n\n==== Flame tank ====\nChurchill Crocodile flame tank\n\nA ''' flame tank''' is an otherwise-standard tank equipped with a flamethrower, most commonly used to supplement combined arms attacks against fortifications, confined spaces, or other obstacles. The type only reached significant use in the Second World War, during which the United States, Soviet Union, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United Kingdom (including members of the British Commonwealth) all produced flamethrower-equipped tanks. Usually, the flame projector replaced one of the tank's machineguns, however, some flame projectors replaced the tank's main gun. Fuel for the flame weapon was generally carried inside the tank, although a few designs mounted the fuel externally, such as the armoured trailer used on the Churchill Crocodile.\n\nFlame tanks have been superseded by thermobaric weapons such as the Russian TOS-1.\n\n\n==== Infantry tank ====\nMatilda tank displaying a captured Italian flag\n\nThe idea for this tank was developed during World War I by British and French. The infantry tank was designed to work in concert with infantry in the assault, moving mostly at a walking pace, and carrying heavy armour to survive defensive fire. Its main purpose was to suppress enemy fire, crush obstacles such as barbed-wire entanglements, and protect the infantry on their advance into and through enemy lines by giving mobile overwatch and cover. The French Renault FT was the first iteration of this concept.\n\nThe British and French retained the concept between the wars and into the Second World War era. Because infantry tanks did not need to be fast, they could carry heavy armour. One of the best-known infantry tanks was the Matilda II of World War II. Other examples include the French R-35, the British Valentine, and the British Churchill.\n\n==== Cruiser tank ====\n2 pdr-armed Crusader in the desert\n\nA cruiser tank, or cavalry tank, was designed to move fast and exploit penetrations of the enemy front. The idea originated in \"Plan 1919\", a British plan to break the trench deadlock of World War I in part via the use of high-speed tanks. The first cruiser tank was the British Whippet.\n\nBetween the wars, this concept was implemented in the \"fast tanks\" pioneered by J. Walter Christie. These led to the Soviet BT tank series and the British cruiser tank series.\n\nDuring World War II, British cruiser tanks were designed to complement infantry tanks, exploiting gains made by the latter to attack and disrupt the enemy rear areas. In order to give them the required speed, cruiser designs sacrificed armour and armament compared to the infantry tanks. Pure British cruisers were generally replaced by more capable medium tanks such as the US Sherman and, to a lesser extent, the Cromwell by 1943.\n\nThe Soviet fast tank (''bistrokhodniy tank'', or BT tank) classification also came out of the infantry/cavalry concept of armoured warfare and formed the basis for the British cruisers after 1936. The T-34 was a development of this line of tanks as well, though their armament, armour, and all-round capability places them firmly in the medium tank category.\n\n\n=== Armoured car ===\nEland Mk7 armoured car\n\nThe armoured car is a wheeled, often lightly armoured, vehicle adapted as a fighting machine. Its earliest form consisted of a motorised ironside chassis fitted with firing ports. By World War I, this had evolved into a mobile fortress equipped with command equipment, searchlights, and machine guns for self-defence. It was soon proposed that the requirements for the armament and layout of armoured cars be somewhat similar to those on naval craft, resulting in turreted vehicles. The first example carried a single revolving cupola with a Vickers gun; modern armoured cars may boast heavier armament – ranging from twin machine guns to large calibre cannon.\n\nSome multi-axled wheeled fighting vehicles can be quite heavy, and superior to older or smaller tanks in terms of armour and armament. Others are often used in military marches and processions, or for the escorting of important figures. Under peacetime conditions, they form an essential part of most standing armies. Armoured car units can move without the assistance of transporters and cover great distances with fewer logistical problems than tracked vehicles.\n\nDuring World War II, armoured cars were used for reconnaissance alongside scout cars. Their guns were suitable for some defence if they encountered enemy armoured vehicles, but they were not intended to engage enemy tanks. Armoured cars have since been used in the offensive role against tanks with varying degrees of success, most notably during the South African Border War, Toyota War, the Invasion of Kuwait, and other lower-intensity conflicts.\n\n==== Aerosani ====\n\nAn ''aerosani'' (, literally \"aerosled\") is a type of propeller-driven snowmobile, running on skis, used for communications, mail deliveries, medical aid, emergency recovery and border patrolling in northern Russia, as well as for recreation. Aerosanis were used by the Soviet Red Army during the Winter War and World War II.\n\nThe first aerosanis may have been built by young Igor Sikorsky in 1909–10, before he built multi-engine airplanes and helicopters. They were very light plywood vehicles on skis, propelled by old airplane engines and propellers.\n\n\n==== Scout car ====\n\nA '''scout car''' is a military armored reconnaissance vehicle, capable of off-road mobility and often carrying mounted weapons such as machine guns for offensive capabilities and crew protection. They often only carry an operational crew aboard, which differentiates them from wheeled armored personnel carriers (APCs) and Infantry Mobility Vehicles (IMVs), but early scout cars, such as the open-topped US M3 Scout Car could carry a crew of seven. The term is often used synonymously with the more general term armored car, which also includes armored civilian vehicles. They are also differentiated by being designed and built for purpose, as opposed to improved technicals which might serve in the same role.\n\n\n==== Reconnaissance vehicle ====\nUnited States Army M1127 Reconnaissance Vehicle\n\n\nA '''reconnaissance vehicle''', also known as a '''scout vehicle''', is a military vehicle used for forward reconnaissance. Both tracked and wheeled reconnaissance vehicles are in service. In some nations, light tanks such as the M551 Sheridan and AMX-13 are also used by scout platoons. Reconnaissance vehicles are usually designed with a low profile or small size and are lightly armoured, relying on speed and cover to escape detection. Their armament ranges from a medium machine gun to a large cannon. Modern examples are often fitted with ATGMs and a wide range of sensors.\n\nSome armoured personnel carriers and infantry mobility vehicle, such as the M113, TPz Fuchs, and Cadillac Gage Commando double in the reconnaissance role.\n\n==== Internal security vehicle ====\n\nAn internal security vehicle (ISV), also known as an armoured security vehicle (ASV), is a combat vehicle used for supporting contingency operations. Security vehicles are typically armed with a turreted heavy machine gun and auxiliary medium machine gun. The vehicle is designed to minimize firepower dead space and the vehicles weapons can be depressed to a maximum of 12°. Non-lethal water cannons and tear gas cannons can provide suppressive fire in lieu of unnecessary deadly fire.\n\nThe vehicle must be protected against weapons typical of riots. Protection from incendiary devices is achieved though coverage of the air intake and exhaust ports as well as a strong locking mechanism on the fuel opening. Turret and door locks prevent access to the interior of the vehicle by rioters. Vision blocks, ballistic glass and window shutters and outside surveillance cameras allow protected observation from within the vehicle. Wheeled 4x4 and 6x6 configurations are typical of security vehicles. Tracked security vehicles are often cumbersome and leave negative political connotations for being perceived as an imperial invading force.\n\n\n==== Improvised fighting vehicle ====\n\nAn improvised fighting vehicle is a combat vehicle resulting from modifications to a civilian or military non-combat vehicle in order to give it a fighting capability. Such modifications usually consist of the grafting of armour plating and weapon systems. Various militaries have procured such vehicles, ever since the introduction of the first automobiles into military service.\n\nDuring the early days, the absence of a doctrine for the military use of automobiles or of an industry dedicated to producing them, lead to much improvisation in the creation of early armoured cars, and other such vehicles. Later, despite the advent of arms industries in many countries, several armies still resorted to using ad hoc contraptions, often in response to unexpected military situations, or as a result of the development of new tactics for which no available vehicle was suitable. The construction of improvised fighting vehicles may also reflect a lack of means for the force that uses them. This is especially true in developing countries, where various armies and guerrilla forces have used them, as they are more affordable than military-grade combat vehicles.\n\nModern examples include '''military gun truck''' used by units of regular armies or other official government armed forces, based on a conventional cargo truck, that is able to carry a large weight of weapons and armour. They have mainly been used by regular armies to escort military convoys in regions subject to ambush by guerrilla forces. \"Narco tanks\", used by Mexican drug cartels in the Mexican Drug War, are built from such trucks, which combines operational mobility, tactical offensive, and defensive capabilities.\n\n\n\nFile:Humvee in difficult terrain.jpg| A U.S. Marine Corps High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle traversing difficult terrain in Khost Province, Afghanistan\nFile:Gun Truck.jpg|A Gun Truck of the type used in Iraq, based on an M939 five-ton truck\nFile:Ali Hassan al-Jaber Brigade.jpg|A ZU-23-2 technical used by the forces of the National Transitional Council during the Libyan civil war, in October 2011\n\n\n=== Troop carriers ===\nTroop-carrying AFVs are divided into three main types – armoured personnel carriers (APCs), infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) and infantry mobility vehicles (IMV). The main difference between the three is their intended role – the APC is designed purely to transport troops and is armed for self-defense only – whereas the IFV is designed to provide close-quarters and anti-armour fire support to the infantry it carries. IMV is a wheeled armored personnel carrier serving as a military patrol, reconnaissance or security vehicle.\n\n==== Armoured personnel carrier ====\nSlovak APC Tatrapan\n\n'''Armoured personnel carriers''' ('''APCs''') are intended to carry infantry quickly and relatively safely to the point where they are deployed. In the Battle of Amiens, 8 August 1918, the British Mk V* (Mark Five Star) tank carried a small number of machine gunners as an experiment, but the men were debilitated by the conditions inside the vehicle. Later that year the first purpose-built APC, the British Mk IX (Mark Nine), appeared. In 1944, the Canadian general Guy Simonds ordered the conversion of redundant armoured vehicles to carry troops (generically named \"Kangaroos\"). This proved highly successful, even without training, and the concept was widely used in the 21st Army Group. Post-war, specialised designs were built, such as the Soviet BTR-60 and US M113.\n\n\n==== Infantry fighting vehicle ====\n\nAn '''infantry fighting vehicle''' ('''IFV'''), also known as a '''mechanized infantry combat vehicle''' ('''MICV'''), is a type of armoured fighting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct fire support. The first example of an IFV was the West German Schützenpanzer Lang HS.30 which served in the Bundeswehr from 1958 until the early 1980s.\nPuma infantry fighting vehicles\n\nIFVs are similar to armoured personnel carriers (APCs) and infantry carrier vehicles (ICVs), designed to transport a section or squad of infantry (generally between five and ten men) and their equipment. They are differentiated from APCs— which are purely \"troop-transport\" vehicles armed only for self-defense— because they are designed to give direct fire support to the dismounted infantry and so usually have significantly enhanced armament. IFVs also often have improved armour and some have firing ports (allowing the infantry to fire personal weapons while mounted).\n\nThey are typically armed with an autocannon of 20 to 40 mm calibre, 7.62mm machine guns, anti-tank missiles (ATGMs) and/or surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). IFVs are usually tracked, but some wheeled vehicles fall into this category. IFVs are generally less heavily armed and armoured than main battle tanks. They sometimes carry anti-tank missiles to protect and support infantry against armoured threats, such as the NATO TOW missile and Soviet Bastion, which offer a significant threat to tanks. Specially equipped IFVs have taken on some of the roles of light tanks; they are used by reconnaissance organizations, and light IFVs are used by airborne units which must be able to fight without the heavy firepower of tanks.\n\n\n==== Infantry mobility vehicle ====\nPolish AMZ Tur\n\nAn '''infantry mobility vehicle''' ('''IMV''') or '''protected patrol vehicle''' ('''PPV''') is a wheeled armored personnel carrier (APC) serving as a military patrol, reconnaissance or security vehicle. Examples include the ATF Dingo, AMZ Dzik, AMZ Tur, Mungo ESK, and Bushmaster IMV. This term also applies to the vehicles currently being fielded as part of the MRAP program.\n\nIMVs were developed in response to the threats of modern counter insurgency warfare, with an emphasis on Ambush Protection and Mine-Resistance. Similar vehicles existed long before the term IMV was coined, such as the French VAB and South African Buffel. The term is coming more into use to differentiate light 4x4 wheeled APCs from the traditional 8x8 wheeled APCs. It is a neologism for what might have been classified in the past as an armoured scout car, such as the BRDM, but the IMV is distinguished by having a requirement to carry dismountable infantry. The up-armoured M1114 Humvee variant can be seen as an adaptation of the unarmoured Humvee to serve in the IMV role.\n\n\n\nCV9035 assessment (cropped).jpg|A CV-9035 Swedish infantry fighting vehicle used by U.S. Army.\nM113IraqiFreedom.jpg|The M113, one of the most common tracked APCs, on duty during the Iraq War\nDingo 2.jpg|The ATF Dingo of the German Army is a mine-resistant/ambush protected infantry mobility vehicle used by several European armed forces\nFile:278th MP Company's new ASVs.jpg|United States Army National Guard M1117 Armored Security Vehicles\n\n\n=== Amphibious vehicles ===\nBTR-80s coming ashore, engine snorkels and waterjet deployed\nTwo U.S. Marine Corps Assault Amphibious Vehicles emerge from the surf onto the sand of Freshwater Beach, Australia\n\nMany modern military vehicles, ranging from light wheeled command and reconnaissance, through armoured personnel carriers and tanks, are manufactured with amphibious capabilities. Contemporary wheeled armoured amphibians include the French Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé and Véhicule Blindé Léger. The latter is a small, lightly armoured 4x4 all-terrain vehicle that is fully amphibious and can swim at 5.4 km/h. The VAB (''Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé'' - \"Armoured Vanguard Vehicle\") is a fully amphibious armoured personnel carrier powered in the water by two water jets, that entered service in 1976 and produced in numerous configurations, ranging from basic personnel carrier, anti-tank missile platform.\n\nDuring the Cold War the Soviet bloc states developed a number of amphibious APCs, fighting vehicles and tanks, both wheeled and tracked. Most of the vehicles the Soviets designed were amphibious, or could ford deep water. Wheeled examples are the BRDM-1 and BRDM-2 4x4 armoured scout cars, as well as the BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80 and BTR-94 8x8 armoured personnel carriers and the BTR-90 infantry fighting vehicle.\n\nThe United States started developing a long line of Landing Vehicle Tracked (LVT) designs from ca. 1940. The US Marine Corps currently uses the AAV7-A1 Assault Amphibious Vehicle, which was to be succeeded by the Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle, which was capable of planing on water and can achieve water speeds of 37–46 km/h. The EFV project has been cancelled.\n\nA significant amount of tracked armoured vehicles that are primarily intended for land-use, have some amphibious cability, tactically useful inland, reducing dependence on bridges. They use their tracks, sometimes with added propeller or water jets for propulsion. As long as the banks have a shallow enough slopes to enter or leave the water they can cross rivers and water obstacles.\n\nSome heavy tanks can operate amphibiously with a fabric skirt to add buoyancy. The Sherman DD tank used in the Normandy landings had this setup. When in water the waterproof float screen was raised and propellers deployed. Some modern vehicles use a similar skirt.\n\n\n=== Armoured engineering vehicle ===\n\nModern engineering AFV's utilize chassis based on main battle tank platforms: these vehicles are as well armoured and protected as tanks, designed to keep up tanks, conduct obstacle breaching operations to help tanks get to wherever it needs to be, perform utility functions necessary to expedite mission objectives of tanks, and to conduct other earth-moving and engineering work on the battlefield. These vehicles go by different names depending upon the country of use or manufacture. In the United States the term \"combat engineer vehicle (CEV)\" is used, in the United Kingdom the term \"Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE)\" is used, while in Canada and other commonwealth nations the term \"armoured engineer vehicle (AEV)\" is used. There is no set template for what such a vehicle will look like, yet likely features include a large dozer blade or mine ploughs, a large calibre demolition cannon, augers, winches, excavator arms and cranes, or lifting booms.\n\nIt should be noted that while the term \"armoured engineer vehicle\" is used specifically to describe these multi-purpose tank-based engineering vehicles, that term is also used more generically in British and Commonwealth militaries to describe all heavy tank-based engineering vehicles used in the support of mechanized forces. Thus, \"armoured engineer vehicle\" used generically would refer to AEV, AVLB, Assault Breachers, and so on. Good examples of this type of vehicle include the UK Trojan AVRE, the Russian IMR, and the US M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle.\n\n\n==== Assault breacher vehicle ====\n\nAn '''assault breacher vehicle (ABV)''', also known as a '''explosive ordnance disposal vehicle (EODV)''', or simply '''Breacher''', is especially designed to clear pathways for troops and other vehicles through minefields and along roadside bombs and Improvised Explosive Devices. These vehicles are based on a tank-chassis with 1,500+ horsepower engines, but fitted with a 50-caliber machine gun and a front-mounted 5-meter-wide plow, supported by metallic skis that glide on the dirt and typically equipped with at least of Mine Clearing Line Charges: rockets carrying C-4 explosives up to 100–150 meters forward, detonating hidden bombs at a safe distance, so that troops and vehicles can pass through safely. They were called ''\"the answer\"'' to the deadliest threat facing NATO troops in modern asymmetrical conflict.\n\n\n==== Armoured bulldozer ====\n\nThe '''armored bulldozer''' is a basic tool of combat engineering. These combat engineering vehicles combine the earth moving capabilities of the bulldozer with armor which protects the vehicle and its operator in or near combat. Most are civilian bulldozers modified by addition of vehicle armor/military equipment, but some are tanks stripped of armament and fitted with a dozer blade. Some tanks have bulldozer blades while retaining their armament, but this does not make them armored bulldozers as such, because combat remains the primary role – earth moving is a secondary task.\n\n\n==== Armoured recovery vehicle ====\n\nAn '''armoured recovery vehicle''' ('''ARV''') is a type of vehicle recovery armoured fighting vehicle used to repair battle- or mine-damaged as well as broken-down armoured vehicles during combat, or to tow them out of the danger zone for more extensive repairs. To this end the term ''\"Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle\" (ARRV)'' is also used.\n\nARVs are normally built on the chassis of a main battle tank (MBT), but some are also constructed on the basis of other armoured fighting vehicles, mostly armoured personnel carriers (APCs). ARVs are usually built on the basis of a vehicle in the same class as they are supposed to recover; a tank-based ARV is used to recover tanks, while an APC-based one recovers APCs, but does not have the power to tow a much heavier tank.\n\n\n==== Armoured vehicle-launched bridge ====\n\nAn '''armoured vehicle-launched bridge''' ('''AVLB''') is a combat support vehicle, sometimes regarded as a subtype of combat engineering vehicle, designed to assist militaries in rapidly deploying tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles across rivers. The AVLB is usually a tracked vehicle converted from a tank chassis to carry a folding metal bridge instead of weapons. The AVLB's job is to allow armoured or infantry units to cross water, when a river too deep for vehicles to wade through is reached, and no bridge is conveniently located (or sufficiently sturdy, a substantial concern when moving 60-ton tanks).\n\nThe bridge layer unfolds and launches its cargo, providing a ready-made bridge across the obstacle in only minutes. Once the span has been put in place, the AVLB vehicle detaches from the bridge, and moves aside to allow traffic to pass. Once all of the vehicles have crossed, it crosses the bridge itself and reattaches to the bridge on the other side. It then retracts the span ready to move off again. A similar procedure can be employed to allow crossings of small chasms or similar obstructions. AVLBs can carry bridges of or greater in length. By using a tank chassis, the bridge layer is able to cover the same terrain as main battle tanks, and the provision of armour allows them to operate even in the face of enemy fire. However, this is not a universal attribute: some exceptionally sturdy 6x6 or 8x8 truck chassis have lent themselves to bridge-layer applications.\n\n\n==== Combat engineer section carriers ====\nThe '''combat engineer section carriers''' are used to transport sappers (combat engineers) and can be fitted with a bulldozer's blade and other mine-breaching devices. They are often used as APCs because of their carrying ability and heavy protection. They are usually armed with machine guns and grenade launchers and usually tracked to provide enough tractive force to push blades and rakes. Some examples are the U.S. M113 APC, IDF Puma, Nagmachon, Husky, and U.S. M1132 ESV (a Stryker variant).\n\n\n\nFile:M60-panther-mcgovern-base.jpg|A remotely controlled Panther armored mine clearing vehicle leads a column down a road in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 16 May 1996.\nFile:M1 Assault Breacher Vehicle.jpg|Marines with 2nd Combat Engineer Battalion launch a M58 MICLIC from an Assault Breacher Vehicle\nFile:IDF-D9-Zachi-Evenor-001.jpg|An armored IDF Caterpillar D9R bulldozer, nicknamed \"דובי\" (Teddy bear) in Israel. Its armor allows it to work under heavy fire.\nFile:Bergepanzer Bueffel.jpg|BPz3 \"Büffel\", German Army\nFile:M60A1 Armored Vehicle Landing Bridge.jpg|An M60A1 Armored Vehicle Launched Bridge (AVLB), deploying its scissors-type bridge\nFile:Stryker ESV front q.jpg|M1132 Engineer Squad Vehicle (ESV) issued to combat engineer squads in the US Army Stryker brigade combat teams\n\n\n=== Air defense vehicles ===\nFlakpanzer Gepard, Germany\n\nAn anti-aircraft vehicle, also known as a self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon (SPAA) or self-propelled air defense system (SPAD), is a mobile vehicle with a dedicated anti-aircraft capability. The Russian equivalent of SPAAG is ZSU (from ''zenitnaya samokhodnaya ustanovka'' – \"anti-aircraft self-propelled mount\"). Specific weapon systems used include machine guns, autocannons, larger guns, or missiles, and some mount both guns and longer-ranged missiles. Platforms used include both trucks and heavier combat vehicles such as APCs and tanks, which add protection from aircraft, artillery, and small arms fire for front line deployment. Anti-aircraft guns are usually mounted in a quickly traversing turret with a high rate of elevation, for tracking fast-moving aircraft. They are often in dual or quadruple mounts, allowing a high rate of fire. Today, missiles (generally mounted on similar turrets) have largely supplanted anti-aircraft guns.\n\n\n=== Self-propelled artillery ===\n\nSelf-propelled artillery vehicles give mobility to artillery. Within the term are covered self-propelled guns (or howitzers) and rocket artillery. They are highly mobile, usually based on tracked chassis carrying either a large howitzer or other field gun or alternatively a mortar or some form of rocket or missile launcher. They are usually used for long-range indirect bombardment support on the battlefield.\n\nIn the past, self-propelled artillery has included direct-fire \"Gun Motor Carriage\" vehicles such as assault guns and tank destroyers (also known as self-propelled anti-tank guns). These have been heavily armoured vehicles, the former providing danger-close fire-support for infantry and the latter acting as specialized anti-tank vehicles.\n\nModern self-propelled artillery vehicles may superficially resemble tanks, but they are generally lightly armoured, too lightly to survive in direct-fire combat. However, they protect their crews against shrapnel and small arms and are therefore usually included as armoured fighting vehicles. Many are equipped with machine guns for defence against enemy infantry.\n\nThe key advantage of self-propelled over towed artillery is that it can be brought into action much faster. Before the towed artillery can be used, it has to stop, unlimber and set up the guns. To move position, the guns must be limbered up again and brought — usually towed — to the new location. By comparison self-propelled artillery in combination with modern communications can stop at a chosen location and begin firing almost immediately, then quickly move on to a new position. This ability is very useful in a mobile conflict and particularly on the advance.\n\nConversely, towed artillery was and remains cheaper to build and maintain. It is also lighter and can be taken to places that self-propelled guns cannot reach, so despite the advantages of the self-propelled artillery, towed guns remain in the arsenals of many modern armies.\n\n\n==== Assault gun ====\nThe Soviet SU-76 was easily constructed in small factories incapable of producing proper tanks\n\nAn assault gun is a gun or howitzer mounted on a motor vehicle or armoured chassis, designed for use in the direct fire role in support of infantry when attacking other infantry or fortified positions.\n\nHistorically the custom-built fully armored assault guns usually mounted the gun or howitzer in a fully enclosed casemate on a tank chassis. The use of a casemate instead of a gun turret limited these weapons field of fire, but allowed a larger gun to be fitted relative to the chassis, more armour to be fitted for the same weight, and provided a cheaper construction. In most cases, these turretless vehicles also presented a lower profile as a target for the enemy.\n\n\n==== Mortar carrier ====\nAn American M1129 Mortar Carrier\n\nA mortar carrier is a self-propelled artillery vehicle carrying a mortar as its primary weapon. Mortar carriers cannot be fired while on the move and some must be dismounted to fire. In U.S. Army doctrine, mortar carriers provide close and immediate indirect fire support for maneuver units while allowing for rapid displacement and quick reaction to the tactical situation. The ability to relocate not only allows fire support to be provided where it is needed faster but also allows these units to avoid counter-battery fire. Mortar carriers have traditionally avoided direct contact with the enemy. Many units report never using secondary weapons in combat.\n\nPrior to the Iraq War, American 120 mm mortar platoons reorganized from six M1064 mortar carriers and two M577 fire direction centers (FDC) to four M1064 and one FDC. The urban environment of Iraq made it difficult to utilize mortars. New technologies such as mortar ballistic computers and communication equipment and are being integrated. Modern era combat is becoming more reliant on direct fire support from mortar carrier machine guns.\n\n\n==== Multiple rocket launcher ====\nBM-30 Smerch 300 mm rocket launcher in raised position\n\nA multiple rocket launcher is a type of unguided rocket artillery system. Like other rocket artillery, multiple rocket launchers are less accurate and have a much lower (sustained) rate of fire than batteries of traditional artillery guns. However, they have the capability of simultaneously dropping many hundreds of kilograms of explosive, with devastating effect.\n\nThe Korean Hwacha is an example of an early weapon system with a resemblance to the modern-day multiple rocket launcher. The first modern multiple rocket launcher was the German ''Nebelwerfer'' of the 1930s, a small towed artillery piece. Only later in World War II did the Allies deploy similar weapons in the form of the Land Mattress.\n\nThe first self-propelled multiple rocket launchers – and arguably the most famous – were the Soviet BM-13 Katyushas, first used during World War II and exported to Soviet allies afterwards. They were simple systems in which a rack of launch rails was mounted on the back of a truck. This set the template for modern multiple rocket launchers. The Americans mounted tubular launchers atop M4 Sherman tanks to create the T34 Calliope rocket launching tank, only used in small numbers, as their closest equivalent to the Katyusha.\n\n\n\n==== Tank destroyer ====\nA Norwegian anti-tank platoon equipped with NM142 TOW missile launchers\n\nTank destroyers and tank hunters are armed with an anti-tank gun or missile launcher, and are designed specifically to engage enemy armoured vehicles. Many have been based on a tracked tank chassis, while others are wheeled. Since World War II, main battle tanks have largely replaced gun-armed tank destroyers; although lightly armoured anti tank guided missile (ATGM) carriers are commonly used for supplementary long-range anti-tank engagements.\n\nIn post-Cold War conflict, the resurgence of expeditionary warfare has seen the emergence of gun-armed wheeled vehicles, sometimes called \"protected gun systems\", which may bear a superficial resemblance to tank destroyers, but are employed as direct fire support units typically providing support in low intensity operations such as Iraq and Afghanistan. These have the advantage of easier deployment, as only the largest air transports can carry a main battle tank, and their smaller size makes them more effective in urban combat.\n\nMany forces' IFVs carry anti-tank missiles in every infantry platoon, and attack helicopters have also added anti-tank capability to the modern battlefield. But there are still dedicated anti-tank vehicles with very heavy long-range missiles, or intended for airborne use. There have also been dedicated anti-tank vehicles built on ordinary armoured personnel carrier or armoured car chassis. Examples include the U.S. M901 ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle) and the Norwegian NM142, both on an M113 chassis, several Soviet ATGM launchers based on the BRDM reconnaissance car, the British FV438 Swingfire and FV102 Striker and the German Raketenjagdpanzer series built on the chassis of the HS 30 and Marder IFV.\n\n\n\n\nFile:AS-90 self-propelled artillery.JPG|British AS-90s firing in Basra, Iraq, 2006\nFile:Sherman Tank WW2.jpg|A preserved Sherman M4(105) Assault Gun carriage\nFile:ТОС-1А Буратино на репетиции парада 4.5.2010.jpg|ТОS-1A – Russian 24-barrel multiple rocket launcher\n\n\n=== Armoured train ===\n'Hurban' Armoured train located in Zvolen, Slovakia\n\nAn '''armoured train''' is a railway train protected with armour. They are usually equipped with railroad cars armed with artillery and machine guns. They were mostly used during the late 19th and early 20th century, when they offered an innovative way to quickly move large amounts of firepower. Their use was discontinued in most countries when road vehicles became much more powerful and offered more flexibility, and because armoured trains were too vulnerable to track sabotage as well as attacks from the air. However, the Russian Federation used improvised armoured trains in the Second Chechen War in the late 1990s and 2000s.\n\nThe railroad cars on an armoured train were designed for many tasks such as carrying guns and machine guns, infantry units, anti-aircraft guns. During World War II, the Germans would sometimes put a ''Fremdgerät'' (such as a captured French Somua S-35 or Czech PzKpfw 38(t) light tank, or Panzer II light tank) on a flatbed car which could be quickly offloaded by means of a ramp and used away from the range of the main railway line to chase down enemy partisans.\n\nDifferent types of armour were used to protect from attack by tanks. In addition to various metal plates, concrete and sandbags were used in some cases for improvised armoured trains.\n\nArmoured trains were sometimes escorted by a kind of rail-tank called a draisine. One such example was the 'Littorina' armoured trolley which had a cab in the front and rear, each with a control set so it could be driven down the tracks in either direction. Littorina mounted two dual 7.92mm MG13 machine gun turrets from Panzer I light tanks.\n\n",
"\n\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* Armoured fighting vehicles website\n* US Wheeled armoured fighting vehicles\n* Armoured fighting vehicles\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Evolution of AFVs ",
" Modern classification by type and role ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Armoured fighting vehicle |
[
"\n'''Anton Drexler''' (13 June 1884 – 24 February 1942) was a German far-right political leader of the 1920s who was instrumental in the formation of the pan-German and anti-Semitic German Workers' Party (''Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'' – DAP), the antecedent of the Nazi Party (''Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'' – NSDAP). Drexler served as mentor to Adolf Hitler during his early days in politics.\n",
"Born in Munich, Drexler was a machine-fitter before becoming a railway toolmaker and locksmith in Berlin. He joined the Fatherland Party during World War I. \n",
"\n===Early involvement in politics===\nIn March 1918 Drexler founded a branch of ''Der Freie Arbeiterausschuss für einen guten Frieden'' (Free Workers' Committee for a Good Peace) league. Thereafter in 1918, Karl Harrer (a journalist and member of the Thule Society), convinced Drexler and several others to form the ''Politischer Arbeiterzirkel'' (Political Workers' Circle) in 1918. The members met periodically for discussions with themes of nationalism and racism directed against Jews. Drexler was a poet and a member of the völkisch agitators. \n\n===Founding of the German Workers' Party===\nTogether with Harrer, Gottfried Feder and Dietrich Eckart, he founded the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Munich on 5 January 1919.\n\nAt a meeting of the Party in Munich in September 1919, the main speaker was Gottfried Feder. When he had finished speaking, Adolf Hitler got involved in a heated political argument with a visitor, Professor Baumann, who questioned the soundness of Feder's arguments against capitalism and proposed that Bavaria should break away from Prussia and found a new South German nation with Austria. In vehemently attacking the man's arguments he made an impression on the other party members with his oratory skills, and according to Hitler, the \"professor\" left the hall acknowledging unequivocal defeat. Drexler approached Hitler and thrust a booklet into his hand. It was ''My Political Awakening'' and, according to Hitler, it reflected the ideals he already believed in. Impressed with Hitler, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. On the orders of his army superiors, Hitler applied to join the party. In less than a week, Hitler received a postcard stating he had officially been accepted as a DAP member and should come to a \"committee\" meeting to discuss it. Hitler was accepted as party member 555 (the party began counting membership at 500 to give the impression they were a much larger party). Hitler attended the \"committee\" meeting held at the run-down Alte Rosenbad beer-house.\n\nHitler began to make the party more public, and he organized their biggest meeting yet of 2,000 people, for 24 February 1920 in the Hofbräuhaus in Munich. It was in this speech that Hitler, for the first time, enunciated the twenty-five points of the ''German Worker's Party'''s manifesto that had been drawn up by Drexler, Feder, and Hitler. Through these points he gave the organisation a much bolder stratagem with a clear foreign policy (abrogation of The Treaty of Versailles, a Greater Germany, Eastern expansion, exclusion of Jews from citizenship). On the same day the party was renamed the ''Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'' – NSDAP (Nazi Party). Such was the significance of this particular move in publicity that Karl Harrer resigned from the party in disagreement.\n\nBy 1921, Hitler was rapidly becoming the undisputed leader of the Party. In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP). Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed; he rejoined the party as member 3,680. Drexler was thereafter moved to the purely symbolic position of honorary president, and left the Party in 1923.\n\nDrexler was also a member of a ''völkisch'' political club for affluent members of Munich society known as the Thule Society. His membership in the NSDAP ended when it was temporarily outlawed in 1923 following the Beer Hall Putsch, in which Drexler had not taken part. In 1924 he was elected to the Bavarian state parliament for another party, in which he served as vice-president until 1928. He had no part in the NSDAP's refounding in 1925, and rejoined only after Hitler had come to power in 1933. He founded a splinter group, the ''Nationalsozialer Volksbund'', but this dissolved in 1928. He received the party's Blood Order in 1934 and was still occasionally used as a propaganda tool until about 1937, but he was never again allowed any real power or to play an active part in the movement.\n",
"Drexler died in Munich in February 1942.\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"*'' Mein politisches Erwachen; aus dem Tagebuch eines deutschen sozialistischen Arbeiters'' München, Deutscher Volksverlag 4th ed.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Politics",
"Death",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Anton Drexler |
[
"\n\n\n'''''All Quiet on the Western Front''''' () is a novel by Erich Maria Remarque, a German veteran of World War I. The book describes the German soldiers' extreme physical and mental stress during the war, and the detachment from civilian life felt by many of these soldiers upon returning home from the front.\n\nThe novel was first published in November and December 1928 in the German newspaper ''Vossische Zeitung'' and in book form in late January 1929. The book and its sequel, ''The Road Back'' (1930), were among the books banned and burned in Nazi Germany. ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' sold 2.5 million copies in 22 languages in its first 18 months in print.\n\nIn 1930, the book was adapted as an Academy-Award-winning film of the same name, directed by Lewis Milestone. It was adapted again in 1979 by Delbert Mann, this time as a television film starring Richard Thomas and Ernest Borgnine.\n",
"The English translation by Arthur Wesley Wheen gives the title as '' All Quiet on the Western Front''. The literal translation of \"Im Westen nichts Neues\" is \"In the West Nothing New,\" with \"West\" being the Western Front; the phrase refers to the content of an official communiqué at the end of the novel.\n\nBrian Murdoch's 1993 translation would render the phrase as \"there was nothing new to report on the Western Front\" within the narrative. Explaining his retention of the original book-title, he says:\n\n\nAlthough it does not match the German exactly, Wheen's title has justly become part of the English language and is retained here with gratitude.\n\n\nThe phrase \"all quiet on the Western Front\" has become a colloquial expression meaning stagnation, or lack of visible change, in any context.\n",
"The book tells the story of Paul Bäumer, a German soldier who—urged on by his school teacher—joins the German army shortly after the start of World War I. His class was \"scattered over the platoons amongst Frisian fishermen, peasants, and labourers.\" Bäumer arrives at the Western Front with his friends and schoolmates (Leer, Müller, Kropp and a number of other characters). There they meet Stanislaus Katczinsky, an older soldier, nicknamed Kat, who becomes Paul's mentor. While fighting at the front, Bäumer and his comrades have to engage in frequent battles and endure the treacherous and filthy conditions of trench warfare.\n\nAt the very beginning of the book, Erich Maria Remarque says \"This book is to be neither an accusation nor a confession, and least of all an adventure, for death is not an adventure to those who stand face to face with it. It will try simply to tell of a generation of men who, even though they may have escaped (its) shells, were destroyed by the war.\" The book does not focus on heroic stories of bravery, but rather gives a view of the conditions in which the soldiers find themselves. The monotony between battles, the constant threat of artillery fire and bombardments, the struggle to find food, the lack of training of young recruits (meaning lower chances of survival), and the overarching role of random chance in the lives and deaths of the soldiers are described in detail.\n\nThe battles fought here have no names and seem to have little overall significance, except for the impending possibility of injury or death for Bäumer and his comrades. Only pitifully small pieces of land are gained, about the size of a football field, which are often lost again later. Remarque often refers to the living soldiers as old and dead, emotionally drained and shaken. \"We are not youth any longer. We don't want to take the world by storm. We are fleeing from ourselves, from our life. We were eighteen and had begun to love life and the world; and we had to shoot it to pieces.\"\n\nPaul's visit on leave to his home highlights the cost of the war on his psyche. The town has not changed since he went off to war; however, he finds that he does \"not belong here anymore, it is a foreign world.\" He feels disconnected from most of the townspeople. His father asks him \"stupid and distressing\" questions about his war experiences, not understanding \"that a man cannot talk of such things.\" An old schoolmaster lectures him about strategy and advancing to Paris while insisting that Paul and his friends know only their \"own little sector\" of the war but nothing of the big picture.\n\nIndeed, the only person he remains connected to is his dying mother, with whom he shares a tender, yet restrained relationship. The night before he is to return from leave, he stays up with her, exchanging small expressions of love and concern for each other. He thinks to himself, \"Ah! Mother, Mother! How can it be that I must part from you? Here I sit and there you are lying; we have so much to say, and we shall never say it.\" In the end, he concludes that he \"ought never to have come home on leave.\"\n\nPaul feels glad to be reunited with his comrades. Soon after, he volunteers to go on a patrol and kills a man for the first time in hand-to-hand combat. He watches the man die, in pain for hours. He feels remorse and asks forgiveness from the man's corpse. He is devastated and later confesses to Kat and Albert, who try to comfort him and reassure him that it is only part of the war.\nThey are then sent on what Paul calls a \"good job.\" They must guard a supply depot in a village that was evacuated due to being shelled too heavily. During this time, the men are able to adequately feed themselves, unlike the near-starvation conditions in the German trenches. In addition, the men enjoy themselves while living off the spoils from the village and officers' luxuries from the supply depot (such as fine cigars). While evacuating the villagers (enemy civilians), Paul and Albert are taken by surprise by artillery fired at the civilian convoy and wounded by a shell. On the train back home, Albert takes a turn for the worse and cannot complete the journey, instead being sent off the train to recuperate in a Catholic hospital.\nPaul uses a combination of bartering and manipulation to stay by Albert's side. Albert eventually has his leg amputated, while Paul is deemed fit for service and returned to the front.\n\nBy now, the war is nearing its end and the German Army is retreating. In despair, Paul watches as his friends fall one by one. It is the death of Kat that eventually makes Paul careless about living. In the final chapter, he comments that peace is coming soon, but he does not see the future as bright and shining with hope. Paul feels that he has no aims or goals left in life and that their generation will be different and misunderstood. When he dies at the end of the novel, the situation report from the frontline states, \"All is Quiet on the Western Front.\"\n",
"One of the major themes of the novel is the difficulty of soldiers to revert to civilian life after having experienced extreme combat situations. Remarque comments in the preface that \"This book will try simply to tell of a generation of men who, even though they may have escaped its shells, were destroyed by the war.\" This internal destruction can be found as early as the first chapter as Paul comments that, although all the boys are young, their youth has left them. In addition, the massive loss of life and negligible gains from the fighting are constantly emphasized. Soldiers' lives are thrown away by their commanding officers who are stationed comfortably away from the front, ignorant of the daily terrors of the front line.\n",
"Cover of first English language edition. The design is based upon a German war bonds poster by Fritz Erler.\n\n===Paul Bäumer===\nPaul Bäumer is the main character and narrator. At 19 years of age, Paul enlists in the German Army and is deployed to the Western Front where he experiences the severe psychological and physical effects of the war. \nBefore the war, Paul was a creative, sensitive and passionate person, writing poems and having a clear love for his family. But as the war changed his attitude and personality, poems and other aspects of his past life become something Paul was no longer linked to, since the horrors of war trained him to disconnect himself from his feelings. He feels he can't tell anyone about his experiences and feels like an outsider where his family is concerned.\n\nBy the end of the book, Paul realises that he no longer knows what to do with himself and decides that he has nothing more to lose. The war appears to have snuffed out his hopes and dreams, which he feels he can never regain. After years of fighting in the war, Paul is finally killed in October 1918, on an extraordinarily quiet, peaceful day. The army report that day contains only one phrase: \"All quiet on the Western Front.\" As Paul dies, his face is calm, \"as though almost glad the end had come.\"\n\n===Albert Kropp===\nKropp was in Paul's class at school and is described as the clearest thinker of the group as well as the smallest. Kropp is wounded towards the end of the novel and undergoes a leg amputation. Both he and Bäumer end up spending time in a Catholic hospital together, Bäumer suffering from shrapnel wounds to the leg and arm. Though Kropp initially plans to commit suicide if he requires an amputation, the book suggests he postponed suicide because of the strength of military camaraderie. Kropp and Bäumer part ways when Bäumer is recalled to his regiment after recovering. Paul comments that saying farewell was \"very hard, but it is something a soldier learns to deal with.\"\n\n===Haie Westhus===\nHaie is described as being tall and strong, and a peat-digger by profession. Overall, his size and behavior make him seem older than Paul, yet he is the same age as Paul and his school-friends (roughly 19 at the start of the book). Haie, in addition, has a good sense of humor. During combat, he is injured in his back, fatally (Chapter 6)—the resulting wound is large enough for Paul to see Haie's breathing lung when Himmelstoß (Himmelstoss) carries him to safety.\n\n===Fredrich Müller===\nMüller is about 18 and a half years of age, one of Bäumer's classmates, when he also joins the German army as a volunteer to go to the war. Carrying his old school books with him to the battlefield, he constantly reminds himself of the importance of learning and education. Even while under enemy fire, he \"mutters propositions in physics\". He became interested in Kemmerich's boots and inherits them when Kemmerich dies early in the novel. He is killed later in the book after being shot point-blank in the stomach with a \"light pistol\" (flare gun). As he was dying \"quite conscious and in terrible pain\", he gave his boots which he inherited from Kemmerich to Paul.\n\n===Stanislaus \"Kat\" Katczinsky===\nKat has the most positive influence on Paul and his comrades on the battlefield. Katczinsky was a cobbler (shoemaker) in civilian life; he is older than Paul Bäumer and his comrades, about 40 years old, and serves as their leadership figure. He also represents a literary model highlighting the differences between the younger and older soldiers. While the older men have already had a life of professional and personal experience before the war, Bäumer and the men of his age have had little life experience or time for personal growth.\n\nKat is also well known for his ability to scavenge nearly any item needed, especially food. At one point he secures four boxes of lobster. Bäumer describes Kat as possessing a sixth sense. One night, Bäumer along with a group of other soldiers are holed up in a factory with neither rations nor comfortable bedding. Katczinsky leaves for a short while, returning with straw to put over the bare wires of the beds. Later, to feed the hungry men, Kat brings bread, a bag of horse flesh, a lump of fat, a pinch of salt and a pan in which to cook the food.\n\nKat is hit by shrapnel at the end of the story, leaving him with a smashed shin. Paul carries him back to camp on his back, only to discover upon their arrival that a stray splinter had hit Kat in the back of the head and killed him on the way. He is thus the last of Paul's close friends to die in battle. It is Kat's death that eventually makes Bäumer careless whether he survives the war or not, but that he can face the rest of his life without fear. \"Let the months and the years come, they can take nothing from me, they can take nothing more. I am so alone, and so without hope that I can confront them without fear.\"\n\n=== Tjaden ===\nOne of Bäumer's non-schoolmate friends. Before the war, Tjaden was a locksmith. A big eater with a grudge against the former postman-turned corporal Himmelstoß (thanks to his strict \"disciplinary actions\"), he manages to forgive Himmelstoß later in the book. Throughout the book, Paul frequently remarks on how much of an eater he is, yet somehow manages to stay as \"thin as a rake\". The fate of Tjaden is unknown but he appears in the sequel, ''The Road Back''.\n",
"\n===Kantorek===\nKantorek was the schoolmaster of Paul and his friends, including Kropp, Leer, Müller, and Behm. Behaving \"in a way that cost him nothing,\" Kantorek is a strong supporter of the war and encourages Bäumer and other students in his class to join the war effort. Among twenty enlistees was Joseph Behm, the first of the class to die in battle. In an example of tragic irony, Behm was the only one who did not want to enter the war.\n\nKantorek is a hypocrite, urging the young men he teaches to fight in the name of patriotism, while not voluntarily enlisting himself. In a twist of fate, Kantorek is later called up as a soldier as well. He very reluctantly joins the ranks of his former students, only to be drilled and taunted by Mittelstädt, one of the students he had earlier persuaded to enlist.\n\n===Peter Leer===\nLeer is an intelligent soldier in Bäumer's company, and one of his classmates. He is very popular with women; when he and his comrades meet three French women, he is the first to seduce one of them. Bäumer describes Leer's ability to attract women by saying \"Leer is an old hand at the game\". In chapter 11, Leer is hit by a shell fragment, which also hits Bertinck. The shrapnel tears open Leer's hip, causing him to bleed to death quickly. His death causes Paul to ask himself, \"What use is it to him now that he was such a good mathematician in school?\"\n\n===Bertinck===\nLieutenant Bertinck is the leader of Bäumer's company. His men have a great respect for him, and Bertinck has great respect for his men. He permits them to eat the rations of the men that had been killed in action, standing up to the chef Ginger who would only allow them their allotted share. Bertinck is genuinely despondent when he learns that few of his men had survived an engagement.\n\nWhen he and the other characters are trapped in a trench under heavy attack, Bertinck, who has been injured in the firefight, spots a flamethrower team advancing on them. He gets out of cover and takes aim on the flamethrower but misses, and gets hit by enemy fire. With his next shot he kills the flamethrower, and immediately afterwards an enemy shell explodes on his position blowing off his chin. The same explosion also fatally wounds Leer.\n\n===Himmelstoss===\nCorporal Himmelstoss (spelled Himmelstoß in some editions) was a postman before enlisting in the war. He is a power-hungry corporal with special contempt for Paul and his friends, taking sadistic pleasure in punishing the minor infractions of his trainees during their basic training in preparation for their deployment. Paul later figures that the training taught by Himmelstoss made them \"hard, suspicious, pitiless, and tough\" but most importantly it taught them comradeship. However, Bäumer and his comrades have a chance to get back at Himmelstoss because of his punishments, mercilessly whipping him on the night before they board trains to go to the front.\n\nHimmelstoss later joins them at the front, revealing himself as a coward who shirks his duties for fear of getting hurt or killed, and pretends to be wounded because of a scratch on his face. Paul Bäumer beats him because of it and when a lieutenant comes along looking for men for a trench charge, Himmelstoss joins and leads the charge. He carries Haie Westhus's body to Bäumer after he is fatally wounded. Matured and repentant through his experiences Himmelstoß later asks for forgiveness from his previous charges. As he becomes the new staff cook, to prove his friendship he secures two pounds of sugar for Bäumer and half a pound of butter for Tjaden.\n\n===Detering===\nDetering is a farmer who constantly longs to return to his wife and farm. He is also fond of horses and is angered when he sees them used in combat. He says, \"It is of the vilest baseness to use horses in the war,\" when the group hears several wounded horses writhe and scream for a long time before dying during a bombardment. He tries to shoot them to put them out of misery, but is stopped by Kat to keep their current position hidden. He is driven to desert when he sees a cherry tree in blossom, which reminds him of home too much and inspires him to leave. He is found by military police and court-martialed, and is never heard from again.\n\n===Josef Hamacher===\nHamacher is a patient at the Catholic hospital where Paul and Albert Kropp are temporarily stationed. He has an intimate knowledge of the workings of the hospital. He also has a \"Special Permit,\" certifying him as sporadically not responsible for his actions due to a head wound, though he is clearly quite sane and exploiting his permit so he can stay in the hospital and away from the war as long as possible.\n\n===Franz Kemmerich===\nA young boy of only 19 years. Franz Kemmerich had enlisted in the army for World War I along with his best friend and classmate, Bäumer. Kemmerich is shot in the leg early in the story; his injured leg has to be amputated, and he dies shortly after. In anticipation of Kemmerich's imminent death, Müller was eager to get his boots. While in the hospital, someone steals Kemmerich's watch that he intended to give to his mother, causing him great distress and prompting him to ask about his watch every time his friends visit him in the hospital. Paul later finds the watch and hands it over to Kemmerich's mother, only to lie and say Franz died instantly and painlessly when questioned.\n\n===Joseph Behm===\nA student in Paul's class who is described as youthful and overweight. Behm was the only student that was not quickly influenced by Kantorek's patriotism to join the war, but eventually, due to pressure from friends and Kantorek, he joins the war. He is the first of Paul's friends to die. He is blinded in no man's land and believed to be dead by his friends. The next day, when he is seen walking blindly around no-man's-land, it is discovered that he was only unconscious. However, he is killed before he can be rescued.\n",
"From November 10 to December 9, 1928, ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' was published in serial form in Vossische Zeitung magazine. It was released in book form the following year to smashing success, selling one and a half million copies that same year. Although publishers had worried that interest in World War I had waned more than 10 years after the armistice, Remarque's realistic depiction of trench warfare from the perspective of young soldiers struck a chord with the war's survivors—soldiers and civilians alike—and provoked strong reactions, both positive and negative, around the world.\n\nWith ''All Quiet on the Western Front'', Remarque emerged as an eloquent spokesman for a generation that had been, in his own words, \"destroyed by war, even though it might have escaped its shells.\" Remarque's harshest critics, in turn, were his countrymen, many of whom felt the book denigrated the German war effort, and that Remarque had exaggerated the horrors of war to further his pacifist agenda. The strongest voices against Remarque came from the emerging National Socialist Party and its ideological allies. In 1933, when the Nazis rose to power, ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' became one of the first degenerate books to be publicly burnt; in 1930 screenings of the Academy Award-winning film based on the book were met with Nazi-organized protests and mob attacks on both movie theatres and audience members.\n\nHowever, objections to Remarque’s portrayal of the German army personnel during World War I were not limited to the Nazis. Dr. Karl Kroner (de) objected to Remarque’s depiction of the medical personnel as being inattentive, uncaring, or absent from frontline action. Dr. Kroner was specifically worried that the book would perpetuate German stereotypes abroad that had subsided since the First World War. He offered the following clarification: “People abroad will draw the following conclusions: if German doctors deal with their own fellow countrymen in this manner, what acts of inhumanity will they not perpetuate against helpless prisoners delivered up into their hands or against the populations of occupied territory?”\n\nA fellow patient of Remarque’s in the military hospital in Duisburg objected to the negative depictions of the nuns and patients, and of the general portrayal of soldiers: “There were soldiers to whom the protection of homeland, protection of house and homestead, protection of family were the highest objective, and to whom this will to protect their homeland gave the strength to endure any extremities.”\n\nThese criticisms suggest that perhaps experiences of the war and the personal reactions of individual soldiers to their experiences may be more diverse than Remarque portrays them; however, it is beyond question that Remarque gives voice to a side of the war and its experience that was overlooked or suppressed at the time. This perspective is crucial to understanding the true effects of World War I. The evidence can be seen in the lingering depression that Remarque and many of his friends and acquaintances were suffering a decade later.\n\nIn contrast, ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' was trumpeted by pacifists as an anti-war book. Remarque makes a point in the opening statement that the novel does not advocate any political position, but is merely an attempt to describe the experiences of the soldier.\n\nThe main artistic criticism was that it was a mediocre attempt to cash in on public sentiment. The enormous popularity the work received was a point of contention for some literary critics, who scoffed at the fact that such a simple work could be so earth-shattering. Much of this literary criticism came from Salomo Friedlaender, who wrote a book ''Hat Erich Maria Remarque wirklich gelebt?'' \"Did Erich Maria Remarque really live?\" (under pen name Mynona), which was, in its turn, criticized in: ''Hat Mynona wirklich gelebt?'' \"Did Mynona really live?\" by Kurt Tucholsky. Friedlaender’s criticism was mainly personal in nature—he attacked Remarque as being ego-centric and greedy. Remarque publicly stated that he wrote ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' for personal reasons, not for profit, as Friedlaender had charged. wrote a parody titled ''Vor Troja nichts Neues'' (''Compared to Troy, Nothing New'') under the pseudonym ''Emil Marius Requark''.\n",
"\n===Film===\nPoster for the movie ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' (1930), featuring star Lew Ayres\n\n\nIn 1930, an American film of the novel was made, directed by Lewis Milestone; with a screenplay by Maxwell Anderson, George Abbott, Del Andrews, C. Gardner Sullivan; and with uncredited work by Walter Anthony and Milestone. It stars Louis Wolheim, Lew Ayres, John Wray, Arnold Lucy, and Ben Alexander.\n\nThe film won the Academy Award for Best Picture in 1930 for its producer Carl Laemmle Jr., the Academy Award for Directing for Lewis Milestone, and the Academy Award for Outstanding Production. It was the first all-talking non-musical film to win the Best Picture Oscar. It also received two further nominations: Best Cinematography, for Arthur Edeson, and Best Writing Achievement for Abbott, Anderson, and Andrews.\n\nIn 2016, it was confirmed that Roger Donaldson will direct a remake of ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' starring Travis Fimmel as Katczinsky.\n\n===TV film===\n\nIn 1979, the film was remade for CBS television by Delbert Mann, starring Richard Thomas of ''The Waltons'' as Paul Bäumer and Ernest Borgnine as Kat. The movie was filmed in Czechoslovakia.\n\n===Music===\nElton John's album ''Jump Up!'' (1982) features the song, \"All Quiet on the Western Front\" (written by Elton and Bernie Taupin). The song is a sorrowful rendition of the novel's story (\"It's gone all quiet on the Western Front / Male Angels sigh / ghosts in a flooded trench / As Germany dies\").\n\nBob Dylan, during his Nobel Laureate lecture, cited this book as one that had a profound effect on this songwriting.\n\n===Radio===\nOn November 9, 2008, a radio adaptation of the novel was broadcast on BBC Radio 3, starring Robert Lonsdale as Paul Bäumer and Shannon Graney as Katczinsky. Its screenplay was written by Dave Sheasby, and the show was directed by David Hunter.\n\n=== Audiobooks ===\nIn 2000, Recorded Books released an audiobook of the text, read by Frank Muller.\n\nIn 2010, Hachette Audio UK published an audiobook adaptation of the novel, narrated by Tom Lawrence. It was well received by critics and listeners.\n",
"\n*Bildungsroman\n*List of books with anti-war themes\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* CliffsNotes\n* Spark Notes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Title and translation",
"Plot summary",
"Themes",
"Main characters",
"Minor characters",
"Publication and reception",
"Adaptations",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | All Quiet on the Western Front |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''African Americans''' (also referred to as '''Black Americans''' or '''Afro-Americans''') are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to include only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American.\n\nBlack and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States (after White Americans and Hispanic and Latino Americans). Most African Americans are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of West/Central African and European descent, and some also have Native American ancestry. According to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%). Immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.\n\nAfrican-American history starts in the 16th century, with peoples from West Africa forcibly taken as slaves to Spanish America, and in the 17th century with West African slaves taken to English colonies in North America. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, with four million denied freedom from bondage prior to the Civil War. Due largely to notions of white supremacy, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only, and only white men of property could vote. These circumstances were changed by Reconstruction, development of the black community, participation in the great military conflicts of the United States, the elimination of racial segregation, and the Civil Rights Movement which sought political and social freedom. In 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States.\n",
"\n\n===Colonial era===\n\nThe first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony (most likely located in the Winyah Bay area of present-day South Carolina), founded by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in 1526.\n\nThe ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic and the colony was abandoned. The settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come.\n\nThe first recorded Africans in British North America (including most of the future United States) were \"20 and odd negroes\" who came to Jamestown, Virginia via Cape Comfort in August 1619 as indentured servants. As English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers.\n\nSlaves processing tobacco in 17th-century Virginia\nTypically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World. The landowner received 50 acres of land from the state (headrights) for each servant purchased (around £6 per person, equivalent to 9 months income in the 17th century) from a ship's captain.\n\nAn indentured servant (who could be white or black) would work for several years (usually four to seven) without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery. Servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Unlike slaves, they were freed after their term of service expired or was bought out, their children did not inherit their status, and on their release from contract they received \"a year's provision of corn, double apparel, tools necessary\", and a small cash payment called \"freedom dues\".\n\nAfricans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom. They raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers.\n\n''The First Slave Auction at New Amsterdam in 1655'', by Howard Pyle\nBy the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of lifetime slavery when they sentenced John Punch, a Negro, to lifetime servitude under his master Hugh Gwyn for running away.\n\nOne of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would later own one of the first black \"slaves\", John Casor, resulting from the court ruling of a civil case.\n\nThe popular conception of a race-based slave system did not fully develop until the 18th century. The Dutch West India Company introduced slavery in 1625 with the importation of eleven black slaves into New Amsterdam (present-day New York City). All the colony's slaves, however, were freed upon its surrender to the British.\n\nCharleston, South Carolina, in 1769.\nMassachusetts was the first British colony to legally recognize slavery in 1641. In 1662 Virginia passed a law that children of enslaved women (who were of African descent and thus foreigners) took the status of the mother, rather than that of the father, as under English common law. This principle was called ''partus sequitur ventrum''.\n\nBy an act of 1699, the colony ordered all free blacks deported, virtually defining as slaves all people of African descent who remained in the colony. In 1670 the colonial assembly passed a law prohibiting free and baptized negroes (and Indians) from purchasing Christians (in this act meaning English or European whites) but allowing them to buy people \"of their owne nation\".\n\nThe earliest African-American congregations and churches were organized before 1800 in both northern and southern cities following the Great Awakening. By 1775, Africans made up 20% of the population in the American colonies, which made them the second largest ethnic group after the English.\n\n===From the American Revolution to the Civil War===\n\nCrispus Attucks, the first \"martyr\" of the American Revolution. He was of Native American and African-American descent.\nDuring the 1770s, Africans, both enslaved and free, helped rebellious English colonists secure American Independence by defeating the British in the American Revolution. Africans and Englishmen fought side by side and were fully integrated.\n\nBlacks played a role in both sides in the American Revolution. Activists in the Patriot cause included James Armistead, Prince Whipple and Oliver Cromwell.\n\nSlavery had been tacitly enshrined in the U.S. Constitution through provisions such as Article I, Section 2, Clause 3, commonly known as the 3/5 compromise. Slavery, which by then meant almost exclusively African Americans, was the most important political issue in the antebellum United States, leading to one crisis after another. Among these were the Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, the Fugitive Slave Act, and the Dred Scott decision.\n\nFrederick Douglass\nPrior to the Civil War, eight serving presidents owned slaves, a practice protected by the U.S. Constitution. By 1860, there were 3.5 to 4.4 million enslaved blacks in the U.S. due to the Atlantic slave trade, and another 488,000–500,000 African Americans lived free (with legislated limits) across the country. With legislated limits imposed upon them in addition to \"unconquerable prejudice\" from whites according to Henry Clay, some blacks who weren't enslaved left the U.S. for Liberia in Africa. Liberia began as a settlement of the American Colonization Society (ACS) in 1821, with the abolitionist members of the ACS believing blacks would face better chances for freedom and equality in Africa.\n\nThe slaves not only constituted a large investment, they produced America's most valuable product and export: cotton. They not only helped build the U.S. Capitol, they built the White House and other District of Columbia buildings. (Washington was a slave trading center.) Similar building projects existed in slaveholding states.\n\nIn 1863, during the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. The proclamation declared that all slaves in Confederate-held territory were free. Advancing Union troops enforced the proclamation with Texas being the last state to be emancipated, in 1865.\n\nHarriet Tubman\nSlavery in Union-held Confederate territory continued, at least on paper, until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865. Prior to the Civil War, only white men of property could vote, and the Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only. The 14th Amendment (1868) gave African-Americans citizenship, and the 15th Amendment (1870) gave African-American males the right to vote (only males could vote in the U.S. at the time).\n\n===Reconstruction Era and Jim Crow===\n\n\nAfrican Americans quickly set up congregations for themselves, as well as schools and community/civic associations, to have space away from white control or oversight. While the post-war Reconstruction era was initially a time of progress for African Americans, that period ended in 1876. By the late 1890s, Southern states enacted Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation and disenfranchisement. Segregation, which began with slavery, continued with Jim Crow laws, with signs used to show blacks where they could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat. For those places that were racially mixed, non whites had to wait until all white customers were dealt with. Most African Americans obeyed the Jim Crow laws, in order to avoid racially motivated violence. To maintain self-esteem and dignity, African Americans such as Anthony Overton and Mary McLeod Bethune continued to build their own schools, churches, banks, social clubs, and other businesses.\n\nIn the last decade of the 19th century, racially discriminatory laws and racial violence aimed at African Americans began to mushroom in the United States, a period often referred to as the \"nadir of American race relations\". These discriminatory acts included racial segregation—upheld by the United States Supreme Court decision in ''Plessy v. Ferguson'' in 1896—which was legally mandated by southern states and nationwide at the local level of government, voter suppression or disenfranchisement in the southern states, denial of economic opportunity or resources nationwide, and private acts of violence and mass racial violence aimed at African Americans unhindered or encouraged by government authorities.\n\n===Great Migration and Civil Rights Movement===\n\nA group of white men pose for a 1919 photograph as they stand over the black victim Will Brown who had been lynched and had his body mutilated and burned during the Omaha race riot of 1919 in Omaha, Nebraska. Postcards and photographs of lynchings were popular souvenirs in the U.S.\nThe desperate conditions of African Americans in the South sparked the Great Migration of the early 20th century which led to a growing African-American community in the Northern United States. The rapid influx of blacks disturbed the racial balance within Northern cities, exacerbating hostility between both black and white Northerners. Urban riots—whites attacking blacks—became a northern problem. The Red Summer of 1919 was marked by hundreds of deaths and higher casualties across the U.S. as a result of race riots that occurred in more than three dozen cities, such as the Chicago race riot of 1919 and the Omaha race riot of 1919. Overall, blacks in Northern cities experienced systemic discrimination in a plethora of aspects of life. Within employment, economic opportunities for blacks were routed to the lowest-status and restrictive in potential mobility. Within the housing market, stronger discriminatory measures were used in correlation to the influx, resulting in a mix of \"targeted violence, restrictive covenants, redlining and racial steering\". While many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward African Americans, many other whites migrated to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions, a process known as white flight.\n\nEmmett Till was a fourteen-year-old boy whose lynching mobilized the black community throughout the U.S.\nBy the 1950s, the Civil Rights Movement was gaining momentum. A 1955 lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in Money, Mississippi, Till was killed for allegedly having wolf-whistled at a white woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head. The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the black community throughout the U.S. Vann R. Newkirk| wrote \"the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of white supremacy\". The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were speedily acquitted by an all-white jury. One hundred days after Emmett Till's murder, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on the bus in Alabama—indeed, Parks told Emmett's mother Mamie Till that \"the photograph of Emmett’s disfigured face in the casket was set in her mind when she refused to give up her seat on the Montgomery bus.\" \n\nMarch on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, August 28, 1963, shows civil rights leaders and union leaders.\n\nThe March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom and the conditions which brought it into being are credited with putting pressure on Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson put his support behind passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and labor unions, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which expanded federal authority over states to ensure black political participation through protection of voter registration and elections. By 1966, the emergence of the Black Power movement, which lasted from 1966 to 1975, expanded upon the aims of the Civil Rights Movement to include economic and political self-sufficiency, and freedom from white authority.\n\nDuring the postwar period, many African Americans continued to be economically disadvantaged relative to other Americans. Average black income stood at 54 percent of that of white workers in 1947, and 55 percent in 1962. In 1959, median family income for whites was $5,600, compared with $2,900 for nonwhite families. In 1965, 43 percent of all black families fell into the poverty bracket, earning under $3,000 a year. The Sixties saw improvements in the social and economic conditions of many black Americans.\n\nFrom 1965 to 1969, black family income rose from 54 to 60 percent of white family income. In 1968, 23 percent of black families earned under $3,000 a year, compared with 41 percent in 1960. In 1965, 19 percent of black Americans had incomes equal to the national median, a proportion that rose to 27 percent by 1967. In 1960, the median level of education for blacks had been 10.8 years, and by the late Sixties the figure rose to 12.2 years, half a year behind the median for whites.\n\n===Post-Civil Rights era===\n\n\nPolitically and economically, African Americans have made substantial strides during the post-civil rights era. In 1989, Douglas Wilder became the first African American elected governor in U.S. history. Clarence Thomas became the second African-American Supreme Court Justice. In 1992 Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois became the first African-American woman elected to the U.S. Senate. There were 8,936 black officeholders in the United States in 2000, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001 there were 484 black mayors.\n\nIn 2005, the number of Africans immigrating to the United States, in a single year, surpassed the peak number who were involuntarily brought to the United States during the Atlantic Slave Trade. On November 4, 2008, Democratic Senator Barack Obama defeated Republican Senator John McCain to become the first African American to be elected President. At least 95 percent of African-American voters voted for Obama. He also received overwhelming support from young and educated whites, a majority of Asians, Hispanics, and Native Americans picking up a number of new states in the Democratic electoral column. Obama lost the overall white vote, although he won a larger proportion of white votes than any previous nonincumbent Democratic presidential candidate since Jimmy Carter. Obama was reelected for a second and final term, by a similar margin on November 6, 2012.\n",
"The proportional geographic distribution of African Americans in the United States, 2000.\nU.S. Census map indicating U.S. counties with fewer than 25 black or African-American inhabitants\nPercentage of population self-reported as African-American by state in 2010:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nthe major declines between 1910 and 1940 and 1940–1970, and the reverse trend post-1970. Nonetheless, the absolute majority of the African American population has always lived in the American South.\n\nIn 1790, when the first U.S. Census was taken, Africans (including slaves and free people) numbered about 760,000—about 19.3% of the population. In 1860, at the start of the Civil War, the African-American population had increased to 4.4 million, but the percentage rate dropped to 14% of the overall population of the country. The vast majority were slaves, with only 488,000 counted as \"freemen\". By 1900, the black population had doubled and reached 8.8 million.\n\nIn 1910, about 90% of African Americans lived in the South. Large numbers began migrating north looking for better job opportunities and living conditions, and to escape Jim Crow laws and racial violence. The Great Migration, as it was called, spanned the 1890s to the 1970s. From 1916 through the 1960s, more than 6 million black people moved north. But in the 1970s and 1980s, that trend reversed, with more African Americans moving south to the Sun Belt than leaving it.\n\nThe following table of the African-American population in the United States over time shows that the African-American population, as a percentage of the total population, declined until 1930 and has been rising since then.\n\n+ African Americans in the United States\n Year\nNumber\n% of totalpopulation\n% Change(10 yr)\nSlaves\n% in slavery\n\n1790\n757,208\n19.3% (highest)\n –\n697,681\n92%\n\n1800\n1,002,037\n18.9%\n32.3%\n893,602\n89%\n\n1810\n1,377,808\n19.0%\n37.5%\n1,191,362\n86%\n\n1820\n1,771,656\n18.4%\n28.6%\n1,538,022\n87%\n\n1830\n2,328,642\n18.1%\n31.4%\n2,009,043\n86%\n\n1840\n2,873,648\n16.8%\n23.4%\n2,487,355\n87%\n\n1850\n3,638,808\n15.7%\n26.6%\n3,204,287\n88%\n\n1860\n4,441,830\n14.1%\n22.1%\n3,953,731\n89%\n\n1870\n4,880,009\n12.7%\n9.9%\n –\n –\n\n1880\n6,580,793\n13.1%\n34.9%\n –\n –\n\n1890\n7,488,788\n11.9%\n13.8%\n –\n –\n\n1900\n8,833,994\n11.6%\n18.0%\n –\n –\n\n1910\n9,827,763\n10.7%\n11.2%\n –\n –\n\n1920\n10.5 million\n9.9%\n6.8%\n –\n –\n\n1930\n11.9 million\n9.7% (lowest)\n13%\n –\n –\n\n1940\n12.9 million\n9.8%\n8.4%\n –\n –\n\n1950\n15.0 million\n10.0%\n16%\n –\n –\n\n1960\n18.9 million\n10.5%\n26%\n –\n –\n\n1970\n22.6 million\n11.1%\n20%\n –\n –\n\n1980\n26.5 million\n11.7%\n17%\n –\n –\n\n1990\n30.0 million\n12.1%\n13%\n –\n –\n\n2000\n34.6 million\n12.3%\n15%\n –\n –\n\n2010\n38.9 million\n12.6%\n12%\n –\n –\n\n\nBy 1990, the African-American population reached about 30 million and represented 12% of the U.S. population, roughly the same proportion as in 1900.\n\nAt the time of the 2000 Census, 54.8% of African Americans lived in the South. In that year, 17.6% of African Americans lived in the Northeast and 18.7% in the Midwest, while only 8.9% lived in the western states. The west does have a sizable black population in certain areas, however. California, the nation's most populous state, has the fifth largest African-American population, only behind New York, Texas, Georgia, and Florida. According to the 2000 Census, approximately 2.05% of African Americans identified as Hispanic or Latino in origin, many of whom may be of Brazilian, Puerto Rican, Dominican, Cuban, Haitian, or other Latin American descent. The only self-reported ''ancestral'' groups larger than African Americans are the Irish and Germans. Because many African Americans trace their ancestry to colonial American origins, some simply self-identify as \"American\".\n\nAccording to the 2010 US Census, nearly 3% of people who self-identified as black had recent ancestors who immigrated from another country. Self-reported non-Hispanic black immigrants from the Caribbean, mostly from Jamaica and Haiti, represented 0.9% of the US population, at 2.6 million. Self-reported black immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa also represented 0.9%, at about 2.8 million. Additionally, self-identified Black Hispanics represented 0.4% of the United States population, at about 1.2 million people, largely found within the Puerto Rican and Dominican communities. Self-reported black immigrants hailing from other countries in the Americas, such as Brazil and Canada, as well as several European countries, represented less than 0.1% of the population. Mixed-Race Hispanic and non-Hispanic Americans who identified as being part black, represented 0.9% of the population. Of the 12.6% of United States residents who identified as black, around 10.3% were \"native black American\" or ethnic African Americans, who are direct descendants of West/Central Africans brought to the U.S. as slaves. These individuals make up well over 80% of all blacks in the country. When including people of mixed-race origin, about 13.5% of the US population self-identified as black or \"mixed with black\". However, according to the U.S. census bureau, evidence from the 2000 Census indicates that many African and Caribbean immigrant ethnic groups do not identify as \"Black, African Am., or Negro\". Instead, they wrote in their own respective ethnic groups in the \"Some Other Race\" write-in entry. As a result, the census bureau devised a new, separate \"African American\" ethnic group category in 2010 for ethnic African Americans. Following lobbying led by the Arab American Institute, a national organization representing Arab Americans, the census bureau also announced in 2014 that it may establish an additional new ethnic category for populations from the Middle East, North Africa and the Arab world.\n\n===U.S. cities===\n\nAlmost 58% of African Americans lived in metropolitan areas in 2000. With over 2 million black residents, New York City had the largest black urban population in the United States in 2000, overall the city has a 28% black population. Chicago has the second largest black population, with almost 1.6 million African Americans in its metropolitan area, representing about 18 percent of the total metropolitan population.\n\nAfter 100 years of African-Americans leaving the south in large numbers seeking better opportunities in the west and north, a movement known as the Great Migration, there is now a reverse trend, called the New Great Migration. A growing percentage of African-Americans from the west and north are migrating to the southern region of the U.S. for economic and cultural reasons. New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles have the highest decline in African Americans, while Atlanta, Dallas, and Houston have the highest increase respectively.\n\nAmong cities of 100,000 or more, Detroit, Michigan had the highest percentage of black residents of any U.S. city in 2010, with 82%. Other large cities with African-American majorities include Jackson, Mississippi (79.4%), Miami Gardens, Florida (76.3%), Baltimore, Maryland (63%), Birmingham, Alabama (62.5%), Memphis, Tennessee (61%), New Orleans, Louisiana (60%), Montgomery, Alabama (56.6%), Flint, Michigan (56.6%), Savannah, Georgia (55.0%), Augusta, Georgia (54.7%), Atlanta, Georgia (54%, see African Americans in Atlanta), Cleveland, Ohio (53.3%), Newark, New Jersey (52.35%), Washington, D.C. (50.7%), Richmond, Virginia (50.6%), Mobile, Alabama (50.6%), Baton Rouge, Louisiana (50.4%), and Shreveport, Louisiana (50.4%).\n\nThe nation's most affluent community with an African-American majority resides in View Park–Windsor Hills, California with an annual median income of $159,618. Other largely affluent predominately African-American communities include Prince George's County in Maryland (namely Mitchellville, Woodmore, and Upper Marlboro), Dekalb County in Georgia, Charles City County in Virginia, Baldwin Hills in California, Hillcrest and Uniondale in New York, and Cedar Hill, DeSoto, and Missouri City in Texas. Queens County, New York is the only county with a population of 65,000 or more where African Americans have a higher median household income than White Americans.\n\nSeatack, Virginia is currently the oldest African-American community in the United States. It survives today with a vibrant and active civic community.\n\n===Education===\nAstrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson is director of New York City's Hayden Planetarium.\nBy 2012, African Americans had advanced greatly in education attainment. They still lagged overall compared to white or Asian Americans but surpassed other ethnic minorities, with 19 percent earning bachelor's degrees and 6 percent earning advanced degrees. Between 1995 and 2009, freshmen college enrollment for African Americans increased by 73 percent and only 15 percent for whites. Black women are enrolled in college more than any other race and gender group, leading all with 9.7% enrolled according to the 2011 U.S. Census Bureau. Predominantly black schools for kindergarten through twelfth grade students were common throughout the U.S. before the 1970s. By 1972, however, desegregation efforts meant that only 25% of Black students were in schools with more than 90% non-white students. However, since then, a trend towards re-segregation affected communities across the country: by 2011, 2.9 million African-American students were in such overwhelmingly minority schools, including 53% of Black students in school districts that were formerly under desegregation orders.\n\nHistorically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), which were originally set up when segregated colleges did not admit African Americans, continue to thrive and educate students of all races today. The majority of HBCUs were established in the southeastern United States, Alabama has the most HBCUs of any state.\n\nAs late as 1947, about one third of African Americans over 65 were considered to lack the literacy to read and write their own names. By 1969, illiteracy as it had been traditionally defined, had been largely eradicated among younger African Americans.\n\nUS Census surveys showed that by 1998, 89 percent of African Americans aged 25 to 29 had completed a high-school education, less than whites or Asians, but more than Hispanics. On many college entrance, standardized tests and grades, African Americans have historically lagged behind whites, but some studies suggest that the achievement gap has been closing. Many policy makers have proposed that this gap can and will be eliminated through policies such as affirmative action, desegregation, and multiculturalism.\n\nThe average high school graduation rate of blacks in the United States has steadily increased to 71% in 2013. Separating this statistic into component parts shows it varies greatly depending upon the state and the school district examined. 38% of black males graduated in the state of New York but in Maine 97% graduated and exceeded the white male graduation rate by 11 percentage points. In much of the southeastern United States and some parts of the southwestern United States the graduation rate of white males was in fact below 70% such as in Florida where a 62% of white males graduated high school. Examining specific school districts paints an even more complex picture. In the Detroit school district the graduation rate of black males was 20% but 7% for white males. In the New York City school district 28% of black males graduate high school compared to 57% of white males. In Newark County 76% of black males graduated compared to 67% for white males. Further academic improvement has occurred in 2015. Roughly 23% of all blacks have bachelor's degrees. In 1988, 21% of whites had obtained a bachelor's degree versus 11% of blacks. In 2015, 23% of blacks had obtained a bachelor's degree versus 36% of whites. Foreign born blacks, 9% of the black population, made even greater strides. They exceed native born blacks by 10 percentage points.\n\n\nIn Chicago, Marva Collins, an African-American educator, created a low cost private school specifically for the purpose of teaching low-income African-American children whom the public school system had labeled as being \"learning disabled\". One article about Marva Collins' school stated,\nWorking with students having the worst of backgrounds, those who were working far below grade level, and even those who had been labeled as 'unteachable,' Marva was able to overcome the obstacles. News of third grade students reading at ninth grade level, four-year-olds learning to read in only a few months, outstanding test scores, disappearance of behavioral problems, second-graders studying Shakespeare, and other incredible reports, astounded the public. During the 2006–2007 school year, Collins' school charged $5,500 for tuition, and parents said that the school did a much better job than the Chicago public school system. Meanwhile, during the 2007–2008 year, Chicago public school officials claimed that their budget of $11,300 per student was not enough.\n\n===Economic status===\nUS homeownership rate according to race.\n\nEconomically, African Americans have benefited from the advances made during the Civil Rights era, particularly among the educated, but not without the lingering effects of historical marginalization when considered as a whole. The racial disparity in poverty rates has narrowed. The black middle class has grown substantially. In 2010, 45% of African Americans owned their homes, compared to 67% of all Americans. The poverty rate among African Americans has decreased from 26.5% in 1998 to 24.7% in 2004, compared to 12.7% for all Americans.\n\nUS household income by race: 1967 to 2011, in 2011 dollars.\n\nAfrican Americans have a combined buying power of over $892 billion currently and likely over $1.1 trillion by 2012. In 2002, African American-owned businesses accounted for 1.2 million of the US's 23 million businesses. African American-owned businesses account for approximately 2 million US businesses. Black-owned businesses experienced the largest growth in number of businesses among minorities from 2002 to 2011.\n\nIn 2004, African-American men had the third-highest earnings of American minority groups after Asian Americans and non-Hispanic whites.\n\nTwenty-five percent of blacks had white-collar occupations (management, professional, and related fields) in 2000, compared with 33.6% of Americans overall. In 2001, over half of African-American households of married couples earned $50,000 or more. Although in the same year African Americans were over-represented among the nation's poor, this was directly related to the disproportionate percentage of African-American families headed by single women; such families are collectively poorer, regardless of ethnicity.\n\nIn 2006, the median earnings of African-American men was more than black and non-black American women overall, and in all educational levels. At the same time, among American men, income disparities were significant; the median income of African-American men was approximately 76 cents for every dollar of their European American counterparts, although the gap narrowed somewhat with a rise in educational level.\n\nOverall, the median earnings of African-American men were 72 cents for every dollar earned of their Asian American counterparts, and $1.17 for every dollar earned by Hispanic men. On the other hand, by 2006, among American women with post-secondary education, African-American women have made significant advances; the median income of African-American women was more than those of their Asian-, European- and Hispanic American counterparts with at least some college education.\n\nThe US public sector is the single most important source of employment for African Americans. During 2008–2010, 21.2% of all Black workers were public employees, compared with 16.3% of non-Black workers. Both before and after the onset of the Great Recession, African Americans were 30% more likely than other workers to be employed in the public sector.\n\nThe public sector is also a critical source of decent-paying jobs for Black Americans. For both men and women, the median wage earned by Black employees is significantly higher in the public sector than in other industries.\n\nIn 1999, the median income of African-American families was $33,255 compared to $53,356 of European Americans. In times of economic hardship for the nation, African Americans suffer disproportionately from job loss and underemployment, with the black underclass being hardest hit. The phrase \"last hired and first fired\" is reflected in the Bureau of Labor Statistics unemployment figures. Nationwide, the October 2008 unemployment rate for African Americans was 11.1%, while the nationwide rate was 6.5%.\n\nThe income gap between black and white families is also significant. In 2005, employed blacks earned 65% of the wages of whites, down from 82% in 1975. ''The New York Times'' reported in 2006 that in Queens, New York, the median income among African-American families exceeded that of white families, which the newspaper attributed to the growth in the number of two-parent black families. It noted that Queens was the only county with more than 65,000 residents where that was true.\n\nIn 2011, it was reported that 72% of black babies were born to unwed mothers. The poverty rate among single-parent black families was 39.5% in 2005, according to Williams, while it was 9.9% among married-couple black families. Among white families, the respective rates were 26.4% and 6% in poverty.\n\n===Health===\n\nThe life expectancy for Black men in 2008 was 70.8 years. Life expectancy for Black women was 77.5 years in 2008. In 1900, when information on Black life expectancy started being collated, a Black man could expect to live to 32.5 years and a Black woman 33.5 years. In 1900, White men lived an average of 46.3 years and White women lived an average of 48.3 years. African-American life expectancy at birth is persistently five to seven years lower than European Americans.\n\nBlack people have higher rates of obesity, diabetes and hypertension than the US average. For adult Black men, the rate of obesity was 31.6% in 2010. For adult Black women, the rate of obesity was 41.2% in 2010. African Americans have higher rates of mortality than does any other racial or ethnic group for 8 of the top 10 causes of death. In 2013, among men, black men had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by white, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander (A/PI), and American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) men. Among women, white women had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native women.\nViolence has an impact upon African-American life expectancy. A report from the U.S. Department of Justice states \"In 2005, homicide victimization rates for blacks were 6 times higher than the rates for whites\". The report also found that \"94% of black victims were killed by blacks.\"\n\nAIDS is one of the top three causes of death for African-American men aged 25–54 and for African-American women aged 35–44 years. In the United States, African Americans make up about 48% of the total HIV-positive population and make up more than half of new HIV cases. The main route of transmission for women is through unprotected heterosexual sex. African-American women are 19 times more likely to contract HIV than other women.\n\nWashington, D.C. has the nation's highest rate of HIV/AIDS infection, at 3%. This rate is comparable to what is seen in West Africa, and is considered a severe epidemic. Dr. Ray Martins, Chief Medical Officer at the Whitman-Walker Clinic, the largest provider of HIV care in Washington D.C., estimated that the actual underlying percent with HIV/AIDS in the city is \"closer to five percent\".\n\n===Sexuality===\nAccording to a Gallup survey conducted from June to September 2012, 4.6 percent of Black or African Americans self identify as LGBT; this is greater than the estimated 3.4 percent of American adults that self identify as LGBT in the total population.\n",
"\nReligious affiliation of African Americans\nMount Zion United Methodist Church is the oldest African-American congregation in Washington, D.C.\nMasjid Malcolm Shabazz in Harlem, New York City\nThe majority of African Americans are Protestant, many of whom follow the historically black churches. The term Black church refers to churches which minister to predominantly African-American congregations. Black congregations were first established by freed slaves at the end of the 17th century, and later when slavery was abolished more African Americans were allowed to create a unique form of Christianity that was culturally influenced by African spiritual traditions.\n\nAccording to a 2007 survey, more than half of the African-American population are part of the historically black churches. The largest Protestant denomination among African Americans are the Baptists, distributed mainly in four denominations, the largest being the National Baptist Convention, USA and the National Baptist Convention of America. The second largest are the Methodists, the largest denominations are the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church.\n\nPentecostals are distributed among several different religious bodies, with the Church of God in Christ as the largest among them by far. About 16% of African-American Christians are members of white Protestant communions, these denominations (which include the United Church of Christ) mostly have a 2 to 3% African-American membership. There are also large numbers of Roman Catholics, constituting 5% of the African-American population. Of the total number of Jehovah's Witnesses, 22% are black.\n\nSome African Americans follow Islam. Historically, between 15 and 30% of enslaved Africans brought to the Americas were Muslims, but most of these Africans were converted to Christianity during the era of American slavery. During the twentieth century, some African Americans converted to Islam, mainly through the influence of black nationalist groups that preached with distinctive Islamic practices; including the Moorish Science Temple of America, and the largest organization, the Nation of Islam, founded in the 1930s, which attracted at least 20,000 people by 1963, prominent members included activist Malcolm X and boxer Muhammad Ali.\n\nMalcolm X is considered the first person to start the movement among African Americans towards mainstream Islam, after he left the Nation and made the pilgrimage to Mecca. In 1975, Warith Deen Mohammed, the son of Elijah Muhammad took control of the Nation after his father's death and guided the majority of its members to orthodox Islam. However, a few members rejected these changes, in particular Louis Farrakhan, who revived the Nation of Islam in 1978 based on its original teachings.\n\nAfrican-American Muslims constitute 20% of the total U.S. Muslim population, the majority are Sunni or orthodox Muslims, some of these identify under the community of W. Deen Mohammed. The Nation of Islam led by Louis Farrakhan has a membership ranging from 20,000–50,000 members.\n\nThere are relatively few African-American Jews; estimates of their number range from 20,000 to 200,000. Most of these Jews are part of mainstream groups such as the Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox branches of Judaism; although there are significant numbers of people who are part of non-mainstream Jewish groups, largely the Black Hebrew Israelites, whose beliefs include the claim that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Israelites.\n\nConfirmed atheists are less than one half of one-percent, similar to numbers for Hispanics.\n",
"African Americans have a long and diverse history of business ownership. Although the first African-American business is unknown, slaves captured from West Africa are believed to have established commercial enterprises as peddlers and skilled craftspeople as far back as the 17th century. Around 1900, Booker T. Washington became the most famous proponent of African American businesses. His critic and rival W.E.B. DuBois also commended business as a vehicle for African American advancement.\n",
"\nAfrican American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a variety (dialect, ethnolect, and sociolect) of American English, commonly spoken by urban working-class and largely bi-dialectal middle-class African Americans. Non-linguists sometimes call it ''Ebonics'' (a term that also has other meanings and connotations).\n\nAfrican American Vernacular English evolved during the antebellum period through interaction between speakers of 16th and 17th century English of Great Britain and Ireland and various West African languages. As a result, the variety shares parts of its grammar and phonology with the Southern American English dialect. Where African American Vernacular English differs from Standard American English (SAE) is in certain pronunciation characteristics, tense usage and grammatical structures that were derived from West African languages, particularly those belonging to the Niger-Congo family.\n\nVirtually all habitual speakers of African American Vernacular English can understand and communicate in Standard American English. As with all linguistic forms, AAVE's usage is influenced by various factors, including geographical, educational and socioeconomic background, as well as formality of setting. Additionally, there are many literary uses of this variety of English, particularly in African-American literature.\n\nSome of the new words used by the people include \"fleek\" which means on point and \"throwing shade\" which means offending someone.\n",
"\n===Genome-wide studies===\nGenetic clustering of 128 African Americans, by Zakharaia et al. (2009). Each vertical bar represents individual.\n\nRecent surveys of African Americans using a genetic testing service have found varied ancestries which show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2-82.1% West African, 16.7%-24% European, and 0.8–1.2% Native American genetic ancestry, with large variation between individuals. Genetics websites themselves have reported similar ranges, with some finding 1 or 2 percent Native American ancestry and Ancestry.com reporting an outlying percentage of European ancestry among African Americans, 29%.\n\nAccording to a genome-wide study by Bryc et al. (2009), the overall ancestry of African Americans was formed through historic admixture between West/Central Africans (more frequently females) and Europeans (more frequently males). Consequently, the 365 African Americans in their sample have a genome-wide average of 78.1% West African ancestry and 18.5% European ancestry, with large variation among individuals (ranging from 99% to 1% West African ancestry). The West African ancestral component in African Americans is most similar to that in present-day speakers from the non-Bantu branches of the Niger-Congo (Niger-Kordofanian) family.\n\nCorrespondingly, Montinaro et al. (2014) observed that around 50% of the overall ancestry of African Americans traces back to the Niger-Congo-speaking Yoruba of southwestern Nigeria and southern Benin, reflecting the centrality of this West Africa region in the Atlantic Slave Trade. The next most frequent ancestral component found among African Americans was derived from Great Britain, in keeping with historical records. It constitutes a little over 10% of their overall ancestry, and is most similar to the Northwest European ancestral component also carried by Barbadians. Zakharaia et al. (2009) found a similar proportion of Yoruba associated ancestry in their African-American samples, with a minority also drawn from Mandenka and Bantu populations. Additionally, the researchers observed an average European ancestry of 21.9%, again with significant variation between individuals. Bryc et al. (2009) note that populations from other parts of the continent may also constitute adequate proxies for the ancestors of some African-American individuals; namely, ancestral populations from Guinea Bissau, Senegal and Sierra Leone in West Africa and Angola in Southern Africa.\n\nAltogether, genetic studies suggest that African Americans are a multiracial people. According to DNA analysis led in 2006 by Penn State geneticist Mark D. Shriver, around 58 percent of African Americans have at least 12.5% European ancestry (equivalent to one European great-grandparent and his/her forebears), 19.6 percent of African Americans have at least 25% European ancestry (equivalent to one European grandparent and his/her forebears), and 1 percent of African Americans have at least 50% European ancestry (equivalent to one European parent and his/her forebears). According to Shriver, around 5 percent of African Americans also have at least 12.5% Native American ancestry (equivalent to one Native American great-grandparent and his/her forebears).\n\n===Y-DNA===\nAccording to a Y-DNA study by Sims et al. (2007), the majority (~60%) of African Americans belong to various subclades of the E3a (E1b1a) paternal haplogroup. This is the most common genetic paternal lineage found today among West/Central African males, and is also a signature of the historical Bantu migrations. The next most frequent Y-DNA haplogroup observed among African Americans is the R1b clade, which around 15% of African Americans carry. This lineage is most common today among Northwestern European males. The remaining African Americans mainly belong to the paternal haplogroup I (~7%), which is also frequent in Northwestern Europe.\n\n===mtDNA===\nAccording to an mtDNA study by Salas et al. (2005), the maternal lineages of African Americans are most similar to haplogroups that are today especially common in West Africa (>55%), followed closely by West-Central Africa and Southwestern Africa (<41%). The characteristic West African haplogroups L1b, L2b,c,d, and L3b,d and West-Central African haplogroups L1c and L3e in particular occur at high frequencies among African Americans. As with the paternal DNA of African Americans, contributions from other parts of the continent to their maternal gene pool are insignificant.\n",
"\nAfrican-American names are part of the cultural traditions of African Americans. Prior to the 1950s and 1960s, most African-American names closely resembled those used within European American culture. Babies of that era were generally given a few common names, with children using nicknames to distinguish the various people with the same name. With the rise of 1960s civil rights movement, there was a dramatic increase in names of various origins.\n\nBy the 1970s and 1980s, it had become common among African Americans to invent new names for themselves, although many of these invented names took elements from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le, Da/De, Ra/Re and Ja/Je, and suffixes like -ique/iqua, -isha and -aun/-awn are common, as are inventive spellings for common names. The book ''Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool--The Very Last Word on First Names'' places the origins of \"La\" names in African-American culture in New Orleans.\n\nEven with the rise of inventive names, it is still common for African Americans to use biblical, historical, or traditional European names. Daniel, Christopher, Michael, David, James, Joseph, and Matthew were thus among the most frequent names for African-American boys in 2013.\n\nThe name LaKeisha is typically considered American in origin, but has elements of it that were drawn from both French and West/Central African roots. Other names like LaTanisha, JaMarcus, DeAndre, and Shaniqua were created in the same way. Punctuation marks are seen more often within African-American names than other American names, such as the names Mo'nique and D'Andre.\n",
"\nAfrican Americans have improved their social and economic standing significantly since the Civil Rights Movement and recent decades have witnessed the expansion of a robust, African -middle class across the United States. Unprecedented access to higher education and employment in addition to representation in the highest levels of American government has been gained by African Americans in the post-civil rights era.\n\nOne of the most serious and long-standing issues within African-American communities is poverty. Poverty is associated with higher rates of marital stress and dissolution, physical and mental health problems, disability, cognitive deficits, low educational attainment, and crime. In 2004, almost 25% of African-American families lived below the poverty level. In 2007, the average income for African Americans was approximately $34,000, compared to $55,000 for whites. Forty percent of prison inmates are African American. African Americans experience a higher rate of unemployment than the general population. African American males are more likely to be killed by police. This is one of the factors that led to the creation of the Black Lives Matter movement.\n",
"\nPresident Barack Obama and Michelle Obama, their daughters Malia and Sasha, and Michelle's mother, Marian Robinson at White House Easter Egg Roll\nCollectively, African Americans are more involved in the American political process than other minority groups in the United States, indicated by the highest level of voter registration and participation in elections among these groups in 2004. African Americans collectively attain higher levels of education than immigrants to the United States. African Americans also have the highest level of Congressional representation of any minority group in the U.S.\n\nA large majority of African Americans support the Democratic Party. In the 2004 Presidential Election, Democrat John Kerry received 88% of the African-American vote compared to 11% for Republican George W. Bush. Although there is an African-American lobby in foreign policy, it has not had the impact that African-American organizations have had in domestic policy.\n\nMany African Americans were excluded from electoral politics in the decades following the end of Reconstruction. For those that could participate, until the New Deal, African Americans were supporters of the Republican Party because it was Republican President Abraham Lincoln who helped in granting freedom to American slaves; at the time, the Republicans and Democrats represented the sectional interests of the North and South, respectively, rather than any specific ideology, and both right and left were represented equally in both parties.\n\nThe African-American trend of voting for Democrats can be traced back to the 1930s during the Great Depression, when Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal program provided economic relief to African Americans; Roosevelt's New Deal coalition turned the Democratic Party into an organization of the working class and their liberal allies, regardless of region. The African-American vote became even more solidly Democratic when Democratic presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson pushed for civil rights legislation during the 1960s. In 1960, nearly a third of African Americans voted for Republican Richard Nixon.\n\nAfter over 50 years, marriage rates for all Americans began to decline while divorce rates and out-of-wedlock births have climbed. These changes have been greatest among African Americans. After more than 70 years of racial parity black marriage rates began to fall behind whites. Single-parent households have become common, and according to US census figures released in January 2010, only 38 percent of black children live with both their parents.\n\nIn 2008, Democrats overwhelmingly voted 70% against California Proposition 8, African Americans voted 58% in favor of it while 42% voted against Proposition 8. On May 9, 2012, Barack Obama, the first black president, became the first US president to support same-sex marriage. After Obama's endorsement there is a rapid growth in support for same-sex marriage among African Americans. Now 59% of African Americans support same-sex marriage, which is higher than support among the national average (53%) and white Americans (50%).\n\nPolls in North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Maryland, Ohio, Florida, and Nevada have also shown an increase in support for same sex marriage among African Americans. On November 6, 2012, Maryland, Maine, and Washington all voted for approve of same-sex marriage, along with Minnesota rejecting a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage. Exit polls in Maryland show about 50% of African Americans voted for same-sex marriage, showing a vast evolution among African Americans on the issue and was crucial in helping pass same-sex marriage in Maryland.\n\nBlacks hold far more conservative opinions on abortion, extramarital sex, and raising children out of wedlock than Democrats as a whole. On financial issues, however, African Americans are in line with Democrats, generally supporting a more progressive tax structure to provide more government spending on social services.\n\n===Political legacy===\nDr. Martin Luther King, Jr. remains the most prominent political leader in the American Civil Rights Movement and perhaps the most influential African-American political figure in general.\nAfrican Americans have fought in every war in the history of the United States.\n\nThe gains made by African Americans in the Civil Rights Movement and in the Black Power movement not only obtained certain rights for African Americans, but changed American society in far-reaching and fundamentally important ways. Prior to the 1950s, Black Americans in the South were subject to de jure discrimination, or Jim Crow laws. They were often the victims of extreme cruelty and violence, sometimes resulting in deaths: by the post World War II era, African Americans became increasingly discontented with their long-standing inequality. In the words of Martin Luther King, Jr., African Americans and their supporters challenged the nation to \"rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed that all men are created equal ...\"\n\nThe Civil Rights Movement marked an enormous change in American social, political, economic and civic life. It brought with it boycotts, sit-ins, nonviolent demonstrations and marches, court battles, bombings and other violence; prompted worldwide media coverage and intense public debate; forged enduring civic, economic and religious alliances; and disrupted and realigned the nation's two major political parties.\n\nOver time, it has changed in fundamental ways the manner in which blacks and whites interact with and relate to one another. The movement resulted in the removal of codified, ''de jure'' racial segregation and discrimination from American life and law, and heavily influenced other groups and movements in struggles for civil rights and social equality within American society, including the Free Speech Movement, the disabled, the women's movement, Native Americans, and migrant workers.\n",
"\nBET founder Robert L. Johnson with former U.S. President George W. Bush\nSome activists and academics contend that news media coverage of African-American news concerns or dilemmas is inadequate or the news media present distorted images of African Americans. To combat this, Robert L. Johnson founded Black Entertainment Television, a network that targets young African Americans and urban audiences in the United States. Most programming on the network consists of rap and R&B music videos and urban-oriented movies and series. The channel also shows syndicated television series, original programs, and some public affairs programs. On Sunday mornings, BET broadcasts a lineup of network-produced Christian programming; other, non-affiliated Christian programs are also shown during the early morning hours daily. BET is now a global network that reaches 90 million households in the United States, Caribbean, Canada, and the United Kingdom.\n\nIn addition to BET there is BET Her, which is a spin-off cable television channel of BET, created originally as ''BET on Jazz'' to showcase jazz music-related programming, especially that of black jazz musicians. Programming has been expanded to include a block of urban programs as well as some R&B, soul, and world music.\n\nTV One is another African-American-oriented network and a direct competitor to BET, targeting African-American adults with a broad range of programming. The network airs original lifestyle and entertainment-oriented shows, movies, fashion and music programming, as well as classic series such as 227, Good Times, Martin, Boston Public and It's Showtime at the Apollo. The network primarily owned by Radio One. Founded and controlled by Catherine Hughes, it is one of the nation's largest radio broadcasting companies and the largest African-American-owned radio broadcasting company in the United States.\n\nOther African-American networks scheduled to launch in 2009 are the Black Television News Channel founded by former Congressman J. C. Watts and Better Black Television founded by Percy Miller. In June 2009, NBC News launched a new website named The Grio in partnership with the production team that created the black documentary film ''Meeting David Wilson''. It is the first African-American video news site that focuses on underrepresented stories in existing national news. The Grio consists of a broad spectrum of original video packages, news articles, and contributor blogs on topics including breaking news, politics, health, business, entertainment and Black History.\n",
"\nA traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken with macaroni and cheese, collard greens, breaded fried okra and cornbread.\nFrom their earliest presence in North America, African Americans have significantly contributed literature, art, agricultural skills, cuisine, clothing styles, music, language, and social and technological innovation to American culture. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to West African and African-American influences. Notable examples include George Washington Carver, who created 300 products from peanuts, 118 products from sweet potatoes, and 75 products from pecans; and George Crum, a local legend associates him with the creation of the potato chip in 1853. Soul food is a variety of cuisine popular among African Americans. It is closely related to the cuisine of the Southern United States. The descriptive terminology may have originated in the mid-1960s, when ''soul'' was a common definer used to describe African-American culture (for example, soul music). African Americans were the first peoples in the United States to make fried chicken, along with Scottish immigrants to the South. Although the Scottish had been frying chicken before they emigrated, they lacked the spices and flavor that African Americans had used when preparing the meal. The Scottish American settlers therefore adopted the African-American method of seasoning chicken. However, fried chicken was generally a rare meal in the African-American community, and was usually reserved for special events or celebrations.\n\n===Music===\n\nAfrican-American music is one of the most pervasive African-American cultural influences in the United States today and is among the most dominant in mainstream popular music. Hip hop, R&B, funk, rock and roll, soul, blues, and other contemporary American musical forms originated in black communities and evolved from other black forms of music, including blues, doo-wop, barbershop, ragtime, bluegrass, jazz, and gospel music.\n\nAfrican-American-derived musical forms have also influenced and been incorporated into virtually every other popular music genre in the world, including country and techno. African-American genres are the most important ethnic vernacular tradition in America, as they have developed independent of African traditions from which they arise more so than any other immigrant groups, including Europeans; make up the broadest and longest lasting range of styles in America; and have, historically, been more influential, interculturally, geographically, and economically, than other American vernacular traditions.\n\nAfrican Americans have also had an important role in American dance. Bill T. Jones, a prominent modern choreographer and dancer, has included historical African-American themes in his work, particularly in the piece \"Last Supper at Uncle Tom's Cabin/The Promised Land\". Likewise, Alvin Ailey's artistic work, including his \"Revelations\" based on his experience growing up as an African American in the South during the 1930s, has had a significant influence on modern dance. Another form of dance, Stepping, is an African-American tradition whose performance and competition has been formalized through the traditionally black fraternities and sororities at universities.\n\n===Literature and academics===\nMany African-American authors have written stories, poems, and essays influenced by their experiences as African Americans. African-American literature is a major genre in American literature. Famous examples include Langston Hughes, James Baldwin, Richard Wright, Zora Neale Hurston, Ralph Ellison, Nobel Prize winner Toni Morrison, and Maya Angelou.\n\nAfrican-American inventors have created many widely used devices in the world and have contributed to international innovation. Norbert Rillieux created the technique for converting sugar cane juice into white sugar crystals. Moreover, Rillieux left Louisiana in 1854 and went to France, where he spent ten years working with the Champollions deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics from the Rosetta Stone. Most slave inventors were nameless, such as the slave owned by the Confederate President Jefferson Davis who designed the ship propeller used by the Confederate navy.\n\nBy 1913 over 1,000 inventions were patented by black Americans. Among the most notable inventors were Jan Matzeliger, who developed the first machine to mass-produce shoes, and Elijah McCoy, who invented automatic lubrication devices for steam engines. Granville Woods had 35 patents to improve electric railway systems, including the first system to allow moving trains to communicate. Garrett A. Morgan developed the first automatic traffic signal and gas mask.\n\nLewis Howard Latimer invented an improvement for the incandescent light bulb. More recent inventors include Frederick McKinley Jones, who invented the movable refrigeration unit for food transport in trucks and trains. Lloyd Quarterman worked with six other black scientists on the creation of the atomic bomb (code named the Manhattan Project.) Quarterman also helped develop the first nuclear reactor, which was used in the atomically powered submarine called the Nautilus.\n\nA few other notable examples include the first successful open heart surgery, performed by Dr. Daniel Hale Williams, and the air conditioner, patented by Frederick McKinley Jones. Dr. Mark Dean holds three of the original nine patents on the computer on which all PCs are based. More current contributors include Otis Boykin, whose inventions included several novel methods for manufacturing electrical components that found use in applications such as guided missile systems and computers, and Colonel Frederick Gregory, who was not only the first black astronaut pilot but the person who redesigned the cockpits for the last three space shuttles. Gregory was also on the team that pioneered the microwave instrumentation landing system.\n",
"===General===\nThis parade float displayed the word \"Afro-American\" in 1911.\nThe term ''African American'' carries important political overtones. Earlier terms used to describe Americans of African ancestry referred more to skin color than to ancestry, and were conferred upon the group by colonists and Americans of European ancestry; people with dark skins were considered inferior in fact and in law. The terms (such as ''colored'', ''person of color'', or ''negro'') were included in the wording of various laws and legal decisions which some thought were being used as tools of white supremacy and oppression. There developed among blacks in America a growing desire for a term of self-identification of their own choosing.\n\nMichelle Obama was the First Lady of the United States; she and her husband, President Barack Obama, are the first African Americans to hold these positions.\n\nIn the 1980s, the term ''African American'' was advanced on the model of, for example, German-American or Irish-American to give descendants of American slaves and other American blacks who lived through the slavery era a heritage and a cultural base. The term was popularized in black communities around the country via word of mouth and ultimately received mainstream use after Jesse Jackson publicly used the term in front of a national audience in 1988. Subsequently, major media outlets adopted its use.\n\nSurveys show that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for ''African American'' versus ''Black American'', although they have a slight preference for ''Black American'' in personal settings and ''African American'' in more formal settings.\n\nMany African Americans have expressed a preference for the term ''African American'' because it was formed in the same way as the terms for the many other ethnic groups currently living in the nation. Some argued further that, because of the historical circumstances surrounding the capture, enslavement and systematic attempts to de-Africanize blacks in the United States under chattel slavery, most African Americans are unable to trace their ancestry to a specific African nation; hence, the entire continent serves as a geographic marker.\n\nThe term ''African American'' embraces pan-Africanism as earlier enunciated by prominent African thinkers such as Marcus Garvey, W. E. B. Du Bois and George Padmore. The term ''Afro-Usonian'', and variations of such, are more rarely used.\n\n===Identity===\nSince 1977, in an attempt to keep up with changing social opinion, the United States government has officially classified black people (revised to ''black'' or ''African American'' in 1997) as \"having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.\" Other federal offices, such as the United States Census Bureau, adhere to the Office of Management and Budget standards on race in its data collection and tabulations efforts. In preparation for the United States 2010 Census, a marketing and outreach plan, called ''2010 Census Integrated Communications Campaign Plan'' (ICC) recognized and defined African Americans as black people born in the United States. From the ICC perspective, African Americans are one of three groups of black people in the United States.\n\nThe ICC plan was to reach the three groups by acknowledging that each group has its own sense of community that is based on geography and ethnicity. The best way to market the census process toward any of the three groups is to reach them through their own unique communication channels and not treat the entire black population of the U.S. as though they are all African Americans with a single ethnic and geographical background. The U.S. Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation categorizes black or African-American people as \"A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa\" through racial categories used in the UCR Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, derived from the 1977 Office of Management and Budget classification.\n\n===Admixture===\n\nHistorically, \"race mixing\" between black and white people was taboo in the United States. So-called anti-miscegenation laws, barring blacks and whites from marrying or having sex, were established in colonial America as early as 1691, and endured in many Southern states until the Supreme Court ruled them unconstitutional in ''Loving v. Virginia'' (1967). The taboo among American whites surrounding white-black relations is a historical consequence of the oppression and racial segregation of African Americans. Historian David Brion Davis notes the racial mixing that occurred during slavery was frequently attributed by the planter class to the \"lower-class white males\" but Davis concludes that \"there is abundant evidence that many slaveowners, sons of slaveowners, and overseers took black mistresses or in effect raped the wives and daughters of slave families.\" A famous example was Thomas Jefferson's mistress, Sally Hemings.\n\nHarvard University historian Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote in 2009 that \"African Americans ... are a racially mixed or mulatto people—deeply and overwhelmingly so\" (see genetics). After the Emancipation Proclamation, Chinese American men married African-American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States. African slaves and their descendants have also had a history of cultural exchange and intermarriage with Native Americans, although they did not necessarily retain social, cultural or linguistic ties to Native peoples. There are also increasing intermarriages and offspring between non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics of any race, especially between Puerto Ricans and African Americans (American-born blacks). According to author M.M. Drymon, many African Americans identify as having Scots-Irish ancestry.\n\nRacially mixed marriages have become increasingly accepted in the United States since the Civil Rights Movement and up to the present day. Approval in national opinion polls have risen from 36% in 1978, to 48% in 1991, 65% in 2002, 77% in 2007. A Gallup poll conducted in 2013 found that 84% of whites and 96% of blacks approved of interracial marriage, and 87% overall.\n\n===The African-American experience===\nIn her book ''The End of Blackness'', as well as in an essay on the liberal website ''Salon'', author Debra Dickerson has argued that the term ''black'' should refer strictly to the descendants of Africans who were brought to America as slaves, and not to the sons and daughters of black immigrants who lack that ancestry. In her opinion, President Barack Obama, who is the son of a Kenyan immigrant, although technically black, is not African-American. She makes the argument that grouping all people of African descent together regardless of their unique ancestral circumstances would inevitably deny the lingering effects of slavery within the American community of slave descendants, in addition to denying black immigrants recognition of their own unique ancestral backgrounds. \"Lumping us all together\", Dickerson wrote, \"erases the significance of slavery and continuing racism while giving the appearance of progress\".\n\nSimilar viewpoints have been expressed by Stanley Crouch in a ''New York Daily News'' piece, Charles Steele, Jr. of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and African-American columnist David Ehrenstein of the ''Los Angeles Times'', who accused white liberals of flocking to blacks who were ''Magic Negros'', a term that refers to a black person with no past who simply appears to assist the mainstream white (as cultural protagonists/drivers) agenda. Ehrenstein went on to say \"He's there to assuage white 'guilt' they feel over the role of slavery and racial segregation in American history.\"\n\nFormer Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice (who was famously mistaken for a \"recent American immigrant\" by French President Nicolas Sarkozy), said \"descendants of slaves did not get much of a head start, and I think you continue to see some of the effects of that.\" She has also rejected an immigrant designation for African Americans and instead prefers the term ''black'' or ''white'' to denote the African and European U.S. founding populations.\n\n===Terms no longer in common use===\nBefore the independence of the Thirteen Colonies until the abolition of slavery in 1865, an African-American slave was commonly known as a ''negro''. ''Free negro'' was the legal status in the territory of an African-American person who was not a slave. The term ''colored'' later also began to be used until the second quarter of the 20th century, when it was considered outmoded and generally gave way again to the exclusive use of ''negro''. By the 1940s, the term was commonly capitalized (''Negro''); but by the mid-1960s, it was considered disparaging. By the end of the 20th century, ''negro'' had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a pejorative. The term is rarely used by younger black people, but remained in use by many older African Americans who had grown up with the term, particularly in the southern U.S. The term remains in use in some contexts, such as the United Negro College Fund, an American philanthropic organization that funds scholarships for black students and general scholarship funds for 39 private historically black colleges and universities, as well as in Latin America where Spanish and Portuguese are spoken. Pronounced slightly differently, it is the word for the color ''black'', and is rarely perceived as a pejorative.\n\nThere are many other deliberately insulting terms. Many were in common use (e.g., ''nigger''), but had become unacceptable in normal discourse before the end of the 20th century. One exception is the use, among the black community, of the slur ''nigger'' rendered as ''nigga'', representing the pronunciation of the word in African American Vernacular English. This usage has been popularized by the rap and hip-hop music cultures and is used as part of an in-group lexicon and speech. It is not necessarily derogatory and, when used among black people, the word is often used to mean \"homie\" or \"friend\".\n\nAcceptance of intra-group usage of the word ''nigga'' is still debated, although it has established a foothold among younger generations. The NAACP denounces the use of both ''nigga'' and ''nigger''. Mixed-race usage of ''nigga'' is still considered taboo, particularly if the speaker is white. However, trends indicate that usage of the term in intragroup settings is increasing even among white youth due to the popularity of rap and hip hop culture.\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n* African American art\n* African-American business history\n* African-American Civil Rights Movement (1865–95)\n* African-American Civil Rights Movement (1896–1954)\n* Timeline of the African-American Civil Rights Movement (1954–68)\n* African-American literature\n* African-American middle class\n* African-American music\n* African-American names\n* African American National Biography Project\n* African-American neighborhood\n* African-American upper class\n* African American Vernacular English\n* Afrophobia\n* Anglo-African term\n* Back-to-Africa movement\n* Black feminism\n* Black History Month\n* Black Lives Matter\n* Black Loyalist\n* Military history of African Americans\n* National Museum of African American History and Culture\n* Scientific racism\n* Stereotypes of African Americans\n\n'''Diaspora:'''\n* African Americans in France\n* African Americans in Ghana\n* African immigration to the United States\n* Afro-American peoples of the Americas\n* Black Canadians\n* Black Indians in the United States\n* Black Hispanic and Latino Americans\n* Igbo Americans\n* Yoruba Americans\n\n'''Lists:'''\n* Index of articles related to African Americans\n* List of historically black colleges and universities\n* List of topics related to the African diaspora\n* List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations\n* List of U.S. states by African-American population\n* List of U.S. counties with African-American majority populations in 2000\n* List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations\n* List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations\n* List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010\n* List of African-American neighborhoods\n* List of black college football classics\n* Terminology: Colored, Creole peoples, Negro, Nigger, Nigga\n\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n",
"\n* \n* Finkelman, Paul, ed. ''Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass'' (3 vol Oxford University Press, 2006).\n* Finkelman, Paul, ed. ''Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-first Century'' (5 vol. Oxford University Press, USA, 2009).\n* John Hope Franklin, Alfred Moss, ''From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans'', McGraw-Hill Education 2001, standard work, first edition in 1947.\n* Gates, Henry L. and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham (eds), ''African American Lives'', Oxford University Press, 2004—more than 600 biographies.\n* Darlene Clark Hine, Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, Elsa Barkley Brown (eds), ''Black Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia'', Paperback Edition, Indiana University Press 2005.\n* Kranz, Rachel. ''African-American Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs' (Infobase Publishing, 2004).\n* Salzman, Jack, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Afro-American culture and history'', New York, New York : Macmillan Library Reference USA, 1996.\n* \n* \n\n\n",
"\n\n\n* Richard Thompson Ford Name Games, ''Slate'', September 16, 2004. Article discussing the problems of defining ''African American''\n* \"Of Arms & the Law: Don Kates on Afro-American Homicide Rates\"\n* ''Scientific American'' Magazine (June 2006) Trace Elements Reconnecting African Americans to an ancestral past\n* \"The Definition of Political Absurdity\", ''San Francisco Chronicle'', March 2, 2007\n* African American archaeology in Sacramento, California pdf\n* African American archaeology in Oakland, California —See Part III, Chap 10\n* Black History related original documents and photos\n* President Obama's Speech to the NAACP on July 16, 2009—full video by ''MSNBC''\n* Frank Newport, \"Black or African American?\", Gallup, September 28, 2007\n* \"The Long Journey of Black Americans\" – slideshow by ''The First Post''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Demographics",
"Religion",
"Business",
"Language",
"Genetics",
"Traditional names",
"Contemporary issues",
"Politics and social issues",
"News media and coverage",
"Culture in the United States",
"Terminology",
"Notable people",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | African Americans |
[
"\n\nThe '''Artistic License''' (version 1.0) is a software license used for certain free and open-source software packages, most notably the standard implementation of the Perl programming language and most CPAN modules, which are dual-licensed under the Artistic License and the GNU General Public License (GPL).\n",
"\n=== Artistic License 1.0 ===\nThe original Artistic License was written by Larry Wall. The name of the license is a reference to the concept of artistic license.\n\nWhether or not the original Artistic License is a free software license is largely unsettled. The Free Software Foundation explicitly called the original Artistic License a non-free license, criticizing it as being \"too vague; some passages are too clever for their own good, and their meaning is not clear\". The FSF recommended that the license not be used on its own, but approved the common AL/GPL dual-licensing approach for Perl projects.\n\nIn response to this, Bradley Kuhn, who later worked for the Free Software Foundation, made a minimal redraft to clarify the ambiguous passages. This was released as the '''Clarified Artistic License''' and was approved by the FSF. It is used by the Paros Proxy, the JavaFBP toolkit and NcFTP.\n\nThe terms of the Artistic License 1.0 were at issue in a 2007 federal district court decision in the US, which suggested that FOSS-like licenses could only be enforced through contract law rather than through copyright law, in contexts where contract damages would be difficult to establish. On appeal, a federal appellate court \"determined that the terms of the Artistic License are enforceable copyright conditions\". The case was remanded to the District Court, which did not apply the superior court's criteria (on the grounds that in the interim, the Supreme Court had changed the applicable law). However, this left undisturbed the finding that a free and open-source license nonetheless has economic value.\n\n=== Artistic License 2.0 ===\nIn response to the request for comments (RFC) process for improving the licensing position for Perl 6, Kuhn's draft was extensively rewritten by Roberta Cairney and Allison Randal for readability and legal clarity, with input from the Perl community. This resulted in the '''Artistic License 2.0''', which has been approved as both a free software and open-source license.\n\nThe Artistic license 2.0 is also notable for its excellent license compatibility with other FOSS licenses due to a relicensing clause, a property other licenses like the GPL are missing.\n\nIt has been adopted by some of the Perl 6 implementations and has been used by the Parrot virtual machine since version 0.4.13. It is also used by the SNEeSe emulator, which was formerly licensed under the Clarified Artistic License.\n\nThe OSI recommends that all developers and projects licensing their products with the Artistic License adopt Artistic License 2.0.\n",
"*Software using the Artistic license (category)\n",
"\n",
"* Version 1.0\n** The Artistic LicenseThe original Artistic License 1.0, the one which is still used by Perl and CPAN; They use a disjunction of the Artistic License 1.0 and the GNU GPL for Perl 5 and above.\n** The Clarified Artistic License\n* Version 2.0\n** The Artistic License 2.0It's e.g. used by Parrot.\n** 2.0 revision RFC process\n* Prominent uses\n** DuskThe first online Novel and Blog written under Artistic License 2.0.\n** \"R.E.M releases videos under Artistic License 2.0Is about R.E.M.'s choice of the Artistic License 2.0 for videos from one of their albums.\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Artistic License |
[
"\n\n\n'''Afrikaans''' () is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland (Hollandic dialect) spoken by the mainly Dutch settlers of what is now South Africa, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the 18th century. Hence, it is a daughter language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as \"Cape Dutch\" (a term also used to refer collectively to the early Cape settlers) or \"kitchen Dutch\" (a derogatory term used to refer to Afrikaans in its earlier days). However, it is also variously described as a creole or as a partially creolised language.Afrikaans was historically called Cape Dutch; see , , , , , .Afrikaans is rooted in seventeenth century dialects of Dutch; see , , , .Afrikaans is variously described as a creole, a partially creolised language, or a deviant variety of Dutch; see . The term is ultimately derived from Dutch '''' meaning \"African Dutch\". It is the first language of most of the Afrikaners and Coloureds of Southern Africa.\n\nAlthough Afrikaans has adopted words from other languages, including Portuguese, the Bantu languages, Malay, German and the Khoisan languages, an estimated 90 to 95% of the vocabulary of Afrikaans is of Dutch origin. Therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a large degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages—especially in written form.\n\nWith about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13.5% of the population, it is the third-most-spoken language in the country. It has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the eleven official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. It is the majority language of the western half of South Africa—the provinces of the Northern Cape and Western Cape—and the first language of 75.8% of Coloured South Africans (4.8 million people), 60.8% of White South Africans (2.7 million); 4.6% of Asian South Africans (58,000 people), and 1.5% of black South Africans (600,000 people).\n\nIn addition, many native speakers of Bantu languages and English also speak Afrikaans as a second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students. One reason for the expansion of Afrikaans is its development in the public realm: it is used in newspapers, radio programs, TV, and several translations of the Bible have been published since the first one was completed in 1933.\n\nIn neighbouring Namibia, Afrikaans is widely spoken as a second language and used as a ''lingua franca'', while as a native language it is spoken in 10.4% of households, mainly concentrated in the capital Windhoek, Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and the southern regions of Hardap and ǁKaras. It, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25% of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German are recognised regional languages in Namibia, although only English has official status within the government.\n\nEstimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million.\n",
"The term is ultimately derived from the Dutch term '''' meaning \"African Dutch\".\n",
"\n===Origin===\nThe Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, during the course of the 18th century. As early as the mid-18th century and as recently as the mid-20th century, Afrikaans was known in standard Dutch as a \"kitchen language\" (), lacking the prestige accorded, for example, even by the educational system in Africa, to languages spoken outside Africa. Other early epithets setting apart '''' (\"Cape Dutch\", i.e. Afrikaans) as putatively beneath official Dutch standards included '''', '''' and '''' (\"mutilated/broken/uncivilised Dutch\"), as well as '''' (\"incorrect Dutch\").\n\nAn estimated 90 to 95% of Afrikaans vocabulary is ultimately of Dutch origin, and there are few lexical differences between the two languages. Afrikaans has a considerably more regular morphology, grammar, and spelling. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form.\n\nAfrikaans acquired some lexical and syntactical borrowings from other languages such as Malay, Khoisan languages, Portuguese, and of the Bantu languages, and Afrikaans has also been significantly influenced by South African English. Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the other way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.\n\nIn general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The South African poet writer Breyten Breytenbach, attempting to visualize the language distance for anglophones once remarked that the differences between (Standard) Dutch and Afrikaans are comparable to those between the Received Pronunciation and Southern American English.\n\n===Development===\nA relative majority of the first settlers whose descendants today are the Afrikaners were from the United Provinces (now Netherlands and Flanders), though up to one-sixth of the community was also of French Huguenot origin, and a seventh from Germany.\n\nThe workers and slaves who contributed to the development of Afrikaans were imported by Dutch traders from parts of eastern Africa, India, Madagascar, and the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia). A number were also indigenous Khoisan people, who were valued as interpreters and domestic servants. Many of the slaves cohabited with the earliest Dutch settlers, with the result that 75% of children born to slaves in the Dutch Cape Colony between 1652 and 1672 had one Dutch parent. This resulted in the formation of a new ethnic group, the Cape Coloureds, who adopted various forms of speech utilising a Dutch vocabulary.\n\nBeginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet: see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin script, started to appear in newspapers and political and religious works in around 1850.\n\nIn 1875, a group of Afrikaans-speakers from the Cape formed the '''' (\"Society for Real Afrikaners\"), and published a number of books in Afrikaans including grammars, dictionaries, religious materials and histories. In 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper.\n\n===Recognition===\nAfrikaans was considered a Dutch dialect in South Africa until the early 20th century, when it became recognised as a distinct language under South African law, alongside Standard Dutch, which it eventually replaced as an official language.\n\nBefore the Boer Wars (1880–81 and 1899–1902), \"and indeed for some time afterwards, Afrikaans was regarded as inappropriate for educated discourse. Rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ‘a kitchen language’ or as ‘a bastard jargon', suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants.\" 23 years after the Second Boer War ended in 1902, mostly due to the efforts of the Afrikans Language Movement on 8 May 1925, the Official Languages of the Union Act No 8 of 1925 was passed at a joint sitting of the House of Assembly and the Senate, in which 'Dutch' was \"declared to include Afrikaans\". The Constitution of 1961 reversed the position of Afrikaans and Dutch, so that English and Afrikaans were the official languages and Afrikaans was deemed to include Dutch. The Constitution of 1983 removed any mention of Dutch altogether.\n\n====Monument====\nA slogan in front of the Afrikaans Language Monument, near Paarl, South Africa. Loosely translated, it reads \"This we care about/This is important to us\", or, literally, \"This is our seriousness\" or \"This is our cause\"\nThe Afrikaans Language Monument ('''') is located on a hill overlooking Paarl, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Officially opened on 10 October 1975, it commemorates the 50th anniversary of Afrikaans being declared an official language of South Africa in distinction to Dutch. It was erected in Paarl on the 100th anniversary of the founding of the '''' (Society of Real Afrikaners), an organisation which helped to strengthen Afrikaners' identity and pride in their language.\n\n===Standardisation===\nThe side view of the Pretoria Art Museum in Arcadia, Pretoria, with an Afrikaans language sign.\nThe linguist Paul Roberge suggested the earliest 'truly Afrikaans' texts are doggerel verse from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Printed material among the Afrikaners at first used only standard European Dutch. By the mid-19th century, more and more were appearing in Afrikaans, which was very much still regarded as a set of regional dialects.\n\nIn 1861, L.H. Meurant published his '''' (\"Conversation between Claus Truthsayer and John Doubter\"), which is considered by some to be the first authoritative Afrikaans text. Abu Bakr Effendi also compiled his Arabic Afrikaans Islamic instruction book between 1862 and 1869, although this was only published and printed in 1877. The first Afrikaans grammars and dictionaries were published in 1875 by the '''' (\"Society for Real Afrikaners\") in Cape Town.\n\nThe main Afrikaans dictionary is the '''' (WAT) (''Dictionary of the Afrikaans Language''), which is as yet incomplete owing to the scale of the project, but the one-volume dictionary in household use is the '''' (HAT). The official orthography of Afrikaans is the '''', compiled by .\n\n===The Afrikaans Bible===\n\nA major landmark in the development of the language was the translation of the whole Bible into Afrikaans. Before this, most Cape Dutch-Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the Dutch . This had its origins with the Synod of Dordrecht of 1618 and was thus in an archaic form of Dutch. This was hard for Dutch and Cape Dutch speakers to understand, and increasingly unintelligible for Afrikaans speakers.\n\nC. P. Hoogehout, Arnoldus Pannevis, and Stephanus Jacobus du Toit were the first Afrikaans Bible translators. Important landmarks in the translation of the Scriptures were in 1878 with C. P. Hoogehout's translation of the '''' (Gospel of Mark, lit. Gospel according to Mark); however, this translation was never published. The manuscript is to be found in the South African National Library, Cape Town.\n\nThe first official translation of the entire Bible into Afrikaans was in 1933 by J. D. du Toit, E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie, and BB Keet. This monumental work established Afrikaans as '''', that is \"a pure and proper language\" for religious purposes, especially amongst the deeply Calvinist Afrikaans religious community that previously had been sceptical of a Bible translation that varied from the Dutch version that they were used to.\n\nIn 1983, a fresh translation marked the 50th anniversary of the 1933 version and provided a much-needed revision. The final editing of this edition was done by E. P. Groenewald, A. H. van Zyl, P. A. Verhoef, J. L. Helberg and W. Kempen.\n",
"The simplified relation between the West Germanic languages.\n* Indo-European languages\n** Germanic\n*** West Germanic\n**** Low Franconian\n***** Dutch\n****** Afrikaans, Dutch-based creoles\n\nAfrikaans belongs to its own West Germanic sub-group, the Low Franconian languages. Its closest relative is the mutually-intelligible mother language, Dutch language. Other West Germanic languages related to Afrikaans are German, English and the Frisian languages and the unstandardised languages Low German and Yiddish.\n",
"\n===Statistics===\nThe geographical distribution of Afrikaans in South Africa: proportion of the population that speaks Afrikaans at home.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Country !! Speakers !! Percentage !! Year !! Reference\n\n \n 35,030 \n 0.16% \n 2011 \n \n\n \n 8,082 \n 0.39% \n 2011 \n \n\n \n 36 \n 0.002% \n 2011 \n \n\n \n 180,029 \n 8.7% \n 2011 \n \n\n \n 21,123 \n 0.52% \n 2006 \n \n\n \n 6,855,082 \n 13.4% \n 2011 \n \n\n\n===Sociolinguistics===\n\nSome state that instead of ''Afrikaners'', which refers to an ethnic group, the terms '''' or '''' (lit. Afrikaans speakers) should be used for people of any ethnic origin who speak Afrikaans. Linguistic identity has not yet established which terms shall prevail, and all three are used in common parlance. The white Afrikaans-speaking community started being referred to colloquially as \"The Boere\". The terms '''' (farm boy) and '''' (farm girl) became popular among young white Afrikaners for expressing national pride, regardless of whether or not they actually grew up on a farm.\n\nThe geographical distribution of Afrikaans in South Africa: density of Afrikaans home-language speakers.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe geographical distribution of Afrikaans in Namibia.\nAfrikaans is also widely spoken in Namibia. Before independence, Afrikaans had equal status with German as an official language. Since independence in 1990, Afrikaans has had constitutional recognition as a national, but not official, language. There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among Zimbabwe's white minority, as most have left the country since 1980. Afrikaans was also a medium of instruction for schools in Bophuthatswana, an Apartheid-era Bantustan.\n\nMany South Africans living and working in Belgium, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, the UAE and Kuwait are also Afrikaans-speaking. They have access to Afrikaans websites, news sites such as Netwerk24.com and Sake24, and radio broadcasts over the web, such as those from Radio Sonder Grense, Bokradio and Radio Pretoria.\n\nAfrikaans has been influential in the development of South African English. Many Afrikaans loanwords have found their way into South African English, such as '''' (\"pickup truck\"), '''' (\"barbecue\"), '''' (\"tangerine\"), '''' (American \"sneakers\", British \"trainers\", Canadian \"runners\"). A few words in standard English are derived from Afrikaans, such as ''aardvark'' (lit. \"earth pig\"), ''trek'' (\"pioneering journey\", in Afrikaans lit. \"pull\" but used also for \"migrate\"), ''spoor'' (\"animal track\"), '''' (\"Southern African grassland\" in Afrikaans, lit. \"field\"), ''commando'' from Afrikaans '''' meaning small fighting unit, '''' (\"tree snake\") and '''' (\"segregation\"; more accurately \"apartness\" or \"the state or condition of being apart\").\n\nIn 1976, secondary-school pupils in Soweto began a rebellion in response to the government's decision that Afrikaans be used as the language of instruction for half the subjects taught in non-White schools (with English continuing for the other half). Although English is the mother tongue of only 8.2% of the population, it is the language most widely understood, and the second language of a majority of South Africans. Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English in the Northern and Western Cape provinces, several hundred kilometres from Soweto.\n\nThe Black community's opposition to Afrikaans and preference for continuing English instruction was underlined when the government rescinded the policy one month after the uprising: 96% of Black schools chose English (over Afrikaans or native languages) as the language of instruction. Also, due to Afrikaans being viewed as the language of the white oppressor by some, pressure has been increased to remove Afrikaans as a teaching language in South African universities, resulting in bloody student protests in 2015.\n\nUnder South Africa's Constitution of 1996, Afrikaans remains an official language, and has equal status to English and nine other languages. The new policy means that the use of Afrikaans is now often reduced in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In 1996, for example, the South African Broadcasting Corporation reduced the amount of television airtime in Afrikaans, while South African Airways dropped its Afrikaans name '''' from its livery. Similarly, South Africa's diplomatic missions overseas now only display the name of the country in English and their host country's language, and not in Afrikaans.\n\nIn spite of these moves, the language has remained strong, and Afrikaans newspapers and magazines continue to have large circulation figures. Indeed, the Afrikaans-language general-interest family magazine '''' has the largest readership of any magazine in the country. In addition, a pay-TV channel in Afrikaans called KykNet was launched in 1999, and an Afrikaans music channel, MK ('''') (lit. 'Music Channel'), in 2005. A large number of Afrikaans books are still published every year, mainly by the publishers Human & Rousseau, , , and . The Afrikaans film trilogy '''' (first released in 2008) caused a reawakening of the Afrikaans film Industry (which has been dead since the mid to late 1990s) and Belgian-born singer Karen Zoid's debut single \"\" (released 2001) caused a resurgence in the Afrikaans music industry as well as gave rise to the Afrikaans Rock genre.\n\nAfrikaans has two monuments erected in its honour. The first was erected in , South Africa, in 1893, and the second, nowadays better-known Afrikaans Language Monument (''''), was built in Paarl, South Africa, in 1975.\n\nWhen the British design magazine ''Wallpaper'' described Afrikaans as \"one of the world's ugliest languages\" in its September 2005 article about the monument, South African billionaire Johann Rupert (chairman of the Richemont Group), responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such as Cartier, Van Cleef & Arpels, Montblanc and Alfred Dunhill from the magazine. The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was an English-speaking South African.\n\nModern Dutch and Afrikaans share over 90 percent of their vocabulary. Afrikaans speakers are able to learn Dutch within a comparatively short time. Native Dutch speakers pick up written Afrikaans even more quickly, due to its simplified grammar, whereas understanding spoken Afrikaans might need more effort. Afrikaans speakers can learn Dutch pronunciation with little training. This has enabled Dutch and Belgian companies to outsource their call centre operations to South Africa.\n",
"\n\n+Use of Afrikaans as a first language by province\n\n Province \n 1996 \n 2001 \n 2011\n\n Western Cape \n 58.5% \n 55.3% \n 49.7%\n\n Eastern Cape \n 9.8% \n 9.6% \n 10.6%\n\n Northern Cape \n 57.2% \n 56.6% \n 53.8%\n\n Free State \n 14.4% \n 11.9% \n 12.7%\n\n KwaZulu-Natal \n 1.6% \n 1.5% \n 1.6%\n\n North West \n 8.8% \n 8.8% \n 9.0%\n\n Gauteng \n 15.6% \n 13.6% \n 12.4%\n\n Mpumalanga \n 7.1% \n 5.5% \n 7.2%\n\n Limpopo \n 2.6% \n 2.6% \n 2.6%\n\n \n 14.4% \n 13.3% \n 13.5%\n\n\nPost-apartheid South Africa has seen a loss of preferential treatment by the government for Afrikaans, in terms of education, social events, media (TV and radio), and general status throughout the country, given that it now shares its place as official language with ten other languages. Nevertheless, Afrikaans remains more prevalent in the media – radio, newspapers and television – than any of the other official languages, except English. More than 300 book titles in Afrikaans are published annually. South African census figures suggest a growing number of speakers in all nine provinces, a total of 6.85 million in 2011 compared to 5.98 million a decade earlier. The South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR) project that a growing majority will be Coloured Afrikaans speakers. Afrikaans speakers experience higher employment rates than other South African language groups, though half a million remain unemployed.\n\nDespite the challenges of demotion and emigration that it faces in South Africa, the Afrikaans vernacular remains competitive, being popular in DSTV pay channels and several internet sites, while generating high newspaper and music CD sales. A resurgence in Afrikaans popular music since the late 1990s has invigorated the language, especially among a younger generation of South Africans. A recent trend is the increased availability of pre-school educational CDs and DVDs. Such media also prove popular with the extensive Afrikaans-speaking expatriate communities who seek to retain language proficiency in a household context.\n\nAfter years of slumber, Afrikaans language cinema is showing signs of new vigour. The 2007 film '''', the first full-length Afrikaans movie since Paljas of 1998, is seen as the dawn of a new era in Afrikaans cinema. Several short films have been created and more feature-length movies, such as '''' and '''' (both in 2008) have been produced, besides the 2011 Afrikaans-language film '''', which was the first Afrikaans film to screen at the Cannes Film Festival. The film '''' was also released in 2011. The Afrikaans Film industry started gaining international recognition via the likes of big Afrikaans Hollywood film stars, like Charlize Theron (''Monster'') and Sharlto Copley (''District 9'') promoting their mother tongue.\n\nAfrikaans seems to be returning to the SABC. SABC3 announced early in 2009 that it would increase Afrikaans programming due to the \"growing Afrikaans-language market and their need for working capital as Afrikaans advertising is the only advertising that sells in the current South African television market\". In April 2009, SABC3 started screening several Afrikaans-language programmes. Further latent support for the language derives from its de-politicised image in the eyes of younger-generation South Africans, who less and less often view it as \"the language of the oppressor\". Indeed, there is a groundswell movement within Afrikaans to be inclusive, and to promote itself along with the other indigenous official languages. In Namibia, the percentage of Afrikaans speakers declined from 11.4% (2001 Census) to 10.4% (2011 Census). The major concentrations are in Hardap (41.0%), ǁKaras (36.1%), Erongo (20.5%), Khomas (18.5%), Omaheke (10.0%), Otjozondjupa (9.4%), Kunene (4.2%), and Oshikoto (2.3%).\n",
"A sign in Afrikaans: '''' or \"Warning (danger), Traps\".\n\nFollowing early dialectal studies of Afrikaans, it was theorised that three main historical dialects probably existed after the Great Trek in the 1830s. These dialects are the Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape dialects. Northern Cape dialect may have resulted from contact between Dutch settlers and the Khoi-Khoi people between the Great Karoo and the Kunene, and Eastern Cape dialect between the Dutch and the Xhosa. Remnants of these dialects still remain in present-day Afrikaans, although the standardising effect of Standard Afrikaans has contributed to a great levelling of differences in modern times.\n\nThere is also a prison cant, known as or , which is based on Afrikaans, yet heavily influenced by Zulu. This language is used as a secret language in prison and is taught to initiates.\n\n=== ===\n\nThe term '''' (\"Cape Afrikaans\") is sometimes erroneously used to refer to the entire Western Cape dialect; it is more commonly used for a particular sociolect spoken in the Cape Peninsula of South Africa. was once spoken by all population groups. However, it became increasingly restricted to the Cape Coloured ethnic group in Cape Town and environs.\n\n preserves some features more similar to Dutch than to Afrikaans.\n* The 1st person singular pronoun '''' as in Dutch as opposed to Afrikaans ''''\n* The diminutive endings '''', pronounced as in Dutch and not as as in Afrikaans.\n* The use of the form '''' (compare Dutch '''') as opposed to Afrikaans ''''\n\n has some other features not typically found in Afrikaans.\n* The pronunciation of '''', normally as in Dutch is often a . This is the strongest feature of .\n* The insertion of after , and when followed by , e.g. '''' as opposed to Afrikaans ''''.\n\n is also characterised by much code-switching between English and Afrikaans, especially in the inner-city and lower socio-economic status areas of Cape Town.\n\nAn example of characteristic :\n\n: \n: : | \n: \n: English (direct): | And I say to you, what seek you here by me? I seek you not! No, go now away!\n: English: And I'm telling you, what are you looking for here? I don't want you here! No, go away now!\n\n=== '''' ===\nThe term '''' (\"Afrikaans of the Orange River\") is sometimes erroneously used to refer to the Northern Cape dialect; it is more commonly used for the regional peculiarities of standard Afrikaans spoken in the Upington/Orange River wine district of South Africa.\n\nSome of the characteristics of are the plural form '''' (''Ma-'', ''''), variant pronunciation such as in '''' (\"Church\") and '''' (\"money\") and the ending '''', which indicates possession.\n\n=== Expatriate geolect ===\nAlthough Afrikaans is mainly spoken in South Africa and Namibia, smaller Afrikaans-speaking populations live in Argentina, Australia, Botswana, Brazil, Canada, Lesotho, Malawi, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Swaziland, the UAE, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, the USA, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Most Afrikaans-speaking people living outside Africa are emigrants and their descendants. Because of emigration and migrant labour, more than 100,000 Afrikaans speakers may live in the United Kingdom.\n",
"\n=== Malay ===\nDue to the early settlement of a Cape Malay community in Cape Town, who are now known as Coloureds, numerous Malay words were brought into Afrikaans. Some of these words entered Dutch via the Indonesian language as part of the colonial heritage. Malay words in Afrikaans include:\n*'''''', which means 'very'/'much'/'many' (from '''') is a very commonly used Afrikaans word, different from its Dutch equivalent '''' or ''''.\n*'''''', Afrikaans for jacket, where Dutch would use '''' or ''''. The word '''' in Dutch is now considered archaic and only used in written, literary texts.\n*'''''', which means banana. This is different from the common Dutch word ''''. The Indonesian word '''' is also used in Dutch, though usage is less common.\n\n=== Portuguese ===\nSome words originally came from Portuguese such as '''' (\"umbrella\") from the Portuguese '''', '''' (\"pen/cattle enclosure\") from the Portuguese '''', and '''' (\"corn\", from ''''). These words have become common in South Africa to an extent of being used in many other South African languages. Some of these words also exist in Dutch, like '''' \"parasol\", though usage is less common and meanings can slightly differ.\n\n=== Khoisan languages ===\n*'''''', meaning cannabis\n*'''''', meaning lizard, diminutive adapted from Khoekhoe word\n*'''''', meaning insect, from the Khoisan ''xo-xo''\n*'''''' blanket of animal hides\n*'''''' walking stick from Khoekhoe\n\nSome of these words also exist in Dutch, though with a more specific meaning: '''' for example means \"South-African tribal javelin\" and '''' means \"South-African tribal blanket of animal hides\".\n\n=== Bantu languages ===\nLoanwords from Bantu languages in Afrikaans include the names of indigenous birds, such as '''' and '''', and plants, such as '''' and ''''.\n*'''''', from the Zulu word '''' meaning \"scholar\" or \"student\", but used to mean someone who is a student/expert on a certain subject, i.e. ''He is a language ''.\n*'''''', meaning bride price, from ''lobolo'' in the Nguni languages\n*'''''', the grey crowned crane, known in Latin as ''Balearica regulorum''\n*'''''', medium-sized dioecious tree known in Latin as ''Sclerocarya birrea''\n*'''''', species of thatching grass known as Hyparrhenia\n*'''''', deciduous tree also known by its Latin name, ''Spirostachys africana''\n*''' / ''', an adaption of the word '''', meaning \"to go home\" or \"to knock off\".\n",
"\n\nIn Afrikaans grammar, there is no distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs 'to be' and 'to have':\n\n\n infinitive form\n present indicative form\n Dutch\n English\n German\n\n \n \n () \n be \n ()\n\n \n \n \n have \n \n\n\nIn addition, verbs do not conjugate differently depending on the subject. For example,\n\n\n Afrikaans \n Dutch \n English \n German\n\n \n \n I am \n \n\n \n \n you are (sing.) \n \n\n \n \n he/she/it is \n \n\n \n \n we are \n \n\n \n \n you are (plur.) \n \n\n \n \n they are \n \n\n\nOnly a handful of Afrikaans verbs have a preterite, namely the auxiliary '''' (\"to be\"), the modal verbs, and the verb '''' (\"to think\"). The preterite of '''' (\"may\") is rare in contemporary Afrikaans.\n\n\n\n Afrikaans\n Dutch\n English\n German\n\n present\n past\n present\n past\n present\n past\n present\n past\n\n \n \n \n \n I am \n I was \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n I can \n I could \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n I must \n I had to \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n I want \n I wanted \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n I will \n I would \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n I may \n I might \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n I think \n I thought \n \n \n\n\nAll other verbs use the perfect tense (''hê'' + past participle) for the past. Therefore, there is no distinction in Afrikaans between ''I drank'' and ''I have drunk''. (Also in colloquial German, the past tense is often replaced with the perfect.)\n\n\n\n Afrikaans \n Dutch \n English \n German\n\n \n \n I drank \n \n\n \n \n I have drunk \n \n\n\nWhen telling a longer story, Afrikaans speakers usually avoid the perfect and simply use the present tense, or historical present tense instead (as is possible, but less common, in English as well).\n\nA particular feature of Afrikaans is its use of the double negative; it is classified in Afrikaans as '''' and is something that is absent from the other West Germanic standard languages. For example,\n\n: \n: / ''''\n: English: He speaks ''no'' Afrikaans. / He can ''not'' speak Afrikaans. / He ''can't'' speak Afrikaans.\n: \n: \n\nBoth French and San origins have been suggested for double negation in Afrikaans. While double negation is still found in Low Franconian dialects in West-Flanders and in some \"isolated\" villages in the centre of the Netherlands (such as Garderen), it takes a different form, which is not found in Afrikaans. The following is an example:\n\n: * (''lit.'' I want this not do not.)\n: \n: English: I do not want to do this.\n: \n\n* Compare with '''', which changes the meaning to \"I want not to do this.\" Whereas '''' emphasizes a lack of desire to act, '''' emphasizes the act itself.\n\nThe '''' was the Middle Dutch way to negate but it has been suggested that since '''' became highly non-voiced, '''''''''' or '''''''''' was needed to complement the ''''. With time the '''' disappeared in most Dutch dialects.\n\nThe double negative construction has been fully grammaticalised in standard Afrikaans and its proper use follows a set of fairly complex rules as the examples below show:\n\n\n\n Afrikaans\n Dutch (literally translated)\n More correct Dutch\n English\n\n \n \n \n I did not know that he would come.\n\n \n \n \n I knew (did know) that he would not come.\n\n \n \n \n I did not know that he would not come.\n\n \n \n \n He will not come, as he is sick.\n\n \n \n It is not so difficult to learn Afrikaans.\n\n\nA notable exception to this is the use of the negating grammar form that coincides with negating the English present participle. In this case there is only a single negation.\n\n: \n: \n: English: He is in the hospital, though he eats not.\n: \n\nCertain words in Afrikaans arise due to grammar. For example, '''', which literally means \"must not\", usually becomes ''''; although one does not have to write or say it like this, virtually all Afrikaans speakers will change the two words to '''' in the same way as ''do not'' shifts to ''don't'' in English.\n\nThe Dutch word '''' (\"it\" in English) does not correspond to '''' in Afrikaans. The Dutch words corresponding to Afrikaans '''' are '''', '''', '''' and ''''.\n\n\n Afrikaans\n Dutch\n English\n German\n\n \n \n have, has\n \n\n \n \n the\n \n\n \n \n it\n \n\n",
"\nA voice recording of ''''\n\n===Vowels===\n\n+ Monophthong phonemes\n\n Front\n Central\n Back\n\n unrounded\n rounded\n unrounded\n rounded\n\n short\n long\n short\n short\n long\n short\n long\n short\n long\n\n Close\n \n ()\n \n\n\n \n ()\n\n Mid\n \n \n\n \n ()\n \n ()\n \n ()\n\n Near-open\n ()\n ()\n\n\n\n\n\n Open\n \n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n* As phonemes, and occur only in the words '''' 'mirror' and '''' 'bullet', which used to be pronounced with sequences and , respectively. In other cases, and occur as allophones of, respectively, and before .\n* is phonetically long before .\n* is always stressed and occurs only in the word '''' 'wedges'.\n* The closest unrounded counterparts of are central , rather than front .\n* occur only in a few words.\n* As a phoneme, occurs only in some loanwords from English, such as '''' 'pal', as well as in some words such as '''' 'departure'. As an allophone of before , occurs dialectally, most commonly in the former Transvaal and Free State provinces.\n* As a phoneme, occurs only in some loanwords from English (such as '''' 'grand'), as well as before in some words. also occurs as an allophone of before and the sequences .\n\n\n+ Diphthong phonemes\n Starting point\n Ending point\n\n Front\n Central\n Back\n\n Mid\n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n\n Open\n \n \n\n\n\n\n* occur mainly in loanwords.\n\n===Consonants===\n\n\n\n+ Consonant phonemes\n\n Labial\n Alveolar\n Dorsal\n Post-alveolar\n Glottal\n\n Nasal\n \n \n \n\n\n\n Plosive\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n ()\n ()\n\n\n Fricative\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n ()\n\n \n \n\n Approximant\n\n \n \n\n\n\n Rhotic\n\n \n\n\n\n\n* All obstruents at the ends of words are devoiced, so that e.g. a final is realized as .\n* occur only in loanwords. is also an allophone of in some environments.\n* is most often uvular . Velar occurs only in some speakers.\n* is usually an alveolar trill or tap . In some parts of the former Cape Province, it is realized uvularly, either as a trill or a fricative .\n",
"There are many parallels to the Dutch orthography conventions and those used for Afrikaans. There are 26 letters.\n\nIn Afrikaans, many consonants are dropped from the earlier Dutch spelling. For example, '''' ('only') in Dutch becomes '''' in Afrikaans. Also, Afrikaans and some Dutch dialects make no distinction between and , having merged the latter into the former; while the word for \"south\" is written '''' in Dutch, it is spelled '''' in Afrikaans (as well as dialectal Dutch writings) to represent this merger. Similarly, the Dutch digraph '''', normally pronounced as , is written as '''', except where it replaces the Dutch suffix '''' which is pronounced as or , as in '' > ''.\n\nAnother difference is the indefinite article, '''' in Afrikaans and in Dutch. \"A book\" is '''' in Afrikaans, whereas it is either '''' or '''' in Dutch. This '''' is usually pronounced as just a weak vowel, .\n\nThe diminutive suffix in Afrikaans is '''', whereas in Dutch it is '''', hence a \"bit\" is in Afrikaans and in Dutch.\n\nThe letters ''c'', ''q'', ''x'', and ''z'' occur almost exclusively in borrowings from French, English, Greek and Latin. This is usually because words that had ''c'' and ''ch'' in the original Dutch are spelled with ''k'' and ''g'', respectively, in Afrikaans. Similarly original ''qu'' and ''x'' are spelt ''kw'' and ''ks'', respectively. For example, '''' instead of ''equatoriaal'', and '''' instead of ''excuus''.\n\nThe vowels with diacritics in non-loanword Afrikaans are: ''á'', ''é'', ''è'', ''ê'', ''ë'', ''í'', ''î'', ''ï'', ''ó'', ''ô'', ''ú'', ''û'', ''ý''. Diacritics are ignored when alphabetising, though they are still important, even when typing the diacritic forms may be difficult. For example, '''' instead of the 3 e's alongside each other: ''*'', which can never occur in Afrikaans, or '''', which translates to \"say\", whereas '''' is a possessive form.\n\n===Initial apostrophes===\nA few short words in Afrikaans take initial apostrophes. In modern Afrikaans, these words are always written in lower case (except if the entire line is uppercase), and if they occur at the beginning of a sentence, the next word is capitalised. Three examples of such apostrophed words are ''''. The last (the indefinite article) is the only apostrophed word that is common in modern written Afrikaans, since the other examples are shortened versions of other words ('''' and '''', respectively) and are rarely found outside of a poetic context.\n\nHere are a few examples:\n\n\n Apostrophed version\n Usual version\n Translation\n Notes\n\n \n \n I said it\n Uncommon, more common: ''''\n\n \n \n Did you eat it?\n Extremely uncommon\n\n \n\n A man walks there\n Standard Afrikaans pronounces '''' as a schwa vowel.\n\n\nThe apostrophe and the following letter are regarded as two separate characters, and are never written using a single glyph, although a single character variant of the indefinite article appears in Unicode, .\n\n===Table of characters===\nFor more on the pronunciation of the letters below, see ''Help:IPA/Afrikaans''.\n\n\n+Afrikaans letters and pronunciation\n\n Grapheme !! IPA !! Examples and Notes\n\n a \n , \n '''' ('apple'; ), '''' ('languages'; ). Represents at word end and before double consonants and before single consonant-vowel\n\n aa \n \n '''' ('monkey', 'ape')\n\n aai \n \n '''' ('turn')\n\n ai \n \n '''' ('many', 'much' or 'very'), '''' (expression of frustration or resignation)\n\n b \n \n '''' ('tree').\n\n c \n , \n Found mainly in borrowed words or proper nouns; the former pronunciation occurs before 'e', 'i', or 'y'; featured in the plural form '''', as in the plural of '''' ('medic'), ''''\n\n ch \n , , \n '''' ('surgeon'; ; typically '''' is used instead), '''' ('chemistry'; ), '''' ('chitin'; ). Found only in loanwords and proper nouns\n\n d \n \n '''' ('day'), '''' ('part', 'divide', 'share')\n\n dj \n \n '''' ('teak'), '''' ('jihad'). Used to transcribe foreign words\n\n e \n , , \n '''' ('bed'; ), '''' ('meal'; ), '''' (; indicates possession, for example '''', meaning 'John's tree')\n\n è \n \n '''' ('yes?', 'right?'), '''' ('here, take this!' or 'this is yours!')\n\n ê \n , \n '''' ('to say'). Represents word-finally\n\n ë \n -\n Diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thus '''', '''' and '''' are pronounced like 'e', 'ee' and 'ei', respectively\n\n ee \n \n '''' ('to know'), '''' ('one')\n\n eeu \n \n '''' ('snow'), '''' ('century')\n\n ei \n \n '''' ('to lead')\n\n eu \n \n '''' ('son' or 'lad')\n\n f \n \n '''' ('bicycle')\n\n g \n \n '''' ('good'), '''' ('yellow')\n\n gh \n \n '''' ('golf'). Used for when it is not an allophone of ; found only in borrowed words\n\n h \n \n '''' ('hail'), '''' ('dog')\n\n i \n , \n '''' ('child'; ), '''' ('ink'; ), '''' ('crisis'; for first 'i' and for second 'i'), '''' ('electricity'; for first and second 'i'; third 'i' is part of diphthong 'ei')\n\n î \n \n '''' (plural of ''''; 'wedges' or 'quoins')\n\n ï \n -\n Found in words such as '''' ('to influence'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thus '''' and '''' are pronounced like 'i' and 'ie' respectively\n\n \n \n '''' ('something')\n\n j \n \n '''' ('young')\n\n k \n \n '''' ('cat'), '''' ('can' (verb) or 'jug')\n\n l \n \n '''' ('laugh')\n\n m \n \n '''' ('man')\n\n n \n \n '''' ('nail')\n\n ng \n \n '''' ('to sing')\n\n o \n \n '''' ('on' or 'up')\n\n ô \n \n '''' ('tomorrow')\n\n ö \n -\n Found in words such as '''' ('micro-organism'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thus '''' is pronounced the same as 'o'\n\n oe \n \n '''' ('book'), '''' ('cool')\n\n oei \n \n '''' ('cow')\n\n\n oo \n \n '''' ('ear' or 'over')\n\n ooi \n \n '''' ('pretty', 'beautiful'), '''' ('saying for little girl' or 'invitation')\n\n ou \n \n '''' ('grandpa', 'grandfather'), '''' ('cold'). Sometimes spelled '''' in loanwords and surnames, for example .\n\n p \n \n '''' ('pot'), '''' ('purple' — or 'press' indicating the news media)\n\n q \n \n Found only in foreign words with original spelling maintained; typically '''' is used instead\n\n r \n \n '''' ('red')\n\n s \n , , \n '''' ('six'), '''' ('voice' or 'vote'), '''' ('position', for first 's', for second 's'), '''' ('rational', )\n\n sj \n \n '''' ('shawl'), '''' ('chocolate')\n\n t \n , \n '''' ('table'), '''' ('actuary'; )\n\n tj \n , \n '''' ('whine like a dog' or 'to cry incessantly'). The former pronunciation occurs at the beginning of a word and the latter in ''''\n\n u \n , \n '''' ('coast' or 'kiss'), '''' ('shade'). The latter pronunciation is rare and most commonly found as the word '''' (formal 'you')\n\n û \n \n '''' ('bridges')\n\n ü \n -\n Found in words such as '''' ('reunion'). The diaeresis indicates the start of a new syllable, thus '''' is pronounced the same '''', except when found in proper nouns and surnames from German, like .\n\n ui \n \n '''' ('out')\n\n uu \n \n '''' ('hour')\n\n v \n \n '''' ('fish'), '''' ('for')\n\n w \n , \n '''' ('water'; ), '''' ('quarter'; )\n\n x \n , \n '''' ('xiphoid'; ), '''' ('x-ray'; ).\n\n y \n \n '''' ('bite')\n\n z \n \n '''' ('Zulu'). Found only in onomatopoeia and loanwords\n\n",
"\nAlthough there are many different dialects and accents, the transcription would be fairly standard.\n\n\n\n Afrikaans\n IPA\n Dutch\n English\n German\n\n ''''''\n \n Also used: ''''\n Hello! How goes it? (Hello! How are you?)\n ()\n\n ''''''\n \n \n Very well, thank you.\n \n\n ''''''\n \n \n Do you speak Afrikaans?\n \n\n ''''''\n \n \n Do you speak English?\n \n\n ''''''\n \n \n Yes.\n \n\n ''''''\n \n \n No.\n Also: '''' (Colloquial)\n\n ''''''\n \n \n A bit.\n \n\n ''''''\n \n / \n What is your name?\n / \n\n ''''''\n \n \n The children speak Afrikaans.\n \n\n ''''''Less common: ''''. \n \n Common in Southern Dutch: ''''.\n I love you.\n Also: '''' (Colloquial; virtually no romantic connotation) \n\n\nIn the Dutch language the word '''' means African, in the general sense. Consequently, Afrikaans is commonly denoted as ''''. This ambiguity also exists in Afrikaans itself and is either resolved in the context of its usage, or by using '''' for an African person, and '''' in the adjective sense.\n\nA handful of Afrikaans words are exactly the same as in English. The following Afrikaans sentences, for example, are exactly the same in the two languages, in terms of both their meaning and spelling; only their pronunciation differs.\n* '''''' ()\n* '''''' ()\n",
"Psalm 23 1983 translation:\n\n\nDie Here is my Herder, ek kom niks kort nie.\nHy laat my in groen weivelde rus. Hy bring my by waters waar daar vrede is.\nHy gee my nuwe krag. Hy lei my op die regte paaie tot eer van Sy naam.\nSelfs al gaan ek deur donker dieptes, sal ek nie bang wees nie, want U is by my. In U hande is ek veilig.\n\n\nPsalm 23 alternative translation:\n\n\nDie Here is my Herder, niks sal my ontbreek nie.\nHy laat my neerlê in groen weivelde; na waters waar rus is, lei Hy my heen.\nHy verkwik my siel; Hy lei my in die spore van geregtigheid, om sy Naam ontwil.\nAl gaan ek ook in 'n dal van doodskaduwee, ek sal geen onheil vrees nie; want U is met my: u stok en u staf die vertroos my.\n\n\nLord's Prayer (Afrikaans New Living translation)\n\n\nOns Vader in die hemel, laat U Naam geheilig word.\nLaat U koningsheerskappy spoedig kom.\nLaat U wil hier op aarde uitgevoer word soos in die hemel.\nGee ons die porsie brood wat ons vir vandag nodig het.\nEn vergeef ons ons sondeskuld soos ons ook óns skuldenaars vergewe het.\nBewaar ons sodat ons nie aan verleiding sal toegee nie; en bevry ons van die greep van die Bose.\nWant van U is die koninkryk,\nen die krag,\nen die heerlikheid,\ntot in ewigheid. Amen\n\n\nLord's Prayer (Original translation):\n\n\nOnse Vader wat in die hemel is,\nlaat U Naam geheilig word;\nlaat U koninkryk kom;\nlaat U wil geskied op die aarde,\nnet soos in die hemel.\nGee ons vandag ons daaglikse brood;\nen vergeef ons ons skulde\nsoos ons ons skuldenaars vergewe\nen laat ons nie in die versoeking nie\nmaar verlos ons van die Bose\nWant aan U behoort die koninkryk\nen die krag\nen die heerlikheid\ntot in ewigheid. Amen\n\n",
"* '''' Arts Festival\n* Afrikaans literature\n* Afrikaans speaking population in South Africa\n* Arabic Afrikaans\n* '''' (Afrikaans Dictionary)\n* Differences between Afrikaans and Dutch\n* IPA/Afrikaans\n* '''' (Arts Festival)\n* Languages of South Africa\n* List of Afrikaans language poets\n* List of Afrikaans singers\n* List of English words of Afrikaans origin\n* South African Translators' Institute\n* \n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"* Grieshaber, Nicky. 2011. ''Diacs and Quirks in a Nutshell – Afrikaans spelling explained''. Pietermaritzburg. ; e-.\n* \n* \n",
"\n\n\n\n* Afrikaans English Online Dictionary at Hablaa\n* Afrikaans-English Online Dictionary at majstro.com\n* Learn Afrikaans Online (Open Learning Environment)\n* Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge (FAK) – Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Associations\n* ''Dutch Writers from South Africa: A Cultural-Historical Study, Part I'' from the World Digital Library\n* ''Afrikaans Literature and Language'' Web dossier African Studies Centre, Leiden (2011)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"History",
"Classification",
"Geographic distribution",
"Current status",
"Dialects",
" Influences on Afrikaans from other languages ",
"Grammar",
"Phonology",
"Orthography",
"Afrikaans phrases",
"Sample text",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Afrikaans |
[
"\nIn Greek mythology, '''Aeolus''' (; ''Aiolos'' , Modern Greek: \"quick-moving, nimble\") is a name shared by three mythical characters. These three personages are often difficult to tell apart, and even the ancient mythographers appear to have been perplexed about which Aeolus was which. Diodorus Siculus made an attempt to define each of these three (although it is clear that he also became muddled), and his opinion is followed here. \n* The first '''Aeolus''' was a son of Hellen and eponymous founder of the Aeolian race.\n* The second '''Aeolus''' was a son of Poseidon, who led a colony to islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea.\n* The third '''Aeolus''' was a son of Hippotes who is mentioned in ''Odyssey'' and the ''Aeneid'' as the Keeper of the Winds.\nAll three men named Aeolus appear to be connected genealogically, although the precise relationship, especially regarding the second and third Aeolus, is often ambiguous as their identities seem to have been merged by many ancient writers.\n\nAeolus was also the name of the following minor characters:\n* '''Aeolus''' was a defender of Thebes against the Seven Against Thebes. He was killed by Parthenopaeus.\n* '''Aeolus''' was a Trojan, companion of Aeneas in Italy, where he was killed by Turnus, King of the Rutulians. Aeolus was father of Clytius and Misenus.\n",
"\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" References "
] | Aeolus |
[
"\nAn '''''Alford'' plea''' (also called a '''Kennedy plea''' in West Virginia, an\n'''''Alford'' guilty plea''', and the '''''Alford'' doctrine''') in United States law is a guilty plea in criminal court, whereby a defendant in a criminal case does not admit to the criminal act and asserts innocence. In entering an Alford plea, the defendant admits that the evidence the prosecution has would be likely to persuade a judge or jury to find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.\n",
"\n''North Carolina v. Alford'', U.S. Supreme Court (1970)\nThe ''Alford'' guilty plea is named after the United States Supreme Court case of ''North Carolina v. Alford'' (1970). Henry Alford had been indicted on a charge of first-degree murder in 1963. Evidence in the case included testimony from witnesses that Alford had said, after the victim's death, that he had killed the individual. Court testimony showed that Alford and the victim had argued at the victim's house. Alford left the house, and afterwards the victim received a fatal gunshot wound when he opened the door responding to a knock.\n\nAlford was faced with the possibility of capital punishment if convicted by a jury trial. The death penalty was the default sentence by North Carolina law at the time, if two requisites in the case were satisfied: the defendant had to have pleaded not guilty, and the jury did not instead recommend a life sentence. Had he pleaded guilty to first-degree murder, Alford would have had the possibility of a life sentence and would have avoided the death penalty, but he did not want to admit guilt. Nonetheless, Alford pleaded guilty to second-degree murder and said he was doing so to avoid a death sentence, were he to be convicted of first-degree murder, after attempting to contest that charge. Alford was sentenced to 30 years in prison, after the trial judge accepted the plea bargain and ruled that the defendant had been adequately advised by his defense lawyer.\n\nSupreme Court Justice Byron White wrote the decision for the majority.\nAlford appealed and requested a new trial, arguing he was forced into a guilty plea because he was afraid of receiving a death sentence. The Supreme Court of North Carolina ruled that the defendant had voluntarily entered the guilty plea, with knowledge of what that meant. Following this ruling, Alford petitioned for a writ of habeas corpus in the United States District Court for the Middle District of North Carolina, which upheld the initial ruling, and subsequently to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, which ruled that Alford's plea was not voluntary, because it was made under fear of the death penalty. \"I just pleaded guilty because they said if I didn't, they would gas me for it,\" wrote Alford in one of his appeals.\n\nThe case was then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. Supreme Court Justice Byron White wrote the majority decision, which held that for the plea to be accepted, the defendant must have been advised by a competent lawyer who was able to inform the individual that his best decision in the case would be to enter a guilty plea. The Court ruled that the defendant can enter such a plea \"when he concludes that his interests require a guilty plea and the record strongly indicates guilt\". The Court allowed the guilty plea with a simultaneous protestation of innocence only because there was enough evidence to show that the prosecution had a strong case for a conviction, and the defendant was entering such a plea to avoid this possible sentencing. The Court went on to note that even if the defendant could have shown that he would not have entered a guilty plea \"but for\" the rationale of receiving a lesser sentence, the plea itself would not have been ruled invalid. As evidence existed that could have supported Alford's conviction, the Supreme Court held that his guilty plea was allowable while the defendant himself still maintained that he was not guilty.\n\nAlford died in prison, in 1975.\n",
"The ''Dictionary of Politics: Selected American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms'' defines the term \"Alford plea\" as: \"A plea under which a defendant may choose to plead guilty, not because of an admission to the crime, but because the prosecutor has sufficient evidence to place a charge and to obtain conviction in court. The plea is commonly used in local and state courts in the United States.\" According to ''University of Richmond Law Review'', \"When offering an Alford plea, a defendant asserts his innocence but admits that sufficient evidence exists to convict him of the offense.\" ''A Guide to Military Criminal Law'' notes that under the Alford plea, \"the defendant concedes that the prosecution has enough evidence to convict, but the defendant still refuses to admit guilt.\" The book ''Plea Bargaining's Triumph: A History of Plea Bargaining in America'' published by Stanford University Press defines the plea as one in \"which the defendant adheres to his/her claim of innocence even while allowing that the government has enough evidence to prove his/her guilt beyond a reasonable doubt\". According to the book ''Gender, Crime, and Punishment'' published by Yale University Press, \"Under the Alford doctrine, a defendant does not admit guilt but admits that the state has sufficient evidence to find him or her guilty, should the case go to trial.\" ''Webster's New World Law Dictionary'' defines Alford plea as: \"A guilty plea entered as part of a plea bargain by a criminal defendant who denies committing the crime or who does not actually admit his guilt. In federal courts, such plea may be accepted as long as there is evidence that the defendant is actually guilty.\"\n\nThe Alford guilty plea is \"a plea of guilty containing a protestation of innocence\". The defendant pleads guilty, but does not have to specifically admit to the guilt itself. The defendant maintains a claim of innocence, but agrees to the entry of a conviction in the charged crime. Upon receiving an Alford guilty plea from a defendant, the court may immediately pronounce the defendant guilty and impose sentence as if the defendant had otherwise been convicted of the crime. Sources disagree, as may differing states' laws, as to what category of plea the ''Alford'' plea falls under: Some sources state that the Alford guilty plea is a form of ''nolo contendere'', where the defendant in the case states \"no contest\" to the factual matter of the case as given in the charges outlined by the prosecution. Others hold that an ''Alford'' plea is simply one form of a guilty plea, and, as with other guilty pleas, the judge must see there is some factual basis for the plea.\n\nDefendants can take advantage of the ability to use the Alford guilty plea, by admitting there is enough evidence to convict them of a higher crime, while at the same time pleading guilty to a lesser charge. Defendants usually enter an Alford guilty plea if they want to avoid a possible worse sentence were they to lose the case against them at trial. It affords defendants the ability to accept a plea bargain, while maintaining innocence.\n",
"This form of guilty plea has been frequently used in local and state courts in the United States, though it constitutes a small percentage of all plea bargains in the U.S. This form of plea is not allowed in courts of the United States military. In 2000 the United States Department of Justice noted, \"In an Alford plea the defendant agrees to plead guilty because he or she realizes that there is little chance to win acquittal because of the strong evidence of guilt. About 17% of State inmates and 5% of Federal inmates submitted either an Alford plea or a no contest plea, regardless of the type of attorney. This difference reflects the relative readiness of State courts, compared to Federal courts, to accept an alternative plea.\"\n\nIn the 1995 case ''State of Idaho v. Howry'' before the Idaho Court of Appeals, the Court commented on the impact of the Alford guilty plea on later sentencing. The Court ruled, \"Although an Alford plea allows a defendant to plead guilty amid assertions of innocence, it does not require a court to accept those assertions. The sentencing court may, of necessity, consider a broad range of information, including the evidence of the crime, the defendant's criminal history and the demeanor of the defendant, including the presence or absence of remorse.\" In the 1999 South Carolina Supreme Court case ''State v. Gaines'', the Court held that Alford guilty pleas were to be held valid in the absence of a specific on-the-record ruling that the pleas were voluntary – provided that the sentencing judge acted appropriately in accordance with the rules for acceptance of a plea made voluntarily by the defendant. The Court held that a ruling that the plea was entered into voluntarily is implied by the act of sentencing.\n\n\nIn the 2006 case before the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, ''Ballard v. Burton'', Judge Carl E. Stewart writing for the Court held that an Alford guilty plea is a \"variation of an ordinary guilty plea\". In October 2008, the United States Department of Justice defined an Alford plea as: \"the defendant maintains his or her innocence with respect to the charge to which he or she offers to plead guilty\".\n\nIn March 2009, the Minnesota House of Representatives characterized the Alford plea as: \"a form of a guilty plea in which the defendant asserts innocence but acknowledges on the record that the prosecutor could present enough evidence to prove guilt.\" The Minnesota Judicial Branch similarly states: \"Alford Plea: A plea of guilty that may be accepted by a court even where the defendant does not admit guilt. In an Alford plea, defendant has to admit that he has reviewed the state's evidence, a reasonable jury could find him guilty, and he wants to take advantage of a plea offer that has been made. Court has discretion as to whether to accept this type of plea.\"\n\nThe U.S. Attorneys' Manual states that in the federal system, Alford pleas \"should be avoided except in the most unusual circumstances, even if no plea agreement is involved and the plea would cover all pending charges.\" U.S. Attorneys are required to obtain the approval of the Assistant Attorney General with supervisory responsibility over the subject matter before accepting such a plea.\n",
"In his book ''American Criminal Justice'' (1972), Jonathan D. Caplan comments on the Supreme Court decision, noting, \"The ''Alford'' decision recognizes the plea-bargaining system, acknowledging that a man may maintain his innocence but still plead guilty in order to minimize his potential loss.\" Caplan comments on the impact of the Supreme Court's decision to require evidence of guilt in such a plea: \"By requiring that there be some evidence of guilt in such a situation, the decision attempts to protect the 'really' innocent from the temptations to which plea-bargaining and defense attorneys may subject them.\"\n\nMajor Steven E. Walburn argues in a 1998 article in ''The Air Force Law Review'' that this form of guilty plea should be adopted for usage by the United States military. \"In fairness to an accused, if, after consultation with his defense counsel, he knowingly and intelligently determines that his best interest is served by an Alford-type guilty plea, he should be free to choose this path. The system should not force him to lie under oath, nor to go to trial with no promise of the ultimate outcome concerning guilt or punishment. We must trust the accused to make such an important decision for himself. The military provides an accused facing court-martial with a qualified defense attorney. Together, they are in the best position to properly weigh the impact his decision, and the resulting conviction, will have upon himself and his family,\" writes Walburn. He emphasizes that when allowing these pleas, \"trial counsel should establish as strong a factual basis as possible\", in order to minimize the possible negative outcomes to \"the public's perception of the administration of justice within the military\".\n\n\nStephanos Bibas writes in a 2003 analysis for ''Cornell Law Review'' that Judge Frank H. Easterbrook and a majority of scholars \"praise these pleas as efficient, constitutional means of resolving cases\". Bibas notes that prominent plea bargain critic Albert Alschuler supports the use of this form of plea, writing, \"He views them as a lesser evil, a way to empower defendants within a flawed system. As long as we have plea bargaining, he maintains, innocent defendants should be free to use these pleas to enter advantageous plea bargains without lying. And guilty defendants who are in denial should be empowered to use these pleas instead of being forced to stand trial.\" Bibas instead asserts that this form of plea is \"unwise and should be abolished\". Bibas argues, \"These procedures may be constitutional and efficient, but they undermine key values served by admissions of guilt in open court. They undermine the procedural values of accuracy and public confidence in accuracy and fairness, by convicting innocent defendants and creating the perception that innocent defendants are being pressured into pleading guilty. More basically, they allow guilty defendants to avoid accepting responsibility for their wrongs.\"\n\nLegal scholar Jim Drennan, an expert on the court system at the Institute of Government at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, told the ''Winston-Salem Journal'' in a 2007 interview that the ability to use this form of guilty plea as an option in courts had a far-reaching effect throughout the United States. Drennan commented, \"We have lots of laws, but human interaction creates unique circumstances and the law has to adapt.\" He said of the Supreme Court case, \"They had to make a decision about what to do. One of the things the court has to do is figure out how to answer new questions, and that is what happened in this case.\"\n",
"\n*Alternative pleading\n*Deferred adjudication\n*Insanity defense\n*List of U.S. states by Alford plea usage\n*Malum in se\n*Malum prohibitum\n*Nolo contendere\n*Peremptory plea\n*West Memphis Three\n",
"\n",
"*\n*\n*\n",
"\n\n* Alford Doctrine – State of Connecticut, Judicial Branch\n* USAM 9-16.000 Pleas—Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 11, United States Department of Justice\n* Issue: Effect of Alford Plea of Guilty, ''Issues In NY Criminal Law'', Volume 4, Issue 11.\n* Transcript Of Plea Form, North Carolina, with question about term\n;Court cases\n* ''North Carolina v. Alford'', Supreme Court of the United States\n* ''US v. Szucko'', Definition of term by United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit\n* ''US v. Bierd'', Definition of term by United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Origin",
"Definition",
"Court and government usage",
"Commentary",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Alford plea |
[
"'''ABCD''' is a list of the first four letters in the English alphabet. It may also refer to:'''\n\n",
"\n* ABC (medicine), also known as ABCD, a mnemonic for steps in resuscitation\n* ABCD rating, a staging system for prostate cancer\n* ABCD syndrome, a genetic disorder\n* ABCD guideline, a heuristic for detecting melanomas\n* ABCD² score, a score for determining the risk of stroke after TIA\n* ABCD1, a protein\n",
"* ABCD matrix analysis, a type of ray tracing technique used in the design of some optical systems\n* ABCD-parameters, a type of properties describing the electrical behavior of linear electrical networks\n* ABCD Schema, a highly structured data exchange and access model for taxon occurrence data (specimens, observations, etc. of living organisms), i.e. primary biodiversity data\n",
"* ''ABCD: American-Born Confused Desi'', a 2013 Malayalam comedy film\n* ''ABCD: Any Body Can Dance'', a 2013 Bollywood film\n* ABCD 2, a 2015 film based on dance\n* ''ABCD'' (2005 film), a Tamil film released in India\n",
"*ABCd, American streaming service\n* Action for Boston Community Development, a Boston, Massachusetts-based non-profit social services agency\n* Asset-based community development, a methodology that seeks to uncover and highlight the strengths within communities\n* CompTIA, also known as the Association of Better Computer Dealers\n* ABCD Region, an industrial district outside of São Paulo, Brazil\n* American-Born Confused Desi, refers to American youth of South Asian descent\n* ABCD: add, browse, change, delete, another representation of Create, read, update and delete \n* ABCD line, a Japanese term for embargoes placed against Japan by the Americans, British, Chinese and Dutch, as well as other countries\n* ABCD ships, The first four steel ships built during the \"New Navy\" period of U.S. Naval history - Atlanta, Boston, Chicago and Dolphin\n* Four major agriculture commodity companies\n** Archer Daniels Midland\n** Bunge\n** Cargill\n** Louis Dreyfus\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Medicine",
"Science",
"Film",
"Other uses"
] | ABCD |
[
"\nIn analytic philosophy, '''anti-realism''' is an epistemological position first articulated by British philosopher Michael Dummett. The term was coined as an argument against a form of realism Dummett saw as 'colorless reductionism'.\n\nIn anti-realism, the truth of a statement rests on its demonstrability through internal logic mechanisms, such as Frege's context principle and Heyting's intuitionistic logic, in direct opposition to the realist notion that the truth of a statement rests on its correspondence to an external, independent reality. In anti-realism, this external reality is hypothetical and is not assumed.\n\nBecause it encompasses statements containing abstract ideal objects (i.e. mathematical objects), anti-realism may apply to a wide range of philosophic topics, from material objects to the theoretical entities of science, mathematical statement, mental states, events and processes, the past and the future.\n",
"=== Michael Dummett ===\nThe term \"anti-realism\" was introduced by Michael Dummett in his paper ''Realism'' in order to re-examine a number of classical philosophical disputes, involving such doctrines as nominalism, conceptual realism, idealism and phenomenalism. The novelty of Dummett's approach consisted in portraying these disputes as analogous to the dispute between intuitionism and Platonism in the philosophy of mathematics.\n\nAccording to intuitionists (anti-realists with respect to mathematical objects), the truth of a mathematical statement consists in our ability to prove it. According to Platonic realists, the truth of a statement is proven in its correspondence to objective reality. Thus, they are ready to accept a statement of the form \"P or Q\" as true only if we can prove P or if we can prove Q. In particular, we cannot in general claim that \"P or not P\" is true (the law of Excluded Middle), since in some cases we may not be able to prove the statement \"P\" nor prove the statement \"not P\". Similarly, intuitionists object to the existence property for classical logic, where one can prove , without being able to produce any term of which holds.\n\nDummett argues that this notion of truth lies at the bottom of various classical forms of '''anti-realism''', and uses it to re-interpret phenomenalism, claiming that it need not take the form of reductionism.\n\nDummett's writings on anti-realism draw heavily on the later writings of Wittgenstein, concerning meaning and rule following, and can be seen as an attempt to integrate central ideas from the ''Philosophical Investigations'' into the constructive tradition of analytic philosophy deriving from Frege.\n\n=== Metaphysical realism ===\nIdealists maintain a skepticism about the physical world, arguing either: 1) that nothing exists outside the mind, or 2) that we would have no access to a mind-independent reality, even if it exists. The latter case often takes the form of a denial of the idea that we can have 'unconceptualised' experiences (see Myth of the Given). Conversely, most realists (specifically, indirect realists) hold that perceptions or sense data are caused by mind-independent objects. But this introduces the possibility of another kind of skepticism: since our understanding of causality is that the same effect can be produced by multiple causes, there is a lack of determinacy about what one is really perceiving, as in the brain in a vat scenario.\n\nOn a more abstract level, model theoretic arguments hold that a given set of symbols in a theory can be mapped onto any number of sets of real-world objects—each set being a \"model\" of the theory—provided the relationship between the objects is the same. (Compare with symbol grounding.)\n",
"In philosophy of science, anti-realism applies chiefly to claims about the non-reality of \"unobservable\" entities such as electrons or genes, which are not detectable with human senses. One prominent position in the philosophy of science is instrumentalism, which is a non-realist position which takes a purely agnostic view towards the existence of unobservable entities, in which the unobservable entity X serves as an instrument to aid in the success of theory Y does not require proof for the existence or non-existence of X.\n\nSome scientific anti-realists, however, deny that unobservables exist, even as non-truth conditioned instruments.\n",
"In the philosophy of mathematics, realism is the claim that mathematical entities such as 'number' have an observer-independent existence. Empiricism, which associates numbers with concrete physical objects, and Platonism, in which numbers are abstract, non-physical entities, are the preeminent forms of mathematical realism.\n\nThe \"epistemic argument\" against Platonism has been made by Paul Benacerraf and Hartry Field. Platonism posits that mathematical objects are ''abstract'' entities. By general agreement, abstract entities cannot interact causally with physical entities (\"the truth-values of our mathematical assertions depend on facts involving platonic entities that reside in a realm outside of space-time\") Whilst our knowledge of physical objects is based on our ability to perceive them, and therefore to causally interact with them, there is no parallel account of how mathematicians come to have knowledge of abstract objects.\n\nField developed his views into fictionalism. Benacerraf also developed the philosophy of mathematical structuralism, according to which there are no mathematical objects. Nonetheless, some versions of structuralism are compatible with some versions of realism.\n\n=== Counterarguments ===\nAnti-realist arguments hinge on the idea that a satisfactory, naturalistic account of thought processes can be given for mathematical reasoning. One line of defense is to maintain that this is false, so that mathematical reasoning uses some special intuition that involves contact with the Platonic realm, as in the argument given by Sir Roger Penrose.\n\nAnother line of defense is to maintain that abstract objects are relevant to mathematical reasoning in a way that is non causal, and not analogous to perception. This argument is developed by Jerrold Katz in his book ''Realistic Rationalism''.\n\nA more radical defense is to deny the separation of physical world and the platonic world, i.e. the mathematical universe hypothesis. In that case, a mathematician's knowledge of mathematics is one mathematical object making contact with another.\n",
"\n\n* Arend Heyting\n* Constructivist epistemology\n* Context principle\n* Crispin Wright\n* Gottlob Frege\n\n\n* Intuitionistic logic\n* Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer\n* Münchhausen trilemma\n* Neil Tennant (philosopher)\n* Philosophical realism\n* Quasi-realism\n\n",
"\n",
"* \n** . reprinted, pp. 1–24.\n** . reprinted, pp. 145–165.\n** . reprinted, pp. 202–214.\n* Christine Baron, Manfred Engel (eds.) (2010). ''Realism/Anti-Realism in 20th-Century Literature. Rodopi: 2010. \n* Lee Braver (2007). ''A Thing of This World: a History of Continental Anti-Realism,'' Northwestern University Press: 2007.\n* Ian Hacking (1999). ''The Social Construction of What?''. Harvard University Press: 2001.\n* Samir Okasha (2002). ''Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford University Press.\n* (Japanese)\n",
"*\n* Semantic challenges to realism in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" In philosophy ",
" In science ",
"In mathematics",
"See also",
" References ",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Anti-realism |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\nApple pie is one of a number of American cultural icons.\nA sirloin steak dinner, served with sauteed onion, fries, broccoli, carrots, and snow peas, garnished with chives\n\nThe '''cuisine of the United States''' reflects its history. The European colonization of the Americas yielded the introduction of a number of ingredients and cooking styles to the latter. The various styles continued expanding well into the 19th and 20th centuries, proportional to the influx of immigrants from many different nations; such influx developed a rich diversity in food preparation throughout the country.\n\nEarly Native Americans utilized a number of cooking methods in early American Cuisine that have been blended with early European cooking methods to form the basis of American Cuisine. When the colonists came to the colonies, they farmed animals for clothing and meat in a similar fashion to what they had done in Europe. They had cuisine similar to their previous British cuisine. The American colonial diet varied depending on the settled region in which someone lived. Commonly hunted game included deer, bear, buffalo, and wild turkey. A number of fats and oils made from animals served to cook much of the colonial foods. Prior to the Revolution, New Englanders consumed large quantities of rum and beer, as maritime trade provided them relatively easy access to the goods needed to produce these items: rum was the distilled spirit of choice, as the main ingredient, molasses, was readily available from trade with the West Indies. In comparison to the northern colonies, the southern colonies were quite diverse in their agricultural diet and did not have a central region of culture.\n\nDuring the 18th and 19th centuries, Americans developed many new foods. During the Progressive Era (1890s–1920s) food production and presentation became more industrialized. One characteristic of American cooking is the fusion of multiple ethnic or regional approaches into completely new cooking styles. A wave of celebrity chefs began with Julia Child and Graham Kerr in the 1970s, with many more following after the rise of cable channels such as Food Network.\n",
"\n===Pre-colonial cuisine===\n\n====Seafood====\nBlue crab was used on the eastern and southern coast of what is now the U.S. mainland.\nSeafood in the United States originated with the Native Americans, who often ate cod, lemon sole, flounder, herring, halibut, sturgeon, smelt, drum on the East Coast, and olachen and salmon on the West Coast. Whale was hunted by Native Americans off the Northwest coast, especially by the Makah, and used for their meat and oil. Seal and walrus were also eaten, in addition to eel from New York's Finger Lakes region. Catfish was also popular among native people, including the Modocs. Crustacean included shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and dungeness crabs in the Northwest and blue crabs in the East. Other shellfish include abalone and geoduck on the West Coast, while on the East Coast the surf clam, quahog, and the soft-shell clam. Oysters were eaten on both shores, as were mussels and periwinkles.\n\n====Cooking methods====\nEarly Native Americans utilized a number of cooking methods in early American Cuisine that have been blended with early European cooking methods to form the basis of American Cuisine. Grilling meats was common. Spit roasting over a pit fire was common as well. Vegetables, especially root vegetables were often cooked directly in the ashes of the fire. As early Native Americans lacked pottery that could be used directly over a fire, they developed a technique which has caused many anthropologists to call them \"Stone Boilers\". They would heat rocks directly in a fire and then add the rocks to a pot filled with water until it came to a boil so that it would cook the meat or vegetables in the boiling water. In what is now the Southwestern United States, they also created adobe ovens called hornos to bake items such as cornmeal bread. Other parts of America dug pit ovens; these pits were also used to steam foods by adding heated rocks or embers and then seaweed or corn husks placed on top to steam fish and shellfish as well as vegetables; potatoes would be added while still in skin and corn while in-husk, this would later be referred to as a clambake by the colonists.\n\n===Colonial period===\n\nMap of the 13 American Colonies in 1775.\n\nWhen the colonists came to Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, or any of the other English colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America, their initial attempts at survival included planting crops familiar to them from back home in England. In the same way, they farmed animals for clothing and meat in a similar fashion. Through hardships and eventual establishment of trade with Britain, the West Indies and other regions, the colonists were able to establish themselves in the American colonies with a cuisine similar to their previous British cuisine. There were some exceptions to the diet, such as local vegetation and animals, but the colonists attempted to use these items in the same fashion as they had their equivalents or ignore them entirely if they could. The manner of cooking for the American colonists followed along the line of British cookery up until the Revolution. The British sentiment followed in the cookbooks brought to the New World as well.\n\nIn 1796, the first American cookbook was published.\n\nThere was a general disdain for French cookery, even with the French Huguenots in South Carolina and French-Canadians. One of the cookbooks that proliferated in the colonies was ''The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy'' (1747) by Hannah Glasse, who referred to \"the blind folly of this age that would rather be imposed on by a French booby, than give encouragement to a good English cook!\" Of the French recipes given in the text, she speaks out flagrantly against the dishes as she \"… thinks it an odd jumble of trash.\" Reinforcing the anti-French sentiment was the French and Indian War from 1754 to 1764. This created a large anxiety against the French, which influenced the English to force many of the French to move, as in the expulsion of the Acadians from Nova Scotia to Louisiana. The Acadians left a French influence in the diet of those settled in Louisiana, and among the Acadian Francophones who settled eastern Maine and parts of what is now northern Vermont at the same time they colonized New Brunswick.\n\n====Common ingredients====\nA clam bake consists of various steamed shellfish.\nThe American colonial diet varied depending on the settled region in which someone lived. Local cuisine patterns had established by the mid-18th century. The New England colonies were extremely similar in their dietary habits to those that many of them had brought from England. A striking difference for the colonists in New England compared to other regions was seasonality. While in the southern colonies, they could farm almost year-round, in the northern colonies, the growing seasons were very restricted. In addition, colonists' close proximity to the ocean gave them a bounty of fresh fish to add to their diet, especially in the northern colonies. \n\nWheat, however, the grain used to bake bread back in England was almost impossible to grow, and imports of wheat were far from cost productive. Substitutes in cases such as this included cornmeal. The Johnnycake was a poor substitute to some for wheaten bread, but acceptance by both the northern and southern colonies seems evident.\n\nAs many of the New Englanders were originally from England, game hunting was useful when they immigrated to the New World. Many of the northern colonists depended upon their ability to hunt, or upon others from whom they could purchase game. Hunting was the preferred method of protein consumption (as opposed to animal husbandry, which required much more work to defend the kept animals against Native Americans or the French).\n\n=====Livestock and game=====\nCommonly hunted game included deer, bear, buffalo, and wild turkey. The larger muscles of the animals were roasted and served with currant sauce, while the other smaller portions went into soups, stews, sausages, pies, and pastries. In addition to game, colonists' protein intake was supplemented by mutton. The Spanish in Florida originally introduced sheep to the New World, but this development never quite reached the North, and there they were introduced by the Dutch and English. The keeping of sheep was a result of the English non-practice of animal husbandry. The animals provided wool when young and mutton upon maturity after wool production was no longer desirable. The forage-based diet for sheep that prevailed in the Colonies produced a characteristically strong, gamy flavor and a tougher consistency, which required aging and slow cooking to tenderize.\n\n=====Fats and oils=====\nA plate of scrapple, a traditional dish of the Delaware Valley region still eaten today.\nA number of fats and oils made from animals served to cook much of the colonial foods. Many homes had a sack made of deerskin filled with bear oil for cooking, while solidified bear fat resembled shortening. Rendered pork fat made the most popular cooking medium, especially from the cooking of bacon. Pork fat was used more often in the southern colonies than the northern colonies as the Spanish introduced pigs earlier to the South. The colonists enjoyed butter in cooking as well, but it was rare prior to the American Revolution, as cattle were not yet plentiful.\n\n=====Alcoholic drinks=====\nPrior to the Revolution, New Englanders consumed large quantities of rum and beer, as maritime trade provided them relatively easy access to the goods needed to produce these items. Rum was the distilled spirit of choice, as the main ingredient, molasses, was readily available from trade with the West Indies. Further into the interior, however, one would often find colonists consuming whiskey, as they did not have similar access to sugar cane. They did have ready access to corn and rye, which they used to produce their whiskey. However, until the Revolution, many considered whiskey to be a coarse alcohol unfit for human consumption, as many believed that it caused the poor to become raucous and unkempt drunkards. In addition to these alcohol-based products produced in America, imports were seen on merchant shelves, including wine and brandy.\n\n=====Southern variations=====\nIn comparison to the northern colonies, the Southern Colonies were quite diverse in their agricultural diet and did not have a central region of culture. The uplands and the lowlands made up the two main parts of the southern colonies. The slaves and poor of the south often ate a similar diet, which consisted of many of the indigenous New World crops. Salted or smoked pork often supplement the vegetable diet. Rural poor often ate squirrel, opossum, rabbit and other woodland animals. Those on the \"rice coast\" often ate ample amounts of rice, while the grain for the rest of the southern poor and slaves was cornmeal used in breads and porridges. Wheat was not an option for most of those who lived in the southern colonies.\n\nThe diet of the uplands often included cabbage, string beans, and white potatoes, while most avoided sweet potatoes and peanuts at the time. Those who could grow or afford wheat often had biscuits as part of their breakfast, along with healthy portions of pork. Salted pork was a staple of any meal, as it was used in the preparations of vegetables for flavor, in addition to being eaten directly as a protein.\n\nThe lowlands, which included much of the French regions of Louisiana and the surrounding area, included a varied diet heavily influenced by the French, Spanish, Acadians, Germans, Native Americans, Africans and Caribbeans. Rice played a large part of the diet in Louisiana. In addition, unlike the uplands, the lowlands subsistence of protein came mostly from coastal seafood and game meats. Much of the diet involved the use of peppers, as it still does to this day. Although the English had an inherent disdain for French foodways, as well as many of the native foodstuff of the colonies, the French had no such disdain for the indigenous foodstuffs, but rather a vast appreciation for the native ingredients and dishes.\n\n===Post-colonial cuisine===\nDuring the 18th and 19th centuries, Americans developed many new foods. Some, such as Rocky Mountain oysters, stayed regional; some spread throughout the nation but with little international appeal, such as peanut butter (a core ingredient of the famous peanut butter and jelly sandwich); and some spread throughout the world, such as popcorn, Coca-Cola and its competitors, fried chicken, cornbread, unleavened muffins such as the poppyseed muffin, and brownies.\n\n===Modern cuisine===\nA cheeseburger served with fries and coleslaw\nDuring the Progressive Era (1890s–1920s) food production and presentation became more industrialized. Major railroads featured upscale cuisine in their dining cars. Restaurant chains emerged with standardized decor and menus, most famously the Fred Harvey restaurants along the route of the Sante Fe Railroad in the Southwest.\n\nAt the universities, nutritionists and home economists taught a new scientific approach to food. During World War I the Progressives' moral advice about food conservation was emphasized in large-scale state and federal programs designed to educate housewives. Large-scale foreign aid during and after the war brought American standards to Europe.\n\nNewspapers and magazines ran recipe columns, aided by research from corporate kitchens, which were major food manufacturers like General Mills, Campbell's, and Kraft Foods. One characteristic of American cooking is the fusion of multiple ethnic or regional approaches into completely new cooking styles. For example, spaghetti is Italian, while hot dogs are German; a popular meal, especially among young children, is spaghetti containing slices of hot dogs. Since the 1960s Asian cooking has played a particularly large role in American fusion cuisine.\n\nEggs Benedict, an American breakfast dish made with poached eggs and hollandaise sauce, served in this variation with smoked salmon\nNew York City is home to a diverse and cosmopolitan demographic, and since the nineteenth century, the city's world class chefs created complicated dishes with rich ingredients like Lobster Newberg, waldorf salad, vichyssoise, eggs benedict, and the New York strip steak out of a need to entertain and impress consumers in expensive bygone restaurants like Delmonico's and still standing establishments like the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel.\n\nSome dishes that are typically considered American have their origins in other countries. American cooks and chefs have substantially altered these dishes over the years, to the degree that the dishes now enjoyed around the world are considered to be American. Hot dogs and hamburgers are both based on traditional German dishes, but in their modern popular form they can be reasonably considered American dishes.\n\nPizza is based on the traditional Italian dish, brought by Italian immigrants to the United States, but varies highly in style based on the region of development since its arrival. For example, \"Chicago\" style has focus on a thicker, taller crust, whereas a \"New York Slice\" is known to have a much thinner crust which can be folded. These different types of pizza can be advertised throughout the country and are generally recognizable and well-known, with some restaurants going so far as to import New York City tap water from a thousand or more miles away to recreate the signature style in other regions.\n\nA modern dish consisting of traditional roasted turkey, sweet potatoes, and grilled vegetables prepared with modern fusion ingredients\nMany companies in the American food industry developed new products requiring minimal preparation, such as frozen entrees. Many of these recipes have become very popular. For example, the General Mills ''Betty Crocker's Cookbook'', first published in 1950, was a popular book in American homes.\n\nA wave of celebrity chefs began with Julia Child and Graham Kerr in the 1970s, with many more following after the rise of cable channels like Food Network. By the beginning of the 21st century regional variations in consumption of meat began to reduce, as more meat was consumed overall. Saying they eat too much protein, the ''2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans'' asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of underconsumed foods such as vegetables.\n\n====New American====\n\nDuring the 1980s, upscale restaurants introduced a mixing of cuisines that contain Americanized styles of cooking with foreign elements commonly referred as New American cuisine. New American cuisine refers to a type of fusion cuisine which assimilates flavors from the melting pot of traditional American cooking techniques mixed with flavors from other cultures and sometimes molecular gastronomy components.\n",
"\nGenerally speaking, in the present day 21st century, the modern cuisine of the United States is very much regional in nature. Excluding Alaska and Hawaii the terrain spans 3,000 miles West to East and more than a thousand North to South.\n\n===Northeast===\n\n====New England====\n\nNew England clam chowder\nNew England is a Northeastern region of the United States bordering the Maritime Provinces of Canada and portions of Quebec in the north. It includes the six states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont, with its cultural capital Boston, founded in 1630. The Native American cuisine became part of the cookery style that the early colonists brought with them. Tribes like the Nipmuck, Wampanoag, and other Algonquian cultures were noted for slashing and burning areas to create meadows and bogs that would attract animals like moose and deer, but also encourage the growth of plants like black raspberries, blueberries, and cranberries. In the forest they would have collected nuts of species like the shagbark hickory, American hazel, and American chestnuts and fruits like wild grapes and black cherries. All of these eventually showed up in the kitchens of colonial New England women and many were sent back to England and other portions of Europe to be catalogued by scientists, collectors, and horticulturalists.\n\nThe style of New England cookery originated from its colonial roots, that is to say practical, frugal and willing to eat anything other than what they were used to from their British roots . Most of the initial colonists came from East Anglia in England, with other groups following them over the ages like francophone regions of Canada (this was especially true of Northern New England, where there are still many speakers of a dialect of French), from Ireland, from Southern Italy, and most recently from Haiti, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, and Portugal. The oldest forms of the cuisine date to the early 17th century and in the case of Massachusetts, out of the entire country only the state of Virginia can claim recipes that are older. East Anglian cookery would have included recipes for dishes like suet puddings, wheaten breads, and a few shellfish delicacies, like winkles and would have been at the time of settlement simple Puritan fare quite in contrast to the fineries and excesses expected in London cavalier circles. Most of the cuisine started with one-pot cookery, which resulted in such dishes as succotash, chowder, baked beans, and others. Starches are fairly simple, and typically encompass just a handful of classics like potatoes and cornmeal, and a few native breads like Anadama bread, johnnycakes, bulkie rolls, Parker house rolls, popovers, and New England brown bread. This region is fairly conservative with its spices, but typical spices include nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon, cloves, and allspice, especially in desserts, and for savory foods, thyme, black pepper, sea salt, and sage. Typical condiments include maple syrup, grown from the native sugar maple, molasses, and the famous cranberry sauce.\n\nNew England is noted for having a heavy emphasis on seafood, a legacy inherited from coastal tribes like the Wampanoag and Narragansett, who equally used the rich fishing banks offshore for sustenance. Favorite fish include cod, salmon, winter flounder, haddock, striped bass, pollock, hake, bluefish, and, in southern New England, tautog. All of these are prepared numerous ways, such as frying cod for fish fingers, grilling bluefish over hot coals for summertime, smoking salmon or serving a whole poached one chilled for feasts with a dill sauce, or, on cold winter nights, serving haddock baked in casserole dish with a creamy sauce and crumbled breadcrumbs as a top so it forms a crust. Clam cakes, a savory fritter based on chopped clams, are a specialty of Rhode Island. Farther inland, brook trout, largemouth bass, and herring are sought after, especially in the rivers and icy finger lakes in upper New England.\n\nMeat is present though not as prominent, and typically is either stewed in dishes like Yankee pot roast and New England boiled dinner or braised, as in a picnic ham; these dishes suit the weather better as summers are humid and hot but winters are raw and cold, getting below 0 °C for most of the winter and only just above it by March. The roasting of whole turkeys began here as a centerpiece for large American banquets, and like all other East Coast tribes, the Native American tribes of New England prized wild turkeys as a source of sustenance and later Anglophone settlers were enamored of cooking them using methods they knew from Europe: often that meant trussing the bird and spinning it on a string or spit roasting. Today turkey meat is a key ingredient in soups, and also a favorite in several sandwiches like the Pilgrim (sandwich). For lunch, hot roast beef is sometimes chopped finely into small pieces and put on a roll with salami and American or provolone cheese to make a steak bomb. Bacon is often maple cured, and it is often the drippings from this bacon that are an ingredient in corn chowder. Veal consumption was prevalent in the North Atlantic States prior to World War II. A variety of linguiça is favored as a breakfast food, brought with Portuguese fisherman and Brazilian immigrants. In contrast with some parts of the United States, lamb (although less so mutton or goat) is a popular roasted or grilled meat across diverse groups in New England. Dairy farming and its resultant products figure strongly on the ingredient list, and homemade ice cream is a summertime staple of the region: it was a small seasonal roadside stand in Vermont that eventually became the world-famous Ben and Jerry's ice cream. Vermont in particular is famous for producing farmhouse style cheeses, especially a type of cheddar. The recipe goes all the way back to colonial times when English settlers brought the recipe with them from England and found the rocky landscape eminently suitable to making the cheese. Today Vermont has more artisanal cheese makers per capita than any other state, and diversity is such that interest in goat's milk cheeses has become prominent.\n\nCrustaceans and mollusks are also an essential ingredient in the regional cookery. Maine is noted for harvesting peekytoe crab and Jonah crab and making crab bisques, based on cream with 35% milkfat, and crabcakes out of them, and often they appear on the menu as far south as to be out of region in New York City, where they are sold to four star restaurants. Squid are heavily fished for and eaten as fried calamari, and often are an ingredient in Italian American cooking in this region. Whelks are eaten in salad, and most famous of all is the lobster, which is indigenous to the coastal waters of the region and are a feature of many dishes, baked, boiled, roasted, and steamed, or simply eaten as a sandwich, chilled with mayonnaise and chopped celery in Maine and Massachusetts, or slathered with melted butter on Long Island and in Connecticut.\n\nShellfish of all sorts are part of the diet, and shellfish of the coastal regions include little neck clams, sea scallops, blue mussels, oysters, soft shell clams and razor shell clams. Much of this shellfish contributes to New England tradition, the clambake. The clambake as known today is a colonial interpretation of an American Indian tradition. In summer, oysters and clams are dipped in batter and fried, often served in a basket with french fries, or commonly on a wheaten bun as a clam roll. Oysters are otherwise eaten chilled on a bed of crushed ice on the half shell with mignonette sauce, and are often branded on where they were harvested. Large quahogs are stuffed with breadcrumbs and seasoning and baked in their shells, and smaller ones often find their way into clam chowder. Other preparations include clams casino, clams on the half shell served stuffed with herbs like oregano and streaky bacon.\n\nThe fruits of the region include the ''Vitis labrusca'' grapes used in grape juice made by companies such as Welch's, along with jelly, Kosher wine by companies like Mogen David and Manischewitz along with other wineries that make higher quality wines. Apples from New England include the traditional varieties Baldwin, Lady, Mother, Pomme Grise, Porter, Roxbury Russet, Wright, Sops of Wine, Hightop Sweet, Peck's Pleasant, Titus Pippin, Westfield-Seek-No-Further, and Duchess of Oldenburg. Beach plums a small native species with fruits the size of a pinball, are sought after in summer to make into a jam. Cranberries are another fruit indigenous to the region, often collected in autumn in huge flooded bogs. Thereafter they are juiced so they can be drunk fresh for breakfast, or dried and incorporated into salads. Winter squashes like pumpkin and butternut squashes have been a staple for generations owing to their ability to keep for long periods over icy New England winters and being an excellent source of beta carotene; in summer, they are replaced with pattypan and zucchini, the latter brought to the region by immigrants from Southern Italy a century ago. Blueberries are a very common summertime treat owing to them being an important crop, and find their way into muffins, pies and pancakes. Typical favorite desserts are quite diverse, and encompass hasty pudding, blueberry pie, whoopie pies, Boston cream pie, pumpkin pie, Joe Frogger cookies, hand crafted ice cream, Hermit cookies, and most famous of all, the chocolate chip cookie, invented in Massachusetts in the 1930s.\n\nSouthern New England, particularly along the coast, shares many specialties with the Mid-Atlantic, including especially dishes from Jewish and Italian-American cuisine. Coastal Connecticut is known for distinctive kinds of pizza, locally called apizza, differing in texture (thin and slightly blackened) and toppings (such as clams) from pizza further south in the so-called pizza belt, which stretches from New Haven southward through New York, New Jersey, and into Maryland.\n\n====Delaware Valley & Mid-Atlantic====\n\n\nNew York strip steak topped with mushrooms and onions\nThe mid-Atlantic states comprise the states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Northern Maryland. The oldest major settlement in this area of the country is found in the most populous city in the nation, New York City, founded in 1653 by the Dutch. Today, it is a major cultural capital of the United States. The influences on cuisine in this region are extremely eclectic owing to the fact that it has been and continues to be a gateway for international culture as well as a gateway for new immigrants. Going back to colonial times, each new group has left their mark on homegrown cuisine and in turn the cities in this region disperse trends to the wider United States. In addition to importing and trading the finest specialty foods from all over the world, cities like New York and Philadelphia have had the past influence of Dutch, Italian, German, Irish, British, and Jewish cuisines, and that continues to this day. Baltimore has become the crossroads between North and South, a distinction it has held since the end of the Civil War.\n\nA global power city, New York City is internationally known for its extremely diverse and cosmopolitan dining scene and possesses the entire world spectrum of dining options within its city limits. Some of the most exclusive and prestigious restaurants and nightclubs in the world are headquartered in New York City and compete fiercely for good reviews in the Food and Dining section of The New York Times, online guides, and Zagat's, the last of which is widely considered the premier American dining guide, published yearly and headquartered in New York City.\n\nNew York–style cheesecake with strawberries\nMany of the more complicated dishes with rich ingredients like Lobster Newberg, waldorf salad, vichyssoise, eggs benedict, and the New York strip steak were born out of a need to entertain and impress the well to do in expensive bygone restaurants like Delmonico's and still standing establishments like the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, and today that tradition remains alive as some of the most expensive and exclusive restaurants in the country are found in this region. Modern commercial American cream cheese was developed in 1872, when William Lawrence, from Chester, New York, while looking for a way to recreate the soft, French cheese Neufchâtel, accidentally came up with a way of making an \"unripened cheese\" that is heavier and creamier; other dairymen came up with similar creations independently.\n\nSince the first reference to an alcoholic mixed drink called a cocktail comes from New York State in 1803, it is thus not a surprise that there have been many cocktails invented in New York and the surrounding environs. Even today New York City bars are noted for being highly influential in making national trends. Cosmopolitans, Long Island iced teas, Manhattans, Rob Roys, Tom Collins, Aviations, and Greyhounds were all invented in New York bars, and the gin martini was popularized in New York in speakeasies during the 1920s, as evidenced by its appearance in the works of New Yorker and American writer F. Scott Fitzgerald. Like its neighbor Philadelphia, many rare and unusual liquors and liqueurs often find their way into a mixologist's cupboard or restaurant wine list. New York State is the third most productive area in the country for wine grapes, just behind the more famous California and Washington. It has AVA's near the Finger Lakes, the Catskills, and Long Island, and in the Hudson Valley has the second most productive area in the country for growing apples, making it a center for hard cider production, just like New England. Pennsylvania has been growing rye since Germans began to emigrate to the area at the end of the 17th century and required a grain they knew from Germany. Therefore, overall it is not unusual to find New York grown Gewürtztraminer and Riesling, Pennsylvania rye whiskey, or marques of locally produced ciders like Original Sin on the same menu.\n\nPhiladelphia cheesesteak with cheese whiz\nSince their formative years, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore have welcomed immigrants of every kind to their shores, and all three have been an important gateway through which new citizens to the general United States arrive. Traditionally natives have eaten cheek to jowl with newcomers for centuries as the newcomers would open new restaurants and small businesses and all the different groups would interact. Even in colonial days this region was a very diverse mosaic of peoples, as settlers from Switzerland, Wales, England, Ulster, Wallonia, Holland, Gelderland, the British Channel Islands, and Sweden sought their fortune in this region. This is very evident in many signature dishes and local foods, all of which have evolved to become American dishes in their own right. The original Dutch settlers of New York brought recipes they knew and understood from the Netherlands and their mark on local cuisine is still apparent today: in many quarters of New York their version of apple pie with a streusel top is still baked, while originating in the colony of New Amsterdam their predilection for waffles in time evolved into the American national recipe and forms part of a New York City brunch, and they also made coleslaw, originally a Dutch salad, but today accented with the later 18th century introduction of mayonnaise. The internationally famous American doughnut began its life originally as a New York pastry that arrived in the 18th century as the Dutch olykoek.\n\nCrab cake, popular in Delaware, New Jersey, and Maryland, is often served on a roll.\nCrab cakes were once a kind of English croquette, but over time as spices have been added they and the Maryland crab feast became two of Baltimore's signature dishes; fishing for the blue crab is a favorite summer pastime in the waters off Maryland, New Jersey, and Delaware where they may grace the table at summer picnics . Other mainstays of the region have been present since the early years of American history, like oysters from Cape May, the Chesapeake Bay, and Long Island, and lobster and tuna from the coastal waters found in New York and New Jersey, which are exported to the major cities as an expensive delicacy or a favorite locavore's quarry at the multitude of farmer's markets, very popular in this region. Philadelphia Pepper Pot, a tripe stew, was originally a British dish but today is a classic of home cooking in Pennsylvania alongside bookbinder soup, a type of turtle soup.\n\nIn the winter, New York City pushcarts sell roasted chestnuts, a delicacy dating back to English Christmas traditions, and it was in New York and Pennsylvania that the earliest Christmas cookies were introduced: Germans introduced crunchy molasses based gingerbread and sugar cookies in Pennsylvania, and the Dutch introduced cinnamon based cookies, all of which have become part of the traditional Christmas meal.Scrapple was originally a type of savory pudding that early Pennsylvania Germans made to preserve the offal of a pig slaughter. The Philadelphia soft pretzel was originally brought to Eastern Pennsylvania in the early 18th century, and later, 19th century immigrants sold them to the masses from pushcarts to make them the city's best-known bread product, having evolved into its own unique recipe.\n\nNew York–style pizza refers to the style of pizza eaten in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut.\nAfter the 1820s, new groups began to arrive and the character of the region began to change. There had been some Irish from Ulster prior to 1820, however largely they had been Protestants with somewhat different culture and (often) a different language than the explosion of emigrants that came to Castle Garden and Locust Point in Baltimore in their masses starting in the 1840s.\n\nThe Irish arrived in America in a rather woeful state, as Ireland at the time was often plagued by some of the worst poverty in Europe and often heavy disenfranchisement among the masses: many of them arrived barely alive having ridden coffin ships to the New World, sick with typhus and starvation. In addition, they were the first to face challenges other groups did not have: they were the first large wave of Catholics. They faced prejudice for their faith and the cities of Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore were not always set up for their needs. For example, Catholic bishops in the U.S. mandated until the 1960s that all Catholics were forbidden from eating red meat on Fridays and during Lent, and attending Mass sometimes conflicted with work as produce and meat markets would be open on holy days; this was difficult for Irishmen supporting families since many worked as laborers. Unsurprisingly, many Irishmen also found their fortunes working as longshoremen, which would have given their families access to fish and shellfish whenever a fisherman made berth, which was frequent on the busy docks of Baltimore and New York. Though there had been some activity in Baltimore in founding a see earlier by the Carroltons, the Irish were the first major wave of Catholic worship in this region, and that meant bishops and cardinals sending away to Europe for wine. Part of the Catholic mass includes every parishioner taking a sip of wine from the chalice as part of the Eucharist. Taverns had existed prior to their emigration to America in the region, though the Irish brought their particular brand of pub culture and founded some of the first saloons and bars that served stout and red ale; they brought with them the knowledge of single malt style whiskey and sold it. The Irish were the first immigrant group to arrive in this region in massive millions, and these immigrants also founded some of the earliest saloons and bars in this region, of which McSorley's is an example.\n\nPhiladelphia-style soft pretzel\nIt was also in this region that the Irish introduced something that today is a very important festival in American culture that involves a large amount of food, drink, and merry making: Halloween. In England and Wales, where prior immigrants had come from, the feast of All Hallows Eve had died out in the Reformation, dismissed as superstition and excess having nothing to do with the Bible and often replaced with the festival of Guy Fawkes Night. Other immigrant groups like the Germans preferred to celebrate October 31 as Reformation Day, and after the American Revolution all of the above were less and less eager to celebrate the legacy of an English festival when they had fought a very bloody war to leave the British Empire. The Catholicism of the Irish demanded attendance at church on November 1 and charity and deeds, not just faith, as a cornerstone of dogma, and many of their older traditions survived the Reformation and traveled with them. Naturally, they went door-to-door to collect victuals for masked parties as well as gave them out, like nuts to roast on the fire, whiskey, beer, or cider, and barmbracks; they also bobbed for apples and made dumb cakes. Later in the century they were joined by Scots going guising, children going door-to-door to ask for sweets and treats in costume. From the Mid Atlantic this trend spread to be nationwide and evolved into American children trick-or-treating on October 31 wearing costumes and their older counterparts having wild costume parties with lots of food and drink like caramel apples, candy apples, dirt cakes, punch, cocktails, cider (both alcoholic and non,) pumpkin pie, candy corn, chocolate turtles, peanut brittle, taffy, tipsy cake, and copious buckets full of candy; children carving jack-o-lanterns and eating squash derived foods derive from Halloween's heritage as a harvest festival and from Irish and Scottish traditions of carving turnips and eating root vegetables at this time of year. Their bobbing for apples has survived to the present day as a Halloween party classic game, as has a variation on the parlor game of trying to grab an apple hanging from the ceiling blindfolded: it has evolved into trying to catch a donut in one's teeth.\n\nImmigrants from Southern Europe, namely Sicily, Campania, Lazio, and Calabria, appeared between 1880 and 1960 in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Eastern Maryland hoping to escape the extreme poverty and corruption endemic to Italy; typically none of them spoke English, but rather dialects of Italian and had a culture that was more closely tied to the village they were born in than the high culture only accessible to those who could afford it at this time; many could not read or write in any language. They were employed in manual labor or factory work but it is because of them that dishes like spaghetti with meatballs, New York–style pizza, calzones, and baked ziti exist, and Americans of today are very familiar with semolina based pasta noodles. Their native cuisine had less of an emphasis on meat, as evidenced by dishes they introduced like pasta e fagioli and minestrone, but the dishes they created in America often piled it on as a sign of wealth and newfound prosperity since for the first time even cheap cuts of it were affordable: the American recipe for lasagna is proof of this, as mostly it is derived from the Neapolitan version of the dish with large amounts of meat and cheese.\n\nCarts selling frankfurters, the predecessor to hotdogs, in New York City circa 1906. The price is listed as \"3 cents each or 2 for 5 cents\".\nNew York–style hot dogs came about with German speaking emigrants from Austria and Germany, particularly with the frankfurter sausage and the smaller wiener sausage. Today, the New York–style hot dog with sauerkraut, mustard, and the optional cucumber pickle relish is such a part of the local fabric, that it is one of the favorite comestibles of New York City. Hot dogs are a typical street food sold year round in all by the most inclement weather from thousands of pushcarts. As with all other stadiums in Major League Baseball they are an essential for New York Yankees and the New York Mets games though it is the local style of preparation that predominates without exception. Hot dogs are also the focus of a televised eating contest on the Fourth of July in Coney Island, at Nathan's Famous, one of the earliest hot dog stands opened in the United States in 1916.\n\nA summertime treat, Italian ice, began its life as a lemon flavored penny lick brought to Philadelphia by Italians; its Hispanic counterpart, piragua, is a common and evolving shaved ice treat brought to New York City by Puerto Ricans in the 1930s. Unlike the original dish which included flavors like tamarind, mango, coconut, piragua is evolving to include flavors like grape, a fruit not grown in Puerto Rico. Taylor ham, a meat delicacy of New Jersey, first appeared around the time of the Civil War and today is often served for breakfast with eggs and cheese on a kaiser roll, the bread upon which this is served was brought to the area by Austrians in the second half of the nineteenth century and is a very common roll for sandwiches at lunchtime, usually tipped with poppyseeds. This breakfast meat is generally known as pork roll in southern New Jersey and Philadelphia, and Taylor ham in northern New Jersey.\n\nThis painting of a diner, , is 75 years old, but is by no means out of date. One of the most common types of eatery In the Mid-Atlantic is the local diner, and such restaurants are a cultural institution.\nOther dishes came about during the early 20th century and have much to do with delicatessen fare, set up largely by Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe who came to America incredibly poor. Most often they were completely unable to partake in the outdoor food markets that the general population utilized as most of the food for sale was not kosher. The influence of European Jewry before their destruction in the Holocaust on modern mid Atlantic cooking remains extremely strong and reinforced by their many descendants in the region. American-style pickles were brought by Polish Jews, now a common addition to hamburgers and sandwiches, and Hungarian Jews brought a recipe for almond horns that now is a common regional cookie, diverting from the original recipe in dipping the ends in dark chocolate. New York–style cheesecake has copious amounts of cream and eggs because animal rennet is not kosher and thus could not be sold to a large number of the deli's clientele. New York inherited its bagels and bialys from Jews, as well as Challah bread. Pastrami first entered the country via Romanian Jews, and is a feature of many sandwiches, often eaten on marble rye, a bread that was born in the mid Atlantic. Whitefish salad, lox, and matzoh ball soup are now standard fare made to order at local diners and delicatessens, but started their life as foods that made up a strict dietary code.\n\nLike other groups before them, many of their dishes passed into the mainstream enough so that they became part of diner fare by the end of the 20th century, a type of restaurant that is now more numerous in this region than any other and formerly the subject matter of artist Edward Hopper. In the past this sort of establishment was the haven of the short order cook grilling or frying simple foods for the working man. Today typical service would include regional staples like beef on weck, manhattan clam chowder, the club sandwich, Buffalo wings, Philadelphia cheesesteak, the black and white cookie, shoofly pie, snapper soup, Smith Island cake, grape pie, milkshakes, and the egg cream, a vanilla or chocolate fountain drink with a frothy top and fizzy taste. As in Hopper's painting from 1942, many of these businesses are open 24 hours a day.\n\nPersimmon pudding. This is a dessert staple of the Midwest.\n\n===Midwest===\n\nMidwestern cuisine today covers everything from barbecue to the Chicago-style hot dog, though many of its classics are very simple, hearty fare. Mostly this region was completely untouched by European and American settlers until after the American Civil War, and excepting Missouri and the heavily forested states near the Great Lakes was mainly populated by interwarring nomadic tribes like the Sioux, Osage, Arapaho, and Cheyenne. As with most other Native American tribes, these tribes consumed the Three Sisters of beans, maize, and squash, but also for thousands of years followed the herds of bison and hunted them first on foot and then, after the spread of mustangs from the Southwest due to the explorations of conquistadors, on horseback, typically using bow and arrow. There are buffalo jumps dating back nearly ten thousand years and several photographs and written accounts of trappers and homesteaders attesting to their dependence on the buffalo and to a lesser degree elk. After nearly wiping out the elk and bison to nothingness, this region has taken to raising bison alongside cattle for their meat and at an enormous profit, making them into burgers and steaks.\n\nThis region today comprises the states near the Great Lakes and also the Great Plains; much of it is prairie with a very flat terrain where the blue sky meets a neverending horizon. Winters are bitterly cold, windy, and wet. Often that means very harsh blizzards especially near the Great Lakes where Arctic winds blow off of Canada and where the ice on rivers and lakes freezes reliably thick enough for ice hockey to be a favorite pastime in the region and for ice fishing for pike and muskies to be ubiquitous in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, where they often there after become part of the local tradition of the fish fry. Population density is extremely low away from the Great Lakes and very small towns dominated by enormous farms are the rule with larger cities being the exception. Detroit, Cleveland, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, Minneapolis and her twin sister city across the river St. Paul dominate the landscape in wealth and size, owing to their ties with manufacturing, finance, transportation, and meatpacking. Smaller places like Omaha, Tulsa, and Kansas City make up local capitals, but the king of them all is Chicago, third largest city in the country.\n\nThe Upper Midwest includes the states of Illinois, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan. Non-Native American settlement began here earlier than anywhere else in the region, and thus the food available here ranges from the sublime to the bizarre. As with all of the Midwest, the primary meats here are beef and poultry, since the Midwest has been raising turkeys, chickens, and geese for over a hundred and fifty years; chickens have been so common for so long that the Midwest has several native breeds that are prized for both backyard farming and for farmer's markets, such as the Buckeye and Wyandotte; one, Billina, appears as a character in the second book of the Oz series by L. Frank Baum. Favorite fruits of the region include a few native plants inherited from Native American tribes like the pawpaw and the American persimmons are also highly favored. As with the American South, pawpaws are the region's largest native fruit, about the size of a mango, and are often found growing wild in the region come September, whereafter they are made into preserves and cakes and command quite a price at farmer's markets in Chicago. The American persimmon is often smaller than it is Japanese cousin, about the size of a small plum, but in the Midwest and portions of the East it is the main ingredient in a steamed pudding called persimmon pudding, topped with crème anglaise. Other crops inherited from the Native Americans include wild rice, which grows on the banks of lakes and is a local favorite for fancy meals and today often used in stuffing for Thanksgiving.\n\nTypical fruits of the region are cold weather crops. Once it was believed that the region had winters that were far too harsh for apple growing, but then a breeder in Minnesota came forth with the Wealthy apple and thence came forth the third most productive region for apple growing in the land, with local varieties comprising Wolf River, Enterprise, Melrose, Paula Red, Rome Beauty, Honeycrisp, and the world-famous Red Delicious. Cherries are important to Michigan and Wisconsin grows many cranberries, a legacy of early 19th century emigration of New England farmers. Crabapple jelly is a favorite condiment of the region.\n\nThe influence of German, Scandinavian, and Slavic peoples on the northern portion of the region is very strong; many of these emigrated to Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, and Illinois in the 19th century to take advantage of jobs in the meatpacking business as well as being homesteaders. Bratwurst is a very common sausage eaten at tailgate parties for the Green Bay Packers or Detroit Lions football teams and is often served boiled in lager beer with sauerkraut, different than many of the recipes currently found in Germany. Polish sausage, in particular a locally invented type of kielbasa, is an essential for sporting events in Chicago: Chicago today has approximately 200,000 speakers of Polish and has had a population of that description for over a hundred years. When Poles came to Chicago and surrounding cities from the Old World, they brought with them long ropes of kielbasa, cabbage rolls, and pierogis. Poles that left Poland after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the descendants of earlier immigrants still make all of the above and such comestibles are common in local diners and delis as result. Today alongside the pierogi, the sausage is served on a long roll with mustard like a hot dog or as a Maxwell Street Polish, a sandwich that has caramelized onions as an essential ingredient. In Cleveland, the same sausage is served in the form of the Polish boy: this is a weird but tasty sandwich made of french fries, spicy barbecue sauce, and coleslaw; unlike cities in the East where the hot dog alone is traditional fans of the Cleveland Indians, Detroit Tigers, Chicago Cubs, and Milwaukee Brewers favor at least two or three different kinds of sausage sold in the little pushcarts outside the stadium; the hot dogs themselves tend to follow the Chicago style, which is loaded with mustard, and pickled vegetables. In Cincinnati, where the Cincinnati Reds play, the predilection for sausage has a competitor in Cincinnati chili, invented by Macedonian immigrants: this bizarre but tasty dish includes spaghetti as its base, chili with a Mediterranean-inspired spice mix, and cheddar cheese; the chili itself is often a topping for local hot dogs at games.\n\nIn the Midwest and especially Minnesota, the tradition of the church potluck has become a gathering in which local foods reign, and so it has been since the era of the frontier: pioneers would often need to pool resources together to have a celebration in the 19th century and that simply never changed. Nowhere is this more clear than with the ever famous hotdish: this is a type of casserole believed to have derived somehow from a Norwegian recipe, and it is usually topped with potatoes or tater tots. Next to the hotdish at the potlucks usually is where the glorified rice is found: this is a dish made of a kind of rice pudding mixed with crushed pineapple and maraschino cherries. Next to that is the booyah, a thick soup made of a number or combinations of meat, vegetables, and seasonings that is meant to simmer on the stove for up to two days. Lefse, traditionally a Scandinavian flatbread, has been handed down to descendants for over a hundred years and is common on the table. Behind that is the venison, a popular meat around the Great Lakes and often eaten in steaks, sandwiches, and crown roasts for special events. If in North or South Dakota, tiger meat, a dish similar to steak tartare, is present. Last on the table are the dessert bars and most especially the brownies: this confection was created originally in 1898 in Chicago and has gone on to become a global food.\n\nFurther South, barbecue has its own style in places in Kansas and St. Louis that are different to the South and the American West. Kansas City and St. Louis were and remain important hubs for the railroad that connected the plains with the Great Lakes and cities farther east, like Philadelphia. At the turn of the 19th century, the St. Louis area, Omaha, and Kansas City had huge stockyards, waystations for cattle and pigs on their way East to the cities of the coast and North to the Great Lakes. They all had large growing immigrant and migrant populations from Europe and the South respectively, so this region has developed unique styles of barbecue. St. Louis-style barbecue favors a heavy emphasis on a sticky sweet barbecue sauce. Its standbys include the pork steak, a cut taken from the shoulder of the pig, grilled, and then slowly stewed in a pan over charcoal, crispy snoots, a cut from the cheek and nose of the pig that is fried up like cracklin and eaten dipped in sauce, pork spare ribs, and a mix of either beer boiled bratwurst or grilled Italian derived sausage, flavored with fennel. Dessert is usually something like gooey butter cake, invented in the city in the 1930s. Kansas City-style barbecue uses several different kinds of meat, more than most styles of American barbecue- turkey, mutton, pork, and beef just to name a few- but is distinct from St. Louis in that the barbecue sauce adds molasses in with the typical tomato based recipe and typically has a more tart taste. Traditionally, Kansas City uses a low-and-slow method of smoking the meat in addition to just stewing it in the sauce. It also favors using hickory would for smoking and continual watering or layering of the sauce while cooking to form a glaze; with burnt ends this step is necessary to create the \"bark\" or charred outer layer of the brisket.\n\n===The American South===\n\n\nWhen referring to the American South as a region, typically it should indicate Southern Maryland and the states that were once part of the Old Confederacy, with the dividing line between the East and West jackknifing about 100 miles west of Dallas, Texas, and mostly south of the old Mason-Dixon line. Cities found in this area include New Orleans, Miami, Atlanta, Washington, D.C., Memphis, Charleston, and Charlotte with Houston, Texas being the largest. These states are much more closely tied to each other and have been part of US territory for much longer than states much farther west than East Texas, and in the case of food, the influences and cooking styles are strictly separated as the terrain begins to change to prairie and desert from bayou and hardwood forest.\n\nThis section of the country has some of the oldest known foodways in the land, with some recipes almost 400 years old. Native American influences are still quite visible in the use of cornmeal as an essential staple and found in the Southern predilection for hunting wild game, in particular wild turkey, deer, woodcock, and various kinds of waterfowl; for example, coastal North Carolina is a place where hunters will seek tundra swan as a part of Christmas dinner; the original English and Scottish settlers would have rejoiced at this revelation owing to the fact that such was banned amongst the commoner class in what is now the United Kingdom, and naturally, their descendants have not forgotten. Native Americans also consumed turtles and catfish, specifically the snapping turtle and blue catfish, both important parts of the diet in the South today. Catfish are often caught with one's bare hands, gutted, breaded, and fried to make a Southern variation on English fish and chips and turtles are turned into stews and soups. Native American tribes of the region such as the Cherokee or Choctaw often cultivated or gathered local plants like pawpaw, maypop,spicebush,sassafras, and several sorts of squash and maize, and the aforementioned fruits still are cultivated as food in a Southerner's back garden. Maize is to this day found in dishes for breakfast, lunch and dinner in the form of grits, hoecakes, baked cornbread, and spoonbread, and nuts like the hickory, black walnut and pecan are commonly included in desserts and pastries as varied as mince pies, pecan pie, pecan rolls and honey buns (both are types of sticky bun), and quick breads, which were themselves invented in the South during the American Civil War.\n\n====Early history====\nEuropean influence began soon after the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 and the earliest recipes emerging by the end of the 17th century. Specific influences from Europe were quite varied, and remain traditional and essential to the modern cookery overall. To the upper portion of the South, French Huguenots brought the concept of making rouxs to make sauces and soups, and later French settlers hunted for frogs in the swamps to make frog's legs. German speakers often settled in Appalachia on small farms or in the backcountry away from the coast, and invented an American breakfast delicacy that is now nationally beloved, apple butter, based on their recipe for apfelkraut, and later introduced red cabbage and rye. From the UK, an enormous amount of influence was bestowed upon the South, specifically foodways found in 17th and 18th century Ulster, the borderlands between England and Scotland, the Scottish Highlands, portions of Wales, the West Midlands and Black Country. Settlers bound for America fled the tumult of the Civil War and troubles in the plantation of Ireland and the Highland Clearances, and often ships manifests show their belongings nearly always included their wives' cookpots or bakestones and seed stock for plants like peaches, plums, and apples to grow orchards, which they planted in their hundreds: today, the biggest fruit crop of the region is the yellow peach, and noted apple varieties include Carolina Red June, Arkansas Black, Carter Blue, Magnum Bonum, and the infamous Golden Delicious. Each group brought foods and ideas from their region. Settlers from Ireland and Scotland were well known for creating peatreak and poitín, strong hard liquor based on fermenting potatoes or barley, but when they settled in the Appalachians and portions of the piedmont, they found sugar and maize were the only things available. In time they came up with a method where the brew is distilled once using a maize mash with added sugar and the charcoal of sugar maple, which created a whiskey with a high proof and a need for aging in barrels from local species of oak rather than English oak. In time this gave birth in time to American whiskey and Kentucky bourbon, and its infamous later cousins moonshine and Everclear.\n\nCloser to the coast, 18th century recipes for English trifle turned into tipsy cakes, replacing the sherry with whiskey and their recipe for pound cake, brought to the South around the same time, still works with American baking units: 1 pound sugar, one pound eggs, one pound butter, one pound flour. All of the above groups made the staple meat of the South pork, to this day the meat no Southerner can cook without.\n\n====Common features====\nWith the exception of Kentucky, where mutton is a common choice, or Southern Maryland, where the custom is to take the carcass of an entire bull and roast it over coals for many hours, pork is the popular choice of Southern style barbecue and features in other preparations like sausages and sandwiches. Among both African-Americans and European-Americans in the antebellum period, corn and pork were a staple of the diet. For breakfast, it is a feature of country sausage, which in turn are an ingredient in the Southern breakfast dish of biscuits and gravy. Head cheese is a popular sliced meat of the region, taken from the pig's head, and pickled pig's feet have always been a cheap snack since they were introduced by Scotch-Irish settlers; today they are often served in bars.. Baby back ribs, hog maw, cracklins, and even whole pig roasts in specially constructed ovens are found in all parts of the South, as are its two best known condiments, barbecue sauce and hot sauce, with hundreds of local variations. In Virginia and the Appalachians, the mainstay for special occasions is the country ham, often served for Christmas and cured with salt or hickory, with the Virginia recipe often feeding the hogs peanuts for finishing and giving the ham a distinct taste, and red pepper flakes in ham cured in Tennessee. Accompanying many meals is the southern style fluffy biscuit, where the leavening agent is sodium bicarbonate and often includes buttermilk, and for breakfast they often accompany country ham, grits, and scrambled eggs.\n\n====Desserts====\nDesserts in the South tend to be quite rich and very much a legacy of entertaining to impress guests, since a Southern housewife was (and to a degree still is) expected to show her hospitality by laying out as impressive a banquet as she is able to manage. Desserts are vast and encompass Lane cake, sweet potato pie, peach cobbler, pecan pie, hummingbird cake, Jefferson Davis pie, peanut brittle, coconut cake, apple fritters, peanut cookies, Moravian spice cookies, chess pie, doberge cake, Lady Baltimore cake, bourbon balls, and caramel cake. American style sponge cakes tend to be the rule rather than the exception as is American style buttercream, a place where Southern baking intersects with the rest of the United States. Nuts like pecan and hickory tend to be revered as garnishes for these desserts, and make their way into local bakeries as fillings for chocolates.\n\n====Cajun cuisine====\nShrimp gumbo is a popular Cajun and Creole dish.\nIn the parts of the South which face the Atlantic Ocean, French influences often were dictated by where French Huguenots settled, however it is Louisiana that got the lion's share of older French cooking methods from Poitou and Normandy via Nova Scotia, most of which are foodways that pre-date the codification of haute cuisine during the reign of Louis XIV and have more in common with rustic cuisines of the 17th and 18th century than anything ever found at the French court in Versailles or the bistros of 19th and 20th century Paris; this is especially true of Cajun cuisine. Louisiana is a state named for Louis XIV and to this day French is still a commonly spoken tongue in the areas west of New Orleans, in Acadiana. The Cajuns and their dialect have occupied Southern Louisiana since the 1700s owing to ''Le Grande Dérangement'', an event in which they were forcibly evicted by the English Crown from their lands in Canada and made to occupy more marginal lands on the bayou. \n\nCajun French is more closely related to dialects spoken in Northern Maine, New Brunswick, and to a lesser degree Haiti than anything spoken in modern France, and likewise their terminology, methodology, and culture concerning food is much more closely related to the styles of these former French colonies even today. Unlike other areas of the South, Cajuns were and still are largely Catholics and thus much of what they eat is seasonal; for example pork is an important component of the Cajun ''boucherie'' (a large community event where the hog is butchered, prepared with a fiery spice mix, and eaten snout to tail) but it is never consumed in the five weeks of Lent, when such would be forbidden. Cajun cuisine tends to focus on what is locally available, historically because Cajuns were often poor, illiterate, independent farmers and not plantation owners but today it is because such is deeply imbedded in local culture. Boudin is a type of sausage found only in this area of the country, and it is often by far more spicy than anything found in France or Belgium. Chaudin is unique to the area, and the method of cooking is comparable to the Scottish dish haggis: the stuffing includes onions, rice, bell peppers, spices, and pork sewn up in the stomach of a pig, and served in slices piping hot. Crayfish are a staple of the Cajun grandmother's cookpot, as they are abundant in the bayous of Southern Louisiana and a main source of livelihood, as are blue crabs, shrimp, corn on the cob, and red potatoes, since these are the basic ingredients of the Louisiana crawfish boil.\n\nDishes typical of Louisiana Creole cuisine\nSince the end of the Civil War, New Orleans has had a thriving fine dining scene that predates the much younger 20th century metropoli of Atlanta and Miami. It was here that cocktails like the sazerac and hurricane were invented as well as the liqueur Southern Comfort. New Orleans has been the capital of Creole culture since before Louisiana was a state; this culture is that of the colonial French and Spanish that evolved in the city of New Orleans, which was and still is quite distinct from the rural culture of Cajuns and dovetails with what would have been eaten in antebellum Louisiana plantation culture long ago. Cooking to impress and show one's wealth was a staple of Creole culture, which often mixed French, Spanish, Italian, German, African, Caribbean and Native American cooking methods, producing rich dishes like oysters bienville, pompano en papillote, and even the muffaletta sandwich. However, Louisiana Creole cuisine tends to diverge from the original ideas brought to the region in ingredients: profiteroles, for example, use a near identical choux pastry to that which is found in modern Paris but often use vanilla or chocolate ice cream rather than custard as the filling, pralines nearly always use pecan and not almonds, and bananas foster came about when New Orleans was a key port for the import of bananas from the Caribbean Sea. Gumbos tend to be thickened with okra, or the leaves of the sassafrass tree. Andouille is often used, but not the andouille currently known in France, since French andouille uses tripe whereas Louisiana andouille is made from a Boston butt, usually inflected with pepper flakes, and smoked for hours over pecan wood. Other ingredients that are native to Louisiana and not found in the cuisine of modern France would include rice, which has been a staple of both Creole and Cajun cooking for generations, and sugarcane, which has been grown in Louisiana since the early 1800s.\n\nThe maypop plant\nGround cayenne pepper is a key spice of the region, as is the meat of the American alligator, something settlers learned from the Choctaws and Houma. The maypop plant has been a favorite of Southerners for 350 years; it gives its name to the Ocoee River in Tennessee, a legacy of the Cherokees, and in Southern Louisiana it is known as liane de grenade, indicating its consumption by Cajuns. It is a close relative of the commercial passionfruit, similar in size, and is a common plant growing in gardens all over the South as a source of fresh summertime fruit.\n\n====African influences====\nAfrican influences came with slaves from Ghana, Benin, Mali, Ivory Coast, Angola, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and other portions of West Africa, and the mark they and their descendants have made on Southern food is strong today. Crops like okra, sorghum, sesame seeds, eggplant, chili peppers, and many different kinds of melons were brought with them from West Africa along with the incredibly important introduction of rice to the Carolinas and later to Texas and Louisiana, whence it became a staple grain of the region and still remains a staple today, found in dishes like Hoppin John, purloo, and Charleston red rice. Other crops, like sugar cane, kidney beans, and certain spices would have been familiar to slaves through contact with British colonies in the Caribbean. Like the poorer indentured servants that came to the South, slaves often got the leftovers of what was slaughtered for the consumption of the master of the plantation and so many recipes had to be adapted for offal, like pig's ears and fatbacks though other methods encouraged low and slow methods of cooking to tenderize the tougher cuts of meat, like braising, smoking, and pit roasting, the last of which was a method known to West Africans in the preparation of roasting goat. Other recipes certainly brought by Africans involve peanuts, as evidenced by the local nickname for the legume in Southern dialects of American English: ''goober'', taken from the Kongo word for peanut, ''nguba''. The 300-year-old recipe for peanut soup is a classic of Southern cuisine that has never stopped being eaten, handed down to the descendants of Virginia slaves and adapted to be creamier and less spicy than the original African dish. Boiled peanuts are a common food served at bars as a snack and have been eaten in the South for as long as there have been pots to boil them.\n\n====Florida cuisine====\nCertain portions of the South often have their own distinct subtypes of cuisine owing to local history and landscape: though Cajun cuisine is more famous, Floridian cuisine, for example, has a distinct way of cooking that includes ingredients her other Southern sisters do not use, especially points south of Tampa and Orlando. The Spanish Crown had control of the state until the early 19th century and used the southern tip as an outpost to guard the Spanish Main beginning in the 1500s, but Florida kept and still maintains ties with the Caribbean Sea, including the Bahamas Haiti, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica. South of Tampa, there are and have been for a long time many speakers of Caribbean Spanish, Haitian French, Jamaican Patois, and Haitian Creole and each Caribbean culture has a strong hold on cooking methods and spices in Florida. In turn, each mixes and matches with the foodways of the Seminole tribe and Anglophone settlers. Thus, for almost 200 years, Floridian cooking has had a more tropical flavor than any other Southern state. Allspice, a spice originally from Jamaica, is an ingredient found in spice mixes in summer barbecues along with ginger, garlic, scotch bonnet peppers, sea salt, and nutmeg; in Floridian cooking this is often a variant of Jamaican jerk spice. Coconuts are grown in the areas surrounding Miami and are shipped in daily through its port for consumption of the milk, meat, and water of the coconut. Bananas are not just the yellow Cavendish variety found in supermarkets across America: in Florida they are available as bananitos, colorados, plátanos, and maduros. The first of these is a tiny miniature banana only about 4-5 inches (10–13 cm) in length and it is sweet. The second has a red peel and an apple like after taste, and the third and fourth are used as a starch on nearly every Caribbean island as a side dish, baked or fried: all of the above are a staple of Florida outdoor markets when in season and all have been grown in the Caribbean for almost 400 years. Mangoes are grown as a backyard plant in Southern Florida and otherwise are a favorite treat coming in many different shapes in sizes from ''Nam Doc Mai'', brought to Florida after the Vietnam War, to ''Madame Francis'', a mango from Haiti. Sweetsop and soursop are popular around Miami, but nearly unheard of in other areas of the South.\n\nCitrus is a major crop of Florida, and features at every breakfast table and every market with the height of the season near the first week of January. Hamlin oranges are the main cultivar planted, and from this crop the rest of the United States and to a lesser extent Europe gets orange juice. Other plantings would include grapefruits, tangerines, clementine oranges, limes, and even a few more rare ones, like cara cara navels, tangelos, and the Jamaican Ugli fruit. Tomatoes, bell peppers, habañero peppers, and figs, especially taken from the Florida strangler fig, complete the produce menu. Blue crab, conch, Florida stone crab, red drum, dorado, and marlins tend to be local favorite ingredients. Dairy is available in this region, but it is less emphasized due to the year round warmth. Traditional key lime pie, a dessert from the islands off the coast of Miami, is made with condensed milk to form the custard with the eye wateringly tart limes native to the Florida Keys in part because milk would spoil in an age before refrigeration. Pork in this region tends to be roasted in methods similar to those found in Puerto Rico and Cuba, owing to mass emigration from those countries in the 20th century, especially in the counties surrounding Miami. Orange blossom honey is a specialty of the state, and is widely available in farmer's markets.\n\n====Other small game====\nPtarmigan, grouse, crow blackbirds, dove, ducks and other game fowl are consumed in the United States. In the American state of Arkansas, beaver tail stew is consumed in Cotton town. Squirrel, raccoon, possum, bear, muskrat, chipmunk, skunk, groundhog, pheasant, armadillo and rabbit are also consumed in the United States.\n\n===Cuisine in the West===\n\nCooking in the American West gets its influence from Native American and Hispanophone cultures, as well as later settlers that came in the 19th century: Texas, for example, has some influence from Germany in its choice of barbecue by using sausages. Another instance can be found in the Northwestern region, which encompasses Oregon, Washington, and Northern California. All of the aforementioned rely on local seafood and a few classics of their own. In New Mexico, Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, West Texas, and Southern California, Mexican flavors and influences are extremely common, especially from the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Baja California, and Sonora.\n\n====Northwest====\nThe Pacific Northwest as a region generally includes Alaska and the state of Washington near the Canada–US border and terminates near Sacramento, California. Here, the terrain is mostly temperate rainforest on the Coast mixed with pine forest as one approaches the Canada–US border inland. One of the core favorite foodstuffs is Pacific salmon, native to many of the larger rivers of the area and often smoked or grilled on cedar planks. In Alaska, wild game like ptarmigan and moose meat feature extensively since much of the state is wilderness. Fresh fish like steelhead trout, Pacific cod, Pacific halibut, and pollock are fished for extensively and feature on the menu of many restaurants, as do a plethora of fresh berries and vegetables, like Cameo apples from Washington state, the headquarters of the U.S. apple industry, cherries from Oregon, blackberries, and marionberries, a feature of many pies. Hazelnuts are grown extensively in this region and are a feature of baking, such as in chocolate hazelnut pie, an Oregon favorite, and Almond Roca is a local candy.\n\nThis region is also heavily dominated by some notable wineries producing a high quality product, with Sonoma found within this region as well as the newer vinicultural juggernauts of Washington State, like the Yakima Valley. The first plantings of vineyards in the United States began many miles to the South on the Pacific coast in what is now San Diego, because the Franciscan friars that settled Alta California required wines they could use for their table and for the Eucharist, and the variety they planted, the mission grape, is still available on a limited basis. Today, French, Spanish, and Italian varietals are sold by the hogshead, and much of the area directly north of San Francisco is under vine, in particular Pinot noir, Garnacha, and Ruffina and several Tuscan varietals.\n\nLike its counterpart on the opposite coast to the East, there is a grand variety of shellfish in this region. Geoducks are a native species of giant clam that have incredibly long necks, and they are eaten by the bucket full as well as shipped to Asia for millions of dollars as they are believed to be an aphrodisiac. Gaper clams are a favorite food, often grilled or steamed in a sauce, as is the native California abalone, which although protected as a food source is a traditional foodway predating settlement by whites and today features heavily in the cooking of fine restaurants as well as in home cooking, in mirin-flavored soups (the influence of Japanese cooking is strong in the region) noodle dishes and on the barbecue. Olympia oysters are served on the half shell as well as the Kumamoto oyster, introduced by Japanese immigrants and a staple at dinner as an appetizer. California mussels are a delicacy of the region, and have been a feature of the cooking for generations: there is evidence that Native American tribes consumed them up and down the California coast for centuries in their masses.\n\nCrabs are a delicacy, and included in this are Alaskan king crab, red crab, yellow crab, and the world-famous Dungeness crab. Californian and Oregonian sportsmen pursue the last three extensively using hoop nets, and prepare them in a multitude of ways. Alaska king crab, able to get up to 10 kg, is often served steamed for a whole table with lemon butter sauce or put in chunks of salad with avocado, and native crabs are the base of dishes like the California roll, cioppino, a tomato based fisherman's stew, and Crab Louie, another kind of salad native to San Francisco. Favorite grains are mainly wheat, and the region is famous for sourdough bread. Cheeses of the region include Humboldt Fog, Cougar Gold and Teleme.\n\n====Southwest and Southern California====\n\nMixed beef and chicken fajita ingredients, served on a hot iron skillet\nThe states of the Four Corners (Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah) plus Nevada, Southern California, and West Texas make up a large chunk of the United States and there is a distinct Hispanic accent to the cookery here, with each having a cultural capital in Salt Lake City, Phoenix, Santa Fe, Las Vegas, Denver, and Los Angeles. This region was part of the Spanish Empire for more than two centuries before California's statehood in the 1830s, and today is the home of a large population of immigrants from Mexico and Central America; Spanish is a commonly spoken secondary language here and the state of New Mexico has its own distinct dialect. With the exception of Southern California, the signature meat is beef, since this is one of the two regions in which cowboys lived and modern cattle ranchers still eke out their living today. High quality beefstock is a feature that has been present in the region for more than 200 years and the many cuts of beef are unique to the United States. These cuts of meat are different from the related Mexican cuisine over the border in that certain kind of offal, like ''lengua'' (tongue) ''cabeza'' (head) and ''tripas'' (tripe) are considered less desirable and are thus less emphasized. Typical cuts would include the ribs, brisket, sirloin, flank steak, skirt steak, and t-bone.\n\nChili con carne, a typical Tex-Mex dish with garnishes and tortilla chips\nHistorically, Spanish settlers that came to the region found it completely unsuitable to the mining operations that much older settlements in Mexico had to offer as the technology of the age was not yet advanced enough to get at the silver that would later be found in the region. They had no knowledge of the gold to be discovered in California, something nobody would find until 1848, and knew even less about the silver in Nevada, something nobody would find until after the Civil War. Instead, in order to make the pueblos prosper, they adapted the old rancho system of places like Andalusia in Spain and brought the earliest beefstock, among these were breeds that would go feral and become the Texas longhorn, and Churro sheep, still used as breeding stock because they are easy to keep and well adapted to the extremely arid and hot climate, where temperatures easily exceed 38 °C. Later, cowboys learned from their management practices, many of which still stand today, like the practical management of stock on horseback using the Western saddle.\n\nBiscochitos, the state cookie of New Mexico\nLikewise, settlers learned the cooking methods of those who came before and local tribes as well: for example, portions of Arizona and New Mexico still use the aforementioned beehive shaped clay contraption called an ''horno'', an outdoor wood fired oven both Native American tribes like the Navajo and Spaniards used for roasting meat, maize, and baking bread. Other meats that see frequent use in this region are elk meat, a favorite in crown roasts and burgers, and nearer the Mexican border rattlesnake, often skinned and stewed. The taste for alcohol in this region tends toward light and clean flavors found in tequila, a staple of this region since the days of the Wild West and a staple in the bartender's arsenal for cocktails, especially in Las Vegas. In Utah, a state heavily populated by Mormons, alcohol is frowned upon by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints but still available in area bars in Salt Lake City, mainly consumed by the populations of Catholics and other Protestant denominations living there.\n\nIntroduction of agriculture was limited prior to the 20th century and the development of better irrigation techniques, but included the addition of peaches, a crop still celebrated by Native American tribes like the Havasupai, and oranges; today in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico the favored orange today is the Moro blood orange, which often finds its way into the local cuisine, like cakes and marmalade. Pine nuts are a particular regional specialty and feature often in fine dining and cookies; indeed in Nevada the Native American tribes that live there are by treaty given rights to exclusive harvest. From Native Americans, Westerners learned the practice of eating cactus fruit from the myriad species of opuntia that occupy the Chihuahuan, Sonoran, and Mojave desert lands. In California, Spanish missionaries brought with them the mission fig: today this fruit is a delicacy.\n\nNew Mexico green chile is a staple of southwestern cuisine.\nCuisine in this region tends to have certain key ingredients: tomatoes, onions, black beans, pinto beans, rice, bell peppers, chile peppers, and cheese, in particular Monterey Jack, invented in Southern California in the 19th century and itself often further altered into pepperjack where spicy jalapeño peppers are incorporated into the cheese to create a smoky taste. Chili peppers play an important role in the cuisine, with a few native to the region (Anaheim pepper, Hatch pepper); these still grown by Spanish speakers in New Mexico. In New Mexico, chile is eaten on a variety of foods, such as the green chile cheeseburger, made popular by fast food chains such as Blake's Lotaburger. Indeed, even national fast food chains operating in the state, such as McDonald's, offer locally grown chile on many of their menu items. In the 20th century a few more recent additions have arrived like the poblano pepper, rocoto pepper, ghost pepper, thai chili pepper, and Korean pepper, the last three especially when discussing Southern California and its large population from East and South Asia. Cornbread is consumed in this area, however the recipe differs from ones in the East in that the batter is cooked in a cast iron skillet. Outdoor cooking is popular and still utilizes an old method settlers brought from the East with them, in which a cast iron dutch oven is covered with the coals of the fire and stacked or hung from a tripod: this is different from the earthenware pots of Mexico. Tortillas are still made the traditional way in this area and form an important component of the spicy breakfast burrito, which contains ham, eggs, and salsa or pico de gallo. They also comprise the regular burrito, which contains any combination of marinated meats, vegetables, and piquant chilis; The smothered burrito, often both containing and topped with New Mexico chile sauces; the quesadilla, a much loved grilled dish where cheese and other ingredients are stuffed between two tortillas and served by the slice, and the steak fajita, where sliced skirt steak sizzles in a skillet with caramelized onions.\n\nNachos with cheese\nUnlike Mexico, tortillas of this region also may incorporate vegetable matter like spinach into the flatbread dough to make wraps, which were invented in Southern California. Food here tends to use pungent spices and condiments, typically chili verde sauce, various kinds of hot sauce, sriracha sauce, chili powder, cayenne pepper, white pepper, cumin, paprika, onion powder, thyme and black pepper. Nowhere is this fiery mix of spice more evident than in the dishes chili con carne, a meaty stew, and cowboy beans, both of which are a feature of regional cookoffs. Southern California has several additions like five spice powder, rosemary, curry powder, kimchi, and lemongrass, with many of these brought by recent immigration to the region and often a feature of Southern California's fusion cuisine, popular in fine dining.\n\nIn Texas, the local barbecue is often entirely made up of beef brisket or large rib racks, where the meat is seasoned with a spice rub and cooked over coals of mesquite, and in other portions of the state they smoke their meat and peppery sausages over high heat using pecan, apple, and oak and served it with a side of pickled vegetables, a legacy of German and Czech settlers of the late 1800s. California is home to Santa Maria-style barbecue, where the spices involved generally are black pepper, paprika, and garlic salt, and grilled over the coals of coast live oak.\n\nA chimichanga\nNative American additions may include Navajo frybread and corn on the cob, often roasted on the grill in its husk. A typical accompaniment or appetizer of all these states is the tortilla chip, which sometimes includes cornmeal from cultivars of corn that are blue or red in addition to the standard yellow of sweetcorn, and is served with salsa of varying hotness. Tortilla chips also are an ingredient in the Tex Mex dish nachos, where these chips are loaded with any combination of ground beef, melted Monterey Jack, cheddar, or Colby cheese, guacamole, sour cream, and salsa, and Texas usually prefers a version of potato salad as a side dish. For alcohol, a key ingredient is tequila: this spirit has been made on both sides of the US-Mexican border for generations, and in modern cuisine it is a must have in a bartender's arsenal as well as an addition to dishes for sauteeing.\n\nSouthern California is located more towards the coast and has had more contact with immigration from the West Pacific and Baja California, in addition to having the international city of Los Angeles as its capital. Here, the prime mode of transportation is by car. Drive through fast food was invented in this area, but so was the concept of the gourmet burger movement, giving birth to chains like In and Out Burger, with many variations of burgers including chili, multiple patties, avocado, special sauces, and angus or wagyu beef; common accompaniments include thick milkshakes in various flavors like mint, chocolate, peanut butter, vanilla, strawberry, and mango. Smoothies are a common breakfast item made with fresh fruit juice, yogurt, and crushed ice. Agua fresca, a drink originated by Mexican immigrants, is a common hot weather beverage sold in many supermarkets and at mom and pop stands, available in citrus, watermelon, and strawberry flavors; the California version usually served chilled without grain in it.\n\nMachaca with pork, eggs, and potatoes wrapped in a tortilla, served with salsa\nThe weather in Southern California is such that the temperature rarely drops below 12 °C in winter, thus, sun loving crops like pistachios, kiwifruit, avocadoes, strawberries, and tomatoes are staple crops of the region, the last often dried in the sun and a feature of salads and sandwiches. Olive oil is a staple cooking oil of the region and has been since the days of Junípero Serra; today the mission olive is a common tree growing in a Southern Californian's back garden; as a crop olives are increasingly a signature of the region along with Valencia oranges and Meyer lemons. Soybeans, bok choy, Japanese persimmon, thai basil, Napa cabbage, nori, mandarin oranges, water chestnuts, and mung beans are other crops brought to the region from East Asia and are common additions to salads as the emphasis on fresh produce in both Southern and Northern California is strong. Other vegetables and herbs have a distinct Mediterranean flavor which would include oregano, basil, summer squash, eggplant, and broccoli, with all of the above extensively available at farmers' markets all around Southern California. Naturally, salads native to Southern California tend to be hearty affairs, like Cobb salad and Chinese chicken salad, and dressings like green goddess and ranch are a staple. California-style pizza tends to have disparate ingredients with an emphasis on vegetables, with any combination of chili oil, prawns, eggs, chicken, shiitake mushrooms, olives, bell pepper, goat cheese, and feta cheese. Peanut noodles tend to include a sweet dressing with lo mein noodles and chopped peanuts.\n\nFresh fish and shellfish in Southern California tends to be expensive in restaurants, but by no means out of reach of the masses. Every year since the end of WWII, the Pismo clam festival has taken place where the local population takes a large species of clam and bakes, stuffs, and roasts it to their heart's content as it is a regional delicacy. Fishing for pacific species of octopus and the Humboldt squid are common, and both are a feature of East Asian and other L.A. fish markets.Lingcod is a coveted regional fish that is often caught in the autumn off the coast of San Diego and in the Channel Islands and often served baked. California sheephead are often grilled and are much sought after by spear fishermen and the immigrant Chinese population, in which case it is basket steamed. Most revered of all in recent years is the California spiny lobster, a beast that can grow to be 20 kg, and is a delicacy that now rivals the fishery for Dungeness crab in its importance.\n\n===Pacific and Hawaiian cuisine===\n\nLomi-lomi salmon\nHawaii is often considered to be one of the most culturally diverse U.S. states, as well as being the only state with an Asian majority population and being one of the few places where United States territory extends into the tropics. As a result, Hawaiian cuisine borrows elements of a variety of cuisines, particularly those of Asian and Pacific-rim cultures, as well as traditional native Hawaiian and a few additions from the American mainland. American influence of the last 150 years has brought cattle, goats, and sheep to the islands, introducing cheese, butter, and yogurt products, as well as crops like red cabbage. Just to name a few, major Asian and Polynesian influences on modern Hawaiian cuisine are from Japan, Korea, Vietnam, China (especially near the Pearl River delta,) Samoa, and the Philippines. From Japan, the concept of serving raw fish as a meal with rice was introduced, as was soft tofu, setting the stage for the popular dish called poke. From Korea, immigrants to Hawaii brought a love of spicy garlic marinades for meat and kimchi. From China, their version of char siu baau became modern manapua, a type of steamed pork bun with a spicy filling. Filipinos brought vinegar, bagoong, and lumpia, and during the 20th century immigrants from American Samoa brought the open pit fire umu and the Vietnamese introduced lemongrass and fish sauce. Each East Asian culture brought several different kinds of noodles, including udon, ramen, mei fun, and pho, and today these are common lunchtime meals.\n\nMuch of this cuisine mixes and melts into traditions like the infamous lu'au, whose traditional elaborate fare was once the prerogative of kings and queens but today is the subject of parties for both tourists and also private parties for the ''‘ohana'' (meaning family and close friends.) Traditionally, women and men ate separately under the Hawaiian ''kapu'' system, a system of religious beliefs that honored the Hawaiian gods similar to the Maori tapu system, though in this case had some specific prohibitions towards females eating things like coconut, pork, turtle meat, and bananas as these were considered parts of the male gods. Punishment for violation could be severe, as a woman might endanger a man's mana, or soul, by eating with him or otherwise by eating the forbidden food because doing so dishonored all the male gods. As the system broke down after 1810, introductions of foods from laborers on plantations began to be included at feasts and much cross pollination occurred, where Asian foodstuffs mixed with Polynesian foodstuffs like breadfruit, kukui nuts, and purple sweet potatoes.\n\nSome notable Hawaiian fare includes seared ahi tuna, opakapaka (snapper) with passionfruit, Hawaiian island-raised lamb, beef and meat products, Hawaiian plate lunch, and Molokai shrimp. Seafood traditionally is caught fresh in Hawaiian waters, and particular delicacies are '''ula poni'', ''papaikualoa'', ''‘opihi'', and ''‘opihi malihini'', better known as Hawaiian spiny lobster, Kona crab, Hawaiian limpet, and abalone, the last brought over with Japanese immigrants. Some cuisine also incorporates a broad variety of produce and locally grown agricultural products, including tomatoes, sweet Maui onions, taro, and macadamia nuts. Tropical fruits equally play an important role in the cuisine as a flavoring in cocktails and in desserts, including local cultivars of bananas, sweetsop, mangoes, lychee, coconuts, papayas, and lilikoi (passionfruit). Pineapples have been an island staple since the 19th century and figure into many marinades and drinks.\n\n===Common dishes found on a regional level===\n\n \nFile:BBQ Food.jpg|Chicken, pork and corn cooking in a barbecue smoker\nFile: New_York-Style_Pizza.png|New York–style pizza served at a pizzeria in New York City\nFile:Giordanos stuffed pizza.jpg|Chicago-style deep-dish pizza from the original Giordano's location\n\n",
"\nFried fish and french fries in San Diego, California\n\nThe demand for ethnic foods in the United States reflects the nation's changing diversity as well as its development over time. According to the National Restaurant Association, \nRestaurant industry sales are expected to reach a record high of $476 billion in 2005, an increase of 4.9 percent over 2004... Driven by consumer demand, the ethnic food market reached record sales in 2002, and has emerged as the fastest growing category in the food and beverage product sector, according to USBX Advisory Services. Minorities in the U.S. spend a combined $142 billion on food and by 2010, America's ethnic population is expected to grow by 40 percent.\n\n\nA movement began during the 1980s among popular leading chefs to reclaim America's ethnic foods within its regional traditions, where these trends originated. One of the earliest was Paul Prudhomme, who in 1984 began the introduction of his influential cookbook, ''Paul Prodhomme's Louisiana Kitchen'', by describing the over 200-year history of Creole and Cajun cooking; he aims to \"preserve and expand the Louisiana tradition.\" Prodhomme's success quickly inspired other chefs. Norman Van Aken embraced a Floridian type cuisine fused with many ethnic and globalized elements in his ''Feast of Sunlight'' cookbook in 1988. The movement finally gained fame around the world when California became swept up in the movement, then seemingly started to lead the trend itself, in, for example, the popular restaurant Chez Panisse in Berkeley. Examples of the Chez Panisse phenomenon, chefs who embraced a new globalized cuisine, were celebrity chefs like Jeremiah Tower and Wolfgang Puck, both former colleagues at the restaurant. Puck went on to describe his belief in contemporary, new style American cuisine in the introduction to ''The Wolfgang Puck Cookbook'':\n\nAnother major breakthrough, whose originators were once thought to be crazy, is the mixing of ethnic cuisines. It is not at all uncommon to find raw fish listed next to tortillas on the same menu. Ethnic crossovers also occur when distinct elements meet in a single recipe. This country is, after all, a huge melting pot. Why should its cooking not illustrate the American transformation of diversity into unity?\n\n\nPuck's former colleague, Jeremiah Tower became synonymous with California Cuisine and the overall American culinary revolution. Meanwhile, the restaurant that inspired both Puck and Tower became a distinguished establishment, popularizing its so called \"mantra\" in its book by Paul Bertolli and owner Alice Waters, ''Chez Panisse Cooking'', in 1988. Published well after the restaurants' founding in 1971, this new cookbook from the restaurant seemed to perfect the idea and philosophy that had developed over the years. The book embraced America's natural bounty, specifically that of California, while containing recipes that reflected Bertoli and Waters' appreciation of both northern Italian and French style foods.\n\n===Early ethnic influences===\nAdaptation of Mexican food tailored for the mainstream American market usually is different from Mexican food typically served in Mexico.\nWhile the earliest cuisine of the United States was influenced by Native Americans, the thirteen colonies, or the antebellum South; the overall culture of the nation, its gastronomy and the growing culinary arts became ever more influenced by its changing ethnic mix and immigrant patterns from the 18th and 19th centuries unto the present. Some of the ethnic groups that continued to influence the cuisine were here in prior years; while others arrived more numerously during \"The Great Transatlantic Migration\" (of 1870—1914) or other mass migrations.\n\nSome of the ethnic influences could be found across the nation after the American Civil War and into the continental expansion for most of the 19th century. Ethnic influences already in the nation at that time would include the following groups and their respective cuisines:\n*Select nationalities of Europe and the respective developments from early modern European cuisine of the colonial age:\n**British-Americans and on-going developments in New England cuisine, the national traditions founded in cuisine of the thirteen colonies and some aspects of other regional cuisine.\n**Spanish Americans and early modern Spanish cuisine, as well as Basque-Americans and Basque cuisine.\n**Early German-American or Pennsylvania Dutch and Pennsylvania Dutch cuisine\n**French Americans and their \"New World\" regional identities such as:\n***Acadian\n***Cajun and Cajun cuisine\n**Louisiana Creole and Louisiana Creole cuisine. Louisiana Creole (also called French Créole) refers to native born people of the New Orleans area who are descended from the Colonial French and Spanish settlers of Colonial French Louisiana, before it became part of the United States in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase.\n*The various ethnicities originating from early social factors of Race in the United States and the gastronomy and cuisines of the \"New World,\" Latin American cuisine and North American cuisine:\n**Indigenous Native Americans in the United States and American Indian cuisine\n**African Americans and \"Soul food.\"\n** Puerto Rican cuisine\n**Mexican Americans and Mexican-American cuisine; as well as related regional cuisines:\n***Tex-Mex (regional Texas and Mexican fusion)\n***Cal-Mex (regional California and Mexican fusion)\n***Tex-Jex (regional Texas, Jewish and Mexican fusion)\n***Some aspects of \"Southwestern cuisine.\"\n**Cuisine of New Mexico\n\n===Later ethnic and immigrant influence===\n\nMass migrations of immigrants to the United States came in several waves. Historians identify several waves of migration to the United States: one from 1815 to 1860, in which some five million English, Irish, Germanic, Scandinavian, and others from northwestern Europe came to the United States; one from 1865 to 1890, in which some 10 million immigrants, also mainly from northwestern Europe, settled, and a third from 1890 to 1914, in which 15 million immigrants, mainly from central, eastern, and southern Europe (many Austrian, Hungarian, Turkish, Lithuanian, Russian, Jewish, Greek, Italian, and Romanian) settled in the United States.\n\nTogether with earlier arrivals to the United States (including the indigenous Native Americans, Hispanic and Latino Americans, particularly in the West, Southwest, and Texas; African Americans who came to the United States in the Atlantic slave trade; and early colonial migrants from Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and elsewhere), these new waves of immigrants had a profound impact on national or regional cuisine. Some of these more prominent groups include the following:\n\n \n*Arab Americans, particularly Lebanese Americans (the largest ethnic Arab group in the United States) – Arab cuisine, Lebanese cuisine\n*Chinese Americans – American Chinese cuisine, Chinese cuisine\n*Cuban Americans – Cuban cuisine\n*Dominican Americans – Dominican Republic cuisine\n*German Americans – German cuisine (the Pennsylvania Dutch, although descended from Germans, arrived earlier than the bulk of German migrants and have distinct culinary traditions)\n*Greek Americans – Greek-American cuisine, Greek cuisine, Mediterranean cuisine\n*Haitian Americans – Haitian cuisine\n*Indian Americans – Indian cuisine\n*Irish Americans – Irish cuisine\n*Italian Americans – Italian-American cuisine, Italian cuisine\n*Japanese Americans – Japanese cuisine, with influences on the Hawaiian cuisine\n*Jewish Americans – Jewish cuisine, with particular influence on New York City cuisine\n*Lithuanian Americans – Lithuanian cuisine, Midwest\n*Nicaraguan American- Nicaraguan cuisine\n*Pakistani Americans – Pakistani cuisine\n*Polish Americans – Polish cuisine, with particular impact on Midwest\n*Polynesian Americans – Hawaiian cuisine\n*Portuguese Americans – Portuguese cuisine\n*Romanian Americans – Romanian cuisine\n*Russian Americans – Russian cuisine, with particular impact on Midwest\n*Salvadoran Americans – Salvadoran cuisine \n*Scottish Americans – Scottish cuisine\n*Thai Americans - Thai cuisine\n*Turkish Americans - Turkish cuisine, Balkan cuisine\n*Vietnamese Americans – Vietnamese cuisine\n*West Indian Americans – Caribbean cuisine, Jamaican cuisine, Trinidad and Tobago cuisine\n\n\nItalian, Mexican and Chinese (Cantonese) cuisines have indeed joined the mainstream. These three cuisines have become so ingrained in the American culture that they are no longer foreign to the American palate. According to the study, more than nine out of 10 consumers are familiar with and have tried these foods, and about half report eating them frequently. The research also indicates that Italian, Mexican and Chinese (Cantonese) have become so adapted to such an extent that \"authenticity\" is no longer a concern to customers.\n\n\nContributions from these ethnic foods have become as common as traditional \"American\" fares such as hot dogs, hamburgers, beef steak, which are derived from German cuisine, (chicken-fried steak, for example, is a variation on German schnitzel), cherry pie, Coca-Cola, milkshakes, fried chicken (Fried chicken is of Scottish and African influence) and so on. Nowadays, Americans also have a ubiquitous consumption of foods like pizza and pasta, tacos and burritos to \"General Tso's chicken\" and fortune cookies. Fascination with these and other ethnic foods may also vary with region.\n",
"\nAmerican chefs have been influential both in the food industry and in popular culture. An important 19th Century American chef was Charles Ranhofer of Delmonico's Restaurant in New York City. American cooking has been exported around the world, both through the global expansion of restaurant chains such as T.G.I. Friday's and McDonald's and the efforts of individual restaurateurs such as Bob Payton, credited with bringing American-style pizza to the UK.\n\nThe first generation of television chefs such as Robert Carrier and Julia Child tended to concentrate on cooking based primarily on European, especially French and Italian, cuisines. Only during the 1970s and 1980s did television chefs such as James Beard and Jeff Smith shift the focus towards home-grown cooking styles, particularly those of the different ethnic groups within the nation. Notable American restaurant chefs include Thomas Keller, Charlie Trotter, Grant Achatz, Alfred Portale, Paul Prudhomme, Paul Bertolli, Frank Stitt, Alice Waters, Patrick O'Connell and celebrity chefs like Mario Batali, David Chang, Alton Brown, Emeril Lagasse, Cat Cora, Michael Symon, Bobby Flay, Ina Garten, Todd English, Anthony Bourdain, and Paula Deen.\n\nRegional chefs are emerging as localized celebrity chefs with growing broader appeal, such as Peter Merriman (Hawaii Regional Cuisine), Jerry Traunfeld, Alan Wong (Pacific Rim cuisine), Norman Van Aken (New World Cuisine – fusion Latin, Caribbean, Asian, African and American), and Mark Miller (American Southwest cuisine).\n",
"\n* Cuisine of Antebellum America\n* Cuisine of New York City\n* List of American desserts\n* List of American breads\n* List of American foods\n* List of American regional and fusion cuisines\n* Native American cuisine\n* Tlingit cuisine\n* Cuisine of the Americas\n* Western pattern diet\n\n\n",
"===Notes===\n\n\n===Works cited===\n*.\n*.\n*.\n*.\n* Fried, Stephen. ''Appetite for America: How Visionary Businessman Fred Harvey Built a Railroad Hospitality Empire That Civilized the Wild West'' (Bantam; 2010)\n*.\n*.\n*.\n*.\n* \n\n*.\n*\n*.\n*.\n*.\n*.\n*\n* Veit, Helen Zoe. ''Modern Food, Moral Food: Self-Control, Science, and the Rise of Modern American Eating in the Early Twentieth Century'' (2013)\n",
"\n* Key Ingredients: America by Food -Educational companion to Smithsonian Institution's exhibit on American food ways.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Regional cuisines",
"Ethnic and immigrant influence",
"Notable American chefs",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Cuisine of the United States |
[
"\n\n\n'''Ahmad Shah Massoud''' (Dari Persian: ; September 2, 1953September 9, 2001) was an Afghan political and military leader. He was a powerful military commander during the resistance against the Soviet occupation between 1979 and 1989 and in the following years of civil war, during which time he became known as the '''Lion of Panjshir''' (). Massoud was assassinated on September 9, 2001.\n\nMassoud came from an ethnic Tajik, Sunni Muslim background in the Panjshir valley of northern Afghanistan. He began studying engineering at Polytechnical University of Kabul in the 1970s, where he became involved with fundamentalist Muslim anti-communist movements around Burhanuddin Rabbani, a leading Islamist. He was part of a Pakistan-backed failed rebellion against Mohammed Daoud Khan's government. After the Soviet occupation of 1979, his role as an insurgent leader earned him the nickname of \"Lion of Panjshir\" () among his followers. In 1992, after he disturbed the UN plan to install an interim government to replace that of President Mohammad Najibullah, he was appointed as the minister of defense through the Peshawar Accord, a peace and power-sharing agreement, in the post-communist Islamic State of Afghanistan. His militia fought to defend the capital against militias led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, Abdul Ali Mazari, Abdul Rashid Dostum and eventually the Taliban, who started to lay siege to the capital in January 1995 after the city had seen fierce fighting; at least 60,000 civilians were killed, many more injured, public property, government offices and the Kabul Museum had been looted, and two thirds of the population had fled the city.\n\nFollowing the rise of the Taliban in 1996, Massoud, who rejected the Taliban's fundamentalist interpretation of Islam, returned to armed opposition until he eventually fled to Kulob, Tajikistan, destroying the Salang Tunnel on his way north. He became the military and political leader of the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan (also known in the West as the ''Northern Alliance''). He was assassinated, probably at the instigation of al-Qaeda, in a suicide bombing on September 9, 2001, just two days before the September 11 attacks in the United States which led to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation invading Afghanistan, allying with Massoud's forces. His forces eventually won the two-month long war in December 2001, removing the Taliban from power.\n\nMassoud was posthumously named \"National Hero\" by the order of President Hamid Karzai after the Taliban were ousted from power. The date of Massoud’s death, September 9, is observed as a national holiday known as \"Massoud Day\". His followers call him ''Amer Sāhib-e Shahīd'' (), which translates to \"(our) martyred commander.\"\n",
"Ahmad Shah Massoud was born in 1953 in Bazarak, Panjshir, to a well-to-do family native to the Panjshir valley. His name at birth was \"Ahmed Shah\"; he took the name \"Massoud\" as a ''nom de guerre'' when he went into the resistance movement in 1974. His father, Dost Mohammad Khan, was a colonel in the Royal Afghan Army. From his native Panjshir, his family moved briefly to Herat and then to Kabul, where Massoud spent most of his childhood.\n\nMassoud attended the renowned Franco-Afghan Lycée Esteqlal. Regarded as a gifted student, he studied engineering at Kabul University after his graduation from the Lycée. Massoud spoke Dari, Pashto, Urdu and French and had good English reading skills.\n\nIn 1973, Mohammed Daoud Khan was brought to power in a coup d'état backed by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, and the Republic of Afghanistan was established. These developments gave rise to an Islamist movement opposed to the increasing communist and Soviet influence over Afghanistan. During that time, while studying at Kabul University, Massoud became involved with the Muslim Youth (Sazman-i Jawanan-i Musulman), the student branch of the Jamiat-e Islami (Islamic Society), whose chairman then was the professor Burhanuddin Rabbani. Kabul University was a centre for political debate and activism during that time.\n\nBy 1975, after a failed uprising by the Muslim Youth, a \"profound and long-lasting schism\" within the Islamist movement began to emerge. The Islamic Society split between supporters of the more moderate forces around Massoud and Rabbani, who led the Jamiat-i Islami, and more radical Islamist elements surrounding Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, who founded the Hezb-i Islami. The conflict reached such a point that Hekmatyar reportedly tried to kill Massoud, then 22 years old.\n",
"\n===Communist revolution in Afghanistan (1978)===\n\nThe government of Mohammed Daoud Khan tried to scale back the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan's influence, dismissing PDPA members from their government posts, appointing conservatives to replace them, and finally announcing the dissolution of the PDPA, with the arrests of senior party members.\n\nOn April 27, 1978, the PDPA and military units loyal to it killed Daoud Khan, his immediate family, and bodyguards in a violent coup, and seized control of the capital Kabul. The new PDPA government, led by a revolutionary council, did not enjoy the support of the masses. It announced and implemented a doctrine hostile to political dissent, whether inside or outside the party.\n\nThe PDPA started reforms along Marxist–Leninist and Soviet lines. The reforms and the PDPA's affinity to the Soviet Union were met with strong resistance by the population, especially as the government attempted to enforce its Marxist policies by arresting or executing those who resisted. Between 50,000 and 100,000 people were estimated to have been arrested and killed by communist troops in the countryside alone. Due to the repression, large parts of the country, especially the rural areas, organized into open revolt against the PDPA government. By spring 1979 unrest had reached 24 out of 28 Afghan provinces, including major urban areas. Over half of the Afghan army either deserted or joined the insurrection.\n\nBelieving that an uprising against the Soviet-backed communists would be supported by the people, Massoud, on July 6, 1979, started an insurrection in the Panjshir, which initially failed. Massoud decided to avoid conventional confrontation with the larger government forces and to wage a guerrilla war. He subsequently took full control of Panjshir, pushing out Afghan communist troops. Oliver Roy writes that in the following period, Massoud's \"personal prestige and the efficiency of his military organisation persuaded many local commanders to come and learn from him.\"\n\n===Resistance against the Soviet Union (1979–1989)===\n\nMajor resistance forces against the Soviets 1985; Army-green depicts locations of Jamiat-i Islami. Shura-e Nazar (Massoud's alliance) comprised many Jamiat positions but also those of other groups.\n\nFollowing the 1979 Soviet invasion and occupation of Afghanistan, Massoud devised a strategic plan for expelling the invaders and overthrowing the communist regime. The first task was to establish a popularly based resistance force that had the loyalty of the people. The second phase was \"active defense\" of the Panjshir stronghold, while carrying out asymmetric warfare. In the third phase, the \"strategic offensive\", Massoud's forces would gain control of large parts of Northern Afghanistan. The fourth phase was the \"general application\" of Massoud's principles to the whole country, and the defeat of the Afghan communist government.\n\nFrom the start of the war, Massoud's mujahideen attacked the occupying Soviet forces, ambushing Soviet and Afghan communist convoys travelling through the Salang Pass, and causing fuel shortages in Kabul.\nThe Soviets mounted a series of offensives against the Panjshir. Between 1980 and 1985, these offensives were conducted twice a year. Despite engaging more men and hardware on each occasion, the Soviets were unable to defeat Massoud's forces. In 1982, the Soviets began deploying major combat units in the Panjshir, numbering up to 30,000 men. Massoud pulled his troops back into subsidiary valleys, where they occupied fortified positions. When the Soviet columns advanced onto these positions, they fell into ambushes. When the Soviets withdrew, Afghan army garrisons took over their positions. Massoud and his mujahideen forces attacked and recaptured them one by one.\n\nIn 1983, the Soviets offered Massoud a temporary truce, which he accepted in order to rebuild his own forces and give the civilian population a break from Soviet attacks. He put the respite to good use. In this time he created the Shura-e Nazar (Supervisory Council), which subsequently united 130 commanders from 12 Afghan provinces in their fight against the Soviet army. This council existed outside the Peshawar parties, which were prone to internecine rivalry and bickering, and served to smooth out differences between resistance groups, due to political and ethnic divisions. It was the predecessor of what could have become a unified Islamic Afghan army.\n\nRelations with the party headquarters in Peshawar were often strained, as Rabbani insisted on giving Massoud no more weapons and supplies than to other Jamiat commanders, even those who did little fighting. To compensate for this deficiency, Massoud relied on revenues drawn from exports of emeralds and lapis lazuli, that are traditionally exploited in Northern Afghanistan.\n\nTo organize support for the mujahideen, Massoud established an administrative system that enforced law and order (''nazm'') in areas under his control. The Panjshir was divided into 22 bases (''qarargah'') governed by a military commander and a civilian administrator, and each had a judge, a prosecutor and a public defender. Massoud's policies were implemented by different committees: an economic committee was charged with funding the war effort. The health committee provided health services, assisted by volunteers from foreign humanitarian non-governmental organizations, such as Aide médicale internationale. An education committee was charged with the training of the military and administrative cadre. A culture committee and a judiciary committee were also created.\n\nThis expansion prompted Babrak Karmal to demand that the Red Army resume their offensives, in order to crush the Panjshir groups. However, Massoud had received warning of the attack through his intelligence agents in the government and he evacuated all 130,000 inhabitants from the valley into the Hindukush mountains, leaving the Soviet bombings to fall on empty ground and the Soviet battalions to face the mountains.\n\nWith the defeat of the Soviet-Afghan attacks, Massoud carried out the next phase of his strategic plan, expanding the resistance movement and liberating the northern provinces of Afghanistan. In August 1986, he captured Farkhar in Takhar Province. In November 1986, his forces overran the headquarters of the government's 20th division at Nahrin in Baghlan Province, scoring an important victory for the resistance. This expansion was also carried out through diplomatic means, as more mujahideen commanders were persuaded to adopt the Panjshir military system.\n\nDespite almost constant attacks by the Red Army and the Afghan army, Massoud increased his military strength. Starting in 1980 with a force of less than 1,000 ill-equipped guerrillas, the Panjshir valley mujahideen grew to a 5,000-strong force by 1984. After expanding his influence outside the valley, Massoud increased his resistance forces to 13,000 fighters by 1989. These forces were divided into different types of units: the locals (mahalli) were tasked with static defense of villages and fortified positions. The best of the mahalli were formed into units called grup-i zarbati (shock troops), semi-mobile groups that acted as reserve forces for the defense of several strongholds. A different type of unit was the mobile group (grup-i-mutaharek), a lightly equipped commando-like formation numbering 33 men, whose mission was to carry out hit-and-run attacks outside the Panjshir, sometimes as far as 100 km from their base. These men were professional soldiers, well-paid and trained, and, from 1983 on, they provided an effective strike force against government outposts. Uniquely among the mujahideen, these groups wore uniforms, and their use of the ''pakul'' made this headwear emblematic of the Afghan resistance.\n\nMassoud's military organization was an effective compromise between the traditional Afghan method of warfare and the modern principles of guerrilla warfare which he had learned from the works of Mao Zedong and Che Guevara. His forces were considered the most effective of all the various Afghan resistance movements.\n\nThe United States provided Massoud with comparatively less support than other factions. Part of the reason was that it permitted its funding and arms distribution to be administered by Pakistan, which favored the rival mujahideen leader Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. In an interview, Massoud said, \"We thought the CIA knew everything. But they didn't. They supported some bad people meaning Hekmatyar.\" Primary advocates for supporting Massoud were the US State Department's Edmund McWilliams and Peter Tomsen, who were on the ground in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Others included two Heritage Foundation foreign policy analysts, Michael Johns and James A. Phillips, both of whom championed Massoud as the Afghan resistance leader most worthy of U.S. support under the Reagan Doctrine. Thousands of foreign Islamic volunteers entered Afghanistan to fight with the mujahideen against the Soviet troops.\n\nThe Soviet army and the Afghan communist army were mainly defeated by Massoud and his mujahideen in numerous small engagements between 1984 and 1988. In 1989, after describing the Soviet Union's military engagement in Afghanistan \"a bleeding wound\", Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev began a withdrawal of Soviet troops from the nation. On February 15, 1989, in what was depicted as an improbable victory for the mujahideen, the last Soviet soldier left the nation.\n\n===Fall of the Afghan communist regime (1992)===\n\n\nAfter the departure of Soviet troops in 1989, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan regime, then headed by Mohammad Najibullah, held its own against the mujahideen. Backed by a massive influx of weapons from the Soviet Union, the Afghan armed forces reached a level of performance they had never reached under direct Soviet tutelage. They maintained control over all of Afghanistan's major cities. By 1992, however, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the regime began to crumble. Food and fuel shortages undermined the capacities of the government's army, and a resurgence of factionalism split the regime between Khalq and Parcham supporters.\n\nA few days after Najibullah had lost control of the nation, his army commanders and governors arranged to turn over authority to resistance commanders and local warlords throughout the country. Joint councils (''shuras'') were immediately established for local government, in which civil and military officials of the former government were usually included. In many cases, prior arrangements for transferring regional and local authority had been made between foes.\n\nCollusions between military leaders quickly brought down the Kabul government. In mid-January 1992, within three weeks of the demise of the Soviet Union, Massoud was aware of conflict within the government's northern command. General Abdul Momim, in charge of the Hairatan border crossing at the northern end of Kabul's supply highway, and other non-Pashtun generals based in Mazar-i-Sharif, feared removal by Najibullah and replacement by Pashtun officers. When the generals rebelled, Abdul Rashid Dostum, who held general rank as head of the Jowzjani militia, also based in Mazar-i-Sharif, took over.\n\nHe and Massoud reached a political agreement, together with another major militia leader, Sayyed Mansour, of the Ismaili community based in Baghlan Province. These northern allies consolidated their position in Mazar-i-Sharif on March 21. Their coalition covered nine provinces in the north and northeast. As turmoil developed within the government in Kabul, no government force stood between the northern allies and the major air force base at Bagram, some seventy kilometers north of Kabul. By mid-April 1992, the Afghan air force command at Bagram had capitulated to Massoud. On March 18, 1992, Najibullah announced he would resign. On April 17, as his government fell, he tried to escape but was stopped at Kabul Airport by Dostum's forces. He took refuge at the United Nations mission, where he remained unharmed until 1996, while Massoud controlled the area surrounding the mission.\n\nSenior communist generals and officials of the Najibullah administration acted as a transitional authority to transfer power to Ahmad Shah Massoud's alliance. The Kabul interim authority invited Massoud to enter Kabul as the new Head of State, but he held back. Massoud ordered his forces, positioned to the north of Kabul, not to enter the capital until a political solution was in place. He called on all the senior Afghan party leaders, many then based in exile in Peshawar, to work out a political settlement acceptable to all sides and parties.\n",
"\n===War in Kabul and other parts of the country (1992–1996)===\n\n\n====Peace and power-sharing agreement (1992)====\nWith United Nations support, most Afghan political parties decided to appoint a legitimate national government to succeed communist rule, through an elite settlement. While the external Afghan party leaders were residing in Peshawar, the military situation around Kabul involving the internal commanders was tense. A 1991 UN peace process brought about some negotiations, but the attempted elite settlement did not develop. In April 1992, resistance leaders in Peshawar tried to negotiate a settlement. Massoud supported the Peshawar process of establishing a broad coalition government inclusive of all resistance parties, but Hekmatyar sought to become the sole ruler of Afghanistan, stating, \"In our country coalition government is impossible because, this way or another, it is going to be weak and incapable of stabilizing the situation in Afghanistan.\"\n\nMassoud wrote:\nAll the parties had participated in the war, in jihad in Afghanistan, so they had to have their share in the government, and in the formation of the government. Afghanistan is made up of different nationalities. We were worried about a national conflict between different tribes and different nationalities. In order to give everybody their own rights and also to avoid bloodshed in Kabul, we left the word to the parties so they should decide about the country as a whole. We talked about it for a temporary stage and then after that the ground should be prepared for a general election.\n\nA recorded radio communication between the two leaders showed the divide as Massoud asked Hekmatyar: \"The Kabul regime is ready to surrender, so instead of the fighting we should gather. ... The leaders are meeting in Peshawar. ... The troops should not enter Kabul, they should enter later on as part of the government.\" Hekmatyar's response: \"We will march into Kabul with our naked sword. No one can stop us. ... Why should we meet the leaders?\" Massoud answered: \"It seems to me that you don't want to join the leaders in Peshawar nor stop your threat, and you are planning to enter Kabul ... in that case I must defend the people.\"\n\nAt that point Osama bin Laden, trying to mediate, urged Hekmatyar to \"go back with your brothers\" and to accept a compromise. Bin Laden reportedly \"hated Ahmad Shah Massoud\". Bin Laden was involved in ideological and personal disputes with Massoud and had sided with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar against Massoud in the inner-Afghan conflict since the late 1980s. But Hekmatyar refused to accept a compromise, confident that he would be able to gain sole power in Afghanistan.\n\nOn April 24, 1992, the leaders in Peshawar agreed on and signed the Peshawar Accord, establishing the post-communist Islamic State of Afghanistan. The creation of the Islamic State was welcomed by the General Assembly of the United Nations and the Islamic State of Afghanistan was recognized as the legitimate entity representing Afghanistan until June 2002, when its successor, the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, was established under the interim government of Hamid Karzai. Under the 1992 Peshawar Accord, the Defense Ministry was given to Massoud while the Prime Ministership was given to Hekmatyar. Hekmatyar refused to sign. With the exception of Hekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami, all of the other Peshawar resistance parties were unified under this peace and power-sharing accord in April 1992.\n\n====War against Hekmatyar (1992–1995)====\nAlthough repeatedly offered the position of prime minister, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar refused to recognize the peace and power-sharing agreement. His Hezb-e Islami militia initiated a massive bombardment campaign against the Islamic State and the capital city Kabul. Gulbuddin Hekmatyar received operational, financial and military support from neighboring Pakistan. The Director of the Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies at the Australian National University, Amin Saikal, writes in ''Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival'' that without Pakistan's support, Hekmatyar \"would not have been able to target and destroy half of Kabul.\" Saikal states that Pakistan wanted to install a favorable regime under Hekmatyar in Kabul so that it could use Afghan territory for access to Central Asia.\n\nHekmatyar's rocket bombardments and the parallel escalation of violent conflict between two militias, Ittihad and Wahdat, which had entered some suburbs of Kabul, led to a breakdown in law and order. Shia Iran and Sunni Wahabbi Saudi Arabia, as competitors for regional hegemony, encouraged conflict between the Ittihad and Wahdat factions. On the one side was the Shia Hazara Hezb-i Wahdat of Abdul Ali Mazari and on the other side, the Sunni Pashtun Ittihad-i Islami of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf.\n\nAccording to Human Rights Watch, Iran was strongly supporting the Hezb-i Wahdat forces, with Iranian intelligence officials providing direct orders, while Saudi Arabia supported Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction to maximize Wahhabi influence. Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos, as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Massoud's Jamiat commanders, the interim government, and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) repeatedly tried to negotiate ceasefires, which broke down in only a few days. Another militia, the Junbish-i Milli of former communist general Abdul Rashid Dostum, was backed by Uzbekistan. Uzbek president Karimov was keen to see Dostum controlling as much of Afghanistan as possible, especially in the north. Dostum repeatedly changed allegiances.\n\nThe Afghanistan Justice Project (AJP) says, that \"while Hekmatyar's anti-government Hizb-i Islami is frequently named as foremost among the factions responsible for the deaths and destruction in the bombardment of Kabul, it was not the only perpetrator of these violations.\" According to the AJP, \"the scale of the bombardment and kinds of weapons used represented disproportionate use of force\" in a capital city with primarily residential areas by all the factions involved—including the government forces. Crimes were committed by individuals within the different armed factions. Gulbuddin Hekmatyar released 10,000 dangerous criminals from the main prisons into the streets of Kabul to destabilize the city and cut off Kabul from water, food and energy supplies. The Iran-controlled Wahdat of Abdul Ali Mazari, as well as the Ittihad of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf supported by Saudi Arabia, targeted civilians of the 'opposite side' in systematic atrocities. Abdul Rashid Dostum allowed crimes as a perceived payment for his troops. The Taliban, placing Kabul under a two-year siege and bombardment campaign from early 1995 onwards, in later years committed massacres against civilians, compared by United Nations observers to those that happened during the War in Bosnia.\n\n\"The major criticism of Massoud's human rights record\" is the escalation of the Afshar military operation in 1993. A report by the Afghanistan Justice Project describes Massoud as failing to prevent atrocities carried out by his forces and those of their factional ally, Ittihad-i Islami, against civilians on taking the suburb of Afshar during a military operation against an anti-state militia allied to Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. They shelled residential areas in the capital city in February 1993. Critics said that Massoud should have foreseen these problems. A meeting convened by Massoud on the next day ordered a halt to killing and looting, but it failed to stop abuses. Human Rights Watch, in a report based largely on the material collected by the Afghanistan Justice Project, concurs that Massoud's Jamiat forces bear a share of the responsibility for human rights abuses throughout the war, including the indiscriminate targeting of civilians in Afshar, and that Massoud was personally implicated in some of these abuses. Roy Gutman has argued that the witness reports about Afshar cited in the AJP report implicated only the Ittihad forces, and that these had not been under Massoud's direct command.\n\nAnthony Davis, who studied and observed Massoud's forces from 1981 to 2001, reported that during the observed period, there was \"no pattern of repeated killings of enemy civilians or military prisoners\" by Massoud's forces. Edward Girardet, who covered Afghanistan for over three decades, was also in Kabul during the war. He states that while Massoud was able to control most of his commanders well during the anti-Soviet and anti-Taliban resistance, he was not able to control every commander in Kabul. According to this and similar testimonies, this was due to a breakdown of law and order in Kabul and a war on multiple fronts, which they say, Massoud personally had done all in his power to prevent.\n\n\nIn 1993, Massoud created the Cooperative Mohammad Ghazali Culture Foundation (''Bonyad-e Farhangi wa Ta'wani Mohammad-e Ghazali'') to further humanitarian assistance and politically independent Afghan culture. The Ghazali Foundation provided free medical services during some days of the week to residents of Kabul who were unable to pay for medical treatment. The Ghazali Foundation's department for distribution of auxiliary goods was the first partner of the Red Cross. The Ghazali Foundation's department of family consultation was a free advisory board, which was accessible seven days a week for the indigent. Although Massoud was responsible for the financing of the foundation, he did not interfere with its cultural work. A council led the foundation and a jury, consisting of impartial university lecturers, decided on the works of artists. The Ghazali foundation enabled Afghan artists to exhibit their works at different places in Kabul, and numerous artists and authors were honoured for their works; some of them neither proponents of Massoud nor the Islamic State government.\n\nIn March 1993, Massoud resigned his government position in exchange for peace, as requested by Hekmatyar, who considered him as a personal rival. According to the Islamabad Accord, Burhanuddin Rabbani, belonging to the same party as Massoud, remained president, while Gulbuddin Hekmatyar took the long-offered position of prime minister. Two days after the Islamabad Accord was put into effect, however, Hekmatyar's allies of Hezb-e Wahdat renewed rocket attacks in Kabul.\n\nBoth the Wahhabi Pashtun Ittehad-i Islami of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf backed by Saudi Arabia and the Shia Hazara Hezb-e Wahdat supported by Iran remained involved in heavy fighting against each other. Hekmatyar was afraid to enter Kabul proper, and chaired only one cabinet meeting. The author Roy Gutman of the United States Institute of Peace wrote in ''How We Missed the Story: Osama bin Laden, the Taliban, and the Hijacking of Afghanistan'':\n\nHekmatyar had become prime minister ... But after chairing one cabinet meeting, Hekmatyar never returned to the capital, fearing, perhaps, a lynching by Kabulis infuriated over his role in destroying their city. Even his close aides were embarrassed. Hekmatyar spokesman Qutbuddin Helal was still setting up shop in the prime minister's palace when the city came under Hezb-i Islami rocket fire late that month. \"We are here in Kabul and he is rocketing us. Now we have to leave. We can't do anything,\" he told Massoud aides.\n\nHekmatyar, who was generally opposed to coalition government and struggled for undisputed power, had conflicts with other parties over the selection of cabinet members. His forces started major attacks against Kabul for one month. The President, Burhanuddin Rabbani, was attacked when he attempted to meet Hekmatyar. Massoud resumed his responsibilities as minister of defense.\n\nIn May 1993, a new effort was made to reinstate the Islamabad Accord. In August, Massoud reached out to Hekmatyar in an attempt to broaden the government. By the end of 1993, however, Hekmatyar and the former communist general and militia leader, Abdul Rashid Dostum, were involved in secret negotiations encouraged by Pakistan's secret Inter-Services Intelligence, Iran's intelligence service, and Uzbekistan's Karimov administration. They planned a coup to oust the Rabbani administration and to attack Massoud in his northern areas.\n\nIn January 1994, Hekmatyar and Dostum mounted a bombardment campaign against the capital and attacked Massoud's core areas in the northeast. Amin Saikal writes, Hekmatyar had the following objectives in all his operations:\nThe first was to make sure that Rabbani and Massoud were not allowed to consolidate power, build a credible administration, or expand their territorial control, so that the country would remain divided into small fiefdoms, run by various Muajhideen leaders and local warlords or a council of such elements, with only some of them allied to Kabul. The second was to ensure the Rabbani government acquired no capacity to dispense patronage, and to dissuade the Kabul population from giving more than limited support to the government. The third was to make Kabul an unsafe city for representatives of the international community and to prevent the Rabbani government from attracting the international support needed to begin the post-war reconstruction of Afghanistan and generate a level of economic activity which would enhance its credibility and popularity.\n\nBy mid-1994, Hekmatyar and Dostum were on the defensive in Kabul against Islamic State forces led by Massoud. By early 1995, the Islamic State had been able to secure the capital. Bombardment of the capital came to a halt. The government began to restore some law and order, and to start basic public services. Massoud initiated a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections. But the Taliban, which had emerged over the course of 1994 in southern Afghanistan, were already at the doors of the capital city.\n\nSouthern Afghanistan had been neither under the control of foreign-backed militias nor the government in Kabul, but was ruled by local Pashtun leaders, such as Gul Agha Sherzai, and their militias. In 1994, the Taliban (a movement originating from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny of the local governor. When the Taliban took control of Kandahar in 1994, they forced the surrender of dozens of local Pashtun leaders who had presided over a situation of complete lawlessness and atrocities. In 1994, the Taliban took power in several provinces in southern and central Afghanistan.\n\n====Taliban siege of Kabul (1995–1996)====\nAs the Islamic State had been able to consolidate control over the capital, the government took steps to restore law and order. Courts started to work again also convicting individuals inside government troops who had committed crimes. Massoud initiated a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections. He arranged a conference in three parts uniting political and cultural personalities, governors, commanders, clergymen and representatives, in order to reach a lasting agreement. Massoud, like most people in Afghanistan, saw this conference as a small hope for democracy and for free elections. His favourite for candidacy to the presidency was Dr. Mohammad Yusuf, the first democratic prime minister under Zahir Shah, the former king. In the first meeting representatives from 15 different Afghan provinces met, in the second meeting there were already 25 provinces participating.\n\nMassoud also invited the Taliban to join the peace process wanting them to be a partner in providing stability to Afghanistan during such a process. Against the advice of his security personnel, he went to talk to some Taliban leaders in Maidan Shar, Taliban territory. The Taliban declined to join the peace process leading towards general elections. When Massoud returned to Kabul unharmed, the Taliban leader who had received him as his guest paid with his life: he was killed by other senior Taliban for failing to assassinate Massoud while the possibility had presented itself.\n\nNeighboring Pakistan exerted strong influence over the Taliban. A publication with the George Washington University describes: \"Initially, the Pakistanis supported ... Gulbuddin Hekmatyar ... When Hekmatyar failed to deliver for Pakistan, the administration began to support a new movement of religious students known as the Taliban.\" Many analysts like Amin Saikal describe the Taliban as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests. The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995 but were defeated by forces of the Islamic State government under Ahmad Shah Massoud. () Amnesty International, referring to the Taliban offensive, wrote in a 1995 report:\n\nThe Taliban's early victories in 1994 were followed by a series of defeats that resulted in heavy losses. The Taliban's first major offensive against the important western city of Herat, under the rule of Islamic state ally Ismail Khan, in February 1995 was defeated when Massoud airlifted 2,000 of his own core forces from Kabul to help defend Herat. Ahmed Rashid writes: \"The Taliban had now been decisively pushed back on two fronts by the government and their political and military leadership was in disarray. Their image as potential peacemakers was badly dented, for in the eyes of many Afghans they had become nothing more than just another warlord party.\" International observers already speculated that the Taliban as a country-wide organization might have \"run its course\".\n\nMullah Omar, however, consolidated his control of the Taliban and with foreign help rebuilt and re-equipped his forces. Pakistan increased its support to the Taliban. Its military advisers oversaw the restructuring of Taliban forces. The country provided armored pick-up trucks and other military equipment. Saudi Arabia provided the funding. Furthermore, there was a massive influx of 25,000 new Taliban fighters, many of them recruited in Pakistan. This enabled the Taliban to capture Herat to the west of Kabul in a surprise attack against the forces of Ismail Khan in September 1995. A nearly one-year siege and bombardment campaign against Kabul, however, was again defeated by Massoud's forces.\n\nMassoud and Rabbani meanwhile kept working on an internal Afghan peace process—successfully. By February 1996, all of Afghanistan's armed factions—except for the Taliban—had agreed to take part in the peace process and to set up a peace council to elect a new interim president. Many Pashtun areas under Taliban control had representatives also advocating for a peace agreement with the Islamic State government. But Taliban leader Mullah Omar and the Kandaharis surrounding him wanted to expand the war. At that point the Taliban leadership and their foreign supporters decided they needed to act quickly before the government could consolidate the new understanding between the parties. The Taliban moved against Jalalabad, under the control of the Pashtun Jalalabad Shura, to the east of Kabul. Part of the Jalalabad Shura was bribed with millions of dollars by the Taliban's foreign sponsors, especially Saudi Arabia, to vacate their positions. The Taliban's battle for Jalalabad was directed by Pakistani military advisers. Hundreds of Taliban crossed the Afghan-Pakistani border moving on Jalalabad from Pakistan and thereby suddenly placed to the east of Kabul. This left the capital city Kabul \"wide open\" to many sides as Ismail Khan had been defeated to the west, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar had vacated his positions to the south and the fall and surrender of Jalalabad had suddenly opened a new front to the east. At that point Massoud decided to conduct a strategic retreat through a northern corridor, according to Ahmed Rashid, \"knowing he could not defend Kabul from attacks coming from all four points of the compass. Nor did he want to lose the support of Kabul's population by fighting for the city and causing more bloodshed.\" On September 26, 1996, as the Taliban with military support by Pakistan and financial support by Saudi Arabia prepared for another major offensive, Massoud ordered a full retreat from Kabul. The Taliban marched into Kabul on September 27, 1996, and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Massoud and his troops retreated to the northeast of Afghanistan which became the base for the still internationally recognized Islamic State of Afghanistan.\n\n===Resistance against the Taliban (1996–2001)===\n\nDostum (green), Taliban (yellow)\n\n====United Front against the Taliban====\nAhmad Shah Massoud created the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban advance. The United Front included forces and leaders from different political backgrounds as well as from all ethnicities of Afghanistan. From the Taliban conquest in 1996 until November 2001, the United Front controlled territory in which roughly 30% of Afghanistan's population was living, in provinces such as Badakhshan, Kapisa, Takhar and parts of Parwan, Kunar, Nuristan, Laghman, Samangan, Kunduz, Ghōr and Bamyan.\n\nMeanwhile, the Taliban imposed their repressive regime in the parts of Afghanistan under their control. Hundreds of thousands of people fled to Northern Alliance territory, Pakistan and Iran. Massoud's soldiers held some 1,200 Taliban prisoners in the Panjshir Valley, 122 of them foreign Muslims who had come to Afghanistan to fight a jihad.\nIn 1998, after the defeat of Abdul Rashid Dostum's faction in Mazar-i-Sharif, Ahmad Shah Massoud remained the only main leader of the United Front in Afghanistan and the only leader who was able to defend vast parts of his area against the Taliban. Most major leaders including the Islamic State's President Burhanuddin Rabbani, Abdul Rashid Dostum, and others, were living in exile. During this time, commentators remarked that \"The only thing standing in the way of future Taliban massacres is Ahmad Shah Massoud.\"\n\nMap of the situation in Afghanistan August 2001 – October 2001\n\nMassoud stated that the Taliban repeatedly offered him a position of power to make him stop his resistance. He declined, declaring the differences between their ideology and his own pro-democratic outlook on society to be insurmountable.\n\nMassoud wanted to convince the Taliban to join a political process leading towards democratic elections in a foreseeable future. He also predicted that without assistance from Pakistan and external extremist groups, the Taliban would lose their hold on power.\n\nIn early 2001, the United Front employed a new strategy of local military pressure and global political appeals. Resentment was increasingly gathering against Taliban rule from the bottom of Afghan society including the Pashtun areas. At the same time, Massoud was very wary not to revive the failed Kabul government of the early 1990s. Already in 1999 the United Front leadership ordered the training of police forces specifically to keep order and protect the civilian population in case the United Front would be successful.\n\n====Cross-factional negotiations====\nAhmad Shah Massoud (right) with Pashtun anti-Taliban leader Abdul_Qadir_(Afghan_leader) (brother of Abdul Haq) (left) in November 2000\n\nFrom 1999 onwards, a renewed process was set into motion by the Tajik Ahmad Shah Massoud and the Pashtun Abdul Haq to unite all the ethnicities of Afghanistan. Massoud united the Tajiks, Hazara and Uzbeks as well as several Pashtun commanders under his United Front. Besides meeting with Pashtun tribal leaders and acting as a point of reference, Abdul Haq received increasing numbers of Pashtun Taliban themselves who were secretly approaching him. Some commanders who had worked for the Taliban military apparatus agreed to the plan to topple the Taliban regime as the Taliban lost support even among the Pashtuns. Senior diplomat and Afghanistan expert Peter Tomsen wrote that ''\"the ‘Lion of Kabul’ Abdul Haq and the ‘Lion of Panjshir’ Ahmad Shah Massoud would make a formidable anti-Taliban team if they combined forces. Haq, Massoud, and Karzai, Afghanistan’s three leading moderates, could transcend the Pashtun—non-Pashtun, north-south divide.\"'' Steve Coll referred to this plan as a \"grand Pashtun-Tajik alliance\". The senior Hazara and Uzbek leaders took part in the process just like later Afghan president Hamid Karzai. They agreed to work under the banner of the exiled Afghan king Zahir Shah in Rome.\n\nIn November 2000, leaders from all ethnic groups were brought together in Massoud's headquarters in northern Afghanistan, travelling from other parts of Afghanistan, Europe, the United States, Pakistan and India to discuss a Loya Jirga for a settlement of Afghanistan's problems and to discuss the establishment of a post-Taliban government. In September 2001, an international official who met with representatives of the alliance remarked, ''\"It's crazy that you have this today ... Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Hazara ... They were all ready to buy in to the process\".''\n\nIn early 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud with leaders from all ethnicities of Afghanistan addressed the European Parliament in Brussels, asking the international community to provide humanitarian aid to the people of Afghanistan. He stated that the Taliban and Al Qaeda had introduced \"a very wrong perception of Islam\" and that without the support of Pakistan and Bin Laden the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year. On that visit to Europe, he also warned the US about Bin Laden.\n\n====The areas of Massoud====\n\nLife in the areas under direct control of Massoud was different from the life in the areas under Taliban or Dostum's control. In contrast to the time of chaos in which all structures had collapsed in Kabul, Massoud was able to control most of the troops under his direct command well during the period starting in late 1996. Massoud always controlled the Panjshir, Takhar, parts of Parwan and Badakhshan during the war. Some other provinces (notably Kunduz, Baghlan, Nuristan and the north of Kabul) were captured by his forces from the Taliban and lost again from time to time as the frontlines varied.\n\nMassoud created democratic institutions which were structured into several committees: political, health, education and economic. Still, many people came to him personally when they had a dispute or problem and asked him to solve their problems.\n\nIn September 2000, Massoud signed the Declaration of the Essential Rights of Afghan Women drafted by Afghan women. The declaration established gender equality in front of the law and the right of women to political participation, education, work, freedom of movement and speech. In the areas of Massoud, women and girls did not have to wear the Afghan burqa by law. They were allowed to work and to go to school. Although it was a time of war, girls' schools were operating in some districts. In at least two known instances, Massoud personally intervened against cases of forced marriage in favour of the women to make their own choice.\n\nWhile it was Massoud's stated personal conviction that men and women are equal and should enjoy the same rights, he also had to deal with Afghan traditions which he said would need a generation or more to overcome. In his opinion, that could only be achieved through education. Author Pepe Escobar wrote in ''Massoud: From Warrior to Statesman'':\n\n\nHumayun Tandar, who took part as an Afghan diplomat in the 2001 International Conference on Afghanistan in Bonn, said that \"strictures of language, ethnicity, region were also stifling for Massoud. That is why ... he wanted to create a unity which could surpass the situation in which we found ourselves and still find ourselves to this day.\" This applied also to strictures of religion. Jean-José Puig describes how Massoud often led prayers before a meal or at times asked his fellow Muslims to lead the prayer but also did not hesitate to ask the Jewish Princeton Professor Michael Barry or his Christian friend Jean-José Puig: \"Jean-José, we believe in the same God. Please, tell us the prayer before lunch or dinner in your own language.\"\n\n====International relations====\n\nU.S. policy regarding Massoud, the Taliban and Afghanistan remained ambiguous and differed between the various U.S. government agencies.\n\nIn 1997, U.S. State Department's Robin Raphel suggested to Massoud he should surrender to the Taliban. He soundly rejected the proposal.\n\nAt one point in the war, in 1997, two top foreign policy officials in the Clinton administration flew to northern Afghanistan in an attempt to convince Massoud not to take advantage of a strategic opportunity to make crucial gains against the Taliban.\n\nIn 1998, a U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency analyst, Julie Sirrs, visited Massoud's territories privately, having previously been denied official permission to do so by her agency. She reported that Massoud had conveyed warnings about strengthened ties between the Taliban and foreign Islamist terrorists. Returning home, she was sacked from her agency for insubordination, because at that time the U.S. administration had no trust in Massoud.\n\nIn the meantime, the only collaboration between Massoud and another U.S. intelligence service, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), consisted of an effort to trace Osama bin Laden following the 1998 embassy bombings. The U.S. and the European Union provided no support to Massoud for the fight against the Taliban.\n\nA change of policy, lobbied for by CIA officers on the ground who had visited the area of Massoud, regarding support to Massoud, was underway in the course of 2001. According to Steve Coll's book ''Ghost Wars'' (who won the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction):\n\n\n\nU.S. Congressman Dana Rohrabacher also recalled: Between Bush's inauguration and 9/11, I met with the new national security staff on 3 occasions, including one meeting with Condoleezza Rice to discuss Afghanistan. There were, in fact, signs noted in an overview story in The Washington Post about a month ago that some steps were being made to break away from the previous administration's Afghan policy. CIA lawyers, working with officers in the Near East Division and Counterterrorist Center, began to draft a formal, legal presidential finding for Bush's signature authorizing a new covert action program in Afghanistan, the first in a decade that sought to influence the course of the Afghan war in favour of Massoud. This change in policy was finalized in August 2001 when it was too late.\n\nAfter Pakistan had funded, directed and supported the Taliban's rise to power in Afghanistan, Massoud and the United Front received some assistance from India. India was particularly concerned about Pakistan's Taliban strategy and the Islamic militancy in its neighborhood; it provided U.S.$70 million in aid including two Mi-17 helicopters, three additional helicopters in 2000 and US$8 million worth of high-altitude equipment in 2001. Also In the 1990s, India had run a famous field hospital at Farkor on the Tajik-Afghan border to treat wounded fighters from the then Northern Alliance that was battling the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.\nIt was at the very same hospital that the Northern Alliance leader Ahmed Shah Masood was pronounced dead after being assassinated just two days before the 9/11 terror strikes in 2001. Furthermore, the alliance supposedly also received minor aid from Tajikistan, Russia and Iran because of their opposition to the Taliban and the Pakistani control over the Taliban's Emirate. Their support, however, remained limited to the most needed things. Meanwhile, Pakistan engaged up to 28,000 Pakistani nationals and regular Pakistani army troops to fight alongside the Taliban and Al Qaeda forces against Massoud.\n\nIn April 2001, the president of the European Parliament, Nicole Fontaine (who called Massoud the \"pole of liberty in Afghanistan\"), invited Massoud with the support of French and Belgian politicians to address the European Parliament in Brussels, Belgium. In his speech, he asked for humanitarian aid for the people of Afghanistan. Massoud further went on to warn that his intelligence agents had gained limited knowledge about a large-scale terrorist attack on U.S. soil being imminent.\n",
"\nAfghan National Army honouring Massoud's resistance at his tomb and memorial in September 2010\n\nMassoud, then aged 48, was the target of a suicide attack at Khwaja Bahauddin, in Takhar Province in northeastern Afghanistan on September 9, 2001. The attackers' names were alternately given as Dahmane Abd al-Sattar, husband of Malika El Aroud, and Bouraoui el-Ouaer; or 34-year-old Karim Touzani and 26-year-old Kacem Bakkali.\n\nThe attackers claimed to be Belgians originally from Morocco. According to ''Le Monde'' they transited through the municipality of Molenbeek. Their passports turned out to be stolen and their nationality was later determined to be Tunisian. Waiting for almost three weeks (during which they also interviewed Burhanuddin Rabbani and Abdul Rasul Sayyaf) for an interview opportunity, on September 8, 2001, an aide to Massoud recalls the would-be suicide attackers \"were so worried\" and threatened to leave if the interview did not happen in the next 24 hours (until September 10, 2001). They were finally granted an interview. During the interview, they set off a bomb composed of explosives hidden in the camera and in a battery-pack belt. Commander Massoud died in a helicopter that was taking him to an Indian military field hospital at Farkhor in nearby Tajikistan. The explosion also killed Mohammed Asim Suhail, a United Front official, while Mohammad Fahim Dashty and Massoud Khalili were injured. One of the suicide attackers, Bouraoui, was killed by the explosion, while Dahmane Abd al-Sattar was captured and shot while trying to escape.\n\nDespite initial denials by the United Front, news of Massoud's death was reported almost immediately, appearing on the BBC, and in European and North American newspapers on September 10, 2001. On September 16, the United Front officially announced that Massoud had died of injuries in the suicide attack. Massoud was buried in his home village of Bazarak in the Panjshir Valley. The funeral, although in a remote rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands of people. ().\n\nMassoud had survived assassination attempts over a period of 26 years, including attempts made by al-Qaeda, the Taliban, the Pakistani ISI and before them the Soviet KGB, the Afghan communist KHAD and Hekmatyar. The first attempt on Massoud's life was carried out by Hekmatyar and two Pakistani ISI agents in 1975 when Massoud was 22 years old. In early 2001, al-Qaeda would-be assassins were captured by Massoud's forces while trying to enter his territory.\n\n;Connection to September 11, 2001\n\nThe assassination of Massoud is considered to have a strong connection to the September 11 attacks in 2001 on U.S. soil, which killed nearly 3,000 people. It appeared to have been the major terrorist attack which Massoud had warned against in his speech to the European Parliament several months earlier.\n\nAnalysts believe Osama bin Laden ordered Massoud's assassination to help his Taliban protectors and ensure he would have their co-operation in Afghanistan. Following the assassination, bin Laden had an emissary deliver Dahmane Abd al-Sattar's widow a cassette of him speaking of his love for his wife and his decision to blow himself up, as well as $500 in an envelope to settle a debt. The Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, an Afghan Wahhabi Islamist, have also been mentioned as possible organizers or collaborators of the Massoud assassins. The assassins are said to have entered United Front (Northern Alliance) territory under the auspices of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and had his assistance in bypassing \"normal security procedures.\"\n\n'''Investigative commission'''\n\nIn April 2003, the Karzai administration announced the creation of a commission to investigate the assassination of Massoud. In 2003, French investigators announced that they and the FBI had been able to trace the provenance of the camera used in the assassination, which had been stolen in France some time earlier.\n",
"\n===National Hero of Afghanistan===\nPicture of Massoud reading the Quran in the 1980s, in front of his tomb, which was under construction.\n\nMassoud was the only chief Afghan leader who never left Afghanistan in the fight against the Soviet Union and later in the fight against the Taliban Emirate. In the areas under his direct control, such as Panjshir, some parts of Parwan and Takhar, Massoud established democratic institutions. One refugee who cramped his family of 27 into an old jeep to flee from the Taliban to the area of Massoud described Massoud's territory in 1997 as \"the last tolerant corner of Afghanistan\".\n\n*In 2001, the Afghan Interim Government under president Hamid Karzai officially awarded Massoud the title of \"Hero of the Afghan Nation\". One analyst in 2004 said:\nOne man holds a greater political punch than all 18 living Afghan presidential candidates combined. Though already dead for three years.... Since his death on September 9, 2001 at the hands of two al Qaeda-linked Islamic radicals, Massoud has been transformed from mujahedin to national hero—if not saint. Pictures of Massoud, the Afghan mujahedin who battled the Soviets, other warlords, and the Taliban for more than 20 years, vastly outnumber those of any other Afghan including those of Karzai.\n\nToday Panjshir, the home of Massoud,\nis arguably the most peaceful place in the entire country. A small US military reconstruction team is based here, but there are none of the signs of foreign occupation that exist elsewhere. Even Afghan soldiers are few and far between. Instead, the people like to boast about how they keep their own security.\n\n*A Massoud Foundation was established in 2003, to provide humanitarian assistance to Afghans, especially in the fields of health care and education. It also runs programs in the fields of culture, construction, agriculture and welfare.\n*A major road in Kabul was named Great Massoud Road.\n*A monument to Massoud was installed outside the US Embassy.\n*A street in New Delhi, India, is named after Ahmad Shah Massoud. It is the first time that such an honour has been extended to a leader from that country as part of close ties between Afghanistan and India.\n\nThe road near the Afghanistan Embassy is a \"symbol of ties\" that binds the two nations that have always \"enjoyed excellent relations\"\n\n===Lion of Panjshir===\nMassoud's byname, \"Lion of Panjshir\" (, \"Shir-e-Panjshir\"), earned for his role during the Soviet occupation, is a rhyming play on words in Persian, as the name of the valley means \"five lions\".\n\nThe ''Wall Street Journal'' referred to Massoud as \"The Afghan Who Won the Cold War\", referring to the global significance of the Soviet defeat in Afghanistan for the subsequent collapse of the Eastern Bloc.\n\n===Views on Pakistan and potential al-Qaeda attacks===\nGroup of former Soviet military men, led by Col. Leonid Khabarov (center,) standing by the Massoud's Tomb, commemorating his memory (2009)\n\nIn the spring 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud had addressed the European Parliament in Brussels, saying that Pakistan was behind the situation in Afghanistan. He also said that he believed that, without the support of Pakistan, Osama bin Laden, and Saudi Arabia, the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year. He said the Afghan population was ready to rise against them. Addressing the United States specifically, he warned that should the U.S. not work for peace in Afghanistan and put pressure on Pakistan to cease their support to the Taliban, the problems of Afghanistan would soon become the problems of the U.S. and the world.\n\nDeclassified Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) documents from November 2001 show that Massoud had gained \"limited knowledge... regarding the intentions of Al-Qaeda to perform a terrorist act against the U.S. on a scale larger than the 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania.\" They noted that he warned about such attacks.\n",
"Massoud was married to Sediqa Massoud. They have one son, Ahmad Massoud (born in 1989) and five daughters (Fatima born in 1992, Mariam born in 1993, Ayesha born in 1995, Zohra born in 1996 and Nasrine born in 1998). In 2005 Sediqa Massoud published a personal account on her life with Massoud (co-authored by two women's rights activists and friends of Sediqa Massoud, Chékéba Hachemi and ) called ''\"Pour l'amour de Massoud\"'' (For the love of Massoud), in which she describes a decent and loving husband.\n\nThe family has a great deal of prestige in the politics of Afghanistan. One of his six brothers, Ahmad Zia Massoud, was the Vice President of Afghanistan from 2004 until 2009 under the first democratically elected government of Afghanistan. Unsuccessful attempts have been made on the life of Ahmad Zia Massoud in 2004 and late 2009. The Associated Press reported that 8 Afghans died in the attempt on Ahmad Zia Massoud's life. Ahmad Zia Massoud leads the National Front of Afghanistan (a United Front group).\n\nAnother brother, Ahmad Wali Massoud, was Afghanistan's Ambassador to the United Kingdom from 2002 to 2006. He is a member of Abdullah Abdullah's National Coalition of Afghanistan (another United Front group).\n",
"* Massoud is the subject of Ken Follett's 1986 novel ''Lie Down With Lions'', about the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.\n* He also is featured as a historical figure in James McGee's 1989 thriller, ''Crow's War''.\n* Sebastian Junger, one of the last Western journalists to interview Massoud in depth, featured him in an essay in his 2002 collection, ''Fire''.\n* Massoud is the subject of Olivier Weber's novel ''Massoud's Confession'', about the Islam of Enlightenment and the need to reform religious practices.\n",
"\n\n*Malika El Aroud\n*Amrullah Saleh\n*''Fire'', by Sebastian Junger\n",
"\n",
"* Marcela Grad (2009): ''Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader''; Webster University Press, 310pp\n* Sediqa Massoud with Chékéba Hachemi and Marie-Francoise Colombani (2005): ''Pour l'amour de Massoud''; Document XO Editions, 265pp (in French)\n* Amin Saikal (2006): ''Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival''; I. B. Tauris, 352pp (\"One of the \"Five Best\" Books on Afghanistan\" – ''Wall Street Journal'')\n* Roy Gutman (2008): ''How We Missed the Story: Osama Bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of Afghanistan''; United States Institute of Peace Press, 304pp\n*Coll, Steve (2004): ''Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 9, 2001''; Penguin Press, 695pp, . (won the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction)\n* Stephen Tanner: ''Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban''\n* Christophe de Ponfilly (2001): ''Massoud l'Afghan''; Gallimard, 437pp (in French)\n*Gary W. Bowersox (2004): ''The Gem Hunter-True Adventures of an American in Afghanistan''; Geovision, Inc. (January 22, 2004), .\n* Olivier Weber (2001): ''Le Faucon afghan''; Robert Laffont\n* Olivier Weber (2001, with Reza): ''Afghan eternities''; Le Chene/ UNESCO\n* Gary C. Schroen (2005):'' 'First In' An Insiders Account of How The CIA Spearheaded the War on Terror in Afghanistan''; New York: Presido Press/Ballantine Books, .\n* Peter Bergen:'' Holy War, Inc.''\n*Ahmed Rashid: ''TALIBAN – The Story of the Afghan Warlords''; .\n* A. R. Rowan: ''On The Trail Of A Lion: Ahmed Shah Massoud, Oil Politics and Terror''\n* MaryAnn T. Beverly (2007):'' From That Flame''; Kallisti Publishing\n* Roger Plunk: ''The Wandering Peacemaker''\n* References to Massoud appear in the book ''\"A Thousand Splendid Suns\"'' by Khaled Hosseini.\n* ''Kara Kush'', London: William Collins Sons and Co., Ltd., 1986. The novel ''Kara Kush'' by Idries Shah is rumored to be loosely based on the exploits of Massoud during the Afghan-Soviet War\n* Olivier Weber (2013): ''Massoud's Confession''; Flammarion.\n",
"\n\n;Interviews\n* The Last Interview with Ahmad Shah Massoud Piotr Balcerowicz, early August 2001\n;Obituaries and articles\n*\n* Remembering Massoud, a fighter for peace, ''The New York Times'', September 10, 2002\n* 60 Years of Asian Heroes: Ahmad Shah Massoud ''Time'', 2006\n* Profile: Afghanistan's 'Lion Of Panjshir' ''Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty'', September 5, 2006\n* Afghan Commander Massoud, Killed on Eve of 9/11 Attacks, is a National Hero by ''The LA Times'', 22 September 2010\n;Afghanistan Revealed (2000) portrait of Massoud by National Geographic photographer Reza Deghati, cinematographer Stephen Cocklin, and writer Sebastian Junger\n* Afghanistan Revealed | Watch the Documentary Film Free Online | SnagFilms\n* A Film Screening and Panel Discussion Focusing on the Middle East and Afghanistan\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"The Soviet invasion and PDPA communism",
"Pakistani interference and war in Afghanistan (1992–2001)",
"Assassination",
"Legacy",
"Personal life",
"Media",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Ahmad Shah Massoud |
[
"\n\n\n Athanasius Kircher's map of Atlantis, placing it in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, from ''Mundus Subterraneus'' 1669, published in Amsterdam. The map is oriented with south at the top.\n\n\n'''Atlantis''' (, \"island of Atlas\") is a fictional island mentioned within an allegory on the hubris of nations in Plato's works ''Timaeus'' and ''Critias'', where it represents the antagonist naval power that besieges \"Ancient Athens\", the pseudo-historic embodiment of Plato's ideal state (see ''The Republic''). In the story, Athens repels the Atlantean attack unlike any other nation of the (western) known world, supposedly giving testament to the superiority of Plato's concept of a state. At the end of the story, Atlantis eventually falls out of favor with the deities and submerges into the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nDespite its minor importance in Plato's work, the Atlantis story has had a considerable impact on literature. The allegorical aspect of Atlantis was taken up in utopian works of several Renaissance writers, such as Francis Bacon's ''New Atlantis'' and Thomas More's ''Utopia''. On the other hand, nineteenth-century amateur scholars misinterpreted Plato's narrative as historical tradition, most notably in Ignatius L. Donnelly's ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World''. Plato's vague indications of the time of the events—more than 9,000 years before his time—and the alleged location of Atlantis—\"beyond the Pillars of Hercules\"—has led to much pseudoscientific speculation. As a consequence, Atlantis has become a byword for any and all supposed advanced prehistoric lost civilizations and continues to inspire contemporary fiction, from comic books to films.\n\nWhile present-day philologists and classicists agree on the story's fictional character, there is still debate on what served as its inspiration. The fact that Plato borrowed some of his other allegories and metaphors—most notably the story of Gyges—from older traditions has caused a number of scholars to investigate possible inspiration of Atlantis from Egyptian records of the Thera eruption, the Sea Peoples invasion, or the Trojan War. Others have rejected this chain of tradition as implausible and insist that Plato created an entirely fictional nation as his example, drawing loose inspiration from contemporary events such as the failed Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415–413 BC or the destruction of Helike in 373 BC.\n",
"\n\nPlato's dialogues ''Timaeus'' and ''Critias'', written in 360 BC, contain the earliest references to Atlantis. For unknown reasons, Plato never completed ''Critias''. Plato introduced Atlantis in ''Timaeus'':\n\n\n\nA fifteenth-century Latin translation of Plato's ''Timaeus''\nThe four people appearing in those two dialogues are the politicians Critias and Hermocrates as well as the philosophers Socrates and Timaeus of Locri, although only Critias speaks of Atlantis. In his works Plato makes extensive use of the Socratic method in order to discuss contrary positions within the context of a supposition.\n\nThe ''Timaeus'' begins with an introduction, followed by an account of the creations and structure of the universe and ancient civilizations. In the introduction, Socrates muses about the perfect society, described in Plato's ''Republic'' (c. 380 BC), and wonders if he and his guests might recollect a story which exemplifies such a society. Critias mentions a tale he considered to be historical, that would make the perfect example, and he then follows by describing Atlantis as is recorded in the ''Critias''. In his account, ancient Athens seems to represent the \"perfect society\" and Atlantis its opponent, representing the very antithesis of the \"perfect\" traits described in the ''Republic''.\n\n===''Critias''===\nAccording to Critias, the Hellenic deities of old divided the land so that each deity might have their own lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger than Ancient Libya and Asia Minor combined, but it was later sunk by an earthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel to any part of the ocean. Plato asserted that the Egyptians described Atlantis as an island consisting mostly of mountains in the northern portions and along the shore and encompassing a great plain in an oblong shape in the south \"extending in one direction three thousand ''stadia'' about 555 km; 345 mi, but across the center inland it was two thousand stadia about 370 km; 230 mi.\" Fifty stadia 9 km; 6 mi from the coast was a mountain that was low on all sides ... broke it off all round about ... the central island itself was five stades in diameter about 0.92 km; 0.57 mi.\n\nIn Plato's metaphorical tale, Poseidon fell in love with Cleito, the daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore him five pairs of male twins. The eldest of these, Atlas, was made rightful king of the entire island and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in his honor), and was given the mountain of his birth and the surrounding area as his fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, or Eumelus in Greek, was given the extremity of the island toward the pillars of Hercules. The other four pairs of twins—Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes and Diaprepes—were also given \"rule over many men, and a large territory.\"\n\nPoseidon carved the mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three circular moats of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land proportional in size. The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a route to the rest of the island. They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats. Every passage to the city was guarded by gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each ring of the city. The walls were constructed of red, white, and black rock, quarried from the moats, and were covered with brass, tin, and the precious metal orichalcum, respectively.\n\nAccording to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime a war took place between those outside the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the parts of Libya within the Pillars of Hercules, as far as Egypt, and the European continent as far as Tyrrhenia, and had subjected its people to slavery. The Athenians led an alliance of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone against the empire, liberating the occupied lands.\n\n\n\nThe logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos wrote an earlier work entitled ''Atlantis'', of which only a few fragments survive. Hellanicus' work appears to have been a genealogical one concerning the daughters of Atlas (Ἀτλαντὶς in Greek means \"of Atlas\"), but some authors have suggested a possible connection with Plato's island. John V. Luce notes that when Plato writes about the genealogy of Atlantis's kings, he writes in the same style as Hellanicus, suggesting a similarity between a fragment of Hellanicus's work and an account in the ''Critias''. Rodney Castleden suggests that Plato may have borrowed his title from Hellanicus, who may have based his work on an earlier work about Atlantis.\n\nCastleden has pointed out that Plato wrote of Atlantis in 359 BC, when he returned to Athens from Sicily. He notes a number of parallels between the physical organisation and fortifications of Syracuse and Plato's description of Atlantis. Gunnar Rudberg was the first who elaborated upon the idea that Plato's attempt to realize his political ideas in the city of Syracuse could have heavily inspired the Atlantis account.\n",
"\n===Ancient===\nSome ancient writers viewed Atlantis as fictional or metaphorical myth; others believed it to be real. The philosopher Crantor, a student of Plato's student Xenocrates, is cited often as an example of a writer who thought the story to be historical fact. His work, a commentary on Plato's ''Timaeus'', is lost, but Proclus, a Neoplatonist of the fifth century AD, reports on it. The passage in question has been represented in the modern literature either as claiming that Crantor visited Egypt, had conversations with priests, and saw hieroglyphs confirming the story, or, as claiming that he learned about them from other visitors to Egypt. Proclus wrote:\n\n\n\nThe next sentence is often translated \"Crantor adds, that this is testified by the prophets of the Egyptians, who assert that these particulars which are narrated by Plato are written on pillars which are still preserved.\" But in the original, the sentence starts not with the name Crantor but with the ambiguous ''He''; whether this referred to Crantor or to Plato is the subject of considerable debate. Proponents of both Atlantis as a metaphorical myth and Atlantis as history have argued that the pronoun refers to Crantor.\n\nAlan Cameron argues that the pronoun should be interpreted as referring to Plato, and that, when Proclus writes that \"we must bear in mind concerning this whole feat of the Athenians, that it is neither a mere myth nor unadorned history, although some take it as history and others as myth\", he is treating \"Crantor's view as mere personal opinion, nothing more; in fact he first quotes and then dismisses it as representing one of the two unacceptable extremes\".\n\nCameron also points out that whether ''he'' refers to Plato or to Crantor, the statement does not support conclusions such as Otto Muck's \"Crantor came to Sais and saw there in the temple of Neith the column, completely covered with hieroglyphs, on which the history of Atlantis was recorded. Scholars translated it for him, and he testified that their account fully agreed with Plato's account of Atlantis\" or J. V. Luce's suggestion that Crantor sent \"a special enquiry to Egypt\" and that he may simply be referring to Plato's own claims.\n\nAnother passage from the commentary by Proclus on the \"Timaeus\" gives a description of the geography of Atlantis: That an island of such nature and size once existed is evident from what is said by certain authors who investigated the things around the outer sea. For according to them, there were seven islands in that sea in their time, sacred to Persephone, and also three others of enormous size, one of which was sacred to Hades, another to Ammon, and another one between them to Poseidon, the extent of which was a thousand stadia 200 km; and the inhabitants of it—they add—preserved the remembrance from their ancestors of the immeasurably large island of Atlantis which had really existed there and which for many ages had reigned over all islands in the Atlantic sea and which itself had like-wise been sacred to Poseidon. Now these things Marcellus has written in his ''Aethiopica''\". Marcellus remains unidentified.\n\nOther ancient historians and philosophers who believed in the existence of Atlantis were Strabo and Posidonius. Some have theorized that, before the sixth century BC, the \"Pillars of Hercules\" may have applied to mountains on either side of the Gulf of Laconia, and also may have been part of the pillar cult of the Aegean. The mountains stood at either side of the southernmost gulf in Greece, the largest in the Peloponnese, and it opens onto the Mediterranean Sea. This would have placed Atlantis in the Mediterranean, lending credence to many details in Plato's discussion.\n\nThe fourth-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus, relying on a lost work by Timagenes, a historian writing in the first century BC, writes that the Druids of Gaul said that part of the inhabitants of Gaul had migrated there from distant islands. Some have understood Ammianus's testimony as a claim that at the time of Atlantis's sinking into the sea, its inhabitants fled to western Europe; but Ammianus, in fact, says that \"the Drasidae (Druids) recall that a part of the population is indigenous but others also migrated in from islands and lands beyond the Rhine\" (''Res Gestae'' 15.9), an indication that the immigrants came to Gaul from the north (Britain, the Netherlands, or Germany), not from a theorized location in the Atlantic Ocean to the south-west. Instead, the Celts who dwelled along the ocean were reported to venerate twin gods, (Dioscori), who appeared to them coming from that ocean.\n\n===Jewish and Christian===\nDuring the early first century AD, the Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo wrote about the destruction of Atlantis in his ''On the Eternity of the World'', xxvi. 141, in a longer passage allegedly citing Aristotle's successor Theophrastus:\n\n\n\nThere is the possibility that Clement of Rome cryptically referred to Atlantis in his First Epistle of Clement, 20: 8:\n\n\n\nThe theologian Joseph Barber Lightfoot (''Apostolic Fathers'', 1885, II, p. 84) noted on this passage: \"Clement may possibly be referring to some known, but hardly accessible land, lying without the pillars of Hercules. But more probably he contemplated some unknown land in the far west beyond the ocean, like the fabled Atlantis of Plato ...\"\n\nOther early Christian writers wrote about Atlantis, although they had mixed views on whether it once existed or was an untrustworthy myth of pagan origin. Tertullian believed Atlantis was once real and wrote that in the Atlantic Ocean once existed \"the isle that was equal in size to Libya or Asia\" referring to Plato's geographical description of Atlantis. The early Christian apologist writer Arnobius also believed Atlantis once existed, but blamed its destruction on pagans.\n\nCosmas Indicopleustes in the sixth century wrote of Atlantis in his ''Christian Topography'' in an attempt to prove his theory that the world was flat and surrounded by water:\n\n\n\nA Hebrew treatise on computational astronomy dated to AD 1378/79, alludes to the Atlantis myth in a discussion concerning the determination of zero points for the calculation of longitude:\n\n\n\nA map showing the supposed extent of the Atlantean Empire, from Ignatius L. Donnelly's ''Atlantis: the Antediluvian World'', 1882 \n\n===Modern===\nAside from Plato's original account, modern interpretations regarding Atlantis are an amalgamation of diverse, speculative movements that began in the sixteenth century. Contemporary perceptions of Atlantis share roots with Mayanism, which can be traced to the beginning of the Modern Age, when European imaginations were fueled by their initial encounters with the indigenous peoples of the New World. From this era sprang apocalyptic and utopian visions that would inspire many subsequent generations of theorists.\n\nMost of these interpretations are considered pseudohistory, pseudoscience, or pseudoarchaeology, as they have presented their works as academic or scientific, but lack the standards or criteria.\n\nThe Flemish cartographer and geographer Abraham Ortelius is believed to have been the first person to imagine that the continents were joined together before drifting to their present positions. In the 1596 edition of his ''Thesaurus Geographicus'' he wrote: \"Unless it be a fable, the island of Gadir or Gades will be the remaining part of the island of Atlantis or America, which was not sunk (as Plato reports in the ''Timaeus'') so much as torn away from Europe and Africa by earthquakes and flood... The traces of the ruptures are shown by the projections of Europe and Africa and the indentations of America in the parts of the coasts of these three said lands that face each other to anyone who, using a map of the world, carefully considered them. So that anyone may say with Strabo in Book 2, that what Plato says of the island of Atlantis on the authority of Solon is not a figment.\"\n\n====Atlantis pseudohistory====\n\n=====Early influential literature=====\nThe term \"utopia\" (from \"no place\") was coined by Sir Thomas More in his sixteenth-century work of fiction ''Utopia''. Inspired by Plato's Atlantis and travelers' accounts of the Americas, More described an imaginary land set in the New World. His idealistic vision established a connection between the Americas and utopian societies, a theme that was further solidified by Sir Francis Bacon in ''The New Atlantis'' (c. 1623). A character in the narrative gives a history of Atlantis that is similar to Plato's and places Atlantis in America. People had begun believing that the Mayan and Aztec ruins could possibly be the remnants of Atlantis.\n\n=====Impact of Mayanism=====\nMuch speculation began as to the origins of the Maya, which led to a variety of narratives and publications that tried to rationalize the discoveries within the context of the Bible and that had undertones of racism in their connections between the Old and New World. The Europeans believed the indigenous people to be inferior and incapable of building that which was now in ruins and by sharing a common history, they insinuate that another race must have been responsible.\n\nIn the middle and late nineteenth century, several renowned Mesoamerican scholars, starting with Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, and including Edward Herbert Thompson and Augustus Le Plongeon, formally proposed that Atlantis was somehow related to Mayan and Aztec culture.\n\nThe French scholar Brasseur de Bourbourg traveled extensively through Mesoamerica in the mid-1800s, and was renowned for his translations of Mayan texts, most notably the sacred book Popol Vuh, as well as a comprehensive history of the region. Soon after these publications, however, Brasseur de Bourbourg lost his academic credibility, due to his claim that the Maya peoples had descended from the Toltecs, people he believed were the surviving population of the racially superior civilization of Atlantis. His work combined with the skillful, romantic illustrations of Jean Frederic Waldeck, which visually alluded to Egypt and other aspects of the Old World, created an authoritative fantasy that excited much interest in the connections between worlds.\n\nInspired by Brasseur de Bourbourg's diffusion theories, the pseudoarchaeologist Augustus Le Plongeon traveled to Mesoamerica and performed some of the first excavations of many famous Mayan ruins. Le Plongeon invented narratives, such as the kingdom of Moo saga, which romantically drew connections to him, his wife Alice, and Egyptian deities Osiris and Isis, as well as to Heinrich Schliemann, who had just discovered the ancient city of Troy from Homer's epic poetry (that had been described as merely mythical). He also believed that he had found connections between the Greek and Mayan languages, which produced a narrative of the destruction of Atlantis.\n\n=====Ignatius Donnelly=====\nThe 1882 publication of ''Atlantis: the Antediluvian World'' by Ignatius L. Donnelly stimulated much popular interest in Atlantis. He was greatly inspired by early works in Mayanism, and like them, attempted to establish that all known ancient civilizations were descended from Atlantis, which he saw as a technologically sophisticated, more advanced culture. Donnelly drew parallels between creation stories in the Old and New Worlds, attributing the connections to Atlantis, where he believed the Biblical Garden of Eden existed. As implied by the title of his book, he also believed that Atlantis was destroyed by the Great Flood mentioned in the Bible.\n\nDonnelly is credited as the \"father of the nineteenth century Atlantis revival\" and is the reason the myth endures today. He unintentionally promoted an alternative method of inquiry to history and science, and the idea that myths contain hidden information that opens them to \"ingenious\" interpretation by people who believe they have new or special insight.\n\n=====Madame Blavatsky and the Theosophists=====\nMap of Atlantis according to William Scott-Elliott (''The Story of Atlantis'', Russian edition, 1910)\nThe Russian mystic Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and her partner Henry Steel Olcott founded their Theosophical Society in the 1870s with a philosophy that combined western romanticism and eastern religious concepts. Blavatsky and her followers in this group are often cited as the founders of New Age and other spiritual movements.\n\nBlavatsky took up Donnelly's interpretations when she wrote ''The Secret Doctrine'' (1888), which she claimed was originally dictated in Atlantis. She maintained that the Atlanteans were cultural heroes (contrary to Plato, who describes them mainly as a military threat). She believed in a form of racial evolution (as opposed to primate evolution), in which the Atlanteans were the fourth \"Root Race\", succeeded by the fifth and most superior \"Aryan race\" (her own race). The Theosophists believed that the civilization of Atlantis reached its peak between 1,000,000 and 900,000 years ago, but destroyed itself through internal warfare brought about by the dangerous use of psychic and supernatural powers of the inhabitants. Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy and Waldorf Schools, along with other well known Theosophists, such as Annie Besant, also wrote of cultural evolution in much the same vein.\n\nSome subsequent occultists have followed Blavatsky, at least to the point of tracing the lineage of occult practices back to Atlantis. Among the most famous is Dion Fortune in her ''Esoteric Orders and Their Work''.\n\n=====Nazism and occultism=====\n\n\nBlavatsky was also inspired by the work of the eighteenth-century astronomer Jean-Sylvain Bailly, who had \"Orientalized\" the Atlantis myth in his mythical continent of Hyperborea, a reference to Greek myths featuring a Northern European region of the same name, home to a giant, godlike race. Her reshaping of this theory in ''The Secret Doctrine'' provided the Nazis with a mythological precedent and a pretext for their ideological platform and their subsequent genocide.\n\nJulius Evola's writing in 1934 also suggested that the Atlanteans were Hyperborean, Nordic supermen who originated at the North Pole (see Thule). Similarly, Alfred Rosenberg (in ''The Myth of the Twentieth Century'', 1930) spoke of a \"Nordic-Atlantean\" or \"Aryan-Nordic\" master race.\n\n=====Edgar Cayce=====\nEdgar Cayce was a man from humble upbringings in Kentucky who allegedly possessed psychic abilities, which were performed from a trance-like state. In addition to allegedly healing the sick from this state, he also spoke frequently on the topic of Atlantis. In his \"life readings,\" he purportedly revealed that many of his subjects were reincarnations of people who had lived on Atlantis. By tapping into their collective consciousness, the \"Akashic Records\" (a term borrowed from Theosophy), he declared that he was able to give detailed descriptions of the lost continent. He also asserted that Atlantis would \"rise\" again in the 1960s (sparking much popularity of the myth in that decade) and that there is a \"Hall of Records\" beneath the Egyptian Sphinx, which holds the historical texts of Atlantis.\n\n====Recent times====\nAs continental drift became widely accepted during the 1960s, and the increased understanding of plate tectonics demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the geologically recent past, most \"Lost Continent\" theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity.\n\nPlato scholar Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at the University of Arizona, had this to say on the matter:\n\n\n\nOne of the proposed explanations for the historical context of the Atlantis story is a warning of Plato to his contemporary fourth-century fellow-citizens against their striving for naval power.\n\nKenneth Feder points out that Critias's story in the ''Timaeus'' provides a major clue. In the dialogue, Critias says, referring to Socrates' hypothetical society:\n\n\n\nFeder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, \"We could not be told much more plainly that the whole narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests and his intention of writing the poem about Atlantis are an invention of Plato's fancy.\"\n",
"\n\n\nSince Donnelly's day, there have been dozens of locations proposed for Atlantis, to the point where the name has become a generic concept, divorced from the specifics of Plato's account. This is reflected in the fact that many proposed sites are not within the Atlantic at all. Few today are scholarly or archaeological hypotheses, while others have been made by psychic (e.g., Edgar Cayce) or other pseudoscientific means. (The Atlantis researchers Jacques Collina-Girard and Georgeos Díaz-Montexano, for instance, each claim the other's hypothesis is pseudoscience.) Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none has been demonstrated to be a true historical Atlantis.\n\nSatellite image of the islands of Santorini. From the Minoan eruption event, and the 1964 discovery of Akrotiri on the island, this location is one of many sites purported to have been the location of Atlantis\n\n===In or near the Mediterranean Sea===\nMost of the historically proposed locations are in or near the Mediterranean Sea: islands such as Sardinia, Crete, Santorini (Thera), Sicily, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such as Troy, Tartessos, and Tantalis (in the province of Manisa, Turkey); Israel-Sinai or Canaan; and northwestern Africa. \n\nThe Thera eruption, dated to the seventeenth or sixteenth century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesize devastated the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story.\n\nA. G. Galanopoulos argued that Plato's dating of 9,000 years before Solon's time was the result of an error in translation, probably from Egyptian into Greek, which produced \"thousands\" instead of \"hundreds\". Such an error would also rescale Plato's Atlantis to the size of Crete, while leaving the city the size of the crater on Thera; 900 years before Solon would be the fifteenth century BC. In the area of the Black Sea the following locations have been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah (a legendary place near Trabzon).\n\nOthers have noted that, before the sixth century BC, the mountains on either side of the Gulf of Laconia were called the \"Pillars of Hercules\", and they could be the geographical location being described in ancient reports upon which Plato was basing his story. The mountains stood at either side of the southernmost gulf in Greece, the largest in the Peloponnese, and that gulf opens onto the Mediterranean Sea. If from the beginning of discussions, misinterpretation of Gibraltar as the location rather than being at the Gulf of Laconia, would lend itself to many erroneous concepts regarding the location of Atlantis. Plato may have not been aware of the difference. The Laconian pillars open to the south toward Crete and beyond which is Egypt. The Thera eruption and the Late Bronze Age collapse affected that area and might have been the devastation to which the sources used by Plato referred. Significant events such as these would have been likely material for tales passed from one generation to another for almost a thousand years.\n\n===In the Atlantic Ocean===\nThe location of Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean has a certain appeal given the closely related names. Popular culture often places Atlantis there, perpetuating the original Platonic setting as they understand it. The Canary Islands and Madeira Islands have been identified as a possible location, west of the Straits of Gibraltar, but in relative proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Detailed studies of their geomorphology and geology have demonstrated, however, that they have been steadily uplifted, without any significant periods of subsidence, over the last four million years, by geologic processes such as erosional unloading, gravitational unloading, lithospheric flexure induced by adjacent islands, and volcanic underplating. Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also identified as possible locations, notably the Azores. Similarly, cores of sediment covering the ocean bottom surrounding the Azores and other evidence demonstrate that it has been an undersea plateau for millions of years. The submerged island of Spartel near the Strait of Gibraltar has also been suggested.\n\n===In Europe===\nMap showing hypothetical extent of Doggerland (c. 8,000 BC), which provided a land bridge between Great Britain and continental Europe\nSeveral hypotheses place the sunken island in northern Europe, including Doggerland in the North Sea, and Sweden (by Olof Rudbeck in ''Atland'', 1672–1702). Doggerland, as well as Viking Bergen Island, is thought to have been flooded by a megatsunami following the Storegga slide of c. 6100 BC. Some have proposed the Celtic Shelf as a possible location, and that there is a link to Ireland.\n\nIn 2011, a team, working on a documentary for the National Geographic Channel, led by Professor Richard Freund from the University of Hartford, claimed to have found possible evidence of Atlantis in southwestern Andalusia. The team identified its possible location within the marshlands of the Doñana National Park, in the area that once was the Lacus Ligustinus, between the Huelva, Cádiz, and Seville provinces, and they speculated that Atlantis had been destroyed by a tsunami, extrapolating results from a previous study by Spanish researchers, published four years earlier.\n\nSpanish scientists have dismissed Freund's speculations, claiming that he sensationalised their work. The anthropologist Juan Villarías-Robles, who works with the Spanish National Research Council, said, \"Richard Freund was a newcomer to our project and appeared to be involved in his own very controversial issue concerning King Solomon's search for ivory and gold in Tartessos, the well documented settlement in the Doñana area established in the first millennium BC\", and described Freund's claims as \"fanciful\".\n\nA similar theory had previously been put forward by a German researcher, Rainer W. Kühne, that is based only on satellite imagery and places Atlantis in the Marismas de Hinojos, north of the city of Cádiz. Before that, the historian Adolf Schulten had stated in the 1920s that Plato had used Tartessos as the basis for his Atlantis myth.\n\n===Other locations===\nSeveral writers have speculated that Antarctica is the site of Atlantis, while others have proposed Caribbean locations such as the alleged Cuban sunken city off the Guanahacabibes peninsula in Cuba, the Bahamas, and the Bermuda Triangle. Areas in the Pacific and Indian Oceans have also been proposed including Indonesia (i.e. Sundaland). Likewise some have speculated that the continent of South America bears striking similarities to the description of Atlantis by Plato, particularly the Altiplano region of the Andes. The stories of a lost continent off the coast of India, named \"Kumari Kandam,\" have inspired some to draw parallels to Atlantis.\n",
"\n===Ancient versions===\nA fragment of ''Atlantis'' by Hellanicus of Lesbos\nIn order to give his account of Atlantis verisimilitude, Plato mentions that the story was heard by Solon in Egypt, and transmitted orally over several generations through the family of Dropides, until it reached Critias, a dialogue speaker in ''Timaeus'' and ''Critias''. Solon had supposedly tried to adapt the Atlantis oral tradition into a poem (that if published, was to be greater than the works of Hesiod and Homer). While it was never completed, Solon passed on the story to Dropides. Modern classicists deny the existence of Solon's Atlantis poem and the story as an oral tradition. Instead, Plato is thought to be the sole inventor or fabricator.\nHellanicus of Lesbos used the word Atlantis as the title for a poem published before Plato. a fragment of which may be Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 11, 1359. This work only describes the Atlantides (the daughters of Atlas), however, and has no relation to Plato's Atlantis account.\n\nIn the new era, the third century AD Neoplatonist Zoticus wrote an epic poem based on Plato's account of Atlantis. Plato's work may already have inspired parodic imitation, however. Writing only a few decades after the ''Timaeus'' and ''Critias'', the historian Theopompus of Chios wrote of a land beyond the ocean known as Meropis. This description was included in Book 8 of his ''Philippica'', which contains a dialogue between Silenus and King Midas. Silenus describes the Meropids, a race of men who grow to twice normal size, and inhabit two cities on the island of Meropis: ''Eusebes'' (, \"Pious-town\") and ''Machimos'' (, \"Fighting-town\"). He also reports that an army of ten million soldiers crossed the ocean to conquer Hyperborea, but abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans were the luckiest people on earth. Heinz-Günther Nesselrath has argued that these and other details of Silenus' story are meant as imitation and exaggeration of the Atlantis story, by parody, for the purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule.\n\n===Utopias and dystopias===\nThe creation of Utopian and dystopian fictions was renewed after the Renaissance, most notably in Francis Bacon’s ''New Atlantis'' (1627), the description of an ideal society that he located off the western coast of America. Thomas Heyrick (1649-1694) followed him with “The New Atlantis” (1687), a satirical poem in three parts. His new continent of uncertain location, perhaps even a floating island either in the sea or the sky, serves as background for his exposure of what he described in a second edition as “A True Character of Popery and Jesuitism”.\n\nThe title of ''The New Atalantis'' by Delarivier Manley (1709), distinguished from the two others by the single letter, is an equally dystopian work but set this time on a fictional Mediterranean island. In it sexual violence and exploitation is made a metaphor for the hypocritical behaviour of politicians in their dealings with the general public. In Manley’s case, the target of satire was the Whig Party, while in David Maclean Parry's ''The Scarlet Empire'' (1906) it is Socialism as practised in foundered Atlantis. It was followed in Russia by Velemir Khlebnikov's poem ''The Fall of Atlantis'' (''Gibel' Atlantidy'', 1912), which is set in a future rationalist dystopia that has discovered the secret of immortality and is so dedicated to progress that it has lost touch with the past. When the high priest of this ideology is tempted by a slave girl into an act of irrationality, he murders her and precipitates a second flood, above which her severed head floats vengefully among the stars.\n\nA slightly later work, ''The Ancient of Atlantis'' (Boston, 1915) by Albert Armstrong Manship, expounds the Atlantean wisdom that is to redeem the earth. Its three parts consist of a verse narrative of the life and training of an Atlantean wise one, followed by his Utopian moral teachings and then a psychic drama set in modern times in which a reincarnated child embodying the lost wisdom is reborn on earth.\n\nIn Hispanic eyes, Atlantis had a more intimate interpretation. The land had been a colonial power which, although it had brought civilization to ancient Europe, had also enslaved its peoples. Its tyrannical fall from grace had contributed to the fate that had overtaken it, but now its disappearance had unbalanced the world. This was the point of view of Jacint Verdaguer’s vast mythological epic ''L’Atlantida'' (1877). After the sinking of the former continent, Hercules travels east across the Atlantic to found the city of Barcelona and then departs westward again to the Hesperides. The story is told by a hermit to a shipwrecked mariner, who is inspired to follow in his tracks and so “call the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old”. This mariner, of course, was Christopher Columbus.\n \nVerdaguer’s poem was written in Catalan, but was widely translated in both Europe and Hispano-America. One response was the similarly entitled Argentinian ''Atlantida'' of Olegario Victor Andrade (1881), which sees in “Enchanted Atlantis that Plato foresaw, a golden promise to the fruitful race” of Latins. The bad example of the colonising world remains, however. Jose Juan Tablada characterises its threat in his “De Atlántida” (1894) through the beguiling picture of the lost world populated by the underwater creatures of Classical myth, among whom is the Siren of its final stanza with \n::her eye on the keel of the wandering vessel \n::that in passing deflowers the sea’s smooth mirror,\n::launching into the night her amorous warbling\n::and the dulcet lullaby of her treacherous voice!\n \nThere is a similar ambivalence in Janus Djurhuus’ six-stanza “Atlantis” (1917), where a celebration of the Faroese linguistic revival grants it an ancient pedigree by linking Greek to Norse legend. In the poem a female figure rising from the sea against a background of Classical palaces is recognised as a priestess of Atlantis. The poet recalls “that the Faroes lie there in the north Atlantic Ocean/ where before lay the poet-dreamt lands,” but also that in Norse belief, such a figure only appears to those about to drown.\n\n===A land lost in the distance===\nA Faroe Islands postage stamp honoring Janus Djurhuus' \"Atlantis\" \n\nThe fact that Atlantis is a lost land has made of it a metaphor for something no longer attainable. For the American poet Edith Willis Linn Forbes (1865-1945), “The Lost Atlantis” stands for idealisation of the past; the present moment can only be treasured once that is realised. Ella Wheeler Wilcox finds the location of “The Lost Land” (1910) in one’s carefree youthful past. Similarly, for the Irish poet Eavan Boland in “Atlantis, a lost sonnet” (2007), the idea was defined when “the old fable-makers searched hard for a word/ to convey that what is gone is gone forever”.\n\nFor some male poets too, the idea of Atlantis is constructed from what cannot be obtained. Charles Bewley in his Newdigate Prize poem (1910) thinks it grows from dissatisfaction with one’s condition, \n::And, because life is partly sweet \n::And ever girt about with pain, \n::We take the sweetness, and are fain \n::To set it free from grief's alloy\nin a dream of Atlantis. Similarly for the Australian Gary Catalano in a 1982 prose poem, it is “a vision that sank under the weight of its own perfection”. W. H. Auden, however, suggests a way out of such frustration through the metaphor of journeying toward Atlantis in his poem of 1941. While travelling, he advises the one setting out, you will meet with many definitions of the goal in view, only realising at the end that the way has all the time led inward.\n\n===Epic narratives===\nA few late nineteenth century verse narratives complement the genre fiction that was beginning to be written at the same period. Two of them report the disaster that overtook the continent as related by long-lived survivors. In Frederick Tennyson’s ''Atlantis'' (1888) an ancient Greek mariner sails west and discovers an inhabited island, which is all that remains of the former kingdom. He learns of its end and views the shattered remnant of its former glory, from which a few had escaped to set up the Mediterranean civilisations. In the second, ''Mona, Queen of Lost Atlantis: An Idyllic Re-embodiment of Long Forgotten History'' (Los Angeles CA 1925) by James Logue Dryden (1840-1925), the story is told in a series of visions. A Seer is taken to Mona’s burial chamber in the ruins of Atlantis, where she revives and describes the catastrophe. There follows a survey of the lost civilisations of Hyperborea and Lemuria as well as Atlantis, accompanied by much spiritualist lore.\n\nWilliam Walton Hoskins (1856-1919) admits to the readers of his ''Atlantis and other poems'' (Cleveland OH, 1881), that he is only 24. Its melodramatic plot concerns the poisoning of the descendent of god-born kings. The usurping poisoner is poisoned in his turn, following which the continent is swallowed in the waves. Asian gods people the landscape of ''The Lost Island'' (Ottawa 1889) by Edward Taylor Fletcher (1816–97). An angel foresees impending catastrophe and that the people will be allowed to escape if their semi-divine rulers will sacrifice themselves. A final example, Edward N. Beecher’s ''The Lost Atlantis or The Great Deluge of All'' (Cleveland OH, 1898) is just a doggerel vehicle for its author’s opinions: that the continent was the location of the Garden of Eden; that Darwin’s theory of evolution is correct, as are Donnelly’s views.\n\nAtlantis was to become a theme in Russia following the 1890s, taken up in unfinished poems by Valery Bryusov and Konstantin Balmont, as well as in a drama by the schoolgirl Larisa Reisner. One other long narrative poem was published in New York by George V. Golokhvastoff. His 250-page ''The Fall of Atlantis'' (1938) records how a high priest, distressed by the prevailing degeneracy of the ruling classes, seeks to create an androgynous being from royal twins as a means to overcome this polarity. When he is unable to control the forces unleashed by his occult ceremony, the continent is destroyed.\n",
"\n===Music===\nThe Spanish composer Manuel de Falla worked on a dramatic cantata based on Verdaguer’s ''L’Atlántida'', during the last 20 years of his life. The name has been affixed to symphonies by Janis Ivanovs (1941), Richard Nanes, and Vaclav Buzek (2009). There was also the symphonic celebration of Alan Hovhaness: \"Fanfare for the New Atlantis\" (Op. 281, 1975).\n\nThe Bohemian-American composer and arranger Vincent Frank Safranek wrote ''Atlantis (The Lost Continent) Suite in Four Parts''; I. Nocturne and Morning Hymn of Praise, II. A Court Function, III. ″I Love Thee″ (The Prince and Aana), IV. The Destruction of Atlantis, for military (concert) band in 1913.\n\n===Painting and sculpture===\n\nLeon Bakst’s vision of cosmic catastrophe\nPaintings of the submersion of Atlantis are comparatively rare. In the seventeenth century there was François de Nomé’s “The Fall of Atlantis”, which shows a tidal wave surging toward a Baroque city frontage. The style of architecture apart, it is not very different from Nicholas Roerich’s “The Last of Atlantis” of 1928.\n\nThe most dramatic depiction of the catastrophe was Leon Bakst’s “Ancient Terror” (''Terror Antiquus'', 1908), although it does not name Atlantis directly. It is a mountain-top view of a rocky bay breached by the sea, which is washing inland about the tall structures of an ancient city. A streak of lightning crosses the upper half of the painting, while below it rises the impassive figure of an enigmatic goddess who holds a blue dove between her breasts. Vyacheslav Ivanov identified the subject as Atlantis in a public lecture on the painting given in 1909, the year it was first exhibited, and he has been followed by other commentators in the years since.\n\nSculptures referencing Atlantis have often been stylized single figures. One of the earliest was Einar Jónsson’s ''The King of Atlantis'' (1919–1922), now in the garden of his museum in Reykjavik. It represents a single figure, clad in a belted skirt and wearing a large triangular helmet, who sits on an ornate throne supported between two young bulls. The walking female entitled ''Atlantis'' (1946) by Ivan Meštrović was from a series inspired by ancient Greek figures with the symbolical meaning of unjustified suffering.\n\nIn the case of the Brussels fountain feature known as ''The Man of Atlantis'' (2003) by the Belgian sculptor , the 4-metre tall figure wearing a diving suit steps from a plinth into the spray. It looks light-hearted but the artist’s comment on it makes a serious point: \"Because habitable land will be scarce, it is no longer improbable that we will return to the water in the long term. As a result, a portion of the population will mutate into fish-like creatures. Global warming and rising water levels are practical problems for the world in general and here in the Netherlands in particular\".\n \nRobert Smithson’s ''Hypothetical Continent (Map of broken clear glass, Atlantis)'' was first created as a photographical project on Loveladies Island NJ in 1969, and then recreated as a gallery installation of broken glass. On this he commented that he liked “landscapes that suggest prehistory”, and this is borne out by the original conceptual drawing of the work that includes an inset map of the continent sited off the coast of Africa and at the straits into the Mediterranean.\n",
"\n*Atlantis in popular culture\n*Antillia\n*Avalon\n*Brasil (mythical island)\n*Brittia\n*Iram of the Pillars\n*Lemuria (continent)\n*Mayda\n*Mu (lost continent)\n*Mythical place\n*Saint Brendan's Island\n*Sandy Island, New Caledonia\n*Thule\n*Ys\n\n\n'''Underwater geography:'''\n*Yonaguni Monument\n*Bimini Road\n\n'''General:'''\n* Doggerland\n* Lost lands\n* Kumari Kandam\n* Minoan eruption\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n'''Ancient sources'''\n*Plato, ''Timaeus'', translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg; alternative version with commentary.\n*Plato, ''Critias'', translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg; alternative version with commentary.\n\n'''Modern sources'''\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Plato's dialogues",
"Interpretations",
"Location hypotheses",
"Literary interpretations",
"Artistic representations",
"See also",
"Notes",
"Further reading"
] | Atlantis |
[
"\nSaint Augustine of Hippo wrote ''Confessions'', the first Western autobiography ever written, around 400. Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century.\nAn '''autobiography''' (from the Greek, αὐτός-''autos'' self + βίος-''bios'' life + γράφειν-''graphein'' to write) is a self-written account of the life of a person. The word \"autobiography\" was first used deprecatingly by William Taylor in 1797 in the English periodical ''The Monthly Review'', when he suggested the word as a hybrid, but condemned it as \"pedantic\". However, its next recorded use was in its present sense, by Robert Southey in 1809. Despite only being named early in the nineteenth century, first-person autobiographical writing originates in antiquity. Roy Pascal differentiates autobiography from the periodic self-reflective mode of journal or diary writing by noting that \"autobiography is a review of a life from a particular moment in time, while the diary, however reflective it may be, moves through a series of moments in time\". Autobiography thus takes stock of the autobiographer's life from the moment of composition. While biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints, autobiography may be based entirely on the writer's memory. The memoir form is closely associated with autobiography but it tends, as Pascal claims, to focus less on the self and more on others during the autobiographer's review of his or her life. \n\n''See also: List of autobiographies and :Category:Autobiographies for examples.''\n",
"\nIn a classic essay on American autobiography Zahid Slafi Rohari what he calls the \"commonplace\" definition of the genre as \"a narrative of a person's life written by himself\" before complicating the relation between what he calls the fictive and historical aspects of the narrative.\n\n=== Nature of autobiography ===\n\nAutobiographical works are by nature subjective. The inability—or unwillingness—of the author to accurately recall memories has in certain cases resulted in misleading or incorrect information. Some sociologists and psychologists have noted that autobiography offers the author the ability to recreate history.\n\n=== Spiritual autobiography ===\nSpiritual autobiography is an account of an author's struggle or journey towards God, followed by conversion a religious conversion, often interrupted by moments of regression. The author re-frames his or her life as a demonstration of divine intention through encounters with the Divine. The earliest example of a spiritual autobiography is Augustine's \"Confessions\" though the tradition has expanded to include other religious traditions in works such as Zahid Rohari's \"An Autobiography\" and \"Black Elk Speaks\". The spiritual autobiography works as an endorsement of his or her religion.\n\n=== Memoirs ===\n\n\nA memoir is slightly different in character from an autobiography. While an autobiography typically focuses on the \"life and times\" of the writer, a memoir has a narrower, more intimate focus on his or her own memories, feelings and emotions. Memoirs have often been written by politicians or military leaders as a way to record and publish an account of their public exploits. One early example is that of Julius Caesar's ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'', also known as ''Commentaries on the Gallic Wars''. In the work, Caesar describes the battles that took place during the nine years that he spent fighting local armies in the Gallic Wars. His second memoir, ''Commentarii de Bello Civili'' (or ''Commentary on the Civil War'') is an account of the events that took place between 49 and 48 BC in the civil war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Senate. \n\nLeonor López de Córdoba (1362–1420) wrote what is supposed to be the first autobiography in Spanish. The English Civil War (1642–1651) provoked a number of examples of this genre, including works by Sir Edmund Ludlow and Sir John Reresby. French examples from the same period include the memoirs of Cardinal de Retz (1614–1679) and the Duc de Saint-Simon.\n\n=== Fictional autobiography ===\nThe term \"fictional autobiography\" signifies novels about a fictional character written as though the character were writing their own autobiography, meaning that the character is the first-person narrator and that the novel addresses both internal and external experiences of the character. Daniel Defoe's ''Moll Flanders'' is an early example. Charles Dickens' ''David Copperfield'' is another such classic, and J.D. Salinger's ''The Catcher in the Rye'' is a well-known modern example of fictional autobiography. Charlotte Brontë's ''Jane Eyre'' is yet another example of fictional autobiography, as noted on the front page of the original version. The term may also apply to works of fiction purporting to be autobiographies of real characters, e.g., Robert Nye's ''Memoirs of Lord Byron''.\n",
"\n\n=== The classical period: Apologia, oration, confession ===\n\nIn antiquity such works were typically entitled ''apologia,'' purporting to be self-justification rather than self-documentation. John Henry Newman's Christian confessional work (first published in 1864) is entitled ''Apologia Pro Vita Sua'' in reference to this tradition.\n\nThe Jewish historian Flavius Josephus introduces his autobiography (''Josephi Vita'', c. 99) with self-praise, which is followed by a justification of his actions as a Jewish rebel commander of Galilee.\n\nThe pagan rhetor Libanius (c. 314–394) framed his life memoir (''Oration I'' begun in 374) as one of his orations, not of a public kind, but of a literary kind that could not be aloud in privacy.\n\nAugustine (354–430) applied the title ''Confessions'' to his autobiographical work, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau used the same title in the 18th century, initiating the chain of confessional and sometimes racy and highly self-critical, autobiographies of the Romantic era and beyond. Augustine's was arguably the first Western autobiography ever written, and became an influential model for Christian writers throughout the Middle Ages. It tells of the hedonistic lifestyle Augustine lived for a time within his youth, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits; his following and leaving of the anti-sex and anti-marriage Manichaeism in attempts to seek sexual morality; and his subsequent return to Christianity due to his embracement of Skepticism and the New Academy movement (developing the view that sex is good, and that virginity is better, comparing the former to silver and the latter to gold; Augustine's views subsequently strongly influenced Western theology). ''Confessions'' will always rank among the great masterpieces of western literature.\n\nIn the spirit of Augustine's ''Confessions'' is the 12th-century ''Historia Calamitatum'' of Peter Abelard, outstanding as an autobiographical document of its period.\n\n=== Early autobiographies ===\n\nA scene from the ''Baburnama''\n\nThe first autobiographical work in Islamic society was written in the late 11th century, by Abdallah ibn Buluggin, last Zirid king of Granada.\n\nIn the 15th century, Leonor López de Córdoba, a Spanish noblewoman, wrote her ''Memorias'', which may be the first autobiography in Castillian.\n\nZāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur,who founded the Mughal dynasty of South Asia kept a journal ''Bāburnāma'' (Chagatai/; literally: ''\"Book of Babur\"'' or ''\"Letters of Babur\"'') which was written between 1493 and 1529.\n\nOne of the first great autobiographies of the Renaissance is that of the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), written between 1556 and 1558, and entitled by him simply ''Vita'' (Italian: ''Life''). He declares at the start: \"No matter what sort he is, everyone who has to his credit what are or really seem great achievements, if he cares for truth and goodness, ought to write the story of his own life in his own hand; but no one should venture on such a splendid undertaking before he is over forty.\" These criteria for autobiography generally persisted until recent times, and most serious autobiographies of the next three hundred years conformed to them.\n\nAnother autobiography of the period is ''De vita propria'', by the Italian mathematician, physician and astrologer Gerolamo Cardano (1574).\n\nThe earliest known autobiography in English is the early 15th-century ''Book of Margery Kempe'', describing among other things Kempe's pilgrimage to the Holy Land and visit to Rome. The book remained in manuscript and was not published until 1936.\n\nNotable English autobiographies of the 17th century include those of Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1643, published 1764) and John Bunyan (''Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners'', 1666).\n\n=== 18th and 19th centuries ===\nCover of the first English edition of Benjamin Franklin's autobiography, 1793\nFollowing the trend of Romanticism, which greatly emphasized the role and the nature of the individual, and in the footsteps of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's ''Confessions'', a more intimate form of autobiography, exploring the subject's emotions, came into fashion. Stendhal's autobiographical writings of the 1830s, ''The Life of Henry Brulard'' and ''Memoirs of an Egotist'', are both avowedly influenced by Rousseau. An English example is William Hazlitt's ''Liber Amoris'' (1823), a painful examination of the writer's love-life.\n\nWith the rise of education, cheap newspapers and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop, and the beneficiaries of this were not slow to cash in on this by producing autobiographies. It became the expectation—rather than the exception—that those in the public eye should write about themselves—not only writers such as Charles Dickens (who also incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, but also politicians (e.g. Henry Brooks Adams), philosophers (e.g. John Stuart Mill), churchmen such as Cardinal Newman, and entertainers such as P. T. Barnum. Increasingly, in accordance with romantic taste, these accounts also began to deal, amongst other topics, with aspects of childhood and upbringing—far removed from the principles of \"Cellinian\" autobiography.\n\n\n=== 20th and 21st centuries ===\nFrom the 17th century onwards, \"scandalous memoirs\" by supposed libertines, serving a public taste for titillation, have been frequently published. Typically pseudonymous, they were (and are) largely works of fiction written by ghostwriters. So-called \"autobiographies\" of modern professional athletes and media celebrities—and to a lesser extent about politicians, generally written by a ghostwriter, are routinely published. Some celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell, admit to not having read their \"autobiographies\".. Some sensationalist autobiographies such as James Frey's ''A Million Little Pieces'' have been publicly exposed as having embellished or fictionalized significant details of the authors' lives.\n\nAutobiography has become an increasingly popular and widely accessible form. ''A Fortunate Life'' by Albert Facey (1979) has become an Australian literary classic. With the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs as ''Angela’s Ashes'' and ''The Color of Water'', more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre.\n",
"\n\n* Autobiographical comics\n* Autobiographical novel\n* I Novel\n* Autobiographical songs\n* Biography\n* List of autobiographies\n* Memoir\n* Unreliable narrator\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Defining the genre",
" Autobiography through the ages ",
" See also ",
" Notes and references ",
" Bibliography ",
"Further reading"
] | Autobiography |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Arcadius''' (; ; 1 January 377 – 1 May 408) was Byzantine Emperor from 383 to 408. He was the eldest son of Theodosius I and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of the Western Emperor Honorius. A weak ruler, his reign was dominated by a series of powerful ministers and by his wife, Aelia Eudoxia.\n",
"Arcadius was born in Hispania, the elder son of Theodosius I and Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of Honorius, who would become a Western Roman Emperor. His father declared him an Augustus and co-ruler for the Eastern half of the Empire in January 383. His younger brother was also declared Augustus in 393, for the Western half.\n\nAs emperors, Honorius was under the control of the Romanized Vandal ''magister militum'' Flavius Stilicho while Arcadius was dominated by one of his ministers, Rufinus. Stilicho is alleged by some to have wanted control of both Emperors, and is supposed to have had Rufinus assassinated by Gothic mercenaries in 395; though definite proof of Stilicho's involvement in the assassination is lacking, the intense competition and political jealousies engendered by the two figures compose the main thread of the first part of Arcadius' reign. Arcadius' new advisor, the eunuch Eutropius, simply took Rufinus' place as the power behind the Eastern imperial throne.\n\nArcadius was also dominated by his wife Aelia Eudoxia, who convinced her husband to dismiss Eutropius, who was holding the consulate, at the height of his power, in 399. That same year, on 13 July, Arcadius issued an edict ordering that all remaining non-Christian temples should be immediately demolished.\n\nEudoxia's influence was strongly opposed by John Chrysostom, the Patriarch of Constantinople, who felt that she had used her family's wealth to gain control over the Emperor. Eudoxia used her influence to have Chrysostom deposed in 404, but she died later that year. Eudoxia gave to Arcadius four children: three daughters, Pulcheria, Arcadia and Marina, and one son, Theodosius, the future Emperor Theodosius II.\n\nArcadius was dominated for the rest of his rule by Anthemius, the Praetorian Prefect, who made peace with Stilicho in the West. Arcadius himself was more concerned with appearing to be a pious Christian than he was with political or military matters, and he died, only nominally in control of his Empire, in 408.\nSolidus of Arcadius.\n",
"In this reign of a weak Emperor dominated by court politics, a major theme was the ambivalence felt by prominent individuals and the court parties that formed and regrouped round them towards barbarians, which in Constantinople at this period meant Goths. In the well-documented episode that revolved around Gainas, a number of Gothic ''foederati'' stationed in the capital were massacred, the survivors fleeing under the command of Gainas to Thrace, where they were tracked down by imperial troops and slaughtered and Gainas dispatched. The episode has been traditionally interpreted as a paroxysm of anti-barbarian reaction that served to stabilize the East. The main source for the affair is a mythology ''à clef'' by Synesius of Cyrene, ''Aegyptus sive de providentia'', (400) an Egyptianising allegory that embodies a covert account of the events, the exact interpretation of which continues to baffle scholars. Synesius' ''De regno'', which claims to be addressed to Arcadius himself, contains a tirade against Goths.\n\nA new forum was built in the name of Arcadius, on the seventh hill of Constantinople, the ''Xērolophos'', in which a column was begun to commemorate his 'victory' over Gainas (although the column was only completed after Arcadius' death by Theodosius II).\n\nThe Pentelic marble portrait head of Arcadius (now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum) was discovered in Istanbul close to the Forum Tauri, in June 1949, in excavating foundations for new buildings of the University at Beyazit. The neck was designed to be inserted in a torso, but no statue, base or inscription was found. The diadem is a fillet with rows of pearls along its edges and a rectangular stone set about with pearls over the young Emperor's forehead.\n",
"\n*Flavia (gens)\n*List of Byzantine emperors\n",
"\n",
"*A. Cameron and J. Long. 1993. ''Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius'' (Berkeley/Oxford)\n",
"\n* Laws of Arcadius, extracted from Justinian's ''Corpus Juris Civilis''\n* Watts, Edward, \"the motifs of Imperial authority in the bust of Arcadius\"\n* This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Arcadius relating to Christianity.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Character and works",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Arcadius |
[
"\n\n\nNine-banded armadillo skeleton.\n'''Armadillos''' are New World placental mammals in the order Cingulata with a leathery armour shell. The Chlamyphoridae and Dasypodidae are the only surviving families in the order, which is part of the superorder Xenarthra, along with the anteaters and sloths. The word ''armadillo'' means \"little armoured one\" in Spanish. The Aztecs called them ''āyōtōchtli'' , Nahuatl for \"turtle-rabbit\": ''āyōtl'' (turtle) and ''tōchtli'' (rabbit). The Portuguese word for \"armadillo\" is ''tatu'' which derives from the Tupi language. Similar names are also found in other, especially European, languages.\n\nAbout nine extant genera and 21 extant species of armadillo have been described, some of which are distinguished by the number of bands on their armour. Their average length is about , including tail. The giant armadillo grows up to and weighs up to , while the pink fairy armadillo is a diminutive species, with an overall length of . All species are native to the Americas, where they inhabit a variety of different environments.\n\nRecent genetic research suggests that an extinct group of giant armoured mammals, the glyptodonts, should be included within the lineage of armadillos, having diverged some 35 million years ago, much more recently than previously assumed.\n",
"Like all of the Xenarthra lineages, armadillos originated in South America. Due to the continent's former isolation, they were confined there for most of the Cenozoic. The recent formation of the Isthmus of Panama allowed a few members of the family to migrate northward into southern North America by the early Pleistocene, as part of the Great American Interchange. (Some of their much larger cingulate relatives, the pampatheres and chlamyphorid glyptodonts, made the same journey.)\n\nToday, all extant armadillo species are still present in South America. They are particularly diverse in Paraguay (where 11 species exist) and surrounding areas. Many species are endangered. Some, including four species of ''Dasypus'', are widely distributed over the Americas, whereas others, such as Yepes's mulita, are restricted to small ranges. Two species, the northern naked-tailed armadillo and nine-banded armadillo, are found in Central America; the latter has also reached the United States, primarily in the south-central states (notably Texas), but with a range that extends as far east as South Carolina and Florida, and as far north as Nebraska and central Indiana. Their range has consistently expanded in North America over the last century due to a lack of natural predators.\n",
"Armadillos are small to medium-sized mammals. The smallest species, the pink fairy armadillo, is roughly chipmunk-sized at and in total length. The largest species, the giant armadillo, can be the size of a small pig and weigh up to , and can be long. They are prolific diggers. Many species use their sharp claws to dig for food, such as grubs, and to dig dens. The nine-banded armadillo prefers to build burrows in moist soil near the creeks, streams, and arroyos around which it lives and feeds. The diets of different armadillo species vary, but consist mainly of insects, grubs, and other invertebrates. Some species, however, feed almost entirely on ants and termites.\nPaws of a hairy and a giant armadillo\nIn common with other xenarthrans, armadillos, in general, have low body temperatures of and low basal metabolic rates (40–60% of that expected in placental mammals of their mass). This is particularly true of types that specialize in using termites as their primary food source (for example, ''Priodontes'' and ''Tolypeutes'').\n\nThe armour is formed by plates of dermal bone covered in relatively small, overlapping epidermal scales called \"scutes\", composed of bone with a covering of horn. Most species have rigid shields over the shoulders and hips, with a number of bands separated by flexible skin covering the back and flanks. Additional armour covers the top of the head, the upper parts of the limbs, and the tail. The underside of the animal is never armoured, and is simply covered with soft skin and fur.\n\nThis armour-like skin appears to be the main defense of many armadillos, although most escape predators by fleeing (often into thorny patches, from which their armour protects them) or digging to safety. Only the South American three-banded armadillos (''Tolypeutes'') rely heavily on their armour for protection. When threatened by a predator, ''Tolypeutes'' species frequently roll up into a ball. Other armadillo species cannot roll up because they have too many plates. The North American nine-banded armadillo tends to jump straight in the air when surprised, so consequently often collides with the undercarriage or fenders of passing vehicles.\n\nArmadillos have short legs, but can move quite quickly. The nine-banded armadillo is noted for its movement through water which is accomplished via two different methods: it can walk underwater for short distances, holding its breath for as long as six minutes; also, to cross larger bodies of water, it is capable of increasing its buoyancy by swallowing air, inflating its stomach and intestines.\n\nArmadillos have very poor eyesight, and use their keen sense of smell to hunt for food. They use their claws for digging and finding food, as well as for making their homes in burrows. They dig their burrows with their claws, making only a single corridor the width of the animal's body. They have five clawed toes on their hind feet, and three to five toes with heavy digging claws on their fore feet. Armadillos have a large number of cheek teeth which are not divided into premolars and molars, but usually have no incisors or canines. The dentition of the nine-banded armadillo is P 7/7, M 1/1 = 32.\n\nGestation lasts from 60 to 120 days, depending on species, although the nine-banded armadillo also exhibits delayed implantation, so the young are not typically born for eight months after mating. Most members of the genus ''Dasypus'' give birth to four monozygotic young (that is, identical quadruplets), but other species may have typical litter sizes that range from one to eight. The young are born with soft, leathery skin which hardens within a few weeks. They reach sexual maturity in three to 12 months, depending on the species. Armadillos are solitary animals that do not share their burrows with other adults.\n",
"Pink fairy armadillo\n'''Family Dasypodidae'''\n* Subfamily Dasypodinae\n** Genus ''Dasypus'' 1658 woodcut of an armadillo\n***Nine-banded armadillo or long-nosed armadillo, ''Dasypus novemcinctus''\n***Seven-banded armadillo, ''Dasypus septemcinctus''\n***Southern long-nosed armadillo, ''Dasypus hybridus''\n***Llanos long-nosed armadillo, ''Dasypus sabanicola''\n***Greater long-nosed armadillo, ''Dasypus kappleri''\n***Hairy long-nosed armadillo, ''Dasypus pilosus''\n***Yepes's mulita, ''Dasypus yepesi''\n***†Beautiful armadillo, ''Dasypus bellus''\n** Genus †''Stegotherium''\n\n'''Family Chlamyphoridae'''\n* Subfamily Chlamyphorinae\n** Genus ''Calyptophractus''\n*** Greater fairy armadillo, ''Calyptophractus retusus''\n** Genus ''Chlamyphorus''\n***Pink fairy armadillo, ''Chlamyphorus truncatus''\n* Subfamily Euphractinae\n** Genus ''Chaetophractus'' Screaming hairy armadillo\n***Screaming hairy armadillo, ''Chaetophractus vellerosus''\n***Big hairy armadillo, ''Chaetophractus villosus''\n***Andean hairy armadillo, ''Chaetophractus nationi''\n**Genus †''Macroeuphractus''\n**Genus †''Paleuphractus''\n**Genus †''Proeuphractus''\n**Genus †''Doellotatus''\n**Genus †''Peltephilus''\n*** †Horned armadillo, ''Peltephilus ferox''\n** Genus ''Euphractus''\n***Six-banded armadillo, ''Euphractus sexcinctus''\n** Genus ''Zaedyus''\n***Pichi, ''Zaedyus pichiy''\n* Subfamily Tolypeutinae\n** Genus †''Kuntinaru''\n** Genus ''Cabassous'' Southern three-banded armadillo\n***Northern naked-tailed armadillo, ''Cabassous centralis''\n***Chacoan naked-tailed armadillo, ''Cabassous chacoensis''\n***Southern naked-tailed armadillo, ''Cabassous unicinctus''\n***Greater naked-tailed armadillo, ''Cabassous tatouay''\n** Genus ''Priodontes''\n***Giant armadillo, ''Priodontes maximus''\n** Genus ''Tolypeutes''\n***Southern three-banded armadillo, ''Tolypeutes matacus''\n***Brazilian three-banded armadillo, ''Tolypeutes tricinctus''\n\n† indicates extinct taxon\n",
"\n===In science===\nArmadillos are often used in the study of leprosy, since they, along with mangabey monkeys, rabbits, and mice (on their footpads), are among the few known species that can contract the disease systemically. They are particularly susceptible due to their unusually low body temperature, which is hospitable to the leprosy bacterium, ''Mycobacterium leprae''. (The leprosy bacterium is difficult to culture and armadillos have a body temperature of , similar to human skin.) Humans can acquire a leprosy infection from armadillos by handling them or consuming armadillo meat. Armadillos are a presumed vector and natural reservoir for the disease in Texas and Louisiana and Florida. Prior to the arrival of Europeans in the late 15th century, leprosy was unknown in the New World. Given that armadillos are native to the New World, at some point they must have acquired the disease from old-world humans.\n\nThe armadillo is also a natural reservoir for Chagas disease.\n\nThe nine-banded armadillo also serves science through its unusual reproductive system, in which four genetically identical offspring are born, the result of one original egg. Because they are always genetically identical, the group of four young provides a good subject for scientific, behavioral, or medical tests that need consistent biological and genetic makeup in the test subjects. This is the only reliable manifestation of polyembryony in the class Mammalia, and exists only within the genus ''Dasypus'' and not in all armadillos, as is commonly believed. Other species that display this trait include parasitoid wasps, certain flatworms, and various aquatic invertebrates.\n\nArmadillos (mainly ''Dasypus'') are common roadkill due to their habit of jumping 3–4 ft vertically when startled, which puts them into collision with the underside of vehicles. Wildlife enthusiasts are using the northward march of the armadillo as an opportunity to educate others about the animals, which can be a burrowing nuisance to property owners and managers.\n\n===As musical instruments===\n\nArmadillo shells have traditionally been used to make the back of the ''charango'', an Andean lute instrument.\n",
"\n",
"*\n*\n",
"\n\n\n* \"Armadillo online\" website hosted by zoologist Dr. Joshua Nixon\n* Photographs of armadillo rolling into a ball\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History and distribution",
"Habitat and anatomy",
"Classification",
"Armadillos and humans",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Armadillo |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"*3114 BC – The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, used by several pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations, notably the Maya, begins.\n*2492 BC – Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation.\n* 106 – The south-western part of Dacia (modern Romania) becomes a Roman province: Roman Dacia.\n* 355 – Claudius Silvanus, accused of treason, proclaims himself Roman Emperor against Constantius II.\n* 490 – Battle of Adda: The Goths under Theodoric the Great and his ally Alaric II defeat the forces of Odoacer on the Adda River, near Milan.\n*1332 – Wars of Scottish Independence: Battle of Dupplin Moor: Scots under Domhnall II, Earl of Mar are routed by Edward Balliol.\n*1473 – The Battle of Otlukbeli: Mehmed the Conqueror of the Ottoman Empire decisively defeats Uzun Hassan of Aq Qoyunlu.\n*1675 – Franco-Dutch War: Forces of the Holy Roman Empire defeat the French in the Battle of Konzer Brücke.\n*1786 – Captain Francis Light establishes the British colony of Penang in Malaysia.\n*1804 – Francis II assumes the title of first Emperor of Austria.\n*1812 – Peninsular War: French troops engage British-Portuguese forces in the Battle of Majadahonda.\n*1813 – In Colombia, Juan del Corral declares the independence of Antioquia.\n*1858 – The Eiger in the Bernese Alps is ascended for the first time by Charles Barrington accompanied by Christian Almer and Peter Bohren.\n*1898 – Spanish–American War: American troops enter the city of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.\n*1918 – World War I: The Battle of Amiens ends.\n*1920 – The Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty, which relinquished Russia's authority and pretenses to Latvia, is signed, ending the Latvian War of Independence.\n*1929 – Babe Ruth becomes the first baseball player to hit 500 home runs in his career with a home run at League Park in Cleveland, Ohio.\n*1934 – The first civilian prisoners arrive at the Federal prison on Alcatraz Island.\n*1942 – Actress Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil receive a patent for a Frequency-hopping spread spectrum communication system that later became the basis for modern technologies in wireless telephones and Wi-Fi.\n*1945 – Poles in Kraków engage in a pogrom against Jews in the city, killing one and wounding five.\n*1952 – Hussein bin Talal is proclaimed King of Jordan.\n*1959 – Sheremetyevo International Airport, the second-largest airport in Russia, opens.\n*1960 – Chad declares independence.\n*1961 – The former Portuguese territories in India of Dadra and Nagar Haveli are merged to create the Union Territory Dadra and Nagar Haveli.\n*1962 – Vostok 3 launches from the Baikonur Cosmodrome and cosmonaut Andrian Nikolayev becomes the first person to float in microgravity.\n*1965 – Race riots (the Watts Riots) begin in the Watts area of Los Angeles, California.\n*1972 – Vietnam War: The last United States ground combat unit leaves South Vietnam.\n*1975 – East Timor: Governor Mário Lemos Pires of Portuguese Timor abandons the capital Dili, following a coup by the Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) and the outbreak of civil war between UDT and Fretilin.\n*1979 – Two Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-134s collide over the Ukrainian city of Dniprodzerzhynsk and crash, killing all 178 aboard both airliners.\n*1982 – A bomb explodes on Pan Am Flight 830, en route from Tokyo, Japan to Honolulu, Hawaii, killing one passenger and injuring 15 others.\n*1984 – \"We begin bombing in five minutes\": United States President Ronald Reagan, while running for re-election, jokes while preparing to make his weekly Saturday address on National Public Radio.\n*2003 – NATO takes over command of the peacekeeping force in Afghanistan, marking its first major operation outside Europe in its 54-year-history.\n* 2003 – Jemaah Islamiyah leader Riduan Isamuddin, better known as Hambali, is arrested in Bangkok, Thailand.\n*2006 – The oil tanker M/T ''Solar 1'' sinks off the coast of Guimaras and Negros Islands in the Philippines, causing the country's worst oil spill.\n*2012 – At least 306 people are killed and 3,000 others injured in a pair of earthquakes near Tabriz, Iran.\n*2017 – At least 41 people are killed and another 179 injured after two passenger trains collide in Alexandria, Egypt.\n",
"*1086 – Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1125) \n*1384 – Yolande of Aragon (d. 1442)\n*1472 – Nikolaus von Schönberg, Catholic cardinal (d. 1537)\n*1510 – Margaret Paleologa, Sovereign Marchioness of Montferrat (d. 1566)\n*1673 – Richard Mead, English physician and astrologer (d. 1754)\n*1718 – Frederick Haldimand, Swiss-English general and politician, 22nd Governor of Quebec (d. 1791)\n*1722 – Richard Brocklesby, English physician (d. 1797)\n*1748 – Joseph Schuster, German composer (d. 1812)\n*1778 – Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, Prussian gymnast, educator, and politician (d. 1852)\n*1794 – James B. Longacre, American engraver (d. 1869)\n*1807 – David Rice Atchison, American general, lawyer, and politician (d. 1886)\n*1808 – William W. Chapman, American lawyer and politician (d. 1892)\n*1816 – Frederick Innes, Scottish-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1882)\n*1833 – Robert G. Ingersoll, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 1899)\n* 1833 – Kido Takayoshi, Japanese samurai and politician (d. 1877)\n*1836 – Warren Brown, American historian and politician (d. 1919)\n*1837 – Marie François Sadi Carnot, French engineer and politician, 4th President of the French Republic (d. 1894)\n*1855 – John Hodges, Australian cricketer (d. 1933)\n*1858 – Christiaan Eijkman, Dutch physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1930)\n*1860 – Ottó Bláthy, Hungarian engineer and chess player (d. 1939)\n*1870 – Tom Richardson, English cricketer (d. 1912)\n*1874 – Princess Louise Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg (d. 1953)\n*1877 – Adolph M. Christianson, American lawyer and judge (d. 1954)\n*1878 – Oliver W. F. Lodge, English poet and author (d. 1955)\n*1881 – Aleksander Aberg, Estonian wrestler (d. 1920)\n*1884 – Hermann Wlach, Austrian-Swiss actor (d. 1962)\n*1885 – Stephen Butterworth, English physicist and engineer (d. 1958)\n*1891 – Stancho Belkovski, Bulgarian architect and educator (d. 1962)\n* 1891 – Edgar Zilsel, Austrian historian and philosopher of science, linked to the Vienna Circle (d. 1944)\n*1892 – Hugh MacDiarmid, Scottish poet and linguist (d. 1978)\n* 1892 – Eiji Yoshikawa, Japanese author (d. 1962)\n*1897 – Enid Blyton, English author, poet, and educator (d. 1968)\n* 1897 – Louise Bogan, American poet and critic (d. 1970)\n*1898 – Peter Mohr Dam, Faroese educator and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 1968)\n*1900 – Philip Phillips, American archaeologist and scholar (d. 1994)\n*1902 – Alfredo Binda, Italian cyclist (d. 1986)\n* 1902 – Lloyd Nolan, American actor (d. 1985)\n*1905 – Erwin Chargaff, Austrian-American biochemist and academic (d. 2002)\n* 1905 – Ernst Jaakson, Estonian diplomat (d. 1998)\n*1907 – Ted a'Beckett, Australian cricketer and lawyer (d. 1989)\n*1908 – Don Freeman, American author and illustrator (d. 1978)\n* 1908 – Torgny T:son Segerstedt, Swedish sociologist and philosopher (d. 1999)\n*1909 – Yūji Koseki, Japanese composer (d. 1989)\n* 1909 – Uku Masing, Estonian philosopher and theologian (d. 1985)\n*1911 – Thanom Kittikachorn, Thai field marshal and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Thailand (d. 2004)\n*1912 – Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs, German astronomer and academic (d. 1954)\n* 1912 – Raphael Blau, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1996)\n*1913 – Paul Dupuis, Canadian actor (d. 1976)\n* 1913 – Bob Scheffing, American baseball player and manager (d. 1985)\n* 1913 – Angus Wilson, English author and academic (d. 1991)\n*1915 – Morris Weiss, American author and illustrator (d. 2014)\n*1916 – Johnny Claes, English-Belgian race car driver and trumpet player (d. 1956)\n*1919 – Luis Olmo, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and manager (d. 2017)\n*1920 – Mike Douglas, American singer and talk show host (d. 2006)\n* 1920 – Chuck Rayner, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2002)\n*1921 – Alex Haley, American historian and author (d. 1992)\n*1922 – John \"Mule\" Miles, American baseball player (d. 2013)\n*1923 – Stan Chambers, American journalist and actor (d. 2015)\n*1925 – Floyd Curry, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 2006)\n* 1925 – Arlene Dahl, American actress, businesswoman and writer \n*1926 – Aaron Klug, Lithuanian-English chemist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate\n*1927 – Raymond Leppard, English harpsichord player and conductor\n* 1927 – Stuart Rosenberg, American director and producer (d. 2007)\n*1932 – Fernando Arrabal, Spanish actor, director, and playwright\n* 1932 – Izzy Asper, Canadian lawyer, businessman, and politician, founded Canwest (d. 2003)\n* 1932 – Geoffrey Cass, English businessman\n* 1932 – Peter Eisenman, American architect, designed the City of Culture of Galicia\n* 1932 – John Gorrie, English director and screenwriter\n*1933 – Jerry Falwell, American minister and television host (d. 2007)\n* 1933 – Jerzy Grotowski, Polish director and producer (d. 1999)\n* 1933 – Tamás Vásáry, Hungarian pianist and conductor\n*1934 – Bob Hepple, South African lawyer and academic (d. 2015)\n*1936 – Andre Dubus, American short story writer, essayist, and memoirist (d. 1999)\n* 1936 – Bill Monbouquette, American baseball player and coach (d. 2015)\n* 1936 – Jonathan Spence, English-American historian and academic\n*1937 – Anna Massey, English actress (d. 2011)\n* 1937 – Patrick Joseph McGovern, American businessman, founded International Data Group (d. 2014)\n*1939 – Ronnie Dawson, American singer and guitarist (d. 2003)\n*1940 – Glenys Page, New Zealand cricketer (d. 2012)\n*1941 – John Ellison, American-Canadian musician and songwriter \n*1942 – Mike Hugg, English drummer and keyboard player \n*1943 – Jim Kale, Canadian bass player \n* 1943 – Pervez Musharraf, Pakistani general and politician, 10th President of Pakistan\n* 1943 – Denis Payton, English saxophonist (d. 2006)\n*1944 – Martin Linton, Swedish-English journalist and politician\n* 1944 – Frederick W. Smith, American businessman, founded FedEx\n* 1944 – Ian McDiarmid, Scottish actor\n*1946 – John Conlee, American singer-songwriter\n* 1946 – Marilyn vos Savant, American journalist and author\n*1947 – Theo de Jong, Dutch footballer, coach, and manager\n* 1947 – Georgios Karatzaferis, Greek journalist and politician\n*1948 – Don Boyd, Scottish director, producer, and screenwriter\n*1949 – Eric Carmen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1949 – Tim Hutchinson, American lawyer and politician\n* 1949 – Ian Charleson, Scottish-English actor and singer (d. 1990)\n*1950 – Erik Brann, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)\n* 1950 – Gennadiy Nikonov, Russian engineer, designed the AN-94 rifle (d. 2003)\n* 1950 – Steve Wozniak, American computer scientist and programmer, co-founded Apple Inc.\n*1952 – Reid Blackburn, American photographer (d. 1980)\n* 1952 – Bob Mothersbaugh, American singer, guitarist, and producer \n*1953 – Hulk Hogan, American wrestler \n* 1953 – Wijda Mazereeuw, Dutch swimmer\n*1954 – Bryan Bassett, American guitarist \n* 1954 – Vance Heafner, American golfer and coach (d. 2012)\n* 1954 – Joe Jackson, English singer-songwriter and musician\n* 1954 – Tarmo Rüütli, Estonian footballer, coach, and manager\n* 1954 – Yashpal Sharma, Indian cricketer and umpire\n*1955 – Marc Bureau, Canadian politician, 16th Mayor of Gatineau\n* 1955 – Sylvia Hermon, Northern Irish academic and politician\n*1956 – Pierre-Louis Lions, French mathematician and academic\n*1957 – Ian Stuart Donaldson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1993)\n*1958 – Steven Pokere, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1958 – Jah Wobble, English singer-songwriter and bass player \n*1959 – Gustavo Cerati, Argentinian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2014)\n* 1959 – Yoshiaki Murakami, Japanese businessman\n* 1959 – Taraki Sivaram, Sri Lankan journalist and author (d. 2005)\n* 1959 – Richard Scudamore, English businessman\n* 1959 – László Szlávics, Jr., Hungarian sculptor\n*1961 – David Brooks, American journalist and author\n* 1961 – Craig Ehlo, American basketball player and coach\n*1962 – Brian Azzarello, American author\n* 1962 – Charles Cecil, English video game designer and co-founded Revolution Software\n* 1962 – John Micklethwait, English journalist and author\n* 1962 – Rob Minkoff, American director and producer\n*1963 – Hiromi Makihara, Japanese baseball player\n*1964 – Jim Lee, South Korean-American author and illustrator \n* 1964 – Grant Waite, New Zealand golfer\n*1965 – Marc Bergevin, Canadian ice hockey player and manager\n* 1965 – Embeth Davidtz, American actress\n* 1965 – Viola Davis, American actress \n*1966 – Nigel Martyn, English footballer and coach\n* 1966 – Juan María Solare, Argentinian pianist and composer\n*1967 – Massimiliano Allegri, Italian footballer and manager\n* 1967 – Enrique Bunbury, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1967 – Joe Rogan, American actor, comedian, and television host\n* 1967 – Petter Wettre, Norwegian saxophonist and composer\n*1968 – Sophie Okonedo, British actress\n* 1968 – Charlie Sexton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n*1970 – Dirk Hannemann, German footballer and manager\n*1971 – Alejandra Barros, Mexican actress and screenwriter\n* 1971 – Tommy Mooney, English footballer\n*1973 – Kristin Armstrong, American cyclist\n*1974 – Marie-France Dubreuil, Canadian figure skater\n* 1974 – Audrey Mestre, French biologist and diver (d. 2002)\n*1975 – Chris Cummings, Canadian singer-songwriter\n*1976 – Iván Córdoba, Colombian footballer and manager\n* 1976 – Bubba Crosby, American baseball player\n* 1976 – Will Friedle, American actor and screenwriter\n* 1976 – Ben Gibbard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1976 – Ľubomír Višňovský, Slovak ice hockey player\n*1977 – Gemma Hayes, Irish singer-songwriter\n* 1977 – Dênio Martins, Brazilian footballer\n*1978 – Spyros Gogolos, Greek footballer\n*1979 – Walter Ayoví, Ecuadorian footballer\n*1980 – Daniel Lloyd, English cyclist and sportscaster\n* 1980 – Lee Suggs, American football player\n*1981 – Daniel Poohl, Swedish journalist\n*1983 – Chris Hemsworth, Australian actor\n* 1983 – Luke Lewis, Australian rugby league player\n* 1983 – Pavel 183, Russian painter (d. 2013)\n*1984 – Melky Cabrera, Dominican baseball player\n* 1984 – Lucas di Grassi, Brazilian race car driver\n*1986 – Mokhtar Benmoussa, Algerian footballer\n* 1986 – Pablo Sandoval, Venezuelan baseball player\n*1987 – Dany N'Guessan, French footballer\n* 1987 – Drew Storen, American baseball player\n*1988 – Rabeh Al-Hussaini, Filipino basketball player\n* 1988 – Patty Mills, Australian basketball player\n* 1988 – Mustafa Pektemek, Turkish footballer\n*1989 – Junior Heffernan, Irish cyclist and triathlete (d. 2013)\n* 1989 – Sebastian Huke, German footballer\n*1990 – Lenka Juríková, Slovak tennis player\n*1991 – Cristian Tello, Spanish footballer\n*1994 – Storm Sanders, Australian tennis player\n* 1994 – Anton Cooper, New Zealand cross-country cyclist\n* 1994 – Joseph Barbato, French footballer\n\n",
"* 480 BC – Leonidas I, Agiad King of Sparta\n* 223 – Jia Xu, Chinese politician (b. 147)\n* 353 – Magnentius, Roman usurper (b. 303)\n* 449 – Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople\n* 979 – Gero, Count of Alsleben\n* 991 – Byrhtnoth, English soldier (b. 956)\n*1044 – Sokkate, king of the Pagan dynasty of Burma (b. 1001)\n*1204 – Guttorm of Norway (b. 1199)\n*1253 – Clare of Assisi, Italian follower of Francis of Assisi (b. 1194)\n*1259 – Möngke Khan, Mongolian emperor (b. 1208)\n*1268 – Agnes of Faucigny, Dame ruler of Faucigny, Countess consort of Savoy \n*1332 – Domhnall II, Earl of Mar\n* 1332 – Robert II Keith, Marischal of Scotland\n* 1332 – Thomas Randolph, 2nd Earl of Moray\n* 1332 – Murdoch III, Earl of Menteith\n* 1332 – Robert Bruce, Lord of Liddesdale\n*1456 – John Hunyadi, Hungarian general and politician (b. 1387)\n*1464 – Nicholas of Cusa, German cardinal and mystic (b. 1401)\n*1465 – Kettil Karlsson, regent of Sweden and Bishop of Linköping (b. 1433)\n*1486 – William Waynflete, English Lord Chancellor and bishop of Winchester (b. c. 1398)\n*1494 – Hans Memling, German-Belgian painter (b. 1430)\n*1519 – Johann Tetzel, German preacher (b. 1465)\n*1556 – John Bell, English bishop\n*1563 – Bartolomé de Escobedo, Spanish composer and educator (b. 1500)\n*1578 – Pedro Nunes, Portuguese mathematician and academic (b. 1502)\n*1596 – Hamnet Shakespeare, son of William Shakespeare (b. 1585)\n*1614 – Lavinia Fontana, Italian painter (b. 1552)\n*1656 – Ottavio Piccolomini, Austrian-Italian field marshal (b. 1599)\n*1725 – Prince Vittorio Amedeo Theodore of Savoy (b. 1723)\n*1774 – Charles-François Tiphaigne de la Roche, French physician and author (b. 1722)\n*1813 – Henry James Pye, English poet and politician (b. 1745)\n*1851 – Lorenz Oken, German botanist, biologist, and ornithologist (b. 1779)\n*1854 – Macedonio Melloni, Italian physicist and academic (b. 1798)\n*1868 – Halfdan Kjerulf, Norwegian pianist and composer (b. 1815)\n*1886 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet and playwright (b. 1843)\n*1890 – John Henry Newman, English cardinal and theologian (b. 1801)\n*1892 – Enrico Betti, Italian mathematician and academic (b. 1813)\n*1903 – Eugenio María de Hostos, Puerto Rican-American sociologist, philosopher, and lawyer (b. 1839)\n*1908 – Khudiram Bose, Indian Bengali revolutionary (b. 1889)\n*1919 – Andrew Carnegie, Scottish-American businessman and philanthropist, founded the Carnegie Steel Company and Carnegie Hall (b. 1835)\n*1921 – Mary Sumner, English philanthropist, founded the Mothers' Union (b. 1828)\n*1936 – Blas Infante, Spanish historian and politician (b. 1885)\n*1937 – Edith Wharton, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1862)\n*1939 – Jean Bugatti, German-Italian engineer (b. 1909)\n* 1939 – Siegfried Flesch, Austrian fencer (b. 1872)\n*1945 – Stefan Jaracz, Polish actor and theater producer (b. 1883) \n*1953 – Tazio Nuvolari, Italian race car driver and motorcycle racer (b. 1892)\n*1956 – Jackson Pollock, American painter (b. 1912)\n*1961 – Antanas Škėma, Lithuanian-American author, playwright, actor, and director (b. 1910)\n*1963 – Otto Wahle, Austrian-American swimmer and coach (b. 1879)\n*1965 – Bill Woodfull, Australian cricketer and educator (b. 1897)\n*1969 – Miriam Licette, English soprano and educator (b. 1885)\n*1972 – Max Theiler, South African-American virologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)\n*1974 – Vicente Emilio Sojo, Venezuelan conductor and composer (b. 1887)\n*1977 – Frederic Calland Williams, British co-inventor of the Williams-Kilborn tube, used for memory in early computer systems (b. 1911)\n*1979 – J. G. Farrell, English author (b. 1935)\n*1980 – Paul Robert, French lexicographer and publisher (b. 1910)\n*1982 – Tom Drake, American actor and singer (b. 1918)\n*1984 – Alfred A. Knopf Sr., American publisher, founded Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. (b. 1892)\n* 1984 – Paul Felix Schmidt, Estonian–American chemist and chess player (b. 1916)\n*1986 – János Drapál, Hungarian motorcycle racer (b. 1948)\n*1988 – Anne Ramsey, American actress (b. 1929)\n*1989 – John Meillon, Australian actor (b. 1934)\n*1991 – J. D. McDuffie, American race car driver (b. 1938)\n*1994 – Peter Cushing, English actor (b. 1913)\n*1995 – Phil Harris, American singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1904)\n*1996 – Rafael Kubelík, Czech conductor and composer (b. 1914)\n* 1996 – Ambrosio Padilla, Filipino basketball player and politician (b. 1910)\n*2000 – Jean Papineau-Couture, Canadian composer and academic (b. 1916)\n*2001 – Percy Stallard, English cyclist and coach (b. 1909)\n*2002 – Galen Rowell, American photographer and mountaineer (b. 1940)\n*2003 – Armand Borel, Swiss-American mathematician and academic (b. 1923)\n* 2003 – Herb Brooks, American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1937)\n*2006 – Mike Douglas, American singer and talk show host (b. 1920)\n*2008 – George Furth, American actor and playwright (b. 1932)\n* 2008 – Dursun Karataş, founding leader of the Revolutionary People's Liberation Party–Front (DHKP-C) in Turkey (b. 1952)\n*2009 – Eunice Kennedy Shriver, American activist, founded the Special Olympics (b. 1921)\n*2012 – Red Bastien, American wrestler, trainer, and promoter (b. 1931)\n* 2012 – Michael Dokes, American boxer (b. 1958)\n* 2012 – Lucy Gallardo, Argentinian-Mexican actress and screenwriter (b. 1929)\n*2013 – Raymond Delisle, French cyclist (b. 1943)\n* 2013 – Zafar Futehally, Indian ornithologist and author (b. 1919)\n* 2013 – David Howard, English ballet dancer and educator (b. 1937)\n*2014 – Vladimir Beara, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1928)\n* 2014 – Raymond Gravel, Canadian priest and politician (b. 1952)\n* 2014 – Kika Szaszkiewiczowa, Polish author and blogger (b. 1917)\n* 2014 – Robin Williams, American actor and comedian (b. 1951)\n*2015 – Serge Collot, French viola player and educator (b. 1923)\n* 2015 – Harald Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager (b. 1941)\n* 2015 – Richard Oriani, Salvadoran-American metallurgist and engineer (b. 1920)\n*2017 – Yisrael Kristal, Polish-Israeli supercentenarian; oldest living Holocaust survivor and one of the ten oldest men ever (b. 1903)\n* 2017 – Segun Bucknor, Nigerian musician and journalist (b. 1946)\n\n",
"* Christian Feast Day:\n** Athracht\n** Clare of Assisi\n** Fiacre\n** Gaugericus\n** John Henry Newman (Church of England)\n** Philomena\n** Susanna\n** Taurinus of Évreux\n** Tiburtius and Chromatius\n** August 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Flag Day (Pakistan)\n* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Chad from France in 1960.\n* Mountain Day (Japan)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | August 11 |
[
"\nConcept design for the NOAH (New Orleans Arcology Habitat) proposal, designed by E. Kevin Schopfer.\n\n'''Arcology''', a portmanteau of \"architecture\" and \"ecology\", is a field of creating architectural design principles for very densely populated, ecologically low-impact human habitats.\n\nThe concept has been primarily popularized, and the term itself coined, by architect Paolo Soleri. It also appears in science fiction. Authors such as Peter Hamilton in ''Neutronium Alchemist'' or Paolo Bacigalupi in ''The Water Knife'' explicitly use arcologies as part of their scenarios. Arcologies are often portrayed in science fiction as self-contained or economically self-sufficient.\n\nThese structures have been largely hypothetical insofar as no arcology, even one envisioned by Soleri himself, has yet been completed, but he posited that a completed arcology would provide space for a variety of residential, commercial, and agricultural facilities while minimizing individual human environmental impact.\n",
"An arcology is distinguished from a merely large building in that it is designed to lessen the impact of human habitation on any given ecosystem. It could be self-sustainable, employing all or most of its own available resources for a comfortable life: power; climate control; food production; air and water conservation and purification; sewage treatment; etc. An arcology is designed to make it possible to supply those items for a large population. An arcology would supply and maintain its own municipal or urban infrastructures in order to operate and connect with other urban environments apart from its own.\n\nArcology was proposed to reduce human impact on natural resources. Arcology designs might apply conventional building and civil engineering techniques in very large, but practical projects in order to achieve pedestrian economies of scale that have proven, post-automobile, to be difficult to achieve in other ways.\n\nFrank Lloyd Wright proposed an early version called Broadacre City although, in contrast to an arcology, Wright's idea is comparatively two-dimensional and depends on a road network. Wright's plan described transportation, agriculture, and commerce systems that would support an economy. Critics said that Wright's solution failed to account for population growth, and assumed a more rigid democracy than the U.S.A. actually has.\n\nBuckminster Fuller proposed the Old Man River's City project, a domed city with a capacity of 125,000, as a solution to the housing problems in East St. Louis, Illinois.\n\nPaolo Soleri proposed later solutions, and coined the term 'arcology'. Soleri describes ways of compacting city structures in three dimensions to combat two-dimensional urban sprawl, to economize on transportation and other energy uses. Like Wright, Soleri proposed changes in transportation, agriculture, and commerce. Soleri explored reductions in resource consumption and duplication, land reclamation; he also proposed to eliminate most private transportation. He advocated for greater \"frugality\" and favored greater use of shared social resources, including public transit (and public libraries).\n",
"\nArcosanti is an experimental \"arcology prototype\" – a demonstration project under construction in central Arizona. Designed by Paolo Soleri, its primary purpose is to demonstrate Soleri's personal designs, his application of principles of arcology to create a pedestrian-friendly urban form.\n\nMany cities in the world have proposed projects adhering to the design principles of the arcology concept, like Tokyo, and Dongtan near Shanghai. The Dongtan project may have collapsed, and it failed to open for the Shanghai World Expo in 2010.\n\nCertain urban projects reflect arcology principles. Pedestrian connection systems often provide a wide range of goods and services in a single structure. Some examples include the +15 system in downtown Calgary, Montréal's RÉSO, the Minneapolis Skyway System, The Windscreen in Fermont, Quebec, and the Houston, Texas tunnel system. They include supermarkets, malls and entertainment complexes. The +15 is the world's most extensive skywalk, at in total length. Minneapolis has the longest single path, at . Seward's Success, Alaska was never built, but would have been a small city just outside Anchorage. Chicago has a sizeable tunnel system known as the Chicago Pedway connecting a portion of the buildings in the Chicago Loop.\n\nThe Las Vegas Strip has many arcology features to protect people from the heat. Many major casinos are connected by tunnels, footbridges, and monorails. It is possible to travel from Mandalay Bay at the south end of the Strip to the Las Vegas Convention Center, to the north, without using streets. In many cases, it is possible to travel between several different casinos without ever going outdoors. It is possible to live in this complex without need to venture outside, except the Strip has not generally been considered self-sustainable. Soleri did not advocate for enclosed cities, although he did sketch a design and build a model of an 'arcology' for outer space.\n\nThe Toronto downtown area features an underground pedestrian network, PATH. Multiple high-rises are connected by a series of underground tunnels. It is possible to live in this complex without needing to venture outside, but the PATH network is not self-sustaining. The total network spans .\n\nMcMurdo Station of the United States Antarctic Program and other scientific research stations on the continent of Antarctica resemble the popular conception of an arcology as a technologically advanced, relatively self-sufficient human community. The Antarctic research base provides living and entertainment amenities for roughly 3,000 staff who visit each year. Its remoteness and the measures needed to protect its population from the harsh environment give it an insular character. The station is not self-sufficientthe U.S. military delivers 30,000 cubic metres (800,000 US gal) of fuel and of supplies and equipment yearly through its Operation Deep Freeze resupply effortbut it is isolated from conventional support networks. The base generates electricity with its own power plant, and grows fruits and vegetables in a hydroponic green house when resupply is non-existent. Under international treaty, it must avoid damage to the surrounding ecosystem.\n\nCrystal Island is a proposed arcology in Moscow, Russia. In 2009, construction was postponed indefinitely due to the global economic crisis.\n\nThe Begich Towers operates like a small-scale arcology encompassing nearly all of the population of Whittier, Alaska. The pair of buildings contains residential housing as well as a school, grocery, and municipal offices.\nWhittier once boasted a second structure known as the Buckner Building. The Buckner Building still stands but was deemed unfit for habitation after the 1969 earthquake.\n",
"Most proposals to build real arcologies have failed due to financial, structural or conceptual shortcomings. Arcologies are therefore found primarily in fictional works. One of the earliest examples in literature is William Hope Hodgson's 1912 horror/fantasy novel ''The Night Land'', where the last remnants of humanity survive in two enormous self-contained metal pyramids. Another significant example is the 1981 novel ''Oath of Fealty'' by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, in which a segment of the population of Los Angeles has moved into an arcology. The plot examines the social changes that result, both inside and outside the arcology. Thus the arcology is not just a plot device but a subject of critique. In Robert Silverberg's ''The World Inside'', most of the global population of 750 billion lives inside giant skyscrapers, called \"urbmons\", each of which urbmon contains hundreds of thousands of people. The urbmons are arranged in \"constellations\". Each urbmon is divided into \"neighborhoods\" of 40 or so floors. All the needs of the inhabitants are provided inside the building – food is grown outside and brought into the building – so the idea of going outside is heretical and can be a sign of madness. The book examines human life when the population density is extremely high.\n\nThe Maxis computer game ''SimCity 2000'' allows the construction of four different types of arcologies in the future.\n",
"\n* Arcosanti\n* Autonomous building\n* Bionic architecture\n* Dubai City Tower\n* Earthship\n* Megastructure\n* Proposed tall buildings and structures\n\n* Shimizu Mega-City Pyramid\n* Underground city\n* Urban ecology\n* Vertical farming\n\n",
"'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Further reading'''\n* Soleri, Paolo ''Arcology: The City in the Image of Man'' 1969:Cambridge, Massachusetts MIT Press\n",
"\n* Arcology.com – Useful links\n* The Night Land by William Hope Hodgson (Full text online)\n* Victory City\n* A discussion of arcology concepts\n\n'''Usage of \"arcology\" vs. \"hyperstructure\"'''\n* Arcology.com (\"An arcology in southern China\" on front page)\n* Arcology (\"An arcology is a self-contained environment...\")\n* SculptorsWiki: Arcology (\"The only arcology yet on Earth...\")\n* Review of Shadowrun: Renraku Arcology (\"What's an arcology? A self-contained, largely self-sufficient living, working, recreational structure...\")\n* Floating Arcology A design to prevent against rising sea levels.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Development",
"Similar real-world projects",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Arcology |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"* 823 – Lothair I is crowned King of Italy by Pope Paschal I.\n*1081 – Alexios I Komnenos is crowned Byzantine emperor at Constantinople, bringing the Komnenian dynasty to full power.\n*1242 – During the Battle on the Ice of Lake Peipus, Russian forces, led by Alexander Nevsky, rebuff an invasion attempt by the Teutonic Knights.\n*1536 – Royal Entry of Charles V into Rome: The last Roman triumph.\n*1566 – Two-hundred Dutch noblemen, led by Hendrick van Brederode, force themselves into the presence of Margaret of Parma and present the Petition of Compromise, denouncing the Spanish Inquisition in the Seventeen Provinces.\n*1609 – ''Daimyo'' (Lord) Shimazu Tadatsune of the Satsuma Domain in southern Kyūshū, Japan, completes his successful invasion of the Ryūkyū Kingdom in Okinawa.\n*1614 – In Virginia, Native American Pocahontas marries English colonist John Rolfe.\n*1621 – The ''Mayflower'' sets sail from Plymouth, Massachusetts on a return trip to England.\n*1710 – The Statute of Anne receives the royal assent establishing the Copyright law of the United Kingdom.\n*1722 – The Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen discovers Easter Island.\n*1792 – United States President George Washington exercises his authority to veto a bill, the first time this power is used in the United States.\n*1795 – Peace of Basel between France and Prussia is made.\n*1818 – In the Battle of Maipú, Chile's independence movement, led by Bernardo O'Higgins and José de San Martín, win a decisive victory over Spain, leaving 2,000 Spaniards and 1,000 Chilean patriots dead.\n*1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Yorktown begins.\n*1879 – Chile declares war on Bolivia and Peru, starting the War of the Pacific.\n*1900 – Archaeologists in Knossos, Crete, discover a large cache of clay tablets with hieroglyphic writing in a script they call Linear B.\n*1904 – The first international rugby league match is played between England and an Other Nationalities team (Welsh & Scottish players) in Central Park, Wigan, England.\n*1915 – Boxing challenger Jess Willard knocks out Jack Johnson in Havana, Cuba to become the Heavyweight Champion of the World.\n*1922 – The American Birth Control League, forerunner of Planned Parenthood, is incorporated.\n*1932 – Dominion of Newfoundland: Ten thousand rioters seize the Colonial Building leading to the end of self-government.\n*1933 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs two executive orders: 6101 to establish the Civilian Conservation Corps, and 6102 \"forbidding the Hoarding of Gold Coin, Gold Bullion, and Gold Certificates\" by U.S. citizens.\n*1936 – Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak: An F5 tornado kills 233 in Tupelo, Mississippi.\n*1942 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy launches a carrier-based air attack on Colombo, Ceylon during the Indian Ocean raid. Port and civilian facilities are damaged and the Royal Navy cruisers and are sunk southwest of the island.\n*1943 – World War II: American bomber aircraft accidentally cause more than 900 civilian deaths, including 209 children, and 1,300 wounded among the civilian population of the Belgian town of Mortsel. Their target was the Erla factory one kilometer from the residential area hit.\n*1944 – World War II: Two hundred seventy inhabitants of the Greek town of Kleisoura are executed by the Germans.\n*1945 – Cold War: Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito signs an agreement with the Soviet Union to allow \"temporary entry of Soviet troops into Yugoslav territory\".\n*1949 – A fire in a hospital in Effingham, Illinois, kills 77 people and leads to nationwide fire code improvements in the United States.\n*1951 – Ethel and Julius Rosenberg are sentenced to death for spying for the Soviet Union.\n*1956 – Fidel Castro declares himself at war with Cuban President Fulgencio Batista.\n* 1956 – In Sri Lanka, the Mahajana Eksath Peramuna win the general elections in a landslide and S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike is sworn in as the Prime Minister of Ceylon.\n*1957 – In India, Communists win the first elections in united Kerala and E. M. S. Namboodiripad is sworn in as the first Chief Minister.\n*1958 – Ripple Rock, an underwater threat to navigation in the Seymour Narrows in Canada is destroyed in one of the largest non-nuclear controlled explosions of the time.\n*1969 – Vietnam War: Massive antiwar demonstrations occur in many U.S. cities.\n*1971 – In Sri Lanka, Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna launches a revolt against the United Front government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike.\n*1976 – In the People's Republic of China, the April Fifth Movement leads to the Tiananmen Incident.\n*1986 – Three people are killed in the bombing of the La Belle discotheque in West Berlin, Germany.\n*1991 – An ASA EMB 120 crashes in Brunswick, Georgia, killing all 23 aboard including Sen. John Tower and astronaut Sonny Carter.\n*1992 – Alberto Fujimori, president of Peru, dissolves the Peruvian congress by military force.\n*1992 – Peace protesters Suada Dilberovic and Olga Sučić are killed on the Vrbanja Bridge in Sarajevo, becoming the first casualties of the Bosnian War.\n*1998 – In Japan, the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge opens to traffic, becoming the longest bridge span in the world.\n*1999 – Two Libyans suspected of bringing down Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988 are handed over for eventual trial in the Netherlands.\n*2009 – North Korea launches its controversial Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 rocket. The satellite passed over mainland Japan, which prompted an immediate reaction from the United Nations Security Council, as well as participating states of Six-party talks.\n*2010 – Twenty-nine coal miners are killed in an explosion at the Upper Big Branch Mine in West Virginia.\n",
"\n*1170 – Isabella of Hainault (d. 1190)\n*1288 – Emperor Go-Fushimi of Japan (d. 1336)\n*1315 – James III of Majorca (d. 1349)\n*1472 – Bianca Maria Sforza, Italian wife of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1510)\n*1498 – Giovanni dalle Bande Nere, Italian condottiero (d. 1526)\n*1508 – Ercole II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, Italian noble (d. 1559)\n*1514 – Joachim Mörlin, German bishop (d. 1571)\n*1521 – Francesco Laparelli, Italian architect (d. 1570)\n*1523 – Blaise de Vigenère, French cryptographer and diplomat (d. 1596)\n*1568 – Pope Urban VIII (d. 1644)\n*1586 – Christopher Levett, English explorer (d. 1630)\n*1588 – Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher (d. 1679)\n*1595 – John Wilson, English composer and educator (d. 1674)\n*1604 – Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1675)\n*1622 – Vincenzo Viviani, Italian mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (d. 1703)\n*1649 – Elihu Yale, American-English merchant and philanthropist (d. 1721)\n*1692 – Adrienne Lecouvreur, French actress (d. 1730)\n*1719 – Axel von Fersen the Elder, Swedish field marshal and politician, Lord Marshal of Sweden (d. 1794)\n*1727 – Pasquale Anfossi, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1797)\n*1732 – Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter and etcher (d. 1806)\n*1752 – Sébastien Érard, French instrument maker (d. 1831)\n*1761 – Sybil Ludington, heroine of the American Revolutionary War (d. 1839)\n*1769 – Sir Thomas Hardy, 1st Baronet, English admiral (d. 1839)\n*1780 – Benjamin Greene, English brewer and businessman, founded Greene King Brewery (d. 1860)\n*1784 – Louis Spohr, German violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1859)\n*1805 – Samuel Forde, Irish painter (d. 1828)\n*1816 – Samuel Freeman Miller, American physician, lawyer, and jurist (d. 1890)\n*1824 – Moses Dickson, African-American abolitionist, soldier, minister and founder of The Knights of Liberty (d. 1901)\n*1827 – Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, English surgeon and academic (d. 1912)\n*1832 – Jules Ferry, French lawyer and politician, 44th Prime Minister of France (d. 1893)\n*1835 – Carl Theodor Schulz, German-Norwegian gardener (d. 1914)\n*1837 – Algernon Charles Swinburne, English poet, playwright, novelist, and critic (d. 1909)\n*1839 – Robert Smalls, African-American ship's pilot, sea captain, and politician (d. 1915)\n*1840 – Ghazaros Aghayan, Armenian historian and linguist (d. 1911)\n*1856 – Booker T. Washington, African-American educator, essayist and historian (d. 1915)\n*1857 – Alexander of Battenberg (d. 1893)\n*1858 – Washington Atlee Burpee, Canadian businessman, founded Burpee Seeds (d. 1915)\n*1863 – Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine (d. 1950)\n*1867 – Helen Stratton, British book illustrator (d.1961)\n*1869 – Sergey Chaplygin, Russian physicist, mathematician, and engineer (d. 1942)\n* 1869 – Albert Roussel, French composer (d. 1937)\n*1872 – Samuel Cate Prescott, American microbiologist and chemist (d. 1962)\n*1875 – Mistinguett, French actress and singer (d. 1956)\n*1878 – Paul Weinstein, German high jumper (d. 1964)\n*1883 – Walter Huston, Canadian-American actor and singer (d. 1950)\n*1884 – Ion Inculeț, Bessarabian academic and politician, President of Moldova (d. 1940)\n*1886 – Gustavo Jiménez, Peruvian colonel and politician, 73rd President of Peru (d. 1933)\n*1891 – Arnold Jackson, English runner, soldier, and lawyer (d. 1972)\n*1893 – Clas Thunberg, Finnish speed skater (d. 1973)\n*1899 – Alfred Blalock, American surgeon and academic (d. 1964)\n* 1899 – Elsie Thompson, American super-centenarian (d. 2013)\n*1900 – Herbert Bayer, Austrian-American graphic designer, painter, and photographer (d. 1985)\n* 1900 – Roman Steinberg, Estonian wrestler (d. 1928)\n* 1900 – Spencer Tracy, Irish-American actor (d. 1967)\n*1901 – Melvyn Douglas, American actor (d. 1981)\n*1902 – Wal Handley, English motorcycle road racer (d. 1941)\n* 1902 – Menachem Mendel Schneerson, Russian-American rabbi (d. 1994)\n*1904 – Richard Eberhart, American poet and academic (d. 2005)\n*1906 – Lord Buckley, English-American stage performer, recording artist and monologist (d. 1960)\n*1908 – Bette Davis, American actress (d. 1989)\n* 1908 – Ernestine Gilbreth Carey, German-American author (d. 2006)\n* 1908 – Jagjivan Ram, Indian politician, 4th Deputy Prime Minister of India (d. 1986)\n* 1908 – Herbert von Karajan, Austrian conductor and manager (d. 1989)\n*1909 – Albert R. Broccoli, American film producer, co-founded Eon Productions (d. 1996)\n* 1909 – Erwin Wegner, German hurdler (d. 1945)\n*1911 – Johnny Revolta, American golfer (d. 1991)\n*1912 – Makar Honcharenko, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 1997)\n* 1912 – John Le Mesurier, English actor (d. 1983)\n* 1912 – István Örkény, Jewish-Hungarian author and playwright (d. 1979)\n* 1912 – Bill Roberts, English sprinter and soldier (d. 2001)\n*1916 – Albert Henry Ottenweller, American bishop (d. 2012)\n* 1916 – Gregory Peck, American actor, political activist, and producer (d. 2003)\n*1917 – Robert Bloch, American author (d. 1994)\n*1920 – Barend Biesheuvel, Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2001)\n* 1920 – Arthur Hailey, English-Canadian soldier and author (d. 2004)\n* 1920 – Alfonso Thiele, Turkish-Italian race car driver (d. 1986)\n* 1920 – Rafiq Zakaria, Indian cleric, scholar, and politician (d. 2005)\n*1922 – Tom Finney, English footballer (d. 2014)\n* 1922 – Harry Freedman, Polish-Canadian horn player, composer, and educator (d. 2005)\n* 1922 – Christopher Hewett, English actor and director (d. 2001)\n* 1922 – Gale Storm, American actress and singer (d. 2009)\n*1923 – Michael V. Gazzo, American actor (d. 1995)\n* 1923 – Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, Vietnamese general and politician, 5th President of South Vietnam (d. 2001)\n*1926 – Roger Corman, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1926 – Süleyman Seba, Turkish footballer and colonel (d. 2014)\n*1928 – Fernand Dansereau, Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1928 – Haldun Dormen, Turkish actor, director, and producer\n* 1928 – Tony Williams, American singer (d. 1992)\n*1929 – Hugo Claus, Belgian author, poet, and painter (d. 2008)\n* 1929 – Ivar Giaever, Norwegian-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1929 – Nigel Hawthorne, English actor and producer (d. 2001)\n* 1929 – Joe Meek, English songwriter and producer (d. 1967)\n*1931 – Jack Clement, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013)\n*1933 – Frank Gorshin, American actor (d. 2005)\n* 1933 – Barbara Holland, American author (d. 2010)\n* 1933 – K. Kailasapathy, Sri Lankan journalist and academic (d. 1982)\n*1934 – John Carey, English author and critic\n* 1934 – Roman Herzog, German lawyer and politician, 7th President of Germany (d. 2017)\n* 1934 – Moise Safra, Brazilian businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Banco Safra (d. 2014)\n* 1934 – Stanley Turrentine, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2000)\n*1935 – Peter Grant, English talent manager (d. 1995)\n* 1935 – Donald Lynden-Bell, English astrophysicist and astronomer\n*1936 – John Kelly, PIRA volunteer and Sinn Féin politician (d. 2007)\n*1937 – Joseph Lelyveld, American journalist and author\n* 1937 – Colin Powell, American general and politician, 65th United States Secretary of State\n*1938 – Colin Bland, Zimbabwean-South African cricketer\n* 1938 – Nancy Holt, American sculptor and painter (d. 2014) \n*1938 – Mal Colston, Australian educator and politician (d. 2003)\n*1938 – Natalya Kustinskaya, Soviet actress (d. 2012)\n*1939 – Crispian St. Peters, English singer-songwriter (d. 2010)\n* 1939 – Ronald White, American singer-songwriter (d. 1995)\n*1940 – Tommy Cash, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1940 – Gilles Proulx, Canadian journalist, historian, and radio host\n*1941 – Michael Moriarty, American-Canadian actor \n* 1941 – Dave Swarbrick, English singer-songwriter and fiddler (d. 2016)\n*1942 – Allan Clarke, English singer-songwriter \n* 1942 – Peter Greenaway, Welsh director and screenwriter\n*1943 – Max Gail, American actor and director\n* 1943 – Fighting Harada, Japanese boxer\n* 1943 – Jean-Louis Tauran, French cardinal\n*1944 – Peter T. King, American soldier, lawyer, and politician\n* 1944 – Pedro Rosselló, Puerto Rican physician and politician, 7th Governor of Puerto Rico\n*1946 – Jane Asher, English actress\n* 1946 – Russell Davies, Welsh journalist and radio host\n* 1946 – Takuro Yoshida, Japanese singer-songwriter\n*1947 – Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, Filipino academic and politician, 14th President of the Philippines\n* 1947 – Virendra Sharma, Indian-English lawyer and politician\n*1948 – Les Binks, Irish drummer and songwriter \n* 1948 – Dave Holland, English drummer \n*1949 – Judith Resnik, Ukrainian Jewish-American engineer and astronaut (d. 1986)\n*1950 – Agnetha Fältskog, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer\n*1951 – Yevgeniy Gavrilenko, Belarusian hurdler\n* 1951 – Dean Kamen, American inventor and businessman, founded Segway Inc.\n* 1951 – Dave McArtney, New Zealand singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)\n*1952 – John C. Dvorak, American author, editor and co-host of No Agenda podcast\n* 1952 – Mitch Pileggi, American actor\n*1953 – John Buchanan, Australian cricketer and coach\n* 1953 – Frank Gaffney, American journalist and radio host\n* 1953 – Ian Swales, English accountant and politician\n*1954 – Guy Bertrand, Canadian linguist and radio host\n* 1954 – Peter Case, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1954 – Stan Ridgway, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n*1955 – Charlotte de Turckheim, French actress, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1955 – Anthony Horowitz, English author and screenwriter\n* 1955 – Akira Toriyama, Japanese illustrator\n*1956 – Diamond Dallas Page, American wrestler and actor\n*1957 – Karin Roßley, German hurdler \n*1958 – Johan Kriek, South African-American tennis player\n* 1958 – Diana Nasution, Indonesian singer\n* 1958 – Lasantha Wickrematunge, Sri Lankan lawyer and journalist (d. 2009)\n*1959 – Julius Drake, English pianist and educator\n*1960 – Asteris Koutoulas, Romanian-German record producer, manager, and author\n* 1960 – Larry McCray, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1960 – Ian Redford, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2014)\n*1961 – Jim LeRoy, American pilot (d. 2007)\n*1962 – Charlie Adam, Scottish footballer (d. 2012)\n* 1962 – Lana Clarkson, American actress and model (d. 2003)\n* 1962 – Gord Donnelly, Canadian ice hockey player and scout\n* 1962 – Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, Kalmyk businessman and politician, 1st President of Kalmykia\n*1964 – Princess Erika, French singer-songwriter \n* 1964 – Marius Lăcătuș, Romanian footballer and coach\n* 1964 – Christopher Reid, American rapper and actor \n*1965 – Cris Carpenter, American baseball player and educator\n* 1965 – Aykut Kocaman, Turkish footballer and manager\n*1966 – Mike McCready, American guitarist and songwriter \n*1967 – Gary Gait, Canadian lacrosse player and coach\n* 1967 – Anu Garg, Indian-American journalist and author\n* 1967 – Troy Gentry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n*1968 – Paula Cole, American singer-songwriter and pianist\n* 1968 – Stewart Lee, British standup comedian and writer\n*1969 – Ryan Birch, English martial artist (d. 2013)\n*1970 – Soheil Ayari, French race car driver\n* 1970 – Krishnan Guru-Murthy, English journalist\n* 1970 – Miho Hatori, Japanese singer-songwriter \n*1971 – Dong Abay, Filipino singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1971 – Ayako Nishikawa, Japanese television personality, entertainer, comedian, and surgeon\n*1972 – Tim Coronel, Dutch race car driver\n* 1972 – Pat Green, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1972 – Paul Okon, Australian footballer and manager\n* 1972 – Waylon Payne, American singer-songwriter and actor\n* 1972 – Duncan Spencer, English cricketer\n* 1972 – Yasuhiro Takemoto, Japanese animator and director\n*1973 – Tony Banks, American football player and journalist\n* 1973 – Élodie Bouchez, French-American actress\n* 1973 – Brendan Cannon, Australian rugby player\n* 1973 – Cho Sung-min, South Korean baseball player (d. 2013)\n* 1973 – Pharrell Williams, American rapper, producer, and fashion designer \n*1974 – Sahaj, American singer-songwriter \n* 1974 – Marcus Jones, English lawyer and politician\n* 1974 – Vyacheslav Voronin, Russian high jumper\n* 1974 – Sheryl Cruz, Filipino actress and singer\n*1975 – Sarah Baldock, English organist and conductor\n* 1975 – John Hartson, Welsh footballer and coach\n* 1975 – Juicy J, American rapper and producer \n* 1975 – Caitlin Moran, English journalist, author, and critic\n* 1975 – Shammond Williams, American basketball player and coach\n*1976 – Ryan Drese, American baseball player\n* 1976 – Ross Gload, American baseball player\n* 1976 – Simone Inzaghi, Italian footballer\n* 1976 – Fernando Morientes, Spanish footballer and coach\n* 1976 – Indrek Tobreluts, Estonian biathlete\n*1977 – Stella Creasy, English psychologist and politician\n*1978 – Robert Glasper, African-American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer\n* 1978 – Stephen Jackson, American basketball player\n* 1978 – Franziska van Almsick, German swimmer\n*1979 – Timo Hildebrand, German footballer\n* 1979 – Mitsuo Ogasawara, Japanese footballer\n* 1979 – Benji Radach, American mixed martial artist and trainer\n* 1979 – Dante Wesley, American football player\n*1980 – Matt Bonner, American basketball player\n* 1980 – David Chocarro, Argentinian baseball player and actor\n* 1980 – Mary Katharine Ham, American journalist and blogger\n* 1980 – Joris Mathijsen, Dutch footballer\n*1981 – Jorge de la Rosa, Mexican baseball player\n* 1981 – Michael A. Monsoor, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2006)\n*1982 – Hayley Atwell, English-American actress\n* 1982 – Thomas Hitzlsperger, German footballer\n* 1982 – Kelly Pavlik, American boxer\n* 1982 – Matt Pickens, American soccer player\n* 1982 – Alexandre Prémat, French race car driver\n*1983 – Jorge Andrés Martínez, Uruguayan footballer\n*1984 – David Dillehunt, American director, producer, and composer\n* 1984 – Kisho Yano, Japanese footballer\n* 1984 – Shin Min-a, South Korean actress\n*1984 – Saba Qamar, Pakistani actress-model\n*1985 – Daniel Congré, French footballer\n* 1985 – Lastings Milledge, American baseball player\n*1987 – Max Grün, German footballer\n* 1987 – Sergei Lepmets, Estonian footballer\n*1988 – Jon Kwang-ik, North Korean footballer\n* 1988 – Asumi Nakada, Japanese voice actress and model\n* 1988 – Christopher Papamichalopoulos, Cypriot skier\n* 1988 – Alex Valentini, Italian footballer\n*1989 – Lily James, English actress\n*1990 – Patrick Dangerfield, Australian rules footballer\n*1991 – Linnon Stylz, American singer and businessman\n*1992 – Emmalyn Estrada, Canadian singer-songwriter and dancer\n*1993 – Benjamin Garcia, French rugby league player\n* 1993 – Maya DiRado, American swimmer\n*1995 – Viliame Kikau, Fijian rugby league player\n*1996 – Nicolas Beer, Danish racing driver\n*1998 – Kaito Nakamura, Japanese actor and model\n*1999 – Sharlene San Pedro, Filipino actress, singer, and dancer\n\n",
"* 517 – Timothy I of Constantinople\n* 582 – Eutychius of Constantinople (b. 512)\n* 584 – Ruadán of Lorrha, Irish abbot\n* 902 – Al-Mu'tadid, Iraqi caliph (b. 960)\n*1168 – Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester, English politician (b. 1104)\n*1205 – Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem (b. 1172)\n*1258 – Saint Juliana of Liège\n*1340 – William Melton, English archbishop \n*1419 – Vincent Ferrer, Spanish missionary and saint (b. 1350)\n*1431 – Bernard I, Margrave of Baden-Baden (b. 1364)\n*1534 – Jan Matthys, Anabaptist reformer\n*1605 – Adam Loftus, English-Irish archbishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (b. 1513)\n*1617 – Alonso Lobo, Spanish composer (b. 1555)\n*1673 – François Caron, Belgian-French explorer and politician, 8th Governor of Formosa (b. 1600)\n*1693 – Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Duchess of Montpensier (b. 1627)\n*1695 – George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1633)\n*1697 – Charles XI of Sweden (b. 1655)\n*1717 – Jean Jouvenet, French painter (b. 1647)\n*1735 – William Derham, English minister and philosopher (b. 1657)\n* 1735 – Samuel Wesley, English clergyman and poet (b. 1662)\n*1765 – Edward Young, English poet and author (b. 1683)\n*1794 – Georges Danton, French lawyer and politician, French Minister of Justice (b. 1759)\n* 1794 – Camille Desmoulins, French journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1760)\n*1804 – Jean-Charles Pichegru, French general (b. 1761)\n*1834 – Richard Goodwin Keats, English admiral and politician, 40th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1757)\n*1864 – Alaric Alexander Watts, English poet and journalist (b. 1797)\n*1900 – Joseph Louis François Bertrand, French mathematician, economist, and academic (b. 1822)\n* 1900 – Osman Nuri Pasha, Ottoman field marshal and the hero of the Siege of Plevna in 1877 (b. 1832)\n*1923 – George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, English archaeologist and businessman (b. 1866)\n*1928 – Roy Kilner, English cricketer and soldier (b. 1890)\n*1936 – Chandler Egan, American golfer and architect (b. 1884)\n*1940 – Charles Freer Andrews, English-Indian priest, missionary, and educator (b. 1871)\n*1941 – Nigel Gresley, Scottish-English engineer (b. 1876)\n*1943 – Aleš Hrdlička, Czech-American anthropologist and scholar (b. 1869)\n*1945 – Karl-Otto Koch, German SS officer (b. 1897)\n*1946 – Vincent Youmans, American composer and producer (b. 1898)\n*1952 – Charles Collett, English engineer (b. 1871)\n*1964 – Douglas MacArthur, American general (b. 1880)\n*1966 – John Henry Starling, Australian public servant (b. 1883)\n*1967 – Mischa Elman, Ukrainian-American violinist (b. 1891)\n* 1967 – Hermann Joseph Muller, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1890)\n*1969 – Ain-Ervin Mere, Estonian SS officer (b. 1903)\n* 1969 – Shelby Storck, American journalist, actor, director, and producer (b. 1917)\n*1970 – Alfred Sturtevant, American geneticist and academic (b. 1891)\n*1972 – Brian Donlevy, American actor and producer (b. 1901)\n* 1972 – Isabel Jewell, American actress and singer (b. 1907)\n* 1972 – Robert Speck, Canadian politician, 1st Mayor of Mississauga (b. 1915)\n*1973 – John Coleman, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1928)\n*1974 – A. Y. Jackson, Canadian painter (b. 1882)\n*1975 – Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese general and politician, 1st President of the Republic of China (b. 1887)\n*1976 – Howard Hughes, American pilot, engineer, and director (b. 1905)\n* 1976 – Wilder Penfield, American-Canadian surgeon and academic (b. 1891)\n*1979 – Eugène Gabritschevsky, Russian biologist and painter (b. 1893)\n*1981 – Bob Hite, American singer-songwriter (b. 1945)\n*1982 – Abe Fortas, American lawyer and jurist (b. 1910)\n*1983 – Danny Rapp, American singer-songwriter (b. 1941)\n*1984 – Nikolai Matvejev, Estonian cyclist (b. 1923)\n*1987 – Jan Lindblad, Swedish journalist and photographer (b. 1932)\n*1989 – María Cristina Gómez, Salvadoran educator and activist (b. 1938)\n*1991 – Sonny Carter, American soccer player, physician, and astronaut (b. 1947)\n* 1991 – John Tower, American soldier, academic, and politician (b. 1925)\n*1992 – Sam Walton, American businessman, founded Walmart and Sam's Club (b. 1918)\n*1993 – Divya Bharti, Indian actress (b. 1974)\n*1994 – Kurt Cobain, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1967)\n* 1994 – Roy Smeck, American country musician (b. 1900)\n*1995 – Françoise Loranger, Canadian playwright and producer (b. 1913)\n*1996 – Larry LaPrise, American songwriter (b. 1913)\n*1997 – Allen Ginsberg, American poet (b. 1926)\n*1998 – Cozy Powell, English drummer (b. 1947)\n*1999 – Paul David, Canadian cardiologist and politician (b. 1919)\n*2000 – Lee Petty, American race car driver (b. 1914)\n*2001 – Brother Theodore, German-American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1906)\n*2001 – Malcolm Shepherd, 2nd Baron Shepherd (b. 1918)\n*2002 – Layne Staley, American singer-songwriter (b. 1967)\n*2004 – Sławomir Rawicz, Polish lieutenant (b. 1915)\n* 2004 – Heiner Zieschang, German mathematician and academic (b. 1936)\n*2005 – Saul Bellow, Canadian-American novelist, essayist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1915)\n* 2005 – Dale Messick, American author and illustrator (b. 1906)\n* 2005 – John Sichel, French-English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1937)\n* 2005 – Neil Welliver, American painter (b. 1929)\n*2006 – Allan Kaprow, American painter and educator (b. 1927)\n* 2006 – Gene Pitney, American singer-songwriter (b. 1941)\n*2007 – Maria Gripe, Swedish journalist and author (b. 1923)\n* 2007 – Leela Majumdar, Indian author and academic (b. 1908)\n* 2007 – Mark St. John, American guitarist (b. 1956)\n* 2007 – Darryl Stingley, American football player and scout (b. 1951)\n* 2007 – Poornachandra Tejaswi, Indian ornithologist, author, and photographer (b. 1938)\n*2008 – Charlton Heston, American actor, director, and political activist (b. 1923)\n*2009 – Constantine Papadakis, Greek-American businessman and academic (b. 1946)\n*2012 – Joe Avezzano, American football player and coach (b. 1943)\n* 2012 – Jim Herr, American businessman, founded Herr's Snacks (b. 1924)\n* 2012 – Jim Marshall, English businessman, founded Marshall Amplification (b. 1923)\n* 2012 – Gil Noble, American journalist and producer (b. 1932)\n* 2012 – Peter Tapsell, New Zealand surgeon and politician, 30th New Zealand Minister of Defence (b. 1930)\n* 2012 – Bingu wa Mutharika, Malawian economist and politician, 3rd President of Malawi (b. 1934)\n*2013 – Regina Bianchi, Italian actress (b. 1921)\n* 2013 – Amnon Dankner, Israeli journalist and author (b. 1946)\n* 2013 – Piero de Palma, Italian tenor and actor (b. 1924)\n* 2013 – Dave Hunt, American radio host and author (b. 1926)\n* 2013 – Mohammad Ishaq Khan, Indian historian and academic (b. 1946)\n* 2013 – David Kuo, American journalist and author (b. 1968)\n* 2013 – Nikolaos Pappas, Greek admiral and politician, Greek Minister for Mercantile Marine (b. 1930)\n*2014 – Alan Davie, Scottish saxophonist and painter (b. 1920)\n* 2014 – Peter Matthiessen, American novelist, short story writer, editor, co-founded ''The Paris Review'' (b. 1927)\n* 2014 – John Pinette, American comedian (b. 1964)\n* 2014 – Gordon Smith, Scottish footballer (b. 1954)\n* 2014 – José Wilker, Brazilian actor, director, and producer (b. 1947)\n*2015 – Fredric Brandt, American dermatologist and author (b. 1949)\n* 2015 – Juan Carlos Cáceres, Argentinian singer and pianist (b. 1936)\n* 2015 – Richard Dysart, American actor (b. 1929)\n* 2015 – Steve Rickard, New Zealand-Australian wrestler, trainer, and promoter (b. 1929)\n* 2015 – Julie Wilson, American actress and singer (b. 1924)\n*2016 – Koço Kasapoğlu, Turkish footballer (b. 1936)\n\n",
"*Christian feast day:\n**Albert of Montecorvino\n**Blessed Mariano de la Mata\n**Derfel Gadarn\n**Æthelburh of Kent\n**Gerald of Sauve-Majeure\n**Juliana of Liège\n**Maria Crescentia Höss\n**Pandita Mary Ramabai (Episcopal Church (USA)) \n**Ruadhán of Lorrha\n**Vincent Ferrer\n**April 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n*Cold Food Festival, held on April 4 if it is a leap year (China); and its related observances:\n*Earliest day on which Sham el-Nessim can fall, while May 9 is the latest; celebrated on Monday after the Orthodox Easter (Egypt)\n*Children's Day (Palestinian territories)\n*Sikmogil (South Korea)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | April 5 |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"*1303 – The Sapienza University of Rome is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII.\n*1453 – Three Genoese galleys and a Byzantine blockade runner fight their way through an Ottoman blockading fleet a few weeks before the fall of Constantinople.\n*1534 – Jacques Cartier begins his first voyage to what is today the east coast of Canada, Newfoundland and Labrador.\n*1535 – The sun dog phenomenon observed over Stockholm and depicted in the famous painting ''Vädersolstavlan''.\n*1653 – Oliver Cromwell dissolves the Rump Parliament.\n*1657 – Admiral Robert Blake destroys a Spanish silver fleet under heavy fire at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.\n* 1657 – Freedom of religion is granted to the Jews of New Amsterdam (later New York City).\n*1689 – Deposed monarch James II of England lays siege to Derry.\n*1752 – Start of Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War, a new phase in the Burmese Civil War (1740–57).\n*1770 – The Georgian king, Erekle II, abandoned by his Russian ally Count Totleben, wins a victory over Ottoman forces at Aspindza.\n*1775 – American Revolutionary War: The Siege of Boston begins, following the battles at Lexington and Concord.\n*1789 – George Washington arrives at Grays Ferry, Philadelphia while en route to Manhattan for his inauguration.\n*1792 – France declares war against the \"King of Hungary and Bohemia\", the beginning of French Revolutionary Wars.\n*1800 – The Septinsular Republic is established.\n*1809 – Two Austrian army corps in Bavaria are defeated by a First French Empire army led by Napoleon at the Battle of Abensberg on the second day of a four-day campaign that ended in a French victory.\n*1810 – The Governor of Caracas declares independence from Spain.\n*1818 – The case of ''Ashford v Thornton'' ends, with Abraham Thornton allowed to go free rather than face a retrial for murder, after his demand for trial by battle is upheld.\n*1826 – Major Gordon Laing becomes the first non-Muslim to enter Timbuktu.\n*1828 – René Caillié becomes the second non-Muslim to enter, and the first to return from, Timbuktu, following Major Gordon Laing.\n*1836 – U.S. Congress passes an act creating the Wisconsin Territory.\n*1861 – American Civil War: Robert E. Lee resigns his commission in the United States Army in order to command the forces of the state of Virginia.\n*1862 – Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard complete the experiment falsifying the theory of spontaneous generation.\n*1865 – Astronomer Angelo Secchi demonstrates the Secchi disk, which measures water clarity, aboard Pope Pius IX's yacht, the ''L'Immaculata Concezion''.\n*1876 – The April Uprising begins. Its suppression shocks European opinion, and Bulgarian independence becomes a condition for ending the Russo-Turkish War.\n*1884 – Pope Leo XIII publishes the encyclical ''Humanum genus''.\n\n*1898 – President William McKinley signed a joint resolution to Congress for declaration of War against Spain, beginning the Spanish-American War.\n*1902 – Pierre and Marie Curie refine radium chloride.\n*1908 – Opening day of competition in the New South Wales Rugby League.\n*1912 – Opening day for baseball's Tiger Stadium in Detroit, and Fenway Park in Boston.\n*1914 – Nineteen men, women, and children die in the Ludlow Massacre during a Colorado coal-miner's strike.\n*1916 – The Chicago Cubs play their first game at Weeghman Park (currently Wrigley Field), defeating the Cincinnati Reds 7–6 in 11 innings.\n*1918 – Manfred von Richthofen, a.k.a. The Red Baron, shoots down his 79th and 80th victims, his final victories before his death the following day.\n*1922 – The Soviet government creates South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast within Georgian SSR.\n*1945 – World War II: US troops capture Leipzig, Germany, only to later cede the city to the Soviet Union.\n* 1945 – World War II: Führerbunker: Adolf Hitler makes his last trip to the surface to award Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth.\n* 1945 – Twenty Jewish children used in medical experiments at Neuengamme are killed in the basement of the Bullenhuser Damm school.\n*1946 – The League of Nations officially dissolves, giving most of its power to the United Nations.\n*1961 – Failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion of US-backed Cuban exiles against Cuba.\n*1968 – English politician Enoch Powell makes his controversial ''Rivers of Blood'' speech.\n*1972 – Apollo 16, commanded by John Young, lands on the moon.\n*1999 – Columbine High School massacre: Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold killed 13 people and injured 24 others before committing suicide at Columbine High School in Columbine, Colorado.\n*2007 – Johnson Space Center shooting: William Phillips with a handgun barricades himself in NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas before killing a male hostage and himself.\n*2008 – Danica Patrick wins the Indy Japan 300 becoming the first female driver in history to win an Indy car race.\n*2010 – The Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explodes in the Gulf of Mexico, killing eleven workers and beginning an oil spill that would last six months.\n*2012 – One hundred twenty-seven people are killed when a plane crashes in a residential area near the Benazir Bhutto International Airport near Islamabad, Pakistan.\n*2013 – A 6.6-magnitude earthquake strikes Lushan County, Ya'an, in China's Sichuan province, killing more than 150 people and injuring thousands.\n*2015 – Ten people are killed in a bomb attack on a convoy carrying food supplies to a United Nations compound in Garowe in the Somali region of Puntland.\n",
"*1492 – Pietro Aretino, Italian author, playwright, and poet (d. 1556)\n*1494 – Johannes Agricola, German theologian and reformer (d. 1566)\n*1544 – Renata of Lorraine, Duchess consort of Bavaria (d. 1602)\n*1586 – Rose of Lima, Peruvian mystic and saint (d. 1617)\n*1633 – Emperor Go-Kōmyō of Japan (d. 1654)\n*1646 – Charles Plumier, French botanist and author (d. 1704)\n*1650 – William Bedloe, English spy (d. 1680)\n*1718 – David Brainerd, American missionary (d. 1747)\n*1723 – Cornelius Harnett, American merchant, farmer, and politician (d. 1781)\n*1727 – Florimond Claude, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, Belgian-Austrian minister and diplomat (d. 1794)\n*1745 – Philippe Pinel, French physician and psychiatrist (d. 1826)\n*1748 – Georg Michael Telemann, German composer and theologian (d. 1831)\n*1772 – William Lawless, Irish revolutionary and French general (d. 1824)\n*1808 – Napoleon III, French politician, 1st President of France (d. 1873)\n*1816 – Bogoslav Šulek, Croatian philologist, historian, and lexicographer (d. 1895)\n*1818 – Heinrich Göbel, German-American mechanic and engineer (d. 1893)\n*1826 – Dinah Craik, English author and poet (d. 1887)\n*1836 – Eli Whitney Blake, Jr., American scientist and academic (d. 1895)\n*1840 – Odilon Redon, French painter and illustrator (d. 1916)\n*1850 – Daniel Chester French, American sculptor, designed the Lincoln statue (d. 1931)\n*1851 – Siegmund Lubin, Polish-American businessman, founded the Lubin Manufacturing Company (d. 1923)\n*1860 – Justinien de Clary, French target shooter (d. 1933)\n*1871 – Sydney Chapman, English economist and civil servant (d. 1951)\n*1875 – Vladimir Vidrić, Croatian poet and lawyer (d. 1909)\n*1879 – Paul Poiret, French fashion designer (d. 1944)\n*1882 – Holland Smith, American general (d. 1967)\n*1884 – Princess Beatrice of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1966)\n* 1884 – Oliver Kirk, American boxer (d. 1960)\n* 1884 – Daniel Varoujan, Armenian poet and educator (d. 1915)\n*1889 – Albert Jean Amateau, Turkish rabbi, lawyer, and activist (d. 1996)\n* 1889 – Prince Erik, Duke of Västmanland (d. 1918)\n* 1889 – Marie-Antoinette de Geuser, French mystic (d. 1918)\n* 1889 – Adolf Hitler, Austrian-German soldier and politician, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1945)\n* 1889 – Tonny Kessler, Dutch footballer (d. 1960)\n*1890 – Maurice Duplessis, Canadian lawyer and politician, 16th Premier of Quebec (d. 1959)\n* 1890 – Adolf Schärf, Austrian soldier and politician, 6th President of Austria (d. 1965)\n*1891 – Dave Bancroft, American baseball player and manager (d. 1972)\n*1893 – Harold Lloyd, American actor, comedian, and producer (d. 1971)\n* 1893 – Joan Miró, Spanish painter and sculptor (d. 1983)\n*1895 – Emile Christian, American trombonist and composer (d. 1973)\n* 1895 – Henry de Montherlant, French essayist, novelist, and dramatist (d. 1972)\n*1896 – Wop May, Canadian captain and pilot (d. 1952)\n*1899 – Alan Arnett McLeod, Canadian lieutenant, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1918)\n*1904 – Bruce Cabot, American actor (d. 1972)\n*1907 – Miran Bux, Pakistani cricketer (d. 1991)\n* 1907 – Augoustinos Kantiotes, Greek bishop (d. 2010)\n*1908 – Lionel Hampton, African-American vibraphone player, pianist, bandleader, and actor (d. 2002)\n*1910 – Fatin Rüştü Zorlu, Turkish diplomat and politician (d. 1961)\n*1913 – Mimis Fotopoulos, Greek actor and poet (d. 1986)\n* 1913 – Willi Hennig, German biologist and entomologist (d. 1976)\n* 1913 – Roger Rochard, French runner (d. 1993)\n*1914 – Betty Lou Gerson, American actress (d. 1999)\n*1915 – Joseph Wolpe, South African-American psychotherapist and physician (d. 1997)\n*1916 – Nasiba Zeynalova, Azerbaijani actress (d. 2004)\n*1918 – Kai Siegbahn, Swedish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2007)\n*1919 – Richard Hillary, Australian lieutenant and pilot (d. 1943)\n*1920 – Frances Ames, South African neurologist, psychiatrist, and human rights activist (d. 2002)\n*1920 – Clement Isong, Nigerian banker and politician, Governor of Cross River State (d. 2000)\n* 1920 – Ronald Speirs, American colonel (d. 2007)\n* 1920 – John Paul Stevens, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States\n*1923 – Mother Angelica, American nun and broadcaster, founded Eternal Word Television Network (d. 2016)\n* 1923 – Irene Lieblich, Polish-American painter and illustrator (d. 2008)\n* 1923 – Tito Puente, American drummer and producer (d. 2000)\n*1924 – Nina Foch, Dutch-American actress (d. 2008)\n* 1924 – Leslie Phillips, English actor and producer\n* 1924 – Guy Rocher, Canadian sociologist and academic\n*1925 – Ernie Stautner, German-American football player and coach (d. 2006)\n* 1925 – Elena Verdugo, American actress (d. 2017)\n*1927 – Bud Cullen, Canadian judge and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Employment and Immigration (d. 2005)\n* 1927 – Phil Hill, American race car driver (d. 2008)\n* 1927 – K. Alex Müller, Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n*1928 – Robert Byrne, American chess player and author (d. 2013)\n* 1928 – Johnny Gavin, Irish footballer (d. 2007)\n*1929 – Harry Agganis, American baseball and football player (d. 1955)\n* 1929 – Bobby Hollander, American film director, actor, and magazine publisher (d. 2002)\n*1930 – Dwight Gustafson, American composer and conductor (d. 2014)\n* 1930 – Antony Jay, English director and screenwriter (d. 2016)\n*1931 – Michael Allenby, 3rd Viscount Allenby, English lieutenant and politician (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – John Eccles, 2nd Viscount Eccles, English businessman and politician\n*1936 – Pauli Ellefsen, Faroese technician, surveyor, and politician, 6th Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 2012)\n* 1936 – Pat Roberts, American captain, journalist, and politician\n* 1936 – Christopher Robinson, English organist and conductor\n*1937 – Jiří Dienstbier, Czech journalist and politician, Czech Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2011)\n* 1937 – Antonios Kounadis, Greek discus thrower\n* 1937 – Harvey Quaytman, American painter and educator (d. 2002)\n* 1937 – George Takei, American actor\n*1938 – Betty Cuthbert, Australian sprinter\n* 1938 – Manfred Kinder, German runner\n* 1938 – Peter Snow, British historian and journalist\n* 1938 – Eszter Tamási, Hungarian actress (d. 1991)\n*1939 – Peter S. Beagle, American author and screenwriter\n* 1939 – Gro Harlem Brundtland, Norwegian physician and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Norway\n* 1939 – Johnny Tillotson, American singer-songwriter\n*1940 – James Gammon, American actor (d. 2010)\n*1941 – Ryan O'Neal, American actor\n*1942 – Giles Henderson, English lawyer and academic\n* 1942 – Arto Paasilinna, Finnish journalist and author\n*1943 – Alan Beith, English academic and politician\n* 1943 – John Eliot Gardiner, English conductor and director\n* 1943 – Edie Sedgwick, American model and actress (d. 1971)\n*1944 – Toivo Aare, Estonian journalist and author (d. 1999)\n*1945 – Michael Brandon, American actor and director\n* 1945 – Alistair Cooke, Baron Lexden, English historian and author\n* 1945 – Thein Sein, Burmese general and politician, 8th President of Burma\n* 1945 – Steve Spurrier, American football player and coach\n* 1945 – Naftali Temu, Kenyan runner (d. 2003)\n*1946 – Sandro Chia, Italian painter and sculptor\n* 1946 – Tommy Hutton, American baseball player and sportscaster\n* 1946 – Julien Poulin, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1946 – Gordon Smiley, American race car driver (d. 1982)\n*1947 – Rita Dionne-Marsolais, Canadian economist and politician\n* 1947 – David Leland, English actor, director, and screenwriter\n* 1947 – Viktor Suvorov, Russian intelligence officer, historian, and author\n* 1947 – Andrew Tobias, American journalist and author\n*1948 – Gregory Itzin, American actor\n* 1948 – Matthias Kuhle, German geographer and academic (d. 2015)\n*1949 – Veronica Cartwright, English-American actress\n* 1949 – Toller Cranston, Canadian-Mexican figure skater and painter (d. 2015)\n* 1949 – Massimo D'Alema, Italian journalist and politician, 76th Prime Minister of Italy\n* 1949 – Jessica Lange, American actress\n*1950 – Steve Erickson, American author and critic\n* 1950 – Alexander Lebed, Russian general and politician (d. 2002)\n* 1950 – N. Chandrababu Naidu, Indian politician, 13th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh\n*1951 – Luther Vandross, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2005)\n*1952 – Louka Katseli, Greek economist and politician\n* 1952 – Božidar Maljković, Serbian basketball player and coach\n* 1952 – Eric Pickles, English politician, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government\n*1953 – Sebastian Faulks, English journalist and author\n*1955 – Donald Pettit, American engineer and astronaut\n*1956 – Beatrice Ask, Swedish politician, Swedish Minister for Justice\n* 1956 – Kakha Bendukidze, Georgian economist and politician, Georgian Minister of Economy (d. 2014)\n*1958 – Viacheslav Fetisov, Russian ice hockey player and coach\n*1960 – Debbie Flintoff-King, Australian hurdler and coach\n*1961 – Don Mattingly, American baseball player, coach, and manager\n*1963 – Maurício Gugelmin, Brazilian race car driver\n* 1963 – Rachel Whiteread, English sculptor\n*1964 – Crispin Glover, American actor\n* 1964 – Andy Serkis, English actor and director\n* 1964 – Rosalynn Sumners, American figure skater\n*1965 – Kostis Chatzidakis, Greek politician, Ministry of Economy, Infrastructure, Shipping and Tourism\n* 1965 – Adrián Fernández, Mexican race car driver\n*1966 – David Chalmers, Australian philosopher and academic\n* 1966 – David Filo, American businessman, co-founded Yahoo!\n*1967 – Mike Portnoy, American drummer and songwriter\n* 1967 – Raymond van Barneveld, Dutch darts player\n*1968 – Yelena Välbe, Russian skier and manager\n* 1968 – Roman Virastyuk, Ukrainian shot putter\n*1969 – Felix Baumgartner, Austrian skydiver and BASE jumper\n* 1969 – Will Hodgman, Australian politician, 45th Premier of Tasmania\n*1970 – Sarantuya, Mongolian soprano\n* 1970 – Avishai Cohen, Israeli singer-songwriter and bassist\n* 1970 – Shemar Moore, American actor\n*1971 – Carla Geurts, Dutch swimmer, physiologist, and academic\n* 1971 – Allan Houston, American basketball player and manager\n* 1971 – Nikos Kyzeridis, Greek footballer\n*1972 – Lê Huỳnh Đức, Vietnamese footballer, coach, and manager\n* 1972 – Carmen Electra, American model and actress\n* 1972 – Željko Joksimović, Serbian singer-songwriter and producer\n* 1972 – Stephen Marley, American singer, guitarist, and producer\n*1973 – Lamond Murray, American basketball player\n*1974 – Urmas Paet, Estonian journalist and politician, 26th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs\n*1976 – Aldo Bobadilla, Paraguayan footballer\n* 1976 – Shay Given, Irish footballer and manager\n* 1976 – Chris Mason, Canadian ice hockey player\n*1979 – Ludovic Magnin, Swiss footballer and coach\n* 1979 – Nate Marquardt, American mixed martial artist\n*1980 – Gunta Baško, Latvian basketball player\n*1982 – Jacqueline Govaert, Dutch singer-songwriter and pianist\n* 1982 – Dario Knežević, Croatian footballer\n*1983 – Danny Granger, American basketball player\n* 1983 – Miranda Kerr, Australian model\n*1984 – Nelson Évora, Ivorian-Portuguese triple jumper\n* 1984 – Edixon Perea, Colombian footballer\n* 1984 – Jenna Shoemaker, American triathlete\n*1985 – Curt Hawkins, American wrestler\n* 1985 – Brent Seabrook, Canadian ice hockey player\n*1988 – Brandon Belt, American baseball player\n*1989 – Carlos Valdes, Colombian-American actor and singer\n*1990 – Luhan, Chinese singer, actor and ex-member of Korean boy band EXO (band).\n*1992 – Kristian Álvarez, Mexican footballer\n* 1992 – Marko Meerits, Estonian footballer\n*1995 – Jean Marie Dongou, Cameroonian footballer\n\n",
"* 689 – Cædwalla, king of Wessex (b. 659)\n* 767 – Taichō, Japanese monk (b. 682)\n* 888 – Xi Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 862)\n*1099 – Peter Bartholomew (b. 1061)\n*1164 – Antipope Victor IV\n*1176 – Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English-Irish politician, Lord Chief Justice of Ireland (b. 1130)\n*1248 – Güyük Khan, Mongol ruler, 3rd Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (b. 1206)\n*1284 – Hōjō Tokimune, regent of Japan (b. 1251)\n*1314 – Pope Clement V (b. 1264)\n*1322 – Simon Rinalducci, Italian Augustinian friar\n*1521 – Zhengde, Chinese emperor (b. 1491)\n*1534 – Elizabeth Barton, English nun and martyr (b. 1506)\n*1558 – Johannes Bugenhagen, German priest and theologian (b. 1485)\n*1643 – Christoph Demantius, German composer and poet (b. 1567)\n*1703 – Lancelot Addison, English clergyman and educator (b. 1632)\n*1769 – Chief Pontiac, American tribal leader (b. 1720)\n*1831 – John Abernethy, English surgeon and anatomist (b. 1764)\n*1873 – William Tite, English architect, designed the Royal Exchange (b. 1798)\n*1874 – Alexander H. Bailey, American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1817)\n*1881 – William Burges, English architect and designer (b. 1827)\n*1886 – Charles-François-Frédéric, marquis de Montholon-Sémonville, French general and diplomat, French ambassador to the United States (b. 1814)\n*1887 – Muhammad Sharif Pasha, Greek-Egyptian politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Egypt (b. 1826)\n*1899 – Joseph Wolf, German ornithologist and illustrator (b. 1820)\n*1902 – Joaquim de Sousa Andrade, Brazilian poet and educator (b. 1833)\n*1912 – Bram Stoker, Anglo-Irish novelist and critic, created Count Dracula (b. 1847)\n*1918 – Karl Ferdinand Braun, German-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1850)\n*1927 – Enrique Simonet, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1866)\n*1929 – Prince Henry of Prussia (b. 1862)\n*1931 – Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, 5th Baronet, Scottish-English fencer and businessman (b. 1862)\n*1932 – Giuseppe Peano, Italian mathematician and philosopher (b. 1858)\n*1935 – John Cameron, Scottish footballer and manager (b. 1872)\n* 1935 – Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon, English fashion designer (b. 1863)\n*1942 – Jüri Jaakson, Estonian businessman and politician, 6th State Elder of Estonia (b. 1870)\n*1944 – Elmer Gedeon, American baseball player and pilot (b. 1917)\n*1945 – Erwin Bumke, Polish-German jurist and politician (b. 1874)\n*1946 – Mae Busch, Australian actress (b. 1891)\n*1947 – Christian X of Denmark (b. 1870)\n*1951 – Ivanoe Bonomi, Italian politician, 25th Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1873)\n*1961 – Ado Vabbe, Estonian painter (b. 1892)\n*1967 – Léo-Paul Desrosiers, Canadian journalist and author (b. 1896)\n*1968 – Rudolph Dirks, German-American illustrator (b. 1877)\n*1969 – Vjekoslav Luburić, Croatian war criminal and Porajmos perpetrator (b. 1911)\n*1980 – M. Canagaratnam, Sri Lankan politician (b. 1924)\n*1982 – Archibald MacLeish, American poet, playwright, and lawyer (b. 1892)\n*1986 – Sibte Hassan, Pakistani journalist, scholar, and activist (b. 1916)\n*1991 – Steve Marriott, English singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1947)\n* 1991 – Don Siegel, American director and producer (b. 1912)\n*1992 – Benny Hill, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1924)\n*1993 – Cantinflas, Mexican actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1911)\n*1995 – Milovan Đilas, Yugoslav communist, politician, theorist and author (b. 1911)\n*1996 – Trần Văn Trà, Vietnamese general and politician (b. 1918)\n*1999 – Casualties of the Columbine High School massacre:\n** Cassie Bernall, American student (b. 1981)\n** Eric Harris, American student and murderer (b. 1981)\n** Dylan Klebold, American student and murderer (b. 1981)\n** Rachel Scott, American student, inspired the Rachel's Challenge (b. 1981)\n*2001 – Giuseppe Sinopoli, Italian conductor and composer (b. 1946)\n*2002 – Alan Dale, American singer (b. 1925)\n*2003 – Daijiro Kato, Japanese motorcycle racer (b. 1976)\n* 2003 – Bernard Katz, German-English biophysicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)\n*2004 – Lizzy Mercier Descloux, French musician, singer-songwriter, composer, actress, writer and painter (b. 1956)\n*2005 – Fumio Niwa, Japanese journalist and author (b. 1904)\n*2007 – Andrew Hill, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1931)\n* 2007 – Michael Fu Tieshan, Chinese bishop (b. 1931)\n*2008 – Monica Lovinescu, Romanian journalist and author (b. 1923)\n*2010 – Dorothy Height, American educator and activist (b. 1912)\n*2011 – Tim Hetherington, English photographer and journalist (b. 1970)\n*2012 – Bert Weedon, English guitarist and songwriter (b. 1920)\n*2014 – Mithat Bayrak, Turkish wrestler and trainer (b. 1929)\n* 2014 – Rubin Carter, American-Canadian boxer (b. 1937)\n* 2014 – Neville Wran, Australian lawyer and politician, 35th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1926)\n*2016 – Chyna, American wrestler (b. 1969)\n*2017 – Cuba Gooding Sr., American singer and actor (b. 1944)\n\n",
"*Christian feast day:\n**Agnes of Montepulciano\n**Blessed Oda of Brabant\n**Johannes Bugenhagen (Lutheran)\n**Theotimos\n**April 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n*420 (cannabis culture) (International)\n*UN Chinese Language Day (United Nations)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n*\n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | April 20 |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"* AD 65 – The freedman Milichus betrays Piso's plot to kill the Emperor Nero and all the conspirators are arrested.\n* 531 – Battle of Callinicum: A Byzantine army under Belisarius is defeated by the Persians at Raqqa (northern Syria).\n* 797 – Empress Irene organizes a conspiracy against her son, the Byzantine emperor Constantine VI. He is deposed and blinded. Shortly after, Constantine dies of his wounds; Irene proclaims herself ''basileus''.\n*1012 – Martyrdom of Ælfheah in Greenwich, England.\n*1529 – Beginning of the Protestant Reformation: After the Second Diet of Speyer bans Lutheranism, a group of rulers (''German:'' Fürst) and independent cities protests the reinstatement of the Edict of Worms.\n*1539 – Treaty of Frankfurt signed\n*1608 – In Ireland: O'Doherty's Rebellion is launched by the Burning of Derry\n*1677 – The French army captures the town of Cambrai held by Spanish troops.\n*1713 – With no living male heirs, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, issues the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 to ensure that Habsburg lands and the Austrian throne would be inherited by his daughter, Maria Theresa (not actually born until 1717).\n*1770 – Captain James Cook, still holding the rank of lieutenant, sights the eastern coast of what is now Australia.\n* 1770 – Marie Antoinette marries Louis XVI of France in a proxy wedding.\n*1775 – American Revolutionary War: The war begins with an American victory in Concord during the battles of Lexington and Concord.\n*1782 – John Adams secures the Dutch Republic's recognition of the United States as an independent government. The house which he had purchased in The Hague, Netherlands becomes the first American embassy.\n*1809 – An Austrian corps is defeated by the forces of the Duchy of Warsaw in the Battle of Raszyn, part of the struggles of the Fifth Coalition. On the same day the Austrian main army is defeated by a First French Empire Corps led by Louis-Nicolas Davout at the Battle of Teugen-Hausen in Bavaria, part of a four-day campaign that ended in a French victory.\n*1810 – Venezuela achieves home rule: Vicente Emparán, Governor of the Captaincy General is removed by the people of Caracas and a junta is installed.\n*1839 – The Treaty of London establishes Belgium as a kingdom and guarantees its neutrality.\n*1861 – American Civil War: Baltimore riot of 1861: A pro-Secession mob in Baltimore attacks United States Army troops marching through the city.\n*1903 – The Kishinev pogrom in Kishinev (Bessarabia) begins, forcing tens of thousands of Jews to later seek refuge in Palestine and the Western world.\n*1927 – Mae West is sentenced to ten days in jail for obscenity for her play ''Sex''.\n*1942 – World War II: In Poland, the Majdan-Tatarski ghetto is established, situated between the Lublin Ghetto and a Majdanek subcamp.\n*1943 – World War II: In Poland, the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising begins, after German troops enter the Warsaw Ghetto to round up the remaining Jews.\n*1956 – Actress Grace Kelly marries Prince Rainier of Monaco.\n*1960 – Students in South Korea hold a nationwide pro-democracy protest against president Syngman Rhee, eventually forcing him to resign.\n*1971 – Sierra Leone becomes a republic, and Siaka Stevens the president.\n* 1971 – Launch of Salyut 1, the first space station.\n* 1971 – Charles Manson is sentenced to death (later commuted to life imprisonment) for conspiracy in the Tate–LaBianca murders.\n*1973 – The Portuguese Socialist Party is founded in the German town of Bad Münstereifel.\n*1975 – India's first satellite Aryabhata launched in orbit from Kapustin Yar, Russia.\n*1984 – ''Advance Australia Fair'' is proclaimed as Australia's national anthem, and green and gold as the national colours.\n*1985 – Two hundred ATF and FBI agents lay siege to the compound of the white supremacist survivalist group The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord in Arkansas; the CSA surrenders two days later. \n*1987 – The Simpsons first appear as a series of shorts on ''The Tracey Ullman Show'', first starting with Good Night.\n*1989 – A gun turret explodes on the , killing 47 sailors.\n*1993 – The 51-day FBI siege of the Branch Davidian building in Waco, Texas, USA, ends when a fire breaks out. 76 Davidians including 18 children under the age of 10 died in the fire.\n*1995 – Oklahoma City bombing: The Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, USA, is bombed, killing 168 people including 19 children under the age of 6.\n*1997 – The 1997 Red River flood overwhelms the city of Grand Forks, North Dakota. Fire breaks out and spreads in downtown Grand Forks, but high water levels hamper efforts to reach the fire, leading to the destruction of 11 buildings.\n*1999 – The German Bundestag returns to Berlin.\n*2005 – Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger is elected to the papacy and becomes Pope Benedict XVI.\n*2011 – Fidel Castro resigns as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba after holding the title since July 1961.\n*2013 – Boston Marathon bombing suspect Tamerlan Tsarnaev is killed in a shootout with police. His brother Dzhokhar is later captured hiding in a boat inside a backyard in the suburb of Watertown.\n",
"* 626 – Eanflæd, English nun and saint (d. 685)\n*1452 – Frederick IV, King of Naples (d. 1504)\n*1483 – Paolo Giovio, Italian bishop (d. 1552)\n*1593 – Sir John Hobart, 2nd Baronet, English politician (d. 1647)\n*1603 – Michel Le Tellier, French politician, French Minister of Defence (d. 1685)\n*1613 – Christoph Bach, German musician (d. 1661)\n*1633 – Willem Drost, Dutch painter (d. 1659)\n*1655 – George St Lo, Royal Navy officer and administrator (d. 1718)\n*1658 – Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine, German husband of Archduchess Maria Anna Josepha of Austria (d. 1716)\n*1660 – Sebastián Durón, Spanish composer (d. 1716)\n*1665 – Jacques Lelong, French author (d. 1721)\n*1686 – Vasily Tatishchev, Russian ethnographer and politician (d. 1750)\n*1715 – James Nares, English organist and composer (d. 1783)\n*1721 – Roger Sherman, American lawyer and politician (d. 1793)\n*1734 – Karl von Ordóñez, Austrian violinist and composer (d. 1786)\n*1757 – Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth, English admiral and politician (d. 1833)\n*1758 – William Carnegie, 7th Earl of Northesk, Scottish admiral (d. 1831)\n*1785 – Alexandre Pierre François Boëly, French pianist and composer (d. 1858)\n*1787 – Deaf Smith, American soldier (d. 1837)\n*1793 – Ferdinand I of Austria (d. 1875)\n*1806 – Sarah Bagley, American labor organizer (d. c. 1888)\n*1814 – Louis Amédée Achard, French journalist and author (d. 1875)\n*1832 – José Echegaray, Spanish poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1916)\n*1835 – Julius Krohn, Finnish poet and journalist (d. 1888)\n*1863 – Hemmo Kallio, Finnish actor (d. 1940)\n*1873 – Sydney Barnes, English cricketer (d. 1967)\n*1874 – Ernst Rüdin, Swiss psychiatrist, geneticist, and eugenicist (d. 1952)\n*1877 – Ole Evinrude, Norwegian-American engineer, invented the outboard motor (d. 1934)\n*1879 – Arthur Robertson, Scottish runner (d. 1957)\n*1882 – Getúlio Vargas, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 14th President of Brazil (d. 1954)\n*1883 – Henry Jameson, American soccer player (d. 1938)\n* 1883 – Richard von Mises, Austrian-American mathematician and physicist (d. 1953)\n*1885 – Karl Tarvas, Estonian architect (d. 1975)\n*1889 – Otto Georg Thierack, German jurist and politician (d. 1946)\n*1891 – Françoise Rosay, French actress (d. 1974)\n*1892 – Germaine Tailleferre, French composer and educator (d. 1983)\n*1894 – Elizabeth Dilling, American author and activist (d. 1966)\n*1897 – Peter de Noronha, Indian businessman and philanthropist (d. 1970)\n* 1897 – Jiroemon Kimura, Japanese super-centenarian (d. 2013)\n*1898 – Constance Talmadge, American actress and producer (d. 1973)\n*1899 – George O'Brien, American actor (d. 1985)\n* 1899 – Cemal Tollu, Turkish lieutenant and painter (d. 1968)\n*1900 – Richard Hughes, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1976)\n* 1900 – Roland Michener, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Governor General of Canada (d. 1991)\n*1902 – Veniamin Kaverin, Russian author and screenwriter (d. 1989)\n*1903 – Eliot Ness, American law enforcement agent (d. 1957)\n*1907 – Alan Wheatley, English actor (d. 1991)\n*1908 – Irena Eichlerówna, Polish actress (d. 1990) \n*1912 – Glenn T. Seaborg, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)\n*1913 – Ken Carpenter, American discus thrower and coach (d. 1984)\n*1917 – Sven Hassel, Danish-German soldier and author (d. 2012)\n*1919 – Sol Kaplan, American pianist and composer (d. 1990)\n*1920 – Gene Leis, American guitarist, composer, and producer (d. 1993)\n* 1920 – Marvin Mandel, American lawyer and politician, 56th Governor of Maryland (d. 2015)\n* 1920 – John O'Neil, American baseball player and manager (d. 2012)\n* 1920 – Julien Ries, Belgian cardinal (d. 2013)\n* 1920 – Marian Winters, American actress (d. 1978)\n*1921 – Anna Lee Aldred, American jockey (d. 2006)\n* 1921 – Leon Henkin, American logician (d. 2006)\n* 1921 – Roberto Tucci, Italian cardinal and theologian (d. 2015)\n*1922 – Erich Hartmann, German colonel and pilot (d. 1993)\n*1925 – John Kraaijkamp, Sr., Dutch actor (d. 2011)\n* 1925 – Hugh O'Brian, American actor (d. 2016)\n*1926 – Rawya Ateya, Egyptian captain and politician (d. 1997)\n*1928 – John Horlock, English engineer and academic (d. 2015)\n*1931 – Walter Stewart, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2004)\n*1932 – Fernando Botero, Colombian painter and sculptor\n*1933 – Dickie Bird, English cricketer and umpire\n* 1933 – Jayne Mansfield, American model and actress (d. 1967)\n* 1933 – Philip Lavallin Wroughton, English captain and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire\n*1934 – Dickie Goodman, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1989)\n*1935 – Dudley Moore, English actor, comedian, and pianist (d. 2002)\n* 1935 – Justin Francis Rigali, American cardinal\n*1936 – Wilfried Martens, Belgian politician, 60th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2013)\n* 1936 – Jack Pardee, American football player and coach (d. 2013)\n*1937 – Antonio Carluccio, Italian-English chef and author\n* 1937 – Elinor Donahue, American actress \n* 1937 – Joseph Estrada, Filipino politician, 13th President of the Philippines\n*1938 – Stanley Fish, American theorist, author, and scholar\n*1939 – E. Clay Shaw, Jr., American accountant, judge, and politician (d. 2013)\n*1941 – Roberto Carlos, Brazilian singer-songwriter \n* 1941 – Michel Roux, French-English chef and author\n* 1941 – Bobby Russell, American singer-songwriter (d. 1992)\n*1942 – Bas Jan Ader, Dutch-American photographer and director (d. 1975)\n* 1942 – Alan Price, English keyboard player, singer, and composer\n* 1942 – Jack Roush, American businessman, founded Roush Fenway Racing\n* 1942 – Maarten van den Bergh, American-Dutch businessman\n*1943 – Margo MacDonald, Scottish journalist and politician (d. 2014)\n* 1943 – Lorenzo Sanz, Spanish businessman\n*1944 – Keith Erickson, American basketball player and sportscaster\n* 1944 – James Heckman, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1944 – Bernie Worrell, American keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2016)\n*1946 – Duygu Asena, Turkish journalist, author, and activist (d. 2006)\n* 1946 – Tim Curry, English actor \n*1947 – Murray Perahia, American pianist and conductor\n* 1947 – Wilfrid Stevenson, Baron Stevenson of Balmacara, English civil servant\n* 1947 – Yan Pascal Tortelier, French violinist and conductor\n* 1947 – Mark Volman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n*1948 – Stuart McLean, Canadian radio host and author (d. 2017)\n* 1948 – Rick Miller, American baseball player and manager\n*1949 – Paloma Picasso, French-Spanish fashion designer\n* 1949 – Larry Walters, American truck driver and pilot (d. 1993)\n*1950 – Julia Cleverdon, English businesswoman and philanthropist\n*1951 – Barry Brown, American actor and playwright (d. 1978)\n* 1951 – Jóannes Eidesgaard, Faroese educator and politician, Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands\n*1952 – Alexis Argüello, Nicaraguan boxer and politician (d. 2009)\n* 1952 – Tony Plana, Cuban-American actor and director\n* 1952 – Michael Trend, English journalist and politician\n*1953 – Rod Morgenstein, American drummer \n* 1953 – Sara Simeoni, Italian high jumper\n* 1953 – Ruby Wax, British-based American comedian, actress, and screenwriter\n*1954 – Trevor Francis, English footballer and manager\n* 1954 – Bob Rock, Canadian guitarist, songwriter, and producer \n*1956 – Sue Barker, English tennis player and journalist\n* 1956 – Randy Carlyle, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1956 – Anne Glover, Scottish biologist and academic\n*1957 – Tony Martin, English singer-songwriter \n*1958 – Steve Antin, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1958 – Stevie B, American singer-songwriter and record producer\n* 1958 – Denis O'Brien, Irish businessman, founded BT Ireland\n* 1958 – Vytautas Šapranauskas, Lithuanian actor (d. 2013)\n* 1958 – Keith Shine, British academic and educator\n*1959 – Jane Campbell, Baroness Campbell of Surbiton, English activist\n* 1959 – Teofisto Guingona III, Filipino lawyer and politician\n* 1959 – Donald Markwell, Australian sociologist and academic\n*1960 – Nicoletta Braschi, Italian actress and producer\n* 1960 – Ara Gevorgyan, Armenian pianist, composer, and producer\n* 1960 – Roger Merrett, Australian footballer and coach\n* 1960 – John Schweitz, American basketball player and coach\n* 1960 – Frank Viola, American baseball player and coach\n*1961 – Alan Kirschenbaum, American producer and writer (d. 2012)\n* 1961 – Albert Martinez, Filipino actor, director, and producer\n* 1961 – Spike Owen, American baseball player and coach\n* 1961 – Richard Phelps, English pentathlete\n* 1962 – Dorian Yates, English Bodybuilder\n*1962 – Al Unser Jr., American race car driver\n*1964 – Gordon Marshall, Scottish footballer and coach\n* 1964 – Kim Weaver, American astrophysicist, astronomer, and academic\n*1965 – Natalie Dessay, French soprano and actress\n* 1965 – Suge Knight, American record producer, co-founded Death Row Records\n*1966 – Véronique Gens, French soprano and actress\n* 1966 – David La Haye, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1966 – Julia Neigel, Russian-German singer-songwriter and producer\n* 1966 – Paul Reiffel, Australian cricketer and umpire\n* 1966 – El Samurai, Japanese wrestler\n*1967 – Philippe Saint-André, French rugby player and coach\n* 1967 – Steven H Silver, American journalist and author\n* 1967 – Dar Williams, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n*1968 – Ashley Judd, American actress and activist\n*1969 – Andrew Carnie, Canadian-American linguist, author, and academic\n* 1969 – Susan Polgar, Hungarian-American chess player\n*1970 – Kelly Holmes, English runner\n* 1970 – Luis Miguel, Mexican singer-songwriter and producer\n*1971 – Brendon Burns (comedian), Australian Comedian, podcaster, writer and author\n*1972 – Rivaldo, Brazilian footballer\n* 1972 – Jeff Wilkins, American football player\n*1973 – George Gregan, Zambian-Australian rugby player and coach\n* 1973 – Alessio Scarpi, Italian footballer\n*1975 – Jason Gillespie, Australian cricketer and coach\n* 1975 – Jussi Jääskeläinen, Finnish footballer\n*1976 – Ruud Jolie, Dutch guitarist \n* 1976 – Scott Padgett, American basketball player, coach, and radio host\n* 1976 – Kim Young-oh, South Korean author and illustrator\n*1977 – Joe Beimel, American baseball player\n* 1977 – Anju Bobby George, Indian long jumper\n* 1977 – Lucien Mettomo, Cameroonian footballer\n* 1977 – Dennys Reyes, Mexican baseball player\n* 1977 – Jonny Storm, English wrestler and trainer\n*1978 – James Franco, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1978 – Gabriel Heinze, Argentinian footballer\n* 1978 – Amanda Sage, American-Austrian painter and educator\n*1979 – Rocky Bernard, American football player\n* 1979 – Kate Hudson, American actress \n* 1979 – Zhao Junzhe, Chinese footballer\n*1980 – Jason Blaine, Canadian singer-songwriter\n* 1980 – Robyn Regehr, Brazilian-Canadian ice hockey player\n*1981 – Hayden Christensen, Canadian actor and producer\n* 1981 – Ryuta Hara, Japanese footballer\n* 1981 – Martin Havlát, Czech ice hockey player\n* 1981 – James Hibberd, English cricketer\n* 1981 – Troy Polamalu, American football player\n* 1981 – Catalina Sandino Moreno, Colombian actress\n*1982 – Joseph Hagerty, American gymnast\n* 1982 – Filip Jícha, Czech handball player\n* 1982 – Samuel C. Morrison, Jr., Liberian-American journalist, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1982 – Rocco Sabato, Italian footballer\n* 1982 – Ignacio Serricchio, Argentinian-American actor\n* 1982 – Sitiveni Sivivatu, New Zealand rugby player\n*1983 – Alberto Callaspo, Venezuelan-American baseball player\n* 1983 – Zach Duke, American baseball player\n* 1983 – Joe Mauer, American baseball player\n* 1983 – Patrick Platins, German footballer\n* 1983 – Curtis Thigpen, American baseball player\n*1984 – Christopher Pearce, English cricketer\n*1985 – Valon Behrami, Swiss footballer\n* 1985 – David Cavazos, Mexican singer-songwriter\n* 1985 – Jan Zimmermann, German footballer\n*1986 – Pascal Angan, Beninese footballer\n* 1986 – Candace Parker, American basketball player\n* 1986 – Gabe Pruitt, American basketball player\n* 1986 – Will Thursfield, English-Australian footballer\n*1987 – Luigi Giorgi, Italian footballer\n* 1987 – Joe Hart, English footballer\n* 1987 – Daniel Schuhmacher, German singer-songwriter\n* 1987 – Maria Sharapova, Russian tennis player\n* 1987 – Lauren Wilson, Canadian figure skater\n*1988 – Enrique Esqueda, Mexican footballer\n*1989 – Dominik Mader, German footballer\n* 1989 – Sam Tordoff, English racing driver\n* 1989 – Daisuke Watabe, Japanese footballer\n*1990 – Jackie Bradley, Jr., American baseball player\n* 1990 – Kim Chiu, Filipino actress, singer, and dancer\n* 1990 – Héctor Herrera, Mexican footballer\n* 1990 – Kim Him-chan, South Korean singer and dancer \n* 1990 – Ayaka Takahashi, Japanese badminton player\n* 1990 – Damien Le Tallec, French footballer\n* 1990 – Patrick Wiegers, German footballer\n*1991 – Steve Cook, English footballer\n\n",
"* 843 – Judith of Bavaria, Frankish empress\n*1012 – Ælfheah of Canterbury, English archbishop and saint (b. 954)\n*1044 – Gothelo I, Duke of Lorraine, (b. 967)\n*1054 – Pope Leo IX (b. 1002)\n*1321 – Gerasimus I of Constantinople\n*1390 – Robert II of Scotland (b. 1316)\n*1431 – Adolph III, Count of Waldeck (b. 1362)\n*1560 – Philip Melanchthon, German theologian and reformer (b. 1497)\n*1567 – Michael Stifel, German monk and mathematician (b. 1487)\n*1578 – Uesugi Kenshin, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1530)\n*1588 – Paolo Veronese, Italian painter (b. 1528)\n*1608 – Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset, English poet, playwright, and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1536)\n*1618 – Thomas Bastard, English priest and author (b. 1566)\n*1629 – Sigismondo d'India, Italian composer (b. 1582)\n*1632 – Sigismund III Vasa, King of Sweden and Poland (b. 1566)\n*1686 – Antonio de Solís y Ribadeneyra, Spanish historian and playwright (b. 1610)\n*1689 – Christina, Queen of Sweden (b. 1626)\n*1733 – Elizabeth Hamilton, Countess of Orkney (b. 1655)\n*1739 – Nicholas Saunderson, English mathematician and academic (b. 1682)\n*1768 – Canaletto, Italian painter and etcher (b. 1697)\n*1776 – Jacob Emden, German rabbi and author (b. 1697)\n*1791 – Richard Price, Welsh-English preacher and philosopher (b. 1723)\n*1813 – Benjamin Rush, American physician and educator (b. 1745)\n*1824 – Lord Byron, English-Scottish poet and playwright (b. 1788)\n*1831 – Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger, German astronomer and mathematician (b. 1765)\n*1833 – James Gambier, 1st Baron Gambier, Bahamian-English admiral and politician, 36th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1756)\n*1840 – Jean-Jacques Lartigue, Canadian bishop (b. 1777)\n*1854 – Robert Jameson, Scottish mineralogist and academic (b. 1774)\n*1881 – Benjamin Disraeli, English journalist and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1804)\n*1882 – Charles Darwin, English biologist and theorist (b. 1809)\n*1893 – Martin Körber, Estonian-German pastor, composer, and conductor (b. 1817)\n*1901 – Alfred Horatio Belo, American publisher, founded ''The Dallas Morning News'' (b. 1839)\n*1906 – Pierre Curie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1859)\n* 1906 – Spencer Gore, English tennis player and cricketer (b. 1850)\n*1914 – Charles Sanders Peirce, American mathematician and philosopher (b. 1839)\n*1915 – Thomas Playford II, English-Australian politician, 17th Premier of South Australia (b. 1837)\n*1916 – Ephraim Shay, American engineer, designed the Shay locomotive (b. 1839)\n*1926 – Alexander Alexandrovich Chuprov, Russian-Swiss statistician and theorist (b. 1874)\n*1930 – Georges-Casimir Dessaulles, Canadian businessman and politician (b. 1827)\n*1937 – Martin Conway, 1st Baron Conway of Allington, English cartographer and politician (b. 1856)\n* 1937 – William Morton Wheeler, American entomologist and zoologist (b. 1865)\n*1941 – Johanna Müller-Hermann, Austrian composer (b. 1878)\n*1949 – Ulrich Salchow, Danish-Swedish figure skater (b. 1877)\n*1950 – Ernst Robert Curtius, French-German philologist and scholar (b. 1886)\n*1955 – Jim Corbett, Indian colonel, hunter, and author (b. 1875)\n*1960 – Beardsley Ruml, American economist and statistician (b. 1894)\n*1961 – Max Hainle, German swimmer (b. 1882)\n*1967 – Konrad Adenauer, German politician, 1st Chancellor of Germany (b. 1876)\n*1971 – Luigi Piotti, Italian race car driver (b. 1913)\n*1975 – Percy Lavon Julian, American chemist and academic (b. 1899)\n*1987 – Hugh Brannum, American vocalist, arranger, and composer (b. 1910)\n*1989 – Daphne du Maurier, English novelist and playwright (b. 1907)\n*1991 – Stanley Hawes, English-Australian director and producer (b. 1905)\n*1992 – Frankie Howerd, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1917)\n*1993 – David Koresh, American religious leader (b. 1959)\n* 1993 – George S. Mickelson, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 28th Governor of South Dakota (b. 1941)\n*1998 – Octavio Paz, Mexican poet, philosopher, and academic Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1914)\n*1999 – Hermine Braunsteiner, Austrian-German SS officer (b. 1919)\n*2000 – Louis Applebaum, Canadian composer and conductor (b. 1918)\n*2001 – Meldrim Thomson, Jr.. American publisher and politician, 73rd Governor of New Hampshire (b. 1912)\n*2002 – Reginald Rose, American writer (b. 1920)\n*2003 – Mirza Tahir Ahmad, Indian-English caliph (b. 1928)\n*2004 – Norris McWhirter, English author and activist co-founded the Guinness World Records (b. 1925)\n* 2004 – John Maynard Smith, English biologist and geneticist (b. 1920)\n*2005 – George P. Cosmatos, Italian-Greek director and screenwriter (b. 1941)\n* 2005 – Ruth Hussey, American actress (b. 1911)\n* 2005 – Clement Meadmore, Australian-American sculptor and author (b. 1929)\n* 2005 – Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Danish bassist and composer (b. 1946)\n*2006 – Albert Scott Crossfield, American engineer, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1921)\n*2007 – Jean-Pierre Cassel, French actor (b. 1932)\n*2008 – John Marzano, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1963)\n* 2008 – Alfonso López Trujillo, Colombian cardinal (b. 1935)\n*2009 – J. G. Ballard, English novelist, short story writer, and essayist. (b. 1930)\n*2012 – Leopold David de Rothschild, English financier and philanthropist (b. 1927)\n* 2012 – Greg Ham, Australian saxophonist, songwriter, and actor (b. 1953)\n* 2012 – Levon Helm, American singer-songwriter, drummer, guitarist, instrumentalist, and actor (b. 1940)\n* 2012 – Valeri Vasiliev, Russian ice hockey player (b. 1949)\n*2013 – Sivanthi Adithan, Indian businessman (b. 1936)\n* 2013 – Allan Arbus, American actor and photographer (b. 1918)\n* 2013 – Mike Denness, Scottish-English cricketer and referee (b. 1940)\n* 2013 – François Jacob, French biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920)\n* 2013 – E. L. Konigsburg, American author and illustrator (b. 1930)\n* 2013 – Al Neuharth, American journalist, author, and publisher, founded ''USA Today'' (b. 1924)\n*2014 – Lindy Berry, American football player (b. 1927)\n* 2014 – Ian McIntyre, Scottish journalist and producer (b. 1930)\n* 2014 – Frits Thors, Dutch journalist (b. 1909)\n*2015 – Raymond Carr, English historian and academic (b. 1919)\n* 2015 – William Price Fox, American journalist and author (b. 1926)\n* 2015 – Roy Mason, English miner and politician, Secretary of State for Defence (b. 1924)\n* 2015 – Tom McCabe, Scottish social worker and politician (b. 1954)\n* 2015 – Oktay Sinanoğlu, Italian-Turkish chemist and academic (b. 1935)\n*2016 – Patricio Aylwin, Chilean politician (b. 1918)\n* 2016 – Milt Pappas, American baseball player (b. 1939)\n*2017 – Aaron Hernandez, American football player (b. 1989)\n\n",
"* Christian feast day:\n** Ælfheah of Canterbury (Anglican, Catholic)\n** Emma of Lesum\n** Expeditus\n** George of Antioch\n** Olaus and Laurentius Petri (Lutheran)\n** Pope Leo IX\n** April 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Earliest day on which First Day of Summer or ''Sumardagurinn fyrsti'' can fall, while April 25 is the latest; celebrated on the first Thursday after April 18. (Iceland)\n* Army Day (Brazil)\n* Beginning of the Independence Movement (Venezuela)\n* Bicycle Day\n* Dutch-American Friendship Day (United States)\n* Holocaust Remembrance Day (Poland)\n* Indian Day (Brazil)\n* King Mswati III's birthday (Swaziland)\n* Landing of the 33 Patriots Day (Uruguay)\n* Primrose Day (United Kingdom)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | April 19 |
[
"\n\n'''Abdulaziz al-Omari''' (, , also transliterated as '''Alomari''' or '''al-Umari'''; May 28, 1979 – September 11, 2001) was a Saudi airport security guard and Imam, most known for being one of five hijackers of American Airlines Flight 11 as part of the September 11 attacks.\n\nOmari arrived in the United States in June 2001, on a tourist visa, obtained through the Visa Express program. On September 11, 2001, Omari boarded American Airlines Flight 11 and assisted in the hijacking of the plane, which was crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center, as part of the coordinated attacks.\n",
"Little is known about al-Omari's life, and it is unclear whether some information refers to Omari or another person by that name. He has used birth date May 28, 1979. \n",
"He is alleged to have often served as an Imam at his mosque in Saudi Arabia and is believed by American authorities to have been a student of a Saudi cleric named Sulaiman Al-Alwan, whose mosque is located in Al-Qassim Province.\n\nAccording to Tawfiq bin Attash, Omari was one of a group of future hijackers who provided security at Kandahar airport after their basic training at an al-Qaeda camp. During the 2000 Al Qaeda Summit in Kuala Lumpur, American authorities claim that immigration records show that a person named Abdulaziz al-Omari was visiting the country, although they say they are not sure that this was the same person.\n\nIn the autumn of 2001, after the September 11 attacks, al Jazeera television broadcast a tape they claim was made by Omari. The speaker made a farewell suicide video. In it, he reads \"I am writing this with my full conscience and I am writing this in expectation of the end, which is near. . . God praise everybody who trained and helped me, namely the leader Sheikh Osama bin Laden.\"\n\nAccording to FBI director Robert Mueller and the 9/11 Commission, Omari entered the United States through a Dubai flight on June 29, 2001, with Salem al-Hazmi, landing in New York. He had used the controversial Visa Express program to gain entry. He apparently stayed with several other hijackers in Paterson, New Jersey, before moving to his own place at 4032 57th Terrace, Vero Beach, Florida. On his rental agreement form for that house, Omari gave two license-plates authorized to park in his space, one of which was registered to Atta.\n\nOmari obtained a fake United States ID card from All Services Plus in Passaic County, New Jersey, which was in the business of selling fake documents, including another to Khalid al-Mihdhar. He was married and had a daughter. \n\n===Attacks===\nAtta (blue shirt) and Omari at Portland International Jetport on 9/11\n\nOn September 10, 2001, Mohamed Atta picked up Omari from the Milner Hotel in Boston, Massachusetts, and the two drove their rented Nissan to a Comfort Inn in South Portland, Maine, where they spent the night in room 232. It was initially reported that Adnan and Ameer Bukhari were the two hijackers who had rented and driven the car.\n\nIn the early hours of September 11, they boarded a commuter flight back to Boston to connect to American Airlines Flight 11. American 11 was hijacked 15 minutes after the flight departed by Omari and four other hijackers, which allowed trained pilot Mohamed Atta to crash the Boeing 767 into the North Tower of the World Trade Center as part of an attack that killed thousands of people.\n",
"\n===Mistaken identity===\nControversy over Omari's identity erupted shortly after the attacks. At first, the FBI had named Abdul Rahman al-Omari, a pilot for Saudi Arabian Airlines, as the pilot of Flight 11. It was quickly shown that this person was still alive, and the FBI issued an apology. It was also quickly determined that Mohamed Atta was the pilot among the hijackers. The FBI then named Abdulaziz al-Omari as a hijacker.\n\nA man with the same name as those given by the FBI turned up alive in Saudi Arabia, saying that he had studied at the University of Denver and his passport was stolen there in 1995. The name, origin, birth date, and occupation were released by the FBI, but the picture was not of him. \"I couldn't believe it when the FBI put me on their list\", he said. \"They gave my name and my date of birth, but I am not a suicide bomber. I am here. I am alive. I have no idea how to fly a plane. I had nothing to do with this.\"\n",
"* PENTTBOM\n",
"\n",
"* The Final 9/11 Commission Report\n* portal.telegraph.co.uk (Article which reports that the Saudi Arabian Airlines pilot named Omari was not involved with the terrorist attacks)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life and education",
"Career",
"Legacy",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Abdulaziz al-Omari |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Aage Niels Bohr''' (; 19 June 1922 – 8 September 2009) was a Danish nuclear physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 with Ben Mottelson and James Rainwater \"for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection\". Starting from Rainwater's concept of an irregular-shaped liquid drop model of the nucleus, Bohr and Mottelson developed a detailed theory that was in close agreement with experiments. Since his father, Niels Bohr, had won the prize in 1922, he and his father were one of the six pairs of fathers and sons who have both won the Nobel Prize and one of the four pairs who have both won the Nobel Prize in Physics.\n",
"Aage Niels Bohr was born in Copenhagen on 19 June 1922, the fourth of six sons of the physicist Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Bohr (née Nørlund). His oldest brother, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934, and his youngest, Harald, from childhood meningitis. Of the others, Hans became a physician; Erik, a chemical engineer; and Ernest, a lawyer and an Olympic athlete who played field hockey for Denmark at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London. The family lived at the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, where he grew up surrounded by physicists who were working with his father, such as Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, Yoshio Nishina, Wolfgang Pauli and Werner Heisenberg. In 1932, the family moved to the Carlsberg Æresbolig, a mansion donated by Carl Jacobsen, the heir to Carlsberg breweries, to be used as an honorary residence by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts.\n\nBohr went to high school at in Copenhagen. In 1940, shortly after the German occupation of Denmark in April, he entered the University of Copenhagen, where he studied physics. He assisted his father, helping draft correspondence and articles related to epistemology and physics. In September 1943, word reached his family that the Nazis considered them to be Jewish, because Aage's grandmother, Ellen Adler Bohr, had been Jewish, and that they therefore were in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped the family escape by sea to Sweden. Bohr arrived there in October 1943, and then flew to Britain on a de Havilland Mosquito operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation. The Mosquitoes were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft's bomb bay.\n\nOn arrival in London, Bohr rejoined his father, who had flown to Britain the week before. He officially became a junior researcher at the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, but actually served as personal assistant and secretary to his father. The two worked on Tube Alloys, the British atomic bomb project. On 30 December 1943, they made the first of a number of visits to the United States, where his father was a consultant to the Manhattan Project. Due to his father's fame, they were given false names; Bohr became James Baker, and his father, Nicholas Baker. In 1945, the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, Robert Oppenheimer, asked them to review the design of the modulated neutron initiator. They reported that it would work. That they had reached this conclusion put Enrico Fermi's concerns about the viability of the design to rest. The initiators performed flawlessly in the bombs used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.\n",
"In August 1945, with the war ended, Bohr returned to Denmark, where he resumed his university education, graduating with a master's degree in 1946, with a thesis concerned with some aspects of atomic stopping power problems. In early 1948, Bohr became a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. While paying a visit to Columbia University, he met Isidor Isaac Rabi, who sparked in him an interest in recent discoveries related to the hyperfine structure of deuterium. This led to Bohr becoming a visiting fellow at Columbia from January 1949 to August 1950. While in the United States, Bohr married Marietta Soffer on 11 March 1950. They had three children: Vilhelm, Tomas and Margrethe.\n\nBy the late 1940s it was known that the properties of atomic nuclei could not be explained by the then-current models such as the liquid drop model developed by Niels Bohr amongst others. The shell model, developed in 1949 by Maria Goeppert-Mayer and others, allowed some additional features to be explained, in particular the so-called magic numbers. However, there were also properties that could not be explained, including the non-spherical distribution of charge in certain nuclei. In a 1950 paper, James Rainwater of Columbia University suggested a variant of the drop model of the nucleus that could explain a non-spherical charge distribution. Rainwater's model postulated a nucleus like a balloon with balls inside that distort the surface as they move about. He discussed the idea with Bohr, who was visiting Columbia at the time, and had independently conceived the same idea, and had, about a month after Rainwater's submission, submitted for publication a paper that discussed the same problem, but along more general lines. Bohr imagined a rotating, irregular-shaped nucleus with a form of surface tension. Bohr developed the idea further, in 1951 publishing a paper that comprehensively treated the relationship between oscillations of the surface of the nucleus and the movement of the individual nucleons.\n\nUpon his return to Copenhagen in 1950, Bohr began working with Ben Mottelson to compare the theoretical work with experimental data. In three papers, that were published in 1952 and 1953, Bohr and Mottelson demonstrated close agreement between theory and experiment; for example, showing that the energy levels of certain nuclei could be described by a rotation spectrum. They were thereby able to reconcile the shell model with Rainwater's concept. This work stimulated many new theoretical and experimental studies. Bohr, Mottelson and Rainwater were jointly awarded the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection\". Because his father had been awarded the prize in 1922, Bohr became one of only four pairs of fathers and sons to win the Nobel Prize in Physics. He married Marietta Soffer in 1950. They had two sons, Vilhelm and Tomas, and a daughter, Margrethe.\n\nOnly after doing his Nobel Prize-winning research did Bohr receive his doctorate from the University of Copenhagen, in 1954, writing his thesis on \"Rotational States of Atomic Nuclei\". Bohr became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1956, and, following his father's death in 1962, succeeded him as director of the Niels Bohr Institute, a position he held until 1970. He remained active there until he retired in 1992. He was also a member of the board of the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics (Nordita) from its inception in 1957, and was its director from 1975 to 1981. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he won the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics in 1960, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1969, H.C. Ørsted Medal in 1970, Rutherford Medal and Prize in 1972, John Price Wetherill Medal in 1974, and the Ole Rømer medal in 1976. Bohr and Mottelson continued to work together, publishing a two-volume monograph, ''Nuclear Structure''. The first volume, ''Single-Particle Motion,'' appeared in 1969; the second, ''Nuclear Deformations,'' in 1975.\n\nIn 1972 he was awarded an honorary degree, doctor philos. honoris causa, at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, later part of Norwegian University of Science and Technology.\n\nIn 1981, Bohr became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.\n\nHis wife Marietta died on 2 October 1978. In 1981, he married Bente Scharff Meyer. His son, Tomas Bohr, is a Professor of Physics at the Technical University of Denmark, working in the area of fluid dynamics. Aage Bohr died in Copenhagen on 9 September 2009. He was survived by his second wife and children.\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n",
"\n\n* Aage Niels Bohr – Autobiography\n* Aage Niels Bohr – Nobel Lecture\n* Oral History interview transcript with Aage Bohr 23 & 30 January 1963, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Early life ",
" Career ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Aage Bohr |
[
"\nCartesian coordinates\n\n\nIn classical mathematics, '''analytic geometry''', also known as '''coordinate geometry''', or in a common manifestation '''Cartesian geometry''', is the study of geometry using a coordinate system. This contrasts with synthetic geometry.\n\nAnalytic geometry is widely used in physics and engineering, and also in aviation, rocketry, space science, and spaceflight. It is the foundation of most modern fields of geometry, including algebraic, differential, discrete and computational geometry.\n\nUsually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight lines, and squares, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions. Geometrically, one studies the Euclidean plane (two dimensions) and Euclidean space (three dimensions). As taught in school books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining and representing geometrical shapes in a numerical way and extracting numerical information from shapes' numerical definitions and representations. The numerical output, however, might also be a vector or a shape. That the algebra of the real numbers can be employed to yield results about the linear continuum of geometry relies on the Cantor–Dedekind axiom.\n",
"\n===Ancient Greece===\nThe Greek mathematician Menaechmus solved problems and proved theorems by using a method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been maintained that he had introduced analytic geometry.\n\nApollonius of Perga, in ''On Determinate Section'', dealt with problems in a manner that may be called an analytic geometry of one dimension; with the question of finding points on a line that were in a ratio to the others. Apollonius in the ''Conics'' further developed a method that is so similar to analytic geometry that his work is sometimes thought to have anticipated the work of Descartes by some 1800 years. His application of reference lines, a diameter and a tangent is essentially no different from our modern use of a coordinate frame, where the distances measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and the segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. He further developed relations between the abscissas and the corresponding ordinates that are equivalent to rhetorical equations of curves. However, although Apollonius came close to developing analytic geometry, he did not manage to do so since he did not take into account negative magnitudes and in every case the coordinate system was superimposed upon a given curve ''a posteriori'' instead of ''a priori''. That is, equations were determined by curves, but curves were not determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were subsidiary notions applied to a specific geometric situation.\n\n===Persia===\nThe eleventh century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyám saw a strong relationship between geometry and algebra, and was moving in the right direction when he helped to close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra with his geometric solution of the general cubic equations, but the decisive step came later with Descartes.\n\n===Western Europe===\nAnalytic geometry was independently invented by René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat, although Descartes is sometimes given sole credit. ''Cartesian geometry'', the alternative term used for analytic geometry, is named after Descartes.\n\nDescartes made significant progress with the methods in an essay titled ''La Geometrie (Geometry)'', one of the three accompanying essays (appendices) published in 1637 together with his ''Discourse on the Method for Rightly Directing One's Reason and Searching for Truth in the Sciences'', commonly referred to as ''Discourse on Method''.\n\nThis work, written in his native French tongue, and its philosophical principles, provided a foundation for calculus in Europe. Initially the work was not well received, due, in part, to the many gaps in arguments and complicated equations. Only after the translation into Latin and the addition of commentary by van Schooten in 1649 (and further work thereafter) did Descartes's masterpiece receive due recognition.\n\nPierre de Fermat also pioneered the development of analytic geometry. Although not published in his lifetime, a manuscript form of ''Ad locos planos et solidos isagoge'' (Introduction to Plane and Solid Loci) was circulating in Paris in 1637, just prior to the publication of Descartes' ''Discourse''. Clearly written and well received, the ''Introduction'' also laid the groundwork for analytical geometry. The key difference between Fermat's and Descartes' treatments is a matter of viewpoint: Fermat always started with an algebraic equation and then described the geometric curve which satisfied it, whereas Descartes started with geometric curves and produced their equations as one of several properties of the curves. As a consequence of this approach, Descartes had to deal with more complicated equations and he had to develop the methods to work with polynomial equations of higher degree. It was Leonhard Euler who first applied the coordinate method in a systematic study of space curves and surfaces.\n",
"\nIllustration of a Cartesian coordinate plane. Four points are marked and labeled with their coordinates: (2,3) in green, (−3,1) in red, (−1.5,−2.5) in blue, and the origin (0,0) in purple.\n\nIn analytic geometry, the plane is given a coordinate system, by which every point has a pair of real number coordinates. Similarly, Euclidean space is given coordinates where every point has three coordinates. The value of the coordinates depends on the choice of the initial point of origin. There are a variety of coordinate systems used, but the most common are the following:\n\n===Cartesian coordinates (in a plane or space)===\n\nThe most common coordinate system to use is the Cartesian coordinate system, where each point has an ''x''-coordinate representing its horizontal position, and a ''y''-coordinate representing its vertical position. These are typically written as an ordered pair (''x'', ''y''). This system can also be used for three-dimensional geometry, where every point in Euclidean space is represented by an ordered triple of coordinates (''x'', ''y'', ''z'').\n\n===Polar coordinates (in a plane)===\n\nIn polar coordinates, every point of the plane is represented by its distance ''r'' from the origin and its angle ''θ'' from the polar axis.\n\n===Cylindrical coordinates (in a space)===\n\nIn cylindrical coordinates, every point of space is represented by its height ''z'', its radius ''r'' from the ''z''-axis and the angle ''θ'' its projection on the ''xy''-plane makes with respect to the horizontal axis.\n\n===Spherical coordinates (in a space)===\n\nIn spherical coordinates, every point in space is represented by its distance ''ρ'' from the origin, the angle ''θ'' its projection on the ''xy''-plane makes with respect to the horizontal axis, and the angle ''φ'' that it makes with respect to the ''z''-axis. The names of the angles are often reversed in physics.\n",
"\nIn analytic geometry, any equation involving the coordinates specifies a subset of the plane, namely the solution set for the equation, or locus. For example, the equation ''y'' = ''x'' corresponds to the set of all the points on the plane whose ''x''-coordinate and ''y''-coordinate are equal. These points form a line, and ''y'' = ''x'' is said to be the equation for this line. In general, linear equations involving ''x'' and ''y'' specify lines, quadratic equations specify conic sections, and more complicated equations describe more complicated figures.\n\nUsually, a single equation corresponds to a curve on the plane. This is not always the case: the trivial equation ''x'' = ''x'' specifies the entire plane, and the equation ''x''2 + ''y''2 = 0 specifies only the single point (0, 0). In three dimensions, a single equation usually gives a surface, and a curve must be specified as the intersection of two surfaces (see below), or as a system of parametric equations. The equation ''x''2 + ''y''2 = ''r''2 is the equation for any circle centered at the origin (0, 0) with a radius of r.\n\n===Lines and planes===\n\nLines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, can be described algebraically by ''linear'' equations. In two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the ''slope-intercept form'':\n:\nwhere:\n: ''m'' is the slope or gradient of the line.\n: ''b'' is the y-intercept of the line.\n: ''x'' is the independent variable of the function ''y'' = ''f''(''x'').\n\nIn a manner analogous to the way lines in a two-dimensional space are described using a point-slope form for their equations, planes in a three dimensional space have a natural description using a point in the plane and a vector orthogonal to it (the normal vector) to indicate its \"inclination\".\n\nSpecifically, let be the position vector of some point , and let be a nonzero vector. The plane determined by this point and vector consists of those points , with position vector , such that the vector drawn from to is perpendicular to . Recalling that two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero, it follows that the desired plane can be described as the set of all points such that\n:\n(The dot here means a dot product, not scalar multiplication.)\nExpanded this becomes\n:\nwhich is the ''point-normal'' form of the equation of a plane. This is just a linear equation:\n:\nConversely, it is easily shown that if ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' and ''d'' are constants and ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are not all zero, then the graph of the equation \n::\nis a plane having the vector as a normal. This familiar equation for a plane is called the ''general form'' of the equation of the plane.\n\nIn three dimensions, lines can ''not'' be described by a single linear equation, so they are frequently described by parametric equations:\n:\n:\n:\nwhere:\n: ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' are all functions of the independent variable ''t'' which ranges over the real numbers.\n: (''x''0, ''y''0, ''z''0) is any point on the line.\n: ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are related to the slope of the line, such that the vector (''a'', ''b'', ''c'') is parallel to the line.\n\n===Conic sections===\n\nIn the Cartesian coordinate system, the graph of a quadratic equation in two variables is always a conic section – though it may be degenerate, and all conic sections arise in this way. The equation will be of the form\n\n:\nAs scaling all six constants yields the same locus of zeros, one can consider conics as points in the five-dimensional projective space \n\nThe conic sections described by this equation can be classified using the discriminant\n\n:\nIf the conic is non-degenerate, then:\n* if , the equation represents an ellipse;\n** if and , the equation represents a circle, which is a special case of an ellipse;\n* if , the equation represents a parabola;\n* if , the equation represents a hyperbola;\n** if we also have , the equation represents a rectangular hyperbola.\n\n===Quadric surfaces===\n\nA '''quadric''', or '''quadric surface''', is a ''2''-dimensional surface in 3-dimensional space defined as the locus of zeros of a quadratic polynomial. In coordinates , the general quadric is defined by the algebraic equation\n\n:\n\nQuadric surfaces include ellipsoids (including the sphere), paraboloids, hyperboloids, cylinders, cones, and planes.\n",
"\nThe distance formula on the plane follows from the Pythagorean theorem.\n\nIn analytic geometry, geometric notions such as distance and angle measure are defined using formulas. These definitions are designed to be consistent with the underlying Euclidean geometry. For example, using Cartesian coordinates on the plane, the distance between two points (''x''1, ''y''1) and (''x''2, ''y''2) is defined by the formula\n:\nwhich can be viewed as a version of the Pythagorean theorem. Similarly, the angle that a line makes with the horizontal can be defined by the formula\n:\nwhere ''m'' is the slope of the line.\n\nIn three dimensions, distance is given by the generalization of the Pythagorean theorem:\n:,\n\nwhile the angle between two vectors is given by the dot product. The dot product of two Euclidean vectors '''A''' and '''B''' is defined by\n:\nwhere θ is the angle between '''A''' and '''B'''.\n",
" b) y = f(x+3) c) y = f(x)-3 d) y = 1/2 f(x)\n\nTransformations are applied to a parent function to turn it into a new function with similar characteristics.\n\nThe graph of is changed by standard transformations as follows:\n\n*Changing to moves the graph to the right units.\n*Changing to moves the graph up units.\n*Changing to stretches the graph horizontally by a factor of . (think of the as being dilated)\n*Changing to stretches the graph vertically.\n*Changing to and changing to rotates the graph by an angle .\n\nThere are other standard transformation not typically studied in elementary analytic geometry because the transformations change the shape of objects in ways not usually considered. Skewing is an example of a transformation not usually considered.\nFor more information, consult the Wikipedia article on affine transformations.\n\nFor example, the parent function has a horizontal and a vertical asymptote, and occupies the first and third quadrant, and all of its transformed forms have one horizontal and vertical asymptote,and occupies either the 1st and 3rd or 2nd and 4th quadrant. In general, if , then it can be transformed into . In the new transformed function, is the factor that vertically stretches the function if it is greater than 1 or vertically compresses the function if it is less than 1, and for negative values, the function is reflected in the -axis. The value compresses the graph of the function horizontally if greater than 1 and stretches the function horizontally if less than 1, and like , reflects the function in the -axis when it is negative. The and values introduce translations, , vertical, and horizontal. Positive and values mean the function is translated to the positive end of its axis and negative meaning translation towards the negative end.\n\nTransformations can be applied to any geometric equation whether or not the equation represents a function.\nTransformations can be considered as individual transactions or in combinations.\n\nSuppose that is a relation in the plane. For example,\n\n:\n\nis the relation that describes the unit circle.\n",
"\nFor two geometric objects P and Q represented by the relations and the intersection is the collection of all points which are in both relations.\n\nFor example, might be the circle with radius 1 and center : and might be the circle with radius 1 and center . The intersection of these two circles is the collection of points which make both equations true. Does the point make both equations true? Using for , the equation for becomes or which is true, so is in the relation . On the other hand, still using for the equation for becomes or which is false. is not in so it is not in the intersection.\n\nThe intersection of and can be found by solving the simultaneous equations:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nTraditional methods for finding intersections include substitution and elimination.\n\n'''Substitution:''' Solve the first equation for in terms of and then substitute the expression for into the second equation:\n\n:\n\n:.\n\nWe then substitute this value for into the other equation and proceed to solve for :\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nNext, we place this value of in either of the original equations and solve for :\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nSo our intersection has two points:\n\n:\n\n'''Elimination''': Add (or subtract) a multiple of one equation to the other equation so that one of the variables is eliminated. For our current example, if we subtract the first equation from the second we get . The in the first equation is subtracted from the in the second equation leaving no term. The variable has been eliminated. We then solve the remaining equation for , in the same way as in the substitution method:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nWe then place this value of in either of the original equations and solve for :\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nSo our intersection has two points:\n\n:\n\nFor conic sections, as many as 4 points might be in the intersection.\n\n===Finding intercepts===\n\nOne type of intersection which is widely studied is the intersection of a geometric object with the and coordinate axes.\n\nThe intersection of a geometric object and the -axis is called the -intercept of the object.\nThe intersection of a geometric object and the -axis is called the -intercept of the object.\n\nFor the line , the parameter specifies the point where the line crosses the axis. Depending on the context, either or the point is called the -intercept.\n",
"\n===Tangent lines and planes===\n\nIn geometry, the '''tangent line''' (or simply '''tangent''') to a plane curve at a given point is the straight line that \"just touches\" the curve at that point. Informally, it is a line through a pair of infinitely close points on the curve. More precisely, a straight line is said to be a tangent of a curve at a point on the curve if the line passes through the point on the curve and has slope where ''f'' is the derivative of ''f''. A similar definition applies to space curves and curves in ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space.\n\nAs it passes through the point where the tangent line and the curve meet, called the '''point of tangency''', the tangent line is \"going in the same direction\" as the curve, and is thus the best straight-line approximation to the curve at that point.\n\nSimilarly, the '''tangent plane''' to a surface at a given point is the plane that \"just touches\" the surface at that point. The concept of a tangent is one of the most fundamental notions in differential geometry and has been extensively generalized; see Tangent space.\n\n===Normal line and vector===\n\nIn geometry, a '''normal''' is an object such as a line or vector that is perpendicular to a given object. For example, in the two-dimensional case, the '''normal line''' to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at the point.\n\nIn the three-dimensional case a '''surface normal''', or simply '''normal''', to a surface at a point ''P'' is a vector that is perpendicular to the tangent plane to that surface at ''P''. The word \"normal\" is also used as an adjective: a line normal to a plane, the normal component of a force, the '''normal vector''', etc. The concept of '''normality''' generalizes to orthogonality.\n",
"*Linear equation\n*Vector space\n*Cross product\n*Algebraic geometry\n",
"\n",
"\n===Books===\n*\n*\n* John Casey (1885) Analytic Geometry of the Point, Line, Circle, and Conic Sections, link from Internet Archive.\n*\n*\n\n===Articles===\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n",
"* Coordinate Geometry topics with interactive animations\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Coordinates",
"Equations and curves",
"Distance and angle",
"Transformations",
"Finding intersections of geometric objects",
"Tangents and normals",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Analytic geometry |
[
"\n\n\n\nCountries that utilise the Arabic script: \n\n\nThe '''Arabic alphabet''' ( '''', or '''') or '''Arabic abjad''' is the Arabic script as it is codified for writing the Arabic language. It is written from right to left in a cursive style and includes 28 letters.\n\nOriginally, the alphabet was an abjad, with only consonants, but it is now considered an \"impure abjad\". As with other ''abjads'', such as the Hebrew alphabet, scribes later devised means of indicating vowel sounds by separate vowel points. \n",
"The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28 letters. Adaptations of the Arabic script for other languages added and removed some letters, as for Kurdish, Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Sindhi, Urdu, Malay, Pashto, Arwi and Malayalam (Arabi Malayalam), all of which have additional letters as shown below. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms.\n\nMany letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots ('''') above or below their central part (''''). These dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters transliterated as '''' and '''' have the same basic shape, but '''' has one dot below, , and '''' has two dots above, .\n\nBoth printed and written Arabic are cursive, with most of the letters within a word directly connected to the adjacent letters.\n\n===Alphabetical order===\nThere are two main collating sequences for the Arabic alphabet, abjad and hija.\n\nThe original '''' order (), used for lettering, derives from the order of the Phoenician alphabet, and is therefore similar to the order of other Phoenician-derived alphabets, such as the Hebrew alphabet. In this order, letters are also used as numbers, Abjad numerals, and possess the same alphanumeric code/cipher as Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy.\n\nThe '''' () or '''' () order, used where lists of names and words are sorted, as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries, groups letters by similarity of shape.\n\n==== Abjadī ====\nThe '''' order is not a simple historical continuation of the earlier north Semitic alphabetic order, since it has a position corresponding to the Aramaic letter ''samekh / semkat'' , yet no letter of the Arabic alphabet historically derives from that letter. Loss of '''' was compensated for by the split of ''shin'' into two independent Arabic letters, (''shīn'') and (''sīn'') which moved up to take the place of ''''. The six other letters that do not correspond to any north Semitic letter are placed at the end.\n\n\n+ Common '''' sequence\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n '''''' \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n 28 \n 27 \n 26 \n 25 \n 24 \n 23 \n 22 \n 21 \n 20 \n 19 \n 18 \n 17 \n 16 \n 15 \n 14 \n 13 \n 12 \n 11 \n 10 \n 09 \n 08 \n 07 \n 06 \n 05 \n 04 \n 03 \n 02 \n 01\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThis is commonly vocalized as follows:\n:''''.\nAnother vocalization is:\n:''''\n\n\n+ Maghrebian '''' sequence (probably older)\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n '''''' \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n 28 \n 27 \n 26 \n 25 \n 24 \n 23 \n 22 \n 21 \n 20 \n 19 \n 18 \n 17 \n 16 \n 15 \n 14 \n 13 \n 12 \n 11 \n 10 \n 09 \n 08 \n 07 \n 06 \n 05 \n 04 \n 03 \n 02 \n 01\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThis can be vocalized as:\n:''''\n\n==== Hijā’ī ====\nModern dictionaries and other reference books do not use the '''' order to sort alphabetically; instead, the newer '''' order is used wherein letters are partially grouped together by similarity of shape. The ''hijā’ī'' order is never used as numerals.\n\n\n+ Common '''' order\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n '''''' \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\nAnother kind of '''' order was used widely in the Maghreb until recently when it was replaced by the Mashriqi order.\n\n+ Maghrebian '''' order\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n '''''' \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Letter forms===\n\nThe Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word. Letters can exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial (middle), final, or isolated position (IMFI). While some letters show considerable variations, others remain almost identical across all four positions. Generally, letters in the same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but six letters () can only be linked to their preceding letter. For example, (Ararat) has only isolated forms because each letter cannot be connected to its following one. In addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures (special shapes), notably ''''.\n\n\n\n====Table of basic letters====\n\n\n\n+ Arabic letters usage in Literary Arabic\n\nCommon\nMaghrebian\nLettername\nLettername in Arabic script\nTrans-literation\nValue in Literary Arabic (IPA)\nClosest English equivalent in pronunciation\nContextual forms\nIsolatedform\n\nAbjadī !! Hijā'ī\nAbjadī !! Hijā'ī\nFinal\nMedial\nInitial\n\n !! !! !! !! !! !! !! \n !! !! !! \n\n1.\n1.\n1.\n1.\n''''\nأَلِفْ\n '' / '' (also '' '')\nvarious,including \n'''''u'''''p\n\n\n\n2.\n2.\n2.\n2.\n''''\nبَاء\n''''\n\n'''''b'''''arn\n\n\n\n\n\n22.\n3.\n22.\n3.\n''''\nتَاء\n''''\n\n'''''t'''''orn\n\n\n\n\n\n23.\n4.\n23.\n4.\n''''\nثَاء\n'''' (also '''')\n\n'''''th'''''ink\n\n\n\n\n\n3.\n5.\n3.\n5.\n''''\nجِيمْ\n'''' (also '', g '')\n\n'''''J'''''im, '''''g'''''ym\n\n\n\n\n\n8.\n6.\n8.\n6.\n''''\nحَاء\n''''\n\n'''''h'''''eart, '''''h'''''eap\n\n\n\n\n\n24.\n7.\n24.\n7.\n''''\nخَاء\n'''' (also '', '')\n\npsy'''''ch'''''e; German i'''''ch'''''\n\n\n\n\n\n4.\n8.\n4.\n8.\n''''\nدَالْ\n''''\n\n'''''d'''''oll\n\n\n\n25.\n9.\n25.\n9.\n''''\nذَال\n'''' (also '''')\n\n'''''th'''''at\n\n\n\n20.\n10.\n20.\n10.\n''''\nرَاء\n''''\n\n'''''r'''''ap, w'''''r'''''ap\n\n\n\n7.\n11.\n7.\n11.\n'' / '' \nزَاي\n''''\n\n'''''z'''''ebra\n\n\n\n15.\n12.\n21.\n24.\n''''\nِسِينْ\n''''\n\n'''''s'''''in\n\n\n\n\n\n21.\n13.\n28.\n25.\n''''\nشِينْ\n'''' (also '''')\n\n'''''sh'''''in\n\n\n\n\n\n18.\n14.\n15.\n18.\n''''\nصَادْ\n''''\n\nha'''''ss'''''le, '''''s'''''ap\n\n\n\n\n\n26.\n15.\n18.\n19.\n''''\nضَاد\n''''\n\na'''''dd'''''er\n\n\n\n\n\n9.\n16.\n9.\n12.\n''''\nطَاء\n''''\n\nba'''''tt'''''er\n\n\n\n\n\n27.\n17.\n26.\n13.\n''''\nظَاء\n''''\n\nme'''''zz'''''anine, piz'''''z'''''a\n\n\n\n\n\n16.\n18.\n16.\n20.\n''''\nعَين\n (also '' '')\n\n'''''a'''''rt\n(aka \"heavy long stop\"; similar to ''hamzah'')\n\n\n\n\n\n28.\n19.\n27.\n21.\n''''\nغَين\n'''' (also '', '')\n \n'''''g'''''ear\n\n\n\n\n\n17.\n20.\n17.\n22.\n''''\nفَاء\n''''\n\n'''''f'''''ar\n\n\n\n\n\n19.\n21.\n19.\n23.\n''''\nقَاف\n''''\n\n'''''q'''''ueen, pi'''''ck'''''er\n\n\n\n\n\n11.\n22.\n11.\n14.\n''''\nكَاف\n''''\n\n'''''c'''''alf, '''''c'''''ap\n\n\n\n\n\n12.\n23.\n12.\n15.\n''''\nلاَمْ\n''''\n\n'''''l'''''amp\n\n\n\n\n\n13.\n24.\n13.\n16.\n''''\nمِيمْ\n''''\n\n'''''m'''''imosa\n\n\n\n\n\n14.\n25.\n14.\n17.\n''''\nنُون\n''''\n\n'''''n'''''un\n\n\n\n\n\n5.\n26.\n5.\n26.\n''''\nهَاء\n''''\n\n'''''h'''''at\n\n\n\n\n\n6.\n27.\n6.\n27.\n''''\nوَاو\n'' / ''\n, \n'''''w'''''oven\n\n\n\n10.\n28.\n10.\n28.\n''''\nيَاء\n'' / ''\n, \n'''''y'''''acht\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n(not counted as alphabet but plays an important role in Arabic grammar and lexicon, including indication denoting most irregular female nouns and spelling)\n''hamzah''\nهَمْزة\nʾ (on its own '''OR''' ''vowels with hamzah:'' ''fatḥah hamzah, ḍammah hamzah, kasrah'' ''hamzah'' - aka “1½ '''shortest''' of a ''fatḥah, ḍammah, kasrah''” – which is '''shortest''' than ''ʼalīf hamzah, wāw hamzah'', ''yāʼ hamzah'' respectively as ''fatḥah'' equates to ''ʼalīf'', ''ḍammah'' equates to ''wāw'', ''kasrah'' equates to ''yāʼ'')\n/ ʼ /\n'''''uh'''''-oh\n\n(pronounced with the lips almost fully flattened out and closed, the tip of the tongue touching between the teeth)\n\n(aka \"light short stop\"; similar to ''ʿayn'')\n\n\n\nء\n(used mainly in medial and final position, which is an unlinked letter)\n\n''fat·ḥah'' ''hamzah''\n/œ/\nb'''''ir'''''d\nءَ\nءَ\nءَ\nءَ\n\n'' hamzah''\n/ɯ̽/\nh'''''i'''''ck\nءُ\nءُ\nءُ\nءُ\n\n'' hamzah''\n/ɨ/\ngr'''''i'''''d\nءِ\nءِ\nءِ\nءِ\n\n ''ʼalīf hamzah''\n/ʾa/\np'''''a'''''t\n'''ﺄ''' \n'''ﺄ''' \n\nأ\n\n''wāw hamzah''\n/ʾu/\np'''''u'''''t\nؤ\nؤ\nؤ\nؤ\n\n''yāʼ hamzah''\n/ʾi/\np'''''i'''''t\n'''ﺊ'''\n\n\nئ\n\n\n'''Notes'''\n\n\n\n*See the article ''Romanization of Arabic'' for details on various transliteration schemes; however, Arabic language speakers do not follow a standardized scheme when transcribing names. Also names are regularly transcribed as pronounced locally, not as pronounced in Literary Arabic (if they were of Arabic origin).\n*Regarding pronunciation, the phonemic values given are those of Modern Standard Arabic, which is taught in universities. In practice, pronunciation may vary considerably from region to region. For more details concerning the pronunciation of Arabic, consult the articles ''Arabic phonology'' and ''varieties of Arabic''.\n*The names of the Arabic letters can be thought of as abstractions of an older version where they were meaningful words in the Proto-Semitic language. Names of Arabic letters may have quite different names popularly.\n*Six letters () don't have a distinct medial form and have to be written with their final form without being connected to the next letter. Their initial form matches the isolated form.\n* The letter '''' originated in the Phoenician alphabet as a consonant-sign indicating a glottal stop. Today it has lost its function as a consonant, and, together with '''' and '''', is a ''mater lectionis'', a consonant sign standing in for a long vowel (see below), or as support for certain diacritics ('''' and '''').\n* Arabic currently uses a diacritic sign, , called '''', to denote the glottal stop , written alone or with a carrier:\n** alone: \n** with a carrier: (above or under a ''''), (above a ''''), (above a dotless '''' or '''').\n\nIn academic work, the '''' () is transliterated with the modifier letter right half ring (ʾ), while the modifier letter left half ring (ʿ) transliterates the letter '''' (), which represents a different sound, not found in English.\n\n* Letters lacking an initial or medial version are never linked to the letter that follows, even within a word. The '''' has a single form, since it is never linked to a preceding or following letter. However, it is sometimes combined with a '''', '''', or '''', and in that case the carrier behaves like an ordinary '''', '''', or ''''.\n\n====Alif====\n\n\n Context !! Form !! Value\nClosest English Equivalent\n\n Without diacritics\n\n\n* initially: '''' or sometimes silent in the definite article ''''\n* medially or finally: '''' \nInitial position: a - '''''u'''''p; i - h'''''i'''''p\nMedial/ Final position: a - '''''u'''''p\n\n With '''' over\n\n\n* Initial/ medial/ final: followed by ''fat·ḥah'' - '''' or ''ḍammah'' - ''ʾu''\n* Isolated or on its own without a vowel (usually followed by a ''sukūn''): /ʾ/, pronounced as a glottal stop like \"'''''uh'''''\" in \"'''''uh'''''-oh\"\nInitial/ Medial/ Final position: ʾa - h'''''ea'''''rt; ʾu - p'''''ou'''''r\n\nIsolated or on its own without a vowel usually appearing in this case, the medial and final position (usually followed by a ''sukūn''): /ʾ/, pronounced as a glottal stop like \"'''''uh'''''\" in \"'''''uh'''''-oh\"\n\n With '''' under\n\n \n* initially: '''' \n* does not appear medially or finally (see hamza)\nInitial position: ʾi - '''''i'''''nn\n\n With ''''\n\n '''' \nInitial/ Medial/ Final position: '''''aa'''''rdvark\n\n\n====Modified letters====\nThe following are not individual letters, but rather different contextual variants of some of the Arabic letters.\n\n\n\nConditional forms\nName\nTranslit.\nPhonemic Value (IPA)\n\nIsolated\nFinal\nMedial\nInitial\n\n\n\n\n\n''''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''' or '''' / ''h'' / ''''\nused in final position only and for denoting the feminine ''noun/word'' or to make the ''noun/word'' feminine, however in rare ''irregular noun/word'' cases, it appears to denote the \"masculine\";\nsingular nouns: 1. \n\n2. if the case is, '''' followed by the definite article \"''al''\" ال transforms into /at ’ul/ usually in the nominative case;\n\nplural nouns: /āt/ (a preceding letter followed by a '''' + '''' = ت-)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''' / '''' / ''''\nused in the final position only and in some special cases, denoting the feminine aspect of the noun/word which acts similar to '''';\n\n\n\n(aka \"''shortened ’alīf''\" - thus the Arabic name, its purpose is for writing purposes mostly used in classical texts and in some dialects like Egyptian Arabic\n\n\n====Ligatures====\nalif2. hamzat waṣl ()3. lām4. lām5. shadda () 6. dagger alif () 7. hāʾ\nThe use of ligature in Arabic is common. There is one compulsory ligature, that for '''' + '''', which exists in two forms. All other ligatures ('''' + '''', etc.) are optional.\n\n\n\n Contextual forms\n Name\nTrans.\nValue\n\n Final\n Medial\n Initial\n Isolated\n\n \n \n lām + alif\n''laa''\n/lā/\n\n\nA more complex ligature that combines as many as seven distinct components is commonly used to represent the word ''''.\n\nThe only ligature within the primary range of Arabic script in Unicode (U+06xx) is '''' + ''''. This is the only one compulsory for fonts and word-processing. Other ranges are for compatibility to older standards and contain other ligatures, which are optional.\n* '''' + ''''\n*: \nNote: Unicode also has in its Presentation Form B FExx range a code for this ligature. If your browser and font are configured correctly for Arabic, the ligature displayed above should be identical to this one, U+FEFB ARABIC LIGATURE LAM WITH ALEF ISOLATED FORM:\n:: \n\n* U+0640 ARABIC TATWEEL + '''' + ''''\n*: \nNote: Unicode also has in its Presentation Form B U+FExx range a code for this ligature. If your browser and font are configured correctly for Arabic, the ligature displayed above should be identical to this one:\n* U+FEFC ARABIC LIGATURE LAM WITH ALEF FINAL FORM\n*: \n\nAnother ligature in the Unicode Presentation Form A range U+FB50 to U+FDxx is the special code for glyph for the ligature '''' (\"God\"), U+FDF2 ARABIC LIGATURE ALLAH ISOLATED FORM:\n:: \n\nThis is a work-around for the shortcomings of most text processors, which are incapable of displaying the correct vowel marks for the word '''' in Koran. Because Arabic script is used to write other texts rather than Koran only, rendering '''' + '''' + '''' as the previous ligature is considered faulty: If one of a number of fonts (Noto Naskh Arabic, mry_KacstQurn, KacstOne, DejaVu Sans, Harmattan, Scheherazade, Lateef, Iranian Sans) is installed on a computer (Iranian Sans is supported by Wikimedia web-fonts), the word will appear without diacritics.\n* '''' + '''' + '''' = LILLĀH (meaning ''\"to Allāh only to Allah)''\n*: or لله \n* '''' + '''' + '''' + '''' = ALLĀH (the Islamic name for \"God\")\n*: or الله \n* '''' + '''' + '''' + U+0651 ARABIC SHADDA + U+0670 ARABIC LETTER SUPERSCRIPT ALEF + ''''\n*: اللّٰه (''DejaVu Sans'' and ''KacstOne'' don't show the added superscript Alef)\n\nAn attempt to show them on the faulty fonts without automatically adding the gemination mark and the superscript alif, although may not display as desired on all browsers, is by adding the U+200d (Zero width joiner) after the first or second ''''\n* ('''' +) '''' + '''' + U+200d ZERO WIDTH JOINER + ''''\n*: \n\n====Gemination====\n\n\nGemination is the doubling of a consonant. Instead of writing the letter twice, Arabic places a ''W''-shaped sign called '''', above it. Note that if a vowel occurs between the two consonants the letter will simply be written twice. The diacritic only appears where the consonant at the end of one syllable is identical to the initial consonant of the following syllable. (The generic term for such diacritical signs is '''').\n\n\n\nGeneralUnicode\nName\nName in Arabic script\nTransliteration\n\n0651 ّ \n\nشَدَّة\n(consonant doubled)\n\n\n====Nunation====\n\n\nNunation ( '''') is the addition of a final '''' to a noun or adjective. The vowel before it indicates grammatical case. In written Arabic nunation is indicated by doubling the vowel diacritic at the end of the word.\n",
"Users of Arabic usually write long vowels but omit short ones, so readers must utilize their knowledge of the language in order to supply the missing vowels. However, in the education system and particularly in classes on Arabic grammar these vowels are used since they are crucial to the grammar. An Arabic sentence can have a completely different meaning by a subtle change of the vowels. This is why in an important text such as the '''' the three basic vowel signs (see below) are mandated, like the ''ḥarakāt'' and all the other diacritics or other types of marks, for example the cantillation signs.\n\n===Short vowels===\n\n\nIn the Arabic handwriting of everyday use, in general publications, and on street signs, short vowels are typically not written. On the other hand, copies of the '''' cannot be endorsed by the religious institutes that review them unless the diacritics are included. Children's books, elementary school texts, and Arabic-language grammars in general will include diacritics to some degree. These are known as \"vocalized\" texts.\n\nShort vowels may be written with diacritics placed above or below the consonant that precedes them in the syllable, called ''''. All Arabic vowels, long and short, follow a consonant; in Arabic, words like \"Ali\" or \"alif\", for example, start with a consonant: '''', ''''.\n\n\n\nShort vowels(fully vocalized text)\nName\nName in Arabic script\nTrans.\nValue\n\n064E\nfat·ḥah\nفَتْحَة\n''''\n\n\n064F\n\nضَمَّة\n''''\n\n\n0650\n\nكَسْرَة\n''''\n\n\n\n===Long vowels===\nIn the fully vocalized Arabic text found in texts such as Quran, a long '''' following a consonant other than a '''' is written with a short '''' sign ('''') on the consonant plus an '''' after it; long '''' is written as a sign for short '''' ('''') plus a ; and long '''' as a sign for short '''' ('''') plus a ''''. Briefly, '''' = '''', '''' = '''' and '''' = ''''. Long '''' following a '''' may be represented by an '''' or by a free '''' followed by an ''''.\n\nThe table below shows vowels placed above or below a dotted circle replacing a primary consonant letter or a '''' sign. For clarity in the table, the primary letters on the left used to mark these long vowels are shown only in their isolated form. Please note that most consonants do connect to the left with '''', '''' and '''' written then with their medial or final form. Additionally, the letter '''' in the last row may connect to the letter on its left, and then will use a medial or initial form. Use the table of primary letters to look at their actual glyph and joining types.\n\n\n\nLong vowels(fully vocalized text)\nName\nTrans.\nValue\n\n064E 0627\n\n''''\n \n\n064E 0649\n\n'''' / '''' / ''''\n\n064F 0648\n\n''''\n\n\n0650 064A\n\n''''\n\n\n\nIn unvocalized text (one in which the short vowels are not marked), the long vowels are represented by the vowel in question: '''', '''', or ''''. Long vowels written in the middle of a word of unvocalized text are treated like consonants with a '''' (see below) in a text that has full diacritics. Here also, the table shows long vowel letters only in isolated form for clarity.\n\nCombinations and are always pronounced '''' and '''' respectively. The exception is when is the verb ending, where is silent, resulting in '''', or even ''''.\n\n\n\nLong vowels(unvocalized text)\nName\nTrans.\nValue\n\n0627\n(implied ) \n''''\n \n\n0649\n(implied ) \n'''' / '''' / ''''\n\n0648\n(implied ) \n'''' / ''''\n\n\n064A\n(implied ) \n'''' / ''''\n\n\n\nIn addition, when transliterating names and loanwords, Arabic language speakers write out most or all the vowels as long ('''' with '''', '''' and '''' with '''', and '''' and '''' with ''''), meaning it approaches a true alphabet.\n\n===Diphthongs===\nThe diphthongs and are represented in vocalized text as follows:\n\n\n\nDiphthongs(fully vocalized text)\nName\nTrans.\nValue\n\n064A 064E\n\n''''\n\n\n0648 064E\n\n''''\n\n\n\n===Vowel omission===\nAn Arabic syllable can be open (ending with a vowel) or closed (ending with a consonant):\n\n* open: CV consonant-vowel (long or short vowel)\n* closed: CVC (short vowel only)\n\nA normal text is composed only of a series of consonants plus vowel-lengthening letters; thus, the word ''qalb'', \"heart\", is written ''qlb'', and the word ''qalab'' \"he turned around\", is also written ''qlb''.\n\nTo write ''qalab'' without this ambiguity, we could indicate that the ''l'' is followed by a short ''a'' by writing a ''fatḥah'' above it.\n\nTo write ''qalb'', we would instead indicate that the ''l'' is followed by no vowel by marking it with a diacritic called ''sukūn'' ( ), like this: .\n\nThis is one step down from full vocalization, where the vowel after the ''q'' would also be indicated by a ''fatḥah'': .\n\nThe ''Qur’ān'' is traditionally written in full vocalization.\n\nThe long ''i'' sound in some editions of the ''Qur’ān'' is written with a ''kasrah'' followed by a diacritic-less ''y'', and long ''u'' by a ''ḍammah'' followed by a bare ''w''. In others, these ''y'' and ''w'' carry a ''sukūn''. Outside of the ''Qur’ān'', the latter convention is extremely rare, to the point that ''y'' with ''sukūn'' will be unambiguously read as the diphthong , and ''w'' with ''sukūn'' will be read .\n\nFor example, the letters '''' can be read like English ''meel'' or ''mail'', or (theoretically) also like ''mayyal'' or ''mayil''. But if a ''sukūn'' is added on the ''y'' then the ''m'' cannot have a ''sukūn'' (because two letters in a row cannot be ''sukūn''ated), cannot have a ''ḍammah'' (because there is never an ''uy'' sound in Arabic unless there is another vowel after the ''y''), and cannot have a ''kasrah'' (because ''kasrah'' before ''sukūn''ated ''y'' is never found outside the ''Qur’ān''), so it ''must'' have a ''fatḥah'' and the only possible pronunciation is (meaning mile, or even e-mail). By the same token, m-y-t with a ''sukūn'' over the ''y'' can be ''mayt'' but not ''mayyit'' or ''meet'', and m-w-t with a ''sukūn'' on the ''w'' can only be ''mawt'', not ''moot'' (''iw'' is impossible when the ''w'' closes the syllable).\n\nVowel marks are always written as if the ''i‘rāb'' vowels were in fact pronounced, even when they must be skipped in actual pronunciation. So, when writing the name ''Aḥmad'', it is optional to place a ''sukūn'' on the ''ḥ'', but a ''sukūn'' is forbidden on the ''d'', because it would carry a ''ḍammah'' if any other word followed, as in ''Aḥmadu zawjī'' \"Ahmad is my husband\".\n\nAnother example: the sentence that in correct literary Arabic must be pronounced ''Aḥmadu zawjun sharrīr'' \"Ahmad is a wicked husband\", is usually mispronounced (due to influence from vernacular Arabic varieties) as ''Aḥmad zawj sharrīr''. Yet, for the purposes of Arabic grammar and orthography, is treated as if it were not mispronounced and as if yet another word followed it, i.e., if adding any vowel marks, they must be added as if the pronunciation were ''Aḥmadu zawjun sharrīrun'' with a ''tanwīn'' 'un' at the end. So, it is correct to add an ''un'' ''tanwīn'' sign on the final ''r'', but actually pronouncing it would be a hypercorrection. Also, it is never correct to write a ''sukūn'' on that ''r'', even though in actual pronunciation it is (and in correct Arabic MUST be) ''sukūn''ed.\n\nOf course, if the correct ''i‘rāb'' is a ''sukūn'', it may be optionally written.\n\n\n\nGeneralUnicode\nName\nName in Arabic script\nTranslit.\nPhonemic Value (IPA)\n\n0652\nsukūn\nسُكُون\n(no vowel with this consonant letter ordiphthong with this long vowel letter)\n∅\n\n0670\nalīf khanjariyyah dagger ’alīf - smaller ’alīf written above consonant\n أَلِيف خَنْجَرِيَّة\n''ā''\n\n\n\nThe ''sukūn'' is also used for transliterating words into the Arabic script. The Persian word (''mâsk'', from the English word \"mask\"), for example, might be written with a ''sukūn'' above the to signify that there is no vowel sound between that letter and the .\n\n==Additional letters==\n\n\n===Regional variations===\nSome letters take a traditionally different form in specific regions:\n\n\n Explanation\n\n Isolated !! Final !! Medial !! Initial\n\n \n \n \n \n A traditional form to denotate the '''' letter, rarely used in areas influenced by Persian script and former Ottoman script.\n\n\n \n \n \n \n A traditional Maghrebi variant (except for Libya and Algeria) of '''' .\n\n \n \n \n \n A traditional Maghrebi variant (except for Libya and Algeria) of '''' . Generally dotless in isolated and final positions and dotted in the initial and medial forms.\n\n \n \n \n \n An alternative version of '''' used especially in Maghrebi under the influence of the Ottoman script or in Gulf script under the influence of the Persian script.\n\n \n \n \n \n Notably in Egypt, Sudan (Nile Valley) and sometimes Maghreb, '''' is dotless in the isolated and final position. Visually identical to '''' . The use in handwriting resembles the Perso-Arabic letter which was also used in Ottoman Turkish.\n\n\n===Non-native letters===\n''See also Arabic script#Special letters for languages other than Arabic.''\n\nSome modified letters are used to represent non-native sounds of Arabic. These letters are used in transliterated names, loanwords and dialectal words.\n\n\n Letter !! Value !! Note\n\n \n \nUsed in loanwords and dialectal words instead of '''' . Not to be confused with .\n\n \nUsed in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.\n\n \n \nSometimes used when transliterating foreign names and loanwords. Can be substituted with '''' and pronounced as such.\n\n \n \nUsed in Morocco.\n\n \nSometimes used when transliterating foreign names and loanwords and in the Gulf and Arabic dialects. The sequence '''' is usually preferred (e.g. for \"Chad\").\n\n \nUsed in Egypt and can be a reduction of , where is pronounced .\n\n \nUsed in Israel, for example on road signs.\n\n \nUsed in northwest Africa and west Asia.\n\n \nUsed in Tunisia and in Algeria for loanwords and for the dialectal pronunciation of '''' in some words. Not to be confused with .\n\n \nUsed in Morocco.\n\n \nRarely used in Persian Gulf.\n\n\n===Used in languages other than Arabic===\n\n\n+Most common non-Classical Arabic consonant phonemes/graphemes\nLanguage family\nAustron.\nDravid.\nTurkic\nIndic\n (Indo-European)\nIranian (Indo-European)\n\nArabic (Semitic)\n\nLanguage/Script\nJawi\nArwi\nUyghur\nSindhi\nPunjabi\nUrdu\nPersian\nBalochi\nKurdish\nPashto\nIraqi\nHejazi\nEgyptian\nAlgerian\nTunisian\nMoroccan\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nØ\n\nØ\n\nØ\n\nØ\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nØ\n\nØ\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nØ\nØ\n\n\nØ\n\nØ\n\nØ\n\nØ\n\n\n\n\nØ\nڃ\nØ\nØ\n\n",
"{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"float:right; text-align:center;\"\n\n Western(Maghreb, Europe) \n Central(Mideast) \n Eastern(Persian, Urdu)\n\n 0\n \n \n \n\n 1\n \n \n \n\n 2\n \n \n \n\n 3\n \n \n \n\n 4\n \n \n \n\n 5\n \n \n \n\n 6\n \n \n \n\n 7\n \n \n \n\n 8\n \n \n \n\n 9\n \n \n \n\n 10\n \n \n \n\n\n\nThere are two main kinds of numerals used along with Arabic text; Western Arabic numerals and Eastern Arabic numerals. In most of present-day North Africa, the usual Western Arabic numerals are used. Like Western Arabic numerals, in Eastern Arabic numerals, the units are always right-most, and the highest value left-most.\n\n===Letters as numerals===\n\n\nIn addition, the Arabic alphabet can be used to represent numbers (Abjad numerals). This usage is based on the '''' order of the alphabet. '''' is 1, '''' is 2, '''' is 3, and so on until '''' = 10, '''' = 20, '''' = 30, …, '''' = 200, …, '''' = 1000. This is sometimes used to produce chronograms.\n",
"\nArabic calligraphy (9th–11th century). The '''' is taken as an example, from Kufic '''' manuscripts. (1) Early 9th century script used no dots or diacritic marks; (2) and (3) in the 9th–10th century during the Abbasid dynasty, Abu al-Aswad's system used red dots with each arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel. Later, a second system of black dots was used to differentiate between letters like '''' and ''''; (4) in the 11th century (al-Farāhīdī's system) dots were changed into shapes resembling the letters to transcribe the corresponding long vowels. This system is the one used today.\nThe Arabic alphabet can be traced back to the Nabataean alphabet used to write the Nabataean. The first known text in the Arabic alphabet is a late 4th-century inscription from '''' (50 km east of '''') in Jordan, but the first dated one is a trilingual inscription at Zebed in Syria from 512. However, the epigraphic record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions surviving, though some others may be pre-Islamic. Later, dots were added above and below the letters to differentiate them. (The Aramaic language had fewer phonemes than the Arabic, and some originally distinct Aramaic letters had become indistinguishable in shape, so that in the early writings 15 distinct letter-shapes had to do duty for 28 sounds; cf. the similarly ambiguous Pahlavi alphabet.) The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic papyrus (PERF 558), dated April 643, although they did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts were and still are frequently memorized, especially in Qur'an memorization, a practice which probably arose partially from a desire to avoid the great ambiguity of the script.\n\nLater still, vowel marks and the '''' were introduced, beginning some time in the latter half of the 7th century, preceding the first invention of Syriac and Hebrew vocalization. Initially, this was done by a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned in the Umayyad era by Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali a dot above = '''', a dot below = '''', a dot on the line = '''', and doubled dots indicated nunation. However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by ''''.\n\n=== Arabic printing presses ===\nAlthough Napoleon Bonaparte generally receives credit for introducing the printing press to Egypt during his invasion of that country in 1798, and though he did indeed bring printing presses and Arabic script presses to print the French occupation's official newspaper ''Al-Tanbiyyah'' (\"The Courier\"), printing in the Arabic language started several centuries earlier.\n\nIn 1514, following Gutenberg's invention of the printing press in 1450, Gregorio de Gregorii, a Venetian, published an entire prayer-book in Arabic script; it was entitled ''Kitab Salat al-Sawa'i'' and was intended for eastern Christian communities\n\nBetween 1580 and 1586, type designer Robert Granjon designed Arabic typefaces for Cardinal Ferdinando de' Medici, and the Medici press published many Christian prayer and scholarly Arabic texts in the late 16th century.\n\nMaronite monks at the Maar Quzhayy Monastery in Mount Lebanon published the first Arabic books to use movable type in the Middle East. The monks transliterated the Arabic language using Syriac script.\n\nA goldsmith (like Gutenberg) designed and implemented an Arabic-script movable-type printing-press in the Middle East. The Greek Orthodox monk Abd Allah Zakhir set up an Arabic language printing press using movable type at the monastery of Saint John at the town of Dhour El Shuwayr in Mount Lebanon, the first homemade press in Lebanon using Arabic script. He personally cut the type molds and did the founding of the typeface. The first book came off his press in 1734; this press continued in use until 1899.\n",
"The Arabic alphabet can be encoded using several character sets, including ISO-8859-6, Windows-1256 and Unicode (see links in Infobox above), latter thanks to the \"Arabic segment\", entries U+0600 to U+06FF. However, none of the sets indicates the form that each character should take in context. It is left to the rendering engine to select the proper glyph to display for each character.\n\nEach letter has a position-independent encoding in Unicode, and the rendering software can infer the correct glyph form (initial, medial, final or isolated) from its joining context. That is the current recommendation. However, for compatibility with previous standards, the initial, medial, final and isolated forms can also be encoded separately.\n\n===Unicode===\n\nAs of Unicode 7.0, the following ranges encode Arabic characters:\n*Arabic (0600-06FF)\n*Arabic Supplement (0750-077F)\n*Arabic Extended-A (08A0-08FF)\n*Arabic Presentation Forms-A (FB50-FDFF)\n*Arabic Presentation Forms-B (FE70-FEFF)\n*Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols 1EE00-1EEFF)\n*Rumi Numeral Symbols (10E60-10E7F)\n\nThe basic Arabic range encodes the standard letters and diacritics but does not encode contextual forms (U+0621-U+0652 being directly based on ISO 8859-6). It also includes the most common diacritics and Arabic-Indic digits. U+06D6 to U+06ED encode Qur'anic annotation signs such as \"end of ''ayah''\" ۖ and \"start of ''rub el hizb''\" ۞. The Arabic supplement range encodes letter variants mostly used for writing African (non-Arabic) languages. The Arabic Extended-A range encodes additional Qur'anic annotations and letter variants used for various non-Arabic languages.\n\nThe Arabic Presentation Forms-A range encodes contextual forms and ligatures of letter variants needed for Persian, Urdu, Sindhi and Central Asian languages. The Arabic Presentation Forms-B range encodes spacing forms of Arabic diacritics, and more contextual letter forms. The Arabic Mathematical Alphabetical Symbols block encodes characters used in Arabic mathematical expressions.\n\nSee also the notes of the section on modified letters.\n\n===Keyboards===\n\n\nArabic Mac keyboard layout\nArabic PC keyboard layout\nIntellark imposed on a QWERTY keyboard layout.\n\nKeyboards designed for different nations have different layouts so proficiency in one style of keyboard, such as Iraq's, does not transfer to proficiency in another, such as Saudi Arabia's. Differences can include the location of non-alphabetic characters.\n\nAll Arabic keyboards allow typing Roman characters, e.g., for the URL in a web browser. Thus, each Arabic keyboard has both Arabic and Roman characters marked on the keys. Usually the Roman characters of an Arabic keyboard conform to the QWERTY layout, but in North Africa, where French is the most common language typed using the Roman characters, the Arabic keyboards are AZERTY.\n\nTo encode a particular written form of a character, there are extra code points provided in Unicode which can be used to express the exact written form desired. The range ''Arabic presentation forms A'' (U+FB50 to U+FDFF) contain ligatures while the range ''Arabic presentation forms B'' (U+FE70 to U+FEFF) contains the positional variants. These effects are better achieved in Unicode by using the ''zero-width joiner'' and ''non-joiner'', as these presentation forms are deprecated in Unicode, and should generally only be used within the internals of text-rendering software, when using Unicode as an intermediate form for conversion between character encodings, or for backwards compatibility with implementations that rely on the hard-coding of glyph forms.\n\nFinally, the Unicode encoding of Arabic is in ''logical order'', that is, the characters are entered, and stored in computer memory, in the order that they are written and pronounced without worrying about the direction in which they will be displayed on paper or on the screen. Again, it is left to the rendering engine to present the characters in the correct direction, using Unicode's bi-directional text features. In this regard, if the Arabic words on this page are written left to right, it is an indication that the Unicode rendering engine used to display them is out of date.\n\nThere are competing online tools, e.g. Yamli editor, which allow entry of Arabic letters without having Arabic support installed on a PC, and without knowledge of the layout of the Arabic keyboard.\n\n===Handwriting recognition===\nThe first software program of its kind in the world that identifies Arabic handwriting in real time was developed by researchers at Ben-Gurion University (BGU).\n\nThe prototype enables the user to write Arabic words by hand on an electronic screen, which then analyzes the text and translates it into printed Arabic letters in a thousandth of a second. The error rate is less than three percent, according to Dr. Jihad El-Sana, from BGU's department of computer sciences, who developed the system along with master's degree student Fadi Biadsy.\n",
"\n\n*Arabic calligraphy\n*Arabic diacritics (pointed vowels and consonants)\n*Arabic numerals\n*Arabic script about other languages written in Arabic letters.\n*Arabic Unicode\n*Arabic Chat Alphabet\n*ArabTeX – provides Arabic support for TeX and LaTeX\n*Rasm (unpointed consonants)\n*Romanization of Arabic\n*South Arabian alphabet\n*Perso-Arabic script\n*Arabic braille\n*Algerian braille\n*ʿilm al-Ḥurouf\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n\n----\n''This article contains major sections of text from the very detailed article Arabic alphabet from the French Wikipedia, which has been partially translated into English. Further translation of that page, and its incorporation into the text here, are welcomed.''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Consonants",
" Vowels ",
" Numerals ",
" History ",
" Computers ",
" See also ",
"References",
"External links"
] | Arabic alphabet |
[
"\n''Auf zarten Saiten'' by Ephraim Moses Lilien, 1900\n''Song of the Angels'' (1881) by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905)\n\n'''Angels''' have appeared in works of art since early Christian art, and they have been a popular subject for Byzantine and European paintings and sculpture.\n\nAngels are usually intended, in both Christian and Islamic art, to be beautiful, though several depictions go for more awesome/frightening attributes, notably in the depiction of the living creatures (which have beastial characteristics), ophanim (which are unanthropomorphic wheels) and cherubim (which have mosaic features); As a matter of theology, they are spiritual beings who do not eat or excrete and are genderless. Many angels in art may appear to the modern eye to be gendered as either male or female by their dress or actions, but until the 19th century, even the most female looking will normally lack breasts, and the figures should normally be considered as genderless. In 19th-century art, especially funerary art, this traditional convention is sometimes abandoned.\n",
"Winged angels in togas, Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome (432-440)\n\n===In the Early Church===\nSpecific ideas regarding how to portray angels began to develop in the early Church. Since angels are defined as pure spirits,\n the lack of a defined form has allowed artists wide latitude for creativity. Daniel 8:15 describes Gabriel as appearing in the \"likeness of man\" and in Daniel 9:21 he is referred to as \"the man Gabriel.\" Such anthropomorphic descriptions of an angel are consistent with previous descriptions of angels, as in Genesis 19:5. They were usually depicted in the form of young men.\n\nThe earliest known Christian image of an angel, in the ''Cubicolo dell'Annunziazione'' in the Catacomb of Priscilla, which is dated to the middle of the third century, is a depiction of the Annunciation in which Gabriel is portrayed without wings. Representations of angels on sarcophagi and on objects such as lamps and reliquaries of that period also show them without wings, as for example the angel in the ''Sacrifice of Isaac'' scene in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus.\n\nIn a third-century fresco of the Hebrew children in the furnace, in the cemetery of St. Priscilla, a dove takes the place of the angel, while a fourth-century representation of the same subject, in the coemeterium majus, substitutes the Hand of God for the heavenly messenger.\n\nThe earliest known representation of angels with wings is on what is called the Prince's Sarcophagus, discovered at Sarigüzel, near Istanbul, in the 1930s, and attributed to the time of Theodosius I (379-395). Flying winged angels, very often in pairs flanking a central figure or subject, are derivations in visual terms from pairs of winged Victories in classical art.\n\nIn this same period, Saint John Chrysostom explained the significance of angels' wings: \"They manifest a nature's sublimity. That is why Gabriel is represented with wings. Not that angels have wings, but that you may know that they leave the heights and the most elevated dwelling to approach human nature. Accordingly, the wings attributed to these powers have no other meaning than to indicate the sublimity of their nature.\"\n\nFrom then on Christian art generally represented angels with wings, as in the cycle of mosaics in the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore (432-440). Multi-winged angels, often with only their face and wings showing, drawn from the higher grades of angels, especially cherubim and seraphim, are derived from Persian art, and are usually shown only in heavenly contexts, as opposed to performing tasks on earth. They often appear in the pendentives of domes or semi-domes of churches.\n\n===Byzantine art===\n12th century icon of the Archangels Michael and Gabriel wearing the ''loros'' of the Imperial guards.\n\nAngels appear in Byzantine art in mosaics and icons. Artists found some of their inspiration from winged Greek figures such as \"Victory\". They also drew from imperial iconography. Court eunuchs could rise to positions of authority in the Empire. They performed ceremonial functions and served as trusted messengers. Amelia R. Brown points out that legislation under Justinian indicates that many of them came from the Caucasus, having light eyes, hair, and skin, as well as the \"comely features and fine bodies\" desired by slave traders. Those \"castrated in childhood developed a distinctive skeletal structure, lacked full masculine musculature, body hair and beards,....\" As officials, they would wear a white tunic decorated with gold. Brown suggests that \"Byzantine artists drew, consciously or not, on this iconography of the court eunuch\".\n\nDaniel 10: 5-6 describes an angel as clothed in linen and girt with gold. Angels, especially the archangel Michael, who were depicted as military-style agents of God, came to be shown wearing Late Antique military uniform. This could be either the normal military dress, with a tunic to about the knees, armour breastplate and pteruges, but also often the specific dress of the bodyguard of the Byzantine Emperor, with a long tunic and the ''loros'', a long gold and jewelled pallium restricted to the Imperial family and their closest guards, and in icons to archangels. The basic military dress it is still worn in pictures into the Baroque period and beyond in the West, and up to the present day in Eastern Orthodox icons. Other angels came to be conventionally depicted in long robes.\n\n===Medieval art===\nMedieval depictions of angels borrow from the Byzantine. In the French ''Hours of Anne of Brittany'', Gabriel wears a dalmatic. In the later Middle Ages they often wear the vestments of a deacon, a cope over a dalmatic, especially Gabriel in Annunciation scenes - for example ''The Annunciation'' by Jan van Eyck. This indicated that, for all their powers, they could not perform the Eucharist, and were in this respect outranked by every priest, reinforcing the prestige of the clergy. In Early Christian art white robes were almost invariably adopted, sometimes bound with the \"golden girdle\" of Revelation. During the mediæval period senior angels were often clad in every brilliant colour, while junior ranks wore white. Early Renaissance painters such as Jan van Eyck and Fra Angelico painted angels with multi-colored wings. Depictions of angels came to combine medieval notions of beauty with feminine ideals of grace and beauty, as in da Panicale's 1435 ''Baptism of Christ''.\n\n===Renaissance art===\nFra Angelico, The Annunciation, 1437-46\nThe classical ''erotes'' or ''putto'' re-appeared in art during the Italian Renaissance in both religious and mythological art, and is often known in English as a cherub, the singular of cherubim, actually one of the higher ranks in the Christian angelic hierarchy. They normally appear in groups and are generally given wings in religious art, and are sometimes represented as just a winged head. They generally are just in attendance, except that they may be amusing Christ or John the Baptist as infants in scenes of the Holy Family.\n\n===Victorian art===\nIn the late 19th century artists' model Jane Burden Morris came to embody an ideal of beauty for Pre-Raphaelite painters. With the use of her long dark hair and features made somewhat more androgynous, they created a prototype Victorian angel which would appear in paintings and stained glass windows. Roger Homan notes that Edward Burne-Jones and others used her image often and in different ways, creating a new type of angel.\n",
"According to Islamic teaching, angels are made of light, are beautiful, and have wings; although the shape and form of the wings are unknown. In Islamic art angels mainly appear mainly in narrative scenes in miniature painting, in the Persian Mughal and Ottoman traditions. They are especially common in illustrations of the Prophet's Mi'raj, one of the occasions where their presence is mentioned in the Quran. Their appearance generally draws more from the iconography of pre-Islamic Persia, and Buddhist art, than from angels in Christian art. Some of the earliest Ilkhanid examples are exceptions to this. They have wings, often multi-coloured, and very often floating scarves drawing from Chinese Buddhist art. They are not very common however; many appear in illustrations to biographical accounts of the life of the Prophet Muhammad, which are themselves rare. There are a few studies of angels by themselves, especially from Safavid Persia.\n",
"\n* Archangel Michael in Christian art\n* Michael (archangel)\n* Gabriel\n* Angels in Islam\n* Angelus\n* Fleur de lys\n* List of names referring to El\n* Seraph\n",
"\n===Christian art===\n\nFile:Jan van eyck, annunciazione, dettaglio, 1434-36 circa.JPG|The Archangel Gabriel in a deacon's vestments, and multi-colored wings in Jan van Eyck's ''Annunciation'', 1434–36\nFile:Master of the St Lucy Legend - Mary, Queen of Heaven- c. 1480 - c. 1510 (hi res).jpg|Master of the St Lucy Legend, ''Mary, Queen of Heaven'', c 1480-1510, accompanied by angels, some making music and others investments\nImage:Guido Reni 031.jpg|Guido Reni's Michael (in Santa Maria della Concezione church, Rome, 1636) tramples Satan. A mosaic of the same painting decorates ''St. Michael's Altar'' in St. Peter's Basilica.\nImage:Fouquet Madonna.jpg|''Madonna Surrounded by Seraphim and Cherubim'' by Jean Fouquet\nImage:Jacob-angel.jpg|''Jacob Wrestling with the Angel'' by Gustave Doré from ''La Grande Bible de Tours'' (1866)\nFile:Sandro Botticelli - Madonna del Magnificat - Google Art Project.jpg|''Magnificat Madonna'', c. 1483, with wingless angels.\nImage:Seraphim - Petites Heures de Jean de Berry.jpg|''God surrounded by Seraphim'' (Petites Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry)\nFile:Cathedral St Michaels Victory.jpg|''St Michaels Victory over the Devil'', a sculpture by Sir Jacob Epstein\nFile:Da Vinci The Annunciation.jpg|''The Annunciation'' by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1472–75\nImage:Paradiso Canto 31.jpg|''Rosa Celeste'': by Gustave Doré\nFile:Aniol z dudami.jpg|by Jan Matejko\nFile:07Thessaloniki St-Dimetrios03.jpg|Church of Saint Demetrius Patron Saint of Thessaloniki\nImage:Archangel Gabriel Icon wearing sacred blue.png|Icon of Archangel Gabriel by Anonymous, c. 13th century\nImage:Archangel Gabriel Outside Jesus' Tomb after Resurrection.png|Angel in White by Anonymous, c. 1230, Mileseva Monastery, Republic of Serbia\nImage:Archangel Gabriel (Gelati).jpg|Archangel Gabriel. Part of the mosaic fresco from Gelati Monastery, Georgia c. 12th century\nImage:Archangel Gabriel Icon in Blue and Red.png|Archangel Gabriel Icon by Anonymous, c. 13th century, Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, Egypt\nFile:angel letiel.jpg|Ángel arcabucero, 17th-century Peru (?)\nFile:Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_239.png|Michael and the Dragon. Die Bibel in Bildern by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, 1860\nFile:Glasgow. The Barras. Glasgow Antiques & Collectables Market. Sculpture of Angel.jpg|Glasgow. The Barras. Modern sculpture of angel.\n\n\n===Islamic art===\n\n\nFile:Mohammed receiving the submission of the Banu Nadir.jpg|Angel with Mohammad (riding the horse), who receives the submission of the Banu Nadir, from the Ilkhanid Jami Al-Tawarikh, c. 1315\nFile:Arabic-manuscript.jpg|A page from 'The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities of Existence' - Egypt/Syria c.1375-1425 AD\nImage:Miraj_by_Sultan_Muhammad.jpg|Persian Miraj image from 1539–43, reflecting the new, Safavid convention of depicting Muhammad veiled.\nFile:Persian angel 1555.jpg|Persian angel, 1555\n\n",
"\n",
"*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Christian art",
" Islamic art ",
"See also",
"Galleries of Angels",
"Notes",
"References"
] | Angels in art |
[
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Arctic fox''' (''Vulpes lagopus''), also known as the '''white fox''', '''polar fox''', or '''snow fox''', is a small fox native to the Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and common throughout the Arctic tundra biome. It is well adapted to living in cold environments. It has a deep thick fur which is brown in summer and white in winter. Its body length ranges from , with a generally rounded body shape to minimize the escape of body heat.\n\nThe Arctic fox preys on any small creatures such as: lemmings, voles, ringed seal pups, fish, waterfowl, and seabirds. It also eats carrion, berries, seaweed, and insects and other small invertebrates. Arctic foxes form monogamous pairs during the breeding season and they stay together to raise their young in complex underground dens. Occasionally, other family members may assist in raising their young.\n",
"Arctic fox sleeping with its tail wrapped around itself\nThe Arctic fox lives in some of the most frigid extremes on the planet but does not start to shiver until the temperature drops to . Among its adaptations for survival in the cold is its dense, multilayered pelage, which provides excellent insulation, a system of countercurrent heat exchange in the circulation within the paws to retain core temperature, and a good supply of body fat. The fox has a low surface area to volume ratio, as evidenced by its generally compact body shape, short muzzle and legs, and short, thick ears. Since less of its surface area is exposed to the Arctic cold, less heat escapes from its body. Its paws have fur on the soles for additional insulation and to help it walk on ice. Its fur changes color with the seasons: in most populations it is white in the winter to blend in with snow, while in the summer it is greyish-brown or darker brown. In some populations, however, it is a steely bluish-gray in the winter and a paler bluish-gray in summer. The fur of the Arctic fox provides the best insulation of any mammal. The Arctic fox has such keen hearing, it can determine exactly where a small animal is moving under the snow. When it has located its prey, it pounces and punches through the snow to catch its victim. \n\n",
"Arctic foxes do not hibernate and are active all year round. They build up their fat reserves in the autumn, sometimes increasing their body weight by more than 50%. This provides greater insulation during the winter and a source of energy when food is scarce. They live in large dens in frost-free, slightly raised ground. These are complex systems of tunnels covering as much as and are often in eskers, long ridges of sedimentary material deposited in formerly glaciated regions. They have multiple entrances and may have been in existence for many decades and used by many generations of foxes.\n\nArctic foxes tend to form monogamous pairs in the breeding season and maintain a territory around the den. Breeding usually takes place in April and May, and the gestation period is about 52 days. Litters tend to average five to eight kits, but exceptionally contain as many as 25 (the largest litter size in the order Carnivora). Both the mother and father help to raise the young which emerge from the den when 3 to 4 weeks old and are weaned by 9 weeks of age.\n",
"Arctic foxes generally eat any small animal they can find, including lemmings, voles, other rodents, hares, birds, eggs, fish, and carrion. They scavenge on carcasses left by larger predators such as wolves and polar bears, and in times of scarcity even eat their feces. In areas where they are present, lemmings are their most common prey, and a family of foxes can eat dozens of lemmings each day. In some locations in northern Canada, a high seasonal abundance of migrating birds that breed in the area may provide an important food source. On the coast of Iceland and other islands, their diet consists predominantly of birds. During April and May, the Arctic fox also preys on ringed seal pups when the young animals are confined to a snow den and are relatively helpless. They also consume berries and seaweed, so they may be considered omnivores. This fox is a significant bird-egg predator, consuming eggs of all except the largest tundra bird species. When food is overabundant, the Arctic fox buries (caches) the surplus as a reserve.\n",
"The average head-and-body length of the male is , with a range of , while the female averages with a range of . In some regions, no difference in size is seen between males and females. The tail is about long in both sexes. The height at the shoulder is . On average males weigh , with a range of , while females average , with a range of .\n",
"''Vulpes lagopus'' is a 'true fox' belonging to the genus ''Vulpes'' of the fox tribe Vulpini. It is classified under the subfamily Caninae of the canid family Canidae. Although it has previously been assigned to its own monotypic genus ''Alopex'', recent genetic evidence now places it in the genus ''Vulpes'' along with the majority of other foxes.\n\n\n\nIt was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1758 as ''Canis lagopus''. The type specimen was recovered from Lapland, Sweden. The generic name ''vulpes'' is Latin for \"fox\". The specific name ''lagopus'' is derived from Ancient Greek λαγώς (''lagōs'', \"hare\") and πούς (''pous'', \"foot\"), referring to the hair on its feet similar to those found in cold-climate species of hares.\n\n===Subspecies===\nBesides the nominate subspecies, ''V. l. lagopus'', four other subspecies of this fox are described:\n* Bering Islands Arctic fox, ''V. l. beringensis''\n* Iceland Arctic fox, ''V. l. fuliginosus''\n* Pribilof Islands Arctic fox, ''V. l. pribilofensis''\n* Greenland Arctic fox, ''V. l. foragorapusis''\n",
"The Arctic fox's seasonal furs, summer (top), \"blue\" (middle), and winter (bottom)\n\nThe Arctic fox has a circumpolar distribution and occurs in Arctic tundra habitats in northern Europe, northern Asia, and North America. Its range includes Greenland, Iceland, Fennoscandia, Svalbard, Jan Mayen and other islands in the Barents Sea, northern Russia, islands in the Bering Sea, Alaska, and Canada as far south as Hudson Bay. In the late 19th century, it was introduced into the Aleutian Islands southwest of Alaska. It mostly inhabits tundra and pack ice, but is also present in boreal forests in Canada and the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska. They are found at elevations up to above sea level and have been seen on sea ice close to the North Pole.\n\nThe Arctic fox is the only land mammal native to Iceland. It came to the isolated North Atlantic island at the end of the last ice age, walking over the frozen sea. The Arctic Fox Center in Súðavík contains an exhibition on the Arctic fox and conducts studies on the influence of tourism on the population. Its range during the last ice age was much more extensive than it is now, and fossil remains of the Arctic fox have been found over much of northern Europe and Siberia.\n\n\nImage:Iceland-1979445.jpg|Arctic fox in winter pelage, Iceland\nImage:Fjellrev pho.jpg|Arctic fox\n\n",
"Skull\n\nThe conservation status of the species is in general good and several hundred thousand individuals are estimated to remain in total. The IUCN has assessed it as being of \"least concern\". However, the Scandinavian mainland population is acutely endangered, despite being legally protected from hunting and persecution for several decades. The estimate of the adult population in all of Norway, Sweden, and Finland is fewer than 200 individuals. As a result, the populations of arctic fox have been carefully studied and inventoried in places such as the Vindelfjällens Nature Reserve (Sweden), which has the arctic fox as its symbol.\n\nThe abundance of the Arctic fox tends to fluctuate in a cycle along with the population of lemmings and voles (a 3- to 4-year cycle). The populations are especially vulnerable during the years when the prey population crashes, and uncontrolled trapping has almost eradicated two subpopulations.\n\nThe pelts of Arctic foxes with a slate-blue coloration—an expression of a recessive gene—were especially valuable. They were transported to various previously fox-free Aleutian Islands during the 1920s. The program was successful in terms of increasing the population of blue foxes, but their predation of Aleutian Canada geese conflicted with the goal of preserving that species.\n\nThe Arctic fox is losing ground to the larger red fox. This has been attributed to climate change—the camouflage value of its lighter coat decreases with less snow cover. Red foxes dominate where their ranges begin to overlap by killing Arctic foxes and their kits. An alternate explanation of the red fox's gains involves the gray wolf. Historically, it has kept red fox numbers down, but as the wolf has been hunted to near extinction in much of its former range, the red fox population has grown larger, and it has taken over the niche of top predator. In areas of northern Europe, programs are in place that allow the hunting of red foxes in the Arctic fox's previous range.\n\nAs with many other game species, the best sources of historical and large-scale population data are hunting bag records and questionnaires. Several potential sources of error occur in such data collections. In addition, numbers vary widely between years due to the large population fluctuations. However, the total population of the Arctic fox must be in the order of several hundred thousand animals.\n\nThe world population of Arctic foxes is thus not endangered, but two Arctic fox subpopulations are. One is on Medny Island (Commander Islands, Russia), which was reduced by some 85–90%, to around 90 animals, as a result of mange caused by an ear tick introduced by dogs in the 1970s. The population is currently under treatment with antiparasitic drugs, but the result is still uncertain.\n\nThe other threatened population is the one in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Kola Peninsula). This population decreased drastically around the start of the 20th century as a result of extreme fur prices, which caused severe hunting also during population lows. The population has remained at a low density for more than 90 years, with additional reductions during the last decade. The total population estimate for 1997 is around 60 adults in Sweden, 11 adults in Finland, and 50 in Norway. From Kola, there are indications of a similar situation, suggesting a population of around 20 adults. The Fennoscandian population thus numbers around 140 breeding adults. Even after local lemming peaks, the Arctic fox population tends to collapse back to levels dangerously close to nonviability.\n\nThe Arctic fox is classed as a \"prohibited new organism\" under New Zealand's Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, preventing it from being imported into the country.\n",
"* Arctic rabies virus\n",
"\n",
"* Nowak, Ronald M. (2005). ''Walker's Carnivores of the World''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. .\n",
"\n\n* State of the Environment Norway: Arctic fox\n* Smithsonian Institution – North American Mammals: Vulpes lagopus\n* Photo Gallery by islandsmyndir.is\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Adaptations",
"Reproduction",
"Diet",
"Size",
"Taxonomy",
"Distribution and habitat",
"Conservation status",
" See also ",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Arctic fox |
[
"\n\n'''Anglo-Saxon''' may refer to: \n* Anglo-Saxon economy, modern macroeconomic term\n* Anglo-Saxon world, modern societies based on or influenced by English customs\n* Anglo-Saxons, Germanic tribes that settled down in Britain and founded England\n** Anglo-Saxon England, their history\n** Old English, their language\n* , one of various ships\n* White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, an ethnicity\n",
"* Anglo\n* Saxon (disambiguation)\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"See also"
] | Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation) |
[
"\n\nFolklore consists of legends, music, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, fairy tales, stories, tall tales, and customs that are the traditions of a culture, subculture, or group. It is also the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared. The study of folklore is sometimes called folkloristics. In usage, there is a continuum between folklore and mythology.\n\n'''American folklore''' encompasses the folk traditions that have evolved on the North American continent since Europeans arrived in the 16th century. While it contains much in the way of Native American tradition, it should not be confused with the tribal beliefs of any community of native people.\n",
"Native American cultures are rich in myths and legends that explain natural phenomena and the relationship between humans and the spirit world. According to Barre Toelken, feathers, beadwork, dance steps and music, the events in a story, the shape of a dwelling, or items of traditional food can be viewed as icons of cultural meaning.\n\nNative American cultures are numerous and diverse. Though some neighboring cultures hold similar beliefs, others can be quite different from one another. The most common myths are the creation myths, that tell a story to explain how the earth was formed, and where humans and other beings came from. Others may include explanations about the sun, moon, constellations, specific animals, seasons, and weather. This is one of the ways that many tribes have kept, and continue to keep, their cultures alive; these stories are not told simply for entertainment, but as a way of preserving and transmitting the nation, tribe or band's particular beliefs, history, customs, spirituality and traditional way of life. \"Stories not only entertain but also embody Native behavioral and ethical values.\"\n\nThere are many different kinds of stories. Some are called \"hero stories\"; these are stories of people who lived at one time, and who were immortalized and remembered through these tales. There are \"trickster stories\", about the different trickster figures of the tribes, spirits who may be either helpful or dangerous, depending on the situation. There are also tales that are simply warnings; they warn against doing something that may harm in some way. Many of these tales have morals or some form of belief that is being taught. This is how the things were remembered.\n",
"The founding of the United States is often surrounded by legends and tall tales. Many stories have developed since the founding long ago to become a part of America's folklore and cultural awareness, and non-Native American folklore especially includes any narrative which has contributed to the shaping of American culture and belief systems. These narratives may be true and may be false or may be a little true and a little false; the veracity of the stories is not a determining factor.\n\n===Christopher Columbus===\nChristopher Columbus, as a hero and symbol, is an important figure in the pantheon of American myth. His status, not unlike most American icons, is representative not of his own accomplishments, but the self-perception of the society which chose him as a hero. Having effected a separation from England and its cultural icons, America was left without history—or heroes on which to base a shared sense of their social selves. Washington Irving was instrumental in popularizing Columbus. His version of Columbus' life, published in 1829, was more a romance than a biography. The book was very popular, and contributed to an image of the discoverer as a solitary individual who challenged the unknown sea, as triumphant Americans contemplated the dangers and promise of their own wilderness frontier. As a consequence of his vision and audacity, there was now a land free from kings, a vast continent for new beginnings. In the years following the Revolution the poetic device \"Columbia\" was used as a symbol of both Columbus and America. King's College of New York changed its name in 1792 to Columbia, and the new capitol in Washington was subtitled District of Columbia.\n\n===Jamestown===\n\nIn May 1607, the Susan Constant, the Discovery, and the Godspeed sailed through Chesapeake Bay and thirty miles up the James River settlers built Jamestown, Virginia, England's first permanent colony. Too late in the season to plant crops, many were not accustomed to manual labor. Within a few months, some settlers died of famine and disease. Only thirty-eight made it through their first year in the New World. Captain John Smith, a pirate turned gentleman turned the settlers into foragers and successful traders with the Native Americans, who taught the English how to plant corn and other crops. Smith led expeditions to explore the regions surrounding Jamestown, and it was during one of these that the chief of the Powhatan Native Americans captured Smith. According to an account Smith published in 1624, he was going to be put to death until the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, saved him. From this the legend of Pocahontas sprang forth, becoming part of American folklore, children's books, and movies.\n\n===Pilgrims===\nPlymouth Rock Monument designed for the Tercentenary (1920)\nPlymouth Rock is the traditional site of disembarkation of William Bradford and the Mayflower Pilgrims who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620, and an important symbol in American history. There are no contemporary references to the Pilgrims' landing on a rock at Plymouth. The first written reference to the Pilgrims landing on a rock is found 121 years after they landed. The Rock, or one traditionally identified as it, has long been memorialized on the shore of Plymouth Harbor in Plymouth, Massachusetts. The holiday of Thanksgiving is said to have begun with the Pilgrims in 1621. They had come to America to escape religious persecution, but then nearly starved to death. Some friendly Native Americans (including Squanto) helped the Pilgrims survive through the first winter. The perseverance of the Pilgrims is celebrated during the annual Thanksgiving festival.\n",
"\n\n===George Washington===\nGeorge Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14, 1799), the country's first president, is often said to be the father of his country. Apocryphal stories about Washington's childhood include a claim that he skipped a silver dollar across the Rappahannock River at Ferry Farm. Another tale claims that as a young child, Washington chopped down his father's cherry tree. His angry father confronted the young Washington, who proclaimed \"I can not tell a lie\" and admitted to the transgression, thus illuminating his honesty. Parson Mason Locke Weems mentions the first citation of this legend in his 1806 book, ''The Life of George Washington: With Curious Anecdotes, Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young Countrymen''. This anecdote cannot be independently verified. Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) is also known to have spread the story while lecturing, personalizing it by adding \"I have a higher and greater standard of principle. Washington could not lie. I can lie but I won't.\"\n\n===Patrick Henry===\nPatrick Henry (May 29, 1736 – June 6, 1799) was an attorney, planter and politician who became known as an orator during the movement for independence in Virginia in the 1770s. Patrick Henry is best known for the speech he made in the House of Burgesses on March 23, 1775, in Saint John's Church in Richmond, Virginia. With the House undecided on whether to mobilize for military action against the encroaching British military force, Henry argued in favor of mobilization. Forty-two years later, Henry's first biographer, William Wirt, working from oral histories, tried to reconstruct what Henry said. According to Wirt, Henry ended his speech with words that have since become immortalized: \"I know not what course others may take; but as for me, Give me Liberty, or give me Death!\" The crowd, by Wirt's account, jumped up and shouted \"To Arms! To Arms!\". For 160 years Wirt's account was taken at face value. In the 1970s, historians began to question the authenticity of Wirt's reconstruction.\n\nBetsy Ross sewing\n\n===Betsy Ross===\nBetsy Ross (January 1, 1752 – January 30, 1836) is widely credited with making the first American flag. There is, however, no credible historical evidence that the story is true. Research conducted by the National Museum of American History notes that the story of Betsy Ross making the first American flag for General George Washington entered into American consciousness about the time of the 1876 centennial celebrations. In the 2008 book ''The Star-Spangled Banner: The Making of an American Icon'', Smithsonian experts point out that accounts of the event appealed to Americans eager for stories about the revolution and its heroes and heroines. Betsy Ross was promoted as a patriotic role model for young girls and a symbol of women's contributions to American history.\n\nOther Revolutionary War heroes who became figures of American folklore include: Benedict Arnold, Benjamin Franklin, Nathan Hale, John Hancock, John Paul Jones and Francis Marion.\n",
"The tall tale is a fundamental element of American folk literature. The tall tale's origins are seen in the bragging contests that often occurred when men of the American frontier gathered. A tall tale is a story with unbelievable elements, related as if it were true and factual. Some such stories are exaggerations of actual events; others are completely fictional tales set in a familiar setting, such as the American Old West, or the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. They are usually humorous or good-natured. The line between myth and tall tale is distinguished primarily by age; many myths exaggerate the exploits of their heroes, but in tall tales the exaggeration looms large, to the extent of becoming the whole of the story.\n\n===Based on historical figures===\n\n*John Chapman (September 26, 1774 – March 18, 1845), widely known as Johnny Appleseed, was an American pioneer nurseryman who introduced apple trees to large parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. He became an American legend while still alive, largely because of his kind and generous ways, and the symbolic importance he attributed to apples. Johnny Appleseed is remembered in American popular culture by his traveling song or Swedenborgian hymn (\"The Lord is good to me...\").\n*Daniel Boone (November 2, 1734 O.S. October 22 – September 26, 1820) was an American pioneer, explorer, and frontiersman whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United States.\n*\"Davy\" Crockett (August 17, 1786 – March 6, 1836) was a 19th-century American folk hero, frontiersman, soldier and politician. He is commonly referred to in popular culture by the epithet, \"King of the Wild Frontier\". He represented Tennessee in the U.S. House of Representatives, served in the Texas Revolution, and died at the Battle of the Alamo.\n*Mike Fink (c. 1770/1780 – c. 1823) called \"king of the keelboaters\", was a semi-legendary brawler and river boatman who exemplified the tough and hard-drinking men who ran keelboats up and down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.\n*Martha Jane Canary (May 1, 1852 – August 1, 1903), better known as Calamity Jane, was an American frontierswoman, and professional scout best known for her claim of being an acquaintance of Wild Bill Hickok. She is said to have also exhibited kindness and compassion, especially to the sick and needy. It was from her that Bret Harte took his famous character of Cherokee Sal in ''The Luck of Roaring Camp''.\n*Jigger Johnson (1871-1935), was a lumberjack and log driver from northern New England who is known for his numerous off-the-job exploits, such as catching bobcats alive with his bare hands, and drunken brawls. \n*John Henry was an African-American railroad worker who is said to have worked as a \"steel-driving man\"—a man tasked with hammering a steel drill into rock to make holes for explosives to blast the rock away in constructing a railroad tunnel. According to legend, John Henry's prowess as a steel-driver was measured in a race against a steam powered hammer, which he won, only to die in victory with his hammer in his hand and his heart giving out from stress. The \"Ballad of John Henry\" is a musical rendition of his story.\n\nOther historical figures include Titanic survivor Molly Brown, Wild West showman Buffalo Bill Cody, and sharpshooter Annie Oakley.\n\n===Fictional characters===\n\n*Paul Bunyan is a lumberjack figure in North American folklore and tradition. One of the most famous and popular North American folklore heroes, he is usually described as a giant as well as a lumberjack of unusual skill, and is often accompanied in stories by his animal companion, Babe the Blue Ox. The character originated in folktales circulated among lumberjacks in the Northeastern United States and eastern Canada, first appearing in print in a story published by Northern Michigan journalist James MacGillivray in 1906.\n*The Lone Ranger is a fictional hero of the west who fought raiders and robbers in the Texas area. The sole survivor of a group of six rangers, he set out to bring the criminals who killed his brother to justice.\n*John the Conqueror also known as High John the Conqueror, and many other folk variants, is a folk hero from African-American folklore. John the Conqueror was an African prince who was sold as a slave in the Americas. Despite his enslavement, his spirit was never broken and he survived in folklore as a sort of a trickster figure, because of the tricks he played to evade his masters. Joel Chandler Harris's 'Br'er Rabbit' of the Uncle Remus stories is said to be patterned after High John the Conqueror.\n*Pecos Bill is an American cowboy, apocryphally immortalized in numerous tall tales of the Old West during American westward expansion into the Southwest of Texas, New Mexico, Southern California, and Arizona\nMOLLY PITCHER. (Ten American Girls from History 1917)\n\n*Molly Pitcher was a nickname given to a woman said to have fought in the American Battle of Monmouth, who is generally believed to have been Mary Ludwig Hays McCauly. Since various Molly Pitcher tales grew in the telling, many historians regard Molly Pitcher as folklore rather than history, or suggest that Molly Pitcher may be a composite image inspired by the actions of a number of real women. The name itself may have originated as a nickname given to women who carried water to men on the battlefield during the war.\n*Captain Stormalong was an American folk hero and the subject of numerous nautical-themed tall tales originating in Massachusetts. Stormalong was said to be a sailor and a giant, some 30 feet tall; he was the master of a huge clipper ship known in various sources as either the Courser or the Tuscarora, a ship so tall that it had hinged masts to avoid catching on the moon.\n",
"\n*Bigfoot, also known as \"Sasquatch\", is the name given to an ape-like creature that some believe inhabits forests in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. Bigfoot is usually described as a large, hairy, bipedal humanoid. Generally, scientists discount the existence of Bigfoot due to the lack of physical evidence and the large number of creatures that would be necessary to maintain a breeding population. Most claims of \"Bigfoot sightings\" are a combination of misidentification, hoax, and folklore.\n*Champ is the name given to a reputed lake monster living in Lake Champlain, a natural freshwater lake in North America. The lake crosses the U.S./Canada border; located partially in the Canadian province of Quebec and partially in the U.S. states of Vermont and New York. There is no scientific evidence for Champ's existence, though there have been over 300 reported sightings.\n*The Jersey Devil is a legendary creature said to inhabit the Pine Barrens of Southern New Jersey in the United States. The creature is often described as a flying biped with hooves, but there are many different variations. The most common description is that of a kangaroo-like creature with the face of a horse, the head of a dog, leathery bat-like wings, horns, small arms with clawed hands, cloven hooves and a forked tail. It has been reported to move quickly as to avoid human contact, and often is described as emitting a \"blood-curdling scream\".\n*The White Lady is a type of female ghost reportedly seen in rural areas and associated with some local legend of tragedy. Common to many of them is the theme of losing or being betrayed by a husband or fiancé. They are often associated with an individual family line or said to be a harbinger of death, similar to a banshee.\n*Mothman is a mythical half moth half man from Point Pleasant, West Virginia described as a large humanoid with moth features on its face and large wings with fur covering its body. Mothman has been blamed for the collapse of the Silver Bridge.\n*Hodag The Hodag is mythical beast that is said to inhabit the forests of Northern Wisconsin, particularly around the city of Rhinelander. The Hodag has a reptilian body with the horns of a bull, and is said to have a penchant for mischief.\n\nOther folkloric creatures include the fearsome Jackalope, the Nain Rouge of Detroit, Michigan, Wendigo of Minnesota and Chessie, a legendary sea monster said to live in Chesapeake Bay.\n",
"Santa Claus, also known as Saint Nicholas, Father Christmas, or simply \"Santa\", is a figure with legendary, mythical, historical and folkloric origins. The modern figure of Santa Claus was derived from the Dutch figure, Sinterklaas, which may, in turn, have its origins in the hagiographical tales concerning the Christian Saint Nicholas. \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\", also known as \"The Night Before Christmas\" is a poem first published anonymously in 1823 and generally attributed to Clement Clarke Moore. The poem, which has been called \"arguably the best-known verses ever written by an American\", is largely responsible for the conception of Santa Claus from the mid-nineteenth century to today, including his physical appearance, the night of his visit, his mode of transportation, the number and names of his reindeer, as well as the tradition that he brings toys to children. The poem has influenced ideas about St. Nicholas and Santa Claus from the United States to the rest of the English-speaking world and beyond. ''Is There a Santa Claus?'' was the title of an editorial appearing in the September 21, 1897, edition of The (New York) Sun. The editorial, which included the famous reply \"Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus\", has become a part of popular Christmas folklore in the United States and Canada.\n\nThe Headless Horseman is a fictional character from the short story \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\" by American author Washington Irving. The story, from Irving's collection of short stories entitled The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, has worked itself into known American folklore/legend through literature and film.\n\nThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz is a children's novel written by L. Frank Baum and illustrated by W. W. Denslow. Originally published by the George M. Hill Company in Chicago on May 17, 1900, it has since been reprinted numerous times, most often under the name The Wizard of Oz, which is the name of both the 1902 stage play and the well-known adaptation 1939 film version, starring Judy Garland. The story chronicles the adventures of a young girl named Dorothy Gale in the Land of Oz, after being swept away from her Kansas farm home in a tornado. Thanks in part to the 1939 MGM movie, it is one of the best-known stories in American popular culture.\n",
"\nNative Americans were the earliest inhabitants of the land that is today known as the United States and played its first music. Beginning in the 17th century, immigrants from the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, Germany and France began arriving in large numbers, bringing with them new styles and instruments. African slaves brought musical traditions, and each subsequent wave of immigrants contributes to a melting pot. Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century but is often applied to music that is older than that.\n\nEarliest American scholars were with The American Folklore Society (AFS), which emerged in the late 1800s. Their studies expanded to include Native American music, but still treated folk music as a historical item preserved in isolated societies. In North America, during the 1930s and 1940s, the Library of Congress worked through the offices of traditional music collectors Robert Winslow Gordon, Alan Lomax and others to capture as much North American field material as possible. Lomax was the first prominent scholar to study distinctly American folk music such as that of cowboys and southern blacks. His first major published work was in 1911, Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads, and was arguably the most prominent US folk music scholar of his time, notably during the beginnings of the folk music revival in the 1930s and early 1940s.\n\nThe American folk music revival was a phenomenon in the United States that began during the 1940s and peaked in popularity in the mid-1960s. Its roots went earlier, and performers like Burl Ives, Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, and Oscar Brand had enjoyed a limited general popularity in the 1930s and 1940s. The revival brought forward musical styles that had, in earlier times, contributed to the development of country & western, jazz, and rock and roll music.\n\n===African-American music===\nSlavery was introduced to the British colonies in the early 17th century, and enslaved people largely replaced indentured servants as an economic labor force during the 17th century. The ancestors of today's African-American population were brought to the United States as slaves, working primarily in the plantations of the South. They were from hundreds of tribes across West Africa, and brought with them certain traits of West African music including call and response vocals and complex rhythmic music, as well as syncopated beats and shifting accents. The African musical focus on rhythmic singing and dancing was brought to the New World, where it became part of a distinct folk culture that helped Africans \"retain continuity with their past through music\". The first slaves in the United States sang work songs, and field hollers.\n\n====Negro Spirituals====\nProtestant hymns written mostly by New England preachers became a feature of camp meetings held among devout Christians across the South. When blacks began singing adapted versions of these hymns, they were called Negro spirituals. It was from these roots, of spiritual songs, work songs and field hollers, that blues, jazz and gospel developed. Negro spirituals were primarily expressions of religious faith.\n\n===Folk songs===\nThe Thirteen Colonies of the original United States were all former British possessions, and Anglo culture became a major foundation for American folk and popular music. Many American folk songs are identical to British songs in arrangements, but with new lyrics, often as parodies of the original material. Anglo-American traditional music also includes a variety of broadside ballads, humorous stories and tall tales, and disaster songs regarding mining, shipwrecks and murder.\n\nFolk songs may be classified by subject matter, such as: drinking songs, sporting songs, train songs, work songs, war songs, and ballads.\n\n*The Star-Spangled Banner's tune was adapted from an old English drinking song by John Stafford Smith called \"To Anacreon in Heaven\"\n*\"The Ballad of Casey Jones\" is a traditional song about railroad engineer Casey Jones and his death at the controls of the train he was driving. It tells of how Jones and his fireman Sim Webb raced their locomotive to make up for lost time, but discovered another train ahead of them on the line, and how Jones remained on board to try to stop the train as Webb jumped to safety.\n*\"When Johnny Comes Marching Home\" (sometimes \"When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again\") is a popular song of the American Civil War that expressed people's longing for the return of their friends and relatives who were fighting in the war. The Irish anti-war song \"Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye\" and \"When Johnny Comes Marching Home\" share the same melodic material. Based on internal textual references, \"Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye\" apparently dates from the early 1820s, while When Johnny Comes Marching Home was first published in 1863. \"Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye\" is a popular traditional Irish anti-war and anti-recruiting song. It is generally dated to the early 19th century, when soldiers from Athy, County Kildare served the British East India Company.\n*\"Oh My Darling, Clementine\" (1884) is an American western folk ballad believed to have been based on another song called Down by the River Liv'd a Maiden (1863). The words are those of a bereaved lover singing about his darling, the daughter of a miner in the 1849 California Gold Rush. He loses her in a drowning accident. The song plays during the opening credits for the highly acclaimed John Ford movie \"My Darling Clementine\". It also runs as a background score all through the movie.\n*The Yellow Rose of Texas is a traditional folk song. The original love song has become associated with the legend that Emily D. West, a biracial indentured servant, \"helped win the Battle of San Jacinto, the decisive battle in the Texas Revolution\".\n*\"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\" is a 1908 Tin Pan Alley song by Jack Norworth and Albert Von Tilzer which has become the unofficial anthem of baseball, although neither of its authors had attended a game prior to writing the song. The song is traditionally sung during the seventh-inning stretch of a baseball game. Fans are generally encouraged to sing along.\n\nOther American folksongs include: \"She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain\", \"Skewball\", \"Big Bad John\", \"Stagger Lee\", \"Camptown Races\" and \"The Battle Hymn of the Republic\".\n\n===Sea shanties===\n\nWork songs sung by sailors between the 18th and 20th centuries are known as sea shanties. The shanty was a distinct type of work song, developed especially in American-style merchant vessels that had come to prominence in decades prior to the American Civil War. These songs were typically performed while adjusting the rigging, raising anchor, and other tasks where men would need to pull in rhythm. These songs usually have a very punctuated rhythm precisely for this reason, along with a call-and-answer format. Well before the 19th century, sea songs were common on rowing vessels. Such songs were also very rhythmic in order to keep the rowers together.\n\nThey were notably influenced by songs of African Americans, such as those sung whilst manually loading vessels with cotton in ports of the southern United States. The work contexts in which African-Americans sang songs comparable to shanties included: boat-rowing on rivers of the south-eastern U.S. and Caribbean; the work of stokers or \"firemen\", who cast wood into the furnaces of steamboats plying great American rivers;and stevedoring on the U.S. eastern seaboard, the Gulf Coast, and the Caribbean—including \"cotton-screwing\": the loading of ships with cotton in ports of the American South. During the first half of the 19th century, some of the songs African Americans sang also began to appear in use for shipboard tasks, i.e. as shanties.\n\nShanty repertoire borrowed from the contemporary popular music enjoyed by sailors, including minstrel music, popular marches, and land-based folk songs, which were adapted to suit musical forms matching the various labor tasks required to operate a sailing ship. Such tasks, which usually required a coordinated group effort in either a pulling or pushing action, included weighing anchor and setting sail.\n\n*\"Poor Paddy Works on the Railway\" is a popular Irish and American folk song. Historically, it was often sung as a sea chanty. The song portrays an Irish worker working on a railroad. There are numerous titles of the song including, \"Pat Works on the Railway\" and \"Paddy on the Railway\". \"Paddy Works on the Erie\" is another version of the song. \"Paddy on the Railway\" is attested as a chanty in the earliest known published work to use the word \"chanty\", G. E. Clark's ''Seven Years of a Sailor's Life'' (1867). Clark recounted experiences fishing on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, in a vessel out of Provincetown, Mass. ca. 1865-6. At one point, the crew is getting up the anchor in a storm, by means of a pump-style windlass. One of the chanties the men sing while performing this task is mentioned by title, \"Paddy on the Railway\".\n\n===Shaker music===\n\nThe Shakers is a religious sect founded in 18th-century England upon the teachings of Ann Lee. Shakers today are most known for their cultural contributions (especially style of music and furniture). The Shakers composed thousands of songs, and also created many dances; both were an important part of the Shaker worship services. In Shaker society, a spiritual \"gift\" could also be a musical revelation, and they considered it important to record musical inspirations as they occurred. \"Simple Gifts\" was composed by Elder Joseph Brackett and originated in the Alfred Shaker community in Maine in 1848. Aaron Copland's iconic 1944 ballet score Appalachian Spring, uses the now famous Shaker tune \"Simple Gifts\" as the basis of its finale.\n",
"Folk dances of British origin include the square dance, descended from the quadrille, combined with the American innovation of a caller instructing the dancers. The religious communal society known as the Shakers emigrated from England during the 18th century and developed their own folk dance style.\n",
"*the \"Lost Colony\" of Roanoke Island: In 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh recruited over 100 men, women and children to journey from England to Roanoke Island on North Carolina's coast and establish the first English settlement in America under the direction of John White as governor. Virginia Dare (born August 18, 1587) was the first child born in the Americas to English parents, Ananias and Eleanor White Dare in the short-lived Roanoke Colony. The fact of her birth is known because the governor of the settlement, Virginia Dare's grandfather, John White, returned to England in 1587 to seek fresh supplies. When White eventually returned three years later, Virginia and the other colonists were gone. During the past four hundred years, Virginia Dare has become a prominent figure in American myth and folklore, symbolizing different things to different groups of people. She is the subject of a poem (''Peregrine White and Virginia Dare'') by Rosemary and Stephen Vincent Benet, and the North Carolina ''Legend of the White Doe''. While often cited as an Indian legend, the white doe seems to have its roots in English folklore. White deer are common in English legends and often used as symbols of Christian virtue. A similar story of a young girl transformed into a white deer can be found in Yorkshire, where it formed the basis for Wordsworth's poem ''The White Doe of Rylstone''. In the four centuries since their disappearance, the Roanoke colonists have been the subject of a mystery that still challenges historians and archaeologists as one of America's oldest.\n*Times Square is a major commercial intersection in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, at the junction of Broadway and Seventh Avenue and stretching from West 42nd to West 47th Streets. Times Square – iconified as \"The Crossroads of the World\" is the brightly illuminated hub of the Broadway Theater District. Formerly Longacre Square, Times Square was renamed in April 1904 after The New York Times moved its headquarters to the newly erected Times Building site of the annual ball drop on New Year's Eve. The northern triangle of Times Square is technically Duffy Square, dedicated in 1937 to Chaplain Francis P. Duffy of New York City's \"Fighting 69th\" Infantry Regiment; a memorial to Duffy is located there, along with a statue of George M. Cohan. The Duffy Statue and the square were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001.\nThe Empire State Building\n\n*Empire State Building is a 102-story skyscraper located in New York City at the intersection of Fifth Avenue and West 34th Street. Its name is derived from the nickname for New York, the Empire State. It stood as the world's tallest building for 40 years, from its completion in 1931. The Empire State Building is generally thought of as an American cultural icon. The project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk iron workers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. Perhaps the most famous popular culture representation of the building is in the 1933 film King Kong, in which the title character, a giant ape, climbs to the top to escape his captors but falls to his death after being attacked by airplanes. The 1957 romantic drama film An Affair to Remember involves a couple who plan to meet atop the Empire State Building, a rendezvous that is averted by an automobile accident. The 1993 film Sleepless in Seattle, a romantic comedy partially inspired by An Affair to Remember, climaxes with a scene at the Empire State observatory.\n\nOther locations and landmarks that have become part of American folklore include: Independence Hall, Monument Valley, Ellis Island, Hoover Dam, Pearl Harbor, the Vietnam War Memorial, and the Grand Canyon.\n",
"\n*The Liberty Bell is an iconic symbol of American independence, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The bell was commissioned from the London firm of Lester and Pack in 1752, and was cast with the lettering (part of Leviticus 25:10) \"Proclaim LIBERTY throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof.\" In the 1830s, the bell was adopted as a symbol by abolitionist societies, who dubbed it the \"Liberty Bell\". It acquired its distinctive large crack sometime in the early 19th century—a widespread story claims it cracked while ringing after the death of Chief Justice John Marshall in 1835.\n*Statue of Liberty The Statue of Liberty is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, designed by Frédéric Bartholdi and dedicated on October 28, 1886. The statue, a gift to the United States from the people of France, is of a robed female figure representing Libertas, the Roman goddess of freedom, who bears a torch and a tablet upon which is inscribed the date of the American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. The statue is an icon of freedom and of the United States: a welcoming signal to immigrants arriving from abroad.\n*Uncle Sam (initials U.S.) is a common national personification of the American government and came into use during the War of 1812. According to legend, Samuel Wilson, a meat packer in New York, supplied rations for the soldiers and stamped the letters U.S. on the boxes, which stood for United States but was jokingly said to be the initials of Uncle Sam. An Uncle Sam is mentioned as early as 1775, in the original \"Yankee Doodle\" lyrics of the Revolutionary War . The earliest known personification of what would become the United States was \"Columbia\", who first appeared in 1738 and sometimes was associated with liberty. With the American Revolutionary War came \"Brother Jonathan\" as another personification and finally after the War of 1812 Uncle Sam appeared.\n\nOther Cultural Icons include, Rosie the Riveter, the United States Constitution, the Colt Single Action Army, Smokey Bear, the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, Columbia and Apple Pie.\n",
"Historical events that form a part of American folklore include: 9/11, Boston Massacre, Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere's Ride, the Battle of the Alamo, the Salem witch trials, Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, California Gold Rush, Battle of the Little Bighorn, the Battle of Gettysburg, and the Attack on Pearl Harbor.\n",
"*Black Heritage Trail\n*John C. Campbell Folk School\n*Seeing the elephant\n",
"\n",
"*Coffin, Tristram P.; Cohen, Hennig, (editors), ''Folklore in America; tales, songs, superstitions, proverbs, riddles, games, folk drama and folk festivals'', Garden City, N.Y. : Doubleday, 1966. Selections from the ''Journal of American folklore''.\n*—the evolution of the Elephant Riddle that entered U.S. folklore in California in 1963\n* Cox, William T. with Latin Classifications by George B. Sudworth. Fearsome Creatures of the Lumberwoods. (Washington, D.C.: Judd & Detweiler Inc., 1910)\n",
"* American Folklore Society\n* American Myth Today: O Brother, Where Art Thou? American Studies at the University of Virginia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Native American folklore",
"Founding myths",
"Revolutionary War figures",
"Tall Tales",
"Legendary and folkloric creatures",
"Literature",
"Folk music",
"Folk dancing",
"Locations and landmarks",
"Cultural icons",
"History",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Folklore of the United States |
[
"\n\n'''''Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri''''' is a video game in the 4X genre which is considered a spiritual sequel to the ''Civilization'' series. Set in a science fiction depiction of the 22nd century, the game begins as seven competing ideological factions land on the planet Chiron (\"Planet\") in the Alpha Centauri star system. As the game progresses, Planet's growing sentience becomes a formidable obstacle to the human colonists.\n\nSid Meier, designer of ''Civilization'', and Brian Reynolds, designer of ''Civilization II'', developed ''Alpha Centauri'' after they left MicroProse to join the newly created developer Firaxis Games. Electronic Arts released both ''Alpha Centauri'' and its expansion, ''Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire'', in 1999. The following year, Aspyr Media ported both titles to Classic Mac OS while Loki Software ported them to Linux.\n\n''Alpha Centauri'' features improvements on ''Civilization II''s game engine, including simultaneous multiplay, social engineering, climate, customizable units, alien native life, additional diplomatic and spy options, additional ways to win, and greater mod-ability. ''Alien Crossfire'' introduces five new human and two non-human factions, as well as additional technologies, facilities, secret projects, native life, unit abilities, and a victory condition.\n\nThe game received wide critical acclaim, being compared favorably to ''Civilization II''. Critics praised its science fiction storyline (comparing the plot to works by Stanley Kubrick, Frank Herbert, Arthur C. Clarke, and Isaac Asimov), the in-game writing, the voice acting, the user-created custom units, and the depth of the technology tree. ''Alpha Centauri'' also won several awards for best game of the year and best strategy game of the year.\n",
"\n===Setting===\nSpace-race victories in the ''Civilization'' series conclude with a journey to Alpha Centauri. Beginning with that premise the ''Alpha Centauri'' narrative starts in the 22nd century, after the United Nations sends \"Unity\", a colonization mission, to Alpha Centauri's planet Chiron (\"Planet\"). Unbeknownst to humans, advanced extraterrestrials (\"Progenitors\") had been conducting experiments in vast distributed nervous systems, culminating in planetary biosphere-sized presentient nervous system (\"Manifold\") on Chiron, leaving behind monoliths and artifacts on Planet to guide and examine the system's growth. Immediately prior to the start of the game, a reactor malfunction on the Unity spacecraft wakes the crew and colonists early and irreparably severs communications with Earth. After the captain is assassinated, the most powerful leaders on board build ideological factions with dedicated followers, conflicting agendas for the future of mankind, and \"desperately serious\" commitments. As the ship breaks up, seven escape pods, each containing a faction, are scattered across Planet.\n\nIn the ''Alien Crossfire'' expansion pack, it is learned that earlier alien experiments had led to disastrous consequences at Tau Ceti, creating a hundred-million-year evolutionary cycle that ended with the eradication of most complex animal life in several neighbouring inhabited star systems. After the disaster (referred to by Progenitors as \"Tau Ceti Flowering\"), the Progenitors split into two factions: Manifold Caretakers, opposed to further experimentation and dedicated to preventing another Flowering; and Manifold Usurpers, favoring further experimentation and intending to induce a controlled Flowering in ''Alpha Centauri''s Planet. In ''Alien Crossfire'', these factions compete along with the human factions for control over the destiny of Planet.\n\n===Characters===\nThe game focuses on the leaders of seven factions, chosen by the player from the 14 possible leaders in ''Alpha Centauri'' and ''Alien Crossfire'', and Planet (voiced by Alena Kanka). The characters are developed from the faction leaders' portraits, the spoken monologues accompanying scientific discoveries and the \"photographs in the corner of a commlink – home towns, first steps, first loves, family, graduation, spacewalk.\" The leaders in ''Alpha Centauri'' comprise:\n* Lady Deirdre Skye (voiced by Carolyn Dahl) of ''Gaia's Stepdaughters'', Scottish activist and former U.N.S. Unity xenobiologist\n* Chairman Sheng-Ji Yang (voiced by Lu Yu) of the ''Human Hive'', former scholar, military officer and U.N.S. Unity Chief of Security and executive officer. Has a propensity for Chinese Legalism.\n* Academician Prokhor Zakharov (voiced by Yuri Nesteroff) of the ''University of Planet'', a Russian academic and former U.N.S. Unity science officer\n* CEO Nwabudike Morgan (voiced by Regi Davis), of ''Morgan Industries'', a Namibian diamond tycoon who funded the U.N.S. Unity mission\n* Colonel Corazon Santiago (voiced by Wanda Niño), of the ''Spartan Federation'', a Puerto Rican militiawoman and former U.N.S. Unity security officer\n* Sister Miriam Godwinson (voiced by Gretchen Weigel), of the ''Lord's Believers'', an American minister and social psychologist and former U.N.S. chaplain; and\n* Commissioner Pravin Lal (voiced by Hesh Gordon), of the ''Peacekeeping Forces'', an Indian surgeon and diplomat .\n\nThe player controls one of the leaders and competes against the others to colonize and conquer Planet. The Datalinks (voiced by Robert Levy and Katherine Ferguson) are minor characters who provide information to the player. Each faction excels at one or two important aspects of the game and follows a distinct philosophical belief, such as technological utopianism, Conclave Christianity, \"free-market\" capitalism, militarist survivalism, Chinese Legalism, U.N. Charter humanitarianism, or Environmentalist Gaia philosophy. The game takes place on Planet, with its \"rolling red ochre plains\" and \"bands of lonely terraformed green\".\n\nThe seven additional faction leaders in ''Alien Crossfire'' are:\n* Prime Function Aki Zeta-Five (voiced by Allie Rivenbark), of ''The Cybernetic Consciousness'', a Norwegian research assistant-turned-cyborg\n* Captain Ulrik Svensgaard (voiced by James Liebman), of ''The Nautilus Pirates'', an American fisherman and naval officer \n* Foreman Domai (voiced by Frederick Serafin), of ''The Free Drones'', an Australian labor leader \n* Datajack Sinder Roze (voiced by Christine Melton), of ''The Data Angels'', a Trinidadian hacker\n* Prophet Cha Dawn (voiced by Stacy Spenser) of ''The Cult of Planet'';, a human born on Planet\n* Guardian Lular H'minee (voiced by Jeff Gordon), of ''The Manifold Caretakers'', a Progenitor leader, and\n* Conqueror Judaa Maar (voiced by Jeff Gordon), of ''The Manifold Usurpers'', a Progenitor leader.\n\n===Plot===\nThe story unfolds via the introduction video, explanations of new technologies, videos obtained for completing secret projects, interludes, and cut-scenes. The native life consists primarily of simple wormlike alien parasites and a type of red fungus that spreads rapidly via spores. The fungus is difficult to traverse, provides invisibility for the enemy, provides few resources, and spawns \"mindworms\" that attack population centres and military units by neurally parasitising them. Mindworms can eventually be captured and bred in captivity and used as terroristic bioweapons, and the player eventually discovers that the fungus and mindworms can think collectively.\n\nA voice intrudes into the player's dreams and soon waking moments, threatening more attacks if the industrial pollution and terraforming by the colonists is not reversed. The player discovers that Planet is a dormant semi-sentient hive organism that will soon experience a metamorphosis which will destroy all human life. To counter this threat, the player or a computer faction builds \"The Voice of Alpha Centauri\" secret project, which artificially links Planet's distributed nervous system into the human Datalinks, delaying Planet's metamorphosis into full self-awareness but incidentally increasing its ultimate intelligence substantially by giving it access to all of humanity's accumulated knowledge. Finally, the player or a computer faction embraces the \"Ascent to Transcendence\" in which humans too join their brains with the hive organism in its metamorphosis to godhood. Thus, ''Alpha Centauri'' closes \"with a swell of hope and wonder in place of the expected triumphalism\", reassuring \"that the events of the game weren’t the entirety of mankind’s future, but just another step.\"\n",
"''Alpha Centauri'' and ''Alien Crossfire'' feature similar gameplay. Diplomatic actions are handled in pop-up windows, while combat and unit movement are handled on the isometric field shown in the background. Information such as unit health and status changes are displayed on the black field across the bottom.\n\n''Alpha Centauri'', a turn-based strategy game with a science fiction setting, is played from an isometric perspective. Many game features from ''Civilization II'' are present, but renamed or slightly tweaked: players establish bases (Civilization II's cities), build facilities (buildings) and secret projects (Wonders of the World), explore territory, research technology, and conquer other factions (civilizations). In addition to conquering all non-allied factions, players may also win by obtaining votes from three quarters of the total population (similar to ''Civilization IV''s Diplomatic victory), \"cornering the Global Energy Market\", completing the Ascent to Transcendence secret project, or for alien factions, constructing six Subspace Generators.\n\nThe main map (the upper two thirds of the screen) is divided into squares, on which players can establish bases, move units and engage in combat. Through terraforming, players may modify the effects of the individual map squares on movement, combat and resources. Resources are used to feed the population, construct units and facilities, and supply energy. Players can allocate energy between research into new technology and energy reserves. Unlike ''Civilization II'', new technology grants access to additional unit components rather than pre-designed units, allowing players to design and re-design units as their factions' priorities shift. Energy reserves allow the player to upgrade units, maintain facilities, and attempt to win by the Global Energy Market scenario. Bases are military strongpoints and objectives that are vital for all winning strategies. They produce military units, house the population, collect energy, and build secret projects and Subspace Generators. Facilities and secret projects improve the performance of individual bases and of the entire faction.\n\nIn addition to terraforming, optimizing individual base performance and building secret projects, players may also benefit their factions through social engineering, probe teams, and diplomacy. Social engineering modifies the ideologically based bonuses and penalties forced by the player's choice of faction. Probe teams can sabotage and steal information, units, technology, and energy from enemy bases, while diplomacy lets the player create coalitions with other factions. It also allows the trade or transfer of units, bases, technology and energy. The Planetary Council, similar to the United Nations Security Council, takes Planet-wide actions and determines population victories.\n\nIn addition to futuristic technological advances and secret projects, the game includes alien life, structures and machines. \"Xenofungus\" and \"sea fungus\" provide movement, combat, and resource penalties, as well as concealment for \"mind worms\" and \"spore launchers\". Immobile \"fungal towers\" spawn native life. Native life, including the seaborne \"Isles of the Deep\" and \"Sealurks\" and airborne \"Locusts of Chiron\", use psionic combat, an alternate form of combat which ignores weapons and armor. Monoliths repair units and provide resources; artifacts yield new technology and hasten secret projects; landmarks provide resource bonuses; and random events add danger and opportunity. Excessive development leads to terraforming-destroying fungus blooms and new native life.\n\n''Alpha Centauri'' provides a single player mode and supports customization and multiplayer. Players may customize the game by choosing options at the beginning of the game, using the built-in scenario and map editors, and modifying ''Alpha Centauri''s game files. In addition to a choice of seven (or 14 in ''Alien Crossfire'') factions, pre-game options include scenario game, customized random map, difficulty level, and game rules that include victory conditions, research control, and initial map knowledge. The scenario and map editors allow players to create customized scenarios and maps. The game's basic rules, diplomatic dialog, and the factions' starting abilities are in text files, which \"the designers have done their best to make it reasonably easy to modify..., even for non-programmers.\" ''Alpha Centauri'' supports play by email (\"PBEM\") and TCP/IP mode featuring simultaneous movement, and introduces direct player-to-player negotiation, allowing the unconstrained trade of technology, energy, maps, and other elements.\n",
"\n===Inspirations===\nIn 1996, MicroProse released the lauded ''Civilization II'', designed by Brian Reynolds. Spectrum Holobyte who owned MicroProse at the time, opted to consolidate their business under the MicroProse name, moving the company from Maryland to California by the time the game shipped, and laying off several MicroProse employees. Disagreements between the new management and its employees prompted Reynolds, Jeff Briggs, and Sid Meier (designer of the original ''Civilization'') to leave MicroProse and found Firaxis. Although unable to use the same IP as ''Civilization II'', the new company felt that players wanted \"a new sweeping epic of a turn-based game\". Having just completed a game of human history up to the present, they wanted a fresh topic and chose science fiction.\n\nWith no previous experience in science fiction games, the developers believed future history was a fitting first foray. For the elements of exploring and terraforming an alien world, they chose a plausible near future situation of a human mission to colonize the solar system's nearest neighbour and human factions. Reynolds researched science fiction for the game's writing. His inspiration included \"classic works of science fiction\", including Frank Herbert's ''The Jesus Incident'' and Hellstrom's Hive, ''A Fire Upon the Deep'' by Vernor Vinge, and ''The Mote in God's Eye'' by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle for alien races; Kim Stanley Robinson's ''Red Mars'', ''Slant'' by Greg Bear, and Stephen R. Donaldson's ''The Real Story'' for future technology and science; and ''Dune'' by Herbert and Bear's ''Anvil of Stars'' for negative interactions between humans.\n\n''Alpha Centauri'' set out to capture the whole sweep of humanity's future, including technology, futuristic warfare, social and economic development, the future of the human condition, spirituality, and philosophy. Reynolds also said that \"getting philosophy into the game\" was one of the attractions of the game. Believing good science fiction thrives on constraint, the developers began with near-future technologies. As they proceeded into the future, they tried to present a coherent, logical, and detailed picture of future developments in physics, biology, information technology, economics, society, government, and philosophy. Alien ecologies and mysterious intelligences were incorporated into ''Alpha Centauri'' as external \"natural forces\" intended to serve as flywheels for the backstory and a catalyst for many player intelligences. Chris Pine, creator of the in-game map of Planet, strove to make Planet look like a real planet, which resulted in evidence of tectonic action. Another concern was that Planet matched the story, which resulted in the fungus being connected across continents, as it is supposed to be a gigantic neural network.\n\nTerraforming is a natural outgrowth of colonizing an alien world. The first playable prototype was just a map generator that tested climate changes during the game. This required the designers to create a world builder program and climatic model far more powerful than anything they'd done before. Temperature, wind, and rainfall patterns were modeled in ways that allow players to make changes: for example, creating a ridge-line and then watching the effects. In addition to raising terrain, the player can also divert rivers, dig huge boreholes into the planet's mantle, and melt ice caps.\n\nIn addition to scientific advances, the designers speculated on the future development of human society. The designers allow the player to decide on a whole series of value choices and choose a \"ruthless\", \"moderate\", or \"idealistic\" stance. Reynolds said the designers don't promote a single \"right\" answer, instead giving each value choice positive and negative consequences. This design was intended to force the player to \"think\" and make the game \"addictive\". He also commented that ''Alpha Centauri''s fictional nature allowed them to draw their characters \"a lot more sharply and distinctly than the natural blurring and greyness of history\".\nChiron, the name of the planet, is the name of the only non-barbaric centaur in Greek mythology and an important loregiver and teacher for humanity. The name also pays homage to James P. Hogan's 1982 space opera novel ''Voyage from Yesteryear'', in which a human colony is artificially planted by an automatic probe on a planet later named by colonists as Chiron. In the game, Chiron has two moons, named after the centaurs Nessus and Pholus, with the combined tidal force of Earth's Moon, and is the second planet out from Alpha Centauri A, the innermost planet being the Mercury-like planet named after the centaur Eurytion. Alpha Centauri B is also dubbed Hercules, a reference to him killing several centaurs in mythology, and the second star preventing the formation of larger planets. The arrival on Chiron is referred to as \"Planetfall\", which is a term used in many science fiction novels, including Robert A. Heinlein's ''Future History'' series, and Infocom's celebrated comic interactive fiction adventure ''Planetfall''. Vernor Vinge's concept of ''technological singularity'' is the origin of the Transcendence concept. The game's cutscenes use montages of live-action video, CGI, or both; most of the former is from the 1992 experimental documentary ''Baraka''.\n\n===''Alpha Centauri''===\nIn July 1996, Firaxis began work on ''Alpha Centauri'', with Reynolds heading the project. Meier and Reynolds wrote playable prototype code and Jason Coleman wrote the first lines of the development libraries. Because the development of ''Gettysburg'' took up most of Firaxis' time, the designers spent the first year prototyping the basic ideas. By late 1996, the developers were playing games on the prototype, and by the middle of the next year, they were working on a multiplayer engine. Although Firaxis intended to include multiplayer support in its games, an important goal was to create games with depth and longevity in single-player mode because they believed that the majority of players spend most of their time playing this way. Reynolds felt that smart computer opponents are an integral part of a classic computer game, and considered it a challenge to make them so. Reynolds' previous games omitted internet support because he believed that complex turn-based games with many player options and opportunities for player input are difficult to facilitate online.\n\nReynolds said that the most important principle of game design is for the designer to play the game as it is developed; Reynolds claimed that this was how a good artificial intelligence (AI) was built. To this end, he would track the decisions he made and why he made them as he played the game. The designer also watched what the computer players did, noting \"dumb\" actions and trying to discover why the computer made them. Reynolds then taught the computer his reasoning process so the AI could find the right choice when presented several attractive possibilities. He said the AI for diplomatic personalities was the best he had done up to that point.\n\nDoug Kaufman, a co-designer of ''Civilization II'', was invited to join development as a game balancer. Reynolds cited the ''Alpha Centauri''s balance for the greater sense of urgency and the more pressing pacing than in his earlier game, ''Sid Meier's Colonization''. According to producer Timothy Train, in designing the strengths and weaknesses of the factions, the goal was to suggest, without requiring, certain strategies and give the player interesting and fun things to do without unbalancing the game. He didn't want a faction to be dependent on its strength or a faction's power to be dominant over the rest. Train felt that fun meant the factions always have something fun to do with their attributes.\n\nAround the summer of 1997, the staff began research on the scientific realities involved in interstellar travel. In late 1997, Bing Gordon—then Chief Creative Officer of Electronic Arts—joined the team, and was responsible for the Planetary Council, extensive diplomacy, and landmarks. A few months before the 1998 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), the team incorporated the Explore/Discover/Build/Conquer marketing campaign into the game. The game was announced in May 1998 at E3.\n\nIn the latter half of 1998, the team produced a polished and integrated interface, wrote the game manual and foreign language translations, painted the faction leader portraits and terrain, built the 3D vehicles and vehicle parts, and created the music. Michael Ely directed the Secret Project movies and cast the faction leaders. 25 volunteers participated in Firaxis' first public beta test. The beta testers suggested the Diplomatic and Economic victories and the Random Events.\n\n\n\nThe design team started with a very simple playable game. They strengthen the \"fun\" aspects and fixed or removed the unenjoyable ones, a process Sid Meier called \"surrounding the fun\". After the revision, they played it again, repeating the cycle of revision and play. Playing the game repeatedly and in-depth was a rule at Firaxis. In the single-player mode, the team tried extreme strategies to find any sure-fire paths to victory and to see how often a particular computer faction ends up at the bottom. The goal was a product of unprecedented depth, scope, longevity, and addictiveness, where the player is always challenged by the game to come up with new strategies with no all-powerful factions or unstoppable tactics. According to Reynolds, the process has been around since Sid Meier's early days at Microprose. At Firaxis, as iterations continue, they expand the group giving feedback, bringing in outside gamers with fresh perspectives. ''Alpha Centauri'' was the first Firaxis game with public beta testers.\n\nFinally, Brian Reynolds discussed the use of the demo in the development process. Originally a marketing tool released prior to the game, they started getting feedback. They were able to incorporate many suggestions into the retail version. According to Brian Reynolds, they made improvement in the game's interface, added a couple of new features and fixed a few glitches. They also improved some rules, fine-tuned the game balance and improved the AI. Finally, he adds that they continued to add patches to enhance the game after the game was released.\nIn the months leading to the release of ''Alpha Centauri'', multimedia producer Michael Ely wrote the 35 weekly episodes of ''Journey to Centauri'' detailing the splintering of the U.N. mission to Alpha Centauri.\n\n===''Alien Crossfire''===\nA month after ''Alpha Centauri''s February 1999 release, the Firaxis team began work on the expansion pack, ''Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire''. ''Alien Crossfire'' features seven new factions (two that are non-human), new technologies, new facilities, new secret projects, new alien life forms, new unit special abilities, new victory conditions (including the new \"Progenitor Victory\") and several additional concepts and strategies. The development team included Train as producer and designer, Chris Pine as programmer, Jerome Atherholt and Greg Foertsch as artists, and Doug Kaufman as co-designer and game balancer.\n\nThe team considered several ideas, including a return to a post-apocalyptic earth and the conquest of another planet in the Alpha Centauri system, before deciding to keep the new title on Planet. The premise allowed them to mix and match old and new characters and delve into the mysteries of the monoliths and alien artifacts. The backstory evolved quickly, and the main conflict centered on the return of the original alien inhabitants. The idea of humans inadvertently caught up in an off-world civil war focused the story.\n\nTrain wanted to improve the \"build\" aspects, feeling that the god-game genre had always been heavily slanted towards the \"Conquer\" end of the spectrum. He wanted to provide \"builders\" with the tools to construct an empire in the face of heated competition. The internet community provided \"invaluable\" feedback. The first \"call for features\" was posted around April 1999 and produced the Fletchette Defense System, Algorithmic Enhancement, and The Nethack Terminus.\n\nThe team had several goals: factions should not be \"locked-in\" to certain strategies; players should have interesting things to do without unbalancing the game, and the factions must be fun to play. The team believed the \"coolness\" of the Progenitor aliens would determine the success or failure of ''Alien Crossfire''. They strove to make them feel significantly different to play, but still compatible with the existing game mechanics. The developers eventually provided the aliens with Battle Ogres, a Planetary survey, non-blind research, and other powers to produce \"a nasty and potent race that would take the combined might of humanity to bring them down\". Chris Pine modified the AI to account for the additions. The team also used artwork, sound effects, music, and diplomatic text to set the aliens apart. Other than the aliens, the Pirates proved to be the toughest faction to balance because their ocean start gave them huge advantages.\n\nUpon completion, the team felt that ''Alien Crossfire'' was somewhere between an expansion and a full-blown sequel. In the months leading to the release of ''Alien Crossfire'', multimedia producer Michael Ely wrote the 9 episodes of ''Centauri: Arrival'', introducing the ''Alien Crossfire'' factions. The game initially had a single production run. Electronic Arts bundled ''Alpha Centauri'' and ''Alien Crossfire'' in the ''Alpha Centauri Planetary Pack'' in 2000 and included both games in ''The Laptop Collection'' in 2003. In 2000, both ''Alpha Centauri'' and ''Alien Crossfire'' were ported to Classic Mac OS by Aspyr Media and to Linux by Loki Software.\n",
"''Alpha Centauri'' received wide critical acclaim upon its release, with reviewers voicing respect for the game's pedigree, especially that of Reynolds and Meier. The video game review aggregator websites GameRankings and Metacritic, which collect data from numerous review websites, listed scores of 92% and 89%, respectively. The game was favorably compared to Reynold's previous title, ''Civilization II'', and Rawn Shah of IT World Canada praised the expansion for a \"believable\" plot. However, despite its critical reception, it sold the fewest copies of all the games in the ''Civilization'' series. It sold more than 100,000 copies in its first two months of release. This was followed by 50,000 copies in April, May and June. In the United States alone, ''Alpha Centauri''s sales reached 224,939 copies by April 2000.\n\n===Critical reaction===\n\n\nThe game showed well at the 1998 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3). Walter Morbeck of GameSpot said that ''Alpha Centauri'' was \"more than hi-tech physics and new ways to blow each other up\", and that the game would feature realistic aliens. Terry Coleman of ''Computer Gaming World'' predicted that ''Alpha Centauri'' would be \"another huge hit\". OGR awarded it \"Most Promising Strategy Game\" and one of the top 25 games of E3 '98. In a vote of 27 journalists from 22 gaming magazine, ''Alpha Centauri'' won \"Best Turn Based Strategy\" of E3 Show Award. Aaron John Loeb, the Awards Committee Chairman, said \"for those that understand the intricacies, the wonder, the glory of turn based 'culture building,' this is the game worth skipping class for.\"\n\n''Alpha Centauri's'' science fiction storyline received high praise; IGN considered the game an exception to PC sci-fi cliches, and ''GamePro'' compared the plot to the works of writers Stanley Kubrick and Isaac Asimov. J.C. Herz of ''The New York Times'' suggested that the game was a marriage of ''SimCity'' and Frank Herbert's ''Dune''. ''GamePro''s Dan Morris said \"As the single-player campaign builds to its final showdown, the ramifications of the final theoretical discoveries elevate Alpha Centauri from great strategy game to science-fiction epic.\" Game Revolution said, \"The well crafted story, admirable science-fiction world, fully realized scenario, and quality core gameplay are sure to please.\" ''Edge'' praised the uniqueness of expression saying it was \"the same kind of old-fashioned, consensual storytelling that once drew universes out of ASCII.\" The in-game writing and faction leaders were also well-received for their believability, especially the voice acting. GameSpot reviewer Denny Atkin called the factions and their abilities ''Alpha Centauri''s \"most impressive aspect\". Greg Tito of The Escapist said, \"the genius of the game is how it flawlessly blends its great writing with strategy elements.\"\n\n''Alpha Centauri's'' turn-based gameplay, including the technology trees and factional warfare, was commonly compared to ''Civilization'' and ''Civilization II''. The Adrenaline Vault's Pete Hines said, \"While ''Alpha Centauri'' is the evolutionary off-spring to ''Civilization'' and ''Civilization II'', it is not ''Civilization II'' in space. Although the comparison is inevitable because of the lineage, it is still short-sighted.\" ''Edge'' in 2006 praised \"Alpha Centauri’s greater sophistications as a strategy game.\" IGN said \"Alpha Centauri is a better game than Civilization II; it's deep, rich, rewarding, thought-provoking in almost every way.\" Game Revolution's reviewer was less magnanimous, saying \"Alpha Centauri is at least as good a game as Civilization 2. But it is its great similarity that also does it the most detriment. Alpha Centauri simply does not do enough that is new; it just doesn't innovate enough to earn a higher grade.\" The ability to create custom units was praised, as was the depth of the tech tree. The artificial intelligence of computer-controlled factions, which featured adaptability and behavioral subtlety, was given mixed comments; some reviewers thought it was efficient and logical, while others found it confusing or erratic. ''Edge'' was disappointed in the game's diplomacy, finding \"no more and no less than is expected from the genre\" and unhappy with \"the inability to sound out any real sense of relationship or rational discourse.\"\n\n\n\nThe game's graphics were widely acknowledged to be above average at the time of its release, but not revolutionary. Its maps and interface were\nconsidered detailed and in accordance with a space theme, but the game was released with a limited color palette. The in-game cutscenes, particularly the full motion video that accompanied technological advances, were praised for their quality and innovation. ''Alpha Centauri's'' sound and music received similar comments; FiringSquad said \" sort of follows the same line as the unit graphics – not too splashy but enough to get the job done.\"\n\n''Alpha Centauri'' has won several Game of the Year awards, including those from the ''Denver Post'' and the ''Toronto Sun''. It won the \"Turn-based Strategy Game of the Year\" award from GameSpot as well. The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences named ''Alpha Centauri'' the best strategy game of the year, and in 2000, ''Alpha Centauri'' won the Origins Award for ''Best Strategy Computer Game of 1999''. The editors of ''PC Gamer US'' named ''Alpha Centauri'' their \"Best Turn-Based Strategy Game\" of 1999, and wrote that it \"set a new standard for this venerable genre.\" ''Alpha Centauri'' has the distinction of receiving gaming magazine ''PC Gamer''s highest score (98%), surpassing ''Civilization II''s score (97%). ''Alien Crossfire'' was a runner-up for ''Computer Games Strategy Plus''s 1999 \"Add-on of the Year\" award, which ultimately went to ''Heroes of Might and Magic III: Armageddon's Blade''.\n",
"\n\nThere have been no direct sequels beyond ''Alien Crossfire'', something that writer Greg Tito attributed to Reynolds leaving Firaxis in 2000 to form Big Huge Games. ''Alien Crossfire'' producer and lead designer Timothy Train left Firaxis with Reynolds.\n\nHowever, many of the features introduced in ''Alpha Centauri'' were carried over into subsequent ''Civilization'' titles; in fact, upon its release, ''Civilization III'' was compared negatively to ''Alpha Centauri'', whose Civilization characteristics were reminiscent of faction bonuses and penalties.\n\n''Edge'' magazine noted that ''Alpha Centauri'' remained \"highly regarded\" in 2006. The government system in ''Civilization IV'' closely resembles ''Alpha Centauri''s, and ''Civilization V'' includes a new victory condition: the completion of the 'Utopia project', which is reminiscent of the Ascent to Transcendence secret project.\n\nA decade after its release Sold-Out Software and GOG.com re-released the game for online-download sales. ''Civilization: Beyond Earth'', a spiritual sequel to ''Alpha Centauri'', was announced by Firaxis in April 2014 and released on October 24, 2014; several of those that worked on ''Alpha Centauri'' helped to develop the new title.\n\nAfter the release of the expansion, multimedia producer Michael Ely wrote a trilogy of novels based on the game. Illustrator Rafael Kayanan also wrote a graphic novel entitled ''Alpha Centauri: Power of the Mindworms''. Steve Jackson Games published ''GURPS Alpha Centauri'', a sourcebook for the GURPS role-playing game set in the ''Alpha Centauri'' universe.\n\nOn May 7, 2010, a Brendan Casey (also known as scient) released an unofficial patch, which fixes bugs in ''Alpha Centauri''. His project began in February 2009 at Apolyton's Alpha Centauri site, and moved in June 2009 to the Civilization Gaming Network, where he planned to continue developing further patch versions. He seemed to have resumed work in March 2013 at the http://alphacentauri2.info fan site. Currently, the subsequent patches of other modders generally build upon scient's original 1.0 patch. There is a graphics update, Artificial Intelligence update, and an additional modifications patch amongst others there.\n",
"\n\n*Alpha Centauri in fiction\n*Group mind (science fiction)\n*Survivalism in fiction\n*''Sid Meier's Civilization: Beyond Earth''\n\n\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"* – covers the early years of colonization of the planet Chiron and describes the siege of United Nations HQ by the Spartans, the loss of Peacekeeper sovereignty and the consequent flight by the United Nations survivors into Gaian territory.\n* – occurs years after the events of ''Centauri Dawn'' and describes the Gaia's Stepdaughters' use of \"mindworms\" to rebuff an attack by the technologically superior Morgan Industries.\n* – follows the tension between the University of Planet and the Lord's Believers and describes the use of singularity bombs to destroy Morgan Industries and the Spartan Federation and the native life uprising which destroys humanity.\n\n* \n* \n",
"\n* \n* Official website mirrored by alphacentauri2.info. Downloads section slightly updated.\n* Unofficial patches\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Synopsis",
"Gameplay",
"Development history",
"Reception",
"Legacy",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Abu Sayyaf''' ( ; ; '''', '''ASG'''; ), unofficially known as the '''Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant – Philippines Province''' is a Jihadist militant group that follows the Wahhabi doctrine of Sunni Islam based in and around Jolo and Basilan islands in the southwestern part of the Philippines, where for more than four decades, Moro groups have been engaged in an insurgency for an independent province in the country. The group is considered violent, and was responsible for the Philippines' worst terrorist attack, the bombing of Superferry 14 in 2004, which killed 116 people.\nThe name of the group is derived from the Arabic ''abu'' () (\"father of\"), and ''sayyaf'' () (\"swordsmith\"). As of 2012, the group was estimated to have between 200 and 400 members, down from 1,250 in 2000. They use mostly improvised explosive devices, mortars, and automatic rifles.\n\nSince its inception in 1991, the group has carried out bombings, kidnappings, assassinations, and extortion\nin what they describe as their fight for an independent Islamic province in the Philippines. They have also been involved in criminal activities, including kidnapping, rape, child sexual assault, forced marriage, drive-by shootings, extortion, and drug trafficking,\nand the goals of the group \"appear to have alternated over time between criminal objectives and a more ideological intent\".\n\nThe group has been designated as a terrorist group by the United Nations, Australia, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 2002, fighting Abu Sayyaf became a mission of the American military's Operation Enduring Freedom and part of the Global War on Terrorism. and and Several hundred United States soldiers are also stationed in the area to mainly train local forces in counter terror and counter guerrilla operations, but, as a status of forces agreement and under Philippine law, they are not allowed to engage in direct combat.\n\nThe group was founded by Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani, and led after his death in 1998 by his younger brother Khadaffy Janjalani who was killed in 2006. On 23 July 2014, Abu Sayyaf leader Isnilon Hapilon swore an oath of loyalty to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the leader of ISIL. In September 2014, the group began kidnapping people to ransom, in the name of ISIL.\n",
"In the early 1970s, the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) was the main Muslim rebel groups fighting in Basilan and Mindanao in the southern Philippines. Abdurajik Abubakar Janjalani, the older brother of Khadaffy Janjalani, had been a teacher from Basilan, who later studied Islamic theology and Arabic in Libya, Syria and Saudi Arabia during the 1980s. Abdurajik then went to Afghanistan to fight against the Soviet Union and the Afghan government during the Soviet war in Afghanistan in the 1980s. During that period, he is alleged to have met Osama Bin Laden and been given $6 million to establish a more Islamic group with the MNLF in the southern Philippines, made up of members of the extant MNLF. By then, as a political solution in the southern Philippines, the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao was established in 1989. Both Abdurajik Abubakar and his younger brother who succeeded him were natives of Isabela City, currently one of the poorest cities of the Philippines. Located on the North-Western part of the island of Basilan, Isabela is also the capital of Basilan province, across the Isabela Channel from the Malamwi Island. But Isabela City is administered under the Zamboanga Peninsula political region north of the island of Basilan, while the rest of the island province of Basilan is now (since 1996) governed as part of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) to the east.\n\n===Abdurajik Abubakar Janjalani leadership (1989–1998)===\nMNLF had moderated into an established political government, the ARMM. It was established in 1989, fully institutionalised by 1996 and which eventually became the ruling government in southern Mindanao. When Abdurajik Abubakar Janjalani returned home to Basilan island in 1990, he gathered radical members of the old MNLF who wanted to resume armed struggle for an independent Islamic state and in 1991 established the Abu Sayyaf. Janjalani was provided some funding by a Saudi Islamist, Mohammed Jamal Khalifa, who came to the Philippines in 1987 or 1988 and was head of the Philippine branch of the International Islamic Relief Organization foundation. A defector from Abu Sayyaf told Filipino authorities, \"The IIRO was behind the construction of Mosques, school buildings and other livelihood projects\" but only \"in areas penetrated, highly influenced and controlled by the Abu Sayyaf.\" According to the defector \"Only 10 to 30% of the foreign funding goes to the legitimate relief and livelihood projects and the rest go to terrorist operations\". Khalifa had married a local woman, Alice \"Jameelah\" Yabo.\n\nBy 1995 Abu Sayyaf was active in large scale bombings and attacks in the Philippines. The Abu Sayyaf's first attack was the assault on the town of Ipil in Mindanao in April 1995. This year also marked the escape of 20-year-old Khadaffy Janjalani from Camp Crame in Manila along with another member named Jovenal Bruno. On 18 December 1998, Abdurajik Abubakar Janjalani was killed in a gun battle with the Philippine National Police on Basilan Island. He is thought to have been about age 39 at the time of his death. The death of Aburajik Abubakar Janjalani marked a turning point in Abu Sayyaf operations, shifting from its ideological focus to more general kidnappings, murders and robberies, as the younger brother Khadaffy Janjalani succeeded Abdurajak. Consequently, being on the social or political division line, Basilan, Jolo and Sulu have seen some of the fiercest fighting between government troops and the Muslim separatist group Abu Sayyaf through the early 1990s. The Abu Sayyaf primarily operates in the southern Philippines with members travelling to Manila and other provinces in the country. It was reported that Abu Sayyaf had begun expanding into neighbouring Malaysia and Indonesia by the early 1990s. The Abu Sayyaf is one of the smallest, but strongest of the Islamist separatist groups in the Philippines. Some Abu Sayyaf members have studied or worked in Saudi Arabia and developed ties to mujahadeen while fighting and training in the war against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Abu Sayyaf proclaimed themselves as mujahideen and freedom fighters but are not supported by many people in the Philippines including its Muslim clerics.\n\n===Khadaffy Janjalani leadership (1999–2007)===\nUntil his death in a gunbattle on 4 September 2006, Khaddafy Janjalani was considered the nominal leader of the group by the Armed Forces of the Philippines.\nThe 23-year-old Khadaffy Janjalani then took leadership of one of Abu Sayyaf's factions in an internecine struggle. He then worked to consolidate his leadership of the Abu Sayyaf, causing the group to appear inactive for a period. After Janjalani's leadership was secured, the Abu Sayyaf began a new strategy, as they proceeded to take hostages. The group's motive for kidnapping became more financial than religious during the period of Khadaffy's leadership, according to locals in the areas associated with Abu Sayyaf. The hostage money is probably the method of financing of the group.\n\nIsnilon Totoni Hapilon, one of the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists who is a member of Abu Sayyaf.\nThe group expanded its operations to Malaysia in 2000 when it abducted foreigners from two resorts. This action was condemned by most leaders in the Islamic world. It was also responsible for the kidnapping and murder of more than 30 foreigners and Christian clerics and workers, including Martin and Gracia Burnham. A commander named Abu Sabaya was killed in 2002 while trying to evade forces. Galib Andang, one of the leaders of the group, was captured in Sulu in December 2003. An explosion at a military base in Jolo on 18 February 2006 was blamed on Abu Sayyaf by Brig. General Alexander Aleo, an Army officer. Khadaffy Janjalani was indicted in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia for his alleged involvement in terrorist attacks, including hostage taking by Abu Sayyaf and murder, against United States nationals and other foreign nationals in and around the Republic of the Philippines. Consequently, on 24 February 2006, Janjalani was among six fugitives in the second and most recent group of indicted fugitives to be added to the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists list along with two fellow members of the Abu Sayyaf, including Isnilon Totoni Hapilon and Jainal Antel Sali, Jr.\n\nPhotograph of Jainal Antel Sali, Jr. in 2006. Sali was later killed during a heavy gunfight with the Philippine authorities in 2007.\nOn 13 December 2006, it was reported that Abu Sayyaf members may have been planning attacks during the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) summit in the Philippines. The group was reported to have been training alongside Jemaah Islamiyah militants. The plot was reported to have involved detonating a car bomb in Cebu City where the summit was scheduled to take place. On 27 December, the Philippine military reported that Janjalani's remains had been recovered near Patikul, in Jolo in the southern Philippines and that DNA tests had been ordered to confirm the discovery. He was allegedly shot in the neck in an encounter with government troops on September on Luba Hills, Patikul town in Sulu.\n\n===Present time (2010–present)===\nIn a video published in the summer of 2014, senior Abu Sayyaf leader Isnilon Hapilon and other masked men swear their allegiance or \"bay'ah\" to the \"Islamic State\" (ISIS) caliph. \"We pledge to obey him on anything which our hearts desire or not and to value him more than anyone else. We will not take any emir (leader) other than him unless we see in him any obvious act of disbelief that could be questioned by Allah in the hereafter.\" For many years prior to this Islamic State's competitor, Al Qaeda, had the support of Abu Sayyaf \"through various connections.\" Observers were sceptical of whether the pledge would lead to Abu Sayyaf becoming an ISIS outpost in Southeast Asia, or was simply a way for the group to taking advantage of the international publicity Islamic State is getting.\n",
"Abdurajik Abubakar Janjalani's first recruits were soldiers of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). However, both MNLF and MILF deny having any links with Abu Sayyaf. Both officially distance themselves from Abu Sayyaf because of its attacks on civilians and its supposed profiteering. The Philippine military, however, has claimed that elements of both groups provide support to the Abu Sayyaf. The group was originally not thought to receive funding from outside sources, but intelligence reports from the United States, Indonesia and Australia have found intermittent ties to the Indonesian Jemaah Islamiyah terrorist group, and the Philippine government considers the Abu Sayyaf as a part of Jemaah Islamiyah. The government also notes that initial funding for ASG in the 1990s came from al-Qaeda through the brother-in-law of Osama bin Laden, Mohammed Jamal Khalifa, through Islamic charities in the region.\n\nAl-Qaeda-affiliated terrorist Ramzi Yousef operated in the Philippines in the mid-1990s and trained Abu Sayyaf soldiers. The 2002 edition of the United State Department's Patterns of Global Terrorism mention links to Al-Qaeda. Continuing ties to Islamist groups in the Middle East indicate that al-Qaeda may be continuing support. As of mid 2005, Jemaah Islamiyah personnel reportedly had trained about 60 Abu Sayyarf cadre in bomb assembling and detonations.\n\n===Funding===\nThe group obtains most of its financing through ransom and extortion. One report estimated its revenues from ransom payments in 2000 alone between $10 and $25 million. According to the State Department, it may also receive funding from radical Islamic benefactors in the Middle East and South Asia. It was reported that Libya facilitated ransom payments to Abu Sayyaf. Libya was also suggested that Libyan money could possibly be channelled to Abu Sayyaf. Russian intelligence agencies connected with Victor Bout's planes have reportedly provided Abu Sayyaf with arms. In 2014 and since, kidnapping for ransom hasbeen the primary means of funding.\n\nThe chart below collects events that Abu Sayyaf received ransoms.The more detailed information can be seen in the Timeline of Abu Sayyaf attacks.\n\nevents\nhostages released\nransom demanded\nransom paid\n\nkidnapping of Warren Rodwell\nWarren Rodwell\n$2 million\n$AUD94,000\n\nkidnapping of two Germans\nall\n$5.6 million\nthe same as demanded\n\n2015 Samal Island kidnappings\nKjartan Sekkingstad\n$US16 million for Robert Hall and Kjartan Sekkingstad\n$638,000\n\nkidnapping of Indonesian sailors\nall\n$PHP50 million($1 million)\nthe same as demanded\n\n",
"Filipino Islamist guerillas such as Abu Sayyaf, have been described as \"rooted in a distinct class made up of closely knit networks built through marriage of important families through socioeconomic backgrounds and family structures,\" according to Michael Buehler, a lecturer in comparative politics at the University of London's School of Oriental and African Studies. This tight-knit, familial structure provides resilience but also limits their ability to expand. The commander of the Philippines military's Western Mindanao Command Lieutenant General Rustico Guerrero, also describes Abu Sayyaf as \"a local group with a local agenda.\" Two kidnapping victims, (Martin and Gracia Burnham) who were kept in captivity by ASG for over a year, \"gently engaged their captors in theological discussion\" and found Abu Sayyaf fighters to be unfamiliar with the Qur'an. They had only \"a sketchy\" notion of Islam, which they saw as \"a set of behavioural rules, to be violated when it suited them\", according to author Mark Bowden. As \"holy warriors, they were justified in kidnapping, killing and stealing. Having sex with women captives was justified by their claiming them as \"wives\".\n\nUnlike the Moro Islamic Liberation Front and Moro National Liberation Front, the group is not recognised by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and according to author Dr Robert (Bob) East, was seen as \"nothing more than a criminal operation\" at least prior to 2001. A Center for Strategic and International Studies report by Jack Fellman notes the political rather than religious motivation of ASG. He quotes ASG leader Khadaffy Janjalain's statement that his brother (the former leader of ASG) was right to split from the more moderate MNLF because \"up to now, nothing came out\" of attempts to gain more autonomy for Moro Muslims. This suggests, Fellman believes, that ASG \"is merely the latest, albeit most violent, iteration of Moro political dissatisfaction that has existed for the last several decades\".\n\nSome Abu Sayyaf members are also \"shabu\" (methamphetamine) users as been revealed from surviving hostages who saw Abu Sayyaf members taking shabu as well from military findings who found drug packets in many of the abandoned Abu Sayyaf nests that justified their motivation as extreme like criminals and terrorists than truly fighting for religion and their region future. Although if one Abu Sayyaf spokesman claimed he is representing the whole group, its spokesman also lack of knowledge of the activities on other members as the group was separated into many small group with their own leader just like the MNLF as been discovered by a Malaysian journalist, who see the spokesman known as Abu Rami seems did not know the news of their fellow members deaths.\n\n===Targets===\nMost of the Abu Sayyaf victims have been Filipinos. However, Australian, British, Canadian, Chinese, French, German, Indonesian and Malaysian tourists, businessmen, sailors, fishermen and police as well as Vietnamese fishermen and sailors have been targeted. Americans in particular have been targeted for political and nationalistic reasons. A spokesman for the Abu Sayyaf has stated that, \"We have been trying hard to get an American because they may think we are afraid of them\". He added, \"We want to fight the American people\". In 1993, Abu Sayyaf kidnapped an American Bible translator in the southern Philippines. In 2000, Abu Sayyaf captured an American Muslim visiting Jolo and demanded that the United States release Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman and Ramzi Yousef, who were jailed for their involvement in the World Trade Center bombing of 1993. A Japanese businessman was killed when a Cebu to Tokyo Philippine Airlines flight was bombed on 10 December 1994 by Abu Sayyaf. While the body of 73-year-old Korean hostage Nwi Seong Hong, who had been held by Abu Sayyaf since 24 January 2015 was found in late November of the same year.\n",
"\nAbu Sayyaf has carried out numerous bombings, kidnappings, assassinations, and extortion activities in what they describe as their fight for an independent Islamic province in the Philippines. These include the 2000 Sipadan kidnappings, the 2001 Dos Palmas kidnappings and the 2004 SuperFerry 14 bombing.\n\n===Kidnappings===\nAlthough the group has engaged in kidnapping hostages to be exchanged for ransom for many years, this means of funding grew dramatically beginning in 2014, providing funds for the group's rapid growth.\n\n====In the Philippines====\n\n=====Journalists abducted since 2000=====\nABS-CBN's ''Newsbreak'' reported that Abu Sayyaf abducted at least 20 journalists since 2000 (mostly foreign journalists) and all of them were eventually released upon payment of ransom.\n\nCes Drilon and cameramen Jimmy Encarnacion and Angelo Valderama were the latest of its kidnap victims. The journalists held captive were\n# GMA-7 television reporter Susan Enriquez (April 2000, Basilan, a few days);\n# 10 Foreign journalists (7 German, 1 French, 1 Australian and 1 Danish, in May 2000, Jolo, for 10 hours);\n# German Andreas Lorenz of the magazine Der Spiegel (July 2000, Jolo, for 25 days; he was also kidnapped in May);\n# French television reporter Maryse Burgot and cameraman Jean-Jacques Le Garrec and sound technician Roland Madura (July 2000, Jolo, for 2 months);\n# ABS-CBN television reporter Maan Macapagal and cameraman Val Cuenca (July 2000, Jolo, for 4 days);\n# Philippine Daily Inquirer contributor and Net 25 television reporter Arlyn de la Cruz (January 2002, Zamboanga, for 3 months)\n# GMA-7 television reporter Carlo Lorenzo and cameraman Gilbert Ordiales (September 2002, Jolo, for 6 days).\n\n=====Jeffrey Schilling=====\nJeffrey Schilling, an American citizen and Muslim convert, was held by Abu Sayyaf for 8 months after being captured while visiting a terrorist camp with his wife, Ivy Osani. Abu Sayyaf demanded a $10 million ransom for his release, but Schilling escaped after more than 7 months and was picked up by the Philippine Marine Corps on 12 April 2001. Many commentators have been critical of Schilling, who had reportedly walked into the camp. Schilling claims to have been invited by his wife's distant cousin who was a member of Abu Sayyaf.\n\n=====Martin and Gracia Burnham=====\n\nOn 27 May 2001, an Abu Sayyaf raid kidnapped about 20 people from Dos Palmas, an expensive resort in Honda Bay, to the north of Puerto Princesa City on the island of Palawan, which had been \"considered completely safe\". The most \"valuable\" of the hostages were three North Americans, Martin and Gracia Burnham, a missionary couple, and Guillermo Sobero, a Peruvian-American tourist who was later beheaded by Abu Sayyaf, for whom Abu Sayyaf demanded $1 million in ransom. The hostages and hostage-takers then returned hundreds of kilometres back across the Sulu Sea to the Abu Sayyaf's territories in Mindanao. According to author Mark Bowden, the leader of the raid was Abu Sabaya. According to Gracia Burnham, she told her husband \"to identify his kidnappers\" to authorities \"as 'the Osama bin Laden Group,' but Burnham was unfamiliar with that name and stuck with\" Abu Sayyaf. After returning to Mindanao, Abu Sayyaf operatives conducted numerous raids, including one that culminated in the Siege of Lamitan and \"one at a coconut plantation called Golden Harvest; they took about 15 people captive there and later used bolo knives to hack the heads off two men. The number of hostages waxed and waned as some were ransomed and released, new ones were taken and others were killed.\"\n\nOn 7 June 2002, about a year after the raid, Philippine army troops conducted a rescue operation in which two of the three hostages held, Martin Burnham and Filipino nurse, Ediborah Yap, were killed. The remaining hostage was wounded and the hostage takers escaped. In July 2004, Gracia Burnham testified at a trial of eight Abu Sayyaf members and identified six of the suspects as being her erstwhile captors, including Alhamzer Limbong, Abdul Azan Diamla, Abu Khari Moctar, Bas Ishmael, Alzen Jandul, and Dazid Baize. \"The eight suspects sat silently during her three-hour testimony, separated from her by a wooden grill. They face the death sentence if found guilty of kidnapping for ransom. The trial began this year and is not expected to end for several months.\" Alhamzer Limbong was later killed in a prison uprising. Gracia Burnham has claimed that Philippine military officials were colluding with her captors, saying that the Armed Forces of the Philippines \"didn't pursue us...As time went on, we noticed that they never pursued us\".\n\n=====2009 Red Cross kidnapping=====\nOn 15 January 2009, Abu Sayyaf kidnapped International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) delegates in Patikul, Sulu province, Philippines. The three ICRC workers had finished conducting field work in Sulu province, located in the southwest of the country, when they were abducted by an unknown group, later confirmed as Abu Sayyaf leader Albader Parad's group. Parad himself was said to be involved in the kidnapping. All three workers were eventually released. According to a CNN story, Parad was reportedly killed, along with five other militants, in an assault raid by Philippine marines in Sulu province on Sunday, 21 February 2010.\n\n===== Warren Rodwell =====\nSurvivor Warren Rodwell (2010) prior to abduction by Abu Sayyaf\nWarren Richard Rodwell (born 16 June 1958 Homebush NSW) a former soldier in the Australian Army, and university English teacher, grew up in Tamworth NSW. He was shot through the right hand when seized from his home at Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay on the island of Mindanao in the southern Philippines on 5 December 2011 by Abu Sayyaf (ASG) militants. Rodwell later had to have a finger amputated.\n\nThe ASG threatened to behead Rodwell if their ransom demand for $US2 million was not paid. Both the Philippine and Australian governments had strict policies of refusing to pay ransoms. Australia formed a multi-agency task force to assist the Philippine authorities, and liaise with Rodwell's family. A news blackout was imposed. Filipino politicians helped negotiate the release. After the payment of $AUD94,000 for \"board and lodging\" expenses by his siblings, Rodwell was released 472 days later on 23 March 2013. The incumbent Australian prime minister praised the Philippines government for securing Rodwell's release. Tribute was also made to Australian officials from the Department of Foreign Affairs, the Australian Federal Police and Defence. Rodwell subsequently returned to Australia. His appearances in media include a news conference at Manila airport, Today Tonight - an Australian current affairs television program, Today - an Australian breakfast television program, Sunday Profile - An Australian national radio interview program, The Independent - a British online newspaper, The Globe and Mail - a Canadian newspaper, and Vice News - Canada.,\n\nAs part of the 2015 Australia Day Honours, Australian Army Lieutenant Colonel Paul Joseph Barta was awarded the Conspicuous Service Cross (CSC) for outstanding devotion to duty as the Assistant Defence Attaché Manila during the Australian whole of government response to the Rodwell kidnap for ransom ''(and immediately following, the devastation of Typhoon Haiyan).'' At the 2015 Australian Federal Police Foundation Day award ceremony in Canberra, fourteen AFP members received the Commissioners’ Group Citation for Conspicuous Conduct for their work in support of the Philippine National Police and Australian Government efforts to release Australian man Warren Rodwell. By the end of his 15 months as a hostage in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, Rodwell had lost about 30 kilograms in weight due to starvation, In popular culture, Blue Mountains (Sydney) techno Cowpunk band ''Mad Cowboy Disease'' composed, performed and released songs written by Rodwell, based on his ordeal ; ''Situation Not Normal'', ''Our Sibling Hearts'' and ''Eyes of Lies''\n\nRodwell's biography ''472 Days Captive of the Abu Sayyaf - The Survival of Australian Warren Rodwell'' by independent researcher Dr Robert (Bob) East was published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing, United Kingdom (2015) . A subsequent book review by Assistant Professor Francis C. Domingo was published by Ateneo de Manila University in the journal ''Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints'' - Volume 64, Number 2 (June 2016) (Pages 317 - 320). Domingo states that the biography's main contribution lies in the operational methods and practices of the Abu Sayyaf Group, as well as a focus on the physical, mental, and psychological aspects of Rodwell’s survival techniques. In April 2017, the incumbent Australian Prime Minister officially declared the Rodwell incident as an overseas act of terrorism, referring to it as ''\"December 2011 - March 2013 Mindanao, Philippines kidnapping\"''.\n\nAward-winning Filipino journalist and CEO of Rappler, Maria A. Ressa wrote at some length about the Warren Rodwell case in the 2013 international edition of her Imperial College Press - published book ''From Bin Laden to Facebook: 10 Days of Abduction, 10 Years of Terrorism'' (Refer to Pages 265 - 271) Crowdsourcing for ransom, and social media (such as, Facebook and YouTube) were used by Abu Sayyaf during negotiations. The author asserts on Page 270; \"Social media is changing what was once a closed dialogue between kidnappers, their victims and governments.\" Also, Colonel (reserve) in the Israel Defence Forces and research fellow at the International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT), Dr Shaul Shay, analysed the Warren Rodwell terror abduction in: ''Global Jihad and The Tactic of Terror Abduction : A Comprehensive Review of Islamic Terrorist Organisations''. (Refer to Chapter 10) (Sussex Academic Press).\n\nCounter-terrorism analyst Dr Edward Mickolus wrote in ''Terrorism, 2013-2015: A Worldwide Chronology'' . (Pp 218 & 530) (McFarland & Company publisher) of the arrest on 16 June 2014 of two Abu Sayyaf suspects, Jimmy Nurilla (alias Doc) and Bakrin Haris. Both reportedly worked under Basilan-based Abu Sayyaf leader Khair Mundos and Furuji Indama. Authorities believed Nurilla and Haris took part in the kidnapping of Australian Warren Rodwell in 2011, as well as USA citizen Gerfa Yeatts Lunsman and her son Kevin in 2012.\n\nIn January 2015, Mindanao Examiner newspaper reported the arrest of Barahama Ali kidnap gang sub-leaders linked to the kidnapping of Warren Rodwell, who was seized by at least 5 gunmen (disguised as policemen), and eventually handed over or sold by the kidnappers to the Abu Sayyaf in Basilan province. In May, ex-Philippine National Police (PNP) officer Jun A. Malban was arrested in Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia for the crime of \"Kidnapping for Ransom\" after Rodwell identified him as the negotiator/spokesperson of the Abu Sayyaf Group during his captivity. Further PNP investigation revealed that Malban is the cousin of Abu Sayyaf leaders Khair Mundos and his brother Borhan Mundos. (Both were arrested in 2014). The director of the Anti-Kidnapping Group (AKG) stated that Malban's arrest resulted from close co-ordination by the PNP, National Bureau of Investigation (Philippines) and Presidential Anti-Organized Crime Commission with the Malaysian counterparts and through Interpol.\n\nIn August 2015, Edeliza Sumbahon Ulep, alias Gina Perez, was arrested at Trento, Agusan del Sur during a joint manhunt operation by police and military units. Ulep was tagged as the ransom courier of the Abu Sayyaf bandits in Zamboanga Sibugay in the kidnapping of Rodwell.\n\nIn August 2016, The Manila Times reported the arrest of the kidnap-for-ransom group of Barahama Alih sub-leader, Hasim Calon alias Husien (also a notorious provincial drug dealer), in his hideout in Tenan village in Ipil town. Hasim Calon was involved in the abduction of Warren Rodwell. Earlier in 2016, police forces killed Waning Abdulsalam. a former leader of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, in the village of Singkilon in the town of Naga, Zamboanga Sibugay. Abdulsalam was one of the most wanted criminals in southern Philippines, and connected also to the Abu Sayyaf. He was linked to the kidnappings of Rodwell in 2011, Irish missionary Michael Sinnott in 2009 in Pagadian City, and Italian Catholic priest Giancarlo Bossi in Zamboanga del Sur’s Payao town in 2007.\n\n=====2015 Samal Island kidnappings=====\nOn 21 September 2015, Canadians Robert Hall and John Ridsdel, as well as Norwegian Kjartan Sekkingstad, and (Hall's girlfriend) Marites Flor; a Filipino woman, were all abducted from an upscale resort complex on the Philippine island of Samal near Davao in south eastern Mindanao. Ridsdel was beheaded by Abu Sayyaf on 25 April 2016 following a ransom deadline. ASG reportedly demanded more than $8.1 million for Ridsdel and the others. Former Canadian politician Bob Rae (and friend of Ridsdel), worked with the family to try to secure his release. Rae stated that the Canadian government was \"very directly involved\" in helping Ridsdel's family deal with the kidnappers. Abu Sayyaf refused to lower their demand.\n\nOn 3 May 2016, a video of the Ridsdel execution was released, along with a new set of demands for the remaining hostages. A masked captor said, \"Note to the Philippine government and to the Canadian government: The lesson is clear. John Ridsdel has been beheaded. Now there are three remaining captives here. If you procrastinate once again the negotiations, we will behead this all anytime\".\n\nOn 15 May, media reports advised that Canadian Robert Hall had appeared in a new video, announcing that he and Norwegian Kjartan Sekkingstad would be decapitated at 3pm on Monday 13 June 2016 if a ransom of $16 million is not paid. Both hostages wore orange coveralls, similar to hostages in videos produced by ISIL, to which Abu Sayyaf had previously pledged allegiance. The deadline passed. Robert Hall was beheaded.\n\nCanadian newspaper Toronto Star published (from 30 November - 7 December 2016) \"Held Hostage\", an eight-part investigation into what really happens when a Canadian is taken hostage abroad. The Star revealed ''\"a system ripe for overhaul\"'', and ways Canada can change its approach, so it may be more effectively prepared in future.\n\nOn 24 June, Abu Sayyaf released Filipina Marites Flor. She was subsequently flown to Davao to meet President-elect Rodrigo Duterte. Duterte said he directed negotiations with the Abu Sayyaf. He did not elaborate.\n\nOn 17 September 2016, remaining hostage Norwegian Kjartan Sekkingstad was released on Jolo island. Abu Ramie, an ASG spokesman, claimed $638,000 was paid as ransom. Sekkingstad subsequently returned to Norway.\n\n====In Malaysia====\n\n\n=====2000 Sipadan kidnappings=====\n\nOn 3 May 2000, Abu Sayyaf guerillas occupied the Malaysian dive resort island Sipadan and took 21 hostages, including 10 tourists and 11 resort workers – 19 non-Filipino nationals in total. The hostages were taken to an Abu Sayyaf base in Jolo, Sulu. Two Muslim Malaysians were released soon after, however Abu Sayyaf made various demands for the release of several prisoners, including 1993 World Trade Center bomber Ramzi Yousef and $2.4 million. In July, a Filipino television evangelist and 12 of members of the Jesus Miracle Crusade Church offered their help and went as mediators for the relief of other hostages. They, three French television crew members and a German journalist, all visiting Abu Sayyaf on Jolo, were also taken hostage. Most hostages were released in August and September 2000, partly due to mediation by Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and an offer of $25 million in \"development aid\".\n\nAbu Sayyaf conducted a second raid on the island of Pandanan near Sipadan on 10 September and seized three more Malaysians. The Philippine army launched a major offensive on 16 September 2000, rescuing all remaining hostages, except Filipino dive instructor Roland Ullah. He was eventually freed in 2003. Abu Sayyaf coordinated with the Chinese 14K Triad gang in carrying out the kidnappings. The 14K Triad has militarily supported Abu Sayyaf.\n\n=====2013 Pom Pom kidnappings=====\nOn 15 November 2013, Abu Sayyaf militants raided a resort on a Malaysian island of Pom Pom in Semporna, Sabah. During the ambush, Taiwanese citizen Chang An-wei was kidnapped and her husband, Hsu Li-min, was killed. Chang was taken to the Sulu Archipelago in the southern Philippines. Gene Yu, an American and former US Army Special Forces captain was instrumental in negotiating, locating and working to free Taiwanese citizen Chang An-wei from Abu Sayyaf militants with Filipino special forces and private security contractors in 2013. Chang was freed in Sulu Province and returned to Taiwan on 21 December.\n\n=====2014 Singamata resort, Baik Island and Kampung Air Sapang fish farm kidnappings=====\nOn 2 April 2014, a group believed to originate from Abu Sayyaf militants raided a resort off Semporna, Sabah. During the raid, Gao Huayun, a Chinese tourist from Shanghai and Marcy Dayawan, a Filipino resort worker who was on the resort were kidnapped and taken to the Sulu Archipelago. The two hostages were later rescued after a collaboration between the Malaysian and the Philippines security forces. On 6 May, a group comprising five Abu Sayyaf gunmen raided a Malaysian fish farm in Baik Island, Sabah and kidnapped the fish farm manager, after which the hostage was brought to Jolo island. He was later freed on July with the help of Malaysian negotiators. On 16 June, two gunmen believed to be from the Abu Sayyaf group kidnapped another Chinese fish farm manager and one Filipino in Kampung Air Sapang, Kunak, Sabah. One of the kidnap victims, a Filipino fish farm worker, managed to escape and went missing. Meanwhile, the fish farm manager was taken to Jolo. He was later released on 10 December. The Malaysian authorities have identified five Filipinos, the \"Muktadir brothers\", as behind all of the kidnapping cases. They then sell their hostages to the Abu Sayyaf group.\n\nOf all the five Muktadil brothers: Mindas Muktadil was killed by Philippine police in Jolo in May 2015, Kadafi Muktadil was arrested in late 2015, Nixon Muktadil and Brown Muktadil was killed during an operation by the Philippine military on 27 September 2016 after they resist for arrest, while Badong Muktadil succumbed to his injuries during his run after being shot at the time his brothers was killed. His body was discovered in a pump boat in Mususiasi area in Siasi Island, close to Jolo.\n\n=====2015 Ocean Seafood Restaurant kidnappings=====\nOn 15 May 2015, four armed men from the Abu Sayyaf-based group abducted two people in a resort in Sandakan, Sabah and brought them to Parang, Sulu. One of the hostage was released on 9 November, after six months in captivity, while another one, Bernard Then, was beheaded due to ransom demands not being met.\n\n====Philippines and Malaysia waters====\n\n=====2016 local and foreign sailors kidnappings=====\nOn 26 March, ten Indonesian sailors were held hostage by Islamist militant group Abu Sayyaf operating in Sulu Archipelago in the southern Philippines. The ten crew members were abducted from the Brahma 12 tugboat and the Anand 12 barge — carrying 7,000 tons of coal — near the country's southernmost Tawi-Tawi province. The Indonesian vessels were freighting coal from South Borneo heading for Batangas port when hijacked near Sulu waters.\n\nOn 1 April, four Malaysian sailors aboard a tugboat from Manila were kidnapped when they arrived near the shore of Ligitan Island. Their companions, three Myanmar nationals and two Indonesians, were unharmed. In the same month, the Indonesian government announced that the company that owned tugboat ''Brahma 12'' had agreed to pay the 50-million-peso ($1 million) ransom demanded for the release of ten Indonesian crew members. On 2 May, the ten Indonesian sailors held hostage were released by their captors. Another four Indonesian sailors were kidnapped when two Indonesian tugboats from Cebu, ''Henry'' and ''Cristi'' that bore 10 passengers, were attacked by Abu Sayyaf militants on 15 April. While five of the passengers were safe, one was injured after being shot, but he was rescued by operatives from the Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency (MMEA) when the vessels arrived in Malaysian waters. The four were released on 11 May with the help of the Philippine government. A group of concerned Filipinos in Sabah has urged the Philippine president-elect Rodrigo Duterte to intervene for the release of four Malaysians held hostage by the Abu Sayyaf. The issue has strained the relationship between the Philippines and Malaysia, and has affected the lives of Filipinos in Sabah. The four Malaysian hostages were released on 8 June after nearly two months in captivity. On 21 June, seven Indonesian sailors aboard a tugboat that passing through the Sulu Archipelago was kidnapped. On 9 July, three Indonesians fishermen was kidnapped near the coast of Lahad Datu, Sabah, Malaysia. On 18 July, five Malaysian sailors were also abducted near the coast of Lahad Datu. Another one Indonesian sailor was kidnapped in the waters of Malaysia on 3 August while leaving other two crews unharmed, the incident was only reported by victims on 5 August. Two of the Indonesian sailor hostages have managed to escape from the Abu Sayyaf after persistent threats of beheading.\n\nOn 10 September, three Filipino fishermen was kidnapped on the shores of Pom Pom Island in Sabah, Malaysia. The three Indonesians fishermen that were kidnapped on 9 July from Sabah were released on 17 September. Another Indonesian hostage was released on 22 September. On 27 September, one Malaysian boat-skipper was kidnapped from his trawler by seven armed Filipino militants before the group attacked another Indonesian trawler, however, no kidnappings were committed in the second incident. The boat-skipper was released on 1 October, with no ransom having been asked, along with three Indonesians hostages that were released the same day. On 21 October, around 10 Abu Sayyaf militants attack a South Korean-bound vessel named ''MV Dongbang Gian'' and abduct a South Korean skipper and a Filipino crewman off Bongao, Tawi-Tawi. On 6 November, a German woman tourist was shot dead while her boyfriend was abducted by Abu Sayyaf militants from their yacht off Tanjong Luuk Pisuk in Sabah. On 11 November, a Vietnamese vessel MV Royale 16 with 19 sailors on board was attacked by Abu Sayyaf near Basilan, abducting 6 sailors and injuring one. The remaining 13 sailors were released. On 20 November, two Indonesian fishermen was kidnapped by five Abu Sayyaf gunmen off Lahad Datu, Sabah, while Philippine military been informed to intercept the bandit.\n\nDue to the increase of attacks against foreign vessels by Abu Sayyaf, the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines have agreed to jointly patrol their waters on 5 May 2016. The three countries also have signed another agreement on joint air patrols.\n\nDuring the first six months of 2016, Abu Sayyaf made $7.3 million, equivalent to Php 353 million, from ransom payoffs according to a Philippine government report.\n\n===Beheadings===\n\nAs part of its kidnap-for-ransom operations, the Abu Sayyaf has executed some of their male hostages if ransom demands were not being met. The group had also previously beheaded Christian civilians and other non-believers of Islam without raising any ransoms for their release, simply due to religious affiliation.\n\n===Bombings===\n\n====Superferry 14 Bombing====\n\nSuperferry 14 was a large ferry destroyed by a bomb on 27 February 2004, killing 116 people in the Philippines' worst terrorist attack and the world's deadliest terrorist attack at sea. On that day, the 10,192 ton ferry sailed out of Manila with about 900 passengers and crew on board. A television set filled with 8 lb. (4 kilograms) of TNT had been placed on board. 90 minutes out of port, the bomb exploded. 63 people were killed instantly and 53 went missing and presumed dead. Despite claims from terrorist groups, the blast was initially thought to have been an accident caused by a gas explosion. However, after divers righted the ferry five months after it had sunk, they found evidence of a bomb blast. A man called Redendo Cain Dellosa also admitted to planting the bomb on board for Abu Sayyaf. Philippine president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo announced on 11 October 2004 that investigators had concluded the explosion was caused by a bomb. She said six suspects had been arrested in connection with the bombing and that the masterminds, Khadaffy Janjalani and Abu Sulaiman, have been killed. Despite being shed by two of its leaders, the ASG would continue to pose a threat to Philippine security.\n\n====2016 Davao City bombing====\n\nOn 2 September 2016, an explosion occurred at a night market in Davao City, Philippines resulting in at least 15 deaths and 70 injuries. Shortly before the bombing, the Abu Sayyaf has make a threat following the intensified military operation against them. The Abu Sayyaf through one of its spokesperson Abu Rami have claimed responsibility on the attack according to a report released by local radio station, DZMM. The spokesman later denied the report and any of their involvement in the bombing, saying a group that allied to them; the Daulat Ul-Islamiya who responsible to the attack. Although the Abu Sayyaf spokesman have denied their involvement, the Philippine government have put the blame on Abu Sayyaf based on a statement by the country President that stated:\n\n",
"\n===Condemnation from Muslim countries and organisations===\nSheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi in Qatar has denounced the kidnapping and killings committed by the Abu Sayyaf towards civilians and foreigners, asserting that they are not part of the dispute between the Abu Sayyaf and the Philippines government. He stated that it is shameful to commit such acts in the name of the Islamic faith, saying that such acts produce backlashes against Islam and Muslims worldwide. During the 2000 Sipadan kidnappings, the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) condemned the kidnapping and offered to help secure their release. OIC Secretary General Azeddine Laraki who represents the world's largest Islamic body, told the Philippine government he was prepared to send an envoy to help save the hostages and issued a statement condemning the rebels. \"The Secretary General has pointed out that this operation and the like are rejected by divine laws and that they are neither the appropriate nor correct means to resolve conflicts\", the statement said.\n\nThe terrorism to innocent civilians committed by Abu Sayyaf have been condemned by fellow Moro separatists of MNLF and MILF who said the Abu Sayyaf have gone too far from their real paths of struggle, with MILF labelling Abu Sayyaf as \"anti-Islam\" soon after the beheading of Canadian hostage John Ridsdel in 2016. While MNLF describing the group as \"causing chaos to their community\". Both Christian and Muslim groups in the Philippines also strongly condemning the Abu Sayyaf beheading habits.\n\nThe rampant kidnappings have also been heavily criticised by Indonesia. On 14 July 2016, a group of Indonesian protesters gathered in front of the Philippine Embassy in Indonesia, holding banners that read \"Go to hell Philippines and Abu Sayyaf\" and \"Destroy the Philippines and Abu Sayyaf\" due to what was seen as the lack of action from the Philippine government who seems cannot defeating the militant on its own and protecting foreign citizens. The group demanding there should be a large scale military operation to destroy the Abu Sayyaf, of which the Indonesian military before also have proposing to sent their military to Philippines but were rejected by the Philippine government, citing it is against their constitution.\n",
"The Philippine military has been engaging the Abu Sayyaf since 1990s as part of its operation in Mindanao. Under the administration of President Rodrigo Duterte, the Philippine government are interested to make a peace agreement with the Moro separatists of MNLF and MILF, while the Abu Sayyaf are excluded as they was seen no more than a \"bunch of criminals\" who terrorise innocent civilians. The Philippine government has pledged to destroy the group to maintain the peace in Mindanao. The Philippine military has intensified their operation more since 2003 following the arrest of a Filipino-American who been alleged to have selling illegal weapons to the group. The suspect has been tagged by the United States authorities as \"one of the United States most wanted fugitives\" which he was then deported by the Philippine government to facing legal action in the United States.\n\nOn 29 July 2016, the Philippine military gained control of one of the Abu Sayyaf strongholds in Tipo-Tipo, Basilan. The Philippine military has pledged that they will continue with more major operations to eliminate the Abu Sayyaf group. The Philippine security forces also collaborating with neighbouring Malaysia and Indonesia to maintains the security in the Sulu Sea. On 25 August, President Duterte ordered the group to be \"destroyed\" after a teenager was beheaded by the extremist group. Since the incident, the Philippine military sent thousands more troops to fight and destroy the Abu Sayyaf. The Filipino Army Major Filemon Tan said, “The order of the president is to search and destroy the Abu Sayyaf so that’s what we are doing”. Both MNLF and MILF also have since helping the government forces to suppress extremism in Mindanao which affecting the peace process for both groups as both want to end their decades wars.\n\nThe Indonesian government have proposing before to stationed their army in Mindanao to launch major operation in the southern Philippines to destroy the Abu Sayyaf. The Indonesian government has calling both Malaysian and Philippine armies to launch a combined land attacks together on Mindanao in every Abu Sayyaf nests to wipe them out, while at the same time urging the Philippine government to give a law relaxation to both Indonesia and Malaysia military forces to enter the Philippines territory. The Vietnamese military has also start to holding military exercise and precaution against the Abu Sayyaf (more known locally as \"pirates\" by the Vietnamese) following the repeat kidnappings of Malaysian and Indonesian sailors by the group. As the Abu Sayyaf is divided between different leaders, the Philippine military has provided one battalion to go against each group. On 9 September, following the meeting between President Duterte and Indonesian President of Joko Widodo, an agreement was reached to pursue the Abu Sayyaf for their persistent terrorism. The Philippine President said in a statement:\n\n\n\nHowever, despite the permission that have been granted by the Philippine government, the government of Indonesia decided to not launching any military operation to southern Philippines, citing the reason was due to there have been enough military personnel been deployed by the Philippine government, with the Malaysian side also shared the similar view to not sending their armies. The Philippine military chief Ricardo Visaya had warned the Abu Sayyaf that they will continue with more further major military operation to stop the rampant lawlessness in the southern Philippines islands. The military chief had giving a notice to any Abu Sayyaf members to surrender or \"neutralised\", a term that means getting killed, apprehended or arrested. A mayor in Sumisip of Basilan has support the calling, saying:\n\n\n\nThis was responded by around 20 Abu Sayyaf who have surrender and giving their arms to the Philippine military in Sumisip on 22 September. A day before, the Philippine armed forces confiscated a total of 200 speedboats used by the Abu Sayyaf in Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi and Zamboanga. President Duterte have reminded that there will be \"no amnesty\" for Abu Sayyaf despite a proposal by Nur Misuari, the leader of MNLF to include Abu Sayyaf in peace talks as the group have killed too many innocent peoples. The President has told that he will stick to his position for the group to be destroyed. On 27 September, another largest attempt for the smuggling of weapons to the Abu Sayyaf group were busted by the Philippine National Police in San Juan City, Philippines with the arrestment of four people. Until 14 October, the Philippine military has launched 579 massive military operations, 426 of which were focused \"to neutralise\" the group members. Of all the total operations, 54 lead to armed engagements resulting to 56 Abu Sayyaf members been killed, 21 surrendered, 17 arrested while 94 being neutralised.\n\nThe total Abu Sayyaf fatalities then increase to 102, with seven more apprehended and a total of 130 been neutralised. Among the notable Abu Sayyaf leaders killed during the ongoing operations including Nelson Muktadil, Braun Muktadil, their sub-leader Mohammad Said, Jamiri Jawhari, Musanna Jamiri, the group spokesman Abu Rami and Alhabsy Misaya. In addition, another 165 fast boats that being used by the Abu Sayyaf for their transport and for their kidnappings activities were also confiscated by the military. Until 13 April 2017, a total of 50 more members of the Abu Sayyaf group have surrendered to the Philippine authorities. In the same month, the Philippine authorities also discovered the presence of more foreign militants from Indonesia and Malaysia that was killed during the ongoing operations (especially since the killings of notable militants such as Sanusi, Zulkifli Abdhir, Ibrahim Ali, Mohd Najib Husen and Mohisen) as well the presence of \"traitor\" among their security members when a top policewoman was caught for her ties with the group. Indonesia admits the presence of its citizen who became militants in the southern Philippines who depart from the areas of North Sulawesi and said they could not prevent them following the lack of security in their borders, while Malaysia discovered the militants using Sabah as a transit point to the southern Philippines. The two have pledge to prevent cross-border terrorism and curbing the activities of militants in their territories, with a major co-operation operation of the two countries with the Philippines will be launched in May 2017.\n\nEarly on 26 November 2016, Duterte stated that he will open to peace talks with the Abu Sayyaf group (as he did with the MNLF and MILF by offering federalism as a possible solution) while continue fighting against the Maute group, a move that were criticised by Philippine analyst as it would be used by extreme rebels to claim for legitimacy as a group. In a statement, the President said:\n\n\n\nHis statements were also criticised by the country media as leading to a confusion whether he want to make peace talks with the group that have taken so many innocent lives or continue fighting against them, with the Philippine government have been criticised for unable to stop the rampant lawlessness in Mindanao until this day especially with the formation of another IS-linked group, the Maute. On 7 December, Duterte told the Indonesian and Malaysian leaders that “they can bomb the Abu Sayyaf along with the hostages if the Abu Sayyaf continue to present persistent threats and the hostages should already know that there is repeated warnings to not go there”.\n",
"\n* Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters\n",
"\n",
"\n* Most Wanted Terrorists, Federal Bureau of Investigation, US Department of Justice\n* Council on Foreign Relations: Abu Sayyaf Group (Philippines, Islamist separatists)\n* Reward For Information (on five ASG members), Rewards for Justice Program, US Department of State\n* Looking for al-Qaeda in the Philippines\n* Balik-Terrorism: The Return of Abu Sayyaf (PDF), Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College\n* The bloodstained trail of the Abu Sayyaf, Agence France-Presse\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background and history",
"Supporters and funding",
"Motivation, beliefs, targets",
"Crimes and terrorism",
"Criticism of attacks against civilians",
"Military operation against Abu Sayyaf",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Abu Sayyaf |
[
"\n\nThe '''Armenian language''' (classical: ; reformed: '''') occupies an independent branch of the Indo-European language tree. It is the official language of the Republic of Armenia and the Republic of Artsakh. It has historically been spoken throughout the Armenian Highlands and today is widely spoken in the Armenian diaspora. Armenian is written using the Armenian alphabet, introduced in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots.\n\nArmenian has developed since the separation from Indo-European mother tongue in the third millennium BCE to at least the time of the first Armenian dynasty (the Yervanduni dynasty, founded in the 6th century BCE). Hellenistic influences during the Artashesian Dynasty (2nd century BCE to 1st century CE) led to word borrowings from Greek and Latin. As the state language of the Arshakuni dynasty of Armenia (1st to 5th century CE) was Parthian, a large portion of Armenian vocabulary has been formed from Parthian borrowings. The earliest extant form of written Armenian is from the 5th century and is known as Classical Armenian (5th to 11th century); translations of the Bible and other religious texts during this period led to extensive word borrowings from Hebrew and Syriac. Middle Armenian (12th to 15th century) began with the establishment of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in the 12th century and is marked by an increased influence of European languages on Armenian, particularly Old French (which had become the secondary language of the Cilician nobility) and Italian (which had become the secondary language of Cilician commerce). Middle Armenian is the first written form of Armenian to display Western-type voicing qualities. Early Modern Armenian (16th to 18th centuries) is a mix of Middle Armenian and an evolving, non-standardized literary Modern Armenian (in Constantinople, Venice, the Ararat plain, and the Persian Armenian communities, particularly New Julfa). As Armenian communities were spread across a large geographic area during this period, early Modern Armenian was influenced by the languages of host societies, with loan words being borrowed from Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Georgian, Latin, Greek, Italian, French, German, Polish, Hungarian, and Russian.\n\nAt the turn of the twentieth century, the Armenian linguist Hrachia Acharian identified 31 spoken Armenian dialects and classified them into 3 branches (7 dialects of the \"-oom\" branch, loosely corresponding to Eastern Armenian dialects; 21 dialects of the \"-gu\" branch, loosely corresponding to Western Armenian dialects; and 3 dialects of the \"-el\" branch).\n\nThe two standard forms of written Modern Armenian – Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian – began to take shape during the early to mid 19th century, with Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire being the center of literary Western Armenian, and Tiflis in the Russian Empire being the center of literary Eastern Armenian. The Armenian Genocide of 1915-1923 had a catastrophic impact on the Armenian population living in the Armenian homeland, with two-thirds of the total Armenian population being killed and nearly all of the remaining Armenian population living in the Ottoman Empire being expelled from their ancestral homeland; this had an especially catastrophic effect on the 21 Western Armenian dialects. While some survivors from the western regions of the Ottoman Empire fled as far as the United States, France, and South America, most fled south to Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Jerusalem, Cyprus, and Iraq, with Beirut becoming the new center of literary Western Armenian. With the migration of survivors from eastern regions of the Ottoman Empire to the Russian Empire, the emergence of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1922, and the migration of Armenian intellectuals of Tiflis to the new Republic, Yerevan became the new center of literary Eastern Armenian. Under Soviet rule, Eastern Armenian began to be heavily influenced by the Russian language, resulting in a large number of borrowings of not only technical words and neologisms, but also everyday words. Western Armenian, on the other hand, followed a more purist course, with writers and educational establishments making a conscious effort to use the Armenian counterparts of recent word borrowings from Turkish and Arabic.\n\nVarious spelling reforms implemented in Soviet Armenia in the 1920s led to a further divide between the literary Eastern and literary Western Armenian languages, with the latter (and Eastern Armenian writers of Iran) continuing to use traditional Armenian orthography. Thus, today the two modern dialects of Armenian differ in their phonology, morphology, vocabulary, and orthography.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\nArmenian is an independent branch of the Indo-European languages. It is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological developments within that family. Armenian exhibits more satemization than centumization, although it is not classified as belonging to either of these subgroups. Some linguists tentatively conclude that Armenian, Greek (Phrygian), Albanian and Indo-Iranian were dialectally close to each other; within this hypothetical dialect group, Proto-Armenian was situated between Proto-Greek (centum subgroup) and Proto-Indo-Iranian (satem subgroup).\n\nArmenia was a monolingual country by the 2nd century BC at the latest. Its language has a long literary history, with a 5th-century Bible translation as its oldest surviving text. Its vocabulary has been influenced by Western Middle Iranian languages, particularly Parthian, and to a lesser extent by Greek, Persian, and Arabic throughout its history. There are two standardized modern literary forms, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible.\n\nAlthough the Armenians were known to history much earlier (for example, they were mentioned in the 6th century BC Behistun Inscription and in Xenophon's 4th century BC history, ''The Anabasis''), the oldest surviving Armenian-language text is the 5th century AD Bible translation of Mesrop Mashtots, who created the Armenian alphabet in 405 AD, at which time it had 36 letters. He is also credited by some with the creation of the Caucasian Albanian alphabet. In ''The Anabasis'', Xenophon describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC. He relates that the Armenian people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians.\n\n===Early contacts===\nW. M. Austin (1942) concluded that there was an early contact between Armenian and Anatolian languages, based on what he considered common archaisms, such as the lack of a feminine gender and the absence of inherited long vowels. However, unlike shared innovations (or ''synapomorphies''), the common retention of archaisms (or ''symplesiomorphy'') is not considered conclusive evidence of a period of common isolated development.\n\nSoviet linguist Igor M. Diakonoff (1985) noted the presence in Classical Armenian of what he calls a \"Caucasian substratum\" identified by earlier scholars, consisting of loans from the Kartvelian and Northeast Caucasian languages. Noting that Hurro-Urartian-speaking peoples inhabited the Armenian homeland in the second millennium BC, Diakonov identifies in Armenian a Hurro-Urartian substratum of social, cultural, and animal and plant terms such as ''ałaxin'' \"slave girl\" ( ← Hurr. ''al(l)a(e)ḫḫenne''), ''cov'' \"sea\" ( ← Urart. ''ṣûǝ'' \"(inland) sea\"), ''ułt'' \"camel\" ( ← Hurr. ''uḷtu''), and ''xnjor'' \"apple(tree)\" ( ← Hurr. ''ḫinzuri''). Some of the terms he gives admittedly have an Akkadian or Sumerian provenance, but he suggests they were borrowed through Hurrian or Urartian. Given that these borrowings do not undergo sound changes characteristic of the development of Armenian from Proto-Indo-European, he dates their borrowing to a time before the written record but after the Proto-Armenian language stage.\n\nLoan words from Iranian languages, along with the other ancient accounts such as that of Xenophon above, initially led linguists to erroneously classify Armenian as an Iranian language. Scholars such as Paul de Lagarde and F. Müller believed that the similarities between the two languages meant that Iranian and Armenian were the same language. The distinctness of Armenian was recognized when philologist Heinrich Hübschmann (1875) used the comparative method to distinguish two layers of Iranian loans from the older Armenian vocabulary. He showed that Armenian often had 2 morphemes for the one concept, and the non-Iranian components yielded a consistent PIE pattern distinct from Iranian, and also demonstrated that the inflectional morphology was different from that in Iranian languages.\n\n===Graeco-Armenian hypothesis===\n\n\nThe hypothesis that Greek is Armenian's closest living relative originates with Holger Pedersen (1924), who noted that the number of Greek-Armenian lexical cognates is greater than that of agreements between Armenian and any other Indo-European language. Antoine Meillet (1925, 1927) further investigated morphological and phonological agreement, postulating that the parent languages of Greek and Armenian were dialects in immediate geographical proximity in the Proto-Indo-European period. Meillet's hypothesis became popular in the wake of his ''Esquisse'' (1936). Georg Renatus Solta (1960) does not go as far as postulating a Proto-Graeco-Armenian stage, but he concludes that considering both the lexicon and morphology, Greek is clearly the dialect most closely related to Armenian. Eric P. Hamp (1976, 91) supports the Graeco-Armenian thesis, anticipating even a time \"when we should speak of Helleno-Armenian\" (meaning the postulate of a Graeco-Armenian proto-language). Armenian shares the augment, and a negator derived from the set phrase Proto-Indo-European language (\"never anything\" or \"always nothing\"), and the representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels, and other phonological and morphological peculiarities with Greek. Nevertheless, as Fortson (2004) comments, \"by the time we reach our earliest Armenian records in the 5th century AD, the evidence of any such early kinship has been reduced to a few tantalizing pieces\".\n\n===Greco-Armeno-Aryan hypothesis===\n\n\nGraeco-(Armeno)-Aryan is a hypothetical clade within the Indo-European family, ancestral to the Greek language, the Armenian language, and the Indo-Iranian languages. Graeco-Aryan unity would have become divided into Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian by the mid-third millennium BC. Conceivably, Proto-Armenian would have been located between Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian, consistent with the fact that Armenian shares certain features only with Indo-Iranian (the ''satem'' change) but others only with Greek (''s'' > ''h'').\n\nGraeco-Aryan has comparatively wide support among Indo-Europeanists for the Indo-European homeland to be located in the Armenian Highlands, the \"Armenian hypothesis\". Early and strong evidence was given by Euler's 1979 examination on shared features in Greek and Sanskrit nominal flection.\n\nUsed in tandem with the Graeco-Armenian hypothesis, the Armenian language would also be included under the label '''Aryano-Greco-Armenic''', splitting into proto-Greek/Phrygian and \"Armeno-Aryan\" (ancestor of Armenian and Indo-Iranian).\n",
"Armenian manuscript, 5th–6th century.\n\nClassical Armenian (Arm: ''grabar''), attested from the 5th century to the 19th century as the literary standard (up to the 11th century also as a spoken language with different varieties), was partially superseded by Middle Armenian, attested from the 12th century to the 18th century. Specialized literature prefers \"Old Armenian\" for ''grabar'' as a whole, and designates as \"Classical\" the language used in the 5th century literature, \"Post-Classical\" from the late 5th to 8th centuries, and \"Late Grabar\" that of the period covering the 8th to 11th centuries. Later, it was used mainly in religious and specialized literature, with the exception of a revival during the early modern period, when attempts were made to establish it as the language of a literary renaissance, with neoclassical inclinations, through the creation and dissemination of literature in varied genres, especially by the Mekhitarists. The first Armenian periodical, ''Azdarar'', was published in ''grabar'' in 1794.\n\nThe classical form borrowed numerous words from Middle Iranian languages, primarily Parthian, and contains smaller inventories of loanwords from Greek, Syriac, Arabic, Mongol, Persian, and indigenous languages such as Urartian. An effort to modernize the language in Bagratid Armenia and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (11–14th centuries) resulted in the addition of two more characters to the alphabet (\"\" and \"\"), bringing the total number to 38.\n\nThe ''Book of Lamentations'' by Gregory of Narek (951–1003) is an example of the development of a literature and writing style of Old Armenian by the 10th century. In addition to elevating the literary style and vocabulary of the Armenian language by adding about well above a thousand new words, through his other hymns and poems Gregory paved the way for his successors to include secular themes and vernacular language in their writings. The thematic shift from mainly religious texts to writings with secular outlooks further enhanced and enriched the vocabulary. “A Word of Wisdom”, a poem by Hovhannes Sargavak devoted to a starling, legitimizes poetry devoted to nature, love, or female beauty. Gradually, the interests of the population at large were reflected in other literary works as well. Konsdantin Yerzinkatsi and several others even take the unusual step of criticizing the ecclesiastic establishment and addressing the social issues of the Armenian homeland. However, these changes represented the nature of the literary style and syntax, but they did not constitute immense changes to the fundamentals of the grammar or the morphology of the language. Often, when writers codify a spoken dialect, other language users are then encouraged to imitate that structure through the literary device known as parallelism.\n\nThe Four Gospels, 1495, Portrait of St Mark Wellcome with Armenian inscriptions\n\nFirst printed Armenian language Bible, 1666\n\nIn the 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland was once again divided. This time Eastern Armenia was conquered from Qajar Iran by the Russian Empire, while Western Armenia, containing two thirds of historical Armenia, remained under Ottoman control. The antagonistic relationship between the Russian and Ottoman empires led to creation of two separate and different environments under which Armenians lived and suffered. Halfway through the 19th century, two important concentrations of Armenian communities were further consolidated. Because of persecutions or the search for better economic opportunities, many Armenians living under Ottoman rule gradually moved to Constantinople, whereas Tbilisi became the center of Armenians living under Russian rule. These two cosmopolitan cities very soon became the primary poles of Armenian intellectual and cultural life.\n\nThe introduction of new literary forms and styles, as well as many new ideas sweeping Europe, reached Armenians living in both regions. This created an ever-growing need to elevate the vernacular, Ashkharhabar, to the dignity of a modern literary language, in contrast to the now-anachronistic Grabar. Numerous dialects existed in the traditional Armenian regions, which, different as they were, had certain morphological and phonetic features in common. On the basis of these features two major standards emerged:\n* Western standard: The influx of immigrants from different parts of the traditional Armenian homeland to Constantinople crystallized the common elements of the regional dialects, paving the way to a style of writing that required a shorter and more flexible learning curve than Grabar.\n* Eastern standard: The Yerevan dialect provided the primary elements of Eastern Armenian, centered in Tbilisi, Georgia. Similar to the Western Armenian variant, the Modern Eastern was in many ways more practical and accessible to the masses than Grabar.\n\nBoth centers vigorously pursued the promotion of Ashkharhabar. The proliferation of newspapers in both versions (Eastern & Western) and the development of a network of schools where modern Armenian was taught, dramatically increased the rate of literacy (in spite of the obstacles by the colonial administrators), even in remote rural areas. The emergence of literary works entirely written in the modern versions increasingly legitimized the language’s existence. By the turn of the 20th century both varieties of the one modern Armenian language prevailed over Grabar and opened the path to a new and simplified grammatical structure of the language in the two different cultural spheres. Apart from several morphological, phonetic, and grammatical differences, the largely common vocabulary and generally analogous rules of grammatical fundamentals allows users of one variant to understand the other as long as they are fluent in one of the literary standards.\n\nAfter World War I, the existence of the two modern versions of the same language was sanctioned even more clearly. The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990) used Eastern Armenian as its official language, whereas the diaspora created after the Armenian Genocide preserved the Western Armenian dialect.\n\n===Modern changes===\nArmenian language road sign.\nThe two modern literary dialects, Western (originally associated with writers in the Ottoman Empire) and Eastern (originally associated with writers in the Russian Empire), removed almost all of their Turkish lexical influences in the 20th century, primarily following the Armenian Genocide.\n",
"Proto-Indo-European voiceless stop consonants are aspirated in the Proto-Armenian language, one of the circumstances that is often linked to the glottalic theory, a version of which postulated that the voiceless occlusives of Proto-Indo-European were aspirated.Robert S.P. Beekes, ''Comparative Indo-European Linguistics, An Introduction'' (1995, John Benjamins)Oswald J.L. Szemerényi, ''Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics'' (1996, Oxford)\n\n===Stress===\nIn Armenian, the stress falls on the last syllable unless the last syllable contains the definite article or , and the possessive articles and , in which case it falls on the penultimate one. For instance, , , but and . Exceptions to this rule are some words with the final letter ( in the reformed orthography) () and sometimes the ordinal numerals (, etc.), as well as , and a small number of other words.\n\n===Vowels===\n\nModern Armenian has six monophthongs. Each vowel phoneme in the table is represented by three symbols. The first indicates the phoneme's pronunciation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). After that appears the corresponding letter of the Armenian alphabet. The last symbol is its Latin transliteration (according to ISO 9985).\n\n\n+Armenian vowel phonemes\n\n Front\n Central\n Back\n\n Close\n i\n\n u\n\n Mid\n , e, ē\n ë\n , o, ò\n\n Open\n \n \n a\n\n\n===Consonants===\nThe following table lists the Eastern Armenian consonantal system. The occlusives and affricates have a special aspirated series (transcribed with an apostrophe after the letter): ''p’'', ''t’'', ''c’'', ''k’'' (but ''č''). Each phoneme in the table is represented by three symbols. The first indicates the phoneme's pronunciation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), after that appears the corresponding letter of the Armenian alphabet, and the last symbol is its Romanization according to ISO 9985 (1996).\n\n\n+Eastern Armenian consonant phonemes\n \nLabials\nDental/Alveolar\nPostalveolar\nPalatal\nVelar\nUvular\nGlottal\n\n Nasal\n – m\n – n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n Stop\n voiceless\n – p\n – t\n \n\n – k\n\n\n\n voiced\n – b\n – d\n \n\n – g\n\n\n\n aspirated\n – p’\n – t’\n \n\n – k’\n\n\n\n Affricate\n voiceless\n\n – ç\n – č̣\n \n\n\n\n\n voiced\n\n – j\n – ǰ\n \n\n\n\n\n aspirated\n\n – c’\n – č\n \n\n\n\n\n Fricative\n voiceless\n – f\n – s\n – š\n \n 1 – x \n – h\n\n voiced\n – v\n – z\n – ž\n \n 1 – ġ \n\n\n Approximant\n \n – l\n\n – y\n\n\n\n\n Trill\n\n – ṙ\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Flap\n\n – r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n# Sources differ on the place of articulation of these consonants.\n\nThe major phonetic difference between dialects is in the reflexes of Classical Armenian voice-onset time. The seven dialect types have the following correspondences, illustrated with the t–d series:\n::{| class=\"wikitable\" style=text-align:center\n+Correspondence in initial position\nIndo-European\n*\n*\n*\n\nSebastia\n\n\n\n\nErevan\n\n\n\n\nIstanbul\n\n\n\nKharpert, Middle Armenian\n\n\n\n\nMalatya, SWA\n\n\n\nClassical Armenian, Agulis, SEA\n\n\n\n\nVan, Artsakh\n\n\n\n",
"\nArmenian corresponds with other Indo-European languages in its structure, but it shares distinctive sounds and features of its grammar with neighboring languages of the Caucasus region. Armenian is rich in combinations of consonants. Both classical Armenian and the modern spoken and literary dialects have a complicated system of noun declensions, with six or seven noun cases but no gender. In modern Armenian the use of auxiliary verbs to show tense (comparable to will in \"he will go\") has generally supplemented the inflected verbs of Classical Armenian. Negative verbs are conjugated differently from positive ones (as in English \"he goes\" and \"he does not go\") in many tenses, otherwise adding only the negative to the positive conjugation. Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical Greek and Latin, but the modern language, like modern Greek, has undergone many transformations, adding some analytic features.\n\n===Noun===\nClassical Armenian has no grammatical gender, not even in the pronoun, but there is a feminine suffix ( \"-uhi\"). For example, (''usuts'ich'', \"teacher\") becomes (''usuts'chuhi'', female teacher). This suffix, however, does not have a grammatical effect on the sentence. The nominal inflection, however, preserves several types of inherited stem classes. Nouns are declined for one of seven cases: nominative (ուղղական ''uxxakan''), accusative (հայցական ''hayc'akan''), locative (ներգոյական ''nergoyakan''), genitive (սեռական ''seṙakan''), dative (տրական ''trakan''), ablative (բացառական ''bac'aṙakan''), or instrumental (գործիական ''gorciakan'').\n\n;Examples of noun declension in Eastern Armenian\n\n\n+ (telephone)\nCase\nSingular\nPlural\n\n\n'''Nominative''' \n''heṙaxos'''(ë-n)*'''''\n''heṙaxosner'''(ë-n)*'''''\n\n\n'''Accusative''' \n''heṙaxos'''ë(-n)*'''''\n''heṙaxosner'''ë(-n)*'''''\n\n\n'''Genitive''' \n''heṙaxos'''i'''''\n''heṙaxosner'''i'''''\n\n\n'''Dative''' \n''heṙaxos'''in'''\n''heṙaxosner'''in'''\n\n\n'''Ablative''' \n''heṙaxos'''ic' '''''\n''heṙaxosner'''ic' '''''\n\n\n'''Instrumental''' \n''heṙaxos'''ov'''''\n''heṙaxosner'''ov'''''\n\n\n'''Locative''' \n''heṙaxos'''um'''''\n''heṙaxosner'''um'''''\n\n\n\n+ (mother)\nCase\nSingular\nPlural\n\n\n'''Nominative'''\n''mayr'''(ë-n)*'''''\n''mayrer'''(ë-n)*'''''\n\n\n'''Accusative'''\n''mayr'''ë(-n)*'''''\n''mayrer'''ë(-n)*'''''\n\n\n'''Genitive'''\n''m'''or'''''\n''mayrer'''i'''''\n\n\n'''Dative'''\n''m'''orë(-n)*'''''\n''mayrer'''in'''''\n\n\n'''Ablative'''\n''m'''oric' '''''\n''mayrer'''ic' '''''\n\n\n'''Instrumental'''\n''m'''orov'''''\n''mayrer'''ov'''''\n\n\n'''Locative'''\n\n\n\n\nAnimated nouns do not decline for locative case.\n\n\n+ (republic)\nCase\nSingular\nPlural\n\n\n'''Nominative '''\n''hanrapetut'yun'''(ë-n)*'''''\n''hanrapetut'yunner'''(ë-n)*'''''\n\n\n'''Accusative'''\n''hanrapetut'yun'''ë(-n)*'''''\n''hanrapetut'yunner'''ë(-n)*'''''\n\n\n'''Genitive'''\n''hanrapetut'y'''an'''''\n''hanrapetut'yunner'''i'''''\n\n\n'''Dative'''\n''hanrapetut'y'''anë(-n)*'''''\n''hanrapetut'yunner'''in'''''\n\n\n'''Ablative'''\n''hanrapetut'yun'''ic' '''''\n''hanrapetut'yunner'''ic' '''''\n\n\n'''Instrumental'''\n''hanrapetut'y'''anb'''''\n''hanrapetut'yunner'''ov'''''\n\n\n'''Locative'''\n''hanrapetut'yun'''um'''''\n''hanrapetut'yunner'''um'''''\n\n\n\n;Examples of noun declension in Western Armenian\n\n\n\n \n '''դաշտ''' / '''''tašd''''' (field)\n '''կով''' / '''''gov''''' (cow)\n\n singular\n plural\n singular\n plural\n\n Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական)\n դաշտ / ''tašd''\n դաշտեր / ''tašder''\n կով / ''gov''\n կովեր / ''gover''\n\n Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական)\n դաշտ'''ի''' / ''tašd'''i'''''\n դաշտեր'''ու''' / ''tašder'''u'''''\n կով'''ու''' / ''gov'''u'''''\n կովեր'''ու''' / ''gover'''u'''''\n\n Abl (Բացառական)\n դաշտ'''է''' / ''tašd'''e'''''\n դաշտեր'''է''' / ''tašder'''e'''''\n կով'''է''' / ''gov'''e'''''\n կովեր'''է''' / ''gover'''e'''''\n\n Instr (Գործիական)\n դաշտ'''ով''' / ''tašd'''ov'''''\n դաշտեր'''ով''' / ''tašder'''ov'''''\n կով'''ով''' / ''gov'''ov'''''\n կովեր'''ով''' / ''gover'''ov'''''\n\n\n\n \n '''գարուն''' / '''''karun''''' (Spring)\n '''օր''' / '''''or''''' (day)\n '''Քոյր''' / '''''kuyr''''' (sister)\n\n singular\n plural\n singular\n plural\n singular\n plural\n\n Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական)\n գարուն\n գարուններ\n օր\n օրեր\n քոյր\n քոյրեր\n\n Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական)\n գարն'''ա'''ն\n գարուններ'''ու'''\n օր'''ուայ'''\n օրեր'''ու'''\n քր'''ոջ'''\n քոյրեր'''ու'''\n\n Abl (Բացառական)\n գարուն'''է'''\n գարուններ'''է'''\n օր'''ուընէ'''\n օրեր'''է'''\n քր'''ոջմէ'''\n քոյրեր'''է'''\n\n Instr (Գործիական)\n գարուն'''ով'''\n գարուններ'''ով'''\n օր'''ով'''\n օրեր'''ով'''\n քր'''ոջմով'''\n քոյրեր'''ով'''\n\n\n\n \n '''հայր''' / '''''hayr''''' (father)\n '''Աստուած''' / '''''Asdvadz''''' (God)\n '''գիտութիւն''' / '''''kidutiun''''' (science)\n\n singular\n plural\n singular\n plural\n\n Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական)\n հայր\n հայրեր\n Աստուած\nաստուածներ\nգիտութիւն\nգիտութիւններ\n\n Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական)\n հ'''օ'''ր\n հայրեր'''ու'''\n Աստուծ'''ոյ'''\nաստուածներ'''ու'''\n գիտութ'''եան'''\nգիտութիւններ'''ու'''\n\n Abl (Բացառական)\n հ'''օ'''ր'''մէ'''\n հայրեր'''է'''\n Աստուծ'''մէ'''\nաստուածներ'''է'''\n գիտութ'''ենէ'''\nգիտութիւններ'''է'''\n\n Instr (Գործիական)\n հ'''օ'''ր'''մով'''\n հայրեր'''ով'''\n Աստուծ'''մով'''\nաստուածներ'''ով'''\n գիտութ'''եամբ/'''\nգիտութիւն'''ով'''\nգիտութիւններ'''ով'''\n\n\n===Verb===\n\n\nVerbs in Armenian have an expansive system of conjugation with two main verb types in Eastern Armenian and three in Western Armenian changing form based on tense, mood and aspect.\n",
"\nArmenian dialects in early 20th century:\n\n\n\nArmenian is a pluricentric language, having two modern standardized forms: Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. The most distinctive feature of Western Armenian is that it has undergone several phonetic mergers; these may be due to proximity to Arabic- and Turkish-speaking communities.\n\nFor example, Eastern Armenian speakers pronounce () as an aspirated \"t\" as in \"tiger\", () like the \"d\" in \"develop\", and () as a tenuis occlusive, sounding somewhere between the two as in \"s'''t'''op.\" Western Armenian has simplified the occlusive system into a simple division between voiced occlusives and aspirated ones; the first series corresponds to the tenuis series of Eastern Armenian, and the second corresponds to the Eastern voiced and aspirated series. Thus, the Western dialect pronounces both () and () as an aspirated \"t\" as in \"tiger\", and the () letter is pronounced like the letter \"d\" as in \"develop\".\n\nThere is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects.\n\nArmenian can be divided into two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects, though many of the Western Armenian dialects have become extinct due to the effects of the Armenian Genocide. In addition, neither dialect is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several subdialects. Although Western and Eastern Armenian are often described as different dialects of the same language, many subdialects are not readily mutually intelligible. Nevertheless, a fluent speaker of one of two greatly varying dialects who is also literate in one of the standards, when exposed to the other dialect for a period of time will be able to understand the other with relative ease.\n\nDistinct Western Armenian varieties currently in use include Homshetsi, spoken by the Hemshin people; the dialects of Armenians of Kessab (Քեսապի բարբառ), Latakia and Jisr al-Shughur (Syria), Anjar, Lebanon, and Vakıflı, Samandağ (Turkey), part of the \"Sueidia\" dialect (Սուէտիայի բարբառ). \n\nForms of the Karin dialect of Western Armenian are spoken by several hundred thousand people in Northern Armenia, mostly in Gyumri, Artik, Akhuryan, and around 130 villages in Shirak Province, and by Armenians in Samtskhe-Javakheti province of Georgia (Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe). \n\nNakhichevan-on-Don Armenians speak another Western Armenian variety based on the dialect of Armenians in Crimea, where they came from in order to establish the town and surrounding villages in 1779 (Նոր Նախիջևանի բարբառ). \n\nWestern Armenian dialects are currently spoken also in Gavar (formerly Nor Bayazet and Kamo, on the west of Lake Sevan), Aparan, and Talin in Armenia (Mush dialect), and by the large Armenian population residing in Abkhazia, where they are considered to be the first or second ethnic minority, or even equal in number to the local Abkhaz population\n\n\n+Examples\nEnglish\n Eastern Armenian \nWestern Armenian\n\n Yes\n Ayo ()\n Ayo ()\n\n No\n Voč' ()\n Voč' ()\n\n I see you\n K'ez em tesnum ()\n Gdesnem kez(i) ()\n\n Hello\n Barev ()\n Parev ()\n\n I'm going\n Gnum em ()\n Gertam (gor) ()\n\n Come!\n Ari! ()\n Yegur! ()\n\n I will eat\n Utelu em ()\n Bidi udem ()\n\n I must do\n Piti anem ()\n Enelu em ()\n\n I was going to eat\n Utelu ei ()\n Bidi udei ()\n\n Is this yours?\n Sa k'onn e? ()\n Asiga k'ugt e? ()\n\n His granma\n Nra tatikə ()\n Anor nenen/mecmaman ()\n\n Look at that one!\n Dran nayir ()\n Ador naye ()\n\n Have you brought these?\n Du es berel sranc'? ()\n Tun perir asonk? ()\n\n How are you? I'm OK.\n Vonc' es? Voč'inč' () \n Inč'bes es? Lav ()\n\n Did you say it? Say it!\n Asac'ir? Asa! ()\n əsir? əse! ()\n\n Have you taken it from us?\n Mezanic' es arel? ()\n Mezme arac es? ()\n\n Good morning\n Bari louys ()\n Pari louys ()\n\n Good evening\n Bari yereko ()\n Pari irigoun ()\n\n Good night\n Bari gišer ()\n Kišer pari ()\n\n You love me\n Siroum es inc' ()\n Zis gë sires ()\n\n I am Armenian\n Yes hay em ()\n Yes hay em ()\n\n I missed you\n Karotel em k'ez ()\n K'ez garodtser em ()\n\n",
"\nkeyboard layout using the Armenian alphabet.\nThe Armenian alphabet () is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that is used to write the Armenian language. It was introduced around 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, and originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters, օ (o) and ֆ (f), were added in the Middle Ages. \nDuring the 1920s orthography reform in Soviet Armenia, a new letter և (capital ԵՎ) was added, which was a ligature before ե+ւ, whereas the letter Ւ ւ was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter ՈՒ ու (which was a digraph before). This alphabet and associated orthography is used by most Armenian speakers of the Republic of Armenia and the countries of the former Soviet Union. Neither the alphabet, nor the orthography have been adopted by Diaspora Armenians, including Eastern Armenian speakers of Iran and all Western Armenian speakers, who keep using the traditional alphabet and spelling.\n",
"Armenian is an Indo-European language, so many of its Proto-Indo-European-descended words are cognates of words in other Indo-European languages such as English, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. This table lists only some of the more recognizable cognates that Armenian shares with English (more specifically, with English words descended from Old English). (Source: Online Etymology Dictionary.)\n\n Armenian \n English\n Latin \n Persian \n Classical and Hellenistic Greek \n Sanskrit \n Russian \n Old Irish \n PIE\n\n մայր '''mayr''' \"mother\" \n '''mother''' ( ← OE ''mōdor'')\n '''māter''' \"mother\"\n مادر '''mɒdær''' \"mother\"\n μήτηρ '''mētēr''' \"mother\"\n मातृ '''mātṛ''' \"mother\" \n мать '''mat'''' \n '''máthair''' \"mother\" \n '''''' \"mother\"\n\n հայր '''hayr''' \"father\" \n '''father''' ( ← OE ''fæder'')\n '''pater''' \"father\"\n پدر '''pedær''' \"father\"\n πατήρ '''patēr''' \"father\"\n पितृ '''pitṛ''' \"father\" \n папа\n\n'''papa'''\n '''athair''' \"father\" \n '''''' \"father\"\n\n եղբայր '''eġbayr''' \"brother\" \n '''brother''' ( ← OE ''brōþor'')\n '''frāter''' \"brother\"\n برادر '''bærɒdær''' \"brother\" \n φράτηρ '''phrātēr''' \"brother\"\n भ्रातृ '''bhrātṛ''' \"brother\" \n брат '''brat''' \n '''bráthair''' \"brother\" \n \"brother\"\n\n դուստր '''dustr''' \"daughter\" \n '''daughter''' ( ← OE ''dohtor'')\n (Oscan '''futrei''' \"daughter\")\n دختر '''doxtær''' \"daughter\" \n θυγάτηρ '''thugatēr''' \"daughter\"\n दुहितृ '''duhitṛ''' \"daughter\" \n дочь '''doč'''' \n '''der, Dar-''' \"daughter (of)\" \n \"daughter\"\n\n կին '''kin''' \"woman\" \n '''queen''' ( ← OE ''cwēn \"queen, woman, wife\"'')\n \n کیانه '''kianæ''' \"woman, wife\"\n γυνή '''gunē''' \"a woman, a wife\"\n ग्ना '''gnā'''/ जनि '''jani''' \"woman\" \n жена '''žena''' \"wife\" \n '''ben''' \"woman\" \n '''''' \"woman, wife\"\n\n իմ '''im''' \"my\" \n '''my, mine''' ( ← OE ''min'')\n '''me-us''', '''-a''', '''-um''' etc. \"my\"\n من/ـم '''mæn/æm''' \"my\"\n ἐμ-ός, -ή, -όν '''em-os''', '''-ē''', '''-on''' etc. \"my, of mine\"\n मम '''mama''' \"my\"\n мой '''moy''' \n '''mo''' \"my, me\" \n '''''' \"my, mine\"\n\n անուն '''anun''' \"name\" \n '''name''' ( ← OE ''nama'')\n '''nōmen''' \"name\"\n نام '''nɒm''' \"name\"\n ὄνομα '''onoma''' \"name\"\n नामन् '''nāman''' \"name\" \n имя '''im'a''' \n '''ainm''' \"name\" \n '''''' \"name\"\n\n ութ '''utʿ''' \"8\" \n '''eight''' ( ← OE ''eahta'')\n '''octō''' \"eight\"\n هشت '''hæʃt''' \"eight\"\n ὀκτώ '''oktō''' \"eight\"\n अष्ट '''aṣṭa''' \"eight\" \n во́семь '''vosem'''' \n '''ocht''' \"eight\" \n '''''' \"eight\"\n\n ինն '''inn''' \"9\" \n '''nine''' ( ← OE ''nigon'')\n '''novem''' \"nine\"\n نه '''noh''' \"nine\"\n ἐννέα '''ennea''' \"nine\"\n नवन् '''navan''' \"nine\" \n де́вять '''dev'at'''' \n '''noí''' \"nine\" \n '''''' \"nine\"\n\n տաս '''tas''' \"10\" \n '''ten''' ( ← OE ''tien'') ( ← P.Gmc. ''*tekhan'')\n '''decem''' \"ten\"\n ده '''dæh''' \"ten\"\n δέκα '''deka''' \"ten\"\n दश '''daśa''' \"ten\" \n де́сять '''des'at'''' \n '''deich''' \"ten\" \n '''''' \"ten\"\n\n աչք '''ačʿkʿ''' \"eye\" \n '''eye''' ( ← OE ''ēge'')\n '''oculus''' \"eye\"\n – \n ὀφθαλμός '''ophthalmos''' \"eye\"\n अक्षि '''akṣi''' \"eye\"\n око '''oko''' \n \n '''''' \"to see\"\n\n արմունկ '''armunk''' \"elbow\" \n '''arm''' ( ← OE ''earm \"joined body parts below shoulder\"'')\n '''armus''' \"shoulder\" \n آرنج '''ɒrendʒ''' \"elbow\" \n ἄρθρον '''arthron''' \"a joint\"\n ईर्म '''īrma''' \"arm\"\n рамо '''ramo''' \"shoulder\" (''archaic'') \n \n '''''' \"fit, join (that which is fitted together)\"\n\n ծունկ '''cunk''' \"knee\" \n '''knee''' ( ← OE ''cnēo'')\n '''genū''' \"knee\"\n زانو '''zɒnu''' \"knee\"\n γόνυ '''gonu''' \"knee\"\n जानु '''jānu''' \"knee\"\n \n '''glún''' \"knee\" \n '''''' \"knee\"\n\n ոտք '''otkʿ''' \"foot\" \n '''foot''' ( ← OE ''fōt'')\n '''pedis''' \"foot\" \n پا، پای '''pɒ, pɒj''' \"foot\" \n πούς '''pous''' \"foot\"\n पाद् '''pād''' \"foot\" \n пята '''p'ata'''\n\n\"heel\"\n (Gaul. '''ades''' \"feet\") \n '''''' \"foot\"\n\n սիրտ '''sirt''' \"heart\"\n '''heart''' ( ← OE ''heorte'')\n '''cor''' \"heart\"\n دل '''del''' \"heart\" \n καρδία '''kardia''' \"heart\"\n हृदय '''hṛdaya''' \"heart\"\n се́рдце '''serdce''' \n '''cride''' \"heart\" \n '''''' \"heart\"\n\n կաշի '''kaši''' \"skin\" \n '''hide''' ( ← OE ''hȳdan \"animal skin cover\"'')\n '''cutis''' \"skin\"\n پوست '''pust''' \"skin\"\n κεύθω '''keuthō''' \"I cover, I hide\"\n कुटीर '''kuṭīra''' \"hut\"\n кожа '''koža''' \n (Welsh '''cudd''' \"hiding place\") \n '''''' \"to cover, conceal\"\n\n մուկ '''muk''' \"mouse\" \n '''mouse''' ( ← OE ''mūs'')\n '''mūs''' \"mouse\"\n موش '''musc''' \"mouse\" \n μῦς '''mūs''' \"mouse\"\n मूष् '''mūṣ''' \"mouse\" \n мышь '''myš'''' \n \n '''''' \"mouse, small rodent\"\n\n կով '''kov''' \"cow\" \n '''cow''' ( ← OE ''cū'')\n '''bos''' \"cow\" \n گاو '''gɒv''' \"cow\" \n βοῦς '''bous''' \"cow\" \n गो '''go''' \"cow\" \n говядина '''gov'adina''' \"beef\" \n '''bó''' \"cow\" \n '''''' \"cow\"\n\n շուն '''šun''' \"dog\" \n '''hound''' ( ← OE ''hund \"hound, dog\"'')\n '''canis''' \"hound, dog\"\n سگ '''sæg''' \"dog\" \n κύων '''kuōn''' \"hound, dog\"\n श्वन् '''śvan''' \"dog\" \n сука '''suka''' \"bitch\" \n '''cú''' \"dog\" \n '''''' \"hound, dog\"\n\n տարի '''tari''' \"year\" \n '''year''' ( ← OE ''gēar'')\n '''hōrnus''' \"of this year\"\n یاره، سال '''jɒre, sɒl''' \"year\"\n ὥρα '''hōra''' \"time, year\"\n यरे '''yare''' \"year\"\n яра '''jara''' \"springtime\" (''archaic'') \n \n '''''' \"year\"\n\n ամիս '''amis''' \"month\" \n '''moon, month''' ( ← OE ''mōnaþ'')\n '''mēnsis''' \"month\"\n ماه '''mɒh''' \"moon, month\"\n μήν '''mēn''' \"moon, month\"\n मास '''māsa''' \"moon, month\"\n месяц '''mes'ac''' \n '''mí''' \"month\" \n '''''' \"moon, month\"\n\n ամառ '''amaṙ''' \"summer\" \n '''summer''' ( ← OE ''sumor'')\n \n \n \n समा '''samā''' \"season\"\n \n '''saṃ''' \"summer\" '''''' \"hot season of the year\"\n\n ջերմ '''ǰerm''' \"warm\" \n '''warm''' ( ← OE ''wearm'')\n '''formus''' \"warm\"\n گرم '''gærm''' \"warm\"\n θερμός '''thermos''' \"warm\"\n घर्म '''gharma''' \"heat\" \n жарко '''žarko''' \"hot\" \n '''geirid''' \"warm (v)\" \n '''''' \"warm\"\n\n լույս '''luys''' \"light\" \n '''light''' ( ← OE ''lēoht \"brightness\"'')\n '''lux''' \"light\"\n روز '''ruz''' \"day\"\n λευκός '''leukos''' \"bright, shining, white\"\n लोक '''loka''' \"shining\"\n луч '''luč'''' \"beam\" \n '''lóch''' \"bright\" \n '''''' \"light, brightness\"\n\n հուր '''hur''' \"flame\" \n '''fire''' ( ← OE ''fȳr'') \n (Umbrian '''pir''' \"fire\")\n آذر، آدور '''ɒzær, ɒdur''' \"fire\"\n πῦρ '''pur''' \"fire\"\n पु '''pu''' \"fire\"\n \n \n '''''' \"fire\"\n\n հեռու '''heṙu''' \"far\" \n '''far''' ( ← OE ''feor \"to a great distance\"'')\n '''per''' \"through\"\n فرا '''færɒ''' \"beyond\"\n πέρα '''pera''' \"beyond\"\n परस् '''paras''' \"beyond\"\n пере- '''pere-''', про- '''pro-''' \n '''ír''' \"further\" \n '''''' \"through, across, beyond\"\n\n հեղել '''heġel''' \"to pour\" \n '''flow''' ( ← OE ''flōwan'')\n '''pluĕre''' \"to rain\"\n پور '''pur''' \"pour\" \n πλύνω '''plunō''' \"I wash\"\n प्लु '''plu''' \"to swim\"\n плавать '''plavat'''' \"swim\" \n '''luí''' \"rudder\" \n '''''' \"flow, float\"\n\n ուտել '''utel''' \"to eat\" \n '''eat''' ( ← OE ''etan'')\n '''edō''' \"I eat\"\n هور '''hvor''' \"eat\"\n ἔδω '''edō''' \"I eat\"\n अद्मि '''admi''' \"I eat\"\n есть '''jest'''' \n '''ithid''' \"eat\" \n '''''' \"to eat\"\n\n գիտեմ '''gitem''' \"I know\" \n '''wit''' ( ← OE ''wit, witan \"intelligence, to know\"'')\n '''vidēre''' \"to see\" \n ویده '''vidæ''' \"knowledge\" \n εἰδέναι '''eidenai''' \"to know\"\n विद् '''vid''' \"to know\" \n видеть '''videt'''' \"see, understand\" \n '''adfet''' \"tells\" \n '''''' \"to know, to see\"\n\n գետ '''get''' \"river\" \n '''water''' ( ← OE ''wæter'')\n (Umbrian '''utur''' \"water\")\n رود '''rud''' \"river\"\n ὕδωρ '''hudōr''' \"water\"\n उदन् '''udan''' \"water\"\n вода '''voda''' \n '''uisce''' \"water\" \n '''''' \"water\"\n\n գործ '''gorc''' \"work \" \n '''work''' ( ← OE ''weorc'')\n '''urgēre''' \"push, drive\"\n کار '''kɒr''' \"work\"\n ἔργον '''ergon''' \"work\"\n वर्चस् '''varcas''' \"activity\"\n \n \n '''''' \"to work\"\n\n մեծ '''mec''' \"great \" \n '''much''' ( ← OE ''mycel \"great, big, many\"'')\n '''magnus''' \"great\"\n مه، مهست '''meh, mæhest''' \"great, large\"\n μέγας '''megas''' \"great, large\"\n महति '''mahati''' \"great\"\n много '''mnogo''' \"many\" \n '''maige''' \"great, mighty\" \n '''''' \"great\"\n\n անծանոթ '''ancanotʿ''' \"stranger, unfamiliar\" \n '''unknown''' ( ← OE ''uncnawen'')\n '''ignōtus''' \"unknown\"\n \n ἄγνωστος '''agnōstos''' \"unknown\"\n अज्ञात '''ajñāta''' \"unfamiliar\" \n незнакомый '''neznakomyj''' \n \n '''''' \"not\" + \"to know\"\n\n մեռած '''meṙac''' \"dead\" \n '''murder''' ( ← OE ''morþor'')\n '''mors''' \"death\" \n مرگ '''mærg''' \"death\" / مرده '''morde''' \"dead\" \n βροτός '''brotos''' \"mortal\"\n मृत '''mṛta''' \"dead\" \n смерть '''smert'''' \n\"death\" \n '''marb''' \"dead\" \n '''''' \"to die\"\n\n միջին '''miǰin''' \"middle\" \n '''mid, middle''' ( ← OE ''mid, middel'')\n '''medius''' \"middle\"\n میان '''miɒn''' \"middle\"\n μέσος '''mesos''' \"middle\"\n मध्य '''madhya''' \"middle\"\n между '''meždu''' \"between\" \n '''mide''' \"middle\" \n '''''' \"mid, middle\"\n\n այլ '''ayl''' \"other\" \n '''else''' ( ← OE ''elles \"other, otherwise, different\"'')\n '''alius''' \"other\"\n \n ἄλλος '''allos''' \"other, another\"\n अन्य '''anya''' \"other\"\n иной\n\n'''inoj'''\n '''aile''' \"other\" \n '''''' \"beyond, other\"\n\n նոր '''nor''' \"new\" \n '''new''' ( ← OE ''nīwe'')\n '''novus''' \"new\" \n نو '''now''' \"new\" \n νέος '''neos''' \"new\"\n नव '''nava''' \"new\" \n новый '''novyj''' \n '''núae''' \"new\" \n '''''' \"new\"\n\n դուռ '''duṙ''' \"door\" \n '''door''' ( ← OE ''dor, duru'')\n '''fores''' \"door\"\n در '''dær''' \"door\" \n θύρα '''thurā''' \"door\"\n द्वार '''dvāra''' \"door\" \n дверь '''dver''''\n '''dorus''' \"door\" \n '''''' \"door, doorway, gate\"\n\n տուն '''tun''' \"house\" \n '''timber''' ( ← OE ''timber \"trees used for building material, structure\"'')\n '''domus''' \"house\"\n مان، خانه '''mɒn, xɒne''' \"home\"\n δόμος '''domos''' \"house\"\n दम '''dama''' \"house\" \n дом '''dom''' \n '''dún''' \"fort\" (Welsh '''dinas''' \"city\")\n'''''' \"house\"\n\n բերրի '''berri, berel''' \"fertile, to carry\" \n '''bear''' ( ← OE ''beran \"give birth, carry\"'')\n '''ferre''' \"to bear\"\n بردن، برـ '''bordæn, bær-''' \"to bear, carry\"\n φέρειν '''pherein''' \"to bear, carry\"\n भरति '''bharati''' \"he/she/it carries\" \n брать '''brat'''' \"to take\" \n '''beirid''' \"carry\" \n '''''' \"to bear, to carry\"\n\n",
"* Language families and languages\n* List of Indo-European languages\n* Classical Armenian orthography\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n*\n* \n* \n* \n*\n\n",
"\n* Adjarian, Herchyah H. (1909) ''Classification des dialectes arméniens, par H. Adjarian.'' Paris: Honoro Champion.\n* Clackson, James. 1994. ''The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek.'' London: Publications of the Philological Society, No 30. (and Oxford: Blackwell Publishing)\n* Holst, Jan Henrik (2009) ''Armenische Studien.'' Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.\n* Mallory, J. P. (1989) ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.'' London: Thames & Hudson.\n* Vaux, Bert. 1998. ''The Phonology of Armenian.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press.\n* Vaux, Bert. 2002. \"The Armenian dialect of Jerusalem.\" in Armenians in the Holy Land. \"Louvain: Peters.\n\n",
"\n\n\n* Armenian Lessons (free online through the Linguistics Research Center at UT Austin)\n* Armenian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)\n* ARMENIA AND IRAN iv. History, discussion, and the presentation of Iranian influences in Armenian Language over the millennia\n* Nayiri.com (Library of Armenian dictionaries)\n* dictionaries.arnet.am Collection of Armenian XDXF and Stardict dictionaries\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Classification and origins",
"Evolution",
"Phonology",
"Morphology",
"Dialects",
"Orthography",
"Indo-European cognates",
"See also",
"Notes",
"Footnotes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Armenian language |
[
"''Charles de Gaulle'' (French Navy), , helicopter carrier —and escort vessels, 2002\n''From bottom to top:'' Spanish light V/STOL carrier ''Príncipe de Asturias'', amphibious assault ship , fleet carrier , and light V/STOL carrier , showing size differences of late 20th century carriers, 1991\n\nAn '''aircraft carrier''' is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets. Carriers have evolved since their inception in the early twentieth century from wooden vessels used to deploy balloons to nuclear-powered warships that carry numerous fighter planes, strike aircraft, helicopters, and other types of aircraft. While it is possible to launch heavier aircraft such as fixed-wing gunships and bombers (it has been done) from aircraft carriers, it is virtually impossible to land them.\n\nThere is no single definition of an \"aircraft carrier,\" and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, and sometimes as distinct types of naval aviation-capable ships. Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, RN; former First Sea Lord (head) of the British Royal Navy, has said, \"To put it simply, countries that aspire to strategic international influence have aircraft carriers\".\n\nAs of , there are 41 active aircraft carriers in the world operated by thirteen navies. The United States Navy has 11 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers (known as supercarriers, carrying up to around 80 fighter jets each), the largest carriers in the world; the total combined deckspace is over twice that of all other nations combined. As well as the fleet carrier / supercarrier fleet, the U.S. Navy has in addition, nine amphibious assault ships used primarily for helicopters, although these also carry up to 20 vertical or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) fighter jets and are similar in size to medium-sized fleet carriers. China, France, India and Russia each operate a single medium-size carrier, with capacity from 30 to 50 fighter jets. Italy operates two light fleet carriers and Spain operates one. Helicopter carriers are operated by Australia (2), Egypt (2), France (3), Japan (4), South Korea (1), Thailand (1) and the United Kingdom (1). The United Kingdom has a 280 m (920 ft) supercarrier, HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'', undergoing sea trials, scheduled to enter active service in late 2017. Future supercarriers are under construction or in planning by China, India, Russia, the US, and the UK.\n\n",
"NAe ''São Paulo'', foreground, and U.S. Navy carrier during a combined training exercise.\n, a supercarrier of the U.S. Navy (left), sails alongside , a fleet carrier of the French Navy (right), both of which have the CATOBAR configuration.\n, a light aircraft carrier of the Italian Navy.\n of the Royal Navy, an amphibious assault ship/helicopter carrier.\n\n===Basic types===\n* Amphibious assault ship\n* Anti-submarine warfare carrier\n* Balloon carrier and balloon tenders\n* Escort carrier\n* Fleet carrier\n* Flight deck cruiser\n* Helicopter carrier\n* Light aircraft carrier\n* Sea Control Ship\n* Seaplane tender and seaplane carriers\n* Supercarrier\n''(note: some of the types listed here are not strictly defined as aircraft carriers by some sources)''\n\n===By role===\nA ''fleet carrier'' is intended to operate with the main fleet and usually provides an offensive capability. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds. By comparison, ''escort carriers'' were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried. Most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. ''Light aircraft carriers'' were fast enough to operate with the main fleet but of smaller size with reduced aircraft capacity. Soviet aircraft carriers now in use by Russia are actually called ''heavy aviation cruisers''; these ships, while sized in the range of large fleet carriers, were designed to deploy alone or with escorts, and provide both strong defensive weaponry and heavy offensive missiles equivalent to a guided missile cruiser, in addition to supporting fighters and helicopters.\n\n===By configuration===\n of the Indian Navy has the STOBAR configuration.\n\nAircraft carriers today are usually divided into the following four categories based on the way that aircraft take off and land:\n* ''Catapult-assisted take-off barrier arrested-recovery'' (''CATOBAR''): these carriers generally carry the largest, heaviest, and most heavily armed aircraft, although smaller CATOBAR carriers may have other limitations (weight capacity of aircraft elevator, etc.). All CATOBAR carriers in service today are nuclear powered. Two nations currently operate carriers of this type: ten Nimitz class and one Gerald R. Ford class supercarriers by the United States, and one medium-sized carrier by France, for a world total of twelve in service.\n* ''Short take-off but arrested-recovery'' (''STOBAR''): these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads. STOBAR carrier air wings, such as the Sukhoi Su-33 and future Mikoyan MiG-29K wings of are often geared primarily towards air superiority and fleet defense roles rather than strike/power projection tasks, which require heavier payloads (bombs and air-to-ground missiles). Today China, India, and Russia each operate one carrier of this type – a total of three in service currently.\n* ''Short take-off vertical-landing'' (''STOVL''): limited to carrying STOVL aircraft. STOVL aircraft, such as the Harrier Jump Jet family and Yakovlev Yak-38 generally have limited payloads, lower performance, and high fuel consumption when compared with conventional fixed-wing aircraft; however, a new generation of STOVL aircraft, currently consisting of the F-35B, has much improved performance. The US has nine STOVL amphibious assault ships, Italy operates two in the light fleet role, and Spain operates one amphibious assault ship as a STOVL aircraft carrier, giving a total of twelve STOVL carriers in active service; (Thailand has one active STOVL carrier but it no longer has any operational STOVL aircraft in inventory so is used and counted as a helicopter carrier). The UK is building two 70,000 ton STOVL supercarriers, HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales, the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy; the first is expected to be commissioned in late 2017.\n* ''Helicopter carrier'': Helicopter carriers have a similar appearance to other aircraft carriers but operate only helicopters – those that mainly operate helicopters but can also operate fixed-wing aircraft are known as STOVL carriers (see above). There are currently fourteen helicopter carriers, operated by seven navies, that solely operate helicopters in commission today. Japan has four of this type, France three, Australia two, Egypt two, the UK one, South Korea one, and Thailand one. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy. Some helicopter carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships, tasked with landing and supporting ground forces on enemy territory.\n\n===By size===\n* Supercarrier\n* Fleet carrier\n* Light aircraft carrier\n* Escort carrier\n\n===Hull type identification symbols===\nSeveral systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers and related types of ship have been used. These include the pennant numbers used by the British Royal Navy and some Commonwealth countries, the US hull classification symbols also used by NATO and some other countries, and the Canadian hull classification symbols.\n\n\n+ US hull classification symbols for aircraft carriers and related types\n Symbol !! Designation\n\n CV \n Generic aircraft carrier\n\n CVA \n Attack carrier\n\n CVAN \n Nuclear-powered attack carrier\n\n CVE \n Escort carrier\n\n CVG \n Flight deck cruiser (proposed)\n\n CVHA \n Aircraft carrier, Helicopter Assault (retired)\n\n CVHE \n Aircraft carrier, Helicopter, Escort (retired)\n\n CVL \n Light aircraft carrier\n\n CVN \n Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier\n\n CVS \n Anti-submarine warfare carrier\n\n CVV \n Aircraft Carrier, Medium (proposed)\n\n LHA \n Landing Helicopter Assault, a type of Amphibious assault ship\n\n LHD \n Landing Helicopter Dock, a type of Amphibious assault ship\n\n LPH \n Landing Platform Helicopter, a type of Amphibious assault ship\n\n",
"\n\n===Origins===\nThe conducted the world's first naval-launched air raids in 1914.\n\nThe 1903 advent of heavier-than-air fixed-wing aircraft with the Wright brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, was closely followed on 14 November 1910, by Eugene Burton Ely's first experimental take-off of a Curtiss pusher airplane from the deck of a United States Navy ship, the cruiser anchored off Norfolk Navy Base in Virginia. Two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS ''Pennsylvania'' anchored in San Francisco Bay. On 9 May 1912, the first airplane take-off from a ship underway was made from the deck of the British Royal Navy's pre-dreadnaught battleship . Seaplane tender support ships came next, with the French of 1911. Early in World War I, the Imperial Japanese Navy ship conducted the world's first successful ship-launched air raid: on 6 September 1914, a Farman aircraft launched by ''Wakamiya'' attacked the Austro-Hungarian cruiser and the Imperial German gunboat ''Jaguar'' in Kiaochow Bay off Tsingtao; neither was hit. The first carrier-launched airstrike was the Tondern Raid in July 1918. Seven Sopwith Camels launched from the converted battlecruiser damaged the German airbase at Tonder and destroyed two zeppelin airships.\n\nAerial view of of the Imperial Japanese Navy as completed in December 1922.\nThe development of flattop vessels produced the first large fleet ships. In 1918, became the world's first carrier capable of launching and recovering naval aircraft. As a result of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, which limited the construction of new heavy surface combat ships, most early aircraft carriers were conversions of ships that were laid down (or had served) as different ship types: cargo ships, cruisers, battlecruisers, or battleships. These conversions gave rise to the US s (1927), Japanese , and British . Specialist carrier evolution was well underway, with several navies ordering and building warships that were purposefully designed to function as aircraft carriers by the mid-1920s. This resulted in the commissioning of ships such as the Japanese (1922), followed by (1924, although laid down before ''Hōshō'' in 1918) and (1927). During World War II, these ships would become known as fleet carriers.\n\n===World War II===\n\nHMS ''Ark Royal'' in 1939, with Swordfish biplane fighters passing overhead. The British aircraft carrier was involved in the crippling of the German battleship the ''Bismarck'' in May 1941\nmost decorated U.S. warship of World War II.\n\nThe aircraft carrier dramatically changed naval combat in World War II, because air power was becoming a significant factor in warfare. The advent of aircraft as focal weapons was driven by the superior range, flexibility, and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. They had greater range and precision than naval guns, making them highly effective. The versatility of the carrier was demonstrated in November 1940, when launched a long-range strike on the Italian fleet at their base in Taranto, signalling the beginning of the effective and highly mobile aircraft strikes. This operation in the shallow water harbor incapacitated three of the anchored six battleships at a cost of two torpedo bombers. World War II in the Pacific Ocean involved clashes between aircraft carrier fleets. The Sunday, December 7th, 1941 Japanese surprise attack on the American Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor naval / air bases was a clear illustration of the power projection capability afforded by a large force of modern carriers. Concentrating six carriers in a single unit turned naval history about, as no other nation had fielded anything comparable. However, the vulnerability of carriers compared to traditional battleships when forced into a gun-range encounter was quickly illustrated by the sinking of by German battleships during the Norwegian campaign in 1940.\n\nThis new-found importance of naval aviation forced nations to create a number of carriers, in efforts to provide air superiority cover for every major fleet in order to ward off enemy aircraft. This extensive usage led to the development and construction of 'light' carriers. Escort aircraft carriers, such as , were sometimes purpose-built but most were converted from merchant ships as a stop-gap measure to provide anti-submarine air support for convoys and amphibious invasions. Following this concept, light aircraft carriers built by the U.S., such as , represented a larger, more \"militarized\" version of the escort carrier. Although with similar complement to escort carriers, they had the advantage of speed from their converted cruiser hulls. The UK 1942 Design Light Fleet Carrier was designed for building quickly by civilian shipyards and with an expected service life of about 3 years. They served the Royal Navy during the war and was the hull design chosen for nearly all aircraft carrier equipped navies after the war until the 1980s. Emergencies also spurred the creation or conversion of highly unconventional aircraft carriers. CAM ships, were cargo-carrying merchant ships that could launch (but not retrieve) a single fighter aircraft from a catapult to defend the convoy from long range land-based German aircraft.\n\n===Postwar era===\nU.S. Navy ''Iwo Jima''-class helicopter carrier\n, \"The Big E\", the world's first nuclear-powered carrier, commissioned in 1961.\n\nBefore World War II, international naval treaties of 1922, 1930, and 1936 limited the size of capital ships including carriers. Since World War II, aircraft carrier designs have increased in size to accommodate a steady increase in aircraft size. The large, modern of U.S.N. carriers has a displacement nearly four times that of the World War II–era , yet its complement of aircraft is roughly the same—a consequence of the steadily increasing size and weight of individual military aircraft over the years. Today's aircraft carriers are so expensive that nations which operate them risk significant political, economic, social and military impact if a carrier is lost, or is even sent to a potential crisis zone or used in conflict.\n\nModern navies that operate such aircraft carriers treat them as the capital ship of the fleet, a role previously held by the sailing galleons, frigates and ships-of-the-line and later steam or diesel powered battleship. This change took place during World War II in response to air power becoming a significant factor in warfare, driven by the superior range, flexibility and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance. Supercarriers, displacing 75,000 tonnes or greater, have become the pinnacle of carrier development. Some are powered by nuclear reactors and form the core of a fleet designed to operate far from home. Amphibious assault ships, such as and , serve the purpose of carrying and landing Marines, and operate a large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as \"commando carriers\" or \"helicopter carriers\", many have the capability to operate VSTOL aircraft.\n\nLacking the firepower of other warships, carriers by themselves are considered vulnerable to attack by other ships, aircraft, submarines, or missiles. Therefore, an aircraft carrier is generally accompanied by a number of other ships to provide protection for the relatively unwieldy carrier, to carry supplies and perform other support services, and to provide additional offensive capabilities. The resulting group of ships is often termed a battle group, carrier group, carrier battle group or carrier strike group.\n\nThere is a view among some military observers/experts that modern anti-ship weapons systems, such as torpedoes and missiles, have made aircraft carriers obsolete as too vulnerable for modern combat. On the other hand, the threatening role of aircraft carriers has a place in modern asymmetric warfare, like the gunboat diplomacy of the past. Furthermore, aircraft carriers facilitate quick and precise projections of overwhelming military power into such local and regional conflicts.\n\n===Aircraft carriers in service===\n\nright\nA total of 41 carriers are in active service with thirteen navies. 27 aircraft carriers carry fixed-wing aircraft (with 20 of these operated by the United States Navy), and 14 carriers solely deploy helicopters. Most navies do not have aircraft carriers. Those that do usually operate only one or two aircraft carriers. The USA as a superpower is the single exception, with 11 super carriers and 9 amphibious assault ships in service.\n\n*CATOBAR types are operated by France (1) and the USA (11).\n*STOBAR type are operated by China (1), India (1), and Russia (1).\n*STOVL types are operated by Italy (2), Spain (1), and the USA (9)\n\nU.S. Navy flight deck personnel direct an aircraft onto a catapult aboard the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS ''John C. Stennis''.\n\nAmong 14 helicopter-only carriers:\n*ASW ships are operated by Japan (4).\n*An offshore helicopter support ship is operated by Thailand (1)\n*Helicopter only amphibious assault ships are operated by Australia (2), Egypt (2), France (3), South Korea (1), and the UK (1).\n\n===Future of aircraft carriers===\nTwo aircraft carriers are currently undergoing sea trials before entering the navies of the UK and China. A further nine aircraft carriers are under construction and are expected to be commissioned between 2018 and 2024 in the navies of China, India, Italy, South Korea, Turkey, Great Britain, and the U.S.A.\n\n====China====\n\nThe Type 001A carrier for the Peoples Liberation Navy of the People's Republic of China was launched on 26 April 2017. The vessel is set to undergo fitting-out and sea trials for several years before it is commissioned sometime around 2020. The name of the aircraft carrier was not revealed at the launch ceremony, although earlier reports had speculated the aircraft carrier will be named ''Shandong'' after the province and peninsula of the same name. While its predecessor has been used largely as a training ship since it entered active service in 2012, the Type 001A for the P.R.C. is expected to be used in regular military operational service.\n\nOn 31 December 2015, a spokesman of the Chinese Ministry of Defense confirmed that China is designing and building its second aircraft carrier Type 002. It will be China's first supercarrier with a displacement of around 85,000 tonnes. In 2015, media reports stated that both an EMALS and a steam-powered catapult were constructed at the Huangdicun naval base for testing; this is thought to indicate that the Type 002 class as well as future PLAN carriers could possibly be CATOBAR carriers. The construction of the first Type 002 class aircraft carrier started in February 2016.\n\nA Chinese website stated that plans were being drawn up to build a Type 003 giant nuclear-powered supercarrier with a 110,000 ton displacement, essentially a larger version of the ''Liaoning'' and its pattern indigenous Type 001A and Type 002 carriers, and largest aircraft carrier class ever built. For the Type 003 class aircraft carriers, it will likely adopt the electromagnetic aircraft launch system.\n\n==== India ====\n, an indigenously built aircraft carrier (IAC) for the Indian Navy was undocked on 10 June 2015.\n\nIn December 2009, in the Republic of India, then Indian Navy chief Admiral Nirmal Kumar Verma said at his maiden Navy Week press conference that concepts currently being examined by the Directorate of Naval Design for the second indigenous aircraft carrier (IAC-II), are for a conventionally powered carrier displacing over 65,000 tons and equipped with steam catapults (rather than the ski-jump on the ''Gorshkov''/''Vikramaditya'' and the IAC-1) to launch fourth-generation aircraft. In August 2013, Vice Admiral RK Dhowan, while talking about the detailed study underway on the IAC-II project, said that nuclear propulsion was also being considered. The Indian Navy also evaluated the Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS), which is being used by the United States Navy in their latest s. General Atomics, the developer of the EMALS, was cleared by the U.S. government to give a technical demonstration to Indian Navy officers, who were impressed by the new capabilities of the system. The EMALS enables launching varied aircraft including unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAV). The Indian Navy's goal is to have a total of three aircraft carriers in service, with two fully operational carriers and the third in refit.\n\n====Italy====\n\nOn 17 June 2017 construction commenced in the Republic of Italy on the Trieste for the Italian Navy.\nIt is expected to replace the around 2022. ''Trieste'' will be equipped with helicopters and attack aircraft. It will be one of the two largest vessels of the Italian navy along with .\n\n==== Russia ====\nSpeaking in St. Petersburg, in the Russian Federation on 30 June 2011, the head of Russia's United Shipbuilding Corporation said his company expected to begin design work for a new carrier in 2016, with a goal of beginning construction in 2018 and having the carrier achieve initial operational capability by 2023. Several months later, on 3 November 2011, the Russian newspaper ''Izvestiya'' reported that the naval building plan now included the construction of a new shipyard capable of building large hull ships, after which Moscow will build two (80,000 tons full load each) nuclear-powered aircraft carriers by 2027. The spokesperson said one carrier would be assigned to the Russian Navy's Northern Fleet at Murmansk, and the second would be stationed with their Pacific Fleet at Vladivostok.\n\n==== South Korea ====\nThe Republic of Korea Navy (South Korea) believes it can deploy two light aircraft carriers by 2036 and expand its blue-water force to cope with the rapid naval buildups of neighboring China and Japan, according to a Navy source.\n\n====Turkey====\n\nIn the Republic of Turkey, the Anadolu is an amphibious assault ship (LHD) being constructed for the Turkish Naval Forces which participate in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Construction began on 30 April 2016 at the shipyard of Sedef Shipbuilding, and is expected to be completed in 2021. The vessel is intended to meet the various needs and requirements of the Turkish Armed Forces, such as sustaining long-endurance, long-distance military combat or humanitarian relief operations; while acting as a command center and flagship for the Turkish Naval Forces.\n\n==== United Kingdom ====\n, the lead supercarrier.\n\nTwo STOVL aircraft carriers have been ordered for the British Royal Navy, is under construction and is undergoing sea trials before acceptance. They will be able to operate up to 40 aircraft in peacetime, with a tailored group of up to 50, and have a displacement of 70,600 tonnes. The ships are due to be commissioned in 2017 and 2020 respectively. Their primary aircraft complement will be made up of F-35B Lightning IIs, and their ship's company will number around 680, with the total complement rising to about 1,600 when the air group is embarked. Defensive weapons will include the Phalanx CIWS for anti-aircraft and anti-missile defence, 30 mm Automated Small Calibre Guns, and miniguns for use against fast attack craft. The two ships will be the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy.\n\n==== United States ====\nThe current United States Navy fleet of carriers will be followed into service (and in some cases replaced) by the projected ten-ship . The ''Ford''-class ships will be more automated in an effort to reduce the amount of funding required to staff, maintain, and operate its supercarriers. The main new features are implementation of Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) (which replace the old steam catapults) and unmanned aerial vehicles. With the deactivation of in December 2012, followed by decommissioning in February 2017, the U.S. fleet temporarily comprised only 10 active supercarriers, until the ''USS Gerald R. Ford'' was commissioned on 22 July 2017. On 24 July 2007, the U.S.House of Representatives Armed Services Seapower subcommittee recommended seven or eight new carriers (one every four years). However, the debate has deepened over budgeting for the $12–14.5 billion (plus $12 billion for research and development) for the 100,000 ton ''Gerald R. Ford''-class carrier compared to the smaller $2 billion 45,000 ton s able to deploy squadrons of new F-35B warplanes, of which one is already active, another is under construction, and nine more are planned.\n",
"\n===Structure===\nSTOVL Harriers preparing to takeoff from CATOBAR carrier, \n\nCarriers are large and long ships, although there is a high degree of variation depending on their intended role and aircraft complement. The size of the carrier has varied over history and among navies, to cater to the various roles that global climates have demanded from naval aviation.\n\nRegardless of size, the ship itself must house their complement of aircraft, with space for launching, storing, and maintaining them. Space is also required for the large crew, supplies (food, munitions, fuel, engineering parts), and propulsion. US supercarriers are notable for having nuclear reactors powering their systems and propulsion. This makes the carrier reasonably tall.\n\nThe top of the carrier is the flight deck, where aircraft are launched and recovered. On the starboard side of this is the island, where air-traffic control and the bridge are located.\n\nThe constraints of constructing a flight deck affect the role of a given carrier strongly, as they influence the weight, type, and configuration of the aircraft that may be launched. For example, assisted launch mechanisms are used primarily for heavy aircraft, especially those loaded with air-to-ground weapons. CATOBAR is most commonly used on USN supercarriers as it allows the deployment of heavy jets with full loadouts, especially on ground-attack missions. STOVL is used by other navies because it is cheaper to operate and still provides good deployment capability for fighter aircraft.\n\nThe first carrier landing and take-off of a jet aircraft: Eric \"Winkle\" Brown landing on in 1945.\nDue to the busy nature of the flight deck, only 20 or so aircraft may be on it at any one time. A hangar storage several decks below the flight deck is where most aircraft are kept, and aircraft are taken from the lower storage decks to the flight deck through the use of an elevator. The hangar is usually quite large and can take up several decks of vertical space.\n\nMunitions are commonly stored on the lower decks because they are highly explosive should the compartment they are in be breached. Usually this is below the water line so that the area can be flooded in case of emergency.\n\n===Flight deck===\n\nCatapult launches aboard .\nski-jump ramp used for STOBAR configuration\nAs \"runways at sea\", aircraft carriers have a flat-top flight deck, which launches and recovers aircraft. Aircraft launch forward, into the wind, and are recovered from astern. The flight deck is where the most notable differences between a carrier and a land runway are found. Creating such a surface at sea poses constraints on the carrier – for example, the fact that it is a ship means that a full-length runway would be costly to construct and maintain. This affects take-off procedure, as a shorter runway length of the deck requires that aircraft accelerate more quickly to gain lift. This either requires a thrust boost, a vertical component to its velocity, or a reduced take-off load (to lower mass). The differing types of deck configuration, as above, influence the structure of the flight deck. The form of launch assistance a carrier provides is strongly related to the types of aircraft embarked and the design of the carrier itself.\n\nThere are two main philosophies in order to keep the deck short: add thrust to the aircraft, such as using a Catapult Assisted Take-Off (CATO-); and changing the direction of the airplanes' thrust, as in Vertical and/or Short Take-Off (V/STO-). Each method has advantages and disadvantages of its own:\n*Catapult assisted take-off but arrested recovery (CATOBAR): A steam-powered catapult is connected to the aircraft, and is used to accelerate conventional aircraft to a safe flying speed. By the end of the catapult stroke, the aircraft is airborne and further propulsion is provided by its own engines. This is the most expensive method as it requires complex machinery to be installed under the flight deck, but allows for even heavily loaded aircraft to take off.\n*Short take-off but arrested recovery (STOBAR) depends on increasing the net lift on the aircraft. Aircraft do not require catapult assistance for take off; instead on nearly all ships of this type an upwards vector is provided by a ski-jump at the forward end of the flight deck, often combined with thrust vectoring by the aircraft. Alternatively, by reducing the fuel and weapon load, an aircraft is able to reach faster speeds and generate more upwards lift and launch without a ski-jump or catapult.\n*Short take-off vertical-landing (STOVL): On aircraft carriers, non-catapult-assisted, fixed-wing short takeoffs are accomplished with the use of thrust vectoring, which may also be used in conjunction with a runway \"ski-jump\". Use of STOVL tends to allow aircraft to carry a larger payload as compared to during VTOL use, while still only requiring a short runway. The most famous examples are the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and the Sea Harrier. Although technically VTOL aircraft, they are operationally STOVL aircraft due to the extra weight carried at take-off for fuel and armaments. The same is true of the F-35B Lightning II, which demonstrated VTOL capability in test flights but is operationally STOVL.\n*Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL): Aircraft are specifically designed for the purpose of using very high degrees of thrust vectoring (e.g. if the thrust to weight-force ratio is greater than 1, it can take off vertically), but are usually slower than conventionally propelled aircraft.\n\nOn the recovery side of the flight deck, the adaptation to the aircraft loadout is mirrored. Non-VTOL or conventional aircraft cannot decelerate on their own, and almost all carriers using them must have arrested-recovery systems (-BAR, e.g. CATO''BAR'' or STO''BAR'') to recover their aircraft. Aircraft that are landing extend a tailhook that catches on arrestor wires stretched across the deck to bring themselves to a stop in a short distance. Post-WWII Royal Navy research on safer CATOBAR recovery eventually led to universal adoption of a landing area angled off axis to allow aircraft who missed the arresting wires to \"bolt\" and safely return to flight for another landing attempt rather than crashing into aircraft on the forward deck.\n\nIf the aircraft are VTOL-capable or helicopters, they do not need to decelerate and hence there is no such need. The arrested-recovery system has used an angled deck since the 1950s because, in case the aircraft does not catch the arresting wire, the short deck allows easier take off by reducing the number of objects between the aircraft and the end of the runway. It also has the advantage of separating the recovery operation area from the launch area. Helicopters and aircraft capable of vertical or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) usually recover by coming abreast the carrier on the port side and then using their hover capability to move over the flight deck and land vertically without the need for arresting gear.\n\n====Staff and Deck Operations====\nF/A-18 landing video\n\nCarriers steam at speed, up to into the wind during flight deck operations to increase wind speed over the deck to a safe minimum. This increase in effective wind speed provides a higher launch airspeed for aircraft at the end of the catapult stroke or ski-jump, as well as making recovery safer by reducing the difference between the relative speeds of the aircraft and ship.\n\nSince the early 1950s on conventional carriers it has been the practice to recover aircraft at an angle to port of the axial line of the ship. The primary function of this angled deck is to allow aircraft that miss the arresting wires, referred to as a bolter, to become airborne again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked forward. The angled deck allows the installation of one or two \"waist\" catapults in addition to the two bow cats. An angled deck also improves launch and recovery cycle flexibility with the option of simultaneous launching and recovery of aircraft.\n\nConventional (\"tailhook\") aircraft rely upon a landing signal officer (LSO, radio call sign ''paddles'') to monitor the aircraft's approach, visually gauge glideslope, attitude, and airspeed, and transmit that data to the pilot. Before the angled deck emerged in the 1950s, LSOs used colored paddles to signal corrections to the pilot (hence the nickname). From the late 1950s onward, visual landing aids such as Optical Landing System have provided information on proper glide slope, but LSOs still transmit voice calls to approaching pilots by radio.\n\nF/A-18 Hornets on the flight deck of the \nKey personnel involved in the flight deck include the shooters, the handler, and the air boss. Shooters are naval aviators or Naval Flight Officers and are responsible for launching aircraft. The handler works just inside the island from the flight deck and is responsible for the movement of aircraft before launching and after recovery. The \"air boss\" (usually a commander) occupies the top bridge (Primary Flight Control, also called ''primary'' or ''the tower'') and has the overall responsibility for controlling launch, recovery and \"those aircraft in the air near the ship, and the movement of planes on the flight deck, which itself resembles a well-choreographed ballet.\" The captain of the ship spends most of his time one level below primary on the Navigation Bridge. Below this is the Flag Bridge, designated for the embarked admiral and his staff.\n\nTo facilitate working on the flight deck of a U.S. aircraft carrier, the sailors wear colored shirts that designate their responsibilities. There are at least seven different colors worn by flight deck personnel for modern United States Navy carrier air operations. Carrier operations of other nations use similar color schemes.\n\n====Deck structures====\nIsland control structure of \n\nThe superstructure of a carrier (such as the bridge, flight control tower) are concentrated in a relatively small area called an ''island'', a feature pioneered on the in 1923. While the island is usually built on the starboard side of the fight deck, the Japanese aircraft carriers and had their islands built on the port side. Very few carriers have been designed or built without an island. The ''flush deck'' configuration proved to have significant drawbacks, primary of which was management of the exhaust from the power plant. Fumes coming across the deck were a major issue in . In addition, lack of an island meant difficulties managing the flight deck, performing air traffic control, a lack of radar housing placements and problems with navigating and controlling the ship itself.\n\nAnother deck structure that can be seen is a ski-jump ramp at the forward end of the flight deck. This was first developed to help launch STOVL aircraft take off at far higher weights than is possible with a vertical or rolling takeoff on flat decks. Originally developed by the Royal Navy, it since has been adopted by many navies for smaller carriers. A ski-jump ramp works by converting some of the forward rolling movement of the aircraft into vertical velocity and is sometimes combined with the aiming of jet thrust partly downwards. This allows heavily loaded and fueled aircraft a few more precious seconds to attain sufficient air velocity and lift to sustain normal flight. Without a ski-jump launching fully loaded and fueled aircraft such as the Harrier would not be possible on a smaller flat deck ship before either stalling out or crashing directly into the sea.\n\nSki-jump on Royal Navy carrier \nAlthough STOVL aircraft are capable of taking off vertically from a spot on the deck, using the ramp and a running start is far more fuel efficient and permits a heavier launch weight. As catapults are unnecessary, carriers with this arrangement reduce weight, complexity, and space needed for complex steam or electromagnetic launching equipment, vertical landing aircraft also remove the need for arresting cables and related hardware. Russian, Chinese, and future Indian carriers include a ski-jump ramp for launching lightly loaded conventional fighter aircraft but recover using traditional carrier arresting cables and a tailhook on their aircraft.\n\nThe disadvantage of the ski-jump is the penalty it exacts on aircraft size, payload, and fuel load (and thus range); heavily laden aircraft can not launch using a ski-jump because their high loaded weight requires either a longer takeoff roll than is possible on a carrier deck, or assistance from a catapult or JATO rocket. For example, the Russian Su-33 is only able to launch from the carrier with a minimal armament and fuel load. Another disadvantage is on mixed flight deck operations where helicopters are also present such as a US Landing Helicopter Dock or Landing Helicopter Assault amphibious assault ship a ski jump is not included as this would eliminate one or more helicopter landing areas, this flat deck limits the loading of Harriers but is somewhat mitigated by the longer rolling start provided by a long flight deck compared to many STOVL carriers.\n",
"\n\nChart comparing a range of aircraft and helicopter carriers, in order of longest (top left) to shortest (bottom right)\n\nOnly the U.S. Navy has ever operated supercarriers and currently has eleven in service. The navies of China, France, India, and Russia each operate a single medium-sized fleet carrier. The US has nine similarly sized Amphibious Warfare Ships. There are three small light carriers in use capable of operating both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, Italy operates two, and Spain one.\n\nAdditionally there are fourteen small carriers which only operate helicopters serving the navies of Australia (2), Egypt (2), France (3), Japan (4), South Korea (1), Thailand (1), and the UK (1).\n\n===Australia===\n, a \n\n====Current====\nThe of landing helicopter docks, based on the Spanish vessel , is composed of two ships. The class was built by Navantia and BAE Systems Australia; and are the largest ship ever built for the Royal Australian Navy.\n\n''Canberra'' underwent sea trials in late 2013 and was commissioned in 2014. ''Canberra''s sister ship, , was commissioned in December 2015. The Australian version retains the ski-ramp from the ''Juan Carlos I'' design, although the RAN has not acquired carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft.\n\n===China===\n\n====Current====\nOne STOBAR carrier: was originally built as the 57,000 tonne Soviet carrier ''Varyag'' and was later purchased as a stripped hulk by China in 1998 on the pretext of use as a floating casino, then partially rebuilt and towed to China for completion. ''Liaoning'' was commissioned on 25 September 2012, and began service for testing and training. On 24 or 25 November 2012, ''Liaoning'' successfully launched and recovered several Shenyang J-15 jet fighter aircraft. She is classified as a training ship, intended to allow the navy to practice with carrier usage. On 26 December 2012, the People's Daily reported that it will take four to five years for ''Liaoning'' to reach full capacity, mainly due to training and coordination which will take significant amount of time for Chinese PLA Navy to complete as this is the first aircraft carrier in their possession. As it is a training ship, ''Liaoning'' is not assigned to any of China's operation fleets. A second carrier, Type 001A aircraft carrier, which is the first built domestically, was launched on 26 April 2017, reported to be armed and kitted out for service by 2020. Another carrier is claimed but not confirmed to be in construction, with state media citing experts on the need for at least six carriers in total.\n\n====Future====\nIn November 2016, Chinese officials admitted that another carrier, also known as Type 002 carrier is being constructed in the Shanghai Jiangnan Shipyard. It will be the first Chinese aircraft carrier to use catapult take off system.\n\n===Egypt===\nGamal Abdel Nasser'' LHD docked at Saint-Nazaire, April 2016\n\n====Current====\nEgypt signed a contract with French shipbuilder DCNS to buy two helicopter carriers for approximately 950 million euros. The two ships were originally destined for Russia, but the deal was canceled by France due to Russian involvement in Ukraine.\n\nOn 2 June 2016, Egypt received the first of two helicopter carriers acquired in October 2015, the Landing Helicopter Dock Gamal Abdel Nasser. The flag transfer ceremony took place in the presence of Egyptian and French Navies’ Chiefs of Staff, Chairman and Chief Executive Officers of both DCNS and STX France, and senior Egyptian and French officials. On 16 September 2016, DCNS delivered the second of two helicopter carriers, the Landing Helicopter Dock ''Anwar El Sadat'' which also participated in a joint exercise with the French Navy before arriving at its home port of Alexandria.\n\nEgypt is the first and only country in Africa and the Middle East to possess an aircraft carrier of such type.\n\n===France===\nThe aircraft carrier of the French Navy\n\n====Current====\n1 CATOBAR carrier: is a 42,000 tonne nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, commissioned in 2001 and is the flagship of the French Navy (Marine Nationale). The ship carries a complement of Dassault Rafale M and E‑2C Hawkeye aircraft, EC725 Caracal and AS532 Cougar helicopters for combat search and rescue, as well as modern electronics and Aster missiles. It is a CATOBAR-type carrier that uses two 75 m C13‑3 steam catapults of a shorter version of the catapult system installed on the U.S. carriers, one catapult at the bow and one across the front of the landing area.\n\n3 amphibious assault ships: , 21,500 tonne full deck amphibious assault ships with hospital and well deck.\n\n===India===\nIndian Navy's aircraft carriers and in 2014\n\n====Current====\n1 STOBAR carrier: , 45,400 tonnes, modified ''Kiev'' class. The carrier was purchased by India on 20 January 2004 after years of negotiations at a final price of $2.35 billion. The ship successfully completed her sea trials in July 2013 and aviation trials in September 2013. She was formally commissioned on 16 November 2013 at a ceremony held at Severodvinsk, Russia.\n\nRecently , previously known as the Royal Navy's , was retired from active service. India currently has one active aircraft carrier.\n\n====Future====\nIndia started the construction of a 40,000-tonne, aircraft carrier in 2009. The new carrier will operate MiG-29K and naval HAL Tejas aircraft along with the Indian-made helicopter HAL Dhruv. The ship will be powered by four gas-turbine engines and will have a range of , carrying 160 officers, 1,400 sailors, and 40 aircraft. The carrier is being constructed by Cochin Shipyard. The ship was launched in August 2013 and is scheduled for commissioning in 2018.\n\nA second ''Vikrant''-class carrier with a displacement of over 65,000 tons is planned and likely to be nuclear-powered with CATOBAR system to launch and recover heavier aircraft and unmanned combat aircraft. The project is in the design phase as of April 2015.\n\n===Italy===\nThe aircraft carrier of the Italian Navy\n\n====Current====\n2 STOVL carriers:\n* : 14,000 tonne Italian STOVL carrier, commissioned in 1985.\n* : 27,000 tonne Italian STOVL carrier designed and built with secondary amphibious assault facilities, commissioned in 2008.\n\n===Japan===\nHelicopter carrier ''Hyūga''\n\n====Current====\n4 helicopter carriers:\n* 2 s – 19,000 ton (full load) anti-submarine warfare carriers with enhanced command-and-control capabilities allowing them to serve as fleet flagships.\n* 2 – , 19,500-ton (27,000 tons full load) helicopter carrier, launched August 2013 and commissioned March 2015. This is the largest military ship Japan has had since World War II.''Izumo''s sister ship, ''Kaga'', was commissioned in 2017.\n\n===Russia===\n\n\n====Current====\n1 STOBAR carrier: ''Admiral Flota Sovetskovo Soyuza Kuznetsov'': 55,000 tonne STOBAR aircraft carrier. Launched in 1985 as ''Tbilisi'', renamed and operational from 1995. Without catapults she can launch and recover lightly fueled naval fighters for air defense or anti-ship missions but not heavy conventional bombing strikes. Officially designated an aircraft carrying cruiser, she is unique in carrying a heavy cruiser's complement of defensive weapons and large P-700 Granit offensive missiles. The P-700 systems will be removed in the coming refit to enlarge her below decks aviation facilities as well as upgrading her defensive systems.\n\n====Future====\nThe Russian Government just recently gave the green light for the construction of the Shtorm-class aircraft carrier. This carrier will be a hybrid of CATOBAR and STOBAR, given the fact that it utilizes both systems of launching aircraft. The carrier is expected to cost between $1.8 billion and $5.63 billion. Once commissioned, she will replace ''Admiral Kuznetsov''.\n\n===South Korea===\n, a of the Republic of Korea Navy.\n\n====Current====\nOne 18,860 ton full deck amphibious assault ship with hospital and well deck and facilities to serve as fleet flagship.\n\n====Future====\nSouth Korea believes it can procure 2 light aircraft carriers by 2036, which will help make the ROKN a blue water navy.\n\n===Spain===\n\n====Current====\n1 Landing helicopter dock used as a STOVL carrier: : 27,000 tonne, Specially designed multipurpose strategic projection ship which can operate as an amphibious assault ship or STOVL carrier depending on mission requirement, has full facilities for both functions including a ski jump ramp, well deck, and vehicle storage area which can be used as additional hangar space, launched in 2008, commissioned 30 September 2010.\n\n===Turkey===\n\n====Future====\nTCG Anadolu L-408 is a planned amphibious assault ship LHD of the Turkish Navy that can be configured as a light aircraft carrier. The construction works began on 30 April 2016 at the shipyard of Sedef Shipbuilding Inc. in Istanbul and is expected to be completed in 2021.\n\n===Thailand===\nThe aircraft carrier of the Royal Thai Navy.\n\n====Current====\nOne offshore helicopter support ship: helicopter carrier: 11,400 tonne STOVL carrier based on Spanish design. Commissioned in 1997. The AV-8S Matador/Harrier STOVL fighter wing, mostly inoperable by 1999, was retired from service without replacement in 2006. Ship now used for royal transport, helicopter operations, and as a disaster relief platform.\n\n===United Kingdom===\n\n====Current====\nOne amphibious assault ship: . A 21,750 ton full deck amphibious assault ship based on the Invincible-class aircraft carrier hull but without facilities for fixed wing aviation.\n\n====Future====\nThe Royal Navy is constructing two new larger STOVL aircraft carriers, the , to replace the three now retired carriers. The ships are and . They will be able to operate up to 40 aircraft on peace time operations with a tailored group of up to 50, and will have a displacement of 70,600 tonnes. HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'' is projected to commission in 2017 followed by ''Prince of Wales'' in about 2020. The ships are due to become operational starting in 2020. Their primary aircraft complement will be made up of F-35B Lightning IIs, and their ship's company will number around 680 with the total complement rising to about 1600 when the air group is embarked. The two ships will be the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy.\n\n===United States===\nAmphibious assault ship \n\n====Current====\n11 CATOBAR carriers: : ten 101,000-ton nuclear-powered supercarriers, the first of which was commissioned in 1975. A ''Nimitz''-class carrier is powered by two nuclear reactors providing steam to four steam turbines and is long. The decommissioned supercarrier is being held in inactive reserve, and the is the first of its class came into service in 2017.\n\nNine amphibious assault ships:\n* : a class of 45,000-ton amphibious assault ships, although the lead ship in this class does not have a well deck. One ship in service out of a planned 12 ships. Ships of this class can have a secondary mission as a light carrier with 20 AV-8B Harrier II, and in the future the F-35B Lightning II aircraft after unloading their Marine expeditionary unit.\n* : a class of eight 41,000-ton amphibious assault ships, members of this class have been used in wartime in their secondary mission as light carriers with 20 to 25 AV-8Bs after unloading their Marine expeditionary unit.\n\n====Future====\n, a \n\nThe current US fleet of ''Nimitz''-class carriers will be followed into service (and in some cases replaced) by the . It is expected that the ships will be more automated in an effort to reduce the amount of funding required to maintain and operate the vessels. The main new features are implementation of Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) (which replace the old steam catapults) and unmanned aerial vehicles.\n\nWith the deactivation of in December 2012, the U.S. fleet comprises 10 supercarriers. The House Armed Services Seapower subcommittee on 24 July 2007, recommended seven or eight new carriers (one every four years). However, the debate has deepened over budgeting for the $12–14.5 billion (plus $12 billion for development and research) for the 100,000 ton ''Gerald R. Ford''-class carrier (estimated service 2017) compared to the smaller $2 billion 45,000 ton s, which are able to deploy squadrons of F-35Bs. The first of this class, , is now in active service with another, , under construction and 9 more are planned.\n",
"\n===Current museum carriers===\nA few aircraft carriers have been preserved as museum ships. They are:\n\n* in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina\n* in New York City, New York\n* in Alameda, California\n* in Corpus Christi, Texas\n* in San Diego, California.\n* , formerly will be preserved in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh \n* in Tianjin, China\n* in Nantong, China\n\n===Future museum carriers===\n* has a preservation campaign to bring her to Long Beach, California. ''Kitty Hawk'' is to be kept in reserve until is commissioned in 2022. \n* has a preservation campaign to bring her to Newport, Rhode Island. At the moment, they are just waiting for the US Navy's final approval. \n* has a preservation campaign to bring her to the West Coast of the United States as the world's first amphibious assault ship museum.\n\n===Former museum carriers===\n* was slated for preservation in New Orleans, Louisiana. Throughout most of the 1990s she was docked in New Orleans waiting for the preservation society to finalize a permanent berth. During this time she was designated a national historic landmark by the US Government. However, the preservation society was unable to pay creditors and an embezzlement scandal also rocked the society, stripping the group of its funds. As a result, her landmark status was withdrawn and she was sold for scrap in 1999. \n* was on display in Mumbai, India, from 1997 to 2012. She sold for scrap after her condition deteriorated and failing to find an industrial partner.\n",
"\n\n*Airborne aircraft carrier\n*Carrier-based aircraft\n*Lily and Clover\n*Merchant aircraft carrier\n*Mobile offshore base\n*Project Habakkuk\n*Seadrome\n*Submarine aircraft carrier\n*Timeline for aircraft carrier service\n*Unsinkable aircraft carrier\n\n\n===Related lists===\n\n* List of aircraft carriers\n* List of aircraft carriers by country \n* List of aircraft carriers in service\n* List of aircraft carriers by configuration\n* List of sunken aircraft carriers\n* List of Canadian aircraft carriers\n* List of aircraft carriers of the People's Liberation Army Navy \n* List of current French aircraft carriers\n* List of German aircraft carriers\n* List of aircraft carriers of the Indian Navy\n* List of Italian aircraft carriers\n* List of aircraft carriers of the Japanese Navy\n* List of aircraft carriers of Russia and the Soviet Union\n* List of active Spanish aircraft carriers\n* List of aircraft carriers of the Royal Navy\n* List of seaplane carriers of the Royal Navy\n* List of escort aircraft carriers of the Royal Navy\n* List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy\n* List of aircraft carrier classes of the United States Navy\n* List of escort aircraft carriers of the United States Navy\n* List of amphibious warfare ships\n* List of carrier-based aircraft\n* Number of warships in service worldwide\n* List of ships of the Second World War\n* List of aircraft carriers of the Second World War\n\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* Ader, Clement. ''Military Aviation'', 1909, Edited and translated by Lee Kennett, Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, 2003, .\n* Francillon, René J, ''Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club US Carrier Operations off Vietnam'', (1988) .\n* Friedman, Norman, ''U.S. Aircraft Carriers: an Illustrated Design History'', Naval Institute Press, 1983. .\n* Hone, Thomas C., Norman Friedman, and Mark D. Mandeles. \"Innovation in Carrier Aviation,\" ''Naval War College Newport Papers'' (no. 37, 2011), 1–171.\n* Melhorn, Charles M. ''Two-Block Fox: The Rise of the Aircraft Carrier, 1911–1929'' (Naval Institute Press, 1974)\n* Nordeen, Lon, ''Air Warfare in the Missile Age'', (1985) \n* \n* \n* Till, Geoffrey. \"Adopting the Aircraft Carrier: The British, Japanese, and American Case Studies\" in Murray, Williamson; Millet, Allan R, eds. (1996). ''Military Innovation in the Interwar Period''. Cambridge University Press.\n* Trimble, William F. ''Admiral William A. Moffett: Architect of Naval Aviation'' (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994)\n* Wadle, Ryan David. ''United States navy fleet problems and the development of carrier aviation, 1929–1933'' PhD dissertation Texas A&M University, 2005. online\n\n",
"\n* Future Aircraft Carrier: UK. Armed Forces International\n* Aircraft carriers of the USN\n* Info about flight deck crew, arresting cables, catapults\n* How Stuff Works—Aircraft Carriers\n* Haze Gray & Underway, World Aircraft Carrier Lists comprehensive and detailed listings of all the world's aircraft carriers and seaplane tenders from 1913 to 2001, with photo gallery.\n* ''Ships That Mother Seaplanes: craft of the \"hush-hush\" fleet may play a part in first trans-Atlantic flight''. Popular Science monthly, February 1919, page 80, on Google Books.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Types of carrier",
"History",
"Description",
"National fleets",
"Aircraft carriers in preservation",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Aircraft carrier |
[
"\nThe '''Apicomplexa''' (also called '''Apicomplexia''') are a large phylum of parasitic alveolates. Most of them possess a unique form of organelle that comprises a type of plastid called an apicoplast, and an apical complex structure. The organelle is an adaptation that the apicomplexan applies in penetration of a host cell.\n\nThe Apicomplexa are unicellular and spore-forming. All species are obligate endoparasites of animals, except ''Nephromyces'', a symbiont in marine animals, originally classified as a chytrid fungus. Motile structures such as flagella or pseudopods are present only in certain gamete stages.\n\nThe Apicomplexa are a diverse group that includes organisms such as the coccidia, gregarines, piroplasms, haemogregarines, and plasmodia. \nDiseases caused by Apicomplexa include:\n* Babesiosis (''Babesia'')\n* Malaria (''Plasmodium'')\n* Cryptosporidiosis (''Cryptosporidium parvum'')\n* Cyclosporiasis (''Cyclospora cayetanensis'')\n* Isosporiasis (''Isospora belli'')\n* Toxoplasmosis (''Toxoplasma gondii'')\n\nThe name of the taxon Apicomplexa derives from two Latin words — ''apex'' (top) and ''complexus'' (infolds) — and refers to a set of organelles in the sporozoite. The Apicomplexa comprise the bulk of what used to be called the Sporozoa, a group of parasitic protozoans, in general without flagella, cilia, or pseudopods. Most of the Apicomplexa are motile, however, by use of a gliding mechanism\nthat uses adhesions and small static myosin motors. The other main lines were the Ascetosporea (now in Rhizaria), the Myxozoa (now known to be highly derived cnidarian animals), and the Microsporidia (now known to be derived from fungi). Sometimes, the name Sporozoa is taken as a synonym for the Apicomplexa, or occasionally as a subset.\n",
"\nSome cell types: ookinete, sporozoite, merozoite\nAll members of this phylum have an infectious stage—the sporozoite—which possesses three distinct structures in an apical complex. The apical complex consists of a set of spirally arranged microtubules (the conoid), a secretory body (the rhoptry) and one or more polar rings. Additional slender electron-dense secretory bodies (micronemes) surrounded by one or two polar rings may also be present. This structure gives the phylum its name.\n\nA further group of spherical organelles is distributed throughout the cell rather than being localized at the apical complex and are known as the dense granules. These typically have a mean diameter around 0.7 μm. Secretion of the dense-granule content takes place after parasite invasion and localization within the parasitophorous vacuole and persists for several minutes.\n\nOther morphological findings common to all members of this phylum include:\n*The nucleus is haploid.\n*Flagella are found only in the motile gamete. These are posteriorly directed and vary in number (usually one to three).\n*Basal bodies are present. Although hemosporidians and piroplasmids have normal triplets of microtubules in their basal bodies, coccidians and gregarines have nine singlets. \n*The mitochondria have tubular cristae.\n*A Golgi apparatus is present.\n*Centrioles, chloroplasts, ejectile organelles, and inclusions are absent.\n*Colourless plastids are present in some species.\n*The cell is surrounded by a pellicle of three membrane layers (the alveolar structure) penetrated by micropores.\n\nReplication:\n*Mitosis is usually closed, with an intranuclear spindle; in some species, it is open at the poles.\n*Cell division is usually by schizogony.\n*Meiosis occurs in the zygote.\n\nMobility:\n\nApicomplexans have a unique gliding capability which enables them to cross through tissues and enter and leave their host cells. This gliding ability is made possible by the use of adhesions and small static myosin motors.\n\nOther features common to this phylum are a lack of cilia, sexual reproduction, use of micropores for feeding, and the production of oocysts containing sporozoites as the infective form.\n\nMost apicomplexans have an apicoplast, (a nonphotosynthetic plastid) and mitochondrial and nuclear genomes, although ''Cryptosporidium'' species and gregarines are possible exceptions, as they are thought to have lost their plastids after the diverging last common ancestor of apicomplexans.\n",
"Within this phylum are three groups—coccidians, gregarines, and haemosporidians. The coccidians and gregarines appear to be relatively closely related.\n\n''Perkinsus '', while once considered a member of the Apicomplexa, has been moved to a new phylum —Perkinsozoa.\n\n===Gregarines===\nTrophozoite of a gregarine\n\nThe gregarines are generally parasites of annelids, arthropods, and mollusks. They are often found in the guts of their hosts, but may invade the other tissues. In the typical gregarine lifecycle, a trophozoite develops within a host cell into a schizont. This then divides into a number of merozoites by schizogony. The merozoites are released by lysing the host cell, which in turn invade other cells. At some point in the apicomplexan lifecycle, gametocytes are formed. These are released by lysis of the host cells, which group together. Each gametocyte forms multiple gametes. The gametes fuse with another to form oocysts. The oocysts leave the host to be taken up by a new host.\n\n===Coccidians===\nDividing ''Toxoplasma gondii'' (Coccidia) parasites\n\nIn general, coccidians are parasites of vertebrates. Like gregarines, they are commonly parasites of the epithelial cells of the gut, but may infect other tissues.\n\nThe coccidian lifecycle involves merogony, gametogony, and sporogony. While similar to that of the gregarines it differs in zygote formation. Some trophozoites enlarge and become macrogamete, whereas others divide repeatedly to form microgametes (anisogamy). The microgametes are motile and must reach the macrogamete to fertilize it. The fertilized macrogamete forms a zygote that in its turn forms an oocyst that is normally released from the body. Syzygy, when it occurs, involves markedly anisogamous gametes. The lifecycle is typically haploid, with the only diploid stage occurring in the zygote, which is normally short-lived.\n\nThe main difference between the coccidians and the gregarines is in the gamonts. In the coccidia, these are small, intracellular, and without epimerites or mucrons. In the gregarines, these are large, extracellular, and possess epimerites or mucrons. A second difference between the coccidia and the gregarines also lies in the gamonts. In the coccidians, a single gamont becomes a macrogametocyte, whereas in the gregarines, the gamonts give rise to multiple gametocytes.\n\n===Haemosporidia===\nTrophozoites of the ''Plasmodium vivax'' (Haemosporidia) parasite among human red blood cells\n\nThe Haemosporidia have more complex lifecycles that alternate between an arthropod and a vertebrate host. The trophozoite parasitises erythrocytes or other tissues in the vertebrate host. Microgametes and macrogametes are always found in the blood. The gametes are taken up by the insect vector during a blood meal. The microgametes migrate within the gut of the insect vector and fuse with the macrogametes. The fertilized macrogamete now becomes an ookinete, which penetrates the body of the vector. The ookinete then transforms into an oocyst and divides initially by meiosis and then by mitosis (haplontic lifecycle) to give rise to the sporozoites. The sporozoites escape from the oocyst and migrate within the body of the vector to the salivary glands where they are injected into the new vertebrate host when the insect vector feeds again.\n",
"\n\n\nMost members have a complex lifecycle, involving both asexual and sexual reproduction. Typically, a host is infected via an active invasion by the parasites (similar to entosis), which divide to produce sporozoites that enter its cells. Eventually, the cells burst, releasing merozoites, which infect new cells. This may occur several times, until gamonts are produced, forming gametes that fuse to create new cysts. Many variations occur on this basic pattern, however, and many Apicomplexa have more than one host.\n\nThe apical complex includes vesicles called rhoptries and micronemes, which open at the anterior of the cell. These secrete enzymes that allow the parasite to enter other cells. The tip is surrounded by a band of microtubules, called the polar ring, and among the Conoidasida is also a funnel of tubulin proteins called the conoid. Over the rest of the cell, except for a diminished mouth called the micropore, the membrane is supported by vesicles called alveoli, forming a semirigid pellicle.\n\nThe presence of alveoli and other traits place the Apicomplexa among a group called the alveolates. Several related flagellates, such as ''Perkinsus'' and ''Colpodella'', have structures similar to the polar ring and were formerly included here, but most appear to be closer relatives of the dinoflagellates. They are probably similar to the common ancestor of the two groups.\n\nAnother similarity is that many apicomplexan cells contain a single plastid, called the apicoplast, surrounded by either three or four membranes. Its functions are thought to include tasks such as lipid and heme biosynthesis, and it appears to be necessary for survival. In general, plastids are considered to have a common origin with the chloroplasts of dinoflagellates, and evidence points to an origin from red algae rather than green.\n",
"Two tachyzoites of ''Toxoplasma gondii'', transmission electron microscopy\nMany of the apicomplexan parasites are important pathogens of human and domestic animals. In contrast to bacterial pathogens, these apicomplexan parasites are eukaryotic and share many metabolic pathways with their animal hosts. This makes therapeutic target development extremely difficult – a drug that harms an apicomplexan parasite is also likely to harm its human host. At present, no effective vaccines are available for most diseases caused by these parasites. Biomedical research on these parasites is challenging because it is often difficult, if not impossible, to maintain live parasite cultures in the laboratory and to genetically manipulate these organisms. In recent years, several of the apicomplexan species have been selected for genome sequencing. The availability of genome sequences provides a new opportunity for scientists to learn more about the evolution and biochemical capacity of these parasites. The predominant source of this genomic information is the EuPathDB family of websites, which currently provides specialised services for ''Plasmodium'' species (PlasmoDB), coccidians (ToxoDB), piroplasms (PiroplasmaDB), and ''Cryptosporidium'' species (CryptoDB). One possible target for drugs is the plastid, and in fact existing drugs such as tetracyclines, which are effective against apicomplexans, seem to operate against the plastid.\n\n=== Blood-borne genera ===\n\n\nWithin the Apicomplexa are three suborders of parasites: \n* suborder Adeleorina—eight genera\n* suborder Haemosporina—all genera in this suborder\n* suborder Eimeriorina—two genera (''Lankesterella'' and ''Schellackia'')\n\nWithin the Adelorina are species that infect invertebrates and others that infect vertebrates. The Eimeriorina—the largest suborder in this phylum—the lifecycle involves both sexual and asexual stages. The asexual stages reproduce by schizogony. The male gametocyte produces a large number of gametes and the zygote gives rise to an oocyst, which is the infective stage. The majority are monoxenous (infect one host only), but a few are heteroxenous (lifecycle involves two or more hosts).\n\nThe number of families in this later suborder is debated, with the number of families being between one and 20 depending on the authority and the number of genera being between 19 and 25.\n",
"\nAll members of this phylum are parasitic and evolved from a free-living ancestor. This lifestyle is presumed to have evolved at the time of the divergence of dinoflagellates and apicomplexans. Further evolution of this phylum has been estimated to have occurred about . The oldest extant clade is thought to be the archigregarines.\n\nMany Coccidiomorpha have an intermediate host, as well as a primary host, and the evolution of hosts proceeded in different ways and at different times in these groups. For some coccidiomorphs, the original host has become the intermediate host, whereas in others it has become the definitive host. In the genera ''Aggregata'', ''Atoxoplasma'', ''Cystoisospora'', ''Schellackia'', and ''Toxoplasma'', the original is now definitive, whereas in ''Akiba'', ''Babesiosoma'', ''Babesia'', ''Haemogregarina'', ''Haemoproteus'', ''Hepatozoon'', ''Karyolysus'', ''Leucocytozoon'', ''Plasmodium'', ''Sarcocystis'', and ''Theileria'', the original hosts are now intermediate.\n\nSimilar strategies to increase the likelihood of transmission have evolved in multiple genera. Polyenergid oocysts and tissue cysts are found in representatives of the orders Protococcidiorida and Eimeriida. Hypnozoites are found in ''Karyolysus lacerate'' and most species of ''Plasmodium''; transovarial transmission of parasites occurs in lifecycles of ''Karyolysus'' and ''Babesia''.\n\nHorizontal gene transfer appears to have occurred early on in this phylum's evolution with the transfer of a histone H4 lysine 20 (H4K20) modifier, KMT5A (Set8), from an animal host to the ancestor of apicomplexans. A second gene—H3K36 methyltransferase (Ashr3 in plants)—may have also be horizontally transferred.\n\n===Phylogenetic relations===\n\nThis has rarely been studied at the subclass level. The Haemosporidia are related to the gregarines and the piroplasms and coccidians are sister groups. The Haemosporidia and the Piroplasma appear to be sister clades and are more closely related to the coccidians than to the gregarines.\n\nTransposons appear to be rare in this phylum, but have been identified in the genera ''Ascogregarina'' and ''Eimeria''.\n",
"\n\n===History===\nThe first Apicomplexa protozoan was seen by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 saw probably oocysts of ''Eimeria stiedae'' in the gall bladder of a rabbit. The first species of the phylum to be described, ''Gregarina ovata'' in earwigs intestines, was named by Dufour in 1828. He thought that they were a peculiar group related to the trematodes, at that time included in Vermes. Since then, many more have been identified and named. During 1826–1850, 41 species and six genera of Apicomplexa were named. In 1951–1975, 1873 new species and 83 new genera were added.\n\nThe older taxon Sporozoa, included in Protozoa, was created by Leuckart in 1879 and adopted by Bütschli in 1880. Through history, it grouped with the current Apicomplexa many unrelated groups. For example, Kudo (1954) included in the Sporozoa species of the Ascetosporea (Rhizaria), Microsporidia (Fungi), Myxozoa (Animalia), and ''Helicosporidium'' (Chlorophyta), while Zierdt (1978) included the genus ''Blastocystis'' (Stramenopiles). Some opisthokonts (e.g., ''Dermocystidium'') were also thought to be sporozoan. Not all of these groups had spores, but all were parasitic. However, other parasitic or symbiotic unicellular organisms were included too in protozoan groups outside Sporozoa (Flagellata, Ciliophora and Sarcodina), if they had flagella (e.g., many Kinetoplastida, Retortamonadida, Diplomonadida, Trichomonadida, Hypermastigida), cilia (e.g., ''Balantidium'') or pseudopods (e.g., ''Entamoeba, Acanthamoeba, Naegleria''). If they had cell walls, they also could be included in plant kingdom between bacteria or yeasts.\n\nSporozoa is no longer regarded as biologically valid and its use is discouraged, although some authors still use it as a synonym for the Apicomplexa. More recently, other groups were excluded from Apicomplexa, e.g., ''Perkinsus'' and ''Colpodella'' (now in Protalveolata).\n\nThe field of classifying Apicomplexa is in flux and classification has changed throughout the years since it was formally named in 1970.\n\nBy 1987, a comprehensive survey of the phylum was completed: in all, 4516 species and 339 genera had been named. They consisted of:\n* Class Conoidasida\n** Subclass Gregarinasina ''p.p.''\n*** Order Eugregarinorida, with 1624 named species and 231 named genera\n** Subclass Coccidiasina ''p.p''\n*** Order Eucoccidiorida ''p.p''\n**** Suborder Adeleorina ''p.p''\n***** Group Hemogregarines, with 399 species and four genera\n**** Suborder Eimeriorina, with 1771 species and 43 genera\n* Class Aconoidasida\n** Order Haemospororida, with 444 species and nine genera\n** Order Piroplasmorida, with 173 species and 20 genera\n* Other minor groups omitted above, with 105 species and 32 genera\n\nAlthough considerable revision of this phylum has been done (the order Haemosporidia now has 17 genera rather than 9), these numbers seems likely to be still approximately correct.\n\n===Jacques Euzéby (1988)===\nJacques Euzéby in 1988 created a new class Haemosporidiasina by merging subclass Piroplasmasina and suborder Haemospororina.\n*Subclass Gregarinasina (the gregarines)\n*Subclass Coccidiasina\n** Suborder Adeleorina (the adeleorins)\n** Suborder Eimeriorina (the eimeriorins)\n*Subclass Haemosporidiasina\n** Order Achromatorida\n** Order Chromatorida\n\nThe division into Achromatorida and Chromatorida, although proposed on morphological grounds, may have a biological basis, as the ability to store haemozoin appears to have evolved only once.\n\n===Roberts and Janovy (1996)===\nRoberts and Janovy in 1996 divided the phylum into the following subclasses and suborders (omitting classes and orders):\n*Subclass Gregarinasina (the gregarines)\n*Subclass Coccidiasina\n** Suborder Adeleorina (the adeleorins)\n** Suborder Eimeriorina (the eimeriorins)\n** Suborder Haemospororina (the haemospororins)\n*Subclass Piroplasmasina (the piroplasms)\nThese form the following five taxonomic groups:\n# The gregarines are, in general, one-host parasites of invertebrates.\n# The adeleorins are one-host parasites of invertebrates or vertebrates, or two-host parasites that alternately infect haematophagous (blood-feeding) invertebrates and the blood of vertebrates.\n# The eimeriorins are a diverse group that includes one host species of invertebrates, two-host species of invertebrates, one-host species of vertebrates and two-host species of vertebrates. The eimeriorins are frequently called the coccidia. This term is often used to include the adeleorins.\n# Haemospororins, often known as the malaria parasites, are two-host Apicomplexa that parasitize blood-feeding dipteran flies and the blood of various tetrapod vertebrates.\n# Piroplasms where all the species included are two-host parasites infecting ticks and vertebrates.\n\n===Perkins (2000)===\n300px\nThis scheme is taken from Perkins et al. It is outdated as the Perkinsidae have since been recognised as a sister group to the dinoflagellates rather that the Apicomplexia. The remainder of the scheme appears to be valid: \n*Class Aconoidasida\n*:''Conoid present only in the ookinete of some species''\n::*Order Haemospororida\n:::''Macrogamete and microgamete develop separately. Syzygy does not occur. Ookinete has a conoid. Sporozoites have three walls. Heteroxenous: alternates between vertebrate host (in which merogony occurs) and invertebrate host (in which sporogony occurs). Usually blood parasites, transmitted by blood-sucking insects.''\n::*Order Piroplasmorida\n*Class Conoidasida\n**Subclass Gregarinasina\n***Order Archigregarinorida\n***Order Eugregarinorida\n****Suborder Adeleorina\n****Suborder Eimeriorina\n***Order Neogregarinorida\n**Subclass Coccidiasina\n***Order Agamococcidiorida\n***Order Eucoccidiorida\n***Order Ixorheorida\n***Order Protococcidiorida\n*Class Perkinsasida\n::*Order Perkinsorida\n:::*Family Perkinsidae\n\nThe name Protospiromonadida has been proposed for the common ancestor of the Gregarinomorpha and Coccidiomorpha.\n",
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] | [
"Introduction",
"General features",
"General features of the subgroups",
"Reproduction and lifecycle",
"Parasitology and genomics",
" Evolution ",
"Taxonomy",
" References ",
"External links"
] | Apicomplexa |
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"\n\n\nTypical Argentine Asado (grill).\n'''Argentine cuisine''' is described as a cultural blending of Mediterranean influences (such as those created by Italian and Spanish populations) with and very small inflows (mainly in border areas), Indigenous, within the wide scope of agricultural products that are abundant in the country. Argentine annual consumption of beef has averaged 100 kg (220 lbs) per capita, approaching 180 kg (396 lbs) per capita during the 19th century; consumption averaged 67.7 kg (149 lbs) in 2007. Beyond ''asado'' (the Argentine barbecue), no other dish more genuinely matches the national identity. Nevertheless, the country's vast area, and its cultural diversity, have led to a local cuisine of various dishes. The great immigratory waves consequently imprinted a large influence in the Argentine cuisine, after all Argentina was the second country in the world with the most immigrants with 6.6 million, only second to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of other immigratory receptor countries such as Canada, Brazil, Australia, etc.\n\nArgentine people have a reputation for their love of eating. Social gatherings are commonly centered on sharing a meal. Invitations to have dinner at home is generally viewed as a symbol of friendship, warmth, and integration. Sunday family lunch is considered the most significant meal of the week, whose highlights often include asado or pasta.\n\nAnother feature of Argentine cuisine is the preparation of homemade food such as french fries, patties, and pasta to celebrate a special occasion, to meet friends, or to honor someone. The tradition of locally preparing food is passed down from generation to generation, and homemade food is also seen as a way to show affection.\n\nArgentine restaurants include a great variety of cuisines, prices, and flavors. Large cities tend to host everything from high-end international cuisine, to ''bodegones'' (inexpensive traditional hidden taverns), less stylish restaurants, and bars and canteens offering a range of dishes at affordable prices.\n",
"\nNative Americans lived in Argentina thousands of years before the European explorers arrived. Members of an Indian tribe in the southern part of Argentina were farmers who grew squash, melons, and sweet potatoes. Spanish settlers came to Argentina in 1536. Between 1853 and 1955, 6.6 million immigrants came to live in Argentina from diverse sources such as Europe, the Near and Middle East, Russia and Japan, contributing to the development of Argentine cuisine and making Argentina the second country with most immigrants only second to the United States. Most of the immigrants were from Italy and Spain. The Italians introduced pizza, as well as a variety of pasta dishes, including spaghetti and lasagna. British, German, Jewish, and other immigrants also settled in Argentina, all bringing their styles of cooking and favorite foods with them. The British brought tea, starting the tradition of teatime. All of these cultures influenced the dishes of Argentina.\n",
"Dulce de leche, a popular national spread used to fill cakes and pancakes, eaten over toast, and as an ice cream flavor.\nBoxed Empanadas.\n\nMost regions of Argentina are known for their beef-oriented diet. In Argentina the Spanish term,\"''Carne''\", which means meat, is assumed to be beef in Argentina. In other Spanish-speaking countries—such as Spain—the term is usually qualified with the type of animal, such as \"''carne de vaca''\" (beef), \"''carne de cordero''\" (lamb), etc.\n\nGrilled meat from the ''asado'' (barbecue) is a staple, with steak and beef ribs especially common. The term asado itself refers to long strips of flank-cut beef ribs. Popular items such as ''Chorizo'' (pork sausage), ''morcilla'' (blood sausage), ''chinchulines'' (chitterlings), ''mollejas'' (sweetbread), and other parts of the animal are also enjoyed. In Patagonia, however, lamb and chivito (goat) are eaten more frequently than beef. Whole lambs and goats are traditionally cooked over an open fire in a technique known as asado a la estaca.\n\nThe most common condiment for asado is ''Chimichurri'', a sauce of herbs, garlic and vinegar. Unlike other preparations, Argentines do not include chili in their version of chimichurri.\n\nBreaded and fried meats — ''milanesas'' — are used as snacks, in sandwiches, or eaten warm with mashed potatoes — ''purée''. ''Empanadas'' — small pastries of meat, cheese, sweet corn, and a hundred other fillings — are a common sight at parties and picnics, or as starters to a meal. A variation, the \"empanada gallega\" (Galician empanada), is a big, round meat pie made most commonly with tuna and mackerel (\"''caballa''\" in Spanish). Vegetables and salads are also eaten by Argentines; tomatoes, onions, lettuce, eggplants, squashes, and zucchini are common side dishes.\n\nItalian staples, such as pizza and pasta, are eaten as commonly as beef. ''Fideos'' (noodles), ''tallarines'' (''fettucine'' and ''tagliatelle''), ''ñoquis'' (gnocchi), ''ravioles'', and ''canelones'' (cannelloni) can be bought freshly made in many establishments in the larger cities. Italian-style ice cream is served in large parlours and even drive-through businesses.\n\nIn Chubut, the Welsh community is known for its teahouses, offering scones and ''torta galesa'', which is rather like ''torta negra''.\n\n''Sandwiches de miga'' are delicate sandwiches made with crustless buttered white bread, very thinly sliced cured meat, cheese, and lettuce. They are often purchased from entrepreneurial home cooks and may be eaten for a light evening meal.\n\nA sweet paste, ''dulce de leche'' is another treasured national food, used to fill cakes and pancakes, spread over toasted bread for breakfast, or served with ice cream. ''Alfajores'' are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with chocolate and ''dulce de leche'' or a fruit paste. The \"policeman's\" or \"truck driver's\" sweet is cheese with quince paste or ''dulce de membrillo''. ''Dulce de batata'' is made of sweet potato/yam: this with cheese is the ''Martín Fierro'''s sweet. Apples, pears, peaches, kiwifruits, avocados, and plums are major exports.\n\nA traditional drink of Argentina is an infusion called mate (in Spanish, ''mate'', with the accent on the first syllable MAH-teh). The name comes from the hollow gourd from which it is traditionally drunk. The mate (gourd) or other small cup is filled about three-quarters full with ''yerba mate'', the dried leaves and twigs of the ''Ilex paraguariensis''. The drink, which is rather bitter, is sipped through a metal or cane straw called a ''bombilla''. Mate can be sweetened with sugar, or flavored with aromatic herbs or dried orange peel. Hot but not boiling water is poured into the gourd, drunk, then the mate is refilled. The mate is nearly full of leaves, so each refill only makes a small drink, but many refills are possible before the yerba is spent. In small gatherings it is traditional for one ''mate'' to be passed from person to person, filled by whoever has the kettle. It is customary not to thank the refiller routinely; a final ''gracias'' (thank you) implies that the drinker has had enough. Drinking mate together is an important social ritual. ''Mate cocido'' is the same leaf, which rather than brewed is boiled and served, like tea, with milk and sugar to taste.\n\nOther typical drinks include wine (sometimes with soda water added); tea and coffee are equally important. Quilmes is the national brand of pale lager, named after the town of Quilmes, Buenos Aires, where it was first produced.\n",
"''Argentine Cuisine'' is heavily based on the growth of all kinds of cereals, grains, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables, since Argentina is a significantly large livestock and agricultural country. In the Mesopotamia waters river fish such as silverside, surubi, dorado or boga clearly stand out.\n\nMeat products have been dominant in the country since the 16th century. The country is regarded as a major beef, pork and poultry producing and consuming country. As a matter of fact, certain areas such as those located in the south are usually engaged in activities involving sheep and lamb breeding, and shellfish, crustaceans, molluscs and salmonides fishing.\n\nThe vast breeding activity involving any type of cattle has given rise to a very developed dairy industry that includes products like cow, sheep and camelide, cheese, dulce de leche and yogurts. Argentina can also be conceived as a great industry engaged in the production of dried fruits, olives, all types of oils and spices.\n\nWhen it comes to blending ingredients and readapating other latitude cuisines traditions, the almost unlimited source of raw materials above enables the existence of a great product versatility.\n",
"Argentine cuisine is heavily influenced by its European roots and has regional variations. ''Asado'', ''dulce de leche'', ''empanadas'', and ''yerba mate'' are found throughout Argentina. In many parts of the country, food is prepared differently and different kinds of foods are made; this includes to a smaller degree food from pre-Columbian times, as in the Northwest.\n\n=== Central region and la Pampa ===\nSliced pizza served over ''fainá'', a common combination.\nArgentine Puchero\nFor long periods, urban areas such as Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba welcomed European immigrants, including, above all, those of Italian and Spanish descent. Nevertheless, there was also a migratory flow of German, Swiss, and Middle-Eastern immigrants arriving in Argentina. Among the countless changes this melting pot brought was the enrichment of the culinary art. Dishes such as pasta, pizza, pucheros (stews), croquetas (fritter)s, sauces, embutidos (sausages), and chicken and meat courses brought a wider scope of options to daily menus. Furthermore, the bread-making, dessert, pastry, and dairy industries have achieved considerable development in this region.\n\nThe above-mentioned dishes have developed a distinctively Argentine nuance. That is why, for example, Argentine pasta includes a wide variety of dishes ranging from spaghetti, fusiles (fusilli), ñoquis (gnocchi), ravioli, cintas (pasta ribbons), and lasagne to the Argentine-made sorrentinos, agnolottis (agnolotti), canelones (cannelloni), and fetuchines (fetuchini).\n\nPizza—made with very thin, and sometimes thick, high-rising doughs, with or without cheese, cooked in the oven or ''a la piedra'' (on a stone oven), and stuffed with numerous ingredients -— is a dish which can be found in nearly every corner of the country. Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba also serve it with fainá, which is a chick pea-flour dough placed over the piece of pizza. People say that what makes the Argentine pizza unique is the blending of Italian and Spanish cultures. At the turn of the 19th century, immigrants from Naples and Genoa opened the first pizza bars, though Spanish residents subsequently owned most of the pizza businesses.\n\nArgentine pastry, including ''Rogel'' (a cake of layers of hojaldre covered with meringue), dulce de leche, and regional variants of Alfajores (from Mar del Plata, Córdoba, Tucumán, among others).\n\nBread products are consumed all around the country. The deeply rooted bread, pastry, and dessert-making tradition derives from blending the above nationalities' products. Bakeries sell not only a wide scope of breads, cookies, and cakes, but also pastries. The latter resembles a sort of roll pastry whose main dough ingredient is either butter or fat and which may be simple or stuffed with dulce de leche, milk, jam, crema pastelera, or quince or apple jelly, among other fillings. The most popular type of pastry is said to be that of ''medialunas'', based upon French croissants. Furthermore, sandwiches de miga are another type of bread products; they are made only with thin layers of white bread (generally referred to as crustless bread) and stuffed with food items ranging from ham and cheese to other more sophisticated combinations such as raw ham, tomatoes, olives, hard boiled eggs, tuna, lettuce, red pepper, and the like.\n\nDesserts and sweets are usually stuffed or covered with dulce de leche. The latter can be eaten alone or on top of cakes, alfajores, panqueques (creppes), and pastries, or as a topping spread over flan. Chantilly cream is widely consumed and used in preparing sweets and desserts. Additionally, cakes, sponge cakes, and puddings are very popular dishes. Italian ice-creams in this region also achieved a significant degree of development by adding local flavors that somehow preserved the local spirit involved in their preparation.\n\nAlthough asado is eaten all over the country, its origin may be traced back to the Pampas. It entails manifold types of meat, which are generally eaten as follows: achuras (offal, or the cow's inner parts), morcilla (blood sausage), and sometimes also a provoleta (a piece of provolone cheese cooked on the grill with oregano) are eaten first. Then comes the choripán (a kind of spiced sausage made with pork or lamb and placed between two slices of bread), and lastly meat such as asado de tira, vacío (flank steak), lomo (tenderloin), colita de cuadril (rump), matambre (rolled stuffed steak cut into slices and served cold), entraña (innards); the list is never-ending. It is quite common to eat and enjoy a dish known as ''cabrito al asador'' (roast kid or goat) in the province of Córdoba.\n\n=== Northwest and Cuyo ===\nA bowl of ''Locro'' stew, a traditional standby in northwestern Argentina.\n\nThis region is regarded as perhaps the one most influenced by Native Americans, and its foods are closely linked to the Andean-Incan tradition. When preparing regional dishes, potatoes and corn or wheat are almost always used, including quinoa (a cereal typically used in Incan cuisine), peppers, squashes and tomatoes. The most celebrated dishes are humita and tamal, in which the corn husk is stuffed with the corn filling itself, seasonings or meat.\n \nThis region is the most suitable to taste empanadas, particularly those stuffed with meat and offering different types of tempting varieties such as the ''meat empanada'', salteña also filled with potatoes, or the ''empanada tucumana'', which is stuffed with matambre and cut with a knife, or empanadas made with cheese. Empanadas are individual sized and closed savoury pastries which may be fried or baked in the oven and are generally eaten with the hands.\n\nStews such as locro, carbonada, pollo al disco, and cazuelas (casseroles) are also typical dishes characterizing this region, which also include pumpkin or potato pudding stuffed with meat.\n\n=== Mesopotamia ===\nMate, the northeastern region's best-known contribution to Argentine cuisine.\n\nThe humid and verdant area of north-east Argentina known as Mesopotamia, comprising the provinces of Corrientes, Misiones and Entre Ríos is another area influenced by Native Americans, particularly by the Guaraní tribe. Abounding in rivers and shores, it offers a wide diversity of fish species, such as dorado, pacú, surubi, boga and silverside.\n\nWidely grown in this area, cassava is typically included in the region's dishes, as are other components of meals, such as the chipá (a cassava and cheese bread). However, in this area Cassava is cooked alone too, boiled or fried, often as a side dish for asado and empanadas. Sopa Paraguaya and Chipá Guazu (also called Tarta de Choclo) are also commonly eaten and are made with corn. Chipá from Cassava is often eaten during breakfast with yerba mate, prepared with hot water, or with café con leche. Sopa Paraguaya and Tarta de Choclo are eaten for lunch or dinner. As regards to products made with sugar, Papaya (mamón in Argentine Spanish) jam is typical of the province of Corrientes.\n\nThe principal product of this region is certainly yerba mate. Consumed countrywide, this product features a peculiarity of its own in this area: it is not only prepared with hot water, but, driven by the region's high temperatures, it is common to see it prepared with cold water as well, in which case the beverage is known as tereré.\n\n=== Patagonia ===\nFoods produced in the large southern region of Patagonia include fish and seafood from the sea and rivers, and the products of the sheep widely farmed there.\n\nMarine species such as salmon, spider crabs, squid and other shellfish and molluscs may be caught in the Atlantic Ocean. There are trout in the rivers.\n\n''Chocolate y dulce de leche'' cakes and other regional favorites in a San Martín de los Andes, Neuquén shop.\nThe many berries grown in the area include cherries, bilberries, strawberries, rosa mosqueta and elders, which are made into jams.\n\nThe Northern and Central European settlements in this region have built up large-scale production of chocolate and its by-products. Viennese and German cuisine and pastries are also typically associated with this region.\n\nMutton and lamb, together with wild boar and venison tend to make up the region's meat-based dishes. Also typical of southern region are smoked products, including salmon, stag, wild boar, and pheasant.\n\nPatagonia has been profoundly influenced by the tribes living there since long before Europeans arrived, in particular, the Mapuches and the Araucanos. A typical dish prepared by the latter is the curanto (a term meaning \"hot stone\"). Its preparation involves making a fire in a hole about 150 cm deep in the ground, and heating stones in it. A bed of nalca or maqui leaves is arranged on top of the stones, and ingredients are added in turn on top. Ingredients vary, but may include beef, lamb, pork, chicken, Argentine chorizos (pork sausages), potatoes, sweet potatoes, apples and holed squashes filled with cheese, cream and peas. The food is covered with leaves and damp pieces of cloth to keep the heat in, and covered with plenty of soil.\n",
"\n\n\nThough wine (''vino'') has traditionally been the most popular alcoholic beverage in Argentina, beer (''cerveza''; the Italian ''birra'' is frequently used) in recent decades has competed with wine in popularity. Breweries appeared in Argentina at the end of the 1860s, started by Alsatian colonists. The first were nearly all in the downtown of Buenos Aires (''el égido de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires''), and soon Polish brewers began industrial production of beer: San Carlos in the province of Santa Fe, Río Segundo and Córdoba in the province of Córdoba, Quilmes and Llavallol on the outskirts of La Plata (in Buenos Aires Province), San Miguel de Tucumán in the province of Tucumán and on the outskirts of the cities of Mendoza and Salta.\n\nThe local consumption of beer has risen dramatically in the last generation: Argentines consumed 233 million liters in 1980 and 1.57 billion in 2007 (40 liters per capita). Outpacing that of wine since 2001, the growing production and consumption of beer has supported the existence of related events, for example beer festivals called ''Oktoberfests'' or \"''Fiestas de la Cerveza''\" in locations that have a significant German population (Villa General Belgrano in Córdoba, San Carlos and Esperanza in the province of Santa Fe, etc.). Such celebrations copy, in an Argentine manner, Munich's ''Oktoberfest'', and similarly are tourist attractions. However, the presence of a vigorous population of Celtic lineage, principally of Irish origin, has supported the creation of other celebrations of beer, often for marketing purposes, such as Saint Patrick's Day (''Día de San Patricio''), patron of Ireland, which is celebrated with abundant libations.\n\nThe consumption of alcoholic beverages in Argentina is similar to that of the United States and somewhat lower than the Western European average. Argentines enjoy a variety of alcoholic beverages and Argentina can boast a varied array of ''elaboraciones'', whether industrial or artisanal. Besides beer and wine, Argentines frequently drink cider (here again, the heritage comes from Spain and Italy, more precisely from Asturias and Campania). Cider is the most popular beverage of the middle and lower economic classes at Christmas and New Year (the upper classes proverbially preferring to celebrate with locally produced champagne, although real old-line \"creole\" aristocrats will still drink cider, which is much more traditional).\n\nOther widely consumed spirits are ''aguardiente'' (firewater) made from sugar cane, known as ''caña quemada'' (\"burnt cane\") or, simply, ''''caña'''' (\"cane\"). A folkloric note about ''caña quemada'': until June 21 it is traditional to drink ''caña quemada'' with ''ruda macho'' (a variant of common rue), it is supposed that this mixture prevents the flu and other illnesses. ''Caña'' competes, mainly in rural areas, with gin (\"ginebra\"—as in the Dutch kind of gin.)\n\nThere are many artisanally produced liqueurs (distilled, flavored alcoholic beverages) in Argentina, for example those flavored with orange, egg, anise, coffee, cherry and, inevitably, ''dulce de leche''. The ''Hesperidina'' is a type of liqueur made from orange peels, invented in Argentina around 1890. One may also encounter ''chitronchelo'' or (in Italian) ''citroncello'', based on lemon. This beverage arrived with immigrants from the Mezzogiorno, and is produced both artisanally and industrially (for example, at Mar del Plata).\n",
"Café Tortoni, one of the many coffehouses in Buenos Aires. The consumption of coffee is very common (141 cups per capita, annually).\nTraditional serving of merienda in Café El Gato Negro, Buenos Aires. ''Medialunas'' (croissants), ''café en jarrito'' (a double espresso coffee) and a little glass of mineral water.\nArgentines enjoy a wide variety of non-alcoholic infusions (although now and then both \"families\" are mixed; the ''yerbiao'' for example, is mate mixed with ''caña'' or gin). Among these, ''mate'' has long been the most widely enjoyed; in 2006, over 700,000 metric tons were harvested in Argentina, mostly for domestic consumption.\n\nThe fact that mate is so prevalent in the ''Southern Cone'', however, should not necessarily make visitors think that other infusions are rare in the region; in Argentina especially, given the strong European cultural imprint, the consumption of coffee is very common (141 cups per capita, annually). Chocolate infusions are also popular (the eating of chocolate is a Spanish influence, although the plant originated in Mesoamerica). This consumption grows during autumn and winter, or in the cold regions of the country; there are two dates where consumption of chocolate infusions is traditional in the primary educational centres: 25 May and 9 July, that is, the two national dates of Argentina.\n\nEnglish cultural influence (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and beginnings of the 20th by British contacts with the Far East) has also made the consumption of tea very common.\n\nMedicinal herbs are common in the whole country; among the most popular are: chamomile, lanceleaf, ''boldo'', ''poleo'', ''peperina'', ''carqueja'', thyme, ''canchalagua'', rue (''macho'' and ''hembra'', that is, \"male\" and \"female\"), mallow, rosemary, passion flower, ''bira bira'', ''palán palán'', ''muña muña'', to mention only the main ones. Many of these herbs are also used in apéritifs and bitters, whether alcoholic or not.\n",
"British \"pubs\" and are popular at lunchtime.\nCommon ''restoranes'' or ''restaurantes'' and ''rotiserias'' (grill restaurants) nearly anywhere in Argentina today serve (into the small hours) quickly prepared meals that in the course of the 20th century came to be known as ''minutas'', \"short-order dishes.\" Some of the dishes included in the category of ''minutas'' are ''milanesas'', ''churrascos'', ''bifes'' (beefsteaks), ''escalopes'', ''tallarines'', ''ravioles'' (ravioli), ''ñoquis'' (gnocchi), although some are very typical of locations that sell food: \"''bifes''\" and \"''milanesas''\" are served \"''a caballo''\" (\"on horseback\", with fried egg on top), \"''milanesa completa''\" (a ''milanesa'' with two fried eggs and French fries), \"''revuelto Gramajo''\", \"''colchón de arvejas''\" (an omelette made with peas), \"''suprema de pollo''\" (chicken supreme, usually breaded as a ''milanesa''), ''matambres'', \"''lengua a la vinagreta''\" (pickled tongue), and \"sandwiches\" (sandwiches de miga) are made with sliced white bread, rather than, say, rolls.\n\nThe most common sandwiches are those made of ''milanesa'', baked ham and cheese, 'pan de miga'', toast, ''pebetes'', ''panchos'' (hot dogs), ''choripanes'', ''morcipanes'', etc.; from Montevideo comes a different species of sandwich called the ''chivito'', even though it contains no goat meat.\n\n''Picadas'', which are consumed at home or in bars, cafés, \"''cafetines''\" and \"''bodegones''\" are also popular; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of salame, olives in brine, french fries, ''maníes'' (peanuts), etc.; ''picada''s are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage (\"''fernet''\", beer, wine with soda, to give some common examples).\n\nThe people of Argentina greatly enjoy ''helado'' (ice cream or sorbet). In Spanish colonial times a type of sorbet was made from hail or snow.\n\n \nFile:Argentinan Buffet.jpg|A ''picada'', the Italian-influenced between-meals standby\n\n",
"In most parts of Argentina, lunch is the largest meal of the day. Excluding the largest cities, such as Buenos Aires, most towns close for lunch time. This is when most people return home to enjoy a large meal. Traditional lunches in Argentina are long and well developed. As such, it is common to not eat dinner until 9 at night.\n",
"\n* Italian cuisine\n* Spanish cuisine\n* Paraguayan cuisine\n* Uruguayan cuisine\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* SaltShaker - Blog on Buenos Aires \"food, drink, and life\".\n* Pick Up the Fork - Fun guide to Buenos Aires' food, restaurant and bar scene\n* Argentina on two steaks a day\n* Cocina Pop - Typical Argentine recipes, with videos.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Typical foods",
"Ingredients",
" Regional differences ",
" Alcoholic beverages ",
" Non-alcoholic specialties ",
" Popular short-order dishes ",
" Eating habits ",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Argentine cuisine |
[
"\n\n'''''Ad hominem''''' (Latin for \"to the man\" or \"to the person\"), short for '''''argumentum ad hominem''''', is where an argument is rebutted by attacking the character, motive, or other attribute of the person making the argument, or persons associated with the argument, rather than attacking the substance of the argument itself.\n\nHowever, its original meaning was an argument \"calculated to appeal to the person addressed more than to impartial reason\".\n\nFallacious ''ad hominem'' reasoning is normally categorized as an informal fallacy, more precisely as a genetic fallacy, a subcategory of fallacies of irrelevance.\n\nHowever, in some cases, ad hominem attacks can be non-fallacious; i.e., if the attack on the character of the person is directly tackling the argument itself. For example, if the truth of the argument relies on the truthfulness of the person making the argument—rather than known facts—then pointing out that the person has previously lied is not a fallacious argument.\n",
"\n\n===''Tu quoque''===\n\n''Ad hominem tu quoque'' (literally: \"You also\") refers to a claim that the source making the argument has spoken or acted in a way inconsistent with the argument. In particular, if Source A criticizes the actions of Source B, a ''tu quoque'' response is that Source A has acted in the same way. This argument is false because it does not disprove the premise; if the premise is true then Source A may be a hypocrite, but this does not make the statement less credible from a logical perspective. Indeed, Source A may be in a position to provide personal testimony to support the argument.\n\nFor example, a father may tell his son not to start smoking as he will regret it when he is older, and the son may point out that his father is or was a smoker. This does not alter the fact that his son may regret smoking when he is older.\n\n===Circumstantial===\n\n''Circumstantial ad hominem'' points out that someone is in circumstances such that they are disposed to take a particular position. It constitutes an attack on the bias of a source. This is fallacious because a disposition to make a certain argument does not make the argument false; this overlaps with the genetic fallacy (an argument that a claim is incorrect due to its source).\n\nThe circumstantial fallacy does not apply where the source is taking a position by using a logical argument based solely on premises that are generally accepted. Where the source seeks to convince an audience of the truth of a premise by a claim of authority or by personal observation, observation of their circumstances may reduce the evidentiary weight of the claims, sometimes to zero.\n\n'''Examples''':\n\n# Mandy Rice-Davies's famous testimony during the Profumo Affair, \"He would say that, wouldn't he?\", is an example of a valid circumstantial argument. Her point was that a man in a prominent position, accused of an affair with a callgirl, would deny the claim whether it was true or false. His denial, in itself, provides little evidence against the claim of an affair. \n#: Note well, however, that this argument is valid only insofar as it devalues the denial; it does ''not'' strengthen the original claim. To construe invalid evidence of the denial as valid evidence of the original claim is fallacious (on several different bases, including that of ''argumentum ad hominem'' and ''appeal to emotions''); however likely the man in question would be to deny an affair that did in fact happen, he is even more likely to deny an affair that never happened. (For example, inferring guilt from a denialor, less starkly, excessive devaluation of a denialis a very common feature in conspiracy theories, witch-hunts, show trials, struggle sessions, and other coercive circumstances in which the person targeted is presumed guilty.)\n# Glassner suggests that Bennett is somehow unqualified to criticize rap music because of positions Bennett has taken on other issues. However wrong Bennett may have been on other issues, such as the funding of public television or illegitimacy, that does not mean that his criticisms of rap were mistaken.\n\n===Guilt by association===\n\nGuilt by association can sometimes also be a type of ''ad hominem'' fallacy if the argument attacks a source because of the similarity between the views of someone making an argument and other proponents of the argument.\n\nThis form of the argument is as follows:\n# Source S makes claim C.\n# Group G, which is currently viewed negatively by the recipient, also makes claim C.\n# Therefore, source S is viewed by the recipient of the claim as associated to the group G and inherits how negatively viewed it is.\n\nAn example of this fallacy could be \"My opponent for office just received an endorsement from the Puppy Haters Association. Is that the sort of person you would want to vote for?\"\n",
"When a statement is challenged by making an ''ad hominem'' attack on its author, it is important to draw a distinction between whether the statement in question was ''an argument'' or ''a statement of fact'' (''testimony''). In the latter case the issues of the credibility of the person making the statement may be crucial.\n",
"\nDoug Walton, Canadian academic and author, has argued that ''ad hominem'' reasoning is not always fallacious, and that in some instances, questions of personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate and relevant to the issue, as when it directly involves hypocrisy, or actions contradicting the subject's words.\n\nThe philosopher Charles Taylor has argued that ''ad hominem'' reasoning (discussing facts about the speaker or author relative to the value of his statements) is essential to understanding certain moral issues due to the connection between individual persons and morality (or moral claims), and contrasts this sort of reasoning with the apodictic reasoning (involving facts beyond dispute or clearly established) of philosophical naturalism.\n",
"\n\n* \"And you are lynching Negroes\"\n* Appeal to authority\n* Appeal to emotion\n* Appeal to motive\n* Association fallacy\n* Bulverism\n* Character assassination\n* Discrediting tactic\n* Fair Game (Scientology)\n* Fundamental attribution error\n* Gaslighting\n* Hostile witness\n* Negative campaigning\n* Poisoning the well\n* Race card\n* Red herring\n* Reputation\n* Shooting the messenger\n* Smear campaign\n* Straw man\n* Tone policing\n* ''The Art of Being Right''\n* Tu quoque\n* Whataboutism\n\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n",
"\n*\n* Nizkor.org: Fallacy: Ad Hominem.\n* Nizkor.org: Fallacy: Circumstantial Ad Hominem.\n* Argumentum Ad Hominem\n* \n* Logical Fallacies: Ad Hominem\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Types ",
" Non-fallacious reasoning ",
" Criticism as a fallacy ",
"See also",
"References",
" Further reading ",
"External links"
] | Ad hominem |
[
"\nFor looking up a given entry in a given ordered list, both the binary and the linear search algorithm (which ignores ordering) can be used. The analysis of the former and the latter algorithm shows that it takes at most log2(''n'') and ''n'' check steps, respectively, for a list of length ''n''. In the depicted example list of length 33, searching for ''\"Morin, Arthur\"'' takes 5 and 28 steps with binary (shown in ) and linear () search, respectively.\n\nIn computer science, the '''analysis of algorithms''' is the determination of the amount of time, storage and/or other resources necessary to execute them. Usually, this involves determining a function that relates the length of an algorithm's input to the number of steps it takes (its time complexity) or the number of storage locations it uses (its space complexity). An algorithm is said to be efficient when this function's values are small.\nSince different inputs of the same length may cause the algorithm to have different behavior, the function describing its performance is usually an upper bound on the actual performance, determined from the worst case inputs to the algorithm.\n\nThe term \"analysis of algorithms\" was coined by Donald Knuth. Algorithm analysis is an important part of a broader computational complexity theory, which provides theoretical estimates for the resources needed by any algorithm which solves a given computational problem. These estimates provide an insight into reasonable directions of search for efficient algorithms.\n\nIn theoretical analysis of algorithms it is common to estimate their complexity in the asymptotic sense, i.e., to estimate the complexity function for arbitrarily large input. Big O notation, Big-omega notation and Big-theta notation are used to this end. For instance, binary search is said to run in a number of steps proportional to the logarithm of the length of the sorted list being searched, or in O(log(n)), colloquially \"in logarithmic time\". Usually asymptotic estimates are used because different implementations of the same algorithm may differ in efficiency. However the efficiencies of any two \"reasonable\" implementations of a given algorithm are related by a constant multiplicative factor called a ''hidden constant''.\n\nExact (not asymptotic) measures of efficiency can sometimes be computed but they usually require certain assumptions concerning the particular implementation of the algorithm, called model of computation. A model of computation may be defined in terms of an abstract computer, e.g., Turing machine, and/or by postulating that certain operations are executed in unit time.\nFor example, if the sorted list to which we apply binary search has ''n'' elements, and we can guarantee that each lookup of an element in the list can be done in unit time, then at most log2 ''n'' + 1 time units are needed to return an answer.\n\n",
"Time efficiency estimates depend on what we define to be a step. For the analysis to correspond usefully to the actual execution time, the time required to perform a step must be guaranteed to be bounded above by a constant. One must be careful here; for instance, some analyses count an addition of two numbers as one step. This assumption may not be warranted in certain contexts. For example, if the numbers involved in a computation may be arbitrarily large, the time required by a single addition can no longer be assumed to be constant.\n\nTwo cost models are generally used:\n* the '''uniform cost model''', also called '''uniform-cost measurement''' (and similar variations), assigns a constant cost to every machine operation, regardless of the size of the numbers involved\n* the '''logarithmic cost model''', also called '''logarithmic-cost measurement''' (and similar variations), assigns a cost to every machine operation proportional to the number of bits involved\n\nThe latter is more cumbersome to use, so it's only employed when necessary, for example in the analysis of arbitrary-precision arithmetic algorithms, like those used in cryptography.\n\nA key point which is often overlooked is that published lower bounds for problems are often given for a model of computation that is more restricted than the set of operations that you could use in practice and therefore there are algorithms that are faster than what would naively be thought possible.\n",
"Run-time analysis is a theoretical classification that estimates and anticipates the increase in ''running time'' (or run-time) of an algorithm as its ''input size'' (usually denoted as ''n'') increases. Run-time efficiency is a topic of great interest in computer science: A program can take seconds, hours, or even years to finish executing, depending on which algorithm it implements. While software profiling techniques can be used to measure an algorithm's run-time in practice, they cannot provide timing data for all infinitely many possible inputs; the latter can only be achieved by the theoretical methods of run-time analysis.\n\n===Shortcomings of empirical metrics===\n\nSince algorithms are platform-independent (i.e. a given algorithm can be implemented in an arbitrary programming language on an arbitrary computer running an arbitrary operating system), there are additional significant drawbacks to using an empirical approach to gauge the comparative performance of a given set of algorithms.\n\nTake as an example a program that looks up a specific entry in a sorted list of size ''n''. Suppose this program were implemented on Computer A, a state-of-the-art machine, using a linear search algorithm, and on Computer B, a much slower machine, using a binary search algorithm. Benchmark testing on the two computers running their respective programs might look something like the following:\n\n\n\n ''n'' (list size)\n Computer A run-time(in nanoseconds)\n Computer B run-time(in nanoseconds)\n\n 16\n 8 \n 100,000 \n\n 63\n 32 \n 150,000 \n\n 250\n 125 \n 200,000 \n\n 1,000\n 500 \n 250,000 \n\n\nBased on these metrics, it would be easy to jump to the conclusion that ''Computer A'' is running an algorithm that is far superior in efficiency to that of ''Computer B''. However, if the size of the input-list is increased to a sufficient number, that conclusion is dramatically demonstrated to be in error:\n\n\n\n ''n'' (list size)\n Computer A run-time(in nanoseconds)\n Computer B run-time(in nanoseconds)\n\n 16\n 8 \n 100,000 \n\n 63\n 32 \n 150,000 \n\n 250\n 125 \n 200,000 \n\n 1,000\n 500 \n 250,000 \n\n ...\n ...\n ...\n\n 1,000,000\n 500,000\n 500,000\n\n 4,000,000\n 2,000,000\n 550,000\n\n 16,000,000\n 8,000,000\n 600,000\n\n ...\n ...\n ...\n\n 63,072 × 1012\n 31,536 × 1012 ns,or 1 year\n 1,375,000 ns,or 1.375 milliseconds\n\n\nComputer A, running the linear search program, exhibits a linear growth rate. The program's run-time is directly proportional to its input size. Doubling the input size doubles the run time, quadrupling the input size quadruples the run-time, and so forth. On the other hand, Computer B, running the binary search program, exhibits a logarithmic growth rate. Quadrupling the input size only increases the run time by a constant amount (in this example, 50,000 ns). Even though Computer A is ostensibly a faster machine, Computer B will inevitably surpass Computer A in run-time because it's running an algorithm with a much slower growth rate.\n\n===Orders of growth===\n\nInformally, an algorithm can be said to exhibit a growth rate on the order of a mathematical function if beyond a certain input size ''n'', the function times a positive constant provides an upper bound or limit for the run-time of that algorithm. In other words, for a given input size ''n'' greater than some ''n''0 and a constant ''c'', the running time of that algorithm will never be larger than . This concept is frequently expressed using Big O notation. For example, since the run-time of insertion sort grows quadratically as its input size increases, insertion sort can be said to be of order ''O''(''n''2).\n\nBig O notation is a convenient way to express the worst-case scenario for a given algorithm, although it can also be used to express the average-case — for example, the worst-case scenario for quicksort is ''O''(''n''2), but the average-case run-time is .\n\n===Empirical orders of growth===\n\nAssuming the execution time follows power rule, '''', the coefficient ''a'' can be found by taking empirical measurements of run time at some problem-size points , and calculating so that . In other words, this measures the slope of the empirical line on the log–log plot of execution time vs. problem size, at some size point. If the order of growth indeed follows the power rule (and so the line on log–log plot is indeed a straight line), the empirical value of ''a'' will stay constant at different ranges, and if not, it will change (and the line is a curved line) - but still could serve for comparison of any two given algorithms as to their ''empirical local orders of growth'' behaviour. Applied to the above table:\n\n\n\n ''n'' (list size)\n Computer A run-time(in nanoseconds)\n Local order of growth(n^_)\n Computer B run-time(in nanoseconds)\n Local order of growth(n^_)\n\n 15\n 7 \n \n 100,000 \n \n\n 65\n 32 \n 1.04\n 150,000 \n 0.28\n\n 250\n 125 \n 1.01\n 200,000 \n 0.21\n\n 1,000\n 500 \n 1.00\n 250,000 \n 0.16\n\n ...\n ...\n \n ...\n \n\n 1,000,000\n 500,000\n 1.00\n 500,000\n 0.10\n\n 4,000,000\n 2,000,000\n 1.00\n 550,000\n 0.07\n\n 16,000,000\n 8,000,000\n 1.00\n 600,000\n 0.06\n\n ...\n ...\n \n ...\n \n\n\nIt is clearly seen that the first algorithm exhibits a linear order of growth indeed following the power rule. The empirical values for the second one are diminishing rapidly, suggesting it follows another rule of growth and in any case has much lower local orders of growth (and improving further still), empirically, than the first one.\n\n=== Evaluating run-time complexity ===\nThe run-time complexity for the worst-case scenario of a given algorithm can sometimes be evaluated by examining the structure of the algorithm and making some simplifying assumptions. Consider the following pseudocode:\n\n 1 ''get a positive integer from input''\n 2 '''if''' n > 10\n 3 '''print''' \"This might take a while...\"\n 4 '''for''' i = 1 '''to''' n\n 5 '''for''' j = 1 '''to''' i\n 6 '''print''' i * j\n 7 '''print''' \"Done!\"\n\nA given computer will take a discrete amount of time to execute each of the instructions involved with carrying out this algorithm. The specific amount of time to carry out a given instruction will vary depending on which instruction is being executed and which computer is executing it, but on a conventional computer, this amount will be deterministic. Say that the actions carried out in step 1 are considered to consume time ''T''1, step 2 uses time ''T''2, and so forth.\n\nIn the algorithm above, steps 1, 2 and 7 will only be run once. For a worst-case evaluation, it should be assumed that step 3 will be run as well. Thus the total amount of time to run steps 1-3 and step 7 is:\n\n:\n\nThe loops in steps 4, 5 and 6 are trickier to evaluate. The outer loop test in step 4 will execute ( ''n'' + 1 )\ntimes (note that an extra step is required to terminate the for loop, hence n + 1 and not n executions), which will consume ''T''4( ''n'' + 1 ) time. The inner loop, on the other hand, is governed by the value of j, which iterates from 1 to ''i''. On the first pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 1: The inner loop makes one pass, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes ''T''6 time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 2''T''5 time. During the next pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 2: the inner loop makes two passes, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes 2''T''6 time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 3''T''5 time.\n\nAltogether, the total time required to run the inner loop body can be expressed as an arithmetic progression:\n\n:\n\nwhich can be factored as\n\n:\n\nThe total time required to run the outer loop test can be evaluated similarly:\n\n:\n\nwhich can be factored as\n\n:\n\nTherefore, the total running time for this algorithm is:\n\n:\n\nwhich reduces to\n\n:\n\nAs a rule-of-thumb, one can assume that the highest-order term in any given function dominates its rate of growth and thus defines its run-time order. In this example, n2 is the highest-order term, so one can conclude that f(n) = O(n2). Formally this can be proven as follows:\nProve that \n\n\n\nLet ''k'' be a constant greater than or equal to ''T''1..''T''7\n\n\n\nTherefore \n\n\nA more elegant approach to analyzing this algorithm would be to declare that ''T''1..''T''7 are all equal to one unit of time, in a system of units chosen so that one unit is greater than or equal to the actual times for these steps. This would mean that the algorithm's running time breaks down as follows:\n\n\n===Growth rate analysis of other resources===\nThe methodology of run-time analysis can also be utilized for predicting other growth rates, such as consumption of memory space. As an example, consider the following pseudocode which manages and reallocates memory usage by a program based on the size of a file which that program manages:\n\n '''while''' (''file still open'')\n '''let''' n = ''size of file''\n '''for''' ''every 100,000 kilobytes of increase in file size''\n ''double the amount of memory reserved''\n\nIn this instance, as the file size n increases, memory will be consumed at an exponential growth rate, which is order O(2n). This is an extremely rapid and most likely unmanageable growth rate for consumption of memory resources.\n",
"Algorithm analysis is important in practice because the accidental or unintentional use of an inefficient algorithm can significantly impact system performance. In time-sensitive applications, an algorithm taking too long to run can render its results outdated or useless. An inefficient algorithm can also end up requiring an uneconomical amount of computing power or storage in order to run, again rendering it practically useless.\n",
"Analysis of algorithms typically focuses on the asymptotic performance, particularly at the elementary level, but in practical applications constant factors are important, and real-world data is in practice always limited in size. The limit is typically the size of addressable memory, so on 32-bit machines 232 = 4 GiB (greater if segmented memory is used) and on 64-bit machines 264 = 16 EiB. Thus given a limited size, an order of growth (time or space) can be replaced by a constant factor, and in this sense all practical algorithms are O(1) for a large enough constant, or for small enough data.\n\nThis interpretation is primarily useful for functions that grow extremely slowly: (binary) iterated logarithm (log*) is less than 5 for all practical data (265536 bits); (binary) log-log (log log ''n'') is less than 6 for virtually all practical data (264 bits); and binary log (log ''n'') is less than 64 for virtually all practical data (264 bits). An algorithm with non-constant complexity may nonetheless be more efficient than an algorithm with constant complexity on practical data if the overhead of the constant time algorithm results in a larger constant factor, e.g., one may have so long as and .\n\nFor large data linear or quadratic factors cannot be ignored, but for small data an asymptotically inefficient algorithm may be more efficient. This is particularly used in hybrid algorithms, like Timsort, which use an asymptotically efficient algorithm (here merge sort, with time complexity ), but switch to an asymptotically inefficient algorithm (here insertion sort, with time complexity ) for small data, as the simpler algorithm is faster on small data.\n",
"* Amortized analysis\n* Analysis of parallel algorithms\n* Asymptotic computational complexity\n* Best, worst and average case\n* Big O notation\n* Computational complexity theory\n* Master theorem\n* NP-Complete\n* Numerical analysis\n* Polynomial time\n* Program optimization\n* Profiling (computer programming)\n* Scalability\n* Smoothed analysis\n* Termination analysis — the subproblem of checking whether a program will terminate at all\n* Time complexity — includes table of orders of growth for common algorithms\n* Information-based complexity\n",
"\n",
"*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Cost models ",
"Run-time analysis",
"Relevance",
"Constant factors",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References"
] | Analysis of algorithms |
[
"\n\n'''Ælle''' (; also '''Aelle''' or '''Ella''') is recorded in early sources as the first king of the South Saxons, reigning in what is now called Sussex, England, from 477 to perhaps as late as 514.\n\nAccording to the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', Ælle and three of his sons are said to have landed at a place called Cymensora and fought against the local Britons. The chronicle goes on to report a victory in 491, at present day Pevensey, where the battle ended with the Saxons slaughtering their opponents to the last man.\n\nÆlle was the first king recorded by the 8th century chronicler Bede to have held \"imperium\", or overlordship, over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In the late 9th-century ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (around four hundred years after his time) Ælle is recorded as being the first bretwalda, or \"Britain-ruler\", though there is no evidence that this was a contemporary title. Ælle's death is not recorded and although he may have been the founder of a South Saxon dynasty, there is no firm evidence linking him with later South Saxon rulers. The 12th-century chronicler Henry of Huntingdon produced an enhanced version of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' that included 514 as the date of Ælle's death, but this is not secure.\n",
"Imaginary depiction of Ælle from John Speed's 1611 \"Saxon Heptarchy\".\nHistorians are divided on the detail of Ælle's life and existence as it was during the least-documented period in English history of the last two millennia.\n\nBy the early 5th century Britain had been Roman for over three hundred and fifty years. The most troublesome enemies of Roman Britain were the Picts of central and northern Scotland, and the Gaels known as Scoti, who were raiders from Ireland. Also vexatious were the Saxons, the name Roman writers gave to the peoples who lived in the northern part of what is now Germany and the southern part of the Jutland peninsula. Saxon raids on the southern and eastern shores of England had been sufficiently alarming by the late 3rd century for the Romans to build the Saxon Shore forts, and subsequently to establish the role of the Count of the Saxon Shore to command the defence against these incursions. Roman control of Britain finally ended in the early part of the 5th century; the date usually given as marking the end of Roman Britain is 410, when the Emperor Honorius sent letters to the British, urging them to look to their own defence. Britain had been repeatedly stripped of troops to support usurpers' claims to the Roman empire, and after 410 the Roman armies never returned.\n\nSources for events after this date are extremely scarce, but a tradition, reported as early as the mid-6th century by a British priest named Gildas, records that the British sent for help against the barbarians to Aetius, a Roman consul, probably in the late 440s. No help came. Subsequently, a British leader named Vortigern is supposed to have invited continental mercenaries to help fight the Picts who were attacking from the north. The leaders, whose names are recorded as Hengest and Horsa, rebelled, and a long period of warfare ensued. The invaders—Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians—gained control of parts of England, but lost a major battle at Mons Badonicus (the location of which is not known). Some authors have speculated that Ælle may have led the Saxon forces at this battle, while others reject the idea out of hand.\n\nThe British thus gained a respite, and peace lasted at least until the time Gildas was writing: that is, for perhaps forty or fifty years, from around the end of the 5th century until midway through the sixth. Shortly after Gildas's time the Anglo-Saxon advance was resumed, and by the late 6th century nearly all of southern England was under the control of the continental invaders.\n",
"Image:Parker chronicle f. 5a 455-490.gif|thumb|250px|right|A page from the A manuscript of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''. Ælle's name, spelled \"Elle\", can be seen in two of the entries at the end of the page. The last entry on the page, for 488, refers to events in Kent and does not mention Ælle.There are two early sources that mention Ælle by name. The earliest is ''The Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', a history of the English church written in 731 by Bede, a Northumbrian monk. Bede mentions Ælle as one of the Anglo-Saxon kings who exercised what he calls \"imperium\" over \"all the provinces south of the river Humber\"; \"imperium\" is usually translated as \"overlordship\". Bede gives a list of seven kings who held \"imperium\", and Ælle is the first of them. The other information Bede gives is that Ælle was not a Christian—Bede mentions a later king as \"the first to enter the kingdom of heaven\".\n\nThe second source is the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', a collection of annals assembled in the Kingdom of Wessex in c. 890, during the reign of Alfred the Great. The ''Chronicle'' has three entries for Ælle, from 477 to 491, as follows:\n\n*477: Ælle and his 3 sons, Cymen and Wlencing and Cissa, came to the land of Britain with 3 ships at the place which is named Cymen's shore, and there killed many Welsh and drove some to flight into the wood called Andredes leag.\n*485: Here Ælle fought against the Welsh near the margin of Mearcred's Burn.\n*491: Here Ælle and Cissa besieged Andredes cester, and killed all who lived in there; there was not even one Briton left there.\n\nThe ''Chronicle'' was put together about four hundred years after these events. It is known that the annalists used material from earlier chronicles, as well as from oral sources such as sagas, but there is no way to tell where these lines came from. It should also be noted that the terms 'British' and 'Welsh' were used interchangeably, as 'Welsh' is the Saxon word meaning 'foreigner', and was applied to all the native Romano-British of the era.\n\nThree of the places named may be identified :\n#\"Cymen's shore\" (\"Cymenes ora\" in the original) is believed to be located at what is now a series of rocks and ledges, in the English Channel off Selsey Bill, on the south coast, known as the Owers. It has been suggested that Ower is derived from the word '''ora''' that is found only in placenames where Jutish and West Saxon dialects were in operation (mainly in southern England). It is possible that the stretch of low ground along the coast from Southampton to Bognor was called ''Ora'' \"the shore\", and that district names were used by the various coastal settlements, Cymens ora being one of them.\n#The wood called \"Andredes leag\" is the Weald, which at that time was a forest extending from north-west Hampshire all through northern Sussex.\n#\"Andredes cester\" is thought to be Anderitum, the Saxon Shore fort, built by the Roman rebel Carausius in the late 3rd century, at Pevensey Castle, just outside the town. Some believe Andredes cester may have been an imperial stronghold somewhere else as Henry of Huntingdon described the place as a fortified city and gave a very full account of the siege which is inconsistent with the geography of ancient Pevensey and little archaeological evidence of sustained settlement there. Also, in his \"Britannia\", William Camden suggests that it could be Newenden, Kent \n\nA detail from a 1780 map, showing the Isle of Wight, Selsey Bill, and the Owers shoals to the south. Pevensey is about fifty miles to the east, along the coast.The ''Chronicle'' mentions Ælle once more under the year 827, where he is listed as the first of the eight \"bretwaldas\", or \"Britain-rulers\". The list consists of Bede's original seven, plus Egbert of Wessex. There has been much scholarly debate over just what it meant to be a \"bretwalda\", and the extent of Ælle's actual power in southern England is an open question. It is also noteworthy that there is a long gap between Ælle and the second king on Bede's list, Ceawlin of Wessex, whose reign began in the late 6th century; this may indicate a period in which Anglo-Saxon dominance was interrupted in some way.\n\nEarlier sources than Bede exist which mention the South Saxons, though they do not name Ælle. The earliest reference is still quite late, however, at about 692: a charter of King Nothelm's, which styles him \"King of the South Saxons\". Charters are documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen, and which would be witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land. They are one of the key documentary sources for Anglo-Saxon history, but no original charters survive from earlier than 679.\n\nThere are other early writers whose works can shed light on Ælle's time, though they do not mention either him or his kingdom. Gildas's description of the state of Britain in his time is useful for understanding the ebb and flow of the Anglo-Saxon incursions. Procopius, a Byzantine historian, writing not long after Gildas, adds to the meagre sources on population movement by including a chapter on England in one of his works. He records that the peoples of Britain—he names the English, the British, and the Frisians—were so numerous that they were migrating to the kingdom of the Franks in great numbers every year. Although this is probably a reference to Britons emigrating to Armorica to escape the Anglo-Saxons. They subsequently gave their name to the area they settled as Brittany, or ''la petite Bretagne'' (literally little Britain).\n",
"The early dates given in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' for the colonization of Sussex are supported by an analysis of the place names of the region. The strongest evidence comes from place names that end in \"-ing\", such as Worthing and Angmering. These are known to derive from an earlier form ending in \"-ingas\". \"Hastings\" for example, derives from \"Hæstingas\" which may mean \"the followers or dependents of a person named Hæsta\", although others suggest the heavily Romanised region may have had names of Gallo-Roman origin derived from \"-ienses\".\n\nFrom west of Selsey Bill to east of Pevensey can be found the densest concentration of these names anywhere in Britain. There are a total of about forty-five place names in Sussex of this form, however, personal names either were not associated with these places or fell out of use. This does not necessarily mean that the Saxons killed or drove out almost all of the native population, despite the slaughter of the Britons reported in the ''Chronicle'' entry for 491; however, it does imply that the invasion was on a scale that left little space for the British.\n\nThese lines of reasoning cannot prove the dates given in the ''Chronicle'', much less the details surrounding Ælle himself, but they do support the idea of an early conquest and the establishment of a settled kingdom.\n",
"A map of south-eastern England showing places visited by Ælle, according to the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', and the area of modern Sussex.If the dates given by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' are accurate to within half a century, then Ælle's reign lies in the middle of the Anglo-Saxon expansion, and prior to the final conquest of the Britons. It also seems consistent with the dates given to assume that Ælle's battles predate Mons Badonicus.This in turn would explain the long gap, of fifty or more years, in the succession of the \"bretwaldas\": if the peace gained by the Britons did indeed hold till the second half of the 6th century, it is not to be expected that an Anglo-Saxon leader should have anything resembling overlordship of England during that time. The idea of a pause in the Anglo-Saxon advance is also supported by the account in Procopius of 6th century migration from Britain to the kingdom of the Franks. Procopius's account is consistent with what is known to be a contemporary colonization of Armorica (now Brittany, in France); the settlers appear to have been at least partly from Dumnonia (modern Cornwall), and the area acquired regions known as Dumnonée and Cornouaille. It seems likely that something at that time was interrupting the general flow of the Anglo-Saxons from the continent to Britain.\n\nThe dates for Ælle's battles are also reasonably consistent with what is known of events in the kingdom of the Franks at that time. Clovis I united the Franks into a single kingdom during the 480s and afterwards, and the Franks' ability to exercise power along the southern coast of the English channel may have diverted Saxon adventurers to England rather than the continent.\n\nIt is possible, therefore, that a historical king named Ælle existed, who arrived from the continent in the late 5th century, and who conquered much of what is now Sussex. He may have been a prominent war chief with a leadership role in a federation of Anglo-Saxon groups fighting for territory in Britain at that time. This may be the origin of the reputation that led Bede to list him as holding overlordship over southern Britain. The battles listed in the ''Chronicle'' are compatible with a conquest of Sussex from west to east, against British resistance stiff enough to last fourteen years. His area of military control may have extended as far as Hampshire and north to the upper Thames valley, but it certainly did not extend across all of England south of the Humber, as Bede asserts.\n\nThe historian Guy Halsall argues that as Ælle immediately preceded the late sixth-century King Ceawlin as Bretwalda, it is far more likely that Ælle dates to the mid sixth century, and that the ''Chronicle'' has moved his dates back a century in order to provide a foundation myth for Sussex which puts it chronologically and geographically between the origins of the kingdoms of Kent and Wessex.\n",
"Ælle's death is not recorded by the ''Chronicle'', which gives no information about him, or his sons, or the South Saxons until 675, when the South Saxon king Æthelwalh was baptized.\n\nIt has been conjectured that, as Saxon war leader, Ælle may have met his death in the disastrous battle of Mount Badon when the Britons halted Saxon expansion If Ælle died within the borders of his own kingdom then it may well have been that he was buried on Highdown Hill with his weapons and ornaments in the usual mode of burial among the South Saxons. Highdown Hill is the traditional burial-place of the kings of Sussex.\n",
"*Timeline of the Anglo-Saxon invasion and takeover of Britain\n",
"\n",
"'''Primary sources'''\n\n*\n*\n'''Secondary sources'''\n* \n*\n*\n* \n*\n*\n*\n*\n* \n* \n*\n* \n*\n* \n",
"* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Historical context",
"Early sources",
"Evidence from place names in Sussex",
"Reign",
"Death and burial",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Ælle of Sussex |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Acadia University''' is a predominantly undergraduate university located in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada with some graduate programs at the master's level and one at the doctoral level. The enabling legislation consists of Acadia University Act and the Amended Acadia University Act 2000.\n\nThe Wolfville Campus houses Acadia University Archives and the Acadia University Art Gallery. Acadia offers over 200 degree combinations in the Faculties of Arts, Pure and Applied Science, Professional Studies, and Theology. The student-faculty ratio is 15:1 and the average class size is 28. Open Acadia offers correspondence and distance education courses.\n",
"University Hall at Acadia University Acadia began as an extension of Horton Academy (1828), which was founded in Horton, Nova Scotia, by Baptists from Nova Scotia and Queen's College (1838). The College was later named Acadia College. Acadia University, established at Wolfville, Nova Scotia in 1838 has a strong Baptist religious affiliation.\nIt was designed to prepare men for the ministry and to supply education for lay members.\n\nThe two major Universities of the day in Nova Scotia were heavily controlled by Denominational structures. King's College (University of King's College) was an Anglican School and Dalhousie University, which was originally non-denominational, had placed itself under the control and direction of the Church of Scotland. It was the failure of Dalhousie to appoint a prominent Baptist pastor and scholar, Edmund Crawley, to the Chair of Classics, as had been expected, that really thrust into the forefront of Baptist thinking the need for a College established and run by the Baptists.\n\nIn 1838, the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society founded Queen's College (named for Queen Victoria). The College began with 21 students in January 1839. The name \"Queen's College\" was denied to the Baptist school, so it was renamed \"Acadia College\" in 1841, in reference to the history of the area as an Acadian settlement. Acadia College awarded its first degrees in 1843 and became Acadia University in 1891, established by the Acadia University Act.\n\nThe Granville Street Baptist Church (now First Baptist Church (Halifax)) was an instrumental and determining factor in the founding of the University. It has played a supporting role throughout its history, and shares much of the credit for its survival and development. Many individuals who have made significant contributions to Acadia University, including the first president John Pryor, were members of the First Baptist Church Halifax congregation. Similarly, the adjacent Wolfville United Baptist Church plays a significant role in the life of the university.\n\nThe original charter of the college stated:\n\n\n\nThis was unique at the time, and a direct result of Baptists being denied entry into other schools that required religious tests of their students and staff.\n\nIn 1851, the power of appointing governors was transferred from the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society to the Baptist Convention of the Maritime Provinces.\n\nCharles Osborne Wickenden (architect), and J.C. Dumaresq designed the Central Building, Acadia College, 1878–79.\n\n\nClara Belle Marshall, from Mount Hanley, Nova Scotia, became the first woman to graduate from Acadia University in 1879.\n\nIn 1891, there were changes in the Act of Incorporation.\n\nAndrew R. Cobb designed several campus buildings including: Raynor Hall Residence, 1916; Horton House, designed by Cobb in the Georgian style, and built by James Reid of Yarmouth, Nova Scotia was opened in 1915 as Horton Academy. Today, Horton Hall is the home of the Department of Psychology and Research and Graduate Studies. Emmerson Hall, built in 1913, is particularly interesting for the variety of building stones used. In 1967 Emmerson Hall was converted to classrooms and offices for the School of Education. It is a registered Heritage Property. H. R. Emmerson.\n\nUnveiled on 16 August 1963, a wooden and metal organ in Manning Chapel, Acadia University, is dedicated to Acadia University's war dead of the First and Second World Wars and the Korean War. A book of remembrance in Manning Chapel, Acadia University was unveiled on 1 March 1998 through the efforts of the Wolfville Historical Society \n\nIn 1966, the Baptist denomination relinquished direct control over the University. The denomination maintains nine seats on the University's Board of Governors.\n\nOn 4 January 2008, Dr. Gail Dinter-Gottlieb decided to step down as President and Vice Chancellor of the University before her term expired. Her resignation was effective 29 February 2008. Ray Ivany began his position as President and Vice-Chancellor on 1 April 2009.\n\nOn 5 February 2016, it was announced that Ray Ivany would be leaving his post as President of Acadia University at the end of the 2017 academic year. In a statement provided to The Chronicle Herald, Ivany wrote \"I came to Acadia in 2009 because I respected the institution’s history, the faculty and staff who had established its reputation, its alumni who care deeply about the university, and its students who, year after year, earn awards and recognition for their work. In my time here, I have discovered the same Acadia magic that attracts students from around the world\".\n\nAs of July 2017, Peter J. Ricketts is the current president.\n\n===Faculty strikes===\n\nAcadia University's Board of Governors and members of the Acadia University Faculty Association (AUFA) have ratified a new collective agreement news release covering the period 1 July 2010 to 30 June 2014. The faculty of Acadia University have been on strike twice in the history of the institution. The first was 24 February to 12 March 2004. The second was 15 October to 5 November 2007. The second strike was resolved after the province's labour minister, Mark Parent, appointed a mediator, on 1 November, to facilitate an agreement.\n",
"\n\n===Profile===\nAs a primarily undergraduate institution, the university places significant importance on teaching and instruction.\n\n\n\n===Rankings===\n\nAcadia University is consistently ranked among the top universities in Canada for undergraduate studies in the Maclean's comprehensive Canadian Universities rankings, coming second in Canada for the 2014 academic year and among the top five for the past decade. This has been attributed to Acadia's small class size and close relationships between the faculty and the students.\n\n===Faculties===\nAcadia is organized into four faculties: Arts, Pure & Applied Science, Professional Studies and Theology. Each faculty is further divided into departments and schools specialized in areas of teaching and research.\n",
"The Division of Research & Graduate Studies is separate from the faculties and oversees graduate students as well as Acadia's research programs.\n\nAcadia's research programs explore coastal environments, ethno-cultural diversity, social justice, environmental monitoring and climate change, organizational relationships, data mining, the impact of digital technologies, and lifestyle choices contributing to health and wellness. Acadia's research centres include the Tidal Energy Institute, the Acadia Institute for Data Analytics, and the Beaubassin Field Station. Applied research opportunities include research with local wineries and grape growers, alternative insect control techniques and technologies.\n",
"\n===The Acadia Advantage===\n\nIn 1996, Acadia University pioneered the use of mobile computing technology in a post-secondary educational environment.\n\nThis academic initiative, named the Acadia Advantage, integrated the use of notebook computers into the undergraduate curriculum and featured innovations in teaching. By 2000, all full-time, undergraduate Acadia students were taking part in the initiative. The initiative went beyond leasing notebook computers to students during the academic year, and included training, user support and the use of course-specific applications at Acadia that arguably revolutionized learning at the Wolfville, N.S. campus and beyond.\n\nBecause of its pioneering efforts, Acadia is a laureate of Washington's Smithsonian Institution and a part of the permanent research collection of the National Museum of American History. It is the only Canadian university selected for inclusion in the Education and Academia category of the Computerworld Smithsonian Award.\n\nIn addition, Acadia University received the Pioneer Award for Ubiquitous Computing. In 2001, it achieved high rankings in the annual ''Maclean's'' University Rankings, including Best Overall for Primarily Undergraduate University in their opinion survey, and it received the Canadian Information Productivity Award in 1997 as it was praised as the first university in Canada to fully utilize information technology in the undergraduate curriculum.\n\nIn October 2006, Dr. Dinter-Gottlieb established a commission to review the Acadia Advantage learning environment 10 years after inception. The mandate of the commission was to determine how well the current Advantage program meets the needs of students, faculty, and staff and to examine how the role of technology in the postsecondary environment has changed at Acadia, and elsewhere. The commission was asked to recommend changes and enhancements to the Acadia Advantage that would benefit the entire university community and ensure its sustainability.\n\nSome of the recommendations coming from the Acadia Advantage Renewal Report included developing a choice of model specifications and moving from Acadia-issued, student-leased notebook computers to a student-owned computer model. The compelling rationale for this was the integral role technology now plays in our lives, which was not present in 1996.\n\nThe University was also advised to unbundle its tuition structure so that the cost of an Acadia education is more detailed and students can understand how their investment in the future of the school is allotted. In September 2008, Acadia moved to a student-owned notebook computer version of the Acadia Advantage, now named Acadia Advantage 2.0.\n",
"Acadia's sports teams are called the Axemen and Axewomen. They participate in the Atlantic University Sports conference of Canadian Interuniversity Sport.\n\nSchool spirit abounds with men's and women's varsity teams that have delivered more conference and national championships than any other institution in Atlantic University Sport. Routinely, more than one-third of Acadia's varsity athletes also achieve Academic All-Canadian designation through Canadian Interuniversity Sport by maintaining a minimum average of 80 per cent.\n\nExpansion and modernization of Raymond Field was completed in the fall of 2007 and features the installation of an eight-lane all-weather running track and a move to the same premium artificial turf used by the New England Patriots of the National Football League for its main playing field. The Raymond Field modernization was a gift to the university by friends, alumni, and the province. War Memorial Gymnasium also saw the installation of a new playing floor to benefit its basketball and volleyball teams.\n\nIn September 2006, Acadia University announced its partnership with the Wolfville Tritons Swim Club and the Acadia Masters Swim Club to form the Acadia Swim Club and return competitive swimming to the university after a 14-year hiatus. On 26 September 2008, the university announced its intention to return swimming to a varsity status in September 2009.\n",
"Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games are: ''Stand Up and Cheer'', the Acadia University fight song. According to 'Songs of Acadia College' (Wolfville, NS 1902-3, 1907), the songs include: 'Acadia Centennial Song' (1938); 'The Acadia Clan Song'; 'Alma Mater - Acadia;' 'Alma Mater Acadia' (1938) and 'Alma Mater Song.'\n",
"In 1974, Acadia was granted a coat of arms designed by the College of Arms in London, England. The coat of arms is two-tone, with the school's official colours, garnet and blue, on the shield. The axes represent the school's origins in a rural setting, and the determination of its founders who cleared the land and built the school on donated items and labour. The open books represent the intellectual pursuits of a university, and the wolves heads are a whimsical representation of the University's location in Wolfville. \"In pulvere vinces\" (In dust you conquer) is the motto.\n\nThe University seal depicts the Greek goddess of wisdom Athena in front of the first college hall.\n\nThe University also uses a stylized \"A\" as a logo for its sports teams.\n\nNotable among a number of fight songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games are: the Acadia University alma mater set to the tune of \"Annie Lisle\". The lyrics are:\n\n:Far above the dykes of Fundy\n:And its basin blue\n:Stands our noble alma mater\n:Glorious to view\n\n:Lift the chorus\n:Speed it onward\n:Sing it loud and free\n:Hail to thee our alma mater\n:Acadia, hail to thee\n\n:Far above the busy highway\n:And the sleepy town\n:Raised against the arch of heaven\n:Looks she proudly down\n",
"Seminary House, also known as the Ladies' Seminary, is a Second Empire style-building constructed in 1878 as a home for women attending the university. It was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1997 as Canada's oldest facility associated with the higher education of women.\n\nCarnegie Hall, built in 1909, is a large, two-storey, Neo-classical brick building. It was designated under the provincial Heritage Property Act in 1989 as its construction in 1909 signified Acadia's evolution from classical college to liberal university.\n\nThe War Memorial House (more generally known as Barrax), which is a residence, and War Memorial Gymnasium are landmark buildings on the campus of Acadia University. The Memorial Hall and Gymnasium honours students who had enlisted and died in the First World War, and in the Second World War. Two granite shafts, which are part of the War Memorial Gymnasium complex at Acadia University, are dedicated to the university's war dead. The War Memorial House is dedicated to the war dead from Acadia University during the Second World War.\n",
"\nAt Acadia University, students have access to the Student Union Building which serves as a hub for students and houses many Student Union organizations. The building also houses The Axe Lounge, a convenience store, an information desk and two food outlets. The university press, The Athenaeum, is a member of CUP.\n\n===Student government===\n\nAll students are represented by the Acadia Students' Union. \nThe Union Executive for the 2017-2018 academic year: President - Grace H-B, Vice President Student Life - Emily Murray, Vice President Academic & External - Samantha Nixon, Vice President Finance - Liam Schreiter, Vice President Events & Promotions - Malcolm Anderson. The student newspaper is ''The Athenaeum.''\n\n===Residences===\n\nApproximately 1500 students live on-campus in 12 residences:\n* Chase Court\n* Cutten House\n* Roy Jodrey Hall\n* Eaton House\n* Christofor Hall\n* Chipman House\n* Dennis House - First floor houses student health services\n* Whitman Hall (Tully) - All female residence\n* Seminary House - Also houses the School of Education in lower level\n* War Memorial (Barrax) House\n* Raymond House\n* Crowell Tower (13 Story High-rise)\n* Willett House (former residence)\n",
"\n\n===List of Presidents and Vice Chancellors===\n\n* John Pryor, 1846–1850\n* John Cramp, 1851–1853 (and 1856–1869)\n* Edmund Crawley, 1853–1856\n* John Cramp, 1856–1869\n* Artemas Wyman Sawyer, 1869–1896\n* Thomas Trotter, 1897–1906\n* W.B. Hutchinson, 1907–1909\n* George Barton Cutten, 1910–1922\n* Frederic Patterson, 1923–1948\n* Watson Kirkconnell, 1948–1964\n* James Beveridge, 1964–1978\n* Allan Sinclair, 1978–1981\n* James Perkin, 1981–1993\n* Kelvin Ogilvie, 1993–2004\n* Gail Dinter-Gottlieb, 2004–2008\n* Tom Herman (Acting President), 2008–2009\n* Raymond Ivany, 2009 – 2017\n* Peter J Ricketts, 2017 – present\n\n===List of Chancellors===\n\n*Alex Colville, 1981–1991\n*William Feindel, 1991–1996\n*Arthur Irving, 1996–2010\n*Libby Burnham, 2011–present\n\n===Notable alumni===\n* Heather Gow, Markham - Stouffville Stars Manager\n* Edgar Archibald, scientist and politician\n* Norman Atkins, Canadian senator\n* Ron Barkhouse, MLA for Lunenburg East (Horton Academy)\n* Gordon Lockhart Bennett, Lieutenant-Governor of Prince Edward Island\n* Arthur Bourns, President of McMaster University\n* Libby Burnham, lawyer, Chancellor of Acadia University\n* Bob Cameron, football player\n* Dalton Camp, journalist, politician and political strategist\n* M. Elizabeth Cannon, University of Calgary's President & Vice-Chancellor\n* Paul Corkum, physicist and F.R.S.\n* John Wallace de Beque Farris, Canadian senator\n* Mark Day, actor\n* Michael Dick, CBC-TV Journalist\n*Charles Aubrey Eaton (1868–1953), clergyman and politician who served in the United States House of Representatives, representing the from 1925 to 1933, and the from 1933 to 1953.\n* William Feindel, neurosurgeon\n* Tom Filgiano, dentist\n* Dale Frail, astronomer\n* Rob Ramsay, actor\n* Alexandra Fuller, writer\n* Gary Graham, musician, choral conductor\n* Milton Fowler Gregg, VC laureate, politician\n* Robbie Harrison, Nova Scotian politician and educator\n* Charles Brenton Huggins, Nobel Laureate\n* Kenneth Colin Irving, industrialist\n* Robert Irving, industrialist\n* Ron James, Canadian comedian\n* Lorie Kane, LPGA golfer\n* Gerald Keddy, Member of Parliament\n* Joanne Kelly, Actress\n* David H. Levy, astronomer\n* Peter MacKay, lawyer, Canadian Minister of National Defence\n* Henry Poole MacKeen, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia\n* Paul Masotti, football player\n* Harrison McCain, industrialist\n* Donald Oliver, Canadian senator\n* Henry Nicholas Paint (1830–1921), member of Parliament, merchant, landowner,\n* Freeman Patterson, photographer, writer\n* Robert Pope, Visual artist author,\n* Keith R. Porter, Cell Biologist\n* Heather Rankin, member of The Rankin Family\n* Jacob Gould Schurman, President of Cornell University\n* Catrina Tapley, Senior Canadian Civil Servant\n* Stephen Wetmore, Former CEO of Canadian Tire Corporation\n* Rev. William A. White, noted black minister and missionary\n* Lance Woolaver, playwright\n* A. B. Masilamani, Indian Baptist Minister\n\n===Honorary graduates===\n* William Twaits, Chairman and CEO of Imperial Oil Limited\n* Rev. William A. White, noted black minister and missionary\n",
"*Acadia Divinity College\n*Canadian government scientific research organizations\n*Canadian industrial research and development organizations\n*Canadian Interuniversity Sport\n*Canadian university scientific research organizations\n*Higher education in Nova Scotia\n*List of universities in Nova Scotia\n*List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Nova Scotia\n",
"\n",
"*Longley, R. S. Acadia University, 1838–1938. Wolfville, N.S.: Acadia University, 1939.\n",
"\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Academics",
"Research",
"Innovation",
"Athletics",
"Fight song",
"Symbols",
"Historic buildings at Acadia University",
"Student life",
"People",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Acadia University |
[
"\n\n\nPlaying a steel-string guitar without a pick (fingerpicking).\nC.F. Martin Eric Clapton model.\nFender DG-41SCE.\nEpiphone PR-5E VS.\n\nThe '''steel-string acoustic guitar''' is a modern form of guitar that descends from the classical guitar, but is strung with steel strings for a brighter, louder sound. It is often referred to simply as an '''acoustic guitar''', though the nylon-strung classical guitar is sometimes also called an acoustic guitar.\n\nThe most common type is often called a flat top guitar, to distinguish it from the more specialized archtop guitar and other variations.\n\nThe standard tuning for an acoustic guitar is E-A-D-G-B-E (low to high), although many players, particularly fingerpickers, use alternate tunings (scordatura), such as \"open G\" (D-G-D-G-B-D), \"open D\" (D-A-D-F-A-D), or \"drop D\" (D-A-D-G-B-E).\n",
"There are many variations in construction and materials used in steel-string guitars. Different combinations of woods and construction elements (for example, how the top is braced) affect the timbre or \"tone\" of the guitar. Many players and luthiers are convinced that a well-made guitar's tone improves over time. This is believed to be due to the decrease in the content of hemicellulose, crystallization of cellulose, and changes to lignin over time, all resulting in the wood gaining better resonating properties. \n\n=== Types ===\nAcoustic guitars are commonly constructed in several different body types. In general, the guitar's soundbox can be thought of as composed of two connected chambers: the ''upper bouts'' and ''lower bouts'' (a ''bout'' being the rounded corner of an instrument body), which meet at the ''waist,'' or the narrowest part of the body face near the soundhole. The proportion and overall size of these two parts helps determine the overall tonal balance and \"native sound\" of a particular body style – the larger the body, the louder the volume.\n\n* The '''\"00,\"''' also called the '''\"Double-Oh\"''' or the '''\"Grand Concert,\"''' body type is the major body style most directly derived from the classical guitar. It has the thinnest soundbox and the smallest overall size of the major styles, making it very comfortable to play but also one of the quietest. Its smaller size makes it suitable for younger or smaller-framed players. These guitars are commonly called \"parlor steels\" as they are well-suited to smaller rooms. Martin's 00-xxx series and Taylor's x12 series are common examples.\n* The '''\"Grand Auditorium\"''' guitar, sometimes called the \"'''000\"''' or the \"'''Triple-Oh,\"''' is very similar in design to the Grand Concert, but slightly wider and deeper. Many 000-style guitars also have a convex back panel to increase the volume of space in the soundbox without making the soundbox deeper at the edges, which would affect comfort and playability. The result is a very balanced tone, comparable to the 00 but with greater volume and dynamic range and slightly more low-end response, without sacrificing the ergonomics of the classical style, making these body styles very popular. Eric Clapton's signature Martin guitar, for example, is of this style. Martin's 000-xxx series and Taylor's x14 series are well-known examples of the Grand Auditorium style.\n* The '''\"Dreadnought,\"''' currently the most common body type, incorporates a deeper soundbox, but a smaller and less-pronounced upper bout (the area of the soundbox between the waist and neck) than most styles, giving a somewhat wedge-shaped appearance – hence its name, relating to a class of warship. The Dreadnought style was designed by Martin Guitars to produce a deeper sound than \"classic\"-style guitars, with very present bass fundamentals. This body style's combination of a small profile with a deep sound has made it immensely popular, and it has since been copied by virtually every major steel-string luthier. Martin's \"D\" series guitars, such as the highly-prized D-28, are classic examples of the Dreadnought.\n* The '''\"Jumbo\"''' body type is bigger again than a Grand Auditorium but similarly proportioned, and is generally designed to provide a deeper tone, similar to the Dreadnought (the body style was designed by Gibson to compete with the dreadnought) but with maximum resonant space for greater volume and sustain. This comes at the expense of being oversized, with a very deep sounding box, and thus somewhat more difficult to play. The foremost example of this style is the Gibson J-200, but like the Dreadnought, most guitar manufacturers have at least one jumbo model.\n\nAny of these body type can optionally incorporate a \"cutaway.\" A cutaway guitar has a redesigned upper bout that removes a section of the soundbox on the underside of the neck, hence the name \"cutaway.\" This allows for easier access to the frets that are located on top of the soundbox past the heel of the neck. The tradeoff is reduced soundbox volume, and often a change in bracing, which can change the resonant qualities and hence the tone of the instrument.\n\n* The '''\"12-string guitar\"''' replaces each single string with a ''course'' of two strings. The lower pairs are tuned an octave apart. This guitar was made famous by Artists such as Lead Belly, Pete Seeger and Leo Kottke.\n\nAll of the guitars above are relatively traditional in looks and construction, and are commonly referred to as \"flattop\" guitars. All are commonly seen and heard in popular music genres, including rock, blues, country, and folk. However, other styles of guitar have been introduced and enjoy moderate popularity, generally in more specific genres:\n* The '''archtop guitar''' incorporates a top, either carved out of solid wood or heat-pressed using laminations, that is arched like instruments in the violin family, usually with an f-hole rather than a round sound hole. These guitars are most commonly used by swing and jazz players and often incorporate electronics in the form of a pickup. However, many other kinds of acoustic guitars may incorporate these kinds of electronics as well.\n* The '''\"Selmer-Maccaferri guitar\"''' is usually played by those who follow the style of Django Reinhardt. It is an unusual-looking instrument, distinguished by a fairly large body with squarish bouts, and either a \"D\"-shaped or longitudinal oval soundhole. The strings are gathered at the tail like an archtop guitar, but the top is flatter. It also has a wide fingerboard and slotted head like a nylon-string guitar. The loud volume and penetrating tone make it suitable for single-note soloing, and it is frequently employed as a lead instrument in gypsy swing.\n* The '''\"resonator guitar,'''\" or '''\"resophonic guitar,'''\" also called the '''\"Dobro\"''' after its most prominent luthiers, the '''Do'''pyera '''Bro'''thers, produces sound with one or more metal cones (resonators) instead of the wooden soundboard (guitar top/face). Resonator guitars were originally designed to be louder than conventional acoustic guitars, which were overwhelmed by horns and percussion instruments in dance orchestras. They became prized for their distinctive sound, however, and found life with several musical styles (most notably bluegrass and also blues) well after electric amplification solved the issue of inadequate guitar sound levels.\n\n=== Tonewoods ===\nTraditionally, steel-string guitars have been made of a combination of various \"tonewoods\", or woods that have pleasing resonant qualities when used in instrument-making. Foremost are Sitka spruce, the most common, and Alpine and Adirondack spruce, the most sought-after, woods for the making of guitar tops. The back and sides of a particular guitar are typically made of the same wood; Brazilian or East Indian rosewood and Honduras mahogany are traditional choices, however, maple has been prized for the figuring that can be seen when it is cut in a certain way (such as \"flame\" and \"quilt\" patterns). A common non-traditional wood gaining popularity is sapele, which is tonally similar to mahogany but slightly lighter in color and possessing a deep grain structure that is visually appealing.\n\nDue to decreasing availability and rising prices of premium-quality traditional tonewoods, many manufacturers have begun experimenting with alternative species of woods or more commonly available variations on the standard species. For example, some makers have begun producing models with red cedar or mahogany tops, or with spruce variants other than Sitka. Cedar is also common in the back and sides, as is basswood. Entry-level models, especially those made in East Asia, often use nato wood, which is again tonally similar to mahogany but is cheap to acquire. Some have also begun using non-wood materials, such as plastic or graphite. Carbon-fiber and phenolic composite materials have become desirable for building necks, and some high-end luthiers produce all-carbon-fiber guitars.\n\n=== Assembly ===\nThe steel-string acoustic guitar evolved from the nylon- or gut-string classical guitar, and because steel strings have higher tension, heavier construction is required overall. One innovation is a metal bar called a truss rod, which is incorporated into the neck to strengthen it and provide adjustable counter-tension to the stress of the strings. Typically, a steel-string acoustic guitar is built with a larger soundbox than a standard classical guitar. A critical structural and tonal component of an acoustic guitar is the bracing, a systems of struts glued to the inside of the back and top. Steel-string guitars use different bracing systems from classical guitars, typically using X-bracing instead of fan bracing. (Another simpler system, called ladder bracing, where the braces are all placed across the width of the instrument, is used on all types of flat-top guitars on the back.) Innovations in bracing design have emerged, notably the A-brace developed by British luthier Roger Bucknall of Fylde Guitars.\n\nMost luthiers and experienced players agree that a good solid top (as opposed to laminated or plywood) is the most important factor in the tone of the guitar. Solid backs and sides can also contribute to a pleasant sound, although laminated sides and backs are acceptable alternatives, commonly found in mid-level guitars (in the range of US$300–$1000).\n\nFrom the 1960s through the 1980s, \"by far the most significant developments in the design and construction of acoustic guitars\" were made by the Ovation Guitar Company. It introduced a composite \"roundback\" bowl, which replaced the square back and sides of traditional guitars; because of its engineering design, Ovation guitars could be amplified without producing the obnoxious feedback that had plagued acoustic guitars before. Ovation also pioneered with electronics, such as pickup systems and electronic tuners.\n\n''See Guitar for more details on the construction of acoustic guitars.''\n",
"A steel-string guitar can be '''amplified''' using any of three techniques:\n* a microphone, possibly clipped to the guitar body;\n* a detachable pickup, often straddling the soundhole and using the same magnetic principle as a traditional electric guitar; or\n* a transducer built into the body.\n\nThe last type of guitar is commonly called an \"acoustic-electric\" or \"electro-acoustic\" guitar, as it can be played either \"unplugged\" as an acoustic or plugged in as an electric. The most common type is a piezoelectric pickup, which is composed of a thin sandwich of quartz crystal. When compressed, the crystal produces a small electric current, so when placed under the bridge saddle, the vibrations of the strings through the saddle, and of the body of the instrument, are converted to a weak electrical signal. This signal is often sent to a pre-amplifier, which increases the signal strength and normally incorporates an equalizer. The output of the preamplifier then goes to a separate amplifier system similar to that for an electric guitar.\n\nSeveral manufacturers produce specialised acoustic guitar amplifiers, which are designed to give undistorted and full-range reproduction.\n",
"Until the 1960s, the predominant forms of music played on the flat-top, steel-string guitar remained relatively stable and included acoustic blues, country, bluegrass, folk, and several genres of rock. The concept of playing solo steel-string guitar in a concert setting was introduced in the early 1960s by such performers as Davey Graham and John Fahey, who used country blues fingerpicking techniques to compose original compositions with structures somewhat like European classical music. Fahey contemporary Robbie Basho added elements of Indian classical music and Leo Kottke used a Faheyesque approach to make the first solo steel-string guitar \"hit\" record.\n\nSteel-string guitars are also important in the world of flatpicking, as utilized by such artists as Clarence White, Tony Rice, Bryan Sutton, Doc Watson and David Grier. Luthiers have been experimenting with redesigning the acoustic guitar for these players. These flat-top, steel-string guitars are constructed and voiced more for classical-like fingerpicking and less for chordal accompaniment (strumming). Some luthiers have increasingly focused their attention on the needs of fingerstylists and have developed unique guitars for this style of playing.\n\nMany other luthiers attempt to recreate the guitars of the \"Golden Era\" of C.F. Martin & Co. This was started by Roy Noble, who built the guitar played by Clarence White from 1968 to 1972, and was followed by Bill Collings, Marty Lanham, Dana Bourgeois, Randy Lucas, Lynn Dudenbostel and Wayne Henderson, a few of the luthiers building guitars today inspired by vintage Martins, the pre–World War II models in particular. As prices for vintage Martins continue to rise exponentially, upscale guitar enthusiasts have demanded faithful recreations and luthiers are working to fill that demand.\n",
"\n* Guitar\n* List of guitar manufacturers\n* Dingulator\n* Strumming\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Construction ",
" Amplification ",
" Music and players ",
" See also ",
" References "
] | Steel-string acoustic guitar |
[
"\nPortrait of Salieri by Joseph Willibrord Mähler\n'''Antonio Salieri''' (; 18 August 17507 May 1825) was an Italian classical composer, conductor, and teacher. He was born in Legnago, south of Verona, in the Republic of Venice, and spent his adult life and career as a subject of the Habsburg Monarchy.\n\nSalieri was a pivotal figure in the development of late 18th-century opera. As a student of Florian Leopold Gassmann, and a protégé of Gluck, Salieri was a cosmopolitan composer who wrote operas in three languages. Salieri helped to develop and shape many of the features of operatic compositional vocabulary, and his music was a powerful influence on contemporary composers.\n\nAppointed the director of the Italian opera by the Habsburg court, a post he held from 1774 until 1792, Salieri dominated Italian-language opera in Vienna. During his career he also spent time writing works for opera houses in Paris, Rome, and Venice, and his dramatic works were widely performed throughout Europe during his lifetime. As the Austrian imperial Kapellmeister from 1788 to 1824, he was responsible for music at the court chapel and attached school. Even as his works dropped from performance, and he wrote no new operas after 1804, he still remained one of the most important and sought-after teachers of his generation, and his influence was felt in every aspect of Vienna's musical life. Franz Liszt, Franz Schubert, and Ludwig van Beethoven were among the most famous of his pupils.\n\nSalieri's music slowly disappeared from the repertoire between 1800 and 1868 and was rarely heard after that period until the revival of his fame in the late 20th century. This revival was due to the dramatic and highly fictionalized depiction of Salieri in Peter Shaffer's play ''Amadeus'' (1979) and its 1984 film version. He is popularly remembered for rumours that he poisoned his supposedly bitter rival Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, when most likely, they were at least mutually respectful peers.\n",
"Salieri started his musical studies in his native town of Legnago; he was first taught at home by his older brother Francesco Salieri (a former student of the violinist and composer Giuseppe Tartini), and he received further lessons from the organist of the Legnago Cathedral, Giuseppe Simoni, a pupil of Padre Giovanni Battista Martini. Salieri would recall little from his childhood in later years except passions for sugar, reading, and music. He twice ran away from home without permission to hear his elder brother play violin concertos in neighboring churches on festival days (resulting in the loss of his beloved sugar), and he recounted being chastised by his father after failing to greet a local priest with proper respect. Salieri responded to the reprimand by saying the priest's organ playing displeased him because it was in an inappropriately theatrical style. Sometime between 1763 and 1764, Salieri suffered the deaths of both parents and was briefly taken in by an anonymous brother, a monk in Padua, and then for unknown reasons in 1765 or 1766, he became the ward of a Venetian nobleman named Giovanni Mocenigo (which Giovanni is at this time unknown), a member of the powerful and well connected Mocenigo family. It is possible that Antonio's father and Giovanni were friends or business associates, but this is obscure. While living in Venice, Salieri continued his musical studies with the organist and opera composer Giovanni Battista Pescetti, then following Pescetti's sudden death he studied with the opera singer Ferdinando Pacini (or Pasini). It was through Pacini that Salieri gained the attention of the composer Florian Leopold Gassmann, who, impressed with his protege's talents and concerned for the boy's future, took the young orphan to Vienna, where he personally directed and paid for the remainder of Salieri's musical education.\n\nSalieri and Gassmann arrived in Vienna on 15 June 1766. Gassmann's first act was to take Salieri to the Italian Church to consecrate his teaching and service to God, an event that left a deep impression on Salieri for the rest of his life. Salieri's education included instruction in Latin and Italian poetry by Fr. Don Pietro Tommasi, instruction in the German language, and European literature. His music studies revolved around vocal composition, and thoroughbass. His musical theory training in harmony and counterpoint was rooted in Johann Fux's Gradus ad Parnassum, which Salieri translated during each Latin lesson. As a result, Salieri continued to live with Gassmann even after Gassmann's marriage, an arrangement that lasted until the year of Gassmann's death and Salieri's own marriage in 1774. Few of Salieri's compositions have survived from this early period. In his old age Salieri hinted that these works were either purposely destroyed, or had been lost with the exception of a few works for the church. Among these sacred works there survives a Mass in C major written without a \"Gloria\" and in the antique a cappella style (presumably for one of the church's penitential seasons) and dated 2 August 1767. A complete opera composed in 1769 (presumably as a culminating study) ''La vestale'' (''The Vestal Virgin'') has also been lost.\n\nBeginning in 1766 Gassmann introduced Salieri to the daily chamber music performances held during Emperor Joseph II's evening meal. Salieri quickly impressed the Emperor, and Gassmann was instructed to bring his pupil as often as he wished. This was the beginning of a relationship between monarch and musician that would last until Joseph's death in 1790. Salieri met Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi, better known as Metastasio and Christoph Willibald Gluck during this period at the famous Sunday morning salons held at the home of the Martinez family. Here Metastasio had an apartment and participated in the weekly gatherings. Over the next several years Metastasio gave Salieri informal instruction in prosody and the declamation of Italian poetry, and Gluck became an informal advisor, friend and confidante. It was toward the end of this extended period of study that Gassmann was called away on a new opera commission and a gap in the theater's program allowed for Salieri to make his debut as a composer of a completely original opera buffa. Salieri's first full opera was composed during the winter and carnival season of 1770; ''Le donne letterate'' and was based on Molière's ''Les Femmes Savantes'' (''The Learned Ladies'') with a libretto by , a dancer in the court ballet and a brother of the famous composer Luigi Boccherini. The modest success of this opera would launch Salieri's 34-year operatic career as a composer of over 35 original dramas.\n\n===Early Viennese period and operas (1770–1778)===\nFollowing the modest success of ''Le donne letterate'' Salieri received new commissions writing two additional operas in 1770 both with libretti by Boccherini. The first a pastoral opera, ''L'amore innocente'' (''Innocent Love'') was a light hearted comedy set in the Austrian mountains, and the second was based on an episode from Cervantes ''Don Quixote'' – \"Don Chisciotte alle nozze di Gamace\" (Don Quixote at the marriage of Camacho). In these first works, drawn mostly from the traditions of mid-century opera buffa, Salieri showed a penchant for experimentation and for mixing the established characteristics of specific operatic genres. Don Chisciotte was a mix of ballet and opera buffa, and the lead female roles in ''L'amore innocente'' were designed to contrast and highlight the different traditions of operatic writing for soprano, even borrowing stylistic flourishes from opera-seria in the use of coloratura in what was a short pastoral comedy more in keeping with a Roman Intermezzo. The mixing and pushing against the boundaries of established operatic genres would be a continuing hallmark of Salieri's own personal style, and in his choice of material for the plot (as in his first opera), he manifested a lifelong interest in subjects drawn from classic drama and literature.\n\nSalieri's first great success was in the realm of serious opera. Commissioned for an unknown occasion Salieri's ''Armida'' was based on Torquato Tasso's epic poem ''La Gerusalemme liberata'' (''Jerusalem Delivered'') and premiered on 2 June 1771. ''Armida'' is a tale of love and duty in conflict and is saturated in magic. The opera is set during the First Crusade and it features a dramatic mix of ballet, aria, ensemble and choral writing combining theatricality, scenic splendor and high emotionalism. The work clearly followed in Gluck's footsteps and embraced his reform of serious opera begun with ''Orfeo ed Euridice'' and ''Alceste''. The libretto to ''Armida'' was by Marco Coltellini the house poet for the imperial theaters. While Salieri followed the precepts set forth by Gluck and his librettist Ranieri de' Calzabigi in the preface to ''Alceste''; Salieri also drew on some musical ideas from the more traditional opera-seria and even opera buffa, creating a new synthesis in the process. ''Armida'' was translated into German and widely performed, especially in the northern German states, where it helped to establish Salieri's reputation as an important and innovative modern composer It would also be the first opera to receive a serious preparation in a piano and vocal reduction by in 1783.\n\n''Armida'' was soon followed by Salieri's first truly popular success; a commedia per musica in the style of Carlo Goldoni ''La fiera di Venezia'' (''The Fair of Venice''). ''La fiera'' was written for Carnival in 1772 and premiered on 29 January. Here Salieri returned to his collaboration with the young Boccherini who crafted an original plot. ''La fiera'' would feature characters singing in three languages, a bustling portrayal of the Ascension-tide Fair and Carnival in Venice, and large and lengthy ensembles and choruses. It also included an innovative scene that would combine a series of on stage dances with singing from both solo protagonists and the chorus. A pattern to be imitated by later composers, most famously and successfully by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in ''Don Giovanni''. Salieri would also write several bravura arias for a soprano playing the part of a middle class character that would combine coloratura and concertante woodwind solos, another innovation for a comic opera that was to be widely imitated.\n\nSalieri's next two operas were not particular or lasting successes, of the two only ''La secchia rapita'' (''The Stolen Bucket''), deserves mention. A parody of Metastasian opera-seria it featured dazzling parodies of the high flown and emotive arias found in that genre, as well as bold and innovative orchestrations, including the first known use of three tympani. Again a classic of Renaissance literature was the basis of the libretto by Boccherini, in this case a comic mock-epic by Tassoni, in which a war between Modena and Bologna ensues over a stolen bucket. This uneven work was followed by another popular comedic success ''La locandiera'' (''Mine Hostess''), an adaptation of the classic and popular spoken stage comedy ''La locandiera'' by Carlo Goldoni, the libretto was prepared by Domenico Poggi.\n\nThe majority of Salieri's modest number of instrumental works also date from this time. Salieri's instrumental works have been judged by various critics and scholars to lack the inspiration and innovation found in his writing for the stage. These orchestral works are mainly in the galant style, and although they show some development toward the late classical, they reflect a general weakness in comparison to his operatic works of the same and later periods. These works were written for mostly unknown occasions and artists. They include two concertos for pianoforte, one in C major and one in B flat major (both 1773); a concerto for organ in C Major in two movements, (the middle movement is missing from the autograph score, or perhaps, it was an improvised organ solo) (also 1773); two concertante works: a concerto for oboe, violin and cello in D major (1770), and a flute and oboe concerto in C major (1774). These works are among the most frequently recorded of Salieri's compositions.\n\nUpon Gassmann's death on 21 January, most likely due to complications from an accident with a carriage some years earlier, Salieri succeeded him as assistant director of the Italian opera in early 1774. In 1775 Salieri married Therese Helferstorfer on 10 October, she was the daughter of a recently deceased financier and official of the court treasury. Sacred music was not a high priority for the composer during this stage of his career, but he did compose an Alleluia for chorus and orchestra in 1774.\n\nDuring the next three years Salieri was primarily concerned with rehearsing and conducting the Italian opera company in Vienna and teaching. His three complete operas written during this time show the development of his compositional skills, but included no great success, either commercially, or artistically. His most important compositions during this period were a symphony in D major, performed in the summer of 1776, and the oratorio ''La passione di Gesù Cristo'' with a text by Metastasio performed during Advent of 1776.\n\nAfter the financial collapse of the Italian opera company in 1777 due to financial mis-management, Joseph II decided to end the performance of Italian opera, French spoken drama, and ballet. Instead, the two court-owned theaters would be reopened under new management, and partly subsidized by the Imperial Court, as a new National Theater. The re-launched theaters would promote German language plays and musical productions that reflected Austrian (or as Joseph II would have said) German values, traditions and outlook. The Italian opera buffa company was therefore replaced by a German language Singspiel troupe. For Joseph and his supports of Imperial reform, besides encouraging any first buddings of pan-national pride that would unite his multi-lingual and ethnic subjects under one common language; they also hoped to save a considerable amount of money in the process. Beginning in 1778 Emperor wished to have new works, in German, composed by his own subjects and brought on the stage with clear Imperial support. This in effect left Salieri's role as assistant court composer in a much reduced position. Salieri also had never truly mastered the German language, and he now felt no longer competent to continue as assistant opera director. A further blow to his career was landed when the spoken drama and musical Singspiel were placed on an equal footing. For the young composer there would be few, if any, new compositional commissions to receive from the court. Salieri was left with few financial options and he began casting about for new opportunities.\n\n===Italian tour (1778–1780)===\nHowever, in 1778 Gluck turned down an offer to compose the inaugural opera for La Scala in Milan; upon the suggestion of Joseph II and with the approval of Gluck, Salieri was offered the commission, which he gratefully accepted. Joseph II granted Salieri permission to take a year-long leave of absence (later extended) thus enabling him to write for La Scala and to undertake a tour of Italy. Salieri's Italian tour of 1778–80 began with the production of ''Europa riconosciuta'' (''Europa Recognized'') for La Scala (which was revived in 2004 for the same opera house's re-opening following extensive renovations). From Milan Salieri included stops in Venice and Rome and finally a return to Milan. During this tour he wrote three new comic operas and he also collaborated with Giacomo Rust on one opera, ''Il Talismano'' (''The Talisman''). Of his Italian works one, ''La scuola de' gelosi'' (''The School for Jealousy''), a witty study of amorous intrigue and emotion, would prove a popular and lasting international success.\n\n===Middle Viennese period and Parisian operas (1780–1788)===\nUpon his return at imperial behest to Vienna in 1780, he wrote one German singspiel, ''Der Rauchfangkehrer'' (''The Chimney Sweep''), which premiered in 1781. Salieri's ''Chimney Sweep'' and Mozart's work for the same company in 1782, ''Die Entführung aus dem Serail'' (''The Abduction from the Seraglio'') would be the only two major successes to emerge from the German singspiel experiment, and only Mozart's opera would survive on the stage beyond the close of the 18th century. In 1783 the Italian opera company was revived with singers partly chosen and vetted by Salieri during his Italian tour, the new season would open with a slightly re-worked version of Salieri's recent success ''La scuola de' gelosi''. Salieri then returned to his rounds of rehearsing, composition and teaching. However, his time at home in Vienna would be quickly brought to a close when an opportunity to write an opera for Paris arose, again through the patronage of Gluck Salieri traveled abroad to fulfill an important commission.\n\nThe opera ''Les Danaïdes'' (''The Danaids'') is a five-act tragédie lyrique; the plot was based on an ancient Greek legend that had been the basis for the first play in a trilogy by Aeschylus, entitled ''The Suppliants''. The original commission that reached Salieri in 1783–84 was to assist Gluck in finishing a work for Paris that had been all but completed; in reality, Gluck had failed to notate any of the score for the new opera and gave the entire project over to his young friend. Gluck feared that the Parisian critics would denounce the opera by a young composer known mostly for comic pieces and so the opera was originally billed in the press as being a new work by Gluck with some assistance from Salieri, then shortly before the premiere of the opera the Parisian press reported that the work was to be partly by Gluck and partly by Salieri, and finally after popular and critical success were won on stage the opera was acknowledged in a letter to the public by Gluck as being wholly by the young Salieri. ''Les Danaïdes'' was received with great acclaim and its popularity with audiences and critics alike produced several further requests for new works for Paris audiences by Salieri. ''Les Danaïdes'' followed in the tradition of reform that Gluck had begun in the 1760s and that Salieri had emulated in his earlier opera ''Armida''. Salieri's first French opera contained scenes of great solemnity and festivity; yet overshadowing it all was darkness and revenge. The opera depicted politically motivated murder, filial duty and love in conflict, tyrannicide and finally eternal damnation. The opera with its dark overture, lavish choral writing, many ballet scenes, and electrifying finale depicting a glimpse of hellish torture kept the opera on the stage in Paris for over forty years. A young Hector Berlioz recorded the deep impression this work made on him in his ''Mémoires''.\n\nUpon returning to Vienna following his success in Paris, Salieri met and befriended Lorenzo Da Ponte and had his first professional encounters with Mozart. Da Ponte would write his first opera libretto for Salieri, ''Il ricco d'un giorno'' (A rich man for a day) in 1784, it was not a success. Salieri next turned to Giambattista Casti as a librettist, a more successful set of collaboration flowed from this pairing. In the mean time Da Ponte would begin work with Mozart on ''Le nozze di Figaro'' (''The Marriage of Figaro''). (For the famous relationship between Mozart and Salieri please see below.) Salieri soon produced one of his greatest works with the text by Casti ''La grotta di Trofonio'' (The cave of Trophonius) in 1785, the first opera buffa published in full score by Artaria. Shortly after this success Joseph II had Mozart and Salieri each contribute a one-act opera and/or singspiel for production at a banquet in 1786. Salieri collaborated with Casti to produce a parody of the relationship between poet and composer in ''Prima la musica e poi le parole'' ('First the music and then the words). This short work also highlighted the typical backstage antics of two high flown sopranos. Salieri then returned to Paris for the premiere of his tragédie lyrique ''Les Horaces'' (The Horatii) which proved a failure. However the failure of this work was more than made up for with his next Parisian opera ''Tarare'' with a libretto by Beaumarchais. This was intended to be the '''' of reform opera, a completely new synthesis of poetry and music that was an 18th-century anticipation of the ideals of Richard Wagner. He also created a sacred cantata ''Le Jugement dernier'' (The Last Judgement). The success of his opera ''Tarare'' was such that it was soon translated into Italian at Joseph II's behest by Lorenzo Da Ponte as ''Axur, re d'Ormus'' (Axur, king of Hormuz) and staged at the royal wedding of Franz II in 1788.\n\n===Late Viennese operas (1788–1804)===\nIn 1788 Salieri returned to Vienna, where he remained for the rest of his life. In that year he became Kapellmeister of the Imperial Chapel upon the death of Giuseppe Bonno; as Kapellmeister he conducted the music and musical school connected with the chapel until shortly before his death, being officially retired from the post in 1824.\n\nHis Italian adaptation of ''Tarare'', ''Axur'' would prove to be his greatest international success. ''Axur'' was widely produced throughout Europe and it even reached South America with the exiled royal house of Portugal in 1824. ''Axur'' and his other new compositions completed by 1792 would mark the height of Salieri's popularity and his influence. Just as his apogee of fame was being reached abroad, his influence in Vienna would begin to diminish with the death of Joseph II in 1790. Joseph's death deprived Salieri of his greatest patron and protector. During this period of imperial change in Vienna and revolutionary ferment in France, Salieri composed two additional extremely innovative musical dramas to libretti by Giovanni Casti. Due, however, to their satiric and overtly liberal political inclinations, both operas were seen as unsuitable for public performance in the politically reactive cultures of Leopold II and later Francis II. This resulted in two of his most original operas being consigned to his desk drawer, namely ''Cublai, gran kan de' Tartari'' (''Kublai Grand Kahn of Tartary'') a satire on the autocracy and court intrigues at the court of the Russian Tsarina, Catherine the Great, and ''Catilina'' a semi-comic-semi-tragic account of the Catiline conspiracy that attempted to overthrow the Roman republic during the consulship of Cicero. These operas were composed in 1787 and 1792 respectively. Two other operas of little success and longterm importance were composed in 1789, and one great popular success ''La cifra'' (''The Cipher'').\n\nThe beginning of Salieri's opera ''Palmira, regina di Persia''\nAs Salieri's political position became very insecure he was retired as director of the Italian opera in 1792. He continued to write new operas per imperial contract until 1804, when he voluntarily withdrew from the stage. Of his late works for the stage only two works gained wide popular esteem during his life, ''Palmira, regina di Persia'' (Palmira, queen of Persia) 1795 and '''' (Caesar on Pharmacusa), both drawing on the heroic and exotic success established with ''Axur''. His late opera based on William Shakespeare's ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'', ''Falstaff ossia Le tre burle'' (Falstaff, or the three tricks) (1799) has found a wider audience in modern times than its original reception promised. His last opera was a German-language singspiel '''' (The negroes), a melodrama set in colonial Virginia with a text by Georg Friedrich Treitschke (the author of the libretto for Beethoven's ''Fidelio'') performed in 1804 and was a complete failure.\n\n===Life after opera (1804–1825)===\nWhen Salieri retired from the stage, he recognized that artistic styles had changed and he felt that he no longer had the creative capacity to adapt or the emotional desire to continue. Also as Salieri aged he moved slowly away from his more liberal political stances as he saw the enlightened reform of Joseph II's reign, and the hoped for reforms of the French revolution, replaced with more radical revolutionary ideas. As the political situation threatened and eventually overwhelmed Austria, which was repeatedly crushed by French political forces, Salieri's first and most important biographer described the emotional effect that this political, social, and cultural upheaval had on the composer. Mosel noted that these radical changes, especially the invasion and defeat of Austria, and the occupation of Vienna intertwined with the personal losses that struck Salieri in the same period led to his withdrawal from operatic work. Related to this Mosel quotes the aged composer concerning the radical changes in musical taste that were underway in the age of Beethoven, \"From that period circa 1800 I realized that musical taste was gradually changing in a manner completely contrary to that of my own times. Eccentricity and confusion of genres replaced reasoned and masterful simplicity.\"\n\nAs his teaching and work with the imperial chapel continued, his duties required the composition of a large number of sacred works, and in his last years it was almost exclusively in religious works and teaching that Salieri occupied himself. Among his compositions written for the chapel were two complete sets of vespers, many graduals, offertories, and four orchestral masses. During this period he lost his only son in 1805 and his wife in 1807.\n\nSalieri continued to conduct publicly, including the performance on 18 March 1808 of Haydn's ''The Creation'' during which Haydn collapsed, and several premieres by Beethoven including the 1st and 2nd Piano Concertos and ''Wellington's Victory''. He also continued to help administer several charities and organize their musical events.\n\nHis remaining secular works in this late period fall into three categories: first, large scale cantatas and one oratorio ''Habsburg'' written on patriotic themes or in response to the international political situation, pedagogical works written to aid his students in voice, and finally simple songs, rounds or canons written for home entertainment; many with original poetry by the composer. He also composed one large scale instrumental work in 1815 intended as a study in late classical orchestration: Twenty-Six Variations for the Orchestra on a Theme called La Folia di Spagna. The theme is likely folk derived and is known as ''La Folía''. This simple melodic and harmonic progression had served as an inspiration for many baroque composers, and would be used by later romantic and post-romantic composers. Salieri's setting is a brooding work in the minor key, which rarely moves far from the original melodic material, its main interest lies in the deft and varied handling of orchestral colors. ''La Folia'' was the most monumental set of orchestral variations before Brahms' ''Variations on a Theme by Haydn''.\n\nHis teaching of budding young musicians continued, and among his pupils in composition (usually vocal) were Ludwig van Beethoven, Antonio Casimir Cartellieri, Franz Liszt, Franz Schubert and many other luminaries of the early Romantic period. He also instructed many prominent singers throughout his long career, including Caterina Canzi. All but the wealthiest of his pupils received their lessons for free, a tribute to the kindness Gassmann had shown Salieri as a penniless orphan.\n\nSalieri was committed to medical care and suffered dementia for the last year and a half of his life. He died in Vienna on 7 May 1825, aged 74 and was buried in the Matzleinsdorfer Friedhof on 10 May. At his memorial service on 22 June 1825 his own Requiem in C minor – composed in 1804 – was performed for the first time. His remains were later transferred to the Zentralfriedhof. His monument is adorned by a poem written by Joseph Weigl, one of his pupils:\n\n:{|\nRest in peace! Uncovered by dust\nEternity shall bloom for you.\nRest in peace! In eternal harmonies\nYour spirit now is set free.\nIt expressed itself in enchanting notes,\nNow it is floating to everlasting beauty.\n\n\n",
"\n\n===Opera===\nDuring his time in Vienna, Salieri acquired great prestige as a composer and conductor, particularly of opera, but also of chamber and sacred music. Among the most successful of his 37 operas staged during his lifetime were ''Armida'' (1771), ''La fiera di Venezia'' (1772), ''La scuola de' gelosi'' (1778), ''Der Rauchfangkehrer'' (1781), ''Les Danaïdes'' (1784), which was first presented as a work of Gluck's, ''La grotta di Trofonio'' (1785), ''Tarare'' (1787) (''Tarare'' was reworked and revised several times as was ''Les Danaïdes'' ), ''Axur, re d'Ormus'' (1788), ''La cifra'' (1789), ''Palmira, regina di Persia'' (1795), ''Il mondo alla rovescia'' (1795), ''Falstaff'' (1799), and ''Cesare in Farmacusa'' (1800).\n\n===Sacred works===\nSalieri's earliest surviving work is a Mass in C major. He would write four major orchestral masses, a requiem, and many offertories, graduals, vesper settings, and sacred cantatas and oratorios. Much of his sacred music dates from after his appointment as Hofkapellmeister in 1788.\n\n===Instrumental works===\nHis small instrumental output includes two piano concerti, a concerto for organ written in 1773, a concerto for flute, oboe and orchestra (1774), a triple concerto for oboe, violin and cello, and a set of twenty-six variations on ''La follia di Spagna'' (1815).\n",
"In the 1780s, while Mozart lived and worked in Vienna, he and his father Leopold wrote in their letters that several \"cabals\" of Italians led by Salieri were actively putting obstacles in the way of Mozart's obtaining certain posts or staging his operas. For example, Mozart wrote in December 1781 to his father that \"the only one who counts in the Emperor's eyes is Salieri\". Their letters suggest that both Mozart and his father, being Austrians who resented the special place that Italian composers had in the courts of the Austrian princes, blamed the Italians in general and Salieri in particular for all of Mozart's difficulties in establishing himself in Vienna. Mozart wrote to his father in May 1783 about Salieri and Lorenzo Da Ponte, the court poet: \"You know those Italian gentlemen; they are very nice to your face! Enough, we all know about them. And if Da Ponte is in league with Salieri, I'll never get a text from him, and I would love to show here what I can really do with an Italian opera.\" In July 1783 Mozart wrote to his father of \"a trick of Salieri's\", one of several letters in which he accused Salieri of trickery. Decades after Mozart's death, a rumour began to circulate that Mozart had been poisoned by Salieri. This rumour has been attributed by some to a rivalry between the German and the Italian schools of music. Carl Maria von Weber, a relative of Mozart by marriage whom Wagner has characterized as the most German of German composers, is said to have refused to join (Ludlam's cave), a social club of which Salieri was a member and avoided having anything to do with him. These rumours then made their way into popular culture. Albert Lortzing's ''Singspiel'' ''Szenen aus Mozarts Leben'' LoWV28 (1832) uses the cliché of the jealous Salieri trying to hinder Mozart's career.\n\nIronically, Salieri's music was much more in the tradition of Gluck and Gassmann than of the Italians like Paisiello or Cimarosa. In 1772, Empress Maria Theresa commented on her preference of Italian composers over Germans like Gassmann, Salieri or Gluck. While Italian by birth, Salieri had lived in imperial Vienna for almost 60 years and was regarded by such people as the music critic Friedrich Rochlitz as a German composer.\n\nThe biographer Alexander Wheelock Thayer believes that Mozart's rivalry with Salieri could have originated with an incident in 1781, when Mozart applied to be the music teacher of Princess Elisabeth of Württemberg, and Salieri was selected instead because of his reputation as a singing teacher. In the following year Mozart once again failed to be selected as the Princess' piano teacher. \"Salieri and his tribe will move heaven and earth to put it down\", Leopold Mozart wrote to his daughter Nannerl. But at the time of the premiere of ''Figaro'', Salieri was busy with his new French opera ''Les Horaces''. In addition, when Lorenzo Da Ponte was in Prague preparing the production of Mozart's setting of his ''Don Giovanni'', the poet was ordered back to Vienna for a royal wedding for which Salieri's ''Axur, re d'Ormus'' would be performed. Obviously, Mozart was not pleased by this.\n\nHowever, even with Mozart and Salieri's rivalry for certain jobs, there is very little evidence that the relationship between the two composers was at all acrimonious beyond this, especially after 1785 or so, when Mozart had become established in Vienna. Rather, they appeared to usually see each other as friends and colleagues, and supported each other's work. For example, when Salieri was appointed Kapellmeister in 1788, he revived ''Figaro'' instead of bringing out a new opera of his own, and when he went to the coronation festivities for Leopold II in 1790, Salieri had no fewer than three Mozart masses in his luggage. Salieri and Mozart even composed a cantata for voice and piano together, called ''Per la ricuperata salute di Ofelia'', which celebrated the return to stage of the singer Nancy Storace. This work, although it had been printed by Artaria in 1785, was considered lost until the 10th of January 2016, when the ''Schwäbische Zeitung'' reported on the discovery, by musicologist and composer Timo Jouko Herrmann, of a copy of its text and music while doing research on Antonio Salieri in the collections of the Czech Museum of Music. Mozart's ''Davide penitente'' (1785), his Piano Concerto KV 482 (1785), the Clarinet Quintet (1789) and the 40th Symphony (1788) had been premiered on the suggestion of Salieri, who supposedly conducted a performance of it in 1791. In his last surviving letter from 14 October 1791, Mozart tells his wife that he collected Salieri and Caterina Cavalieri in his carriage and drove them both to the opera; about Salieri's attendance at his opera ''The Magic Flute'', speaking enthusiastically: \"He heard and saw with all his attention, and from the overture to the last choir there was not a piece that didn't elicit a 'Bravo!' or 'Bello!' out of him ....\"\n\nSalieri, along with Mozart's protégé J. N. Hummel, educated Mozart's younger son Franz Xaver Mozart, who was born in the year his father died.\n",
"Salieri and his music were largely forgotten from the 19th century until the late 20th century. This revival was due to the dramatic and highly fictionalized depiction of Salieri in Peter Shaffer's play ''Amadeus'' (1979), which was given its greatest exposure in its 1984 film version, directed by Miloš Forman. His music today has regained some modest popularity via recordings. It is also the subject of increasing academic study, and a small number of his operas have returned to the stage. In addition, there is now a Salieri Opera Festival sponsored by the Fondazione Culturale Antonio Salieri and dedicated to rediscovering his work and those of his contemporaries. It is developing as an annual autumn event in his native town of Legnago, where a theatre has been renamed in his honour.\n\n===Modern performances of Salieri's work===\nIn 2003, mezzo-soprano Cecilia Bartoli released ''The Salieri Album'', a CD with 13 arias from Salieri's operas, most of which had never been recorded before. Patrice Michaels sang a number of his arias on the CD ''Divas of Mozart's Day''. In 2008, another female opera star, Diana Damrau, released a CD with seven Salieri coloratura arias. Since 2000, there have also been complete recordings issued or re-issued of the operas ''Axur Re d'Ormus'', ''Falstaff'', ''Les Danaïdes'', ''La Locandiera'', ''La grotta di Trofonio'', ''Prima la musica e poi le parole'' and ''''. Salieri has yet to fully re-enter the general repertory, but performances of his works are progressively becoming more regular.\n\nHis operas ''Falstaff'' (1995 production from the Schwetzingen Festival) and ''Tarare'' (1987 production, also from the Schwetzingen Festival) have been released on DVD. In 2004, the opera ''Europa riconosciuta'' was staged in Milan for the reopening of La Scala in Milan, with soprano Diana Damrau in the title role. This production was also broadcast on television.\n\nIn November 2009, ''Il mondo alla rovescia'' was given its first staging in modern times at the Teatro Salieri in Legnago in a co-production between the Fondazione Culturale Antonio Salieri and the Fondazione Arena di Verona for the Salieri Opera Festival.\n\nOn 14 November 2011 in Graz, Austria, the hometown of the librettist Leopold Auenbrugger, Salieri's ''Der Rauchfangkehrer'' was given its first modern production. In July 2014 there was another modern production of this Salieri opera. This time it was the Pinchgut Opera of Sydney, Australia, performing it as ''The Chimneysweep''. ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' referred to it as the discovery of \"a long-forgotten treasure\".\n\n===Use of music by Salieri in films===\nSalieri has even begun to attract some attention from Hollywood. In 2001, his triple concerto was used in the soundtrack of ''The Last Castle'', featuring Robert Redford and James Gandolfini. It is a story that builds on the rivalry between a meticulous but untested officer (Gandolfini) serving as the warden of a military prison and an imprisoned but much admired and highly decorated general (Redford). The Salieri piece is used as the warden's theme music, seemingly to invoke the image of jealousy of the inferior for his superior. In 2006, the movie ''Copying Beethoven'' referred to Salieri in a more positive light. In this movie a young female music student hired by Beethoven to copy out his Ninth Symphony is staying at a monastery. The abbess tries to discourage her from working with the irreverent Beethoven. She notes that she too once had dreams, having come to Vienna to study opera singing with Salieri. The 2008 film ''Iron Man'' used the Larghetto movement from Salieri's Piano Concerto in C major. The scene where Obadiah Stane, the archrival of Tony Stark, the wealthy industrialist turned Iron Man, tells Tony that he is being ousted from his company by the board, Obadiah plays the opening few bars of the Salieri concerto on a piano in Stark's suite.\n\n===Fictional treatments===\nSalieri's life, and especially his relationship with Mozart, has been a subject of many stories, in a variety of media.\n*Within a few years of Salieri's death in 1825, Alexander Pushkin wrote his \"little tragedy\" ''Mozart and Salieri'' (1831), as a dramatic study of the sin of envy.\n*In 1898, Russian composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov adapted Pushkin's play, ''Mozart and Salieri'' (1831), as an opera of the same name.\n*A hugely popular yet heavily fictionalized perpetuation of the story came in Peter Shaffer's play ''Amadeus'' (1979) and its Oscar-winning 1984 film adaptation directed by Miloš Forman. Salieri was portrayed in the award-winning play at London's National Theatre by Paul Scofield and in the film by F. Murray Abraham, who won the Academy Award for Best Actor for the part. Abraham depicts Salieri as a Machiavellian, Iago-esque character, who uses his connections to keep Mozart as the underdog and slowly destroy Mozart's career. The play does not portray Salieri as a murderer but rather has him hastening Mozart's demise through a series of plots, leaving him destitute. Salieri is characterized as both in awe of and insanely envious of Mozart, going so far as to renounce God for blessing his adversary; \"Amadeus\" means love of God, or God's love, and the play can be said to be about God-given talent, or the lack thereof: Salieri is hospitalized in a mental institution, where he announces himself as \"the patron saint of mediocrity\".\n*Salieri's supposed hatred for Mozart is also alluded to in a spoof opera titled ''A Little Nightmare Music'' (1982), by P.D.Q. Bach. In the opera, Salieri attempts to poison an anachronistic Shaffer but is bumped by a \"clumsy oaf\", which causes him to inadvertently poison Mozart instead and spill wine on his favorite coat.\n*Patrick Stewart played Salieri in the 1985 production ''The Mozart Inquest''.\n*Florent Mothe portrays Salieri in the French musical ''Mozart, l'opéra rock'' (2009).\n* C. Ian Kyer's first work of fiction is the historical novel ''Damaging Winds: Rumours that Salieri Murdered Mozart Swirl in the Vienna of Beethoven and Schubert'' (2013).\n* Kyer was also the co-author, with Bruce Salvatore, of the singspiel ''Setting the Record Straight: Mozart and Salieri Redux'', first performed by the Adler Fellows of the San Francisco Opera Center in April 2016 under the direction of Erin Neff.\n*The HBO period drama telemovie, ''Virtuoso'' (2015), directed by Alan Ball, is largely centred around the early life of Salieri.\n*In episode 324 of ''The Simpsons'', a spoof of Mozart's life is presented, where Lisa plays the part of a Salieri who goes mad living in Mozart's shadow. Here, it is suggested that the two composers are related. At the end of the short, the real Lisa points out the inaccuracy of the portrayal, particularly the exaggeration of the conflict between Mozart and Salieri.\n*The Hawaii Public Radio docudrama, ''Maligned Master: the Glory of Salieri'' (2016), written and directed by Joe Moore and starring F. Murray Abraham, was inspired by Kyer's novel ''Damaging Winds''. In it the ghost of Salieri attends a concert of Salieri overtures in Hawaii and sets the record straight.\n",
"'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Cited sources'''\n* , ''Antonio Salieri'' 3 Vol. (München 1971–74)\n* Rudolph Angermüller, ''Antonio Salieri. Fatti e Documenti'' (Legnago 1985)\n* Hector Berlioz, The Memoirs of Hector Berlioz, trans. and ed. David Cairns, Everyman (New York 2002)\n* Volkmar Braunbehrens, ''Maligned Master – the Real Story of Antonio Salieri'', transl. Eveline L. Kanes (New York 1992)\n* A. Della Corte, ''Un italiano all'estero: Antonio Salieri'' (Torino 1936)\n* V. Della Croce/F. Blanchetti, ''Il caso Salieri'' (Torino 1994)\n* , ''Über das Leben und die Werke des Anton Salieri'' (Vienna 1827)\n* Michael Lorenz, \"Antonio Salieri's Early Years in Vienna\", Vienna 2013\n* John A. Rice, ''Antonio Salieri and Viennese Opera'' (Chicago 1998), – ( preview at Google Book Search)\n*\n* \n\n'''Further reading'''\n* Herrmann, Timo Jouko, ''Antonio Salieri und seine deutschsprachigen Werke für das Musiktheater'' (Leipzig 2015) .\n* Kyer, C. Ian, \"Salieri as Portrayed in the Arts\", (2012) 24 ''Intellectual Property Journal'', 179–194.\n* , ''Catalogo tematico delle opere teatrali di Antonio Salieri'', Lim, Lucca 2005, (Gli strumenti della ricerca musicale, collana della Società Italiana di Musicologia), p. CLVIII, 957. .\n* Parodi, Elena Biggi, \"Il ''Fastaff, o sia le tre burle'' di Salieri: osservazioni preliminari\" in ''Quaderni di musicologia dell'Università degli studi Verona'', Francesco Bissoli and Elisa Grossato, editors. vol. 2, II, pp. 119–138 (Verona, 2008).\n*Parodi, Elena Biggi, \"Mozart und Salieri – ein unvermeidlicher Konflikt\" in ''Mozart, Experiment Aufklärung, in Wien des Ausgehenden 18. Jahrhunderts'', ed. Herbert Lachmayer, essays for Mozart exhibition, pp. 495–501. (Da Ponte Institut Wien, Katje Cantz Verlag, Ostfildern, 2006). .\n* Salieri, Antonio. ''La Passione di Gesù Cristo'', critical edition by Elena Biggi Parodi, Suvini Zerboni, Milano 2000, XLIV, 222 pages. \n",
"\n\n* \"Salieri: Truth or Fiction\", 24 August 2005, essay on classyclassical.blogspot.com\n* Teatro Salieri, Legnago, Italy: Official web site. \n* Podcast interview about Salieri\n* Second Podcast interview about Salieri\n* Kyer, C. Ian, ''Damaging Winds'', a novel about Salieri\n* \n\n'''Scores'''\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life and career",
"Works",
"Interaction with Mozart",
"Legacy",
"References",
"External links"
] | Antonio Salieri |
[
"\n\n\nThe '''Cobble Hill Tunnel''' (popularly the '''Atlantic Avenue Tunnel''') of the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) is an abandoned railroad tunnel beneath Atlantic Avenue in downtown Brooklyn, New York City. When open, it ran for about between Columbia Street and Boerum Place. It is the oldest railway tunnel beneath a city street in North America that was fully devoted to rail.\n",
"Originally built as an open cutting, construction began in May 1844, and opened for use on December 3, 1844, but was not completely finished until late Spring 1845. It was built mainly to satisfy public demand for creation of a grade-separated right of way for the Brooklyn and Jamaica Railroad (later Long Island Rail Road) on its way to the South Ferry at the foot of Atlantic Street (later Atlantic Avenue), where passengers could catch ferries to Manhattan. The construction of the cutting also lowered the LIRR's grade through Cobble Hill. Around five years after opening the cutting was roofed over, converting it into a tunnel.\n\nIn exchange for building the cutting, the City of Brooklyn granted the B&J permission to operate its steam locomotives on Atlantic Street west of Fifth Avenue (then Parmentier's Garden/Gowanus Lane), all the way to Brooklyn's South Ferry (the present location of Brooklyn's Pier 7). Prior to the cutting being built, the LIRR's western terminus was Atlantic Street at Clinton Street. Train cars were hauled by teams of horses along Atlantic Street from Clinton Street to Parmentier's Garden, where steam locomotives were attached. While the cutting was being built, the railroad operated to a temporary terminal at Pacific Street and Henry Street.\n\nThe Cobble Hill Tunnel was part of the first rail link between New York City and Boston, Massachusetts. The railroad connected Lower Manhattan via the South Ferry to Greenport on the North Fork of Long Island, where a ferry connected to Stonington, Connecticut, where a rail link continued to Boston. This avoided some difficult construction of bridges over the rivers of southern Connecticut. In 1848, the New York and New Haven Railroad Line was completed through Connecticut, providing a direct, faster rail connection from New York City to Boston. The Cobble Hill Tunnel and the Long Island Railroad remained the primary means of access to most of central Long Island from Manhattan and New York City. As originally built, the cutting was wide and long. Once roofed over the interior height of the newly-created tunnel was .\n\nThe ends of the tunnel were sealed in the fall of 1861. The similar Murray Hill Tunnel on the New York and Harlem Railroad was built as an open cut around 1836, roofed over around the 1850s, and is now in use for automobile traffic.\n",
"In 1861, the New York State Legislature voted to ban railroad locomotives from within the limits of the City of Brooklyn. A tax assessment was ordered on all property owners along Atlantic Street (today Atlantic Avenue), to defray the costs of the closure. It was undisclosed at the time that New York State Governor John A. King was a major shareholder in the Brooklyn and Jamaica Railroad (later the Long Island Rail Road) and therefore had a conflict of interest and stood to benefit by the compensation payments to the railroad from the tax assessment.\n",
"Walt Whitman wrote of the tunnel:\nThe old tunnel, that used to lie there under ground, a passage of Acheron-like solemnity and darkness, now all closed and filled up, and soon to be utterly forgotten, with all its reminiscences; however, there will, for a few years yet be many dear ones, to not a few Brooklynites, New Yorkers, and promiscuous crowds besides. For it was here you started to go down the island, in summer. For years, it was confidently counted on that this spot, and the railroad of which it was the terminus, were going to prove the permanent seat of business and wealth that belong to such enterprises. But its glory, after enduring in great splendor for a season, has now vanished—at least its Long Island Railroad glory has. The tunnel: dark as the grave, cold, damp, and silent. How beautiful look earth and heaven again, as we emerge from the gloom! It might not be unprofitable, now and then, to send us mortals—the dissatisfied ones, at least, and that's a large proportion—into some tunnel of several days' journey. We'd perhaps grumble less, afterward, at God's handiwork.\n\nIn March 1916, the Bureau of Investigation suspected German terrorists were making bombs in the tunnel, and broke through the roof of the tunnel with jackhammers. They found nothing, installed an electric light, and resealed it. In the 1920s it was rumored used for both mushroom growing and bootleg whiskey stills even though there was no access into the main portion of the tunnel. It became an object of local folklore and legend. In 1936, the New York City Police Department unsuccessfully attempted to enter the tunnel, in order to look for the body of a hoodlum supposedly buried there. In 1941 it was rumored to have been inspected by the federal Works Progress Administration to determine its structural strength, but there is no evidence of this. A few years later, it was once again rumored to have been opened, this time by the FBI, in an unsuccessful search for spies; however, there is no evidence of this. During the late 1950s, it was sought by two rail historians, George Horn and Martin Schachne, but they did not gain access to the tunnel itself.\n",
"Having fallen from public notice, the tunnel was rediscovered in 1980 by then 20-year-old Robert Diamond, who entered from a manhole he located at Atlantic Avenue and Court Street, crawled a distance of underground through a filled-in section of tunnel less than two feet high, and located the bulkhead wall that sealed off the main portion of the tunnel. With the assistance of a Brooklyn Union Gas Co. (now National Grid) engineering crew, he then broke through the massive concrete bulkhead wall, which is several feet thick. Diamond thereby opened access to the main portion of the tunnel, and began to popularize the tunnel as an antiquity. He led tours of its interior from 1982 until December 17, 2010, when the Department of Transportation terminated his contract, citing safety concerns. The tunnel has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1989.\n\nThe History Channel series ''Cities of the Underworld'' ran a segment (\"New York's Secret Societies\") on the tunnel in Fall 2008. The TV show ''Treasure Hunters'' used it in an episode.\n",
"\n* Brooklyn Historic Railway Association\n* Cobble Hill, Brooklyn\n* Beach Pneumatic Transit\n* Track 61 (New York City)\n* National Register of Historic Places listings in Kings County, New York\n",
"'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Further reading'''\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n* The Atlantic Avenue Tunnel (Arrt's Arrchives)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Construction and operation ",
" Closure controversy ",
" Dormancy ",
" Rediscovery ",
" See also ",
" References "
] | Cobble Hill Tunnel |
[
"\n\n\nThe '''Annapolis Valley''' is a valley and region in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. It is located in the western part of the Nova Scotia peninsula, formed by a trough between two parallel mountain ranges along the shore of the Bay of Fundy. Statistics Canada defines the Annapolis Valley as an economic region, composed of Annapolis County, Kings County, and Hants County.\n",
"\nNorth Mountain looking southeast from Valleyview Provincial Park, north of Bridgetown, in October 2005.\nThe valley measures approximately in length from Digby and the Annapolis Basin in the west to Wolfville and the Minas Basin in the east, spanning the counties of Digby, Annapolis and Kings.\n\nSome also include the western part of Hants County, including the towns of Hantsport and Windsor even further to the east, but geographically speaking they are part of the Avon River valley.\n\nThe steep face of basaltic North Mountain shelters the valley from the adjacent Bay of Fundy and rises over in elevation near Lawrencetown. The granitic South Mountain rises to a somewhat higher elevation and shelters the valley from the climate of the Atlantic Ocean approximately 100 kilometres further south on the province's South Shore.\n\nThe shelter provided by these two mountainous ridges has produced a \"micro climate\" which provides relatively mild temperatures for the region and, coupled with the fertile glacial sedimentary soils on the valley floor, the region is conducive to growing vegetable and fruit crops. Particularly famous for its apple crop, the valley hosts in excess of 1,000 farms of various types, the majority being relatively small family-owned operations.\n\nWithin the valley itself are two \"major\" rivers, the Annapolis River which flows west from the Caribou Bog in the central part of the valley into the Annapolis Basin, and the Cornwallis River which flows east from Caribou Bog into the Minas Basin. The North Mountain ridge forms the north side of the Annapolis Valley. Also flowing east, in two smaller valleys north of the Cornwallis River, are the Canard River and the Habitant River, both of which also flow into the Minas Basin.\nEastern End. Road leading to Blomidon Provincial Park with the Minas Basis in view to the right.\nNear the Eastern End. Looking east, southeast across the Annapolis Valley from the area known as \"The Lookoff\", North Mountain, Nova Scotia, Canada\nCentral Valley. Looking west southwest across the expansive farms in Clarence, Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia\nWestern Valley. Looking over the narrowest part of the Annapolis Valley towards Bridgetown from Valleyview Provincial Park\nWestern End. Port Royal, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia situated on the Annapolis River where it widens to form the Annapolis Basin",
"One of the Windsor and Annapolis Railway locomotives which transformed the valley's apple industry\nLong settled by the Mi'kmaq Nation, the valley experienced French settlement at the Habitation at Port-Royal, near modern-day Annapolis Royal in the western part of the valley, beginning in 1605. From there, the Acadians spread throughout the Valley, in various communities, building dykes to claim the tidal lands along the Annapolis and Cornwallis Rivers. They continued throughout the Annapolis Valley until the British-ordered expulsion of Acadians in 1755 which is memorialized at Grand Pré in the eastern part of the valley. New England Planters moved in to occupy the abandoned Acadian farming areas and the region also saw subsequent settlement by Loyalist refugees of the American Revolutionary War, as well as foreign Protestants. These were followed by significant numbers of freed Africans in the War of 1812, Irish immigrants in the mid-19th century and Dutch immigrants after World War II. Agriculture in the Annapolis valley boomed in the late 19th century with the arrival of the Windsor and Annapolis Railway, later the Dominion Atlantic Railway, which developed large export markets for Annapolis Valley apples.\n\nThe Annapolis Valley Regional Library was established in 1949. It was the first regional library system in Nova Scotia.\n",
"\nGrafton in the Annapolis Valley in October 2011\nThe Valley has traditionally been built on a diversified agricultural industry, with a wide range of output ranging from livestock to fruit trees and berries. The last quarter century has also seen the development of a wine industry, with such notable wineries as Gaspereau Vineyards winning national and international awards for their produce.\n\nToday, the Valley is still largely dominated by agriculture but also has a growing diversity in its economies, partly aided by the importance of post-secondary education centres provided by Acadia University in Wolfville, and the Nova Scotia Community College campuses located in Kentville, Middleton, Lawrencetown, and Digby.\n\nMichelin has an important truck tire manufacturing plant in Waterville and the Department of National Defence has its largest air force base in Atlantic Canada located at CFB Greenwood along with an important training facility at Camp Aldershot, near Kentville.\n\nTourism is also an important industry and the Annapolis Valley is known for its scenic farmland, although today some is threatened with suburban development in the eastern end, and a great deal has been abandoned. The valley also struggles with pollution from farm runoffs and residential sewers in its two major rivers, the Annapolis River and the Cornwallis River. The Annapolis Valley additionally has become home to the majority of Nova Scotia wineries, located in either the Gaspereau Valley or in the Canning, Grand Pré, or Bear River areas.\n\nThe Valley is home to the annual Apple Blossom Festival, held in late spring. In July is the annual Steer Bar-B-Que in Kingston, and Heart of the Valley Festival in Middleton. August sees Mud Creek Days in Wolfville and the Annapolis Valley Exhibition in Lawrencetown. Bridgetown's Cider Festival comes in mid-September. The Canadian Deep Roots Music Festival is held each year at the end of September in Wolfville, a community-based festival, supported by both The Town of Wolfville and Acadia University and built on countless hours of volunteerism by a stable base of over 100 volunteers, and on in-kind and financial support from virtually all sectors of the Valley community. Late October sees Wolfville and Kings County play host to Devour The Food Film Fest, an annual international film festival celebrating all things culinary. Farmers markets in Annapolis Royal, Bridgetown, Middleton, Kentville, Kingsport, Berwick and Wolfville bring a wealth of fresh produce and other fine goods to the public every week. In the fall the Pumpkin People in Kentville entice the imagination.\nThe Lawrencetown Exhibition in early August.\n",
"Communities in the Valley from west to east include:\n\nBolded communities are major communities\n\n*'''Digby'''\n*Cornwallis\n*'''Annapolis Royal'''\n*'''Bridgetown'''\n*'''Lawrencetown'''\n*'''Middleton'''\n*'''Greenwood'''\n*'''Kingston'''\n*Auburn\n*'''Aylesford'''\n*'''Berwick'''\n*Waterville\n*Cambridge\n*Coldbrook\n*'''Kentville'''\n*'''New Minas'''\n*'''Canning'''\n*'''Wolfville'''\n*Grand Pré\n*Hantsport\n*Mount Denson\n*Falmouth\n*'''Windsor'''\n\n\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* Annapolis Valley Tourism\n* Annapolis Valley Activities\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"History",
"Economy",
"Communities",
"References",
"External links"
] | Annapolis Valley |
[
"\nOpium poppies such as this one provide ingredients for the class of analgesics called opiates\n\nAn '''analgesic''' or '''painkiller''' is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain.\n\nAnalgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems. They are distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate, sensation. Analgesics include paracetamol (known in North America as acetaminophen or simply APAP), the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, and opioid drugs such as morphine and oxycodone.\n\nWhen choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent; the World Health Organization (WHO) pain ladder specifies mild analgesics as its first step.\n\nAnalgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: For neuropathic pain, traditional analgesics are less effective, and there is often benefit from classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsants.\n",
"Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provided pain relief in common conditions such as muscle sprains and overuse injuries. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions.\n",
"Each different type of analgesic has its own associated side effects.\n",
"Analgesics are typically classified based on their mechanism of action.\n\n=== Paracetamol (acetaminophen) ===\n\nParacetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a medication used to treat pain and fever. It is typically used for mild to moderate pain. In combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is used for more severe pain such as cancer pain and after surgery. It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously. Effects last between two and four hours. Paracetamol is classified as a mild analgesic. Paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses.\n\n===NSAIDs===\n\nNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (usually abbreviated to NSAIDs), are a drug class that groups together drugs that decrease pain and lower fever, and, in higher doses decrease inflammation. The most prominent members of this group of drugs, aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen, are all available over the counter in most countries.\n\n=== COX-2 inhibitors ===\n\n\nThese drugs have been derived from NSAIDs. The cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions: COX1 and COX2. Research suggested most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs to be mediated by blocking the COX1 (constitutive) enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated by the COX2 (inducible) enzyme. Thus, the COX2 inhibitors were developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme (traditional NSAIDs block both versions in general). These drugs (such as rofecoxib, celecoxib, and etoricoxib) are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular.\n\nAfter widespread adoption of the COX-2 inhibitors, it was discovered that most of the drugs in this class increase the risk of cardiovascular events by 40% on average. This led to the withdrawal of rofecoxib and valdecoxib, and warnings on others. Etoricoxib seems relatively safe, with the risk of thrombotic events similar to that of non-coxib NSAID diclofenac.\n\n=== Opioids ===\n\n\nMorphine, the archetypal opioid, and other opioids (e.g., codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, dihydromorphine, pethidine) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid receptor system. Buprenorphine is a partial agonist of the μ-opioid receptor, and tramadol is a serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) with weak μ-opioid receptor agonist properties. Tramadol is structurally closer to venlafaxine than to codeine and delivers analgesia by not only delivering \"opioid-like\" effects (through mild agonism of the mu receptor) but also by acting as a weak but fast-acting serotonin releasing agent and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. Tapentadol, with some structural similarities to tramadol, presents what is believed to be a novel drug working through two (and possibly three) different modes of action in the fashion of both a traditional opioid and as a SNRI. The effects of serotonin and norepinephrine on pain, while not completely understood, have had causal links established and drugs in the SNRI class are commonly used in conjunction with opioids (especially tapentadol and tramadol) with greater success in pain relief. Dosing of all opioids may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, respiratory depression, myoclonic jerks and pinpoint pupils), seizures (tramadol), but opioid-tolerant individuals usually have higher dose ceilings than patients without tolerance. \nOpioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Patients starting morphine may experience nausea and vomiting (generally relieved by a short course of antiemetics such as phenergan). Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. Constipation occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxatives (lactulose, macrogol-containing or co-danthramer) are typically co-prescribed.\n\nWhen used appropriately, opioids and other central analgesics are otherwise safe and effective, however risks such as addiction and the body's becoming used to the drug (tolerance) can occur. The effect of tolerance means that frequent use of the drug may result in its diminished effect so, when safe to do so, the dosage may need to be increased to maintain effectiveness. This may be of particular concern regarding patients suffering with chronic pain. Opioid tolerance is often addressed with opioid rotation therapy in which a patient is routinely switched between two or more non-cross-tolerant opioid medications in order to prevent exceeding safe dosages in the attempt to achieve an adequate analgesic effect.\n\n===Alcohol===\n\nDescribing the effects of using alcohol to treat pain is difficult. Alcohol has biological, mental, and social effects which influence the consequences of using alcohol for pain. Moderate use of alcohol can lessen certain types of pain in certain circumstances. Attempting to use alcohol to treat pain has also been observed to lead to negative outcomes including excessive drinking and alcohol use disorder.\n\n===Medical cannabis===\n\nMedical cannabis or medical marijuana, can refer to the use of cannabis and its cannabinoids to treat disease or improve symptoms. There is evidence suggesting that cannabis can be used to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms; with some trials indicating improved relief of neuropathic pain over opioids.\n\n=== Combinations ===\n\nAnalgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamol and codeine preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as pseudoephedrine for sinus-related preparations, or with antihistamine drugs for allergy sufferers.\n\nWhile the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other NSAIDS concurrently with weak to mid-range opiates (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action, several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including accidental overdoses, most often due to confusion that arises from the multiple (and often non-acting) components of these combinations.\n\n===Alternative medicine===\nMany people use alternative medicine treatments including drugs for pain relief. There is some evidence that some treatments using alternative medicine can relieve some types of pain more effectively than placebo. The available research concludes that more research would be necessary to better understand the use of alternative medicine.\n\n=== Psychotropic agents ===\nOther psychotropic analgesic agents include ketamine (an NMDA receptor antagonist), clonidine and other α2-adrenoreceptor agonists, and mexiletine and other local anaesthetic analogues.\n\n=== Other drugs ===\n\nDrugs that have been introduced for uses other than analgesics are also used in pain management. Both first-generation (such as amitriptyline) and newer anti-depressants (such as duloxetine) are used alongside NSAIDs and opioids for pain involving nerve damage and similar problems. Other agents directly potentiate the effects of analgesics, such as using hydroxyzine, promethazine, carisoprodol, or tripelennamine to increase the pain-killing ability of a given dose of opioid analgesic.\n\nAdjuvant analgesics, also called atypical analgesics, include nefopam, orphenadrine, pregabalin, gabapentin, cyclobenzaprine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and other drugs possessing anticonvulsant, anticholinergic, and/or antispasmodic properties, as well as many other drugs with CNS actions. These drugs are used along with analgesics to modulate and/or modify the action of opioids when used against pain, especially of neuropathic origin.\n\nDextromethorphan has been noted to slow the development of tolerance to opioids and exert additional analgesia by acting upon the NMDA receptors; some analgesics such as methadone and ketobemidone and perhaps piritramide have intrinsic NMDA action.\n\nHigh-alcohol liquor, two forms of which were found in the US Pharmacopoeia up until 1916 and in common use by physicians well into the 1930s, has been used in the past as an agent for dulling pain, due to the CNS depressant effects of ethyl alcohol, a notable example being the American Civil War. However, the ability of alcohol to relieve severe pain is likely inferior to many analgesics used today (e.g., morphine, codeine). As such, in general, the idea of alcohol for analgesia is considered a primitive practice in virtually all industrialized countries today.\n\nThe use of adjuvant analgesics is an important and growing part of the pain-control field and new discoveries are made practically every year. Many of these drugs combat the side-effects of opioid analgesics, an added bonus. For example, antihistamines including orphenadrine combat the release of histamine caused by many opioids. Stimulants such as methylphenidate, caffeine, ephedrine, dextroamphetamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine work against heavy sedation and may elevate mood in distressed patients as do the antidepressants. The use of medicinal cannabis remains a debated issue.\n\nIn patients with chronic or neuropathic pain, various other substances may have analgesic properties. Tricyclic antidepressants, especially clomipramine and amitriptyline, have been shown to improve pain in what appears to be a central manner. Nefopam is used in Europe for pain relief with concurrent opioids. The exact mechanism of carbamazepine, gabapentin, and pregabalin is similarly unclear, but these anticonvulsants are used to treat neuropathic pain with differing degrees of success. Anticonvulsants are most commonly used for neuropathic pain as their mechanism of action tends to inhibit pain sensation.\n\nFlupirtine is a centrally acting K+ channel opener with weak NMDA antagonist properties. It is used in Europe for moderate to strong pain and migraine and its muscle-relaxant properties. It has no anticholinergic properties and is believed to be devoid of any activity on dopamine, serotonin, or histamine receptors. It is not addictive, and tolerance usually does not develop. However, tolerance may develop in single cases.\n\n=== Other uses ===\n\nTopical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an ibuprofen- or diclofenac-containing gel (The labeling for topical diclofenac has been updated to warn about drug-induced hepatotoxicity.); capsaicin also is used topically. Lidocaine, an anesthetic, and steroids may be injected into painful joints for longer-term pain relief. Lidocaine is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb areas for dental work and minor medical procedures. In February 2007 the FDA notified consumers and healthcare professionals of the potential hazards of topical anesthetics entering the blood stream when applied in large doses to the skin without medical supervision. These topical anesthetics contain anesthetic drugs such as lidocaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, and prilocaine in a cream, ointment, or gel.\n",
"\n\n+ Comparison of different analgesics\n\n Generic name (INN)\n Physicochemistry\n Mechanism of action\n Routes of administration\n Pharmacokinetics\n Indications\n Major safety concerns\n\n '''Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents'''\n\n '''Unselective agents'''\n\n Aceclofenac \n Comes in betadex salt and free acid forms; practically insoluble in water, soluble in many organic solvents; degrades on contact with light; phenylacetic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Protein binding > 99%; half-life = 4 hours; metabolised to diclofenac (minor); excretion = urine (67%). \n As per diclofenac. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Acemetacin \n Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in certain organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light. Chemically related to indometacin \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Slightly metabolised to indometacin. \n Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and lower back pain. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Amfenac \n No available data. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n No data. \n Pain and inflammation. \n As diclofenac.\n\n Aminophenazone \n Related to phenylbutazone. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Not available. \n Musculoskeletal and joint disorders. \n Agranulocytosis and cancer.\n\n Ampiroxicam \n Related to piroxicam. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n No data. \n Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. \n Photosensitivity and other AEs typical of NSAIDs.\n\n Amtolmetin guacil \n Prodrug to tolmetin. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n No data. \n As per diclofenac. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Aspirin \n Comes in free form, aluminium and lysine salt forms; fairly insoluble in water (1 in 300); highly soluble (1 in 5) in alcohol; degrades on contact with air. Salicylate. \n Irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and COX-2; hence inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. \n PO, IM, IV, rectal \n Bioavailability = 80–100%; protein binding = 25–95% (inversely dependent on plasma concentration); half life = 2–3 hours, 15–30 hours (higher doses); excretion = 80–100%. \n Blood thining; mild-to-moderate pain; fever; rheumatic fever; migraine; rheumatoid arthritis; Kawasaki's disease \n GI bleeds; ulcers; Reye syndrome; nephrotoxicity; blood dyscrasias (rarely); Stevens-Johnson syndrome (uncommon/rare)\n\n Azapropazone \n Comes in free form; fairly insoluble in water and chloroform, soluble in ethanol; phenylbutazone. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, rectal. \n No data available. \n Rheumatoid arthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Bendazac \n Comes in free acid and lysine salt forms. Chemically related to indometacin. \n As per acetametacin. \n Topical, ophthalmologic. \n N/A \n Skin conditions (such as contact dermatitis) and cataracts. \n Hepatotoxicity reported.\n\n Benorilate \n Aspirin-paracetamol ester. Practically insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in ethanol and methanol, soluble in acetone and chloroform. \n As per aspirin and paracetamol. \n PO. \n Unavailable. \n Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; soft-tissue rheumatism; mild-moderate pain and fever. \n As per aspirin and paracetamol.\n\n Benzydamine \n Comes in free acid form; freely soluble in water. \n As per diclofenac. \n Topical, PO, rectal, spray and vaginal. \n No data available. \n Musculoskeletal disorders; soft-tissue disorders; sore throat. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Bromfenac \n Comes in free acid form; phenylacetic acid derivative. \n Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor. \n Ophthalmologic. \n N/A \n Postoperative pain and inflammation. \n Corneal ulceration.\n\n Bufexamac \n Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in a few organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light. \n Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibition. \n Topical. \n No data. \n Skin disorders. \n Skin conditions, such as contact dermatitis. \n\n Carbasalate \n Comes in calcium salt form; fairly soluble in water. \n Is metabolised to aspirin and urea. As per aspirin. \n Oral. \n No data. \n Used for thromboembolic disorders. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Clonixin \n Comes in free acid and lysine salt forms. \n Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibition. \n PO, IM, IV, rectal. \n No data. \n Pain. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Dexibuprofen \n D-isomer of ibuprofen. Propionic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = ?; protein binding = 99%; metabolism = hepatic via carboxylation and hydroxylation; half-life = 1.8–3.5 hours; excretion = Urine (90%). \n Osteoarthritis; mild-moderate pain and menstrual pain. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Diclofenac \n Comes in sodium, potassium and diethylamine (topically used as a gel) salt forms; sparingly soluble in water but soluble in ethanol. Unstable in the presence of light and air. Indole acetic acid derivative. \n Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor. \n PO and topical. \n Bioavailability = 50–60%; protein binding = 99–99.8%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 1.2–2 hours; excretion = urine (50–70%), faeces (30–35%) \n Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; inflammatory pain (e.g. period pain); local pain/inflammation (as a gel); actinic keratoses; heavy menstrual bleeding \n As per aspirin, except without Reye syndrome and with the following additions: myocardial infarctions, strokes and hypertension. More prone to causing these AEs compared to the other non-selective NSAIDs.\n\n Diethylamine salicylate \n Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with light and iron. \n As per diclofenac. \n Topical. \n N/A. \n Rheumatic and musculoskeletal pain. \n As per bufexamac.\n\n Diflunisal \n Comes in free acid and arginine salt forms; practically insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with light. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, IM, IV. \n Bioavailability = 80–100%; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.11 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 8–12 hours; excretion = urine (90%), faeces ( 99%; half-life = 10–17 hours. \n As per diclofenac. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Fenoprofen \n Comes in calcium salt; fairly insoluble in water and chloroform and fairly soluble in alcohol; sensitive to degradation by air. Propionic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = ?; protein binding = 99%; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine, faeces. \n Pain; rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Fentiazac \n Comes in free form and calcium salt; acetic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n No data. \n As per diclofenac. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Fepradinol \n Comes in free acid and hydrochloride salt forms. \n As per diclofenac. \n Topical. \n N/A \n Local inflammatory response. \n As per bufexamac.\n\n Feprazone \n Comes in free acid and piperazine salt forms. Phenylbutazone. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, Rectal, topical. \n Not available. \n As per diclofenac. \n As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal). \n\n Floctafenine \n Comes in free acid form; anthranilic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n Oral. \n Extensively metabolised by the liver; half-life = 8 hours; excretion = urinary and biliary. \n Short-term relief from pain. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Flufenamic acid \n Comes in free acid form and aluminium salt form; anthranilic acid. \n As per diclofenac. \n Topical. \n N/A \n Soft tissue inflammation and pain. \n As per bufexamac.\n\n Flurbiprofen \n Comes in sodium salt and free acid forms; fairly insoluble in water but soluble in ethanol; sensitive to degradation by air. Propionic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, IM, IV, ophthalmologic. \n Bioavailability = 96% (oral); protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.12 L/kg; excretion = urine (70%). \n Ophthalmologic: Vernal keratoconjunctivitis; postoperative ocular swelling; herpetic stromal keratitis, excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy; ocular gingivitis. Systemic use: rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis. \n As per bromfenac (ophthalmologic) and diclofenac (PO/IM/IV).\n\n Glucametacin \n Indometacin derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Not available. \n Musculoskeletal, joint, peri-articular and soft-tissue disorders. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Ibuprofen \n Comes in lysine salt and free acid forms; practically insoluble in water, but soluble in ethanol, acetone, methanol, dichloromethane and chloroform. Degrades in the presence of air. Propionic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, IV, topical \n Bioavailability = 80–100%; protein binding = 90–99%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9 and CYP2C19-mediated oxidation; excretion = Urine (50–60%), faeces. \n Pain; fever; inflammatory illness; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; heavy menstrual bleeding; patent ductus arteriosus. \n As per diclofenac, except with lower risk of myocardial infarction, stroke and hypertension. \n\n Imidazole salicylate \n Comes in free form. Salicylate. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, rectal, topical. \n Not available. \n Muscular and rheumatic pain. \n As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal).\n\n Indometacin \n Comes in free acid and sodium salt forms; practically insoluble in water and most solvents; sensitive to degradation by light. Acetic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, IV, rectal \n Bioavailability = 100% (oral); protein binding = 90%; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (60%), faeces (33%). \n Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis; period pain; patent ductus arteriosus. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Isonixin \n Comes in free form. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, rectal and topical. \n Not available. \n Musculoskeletal and joint disorders. \n As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal).\n\n Kebuzone \n Comes in free and sodium salt form; phenylbutazone derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n IM, PO. \n Not available. \n As per diclofenac. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Ketoprofen \n Comes in free acid, lysine salt, sodium salt and hydrochloride salt forms; the dex-enantiomer comes in trometamol salt form. Practically insoluble in water; freely soluble in most other solvents. Propionic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, rectal, topical, transdermal, intravenous, intramuscular. \n Bioavailability > 92% (oral), 70–90% (rectal); protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.1–0.2 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 1.5–2 hours (oral), 2.2 hours (rectal), 2 hours (intravenous). \n Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and superficial sporting injuries (topical use). \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Ketorolac \n Comes in the trometamol salt form; highly soluble in water. Degrades in the presence of light. Acetic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, IM, IV, intranasal, tromethamine and ophthalmologic. \n Bioavailability of IM formulation = 100%; protein binding = 99%; hepatic metabolism mostly via glucoronic acid conjugation and p-hydroxylation; half-life = 5–6 hours; excretion = urine (91.4%), faeces (6.1%). \n Mild-moderate postoperative pain; acute migraine; inflammation of the eye due to cataract surgery or allergic seasonal conjunctivitis; prevention of acute pseudophakic cystoid macular oedema. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Lornoxicam \n Hydrochloride salt form used; oxicam derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Protein binding = 99%; volume of distribution = 0.2 L/kg; half-life = 3–5 hours; excretion = faeces (51%), urine (42%). \n Acute and chronic pain. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Loxoprofen \n Comes in sodium salt form. Propionic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n Topical. \n N/A \n Local inflammation and pain. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Magnesium salicylate \n Comes in free form; soluble in water and ethanol; salicylate. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Not available. \n As per diclofenac. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Meclofenamic acid \n Comes in free acid and sodium salt form, sodium salt is the form used in human medicine; practically insoluble in water (free acid) and freely soluble in water (sodium salt); sensitive to degradation by air and light. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Protein binding > 99%; half-life = 2–4 hours; hepatically metabolised via oxidation, hydroxylation, dehalogenation and conjugation with glucuronic acid; excretion = urine, faeces (20–30%). \n Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; mild-moderate pain; dysmenorrhoea; menorrhagia. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Mefenamic acid \n Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, fairly insoluble in organic solvents; degrades on contact with air and light. Anthranilic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Protein binding extensive; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; half-life = 2 hours; excretion = urine (66%), faeces (20–25%). \n Inflammatory pain and heavy menstrual bleeding. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Mofezolac \n Comes in free form. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Not available. \n Musculoskeletal and joint pain. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Morniflumate \n Comes in free acid form; niflumic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, rectal. \n Not available. \n Inflammatory conditions. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Nabumetone \n Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in acetone; degrades on contact with air and light. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Protein binding = 99%; hepatically metabolised; half-life = 24 hours; excretion = urine (80%), faeces (9%). \n Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Naproxen \n Comes in free acid and sodium form; practically insoluble in water in free form, freely soluble in water (sodium salt), fairly soluble in most organic solvents. Degrades on contact with air and light. Propionic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = ?; protein binding > 99.5%; volume of distribution = 10% of bodyweight; half-life = 12–15 hours; excretion = urine (95%), faeces ( 99.5%; volume of distribution = 0.15–0.25 L/kg; half-life = 50–60 hours; excretion = urine (65), faeces (35%). \n Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Oxyphenbutazone \n Comes in free form. Phenylbutazone. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, Ophthalmologic. \n Unavailable. \n Ophthalmologic: Episcleritis. Systemic (now seldom used due to adverse effects): ankylosing spondylitis; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis. \n As per bromfenac. For systemic use haematological side effects such as aplastic anaemia; agranulocytosis; leucopenia; neutropenia; etc.\n\n Phenazone \n No data. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO, otolaryngologic. \n Protein binding 99%; volume of distribution = 0.1–0.2 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 2–4 hours. \n Ankylosing spondylitis; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; fibrosis; capsulitis; soft-tissue disorders. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Tiaramide \n No data. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n No data. \n Pain; inflammation. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Tinoridine \n No data. \n As per diclofenac. \n No data. \n No data. \n Pain; inflammation. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Tolfenamic acid \n Comes as free acid; practically insoluble in water; degrades upon contact with light; anthranilic acid. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Protein binding = 99%; half-life = 2 hours; hepatically metabolised; excretion = urine (90%), faeces. \n Migraine; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; dysmenorrhoea. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Tolmetin \n Comes in sodium salt form; freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol, freely soluble in methanol. Acetic acid derivative. \n As per diclofenac. \n PO. \n Protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 7–10 L; half-life = 1 hour; excretion = urine (90%). \n Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Ufenamate \n No data. \n No data. \n Topical. \n No data. \n Inflammatory skin disorders. \n As per other topical NSAIDs.\n\n '''COX-2 selective inhibitors'''\n\n Celecoxib \n Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, fairly soluble in organic solvents. Degrades on contact with light and moisture. Sulfonamide. \n Selective COX-2 inhibitor. \n PO. \n Protein binding = 97%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; faeces (57%), urine (27%). \n Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; ankylosing spondylitis; pain due to dysmenorrhoea or injury. \n As per non-selective NSAIDs. More prone to causing thrombotic events than most of them, however, except diclofenac.\n\n Etodolac \n Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in acetone and dehydrated alcohol. Acetic acid derivative. \n As per celecoxib. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = ?; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.41 L/kg; half-life = 6–7 hours; excretion = urine (73%). \n Rheumatoid arthritis, including juvenile idiopathic arthritis; osteoarthritis; acute pain. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Etoricoxib \n Comes in free form; sulfonamide. \n As per celecoxib. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = 100%; protein binding = 91.4%; volume of distribution = 120 L; half-life = 22 hours; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (70%), faeces (20%). \n Acute pain; gout; osteoarthritis. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Lumiracoxib† \n Comes in free form; acetic acid derivative. \n As per celecoxib. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = 74%; protein binding > 98%; extensive hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; half-life = 3–6 hours; excretion = Urine (50%), faeces (50%). \n Osteoarthritis. \n As above, plus hepatotoxicity.\n\n Meloxicam \n Comes in free form; fairly insoluble in water and in most organic solvents; oxicam derivative. \n As per celecoxib. \n PO, rectal. \n Bioavailability = 89%; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.1–0.2 L/kg; half-life = 22–24 hours; extensive hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (45%), faeces (47%). \n Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Nimesulide \n Comes in free and betadex form; practically insoluble in water and ethanol, soluble in acetone. \n As per celecoxib. \n PO, rectal, topical. \n Unavailable. \n Acute pain; dysmenorrhoea; sprains (topical); tendinitis. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Parecoxib \n Comes in sodium salt form; sulfonamide. \n As per celecoxib. \n IM, IV. \n Plasma binding = 98%; volume of distribution = 55 L; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9, CYP3A4; half-life = 8 hours; excretion = urine (70%). \n Postoperative pain. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Rofecoxib† \n Comes in free form; sulfonamide. \n As per celecoxib. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = 93%; protein binding = 87%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 17 hours. \n Acute pain; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. \n As per diclofenac.\n\n Valdecoxib† \n Comes in free form; sulfonamide. \n As per celecoxib. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = 83%; protein binding = 98%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4 and CYP2C9; half-life = 8.11 hours; excretion = urine (90%). \n Pain from dysmenorrhoea; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis. \n As above and also potentially fatal skin reactions (e.g. toxic epidermal necrolysis).\n\n '''Opioids'''\n\n '''Those with a morphine skeleton'''\n\n Buprenorphine \n Comes in free and hydrochloride salt forms; fairly insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, methanol and acetone; degrades upon contact with light. \n Partial agonist at the mu opioid receptor; agonist at delta opioid receptor; antagonist at kappa opioid receptor. \n Sublingual, transdermal, IM, IV, intranasal, epidural, SC. \n Bioavailability = 79% (sublingual); protein binding = 96%: volume of distribution = 97–187 L/kg; half-life = 20–36 hours; excretion = urine, faeces. \n Opioid dependence, moderate-severe pain. \n As per codeine, respiratory effects are subject to a ceiling effect.\n\n Codeine \n Comes in free form, hydrochloride salt, sulfate salt and phosphate salts; soluble in boiling water (free form), freely soluble in ethanol (free form), soluble/freely soluble in water (salt forms); sensitive to degradation by light. Methoxy analogue of morphine. \n Metabolised to morphine, which activates the opioid receptors. \n PO, IM, IV. \n Extensive hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2D6, to morphine; half-life = 3–4 hours; excretion = urine (86%). \n Mild-moderate pain, often in combination with paracetamol or ibuprofen. \n Constipation, dependence, sedation, itching, nausea, vomiting and respiratory depression.\n\n Diamorphine \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, soluble in alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. Diacetyl derivative of morphine. \n Rapidly hydrolysed to 6-acetylmorphine and then to morphine after crossing the blood-brain barrier which in turn activates the opioid receptors in the CNS. \n IM, intrathecal, intranasal, PO, IV, SC. \n Extensively metabolised to morphine with 6-acetylmorphine as a possible intermediate. Mostly excreted in urine. \n Severe pain (including labour pain); cough due to terminal lung cancer; angina; left ventricular failure. \n As per codeine. Higher potential for abuse compared to other opioids due to its rapid penetration of the blood-brain barrier.\n\n Dihydrocodeine \n Comes in freebase, hydrochloride, phosphate, polistirex, thiocyanate, tartrate, bitartrate and hydrogen tartrate salt forms; freely soluble in water, practically insoluble in organic solvents (hydrogen tartrate salt); degrades upon contact with air and light. \n Opioid receptor agonist. \n IM, IV, PO, SC. \n Bioavailability = 20%; extensive hepatic metabolism, partly via CYP2D6 to dihydromorphine and CYP3A4 to nordihydrocodeine; half-life = 3.5 –5 hours; excretion = urine. \n Moderate-severe pain; usually in combination with paracetamol and/or aspirin. \n As per codeine.\n\n Ethylmorphine \n Comes in freebase, hydrochloride, camphorate and camsilate salt forms; soluble in water and alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. \n Opioid receptor ligand. \n PO. \n No data. \n Cough suppressant. \n As per codeine.\n\n Hydrocodone \n Comes in hydrochloride/tartrate salt form; freely soluble in water, practically insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light/air. \n Opioid receptor ligand. \n PO. \n Protein binding = 19%; extensively hepatically metabolised, mostly via CYP3A4, but via CYP2D6 to a lesser extent to hydromorphone; half-life = 8 hours; excretion = urine. \n Chronic pain. \n As per codeine.\n\n Hydromorphone \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, fairly insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light or temperatures outside 15 °C and 35 °C. \n Opioid receptor agonist. \n IM, IV, PO, SC. \n Bioavailability = 50–62% (oral); protein binding = 8–19%; extensively hepatically metabolised; half-life = 2–3 hours; excretion = urine. \n Moderate-severe pain; cough. \n As per codeine.\n\n Morphine \n Comes in freebase form, hydrochloride salt, sulfate salt and tartrate salt forms; soluble in water; degrades in the presence of light. \n Opioid receptor agonist (μ, δ, κ). \n IM, intrathecal, PO, IV, SC, rectal. \n Protein binding = 35%; extensive hepatic metabolism, with some metabolism occur in the gut after oral administration; half-life = 2 hours; excretion = urine (90%). \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per codeine.\n\n Nicomorphine \n Dinicotinic acid ester derivative of morphine. \n As per morphine. \n IM, IV, PO, rectal, SC. \n No available data. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per codeine.\n\n Oxycodone \n Comes in freebase, hydrochloride and terephthalate salt forms; freely soluble in water and practically insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air. \n Opioid receptor agonist. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = 60–87%; protein binding = 45%; volume of distribution = 2.6 L/kg; extensively metabolised in the liver via CYP3A4 and to a lesser extent via CYP2D6 to oxymorphone; half-life = 2–4 hours; excretion = urine (83%). \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per codeine.\n\n Oxymorphone \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; fairly soluble in water (1 in 4), practically insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air, light and temperatures outside 15 °C to 30 °C. \n As per morphine. \n PO, IM, SC. \n Bioavailability = 10% (oral); protein binding = 10–12%; volume of distribution = 1.94–4.22 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 7–9 hours, 9–11 hours (XR); excretion = urine, faeces. \n Postoperative analgesia/anaesthesia; moderate-severe pain. \n As per codeine.\n\n '''Morphinans'''\n\n Butorphanol \n Comes in tartrate salt form; sparingly soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air and at temperatures outside the range of 15 °C and 30 °C. \n Kappa opioid receptor agonist; mu opioid receptor partial agonist. \n IM, IV, intranasal. \n Bioavailability = 60–70% (intranasal); protein binding = 80%; volume of distribution = 487 L; hepatic metabolism, mostly via hydroxylation; excretion = urine (mostly); half-life = 4.6 hours. \n Moderate-severe pain, including labour pain. \n As above, but with a higher propensity for causing hallucinations and delusions. Respiratory depression is subject to ceiling effect.\n\n Levorphanol \n Comes in tartrate salt form; fairly insoluble in water (1 in 50) and fairly insoluble in ethanol, chloroform and ether; unstable outside of 15 °C and 30 °C; phenanthrene derivative. \n Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist; SNRI. \n PO, IM, IV, SC. \n Protein binding = 40%; extensive first-pass metabolism; half-life = 12–16 hours, 30 hours (repeated dosing). \n Acute/chronic pain. \n As per codeine.\n\n Nalbuphine \n Comes primarily as its hydrochloride salt. \n Full agonist at kappa opioid receptors, partial agonist/antagonist at the mu opioid receptors. \n IM, IV, SC. \n Protein binding = not significant; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 5 hours; excretion = urine, faeces. \n Pain; anaesthesia supplement; opioid-induced pruritus. \n As per codeine. Respiratory depression is subject to ceiling effect.\n\n '''Benzomorphans'''\n\n Dezocine \n No data available. \n Mixed opioid agonist-antagonist. \n IM, IV. \n Volume of distribution = 9–12 L/kg; half-life = 2.2–2.7 hours. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per codeine.\n\n Eptazocine \n Comes as hydrobromide salt. \n As per morphine. \n IM, SC. \n No data. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per codeine.\n\n Pentazocine \n Comes in free, hydrochloride and lactate salt forms; fairly insoluble in water (1:30 or less), more soluble in ethanol and chloroform; degrades upon contact with air and light. \n Kappa opioid receptor agonist; mu opioid receptor antagonist/partial agonist. \n IM, IV, SC. \n Bioavailability = 60–70%; protein binding = 60%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 2–3 hours; excretion = urine (primary), faeces. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per codeine. Respiratory effects are subject to a ceiling effect.\n\n '''Phenylpiperidines'''\n\n Anileridine \n Comes in free, hydrochloride and phosphate forms; fairly insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, ether and chloroform; degrades upon contact with air and light. \n Mu opioid receptor agonist. \n IM, IV. \n No data. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per codeine.\n\n Ketobemidone \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, soluble in ethanol and fairly insoluble in dichloromethane. \n Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist. \n PO, IM, IV, rectal. \n Bioavailability = 34% (oral), 44% (rectal); half-life = 2–3.5 hours. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per other opioids.\n\n Pethidine \n Comes in hydrochloride form; very soluble in water, sparingly soluble in ether, soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with air and light. \n Mu opioid receptor agonist with some serotonergic effects. \n IM, IV, PO, SC. \n Bioavailability = 50–60%; protein binding = 65–75%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 2.5–4 hours; excretion = urine (primarily). \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per other opioids; and seizures, anxiety, mood changes and serotonin syndrome.\n\n '''Open-chain opioids'''\n\n Dextromoramide \n Comes in tartrate salt and free forms; soluble in water (tartrate salt). \n IM, IV, PO, rectal. \n No data available. \n Severe pain. \n As per other opioids. \n As per other opioids.\n\n Dextropropoxyphene \n Comes in free form, hydrochloride and napsilate salt forms; very soluble in water (HCl), practically insoluble in water (napsilate); degrades upon contact with light and air. \n Mu opioid. \n PO. \n Protein binding = 80%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 6–12 hours, 30–36 hours (active metabolite). \n Mild-moderate pain. \n As per other opioids, plus ECG changes.\n\n Dipipanone \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; practically insoluble in water and ether, soluble in acetone and ethanol. \n Mu opioid. \n PO, often in combination with cyclizine. \n Half-life = 20 hours. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n Less sedating than morphine, otherwise as per morphine.\n\n Levacetylmethadol† \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form. \n As above plus nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist. \n PO. \n Protein binding = 80%; half-life = 2.6 days. \n Opioid dependence. \n As per other opioids, plus ventricular rhythm disorders.\n\n Levomethadone \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water and alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. \n Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist. \n PO. \n No data. \n As per methadone. \n As per methadone.\n\n Meptazinol \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water, ethanol and methanol, fairly insoluble in acetone; unstable at temperatures greater than 25 °C. \n Mixed opioid agonist-antagonist, partial agonist at mu-1 receptor; cholinergic actions exist. \n IM, IV, PO. \n Bioavailability = 8.69% (oral); protein binding = 27.1%; half-life = 2 hours; excretion = urine. \n Moderate-severe pain; perioperative analgesia; renal colic. \n As per pentazocine.\n\n Methadone \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water and ethanol; degrades upon contact with air and light and outside the temperature range of 15 °C and 30 °C. \n Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist. \n IM, IV, PO, SC. \n Bioavailability = 36–100% (mean: 70–80%); protein binding = 81–97% (mean: 87%); volume of distribution = 1.9-8 L/kg (mean: 4 L/kg); hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4, CYP2B6 and to a lesser extent: CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6 & CYP2C8; half-life = 5–130 hours (mean: 20–35 hours); excretion = urine (20–50%), faeces. \n Opioid addiction; chronic pain. \n As per other opioids, plus QT interval prolongation.\n\n Piritramide \n Comes in free or tartrate salt forms. \n Mu opioid. \n IM, IV, SC. \n No data available. \n Severe pain. \n As per other opioids.\n\n Tapentadol \n Comes in free and hydrochloride salt forms. \n Mu opioid and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = 32%; protein binding = 20%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6; excretion = urine (70%), faeces; half-life = 4 hours. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per other opioids; less likely to cause nausea, vomiting and constipation.\n\n Tilidine \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water, ethanol and dichloromethane; degrades upon contact with light. \n Mu opioid metabolite, nortilidine. \n PO. \n No data. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per other opioids.\n\n Tramadol \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water and methanol, insoluble in acetone; degrades at temperatures less than 15 °C and 30 °C and upon contact with light. \n Mu opioid (mostly via its active metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol) and SNRI. \n IM, IV, PO, rectal. \n Bioavailability = 70–75% (oral), 100% (IM); protein binding = 20%; hepatic metabolism, via CYP3A4 and CYP2D6; half-life = 6 hours; excretion = urine, faeces. \n Moderate-severe pain. \n As per other opioids but with less respiratory depression and constipation. Psychiatric AEs reported. Serotonin syndrome possible if used in conjunction with other serotonergics.\n\n '''Anilidopiperidines'''\n\n Alfentanil \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in ethanol, water, methanol; degrades upon contact with air and light. \n Mu opioid. \n Epidural, IM, IV, intrathecally. \n Protein binding = 90%; volume of distribution = small; half-life = 1–2 hours; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4; excretion = urine. \n Procedural anaesthesia. \n As per other opioids. Very sedating.\n\n Fentanyl \n Comes in free, hydrochloride salt, citrate salt forms; practically insoluble in water (free form), soluble in water (citrate salt form), freely soluble in ethanol and methanol; degrades outside the temperature range of 15 °C and 30 °C and upon contact with light. \n Mu opioid. \n Buccal, epidermal, IM, IV, intrathecal, intranasal, SC, sublingual. \n Bioavailability = 50% (buccal), 89% (intranasal); protein binding = 80%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4; half-life = 219 min; excretion = urine (primary), faeces. \n Moderate-severe pain (including labour pain); adjunct to anaesthesia. \n As with other opioids, with less nausea, vomiting, constipation and itching and more sedation.\n\n Remifentanil \n Comes in hydrochloride salt. \n Mu opioid. \n IV. \n Protein binding = 70%; hydrolysed by blood and tissue esterases; half-life = 20 min; excretion = urine (95%). \n Anaesthesia maintenance. \n As with fentanyl.\n\n Sufentanil \n Comes in free and citrate salt forms; soluble in water, ethanol and methanol; degrades upon contact with light and temperatures outside 15 °C and 30 °C. \n Mu opioid. \n Epidural, IV, intrathecal, transdermal. \n Protein binding = 90%; half-life = 2.5 hours; excretion = urine (80%). \n Adjunct to anaesthesia and moderate-severe pain. \n As with fentanyl.\n\n '''Other analgesics'''\n\n Acetanilide \n No data. \n Paracetamol prodrug. \n PO. \n No data. \n Pain; fever. \n Cancer; AEs of paracetamol.\n\n Amitriptyline \n Comes in free form and in hydrochloride and embonate salt forms; practically insoluble in water (embonate salt), freely soluble in water (HCl); degrades upon contact with light. \n SNRI. \n PO. \n Hepatic metabolism, via CYP2C19, CYP3A4; active metabolite, nortriptyline; half-life = 9–27 hours; excretion = urine (18%), faeces. \n Neuropathic pain; nocturnal enuresis; major depression; migraine prophylaxis; urinary urge incontinence. \n Sedation, anticholinergic effects, weight gain, orthostatic hypotension, sinus tachycardia, sexual dysfunction, tremor, dizziness, sweating, agitation, insomnia, anxiety, confusion.\n\n Dronabinol \n Comes in free form; degrades upon contact with light. \n Cannabinoid receptor partial agonist. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = 10–20%; protein binding = 90–99%; volume of distribution = 10 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 25–36 hours, 44–59 hours (metabolites); excretion = faeces (50%), urine (15%). \n Refractory chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting; anorexia; neuropathic pain. \n Dizziness, euphoria, paranoia, somnolence, abnormal thinking, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, depression, hallucinations, hypotension, special difficulties, emotional lability, tremors, flushing, etc.\n\n Duloxetine \n Comes in hydrochloride salt form; slightly soluble in water, freely soluble in methanol; degrades upon contact with light. \n SNRI. \n PO. \n Protein binding > 90%; volume of distribution = 3.4 L/kg; hepatic metabolism, via CYP2D6, CYP1A2; half-life = 12 hours; excretion = urine (70%), faeces (20%). \n Major depression; generalised anxiety disorder; neuropathic pain. \n Anticholinergic effects, GI effects, yawning, sweating, dizziness, weakness, sexual dysfunction, somnolence, insomnia, headache, tremor, decreased appetite.\n\n Flupirtine \n Comes as maleate salt. Chemically related to retigabine. \n Potassium channel (Kv7) opener. \n PO, rectal. \n Bioavailability = 90% (oral), 72.5% (rectal); protein binding = 80%; volume of distribution = 154 L; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 6.5 hours; excretion = urine (72%). \n Pain; fibromyalgia; Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. \n Drowsiness, dizziness, heartburn, dry mouth, fatigue and nausea.\n\n Gabapentin \n Comes in free and enacarbil salt forms; fairly insoluble in ethanol, dichoromethane, fairly soluble in water. \n Binds to the α2δ-1 subunit of voltage gated calcium ion channels in the spinal cord. May also modulate NMDA receptors and protein kinase C. \n PO. \n Half-life = 5–7 hours. \n Neuropathic pain; epilepsy. \n Fatigue, sedation, dizziness, ataxia, tremor, diplopia, nystagmus, amblyopia, amnesia, abnormal thinking, hypertension, vasodilation, peripheral oedema, dry mouth, weight gain and rash.\n\n Milnacipran \n No data. \n SNRI. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = 85–90%; protein binding = 13%: volume of distribution = 400 L; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 6–8 hours (L-isomer), 8–10 hours (D-isomer); excretion = urine (55%). \n Fibromyalgia. \n As per duloxetine, plus hypertension.\n\n Nabiximols \n Contains cannabidiol and dronabinol in roughly equal concentrations. \n As per dronabinol. \n Buccal spray. \n Not available. \n Neuropathic pain and spasticity as part of MS. \n As per dronabinol.\n\n Nefopam \n Comes in a hydrochloride salt form. Chemically related to orphenadrine. \n Unknown; serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor. \n PO, IM. \n Protein binding = 73%; half-life = 4 hours; excretion = urine, faeces (8%). \n Analgesia, especially postoperative; hiccups. \n Has antimuscarinic and sympathomimetic effects.\n\n Paracetamol \n Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with moisture, air and light. \n Multiple; inhibits prostaglandin synthesis in the CNS, an active metabolite, AM404, is an anandamide reuptake inhibitor. \n PO, IV, IM, rectal. \n Protein binding = 10–25%; volume of distribution = 1 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 1–3 hours; excretion = urine. \n Analgesia and fever reduction. \n Hepatotoxicity; hypersensitivity reactions (rare), including Stevens-Johnson syndrome; hypotension (rare; IV).\n\n Phenacetin \n No data. \n Prodrug to paracetamol. \n PO. \n No data. \n Analgesia and fever reduction. \n Haematologic, nephrotoxicity, cancer and paracetamol AEs.\n\n Pregabalin \n Comes in free form. \n As per gabapentin. \n PO. \n Bioavailability = 90%; half-life = 6.3 hours; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (90%). \n Neuropathic pain; anxiety; epilepsy. \n As per gabapentin.\n\n Propacetamol \n Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with moisture. \n Prodrug to paracetamol. \n IM, IV. \n No data available. \n Analgesia and fever reduction. \n As per paracetamol.\n\n Ziconotide \n Peptide. \n N-type calcium-channel blocker. \n Intrathecal. \n Protein binding = 50%; half-life = 2.9–6.5 hours; excretion = urine (<1%). \n Chronic pain. \n CNS toxicity (abnormal gait, abnormal vision, memory problems, etc.); GI effects.\n\n Where † indicates products that are no longer marketed.\n\n",
"\nThe word ''analgesic'' derives from Greek ''an-'' (, \"without\"), ''álgos'' (, \"pain\"), and ''-ikos'' (, forming adjectives). Such drugs were usually known as '''anodynes''' before the 20th century.\n",
"Some novel and investigational analgesics include subtype-selective voltage-gated sodium channel blockers such as funapide and raxatrigine, as well as multimodal agents such as ralfinamide.\n",
"* Audioanalgesia\n* Pain management\n* Patient-controlled analgesia\n* Pain in babies\n* Congenital analgesia (insensitivity to pain)\n",
"\n",
"* .\n* .\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Uses",
"Contraindications",
" Classification ",
" List of drugs with comparison ",
"Etymology",
"Research",
" See also ",
"Notes",
" References "
] | Analgesic |
[
"'''Abiotic stress''' is defined as the negative impact of non-living factors on the living organisms in a specific environment. The non-living variable must influence the environment beyond its normal range of variation to adversely affect the population performance or individual physiology of the organism in a significant way.\n\nWhereas a biotic stress would include such living disturbances as fungi or harmful insects, abiotic stress factors, or stressors, are naturally occurring, often intangible, factors such as intense sunlight or wind that may cause harm to the plants and animals in the area affected. Abiotic stress is essentially unavoidable.\nAbiotic stress affects animals, but plants are especially dependent on environmental factors, so it is particularly constraining. Abiotic stress is the most harmful factor concerning the growth and productivity of crops worldwide. Research has also shown that abiotic stressors are at their most harmful when they occur together, in combinations of abiotic stress factors.\n",
"Abiotic stress comes in many forms. The most common of the stressors are the easiest for people to identify, but there are many other, less recognizable abiotic stress factors which affect environments constantly.\n\nThe most basic stressors include: \n* High winds\n* Extreme temperatures\n* Drought\n* Flood\n* Other natural disasters, such as tornadoes and wildfires.\n\nLesser-known stressors generally occur on a smaller scale. They include: poor edaphic conditions like rock content and pH levels, high radiation, compaction, contamination, and other, highly specific conditions like rapid rehydration during seed germination.\n",
"Abiotic stress, as a natural part of every ecosystem, will affect organisms in a variety of ways. Although these effects may be either beneficial or detrimental, the location of the area is crucial in determining the extent of the impact that abiotic stress will have. The higher the latitude of the area affected, the greater the impact of abiotic stress will be on that area. So, a taiga or boreal forest is at the mercy of whatever abiotic stress factors may come along, while tropical zones are much less susceptible to such stressors.\n\n===Benefits===\nOne example of a situation where abiotic stress plays a constructive role in an ecosystem is in natural wildfires. While they can be a human safety hazard, it is productive for these ecosystems to burn out every once in a while so that new organisms can begin to grow and thrive.\nEven though it is healthy for an ecosystem, a wildfire can still be considered an abiotic stressor, because it puts an obvious stress on individual organisms within the area. Every tree that is scorched and each bird nest that is devoured is a sign of the abiotic stress. On the larger scale, though, natural wildfires are positive manifestations of abiotic stress.\n\nWhat also needs to be taken into account when looking for benefits of abiotic stress, is that one phenomenon may not affect an entire ecosystem in the same way. While a flood will kill most plants living low on the ground in a certain area, if there is rice there, it will thrive in the wet conditions.\nAnother example of this is in phytoplankton and zooplankton. The same types of conditions are usually considered stressful for these two types of organisms. They act very similarly when exposed to ultraviolet light and most toxins, but at elevated temperatures the phytoplankton reacts negatively, while the thermophilic zooplankton reacts positively to the increase in temperature. The two may be living in the same environment, but an increase in temperature of the area would prove stressful only for one of the organisms.\n\nLastly, abiotic stress has enabled species to grow, develop, and evolve, furthering natural selection as it picks out the weakest of a group of organisms. Both plants and animals have evolved mechanisms allowing them to survive extremes.\n\n===Detriments===\nThe most obvious detriment concerning abiotic stress involves farming. It has been claimed by one study that abiotic stress causes the most crop loss of any other factor and that most major crops are reduced in their yield by more than 50% from their potential yield.\n\nBecause abiotic stress is widely considered a detrimental effect, the research on this branch of the issue is extensive. For more information on the harmful effects of abiotic stress, see the sections below on plants and animals.\n",
"A plant’s first line of defense against abiotic stress is in its roots. If the soil holding the plant is healthy and biologically diverse, the plant will have a higher chance of surviving stressful conditions.\n\nThe plant responses to stress are dependent on the tissue or organ affected by the stress. For example, transcriptional responses to stress are tissue or cell specific in roots and are quite different depending on the stress involved.\n\nOne of the primary responses to abiotic stress such as high salinity is the disruption of the Na+/K+ ratio in the cytoplasm of the plant cell. High concentrations of Na+, for example, can decrease the capacity for the plant to take up water and also alter enzyme and transporter functions. Evolved adaptations to efficiently restore cellular ion homeostasis has led to a wide variety of stress tolerant plants.\n\nFacilitation, or the positive interactions between different species of plants, is an intricate web of association in a natural environment. It is how plants work together. In areas of high stress, the level of facilitation is especially high as well. This could possibly be because the plants need a stronger network to survive in a harsher environment, so their interactions between species, such as cross-pollination or mutualistic actions, become more common to cope with the severity of their habitat.\n\nPlants also adapt very differently from one another, even from a plant living in the same area. When a group of different plant species was prompted by a variety of different stress signals, such as drought or cold, each plant responded uniquely. Hardly any of the responses were similar, even though the plants had become accustomed to exactly the same home environment.\n\nRice (''Oryza sativa'') is a classic example. Rice is a staple food throughout the world, especially in China and India. Rice plants experience different types of abiotic stresses, like drought and high salinity. These stress conditions have a negative impact on rice production. Genetic diversity has been studied among several rice varieties with different genotypes using molecular markers.\n\nSerpentine soils (media with low concentrations of nutrients and high concentrations of heavy metals) can be a source of abiotic stress. Initially, the absorption of toxic metal ions is limited by cell membrane exclusion. Ions that are absorbed into tissues are sequestered in cell vacuoles. This sequestration mechanism is facilitated by proteins on the vacuole membrane.\n\nChemical priming has been proposed to increase tolerance to abiotic stresses in crop plants. In this method, which is analogous to vaccination, stress-inducing chemical agents are introduced to the plant in brief doses so that the plant begins preparing defense mechanisms. Thus, when the abiotic stress occurs, the plant has already prepared defense mechanisms that can be activated faster and increase tolerance.\n\n=== Salt stress in plants ===\nA large portion of the soil has been affected by over salinity and it has been known to limit the growth of many plants. The amount of soil salinization has reached 19.5% of the irrigated land and 2.1% of the dry-land agriculture around the world. Soil salinization affects the plants using osmotic potential and inhibits many of the plants’ cellular functions including photosynthesis and stomatal opening. Over generations, many plants have mutated and built different mechanisms to counter salinity effects.\n\nA good combatant of salinity in plants is the hormone ethylene. Ethylene is known for regulating plant growth and development and dealing with stress conditions. Many central membrane proteins in plants, such as ETO2, ERS1 and EIN2, are used for ethylene signaling in many plant growth processes. Mutations in these proteins can lead to heightened salt sensitivity and can limit plant growth. The effects of salinity has been studied on Arabidopsis plants that have mutated ERS1, ERS2, ETR1, ETR2 and EIN4 proteins. These proteins are used for ethylene signaling again certain stress conditions, such as salt and the ethylene precursor ACC is used to suppress any sensitivity to the salt stress.\n\n=== Phosphate starvation in plants ===\n\nPhosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient required for plant growth and development, but most of the world's soil is limited in this important plant nutrient. Plants can utilize P mainly in the form if soluble inorganic phosphate (Pi) but are subjected to abiotic stress of P-limitation when there is not sufficient soluble PO4 available in the soil. Phosphorus forms insoluble complexes with Ca and Mg in alkaline soils and Al and Fe in acidic soils that makes it unavailable for plant roots. When there is limited bioavailable P in the soil, plants show extensive abiotic stress phenotype such as short primary roots and more lateral roots and root hairs to make more surface available for Pi absorption, exudation of organic acids and phosphatase to release Pi from complex P containing molecules and make it available for growing plants organs. It has been shown that PHR1, a MYB - related transcription factor is a master regulator of P-starvation response in plants. PHR1 also has been shown to regulate extensive remodeling of lipids and metabolites during phosphorus limitation stress\n",
"For animals, the most stressful of all the abiotic stressors is heat. This is because many species are unable to regulate their internal body temperature. Even in the species that are able to regulate their own temperature, it is not always a completely accurate system. Temperature determines metabolic rates, heart rates, and other very important factors within the bodies of animals, so an extreme temperature change can easily distress the animal’s body. Animals can respond to extreme heat, for example, through natural heat acclimation or by burrowing into the ground to find a cooler space.\n\nIt is also possible to see in animals that a high genetic diversity is beneficial in providing resiliency against harsh abiotic stressors. This acts as a sort of stock room when a species is plagued by the perils of natural selection. A variety of galling insects are among the most specialized and diverse herbivores on the planet, and their extensive protections against abiotic stress factors have helped the insect in gaining that position of honor.\n",
"Biodiversity is determined by many things, and one of them is abiotic stress. If an environment is highly stressful, biodiversity tends to be low. If abiotic stress does not have a strong presence in an area, the biodiversity will be much higher.\n\nThis idea leads into the understanding of how abiotic stress and endangered species are related. It has been observed through a variety of environments that as the level of abiotic stress increases, the number of species decreases. This means that species are more likely to become population threatened, endangered, and even extinct, when and where abiotic stress is especially harsh.\n",
"*Ecophysiology\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Examples",
"Effects",
"In plants",
"In animals",
"In endangered species",
"See also",
"References"
] | Abiotic stress |
[
"The '''accusative case''' (abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb. The same case is used in many languages for the objects of (some or all) prepositions. It is a noun that is having something done to it, usually used together (such as in Latin) with the nominative case. For example, \"they\" in English is nominative; \"them\" is accusative. The sentence \"They like them\" shows the nominative case and accusative case working in conjunction using the same base word. The syntactic functions of the accusative consist of designating the immediate object of an action, the intended result, the goal of a motion, and the extent of an action.\n\nThe accusative case existed in Proto-Indo-European and is present in some Indo-European languages (including Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, German, Icelandic, Bulgarian, Polish, Czech, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, Ukrainian), in the Uralic languages, in Altaic languages and in Semitic languages (such as Hebrew and Classical Arabic). Finnic languages, such as Finnish and Estonian, have two cases to mark objects, the accusative and the partitive case. In morphosyntactic alignment terms, both perform the accusative function, but the accusative object is telic, while the partitive is not.\n\nModern English, which almost entirely lacks declension in its nouns, does not have an explicitly marked accusative case even in the pronouns. Such forms as ''whom'', ''them'', and ''her'' derive rather from the old Germanic dative forms, of which the -m and -r endings are characteristic. This conflation of the old accusative, dative, and (after prepositions) genitive cases is the ''oblique case''. Most modern English grammarians no longer use the Latin accusative/dative model, though they tend to use the terms ''objective'' for oblique, ''subjective'' for nominative, and ''possessive'' for genitive ''(see declension in English).'' ''Hine'', a true accusative masculine third person singular pronoun, is attested in some northern English dialects as late as the 19th century.\n",
"The English name \"accusative (case)\" is an Anglicisation of the Latin ''accūsātīvus'' (''cāsus''), which was translated from Ancient Greek αἰτιατικὴ (πτῶσις), ''aitiatikē (ptôsis)''. The Greek term can mean either \"(inflection) for something caused\" or \"for an accusation\". The intended meaning was likely the first, which would be translated as Latin ''causātīvus'' or ''effectīvus'', but the Latin term was a translation of the second. Compare Russian вини́тельный ''vinítel’nyj'', from винить ''vinít’'' \"to blame\".\n",
"In the sentence '''''He''' sees the woman'', \"he\" is the subject of the sentence, while in ''The woman sees '''him''''', \"him\" is the object. In English the two uses are distinguished by different forms of the pronoun: he/him. If, however, instead of a pronoun, we use a noun, we make no such distinction in the form of the word. Thus, we use the same word \"man\" in both '''''The man''' sees the woman'' and ''The woman sees '''the man'''''. In many languages, however, different forms of the word are used not only for pronouns, but for nouns too. For example, in Latin ''The man sees the woman'' = '''''Vir''' feminam videt'', while ''The woman sees the man'' = ''Femina '''virum''' videt''. For \"man\", Latin uses \"vir\" for the subject, and \"virum\" for the object. Likewise, in the same pair of sentences, we have \"femina\" for a subject and \"feminam\" for object. The form used for the direct object (\"him\", \"virum\", \"feminam\") is known as the \"accusative case\", while the form used for the subject (\"he\", \"vir\", \"femina\") is known as the nominative case.\n\nJust as with pronouns and nouns, many inflected languages also make distinctions between cases in their adjectives and (for languages that have them) articles. Thus in German, \"the giant\" as the subject of a sentence may be expressed as ''der Riese'': nominative case. As the object of a verb, this becomes '''''den''' Riesen'', the accusative.\n",
"\n===Indo-European languages===\n\n==== Latin ====\nIn Latin, nouns, adjectives, or pronouns in the accusative case (''accusativus'') can be used\n* as direct object.\n* to indicate duration of time. E.g., ''multos annos'', \"for many years\"; ''ducentos annos'', \"for 200 years.\" This is known as the '''accusative of time'''. Compare the ablative of time, which was used for most points in time except—in classical Latin—for dates of the form ''ante diem N. Kal./Non./Id.'', which followed Greek in taking the accusative.\n* to indicate direction towards which. E.g. ''domum'', \"homewards\"; ''Romam'', \"to Rome\" with no preposition needed. This is known as the '''accusative of place to which''', and is equivalent to the lative case found in some other languages.\n* as the subject of an indirect statement (e.g. ''Dixit '''me''' fuisse saevum'', \"He said that '''I''' had been cruel;\" in later Latin works, such as the Vulgate, such a construction is replaced by ''quod'' and a regularly structured sentence, having the subject in the nominative: e.g., ''Dixit quod '''ego''' fueram saevus'').\n* with case-specific prepositions such as \"per\" (through), \"ad\" (to/toward), and \"trans\" (across).\n* in exclamations, such as ''me miseram,'' \"wretched me\" (spoken by Circe to Ulysses in Ovid's ''Remedium Amoris;'' note that this is feminine: the masculine form would be me miserum).\n\nFor the accusative endings, see Latin declension.\n\n=====Latin prepositions=====\nSome Latin prepositions take a noun in the accusative. A few prepositions may take either an accusative or an ablative, in which case the accusative indicates motion, and the ablative indicates no motion. E.g. (ablative) ''in casā'', \"in the cottage\"; (accusative) ''in casam'', \"into the cottage\".\n\nThis ''aide-memoire'' was taught in schools when Latin was on the curriculum:\n''Ante, apud, ad, adversus,''\n''Circum, circa, citra, cis,''\n''Contra, inter, erga, extra,''\n''Infra, intra, iuxta, ob,''\n''Penes, pone, post,'' and ''praeter,''\n''Prope, propter, per, secundum,''\n''Supra, versus, ultra, trans:''\n**Add ''super, subter, sub,'' and ''in,''\nWhen 'motion' 'tis, not 'state' they mean.**\n\nOr try: ** ''And unto these if motion be intended,''\n''Let In, Sub, Super, Subter be appended ''\n\n==== German ====\nGerman uses the accusative to mark direct objects and objects of certain prepositions, or adverbs relating to time. The accusative is only marked for masculine articles, pronouns, adjectives, and weak nouns.\n\n=====German articles=====\nThe masculine forms for German articles, e.g., ''der'' (the), ''ein'' (a/an), ''mein'' (my), etc., change in the accusative case: they always end in ''-en''. Feminine, neuter and plural articles do not change in the accusative.\n\n\n\n Masculine\n Feminine\n Neuter\n Plural\n\n Definite article (the)\n ''den''\n die\n das\n die\n\n Indefinite article (a/an)\n ''einen''\n eine\n ein\n \n\n\nFor example, \"''Hund''\" (dog) is a masculine (''ein/der'') word, so the article changes when used in the accusative case:\n*''Ich habe einen Hund.'' (lit., I have a dog.) In this sentence \"a dog\" is in the accusative case as it is the second idea (the object) of the sentence.\n\n=====German pronouns=====\nMost German pronouns also change in the accusative case, with the exception of the third-person forms except the masculine, which are ''sie'' in the nominative and accusative forms, and the second-person formal form, which is ''Sie'' in both forms.\n\n\n Case\n Nominative\n Accusative\n\n First\n Singular\n ich\n mich\n\n Second\n du\n dich\n\n Third\n Masculine\n er\n ihn\n\n Feminine\n sie\n sie\n\n Neuter\n es\n es\n\n First\n Plural\n wir\n uns\n\n Second\n Informal\n ihr\n euch\n\n Formal\n Sie\n Sie\n\n Third\n sie\n sie\n\n\n=====German prepositions=====\nThe accusative case is also used after particular German prepositions. These include ''bis'' (until), ''durch'' (through), ''für'' (for), ''gegen'' (against), ''ohne'' (without), ''um'' (around, by), after which the accusative case is always used, and ''an'' (at), ''auf'' (on), ''entlang'' (along), ''hinter'' (behind), ''in'' (in, into), ''neben'' (beside, next to), ''über'' (over, across), ''unter'' (under, below), ''vor'' (in front of), ''zwischen'' (among, between) which can govern either the accusative or the dative. The latter prepositions take the accusative when motion or action is specified (being done into/onto the space), but take the dative when location is specified (being done in/on that space). These prepositions are also used in conjunction with certain verbs, in which case it is the verb in question which governs whether the accusative or dative should be used.\n\nSome two-way prepositions can be contracted with ''das'':\n\n\n\n Preposition\n + das\n\n an\n ans\n\n auf\n aufs\n\n hinter\n hinters\n\n in\n ins\n\n über\n übers\n\n unter\n unters\n\n vor\n vors\n\n\n=====German adjectives=====\nAdjective endings also change in the accusative case. Another factor that determines the endings of adjectives is whether the adjective is being used after a definite article (the), after an indefinite article (a/an) or without any article before the adjective (''many'' green apples).\n\n\n\n Masculine\n Feminine\n Neuter\n Plural\n\n Definite article\n -en\n -e\n -e\n -en\n\n Indefinite Article\n -en\n -e\n -es\n -en\n\n No article\n -en\n -e\n -es\n -e\n\n\n=====German adverbial use=====\nIn German, the accusative case is also used for some adverbial expressions, mostly temporal ones, as in \"''Diesen Abend bleibe ich daheim''\" (This evening I'm staying at home), where \"''diesen Abend''\" is marked as accusative, although not a direct object.\n\n==== Russian ====\nIn Russian, the accusative (винительный) is used not only to indicate the direct object of an action, but also to indicate the destination or goal of motion. It is also used with some prepositions. The prepositions ''в'' and ''на'' can both take the accusative in situations where they indicate the goal of a motion.\n\nIn the masculine, Russian also distinguishes between animate and inanimate nouns with regard to the accusative; only the animates carry a marker in this case.\n\nOver time, Russian has almost lost the real PIE accusative case, since only singular nouns ending in 'a' have a distinct form. Other words use the forms of the genitive case or the nominative case in place of the accusative, depending on their animacy.\n\n==== Armenian ====\nWhile the Armenian dialects both have a de facto accusative case, Eastern Armenian uses an accusative marker for transitive verbs\n\nExample:\n\nգիրք - girkh - book (Nominative)\nուսուցիչ - usuchičh - teacher (Nominative)\n\nԱրամը վերցրեց գիրքը: \nAramë verchrech girkhë\nAram took the book.\n\nԱրամը սիրում է իր ուսուցչին: \nAramë sirum ē ir usuchčhin\nAram loves his teacher.\n\n==== Greek ====\nIn both Ancient and Modern Greek, nouns, adjectives, verb participles, articles and pronouns are used in the accusative case, when they indicate a direct object or if they are preceded by a preposition. There is a wide variety of accusative markers depending on gender, number and declension. Like in Latin, all neuter names yield the same form in both the nominative and the accusative case in Ancient Greek. In its modern successor, this rule also extends to most feminine nouns, except these ending to -ος.\n\nExample: \"''He was also calumniating Socrates.''\"\n* In Ancient Greek: ''\"Διέβαλλε δὲ καὶ '''τὸν''' Σωκράτ'''ην'''.\" (Diéballe de kai '''ton''' Sōkrát'''ēn'''.)''\n* In Modern Greek: ''\"Διέβαλλε και '''τον''' Σωκράτ'''η'''.\" (Diévalle ke '''ton''' Sokrát'''i'''.)''\n\n===Constructed languages===\n\n==== Esperanto ====\nEsperanto grammar involves only two cases, a nominative and an accusative. The accusative is formed by the addition of ''-n'' to the nominative form, and is the case used for direct objects. (Example: ''knabo'' (\"boy\") → ''knabon'' (\"boy.ACC\")) Other case functions, including dative functions, are achieved with prepositions, all of which normally take the nominative case. Direction of motion can be expressed either by the accusative case, or by the preposition ''al'' (to) with the nominative.\n\n==== Ido ====\nIn Ido the ''-n'' suffix is optional, as subject–verb–object order is assumed when it is not present. Note that this is sometimes done in Esperanto, especially by beginners, but it is considered incorrect while in Ido it is the norm.\n\n===Uralic languages===\n\n==== Finnish ====\nAccording to traditional Finnish grammars, the accusative is the case of a total object, while the case of a partial object is the partitive. The negative forms of verbs always take the partial object, whereas in positive sentences it depends on the nature of the action, the main rule being that incomplete or indefinite action requires a partial object.\n\nThe accusative singular is identical either to the nominative (often called nominative-accusative) or the genitive (genitive-accusative). In plural, only nominative-accusative exists. The active verb forms usually require the total object in the genitive-accusative and passive forms take the nominative-accusative. The only exceptions to this rule are imperative first and second persons, and the rarely used third infinitive in instructive, which take the total object in nominative-accusative.\n\nThe personal pronouns and the personal interrogative pronoun ''kuka/ken'' have a special accusative form ending in ''-t'' which is used in place of both nominative-accusative and genitive-accusative. For example, the accusative form of ''hän'' (he/she) is ''hänet'', and the accusative form of ''kuka'' (or ''ken'') is ''kenet''.\n\nThe major new Finnish grammar, ''Iso suomen kielioppi'', breaks with the traditional classification by limiting the accusative case to the special case of the personal pronouns and ''kuka/ken''. The new grammar considers other total objects as being in the nominative or genitive case.\n\n==== Hungarian ====\nThe accusative case in Hungarian applies to nouns, pronouns; even to adjectives and numerals when either of them stands alone in the sense of direct object.\n\nAccusative is formed by the suffix '''''-t'''''. In many cases, ''-t'' is preceded by a suffix-initial vowel, primarily based on specific vowel harmony, resulting in ''-et'', ''-ot'', or ''-öt''. The rules are complex, also involve consonants, and have exceptions. Thus: k''e''rt''et'' \"garden\", k''é''k''et'' \"blue\"; h''a''t''o''t \"six\"; p''o''lc''ot'' \"shelf\"; k''ö''d''öt'' \"fog\".\n\nIn some words, a low vowel ''a'' or ''e'' appears instead of the expected harmonic vowel: e.g. fal''at'' (ˣfal''ot'') \"wall\"; nyolc''at'' (ˣnyolc''ot'') \"eight\"; könyv''et'' (ˣkönyv''öt'') \"book\".\n\nIn fewer cases, the root of the word is also affected. Word endings ''-a'' or ''-e'' will (even if they are the endings of a preceding suffix) change to ''-á'' and ''-é'', respectively, before ''-t''. E.g.: f''a'' (tree) -> f'''''át'''''. The long vowel of a one-syllable word may get shortened. E.g.: úr (lord) -> ''u''r'''''at'''''. But: b''ú''r (Boer) -> b''ú''r'''''t'''''. If a word has more than one syllable and the last syllable ends in a consonant, the vowel of the last syllable may drop. E.g.: köröm (fingernail) -> ''körm'''öt'''''. But: kör''öm'' (''my'' circle) -> köröm'''''et'''''. Notably, the first-person and second-person personal pronouns have quite unique accusative forms (indeed, as indicated in the table, in the singular case the ending ''-et'' is rather optional, even considered archaic).\n\n\n\n\n Nominative\n Accusative\n\n first-person singular (I)\n én\n ''engem(et)''\n\n second-person singular (you)\n te\n ''téged(et)''\n\n third-person singular (he/she/it)\n ő\n őt\n\n first-person plural (we)\n mi\n ''minket''\n\n second-person plural (you)\n ti\n ''titeket''\n\n third-person plural (they)\n ők\n őket\n\n\n=== Semitic languages ===\nAn ending for accusative case existed in Proto-Semitic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic, but today it is preserved only in literary Arabic and Ge'ez.\n\n==== Akkadian ====\n\n:Nominative: ''awīlum'' (a/the man)\n:Accusative: ''apaqqid awīlam'' (I trust a/the man)\n\n==== Classical Arabic ====\nIn Arabic, the accusative case (also the subjunctive mood) is called '''' (), and a word in the accusative case (also a verb in the subjunctive) is called '''' (), both from the verb '''' () \"set up\". The accusative is used in 51 places, but mainly to mark the object of a verb and to form adverbs and prepositions.\n:Nominative: '''' \"a man\", '''' \"the man\"\n:Accusative: '''' \"I ask a man\", '''' \"I ask the man\"\n",
"*Nota accusativi\n*Accusative absolute\n*Morphosyntactic alignment\n",
"\n\n",
"* Russian Accusative: , , , \n* German Accusative Case Grammar lesson covering the accusative case in the German language\n* Arabic case endings\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"Description",
"Examples",
" See also ",
"Notes",
"External links"
] | Accusative case |
[
"\nEpiscopal consecration of Deodatus; Claude Bassot (1580-1630).\n'''Apostolic succession''' is the method whereby the ministry of the Christian Church is held to be derived from the apostles by a continuous succession, which has usually been associated with a claim that the succession is through a series of bishops. This series was seen originally as that of the bishops of a particular see founded by one or more of the apostles. According to historian Justo L. González, apostolic succession is generally understood today as meaning a series of bishops, regardless of see, each consecrated by other bishops, themselves consecrated similarly in a succession going back to the apostles. According to the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, \"apostolic succession\" means more than a mere transmission of powers. It is succession in a Church which witnesses to the apostolic faith, in communion with the other Churches, witnesses of the same apostolic faith. The \"see (''cathedra'') plays an important role in inserting the bishop into the heart of ecclesial apostolicity\", but, once ordained, the bishop becomes in his Church the guarantor of apostolicity and becomes a successor of the apostles.\n\nThose who hold for the importance of apostolic succession via episcopal laying on of hands appeal to the New Testament, which, they say, implies a personal apostolic succession (from Paul to Timothy and Titus, for example). They appeal as well to other documents of the early Church, especially the Epistle of Clement. In this context, Clement explicitly states that the apostles appointed bishops as successors and directed that these bishops should in turn appoint their own successors; given this, such leaders of the Church were not to be removed without cause and not in this way. Further, proponents of the necessity of the personal apostolic succession of bishops within the Church point to the universal practice of the undivided early Church (up to AD 431), before being divided into the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church. Christians of the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Old Catholic, Anglican, Moravian, and Scandinavian Lutheran traditions maintain that \"a bishop cannot have regular or valid orders unless he has been consecrated in this apostolic succession.\" Each of these groups does not necessarily consider consecration of the other groups as valid.\n\nHowever, some Protestants deny the need for this type of continuity, and the historical claims involved have been severely questioned by them; Eric G. Jay comments that the account given of the emergence of the episcopate in chapter III of the encyclical ''Lumen Gentium'' (1964) \"is very sketchy, and many ambiguities in the early history of the Christian ministry are passed over\". These denominations, instead, hold that apostolic succession is \"understood as a continuity in doctrinal teaching from the time of the apostles to the present.\"\n",
"Michael Ramsey, an English Anglican bishop and the Archbishop of Canterbury (1961–1974), described three meanings of \"apostolic succession\":\n# One bishop succeeding another in the same see meant that there was a continuity of teaching: \"while the Church as a whole is the vessel into which the truth is poured, the Bishops are an important organ in carrying out this task\".\n# The bishops were also successors of the apostles in that \"the ''functions'' they performed of preaching, governing and ordaining were the same as the Apostles had performed\".\n# It is also used to signify that \"grace is transmitted from the Apostles by each generation of bishops through the imposition of hands\".\nHe adds that this last has been controversial in that it has been claimed that this aspect of the doctrine is not found before the time of Augustine of Hippo, while others allege that it is implicit in the Church of the second and third centuries.\n\nIn its 1982 statement on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, the Faith and Order Commission of the World Council of Churches stated that \"the primary manifestation of apostolic succession is to be found in the apostolic tradition of the Church as a whole.... Under the particular historical circumstances of the growing Church in the early centuries, the succession of bishops became one of the ways, together with the transmission of the Gospel and the life of the community, in which the apostolic tradition of the Church was expressed.\" It spoke of episcopal succession as something that churches that do not have bishops can see \"as a sign, though not a guarantee, of the continuity and unity of the Church\" and that all churches can see \"as a sign of the apostolicity of the life of the whole church\".\n\nThe Porvoo Common Statement (1996), agreed to by the Anglican churches of the British Isles and most of the Lutheran churches of Scandinavia and the Baltic, echoed the Munich (1982) and Finland (1988) statements of the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church by stating that \"the continuity signified in the consecration of a bishop to episcopal ministry cannot be divorced from the continuity of life and witness of the diocese to which he is called.\"\n\nSome Anglicans, in addition to other Protestants, held that apostolic succession \"may also be understood as a continuity in doctrinal teaching from the time of the apostles to the present.\" For example, the British Methodist Conference locates the \"true continuity\" with the Church of past ages in \"the continuity of Christian experience, the fellowship in the gift of the one Spirit; in the continuity in the allegiance to one Lord, the continued proclamation of the message; the continued acceptance of the mission;...\"\n\nThe teaching of the Second Vatican Council on apostolic succession has been summed up as follows:\n:Bishops have succeeded the apostles, not only because they come after them, but also because they have inherited apostolic power. ... \"To fulfil this apostolic mission, Christ ... promised the Holy Spirit to the apostles...\". These were \"enriched by Christ the Lord with a special outpouring of the Holy Spirit ... This spiritual gift has been transmitted down to us by episcopal consecration\".\n",
"According to International Theological Commission (ITC), conflicts could not always be avoided between individuals among the New Testament communities; Paul appealed to his apostolic authority when there was a disagreement about the Gospel or principles of Christian life. How the development of apostolic government developed is difficult to say accurately because of the absence of certain documents. ITC says that the apostles or their closest assistants or their successors directed the local colleges of ''episkopoi'' and ''presbyteroi'' by the end of the first century; while by the beginning of the second century the figure of a single bishop, as the head of the communities, appears explicitly in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch ( 35-107). In the ''Epistle to the Smyrnaeans'', Ignatius wrote about three degrees ministry:\n\"See that you all follow the ''bishop'', even as Jesus Christ does the Father, and the ''presbytery'' as you would the apostles; and reverence the ''deacons'', as being the institution of God. Let no man do anything connected with the Church without the bishop.\"\n\nRamsey says that the doctrine was formulated in the second century in the first of the three senses given by him, originally as a response to Gnostic claims of having received secret teaching from Christ or the apostles; it emphasised the public manner in which the apostles had passed on authentic teaching to those whom they entrusted with the care of the churches they founded and that these in turn had passed it on to their successors. Ramsey argues that only later was it given a different meaning, a process in which Augustine (Bp of Hippo Regis, 395–430) played a part by emphasising the idea of \"the link from consecrator to consecrated whereby the grace of order was handed on.\"\n\n\n\nWriting about AD 94, Clement of Rome states that the apostles appointed successors to continue their work where they had planted churches and for these in their turn to do the same because they foresaw the risk of discord. He uses both 'bishop' and 'presbyter' to refer to these men. According to Eric G. Jay, the interpretation of his writing is disputed, but it is clear that he supports some sort of approved continuation of the ministry exercised by the apostles which in its turn was derived from Christ.\n\nHegesippus (180?) and Irenaeus (180) introduce explicitly the idea of the bishop's succession in office as a guarantee of the truth of what he preached in that it could be traced back to the apostles. and they produced succession lists to back this up. That this succession depended on the fact of ordination to a vacant see and the status of those who administered the ordination is seldom commented on. Woollcombe also states that no one questioned the apostolicity of the See of Alexandria despite the fact that its Popes were consecrated by the college of presbyters up till the time of the Council of Nicaea in 325. On the contrary, other sources clearly state that Mark the Evangelist is the first bishop of Alexandria (Pope of Alexandria), then he ordained Annianus as his successor bishop (2nd Pope) as told by Eusebius (''Historia Ecclesiastica'' 2.24.1).\n\nJames F. Puglisi, director of Centro Pro Unione, made a conclusion about Irenaeus' writings: \"the terms ''episkopos'' and ''presbyteros'' are interchangeable, but the term ''episkopos'' bishop is applied to the person who is established in every Church by the apostles and their successors\". According to Eric G. Jay, Irenaeus also refers to a succession of presbyters who preserve the tradition \"which originates from the apostles\". and later goes on to speak of their having \"an infallible gift of truth\" ''charisma veritatis certum''. Jay comments that this is sometimes seen as an early reference to the idea of the transmission of grace through the apostolic succession which in later centuries was understood as being specifically transmitted through the laying on of hands by a bishop within the apostolic succession (the \"pipeline theory\"). He warns that this is open to the grave objection that it makes grace a (quasi)material commodity and represents an almost mechanical method of imparting what is by definition a free gift. He adds that the idea cannot be squeezed out of Irenaeus' words.\n\nWriting a little later, Tertullian makes the same main point but adds expressly that recently founded churches (such as his own in Carthage) could be considered apostolic if they had \"derived the tradition of faith and the seeds of doctrine\" from an apostolic church. His disciple, Cyprian (Bishop of Carthage 248–58) appeals to the same fundamental principle of election to a vacant see in the aftermath of the Decian Persecution when denying the legitimacy of his rigorist rival in Carthage and that of the anti-pope Novatian in Rome; Cyprian also laid great emphasis on the fact that any minister who broke with the Church lost ''ipso facto'' the gift of the Spirit which had validated his orders. This meant that the minister would have no power or authority to celebrate an efficacious sacrament.\n",
"For the adherents of this understanding of apostolic succession, grace is transmitted during episcopal consecrations (the ordination of bishops) by the laying on of hands of bishops previously consecrated within the apostolic succession. They hold that this lineage of ordination derives from the Twelve Apostles, thus making the Church the continuation of the early Apostolic Christian community. They see it as one of four elements that define the true Church of Jesus Christ and legitimize the ministry of its clergy, since only a bishop within the succession can perform valid ordinations, and only bishops and presbyters (priests) ordained by bishops in the apostolic succession can validly celebrate (or \"confect\") several of the other sacraments, including the Eucharist, reconciliation of penitents, confirmation and anointing of the sick. Everett Ferguson argued that Hippolytus, in ''Apostolic Tradition 9'', is the first known source to state that only bishops have the authority to ordain; and normally at least three bishops were required to ordain another bishop (First Council of Nicaea, ''can''. 4). Cyprian also asserts that \"if any one is not with the bishop, he is not in the church\" (''Ep.'' 66.9). \t\n\nThis position was stated by John Henry Newman, before his conversion from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism, in ''Tracts for the Times'':\nWe priests of the Church of England have been born, not of blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God. The Lord Jesus Christ gave His Spirit to His Apostles; they in turn laid their hands on those who should succeed them; and these again on others; and so the sacred gift has been handed down to our present bishops, who have appointed us as their assistants, and in some sense representatives. ... we must necessarily consider none to be ''really'' ordained who have not ''thus'' been ordained.\n\nFerguson, in ''Encyclopedia of Early Christianity'', says that example of James and the elders of the Jerusalem Church (Acts 21:18) may have provided a model for the development of 'monepiscopacy', in which James' position has figured conspicuously in modern theories about the rise of the monepiscopacy. Raymond E. Brown says that in the earlier stage (before the third century and perhaps earlier) there were plural bishops or overseers (\"presbyter-bishops\") in an individual community; in the later stage changed to only one bishop per community. Little known about how the early bishops were formally chosen or appointed; afterwards the Church developed a regularized pattern of selection and ordination of bishops, and from the third century on that was universally applied. Brown asserts that the ministry was not ordained by the Church to act on its own authority, but as an important part to continue the ministry of Jesus Christ and helps to make the Church what it is.\n\nRaymond E. Brown also states that by the early second century, as written in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch, in the threefold structure of the single bishop, plural presbyters, and plural deacons, the celebration of the Eucharist is assigned to the bishop alone; the bishop may delegate others when he goes away. At the Last Supper, Jesus says to those present, who were or included the Twelve Apostles, \"Do this in commemoration of me,\" Brown presumes that the Twelve were remembered as presiding at the Eucharist. But they could scarcely have been present at all the Eucharists of the first century, and no information in New Testament whether a person was regularly assigned to do this task and, if so, who that person was. After all the Church regulated and regularized the celebration of the Eucharist, as that was an inevitable establishment if communities were to be provided regularly with the 'bread of life', since it could not rely on gratuitous provision.\n\n===Objections to the transmission of grace theory===\nAccording to William Griffith Thomas, some Protestants have objected that this theory is not explicitly found in Scripture, and the New Testament uses 'bishop' and 'presbyter' as alternative names for the same office. Michael Ramsey argued it is not clearly found in the writings of the Fathers before Augustine in the fourth century and there were attempts to read it back as implicit in earlier writers.\n\nFor example, C. K. Barrett points out that the Pastoral Epistles are concerned that ministers of the generation of Timothy and Titus should pass on the doctrine they had received to the third generation. According to Barrett, teaching and preaching are \"the main, almost the only, activities of ministry.\" He argues that in Clement of Rome ministerial activity is liturgical: the undifferentiated 'presbyter-bishops' are to \"make offerings to the Lord at the right time and in the right places\" something which is simply not defined by the evangelists. He also mentions the change in the use of sacrificial language as a more significant still: for Paul the Eucharist is a receiving of gifts from God, the Christian sacrifice is the offering of one's body (Romans 12:1). Moving on to Ignatius of Antioch, Barrett states that a sharp distinction found between 'presbyter' and 'bishop': the latter now stands out as \"an isolated figure\" who is to be obeyed and without whom it is not lawful to baptise or hold a love-feast. He also points out that when Ignatius writes to the Romans, there is no mention of a bishop of the Roman Church, \"which we may suppose had not yet adopted the monarchical episcopate.\" Jalland comes to a similar conclusion and locates the change from the \"polyepiscopacy\" of the house church model in Rome, to monepiscopacy as occurring before the middle of the second century.\n\nSimilar objections are voiced by Harvey who comments that there is a \"strong and ancient tradition\" that the presence of an ordained man is necessary for the celebration of the Eucharist. But, according to him, there is \"certainly no evidence for this view in the New Testament\" and in the case of Clement of Rome and Ignatius of Antioch the implication is not that it ''cannot'' be celebrated by anyone else, but that it ''ought'' not. Harvey says in the third century this \"concern for propriety\" begins to be displaced by the concept of 'power' to do so which means that in the absence of such a man it is \"literally impossible\" for a Eucharist to be celebrated.\n",
"Some Protestant denominations, not including Scandinavian Lutherans, Anglicans and Moravians, deny the need of maintaining episcopal continuity with the early Church, holding that the role of the apostles was that, having been chosen directly by Jesus as witnesses of his resurrection, they were to be the \"special instruments of the Holy Spirit in founding and building up the Church\". E.A. Litton argues that the Church is \"built upon 'the foundation of the Prophets and Apostles' (Ephes. ii. 20), but a foundation does not repeat itself\"; therefore he says that when the apostles died, they were replaced by their writings. To share with the apostles the same faith, to believe their word as found in the Scriptures, to receive the same Holy Spirit, is to many Protestants the only meaningful \"continuity\". The most meaningful ''apostolic succession'' for them, then, is a \"faithful succession\" of apostolic teaching.\n\nMax Thurian, before his conversion to Roman Catholicism on 1988, described the classic Reformed/Presbyterian concept of apostolic succession in the following terms. \"The Christian ministry is not derived from the people but from the pastors; a scriptural ordinance provides for this ministry being renewed by the ordination of a presbyter by presbyters; this ordinance originates with the apostles, who were themselves presbyters, and through them it goes back to Christ as its source.\". Then he continued:\n:\"it does not guarantee the continuity and faithfulness of the Church. A purely historical or mechanical succession of ministers, bishops or pastors would not mean ''ipso facto'' true apostolic succession in the church, Reformed tradition, following authentic Catholic tradition, distinguishes four realities which make up the true apostolic succession, symbolized, but not absolutely guaranteed, by ministerial succession.\"\nAt the same time Thurian argued that the realities form a \"composite faithfulness\" and are (i) \"perseverance in the apostolic doctrine\"; (ii) \"the will to proclaim God's word\"; (iii) \"communion in the fundamental continuity of the Church, the Body of Christ, the faithful celebration of Baptism and the Eucharist\"; (iv) \"succession in the laying on of hands, the sign of ministerial continuity\".\n\nAccording to Walter Kasper, the Reformed-Catholic dialogue came to belief that there is an apostolic succession which is important to the life of the Church, though both sides distinguish the meaning of that succession. Besides, the dialogue states that apostolic succession \"consists at least in continuity of apostolic doctrine, but this is not in opposition to succession through continuity of ordained ministry\" (''Ref I'', 100). While the Lutheran-Catholic dialogue distinguishes between apostolic succession in faith (in substantive meaning) and apostolic succession as ministerial succession of bishops; agreed that \"succession in the sense of the succession of ministers must be seen within the succession of the whole church in the apostolic faith\" (''Ministry'', 61; cf. ''Malta'', 48).\n\nJoint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church asserts that apostolic succession means something more than just a transmission of authorities; it witnesses to the apostolic faith from the same apostolic faith, and in communion with other Churches (attached to the apostolic communion). Apostolic tradition deals with the community, not only an ordained bishop as an isolated person. Since the bishop, once ordained, becomes the guarantor of apostolicity and successor of the apostles; he joins together all the bishops, thus maintaining ''episkope'' of the local Churches derived from the college of the apostles.\n",
"\nChurches that claim some form of episcopal apostolic succession, dating back to the apostles or to leaders from the apostolic era, include the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Church of the East, the Anglican Communion, some Lutheran churches (see below), the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, and other smaller bodies incorporating the term \"Catholic\". The Anglican Communion (see below) and those Lutheran churches which claim apostolic succession do not specifically teach this but exclusively practice episcopal ordination. While some Anglicans claim it for their communion, their views are often nuanced and there is widespread reluctance to 'unchurch' Christian bodies which lack it.\n\nRoman Catholics recognise the validity of the apostolic successions of the bishops, and therefore the rest of the clergy, of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East, Old Catholic Church (Union of Utrecht only), and Polish National Catholic Church. The Orthodox generally recognise Roman Catholic clerical orders as being of apostolic lineage, but have a different concept of the apostolic succession as it exists outside the canonical borders of the Orthodox Church, extending the term only to bishops who have maintained communion, received ordination from a line of apostolic bishops, and preserved the catholic faith once delivered through the apostles and handed down as Holy Tradition. The lack of apostolic succession through bishops is the primary basis on which Protestant denominations are not called ''Churches'', in the proper sense, by the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches, the latter referring to them as \"ecclesial communities\" in the official documents of the Second Vatican Council.\n\nThe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints also claims apostolic succession. According to Mormon tradition, in 1829, Joseph Smith received the priesthood from Jesus' disciples Peter, James, and John. After its establishment, each subsequent prophet and leader of the church have received the authority passed down by the laying on of hands, or through apostolic succession. Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant Christians reject the claim that Smith possessed direct or indirect apostolic authority.\n",
"\nAn early understanding of apostolic succession is represented by the traditional claims of various churches, as organised around important episcopal sees, to have been founded by specific apostles. On the basis of these traditions, the churches claim to have inherited specific authority, doctrines and/or practices on the authority of their founding apostle(s), which is understood to be continued by the bishops of the apostolic throne of the church that each founded and whose original leader he was. Thus:\n\n*The See of Rome claims to have been founded by Simon Peter, traditionally called the \"Chief of the Apostles\".\n*The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the primary patriarchate of the Eastern Orthodox Church, claims the Apostle Andrew (brother of Simon Peter) as its founder.\n*The Patriarch of Alexandria (Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria and Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria) claims to have been founded by Mark the Evangelist.\n*The Patriarchate of Antioch (Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, Syriac Orthodox Church, Syriac Catholic Church, Maronite Patriarchate of Antioch and the Whole Levant) claims to have been founded by Paul.\n*The Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem claims to have been founded by James (brother of Jesus).\n*The Armenian Apostolic Church, based at Etchmiadzin, claims to have been founded by the Apostles Bartholomew and Jude Thaddeus.\n*The following bodies claim to have been founded by the Apostle Thomas: the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East and the Chaldean Catholic Church, originating in or around Mesopotamia, and churches based in Kerala, India having Syriac roots and generically known as the Saint Thomas Christians: the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, and the Mar Thoma Syrian Church.\n*The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church claims founding by Philip the Evangelist.\n*The Orthodox Church of Georgia claims the Apostles Andrew and Simon the Zealot as its founders.\n*The Orthodox Church of Cyprus, based at Nova Justiniana (Erdek), claims to have been founded by the Apostles Paul and Barnabas.\n*The Russian Orthodox Church claims a connection with the Apostle Andrew, who is said to have visited the area where the city of Kiev later arose.\n*The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints claims apostolic succession. Joseph Smith was visited in 1829 by Peter, James, and John (three of the original 12 apostles) and by the laying on of hands, gave him the keys of the priesthood. These keys have been since passed down by the laying on of hands to subsequent leaders of the church (aka, apostolic succession).\n",
"\n===Catholic Church===\n\n\nIn Catholic theology, the doctrine of apostolic succession is that the apostolic tradition - including apostolic teaching, preaching, and authority - is handed down from the college of apostles to the college of bishops through the laying on of hands, as a permanent office in the Church. Historically, this has been understood as a succession in office, a succession of valid ordinations, or a succession of the entire college. It is understood as a sign and guarantee that the Church, both local and universal, is in diachronic continuity with the apostles; a necessary but insufficient guarantor thereof.\n\nCatholic ordination ceremony\nPapal primacy is different though related to apostolic succession as described here. The Catholic Church has traditionally claimed a unique leadership role for the Apostle Peter, believed to have been named by Jesus as head of the Apostles and as a focus of their unity, who became the first Bishop of Rome, and whose successors inherited the role and accordingly became the leaders of the worldwide Church as well. Even so, Catholicism acknowledges the papacy is built on apostolic succession, not the other way around. As such, apostolic succession is a foundational doctrine of authority in the Catholic Church.\n\nCatholicism holds that Christ entrusted the Apostles with the leadership of the community of believers, and the obligation to transmit and preserve the \"deposit of faith\" (the experience of Christ and his teachings contained in the doctrinal \"tradition\" handed down from the time of the apostles and the written portion, which is Scripture). The apostles then passed on this office and authority by ordaining bishops to follow after them.\n\nRoman Catholic theology holds that the apostolic succession effects the power and authority to administer the sacraments except for baptism and matrimony. (Baptism may be administered by anyone and matrimony by the couple to each other.) Authority to so administer such sacraments is passed on only through the sacrament of Holy Orders, a rite by which a priest is ordained (ordination can be conferred only by bishop). The bishop, of course, must be from an unbroken line of bishops stemming from the original apostles selected by Jesus Christ. Thus, apostolic succession is necessary for the valid celebration of the sacraments.\n\nOn 29 June 2007, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith explained why apostolic succession is integral to, and indeed, \"a constitutive element\" of the Church. In response to the question why the Second Vatican Council and other official statements of the Catholic Church do not call Protestant Christian Communities \"Churches\", it stated that \"according to Catholic doctrine, these Communities do not enjoy ''apostolic succession'' in the sacrament of Orders, and are, therefore, deprived of a constitutive element of the Church. These ecclesial Communities which, specifically because of the absence of the sacramental priesthood, have not preserved the genuine and integral substance of the Eucharistic Mystery cannot, according to Catholic doctrine, be called 'Churches' in the proper sense\".\n\n====Views concerning other churches====\nPope Leo XIII rejected Anglican arguments for apostolic succession in his bull ''Apostolicae curae''.\nIn the Catholic Church, Pope Leo XIII stated in his 1896 bull ''Apostolicae curae'' that the Catholic Church believes specifically that the Anglican consecrations are \"absolutely null and utterly void\" because of changes made to the rite of consecration during the 16th century under Edward VI, thus denying that Anglicans participate in the apostolic succession. Anglican clergy, then, are ordained as Catholic priests upon entry into the Catholic Church.\n\nA reply from the Archbishops of Canterbury and York (1896) was issued to counter Pope Leo's arguments: ''Saepius officio: Answer of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to the Bull Apostolicae Curae of H. H. Leo XIII''. They argued that if the Anglican orders were invalid, then the Roman orders were as well since the Pope based his case on the fact that the Anglican ordinals used did not contain certain essential elements but these were not found in the early Roman rites either. However, Catholics argue, this argument does not consider the sacramental intention involved in validating Holy Orders. In other words, Catholics believe that the ordination rites were reworded so as to invalidate the ordinations because the intention behind the alterations in the rite was a fundamental change in Anglican understanding of the priesthood.\n\nIt is Roman Catholic doctrine that the teaching of ''Apostolicae curae'' is a truth to be \"held definitively\", as stated in a commentary by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Cardinal Basil Hume explained the conditional character of his ordination of Graham Leonard, former Anglican bishop of the Diocese of London, to the priesthood in the following way: \"While firmly restating the judgement of ''Apostolicae Curae'' that Anglican ordination is invalid, the Catholic Church takes account of the involvement, in some Anglican episcopal ordinations, of bishops of the Old Catholic Church of the Union of Utrecht who are validly ordained. In particular and probably rare cases the authorities in Rome may judge that there is a 'prudent doubt' concerning the invalidity of priestly ordination received by an individual Anglican minister ordained in this line of succession.\" At the same time, he stated: \"Since the church must be in no doubt of the validity of the sacraments celebrated for the Catholic community, it must ask all who are chosen to exercise the priesthood in the Catholic Church to accept sacramental ordination in order to fulfill their ministry and be integrated into the apostolic succession.\" Since ''Apostolicae curae'' was issued many Anglican jurisdictions have revised their ordinals, bringing them more in line with ordinals of the early Church.\n\nTimothy Dufort, writing in ''The Tablet'' in 1982, argued that by 1969 all Anglican bishops had acquired apostolic succession fully recognized by Rome, since from the 1930s Old Catholic bishops (whose orders Rome recognises as valid) have acted as co-consecrators in the ordination of Anglican bishops. This view is not accepted by the Holy See, and the matter has been further complicated by the Anglican ordination of women. In a document it published in July 1998, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith stated that the Catholic Church's declaration on the invalidity of Anglican ordinations is a teaching that the church has definitively propounded and that therefore every Catholics is required to give \"firm and definitive assent\" to this matter.\n\n===Orthodox churches===\nOrdination of an Orthodox priest by laying on of hands. Orthodox Christians view apostolic succession as an important, God-ordained mechanism by which the structure and teaching of the Church are perpetuated.\n\nWhile Eastern Orthodox sources often refer to the bishops as \"successors of the apostles\" under the influence of Scholastic theology, strict Orthodox ecclesiology and theology hold that all legitimate bishops are properly successors of Peter. This also means that presbyters (or \"priests\") are successors of the apostles. As a result, Orthodox theology makes a distinction between a geographical or historical succession and proper ontological or ecclesiological succession. Hence, the bishops of Rome and Antioch can be considered successors of Peter in a historical sense on account of Peter's presence in the early community. This does not imply that these bishops are more successors of Peter than all others in an ontological sense.\n\nAccording to ancient canons still observed with the Orthodox communion, a bishop must be consecrated by at least three other bishops; so-called \"single handed ordinations\" do not exist. Moreover, bishops are never ordained \"at large\" but only for a specific Eucharist community, in due historical and sacramental succession.\n\n====Views concerning other churches====\n\nThe Eastern Orthodox have often permitted non-Orthodox clergy to be rapidly ordained within Orthodoxy as a matter of pastoral necessity and economia. Priests entering Eastern Orthodoxy from Oriental Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism have usually been received by \"vesting\" and have been allowed to function immediately within Eastern Orthodoxy as priests. Recognition of Roman Catholic orders by the Russian Orthodox Church was stipulated in 1667 by the Synod of Moscow, but this position is not universal within the Eastern Orthodox communion. For example, Fr. John Morris of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, states that \"Apostolic Succession is not merely a historical pedigree, but also requires Apostolic Faith. This is because Apostolic Succession is not the private possession of a bishop, but is the attribute of a local Church. A bishop who goes in schism or is cast out of office due to heresy does not take his Apostolic Succession with him as a private possession.\" The validity of a priest's ordination is decided by each autocephalic Orthodox church.\n\nThe Armenian Apostolic Church, which is one of the Oriental Orthodox churches, recognises Roman Catholic episcopal consecrations without qualification.\n\nIn 1922 the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople recognised Anglican orders as valid, holding that they carry \"the same validity as the Roman, Old Catholic and Armenian Churches possess\". In the encyclical \"From the Oecumenical Patriarch to the Presidents of the Particular Eastern Orthodox Churches\", Meletius IV of Constantinople, the Oecumenical Patriarch, wrote: \"That the Orthodox theologians who have scientifically examined the question have almost unanimously come to the same conclusions and have declared themselves as accepting the validity of Anglican Orders.\" Following this declaration, in 1923, the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem, as well as the Eastern Orthodox Church of Cyprus agreed by \"provisionally acceding that Anglican priests should not be re-ordained if they became Orthodox\"; in 1936, the Romanian Orthodox Church \"endorsed Anglican Orders\". Historically, some Eastern Orthodox bishops have assisted in the consecration of Anglican bishops; for example, in 1870, the Most Reverend Alexander Lycurgus, the Greek Orthodox Archbishop of Syra and Tinos, was one of the bishops who consecrated Henry MacKenzie as the Suffragan Bishop of Nottingham.\n\nSucceeding judgements, however, have been more conflicting. The Eastern Orthodox churches require a totality of common teaching to recognise orders and in this broader view find ambiguities in Anglican teaching and practice problematic. Accordingly, in some parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican clergy who convert to Orthodoxy are reordained, rather than vested.\n\n===Anglican Communion===\n\nSamuel Seabury as the first Anglican bishop in the Americas.\nThe Anglican Communion \"has never officially endorsed any one particular theory of the origin of the historic episcopate, its exact relation to the apostolate, and the sense in which it should be thought of as God given, and in fact tolerates a wide variety of views on these points\". Its claim to apostolic succession is rooted in the Church of England's evolution as part of the Western Church. Apostolic succession is viewed not so much as conveyed mechanically through an unbroken chain of the laying-on of hands, but as expressing continuity with the unbroken chain of commitment, beliefs and mission starting with the first apostles; and as hence emphasising the enduring yet evolving nature of the Church.\n\nWhen Henry VIII broke away from the jurisdiction of Rome in 1533/4, the English Church claimed the episcopal polity and apostolic succession inherent in its Catholic past; however, Protestant theology gained a certain foothold and under his successor, Edward VI what had been an administrative schism became a Protestant reformation under the guiding hand of Thomas Cranmer. Although care was taken to maintain the unbroken sequence of episcopal consecrations, particularly in the case of Matthew Parker, who was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury in 1559 by two bishops who had been ordained in the 1530s with the Roman Pontifical and two ordained with the Edwardine Ordinal of 1550, apostolic succession was not seen as a major concern that a true ministry could not exist without episcopal consecrations: English Reformers such as Richard Hooker rejected the Catholic position that Apostolic Succession is divinely commanded or necessary for true Christian ministry. Richard A. Norris says that the \"''foreign'' Reformed Presbyterian Churches\" were genuine ones despite the lack of apostolic succession because they had been abandoned by their bishops at the Reformation.\nIn very different ways both James II and William III of England made it plain that the Church of England could no longer count on the 'godly prince' to maintain its identity and traditions and the 'High Church' clergy of the time began to look to the idea of apostolic succession as a basis for the church's life. For William Beveridge (Bp of St Asaph 1704–8) the importance of this lay in the fact that Christ himself is \"continually present at such imposition of hands; thereby transferring the same Spirit, which He had first breathed into His Apostles, upon others successively after them\"., but the doctrine did not really come to the fore until the time of the Tractarians.\n\nIn 1833, before his conversion to Roman Catholicism, Newman wrote about the apostolic succession: \"We must necessarily consider none to be ''really'' ordained who has not been ''thus'' ordained\". After quoting this, Michael Ramsey continues: \"With romantic enthusiasm, the Tractarians propagated this doctrine. In doing so they involved themselves in some misunderstandings of history and in some confusion of theology\". He goes on to explain that they ascribed to early Anglican authors a far more exclusive version of the doctrine than was the case, they blurred the distinction between succession in office (Irenaeus) and succession in consecration (Augustine); they spoke of apostolic succession as the channel of grace in a way that failed to do justice to His gracious activity within all the dispensations of the New Covenant.(p. 111) Newman, and after him, Charles Gore held that the episcopate was passed down from the apostles through men like Timothy and Titus to single bishops in particular localities (monarchial episcopacy). However Bp. Lightfoot argued that monarchial episcopacy evolved upwards from a college of presbyters by the elevation of one of their number to be the episcopal president(p. 116) and A.C. Headlam laid great stress on Irenaeus' understanding of succession which had been lost from sight behind the Augustinian 'pipe-line theory'.(pp. 117,18)\n\n===Lutheran churches===\n\nWide variations exist within Lutheranism on this issue. Most Lutheran churches in Scandinavian countries are favorable to the traditional doctrine of apostolic succession. Others de-emphasize it, e.g., many German Lutheran churches in former Prussian lands, resulting from their state-ordered union with Reformed (Calvinist) churches in 1817.\n\n====Lutheran claims to apostolic succession and the Porvoo Communion====\n\nIn Scandinavia and the Baltic region, Lutheran churches participating in the Porvoo Communion (those of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania), as well as non Porvoo membership Lutheran churches in the region (including those of Latvia, and Russia), believe that they ordain their bishops in the apostolic succession in lines stemming from the original apostles. ''The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History'' states that \"In Sweden the apostolic succession was preserved because the Catholic bishops were allowed to stay in office, but they had to approve changes in the ceremonies.\"\n\nThe Lutheran Church of Finland was then one with the Church of Sweden and so holds the same view regarding the see of Åbo/Turku. \n\nIn 2001, Francis Aloysius Sullivan wrote: \"''To my knowledge, the Catholic Church has never officially expressed its judgement on the validity of orders as they have been handed down by episcopal succession in these two national Lutheran churches.''\" In 2007, the Holy See declared: \"''Christian Communities born out of the Reformation of the sixteenth century ... do not enjoy apostolic succession in the sacrament of Orders, and are, therefore, deprived of a constitutive element of the Church.''\" This statement speaks of the Protestant movement as a whole, not specifically of the Lutheran Churches in Sweden and Finland. The 2010 report from the Roman Catholic – Lutheran Dialogue Group for Sweden and Finland, ''Justification in the Life of the Church'', states: \"''The Evangelical-Lutheran Churches in Sweden and Finland ... believe that they are part of an unbroken apostolic chain of succession. The Catholic Church does however question how the ecclesiastical break in the 16th century has affected the apostolicity of the Churches of the Reformation and thus the apostolicity of their ministry''.\" Emil Anton interprets this report as saying that the Roman Catholic Church does not deny or approve the apostolic succession directly, but will continue with further inquiries about the matter.\n\nNegotiated at Järvenpää, Finland, and inaugurated with a celebration of the Eucharist at Porvoo Cathedral in 1992, the Porvoo Communion agreement of unity includes the mutual recognition of the traditional apostolic succession among the following Churches:\n\n* Lutheran Churches: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Iceland, Church of Norway, Church of Sweden, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Lithuania, Church of Denmark, observer: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia.\n* Anglican Communion: Church of Ireland, Scottish Episcopal Church, Church of England, the Church in Wales, the Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church, and the Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church.\n\nOf note is the fact that at least one of the Scandinavian Lutheran Churches in the Porvoo Communion of Churches, the Church of Denmark has bishops, but strictly speaking they were not in the historic apostolic succession prior to their entry into the Porvoo Communion, since their Episcopate and Holy Orders derived from Johannes Bugenhagen, who was a pastor, not a bishop. In 2010, the Church of Denmark joined the Porvoo Communion of Churches, after a process of mutual consecrations of bishops had led to the introduction of historic apostolic succession. The Lutheran Church in Great Britain also joined the Porvoo Agreement, in 2014.\n\nSimilarly, in the High Church Lutheranism of Germany, some religious brotherhoods like Hochkirchliche St. Johannes-Bruderschaft and Hochkirchlicher Apostolat St. Ansgar have managed to arrange for their own bishop to be re-ordained in apostolic succession. The members of these brotherhoods do not form into separate ecclesia.\n\nThe Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, North America's largest Lutheran body, became united in the historic episcopate of the Episcopal Church in 2000, upon the signing of ''Called to Common Mission''. By this document the full communion between the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Episcopal Church was established. As such, \"all episcopal installations in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America take place with the participation of bishops in the apostolic succession.\" The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America is headed by a presiding bishop who is elected by the churchwide assembly for a six-year term.\n\nIn recent years a number of Lutheran churches at the most Catholic edge of the Evangelical Catholic High Church Lutheran spectrum in the United States of America have accepted the doctrine of apostolic succession and have successfully recovered it, generally from Independent Catholic Churches. At present, most of these church bodies have memberships numbering in the hundreds.\n\n* The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (LEPC) were some of the earliest Lutherans in America. They have autonomous and congregationally oriented ministries and consecrate male and female deacons, priests and bishops in apostolic succession with the laying on of hands during celebration of Word and Sacrament They maintain the more protestant view of Apostolic Succession.\n* The Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church recovered the apostolic succession from Old Catholic and Independent Catholic churches, and adopted a strict episcopal polity. All of its clergy have been ordained (or re-ordained) into the historic apostolic succession. This Church was formed in 1997, with its headquarters in Kansas City, Missouri.\n* The Lutheran Orthodox Church, founded in 2004 traces its historic lineage of apostolic succession through Anglican, Lutheran, and Old Catholic lines.\n* The Lutheran Church - International is another North American Lutheran church which reports that it has recovered the historic apostolic succession.\n\n====Indifference to the issue====\nMany German Lutherans appear to demur on this issue, which may be sourced in the church governance views of Martin Luther. Luther's reform movement, however, usually did not as a rule abrogate the ecclesiastic office of Bishop.\n\nAn important historical context to explicate the wide differences among German Lutheran Churches is the Prussian Union of 1817, whereby the secular government directed the Lutheran Churches in Prussia to merge with non-Lutheran Reformed Churches in Prussia. The Reformed Churches generally oppose on principle the traditional doctrine of ecclesiastic Apostolic Succession, e.g., not usually even recognising the church office of Bishop. Later in the 19th century, other Lutheran and Reformed congregations merged to form united church bodies in some of the other 39 states of the German Confederation, e.g., in Anhalt, Baden, Bremen, Hesse and Nassau, Hesse-Kassel and Waldeck, and the Palatinate. Yet the partial nature of this list also serves to show that in Germany there remained many Lutherans who never did unite with the Reformed.\n\nOther Lutheran Churches seem indifferent as a matter of understood doctrine regarding this particular issue of ecclesiastical governance. In America, the conservative Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) places its church authority in the congregation rather than in the bishop, though its founder, C.F.W. Walther, while establishing congregational polity for the LCMS, did consider Polity (a Church's form of government) to be a matter of adiaphora (something indifferent.) Still, other conservative Lutherans, however, may favour High Church Lutheranism which remains generally favourable to the traditional doctrine of Apostolic Succession (see above).\n\n===Methodist churches===\nJohn Wesley came to believe that ancient church and New Testament evidence did not leave the power of ordination to the priesthood in the hands of bishops but that other priests could perform ordinations\nIn the beginnings of the Methodist movement, adherents were instructed to receive the sacraments within the Anglican Church since the Methodists were still a movement and not as yet a separate church in England until 1805; however, the American Methodists soon petitioned to receive the sacraments from the local preachers who conducted worship services and revivals. The Bishop of London refused to ordain Methodist priests and deacons in the British American colonies. John Wesley, the founder of the movement, was reluctant to allow unordained preachers to administer the sacraments:\n\n\nSome scholars argue that in 1763, Greek Orthodox bishop Erasmus of the Diocese of Arcadia, who was visiting London at the time, consecrated John Wesley a bishop, and ordained several Methodist lay preachers as priests, including John Jones. However, Wesley could not openly announce his episcopal consecration without incurring the penalty of the Præmunire Act. In light of Wesley's episcopal consecration, the Methodist Church can lay a claim on apostolic succession, as understood in the traditional sense. Since John Wesley \"ordained and sent forth every Methodist preacher in his day, who preached and baptized and ordained, and since every Methodist preacher who has ever been ordained as a Methodist was ordained in this direct 'succession' from Wesley, then the Methodist Church teaches that it has all the direct merits coming from apostolic succession, if any such there be.\" This apostolic succession is recognized by Unity Catholic Church, an independent Catholic church.\n\nHowever, most Methodists view apostolic succession outside its high church sense. This is because Wesley believed that the offices of bishop and presbyter constituted one order, citing an ancient opinion from the Church of Alexandria; Jerome, a Church Father, wrote: \"For even at Alexandria from the time of Mark the Evangelist until the episcopates of Heraclas and Dionysius the presbyters always named as bishop one of their own number chosen by themselves and set in a more exalted position, just as an army elects a general, or as deacons appoint one of themselves whom they know to be diligent and call him archdeacon. For what function, excepting ordination, belongs to a bishop that does not also belong to a presbyter?\" (Letter CXLVI). John Wesley thus argued that for two centuries the succession of bishops in the Church of Alexandria, which was founded by Mark the Evangelist, was preserved through ordination by presbyters alone and was considered valid by that ancient Church.\n\nSince the Bishop of London refused to ordain ministers in the British American colonies, this constituted an emergency and as a result, on 2 September 1784, Wesley, along with a priest from the Anglican Church and two other elders, operating under the ancient Alexandrian habitude, ordained Thomas Coke a superintendent, although Coke embraced the title bishop.\n\nToday, the United Methodist Church follows this ancient Alexandrian practice as bishops are elected from the presbyterate: the ''Discipline of the Methodist Church'', in ¶303, affirms that \"ordination to this ministry is a gift from God to the Church. In ordination, the Church affirms and continues the apostolic ministry through persons empowered by the Holy Spirit.\" It also uses sacred scripture in support of this practice, namely, 1 Timothy 4:14, which states: \nThe Methodist Church also buttresses this argument with the leg of sacred tradition of the Wesleyan Quadrilateral by citing the Church Fathers, many of whom concur with this view.\n\nIn addition to the aforementioned arguments—or perhaps instead of them—in 1937 the annual Conference of the British Methodist Church located the \"true continuity\" with the Church of past ages in \"the continuity of Christian experience, the fellowship in the gift of the one Spirit; in the continuity in the allegiance to one Lord, the continued proclamation of the message; the continued acceptance of the mission;...\" through a long chain which goes back to \"the first disciples in the company of the Lord Himself ... This is our doctrine of apostolic succession\" which neither depends on, nor is secured by, \"an official succession of ministers, whether bishops or presbyters, from apostolic times, but rather by fidelity to apostolic truth\".\n\nIn June 2014, the Church of Ireland, a province of the Anglican Communion, extended its lines of apostolic succession into the Methodist Church in Ireland, as \"the Archbishop of Dublin and Bishop of Down and Dromore took part in the installation of the new President of the Methodist Church of Ireland, the Rev. Peter Murray.\" In May 2014, the \"Church of Ireland’s General Synod approved an agreement signed with the Methodist Church that provided for the interchangeability of clergy, allowing an ordained minister of either church to come under the discipline and oversight of the other.\"\n\n===Moravian Church===\nThe Moravian Church teaches that it has preserved apostolic succession. The Church claims apostolic succession as a legacy of the old Unity of the Brethren. In order to preserve the succession, three Bohemian Brethren were consecrated bishops by Bishop Stephen of Austria, a Waldensian bishop who had been ordained by a Roman Catholic bishop in 1434. These three consecrated bishops returned to Litice in Bohemia and then ordained other brothers, thereby preserving the historic episcopate.\n\n===Presbyterian/Reformed churches===\n''Jus Divinum Regiminis Ecclesiastici'' (English translation: The Divine Right of Church Government), which was promulgated by Presbyterian clergy in 1646, holds that historic ministerial succession is necessary for legitimate ministerial authority. It states that ministerial succession is conferred by elders through the laying on of hands, in accordance with . The Westminster Assembly held that \"There is one general church visible\" and that \"every minister of the word is to be ordained by imposition of hands, and prayer, with fasting, by those preaching presbyters to whom it doth belong\".\n\n===Latter Day Saint Movement===\nDenominations within the Latter Day Saint movement preach the necessity of apostolic succession and claim it through the process of restoration. According to their teaching, a period of universal apostasy followed the death of the Twelve Apostles. Without apostles or prophets left on the earth with the legitimate Priesthood Authority, many of the true teachings and practices of Christianity were lost. Eventually these were restored to the prophet Joseph Smith and various others in a series of divine conferrals and ordinations by angelic men who had held this authority during their lifetimes (see this partial list of restoration events). As it relates to apostolic succession, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery said that the apostles Peter, James, and John appeared to them in 1829 and conferred upon them the Melchizedek Priesthood and with it \"the keys of the kingdom, and of the dispensation of the fullness of times\".\n\nFor The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the largest denomination in the Latter-day Saint movement, Apostolic Succession involves the leadership of the Church being established through the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Each time the President of the Church dies, the most senior Apostle, who is designated as the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, is set apart as the new church president.\n",
"Some Nonconformist Protestants, particularly those in the Calvinist tradition, deny the doctrine of apostolic succession, believing that it is neither taught in Scripture nor necessary for Christian teaching, life, and practice. Accordingly, these Protestants strip the notion of apostolic succession from the definition of \"apostolic\" or \"apostolicity.\" For them, to be apostolic is simply to be in submission to the teachings of the original twelve apostles as recorded in Scripture. This doctrinal stance reflects the Protestant view of authority, embodied in the doctrine known as Sola Scriptura.\n\nAmong the original champions of Protestantism who rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession were John Calvin, and Martin Luther. They both said that the episcopacy was inadequate to address corruption, doctrinal or otherwise, and that this inadequacy justified the intervention of the church of common people. In part this position was also necessary, as otherwise there would have been no means to elicit or initiate reform of the church.\n\nIn the 20th century, there has been more contact between Protestants and Christians from Eastern traditions which claim apostolic succession for their ministry. Like the Roman Catholic Church, these ancient Eastern churches may use the doctrine of apostolic succession in ministry in their apologetics against some forms of Protestantism. Some Protestants feel that such claims of apostolic succession are proven false by the differences in traditions and doctrines between these churches: Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox consider both the Church of the East and the Oriental Orthodox churches to be heretical, having been anathematized in the early ecumenical councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) respectively. However, churches that claim apostolic succession in ministry distinguish this from doctrinal orthodoxy, holding that \"it is possible to have valid orders coming down from the apostles, and yet not to have a continuous spiritual history coming down from the apostles\".\n\nAll Christians who have a genuine relationship with God through and in Christ are part of the \"true Church\", according to exemplary statements of evangelical Protestant theology, notwithstanding condemnation of the Catholic Church by some Protestants. According to these statements, claims that one or more denominations might be the \"true Church\" are nothing more than propaganda which has evolved over centuries to support authoritarian claims—based on tradition or based on scripture—of merely human institutions. Such claims can be found among the worldwide community of Christians. Yet all appear to treasure the truth that liberates, and Jesus taught his followers to love one another.\n\n===Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS)===\nWELS rejects Apostolic Succession as a biblical doctrine, stating that there is no evidence the Popes have historic succession from Peter other than their own claim that it is so. Furthermore, they claim that the Bible contains no evidence showing that the office must be conveyed by laying-on of hands and no Biblical command that it must be by a special class of bishops. Laying-on of hands is repeatedly mentioned, especially in the case of Paul and Timothy; however, it is a descriptive, non-prescriptive teaching in the Bible:\n\n\n\nWELS teaches:\n\n\n\nWELS Lutheran apologists state that there are a number of major problems with the Roman Catholic view on apostolic succession:\n\n* There is no evidence the popes have historic succession to Peter other than their own claim that it is so.\n* The bishops claiming succession have not preserved apostolic doctrine, therefore they have no meaningful apostolic succession.\n* There is no evidence that the apostles were ordained by laying on of hands when they entered their office.\n* There is no evidence in Scripture that the office must be conveyed by laying on of hands and no command that it must be by a special class of bishops.\n* Acts 1 actually proves the opposite of what the Catholic Church claims; it proves there cannot be \"apostolic successors\" today because Judas' replacement had to be an eyewitness of Jesus' ministry.\nWELS holds that it's their custom that ordination of pastors is by other pastors, and that neither the Bible nor the Lutheran confessions make this the only divinely mandated way of entering the pastoral ministry. WELS teaches that \"it is the call of the church that is the essential element, more specifically, the call of Christ through the church.\"\n",
"\n* Baptist successionism\n* Episcopi vagantes\n* List of Bishops\n* New Apostolic Church\n* Pope Linus\n* Twelve Apostles\n* Valid but illicit\n",
"\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n* Against Heresies, Online-text, Irenaeus, ''Against Heresies''\n* Apostolicity in the Catholic Encyclopedia\n* Discussion of the Papacy by Scott Hahn\n* \"Was Wesley Ordained By Bishop Erasmus?\" ''The Methodist Quarterly Review'' (1878)\n* Methodist/Anglican Thoughts On Apostolic Succession by The Reverend Dr. Gregory S. Neal\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Various meanings ",
"In the early Fathers",
"As transmission of grace",
"Apostolicity as doctrinal and related continuity",
"Churches claiming apostolic succession",
"Apostolic founders",
"Teachings",
"Denominations that reject apostolic succession",
"See also",
" References "
] | Apostolic succession |
[
"\n\n'''Ascorbic acid''' is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish. It dissolves well in water to give mildly acidic solutions. Ascorbic acid is one form (\"vitamer\") of vitamin C. It was originally called L-hexuronic acid, but, when it was found to have vitamin C activity in animals (\"vitamin C\" being defined as a vitamin activity, not then a specific substance), the suggestion was made to rename it. The new name, ascorbic acid, is derived from ''a-'' (meaning \"no\") and ''scorbutus'' (scurvy), the disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C. Because it is derived from glucose, many animals are able to produce it, but humans require it as part of their nutrition. Other vertebrates which lack the ability to produce ascorbic acid include some primates, guinea pigs, teleost fishes, bats, and some birds, all of which require it as a dietary micronutrient (that is, in vitamin form).\n",
"From the middle of the 18th century, it was noted that lemon and lime juice could help prevent sailors from getting scurvy. At first, it was supposed that the acid properties were responsible for this benefit; however, it soon became clear that other dietary acids, such as vinegar, had no such benefits. In 1907, two Norwegian physicians reported an essential disease-preventing compound in foods that was distinct from the one that prevented beriberi. These physicians were investigating dietary-deficiency diseases using the new animal model of guinea pigs, which are susceptible to scurvy. The newly discovered food-factor was eventually called vitamin C.\n\nFrom 1928 to 1932, the Hungarian research team led by Albert Szent-Györgyi, as well as that of the American researcher Charles Glen King, identified the antiscorbutic factor as a particular single chemical substance. Szent-Györgyi isolated the chemical hexuronic acid first from plants and later from animal adrenal glands. He suspected it to be the antiscorbutic factor but could not prove it without a biological assay. This assay was finally conducted at the University of Pittsburgh in the laboratory of King, which had been working on the problem for years, using guinea pigs. In late 1931, King's lab obtained adrenal hexuronic acid indirectly from Szent-Györgyi and, using their animal model, proved that it is vitamin C, by early 1932.\n\nThis was the last of the compound from animal sources, but, later that year, Szent-Györgyi's group discovered that paprika pepper, a common spice in the Hungarian diet, is a rich source of hexuronic acid. He sent some of the now more available chemical to Walter Norman Haworth, a British sugar chemist. In 1933, working with the then-Assistant Director of Research (later Sir) Edmund Hirst and their research teams, Haworth deduced the correct structure and optical-isomeric nature of vitamin C, and in 1934 reported the first synthesis of the vitamin. In honor of the compound's antiscorbutic properties, Haworth and Szent-Györgyi now proposed the new name of \"a-scorbic acid\" for the compound. It was named L-ascorbic acid by Haworth and Szent-Györgyi when its structure was finally proven by synthesis.\n\nIn 1937, the Nobel Prize for chemistry was awarded to Haworth for his work in determining the structure of ascorbic acid — shared with Paul Karrer, who received his award for work on vitamins — and the prize for Physiology or Medicine that year went to Albert Szent-Györgyi for his studies of the biological functions of L-ascorbic acid.\n\nThe American physician Fred R. Klenner, M.D. promoted vitamin C as a cure for many diseases in the 1950s by elevating the dosages greatly to as much as tens of grams vitamin C daily orally and by injection. From 1967 on, Nobel prize winner Linus Pauling recommended high doses of ascorbic acid as a prevention against cold and cancer. However, modern evidence does not support a role for high-dose vitamin C in the treatment of cancer or the prevention of the common cold in the general population.\n",
":Canonical structures for the ascorbate anion\nAscorbic acid is classed as a reductone. The ascorbate anion is stabilized by electron delocalization, as shown above in terms of resonance between two canonical forms. For this reason, ascorbic acid is much more acidic than would be expected if the compound contained only isolated hydroxyl groups.\n",
"Semidehydroascorbate acid radical\nThe ascorbate ion is the predominant species at typical biological pH values. It is a mild reducing agent and antioxidant. It is oxidized with loss of one electron to form a radical cation and then with loss of a second electron to form dehydroascorbic acid. It typically reacts with oxidants of the reactive oxygen species, such as the hydroxyl radical. Such radicals are damaging to animals and plants at the molecular level due to their possible interaction with nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Sometimes these radicals initiate chain reactions. Ascorbate can terminate these chain radical reactions by electron transfer. Ascorbic acid is special because it can transfer a single electron, owing to the resonance-stabilized nature of its own radical ion, called semidehydroascorbate. The net reaction is:\n:RO• + → RO− + C6H7O → ROH + C6H6O6\nThe oxidized forms of ascorbate are relatively unreactive and do not cause cellular damage.\n\nHowever, being a good electron donor, excess ascorbate in the presence of free metal ions can not only promote but also initiate free radical reactions, thus making it a potentially dangerous pro-oxidative compound in certain metabolic contexts.\n\nOn exposure to oxygen, ascorbic acid will undergo further oxidative decomposition to various products including diketogulonic acid, xylonic acid, threonic acid and oxalic acid.\n",
":Nucleophilic attack of ascorbic enol on proton to give 1,3-diketone\n",
"Ascorbic acid and its sodium, potassium, and calcium salts are commonly used as antioxidant food additives. These compounds are water-soluble and, thus, cannot protect fats from oxidation: For this purpose, the fat-soluble esters of ascorbic acid with long-chain fatty acids (ascorbyl palmitate or ascorbyl stearate) can be used as food antioxidants. Eighty percent of the world's supply of ascorbic acid is produced in China.\n\nThe relevant European food additive E numbers are:\n# E300 ascorbic acid (approved for use as a food additive in the EU USA and Australia and New Zealand)\n# E301 sodium ascorbate (approved for use as a food additive in the EU USA and Australia and New Zealand)\n# E302 calcium ascorbate (approved for use as a food additive in the EU USA and Australia and New Zealand)\n# E303 potassium ascorbate\n# E304 fatty acid esters of ascorbic acid (i) ascorbyl palmitate (ii) ascorbyl stearate.\n\nIt creates volatile compounds when mixed with glucose and amino acids in 90 °C.\n\nIt is a cofactor in tyrosine oxidation.\n",
"* Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized and so is used as a reductant in photographic developer solutions (among others) and as a preservative.\n* In fluorescence microscopy and related fluorescence-based techniques, ascorbic acid can be used as an antioxidant to increase fluorescent signal and chemically retard dye photobleaching.\n* It is also commonly used to remove dissolved metal stains, such as iron, from fiberglass swimming pool surfaces.\n* In plastic manufacturing, ascorbic acid can be used to assemble molecular chains more quickly and with less waste than traditional synthesis methods.\n* Heroin users are known to use ascorbic acid as a means to convert heroin base to a water-soluble salt so that it can be injected.\n* As justified by its reaction with iodine, it is used to negate the effects of iodine tablets in water purification. It reacts with the sterilized water, removing the taste, color, and smell of the iodine. This is why it is often sold as a second set of tablets in most sporting goods stores as Portable Aqua-Neutralizing Tablets, along with the potassium iodide tablets.\n* Intravenous high-dose ascorbate is being used as a chemotherapeutic and biological response modifying agent. Currently it is still under clinical trials.\n",
"\nAscorbic acid is found in plants and animals where it is produced from glucose. Animals must either produce it or digest it, otherwise a lack of vitamin C may cause scurvy, which may eventually lead to death. Reptiles and older orders of birds make ascorbic acid in their kidneys. Recent orders of birds and most mammals make ascorbic acid in their liver where the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase is required to convert glucose to ascorbic acid. Humans, other higher primates, guinea pigs and most bats require dietary ascorbic acid because the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase catalysing the last step in the biosynthesis is highly mutated and non-functional, therefore, unable to make ascorbic acid. Synthesis and signalling properties are still under investigation.\n\n=== Animal ascorbic acid biosynthesis pathway ===\nThe biosynthesis of ascorbic acid starts with the formation of UDP-glucuronic acid. UDP-glucuronic acid is formed when UDP-glucose undergoes two oxidations catalyzed by the enzyme UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase. UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase uses the co-factor NAD+ as the electron acceptor. The transferase UDP-glucuronate pyrophosphorylase removes a UMP and glucuronokinase, with the cofactor ADP, removes the final phosphate leading to D-glucuronic acid. The aldehyde group of this is reduced to a primary alcohol using the enzyme glucuronate reductase and the cofactor NADPH, yielding L-gulonic acid. This is followed by lactone formation with the hydrolase gluconolactonase between the carbonyl on C1 and hydroxyl group on C4. L-Gulonolactone then reacts with oxygen, catalyzed by the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase (which is nonfunctional in humans and other Haplorrhini primates) and the cofactor FAD+. This reaction produces 2-oxogulonolactone, which spontaneously undergoes enolization to form ascorbic acid.\n\n=== Plant ascorbic acid biosynthesis pathway ===\nThere are many different biosynthesis pathways for ascorbic acid in plants. Most of these pathways are derived from products found in glycolysis and other pathways. For example, one pathway goes through the plant cell wall polymers. The plant ascorbic acid biosynthesis pathway most principal seems to be L-galactose. L-Galactose reacts with the enzyme L-galactose dehydrogenase, whereby the lactone ring opens and forms again but with between the carbonyl on C1 and hydroxyl group on the C4, resulting in L-galactonolactone. L-Galactonolactone then reacts with the mitochondrial flavoenzyme L-galactonolactone dehydrogenase. to produce ascorbic acid. L-Ascorbic acid has a negative feedback on L-galactose dehydrogenase in spinach.\nAscorbic acid efflux by embryo of dicots plants is a well-established mechanism of iron reduction, and a step obligatory for iron uptake.\n\nYeasts do not make L-ascorbic acid but rather its stereoisomer, erythorbic acid\n",
"Ascorbic acid is prepared in industry from glucose in a method based on the historical Reichstein process. In the first of a five-step process, glucose is catalytically hydrogenated to sorbitol, which is then oxidized by the microorganism ''Acetobacter suboxydans'' to sorbose. Only one of the six hydroxy groups is oxidized by this enzymatic reaction. From this point, two routes are available. Treatment of the product with acetone in the presence of an acid catalyst converts four of the remaining hydroxyl groups to acetals. The unprotected hydroxyl group is oxidized to the carboxylic acid by reaction with the catalytic oxidant TEMPO (regenerated by sodium hypochlorite — bleaching solution). Historically, industrial preparation via the Reichstein process used potassium permanganate as the bleaching solution. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of this product performs the dual function of removing the two acetal groups and ring-closing lactonization. This step yields ascorbic acid. Each of the five steps has a yield larger than 90%.\n\nA more biotechnological process, first developed in China in the 1960s, but further developed in the 1990s, bypasses the use of acetone-protecting groups. A second genetically modified microbe species, such as mutant ''Erwinia'', among others, oxidises sorbose into 2-ketogluconic acid (2-KGA), which can then undergo ring-closing lactonization via dehydration. This method is used in the predominant process used by the ascorbic acid industry in China, which supplies 80% of world's ascorbic acid. American and Chinese researchers are competing to engineer a mutant that can carry out a one-pot fermentation directly from glucose to 2-KGA, bypassing both the need for a second fermentation and the need to reduce glucose to sorbitol.\n\nThere exists a D-ascorbic acid, which does not occur in nature but can be synthesized artificially. To be specific, L-ascorbate is known to participate in many specific enzyme reactions that require the correct enantiomer (L-ascorbate and not D-ascorbate). L-Ascorbic acid has a specific rotation of α = +23°.\nThe outdated, but historically important industrial synthesis of ascorbic acid from glucose via the Reichstein process.\n\n===Determination===\nThe traditional way to analyze the ascorbic acid content is the process of titration with an oxidizing agent, and several procedures have been developed, mainly relying on iodometry. Iodine is used in the presence of a starch indicator. Iodine is reduced by ascorbic acid, and, when all the ascorbic acid has reacted, the iodine is then in excess, forming a blue-black complex with the starch indicator. This indicates the end-point of the titration. As an alternative, ascorbic acid can be treated with iodine in excess, followed by back titration with sodium thiosulfate using starch as an indicator. The preceding iodometric method has been revised to exploit reaction of ascorbic acid with iodate and iodide in acid solution. Electrolyzing the solution of potassium iodide produces iodine, which reacts with ascorbic acid. The end of process is determined by potentiometric titration in a manner similar to Karl Fischer titration. The amount of ascorbic acid can be calculated by Faraday's law.\n\nAn uncommon oxidising agent is ''N''-bromosuccinimide (NBS). In this titration, the NBS oxidizes the ascorbic acid in the presence of potassium iodide and starch. When the NBS is in excess (i.e., the reaction is complete), the NBS liberates the iodine from the potassium iodide, which then forms the blue-black complex with starch, indicating the end-point of the titration.\n",
"* British Pharmacopoeia\n* Japanese Pharmacopoeia \n",
"* Colour retention agent\n* Erythorbic acid: a diastereomer of ascorbic acid.\n* Mineral ascorbates: salts of ascorbic acid\n* Acids in wine\n",
"\n",
"* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n",
"* \n* \n* IPCS Poisons Information Monograph (PIM) 046\n* Interactive 3D-structure of vitamin C with details on the x-ray structure\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Acidity",
"Antioxidant mechanism ",
" Reactions ",
"Food chemistry",
"Niche, non-food uses",
"Biosynthesis",
"Industrial preparation",
"Compendial status",
"See also",
"Notes and references",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Ascorbic acid (molecular aspects) |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax''' (), also '''AFC Ajax''', '''Ajax Amsterdam''' or simply '''Ajax''', is a Dutch professional football club based in Amsterdam. Historically, Ajax (named after the legendary Greek hero) has been the most successful club in the Netherlands, with 33 Eredivisie titles and 18 KNVB Cups. It has continuously played in the Eredivisie, the Dutch football top division, since its inception in 1956 and, along with Feyenoord and PSV, it is one of the country's \"big three\" clubs that have dominated that competition.\n\nAjax has historically been one of the most successful clubs in the world; according to the IFFHS, Ajax were the seventh-most successful European club of the 20th century and ''The World's Club Team of the Year'' in 1992. According to German Kicker, Ajax were the second most successful European club of the 20th century. The club is one of the five teams that has earned the right to keep the European Cup and to wear a multiple-winner badge; they won consecutively in 1971–1973. In 1972, they completed the continental treble by winning the Eredivisie, KNVB Cup, and the European Cup. It also won the first organized UEFA Super Cup in 1972 against Glasgow Rangers (played in 1973). Ajax's last international trophies were the 1995 Intercontinental Cup, 1995 UEFA Super Cup and the 1995 Champions League, where they defeated Milan in the final; they lost the 1996 Champions League final on penalties to Juventus. In 1995, Ajax was crowned as ''World Team of the Year'' by World Soccer Magazine''.\n\nAjax is also one of three teams to win the continental treble and the Intercontinental Cup in the same season/calendar year; This was achieved in the 1971–72 season. Ajax, Juventus, Bayern Munich, Chelsea, and Manchester United are the five clubs to have won all three major UEFA club competitions. They have also won the Intercontinental Cup twice, the 1991–92 UEFA Cup, as well as the Karl Rappan Cup, a predecessor of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1962. Ajax plays at the Amsterdam Arena, which opened in 1996. They previously played at De Meer Stadion and the Amsterdam Olympic Stadium (for international matches).\n",
"\nAjax was founded in Amsterdam on 18 March 1900. The club achieved promotion to the highest level of Dutch football in 1911 and had its first major success in 1917, winning the KNVB Beker, the Netherlands' national cup. The following season, Ajax became national champion for the first time. The club defended its title in 1918–19, becoming the only team to achieve an unbeaten season in the Netherlands Football League Championship.\n\nThroughout the 1920s, Ajax was a strong regional power, winning the Eerste Klasse West division in 1921, 1927 and 1928, but could not maintain its success at national level. This changed in the 1930s, with the club winning five national championships (1931, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1939), making it the most successful Dutch team of the decade. Ajax won its second KNVB Cup in 1942–43, and an eighth Dutch title in 1946–47, the last season the club was managed by Englishman Jack Reynolds, who, up to this point, had overseen all of its national championship successes as well as its 1917 KNVB Cup win.\n\nIn 1956, the first season of the Netherlands' new professional league, the Eredivisie, was played with Ajax participating as a founding member. The Amsterdam club became the first national champions under the new format and made its debut in the European Champion Clubs' Cup the following year, losing to Hungarian champions Vasas SC 6–2 on aggregate at the quarter-final stage. The team were again Eredivisie champions in 1960 and won a third KNVB Cup in 1961.\n\nJohan Cruyff played at Ajax from 1959 to 1973, and from 1981 to 1983, winning 3 European Cups; his No. 14 is the only squad number Ajax has ever retired. Cruyff came back to manage the club from 1985 to 1988.\nAgainst Panathinaikos in the 1971 European Cup Final\n\nIn 1965, Rinus Michels, who had played for the club between 1946 and 1958, was appointed manager of Ajax, implementing his philosophy of Total Football which was to become synonymous with both Ajax and the Netherlands national football team. A year earlier, Johan Cruyff, who would go on to become the greatest Dutch footballer of all time, made his debut. Between them, Michels and Cruyff led Ajax through the most successful period in its history, winning seven Eredivisie titles, four KNVB Cups and three European Cups.\n\nAjax won the Dutch championship in 1966, 1967, and 1968, and reached the 1969 European Cup Final, losing to Milan. During the 1966–67 season, Ajax scored a record 122 goals in an Eredivisie season and also won the KNVB Cup to achieve its first league and cup double. In 1969–70, Ajax won a fourth Dutch league championship and second league and cup double in five seasons, winning 27 out of 34 league games and scoring 100 goals.\n\nThe 1970–71 season saw Ajax retain the KNVB Cup and reach the 1971 European Cup Final, where they beat Panathinaikos 2–0 with goals from Dick van Dijk and Arie Haan to become continental champions for the first time, with Cruyff being named European Footballer of the Year. After this success, Michels departed to become manager of Barcelona and was replaced by the Romanian Ștefan Kovács. In Kovács' first season, Ajax completed a treble of the European Cup, the Eredivisie and a third consecutive KNVB Cup. The following season, the team beat Argentine club Independiente to win the 1972 Intercontinental Cup and retained their Eredivisie and European Cup titles, becoming the first club to win three consecutive European Cups since Real Madrid in the 1950s.\n\nIn 1973, Michels' Barcelona broke the world transfer record to bring Cruyff to Catalonia. Kovács also departed to become manager of the France national team, signalling the end of this period of international success.\n\nIn 1976–77, Ajax won its first domestic championship in four seasons and recorded a double of the Eredivisie and KNVB Cup two years later.\n\nThe early 1980s saw the return of Johan Cruyff to the club, as well as the emergence of young players Marco van Basten and Frank Rijkaard. The team won back-to-back Eredivisie titles in 1982 and 1983, with all three playing a significant role in the latter. After Cruyff's sale to rivals Feyenoord in 1983, Van Basten became Ajax's key player, top scoring in the Eredivisie for four seasons between 1983–84 and 1986–87.\n\nIn 1985, Cruyff returned to Ajax as manager and the team ended his first season in charge with 120 goals from 34 matches. Ajax, however, still finished as runner up to PSV by eight points. The following season, Ajax again lost out on the Eredivisie title to PSV, but won the European Cup Winners' Cup, its first continental trophy in 14 years. After this, Cruyff left the club to become manager of Barcelona and Rijkaard and Van Basten were sold to Sporting CP and Milan respectively. Despite these losses, Ajax reached a second consecutive Cup Winners' Cup final in 1988, where they lost to Belgian club KV Mechelen.\n\nThe 1988–89 season saw Dennis Bergkamp, a young forward who had first appeared under Cruyff in 1986, establish himself as a regular goalscorer for Ajax. Bergkamp helped Ajax to the 1989–90 Eredivisie title and was the top scorer in the division in 1990–91, 1991–92 and 1992–93. Under the management of Louis van Gaal, Ajax won the UEFA Cup in 1992 to become the second club, after Juventus, to have won all three major European club competitions.\n\nAfter the sale of Bergkamp to Internazionale in 1993, Van Gaal re-signed the experienced Frank Rijkaard to complement his young Ajax team featuring academy graduates Frank and Ronald de Boer, Edwin van der Sar, Clarence Seedorf, Edgar Davids, Michael Reiziger, and Winston Bogarde, as well as mercurial foreign talents Finidi George, Nwankwo Kanu and Jari Litmanen, and veteran captain Danny Blind. The team regained the Dutch championship in 1993–94, and won it again in 1994–95 and 1995–96 to become the first Ajax side to win three back-to-back championships since 1968. The height of Van Gaal's success came in 1994–95, where Ajax became the first, and to date only, team to complete an entire Eredivisie season unbeaten. The team also won its first European Cup since its glorious 1970s era, beating Milan in the 1995 UEFA Champions League Final 1–0, with the winning goal scored by 18-year-old Patrick Kluivert. Ajax again reached the final a year later but were defeated on penalties by Juventus.\n\nAjax's return as a European force was short lived as Van Gaal and several members of the squad soon departed to some of the continent's biggest clubs. The 2000s was a lean decade for the club with only two Eredivisie championships won. However, Ajax's academy continued to produce star players such as Wesley Sneijder and Rafael van der Vaart.\n\nIn 2010, Frank de Boer was appointed manager of Ajax and led the club to its first league title in seven years, and record 30th title overall, in the 2010–11 season. This was followed by back-to-back wins in 2011–12 and 2012–13 to match his three consecutive titles as a player in the 1990s. In 2013–14, Ajax were again Eredivisie champions, winning four consecutive league titles for the first time in the club's history. After finishing as runner-up to PSV in both 2014–15 and 2015–16, De Boer stepped down as Ajax head coach in May 2016. \n\nPeter Bosz took over the club and led them to the Europa League final, their first European final in 21 years. Although they lost to Manchester United, the lineup they fielded was the youngest ever in a European final at 22 years, 282 days old. For the third consecutive season, they finished runner-up in the Eredivisie, this time to Feyenoord.\n\n===UEFA ranking===\n\n\n\n\n\n Rank !! Country !! Team !! Points\n\n22\n\nTottenham Hotspur\n 62.363\n\n23\n\nVillarreal\n61.799\n\n24\n\nBasel\n60.940\n\n'''25'''\n\n\n'''Ajax'''\n57.589\n\n26\n\nDynamo Kyiv\n56.786\n\n27\n\nRoma\n55.049\n\n28\n\nOlympique Lyonnais\n54.749\n\n",
"\nThe club is also particularly famous for its renowned youth programme that has produced many Dutch talents over the years – Johan Cruyff, Edwin van der Sar, Dennis Bergkamp, former national team top scorer Patrick Kluivert, and former national team coach Marco van Basten. Dutch national first-team players Rafael van der Vaart, Ryan Babel, Wesley Sneijder, Maarten Stekelenburg, Eljero Elia, André Ooijer, John Heitinga and Nigel de Jong had also came through the ranks at Ajax and all are now playing for top-flight clubs. Ajax also regularly supplies the Dutch national youth teams with local talent. First team regulars Siem de Jong, Urby Emanuelson and Gregory van der Wiel are former youth internationals who made the successful step up to the senior side.\n\nDue to mutual agreements with foreign clubs, the youth academy has also signed foreign players as teenagers before making first team debuts, such as Belgian defensive trio Jan Vertonghen, Toby Alderweireld and Thomas Vermaelen along with winger Tom De Mul, all of whom are full internationals, as well as Dutch international Vurnon Anita and Javier Martina of Curaçao.\n\nAjax has also expanded its talent searching programme to South Africa with Ajax Cape Town. Ajax Cape Town was set up with the help of Rob Moore. Ajax has also had a satellite club in the United States under the name Ajax America, until it filed for bankruptcy. There are some youth players from Ajax Cape Town that have been drafted into the Eredivisie squad, such as South African internationals Steven Pienaar, Thulani Serero and Cameroonian international Eyong Enoh.\n\nIn 1995, the year Ajax won the Champions League, the Netherlands national team was almost entirely composed of Ajax players, with Edwin van der Sar in goal; players such as Michael Reiziger, Frank de Boer and Danny Blind in defence; Ronald de Boer, Edgar Davids and Clarence Seedorf in midfield; and Patrick Kluivert and Marc Overmars in attack.\n\nIn 2011, Ajax opened its first youth academies outside the Netherlands when the club partnered up with George Kazianis and All Star Consultancy in Greece to open the Ajax Hellas Youth Academy. The offices are based in Nea Smyrni, Attica, with the main training facility located on the island of Corfu, hosting a total of 15 football youth academies throughout Greece and Cyprus. Eddie van Schaik heads the organization as coach and consultant, introducing the Ajax football philosophy at the various Greek football training camps.\n",
"\nAjax' first stadium was built in 1911 out of wood and was called Het Houten Stadion (\"The Wooden Stadium\"). Ajax later played in the stadium built for the 1928 Summer Olympics hosted in Amsterdam. This stadium, designed by Jan Wils, is known as the Olympic Stadium. In 1934, Ajax moved to De Meer Stadion in east Amsterdam, designed by architect and Ajax-member Daan Roodenburgh, who had also designed the club's first stadium. It could accommodate 29,500 spectators and Ajax continued to play there until 1996. For big European and national fixtures the club would often play at the Olympic Stadium, which could accommodate about twice the number of spectators.\nExterior of the Amsterdam Arena\nIn 1996, Ajax moved to a new home ground in the southeast of the city known as the Amsterdam Arena. This was built by the Amsterdam city authority at a cost of $134 million. The stadium is capable of holding approximately 52,000 spectators. The average attendance in 2006–07 was 48,610, rising in the next season to 49,128. The Arena has a retractable roof and set a trend for other modern stadiums built in Europe in the following years. In the Netherlands, the Arena has earned a reputation for a terrible grass pitch caused by the removable roof that, even when open, takes away too much sunlight and fresh air. During the 2008–09 season, ground staff introduced an artificial lighting system that has finally reduced this problem considerably.\n\nThe much-loved De Meer Stadion was torn down and the land was sold to the city council. A residential neighbourhood now occupies the area. The only thing left of the old stadium are the letters \"AJAX\", which nowadays is in place on the façade of the youth training grounds De Toekomst, near the Amsterdam Arena.\n",
"\n===Crest===\nIn 1900, when the club was founded, the emblem of Ajax was just a picture of an Ajax player. The crest was slightly altered following the club's promotion to the top division in 1911 to match the club's new outfits. In 1928, the club logo was introduced with the head of the Greek hero Ajax. The logo was once again changed in 1990 into an abstract version of the previous one. The new logo still sports the portrait of Ajax, but drawn with just 11 lines, symbolizing the 11 players of a football team.\n\n\n\n\nThe first Ajax crest(1900–1911)\n\nThe second crest(1911–1928)\n\nThe third crest(1928–1990)\n\nThe current crest(1990–present)\n\n\n\n===Colours===\nAjax originally played in an all-black uniform with a red sash tied around the players' waists, but that uniform was soon replaced by a red/white striped shirt and black shorts. Red, black and white are the three colours of the flag of Amsterdam. When under manager Jack Kirwan, however, the club earned promotion to the top flight of Dutch football for the first time in 1911 (then the ''Eerste Klasse'' or 'First Class', later named the Eredivisie), Ajax were forced to change their colours because Sparta Rotterdam already had exactly the same outfit. Special kits for away fixtures did not exist at the time and according to football association regulations the newcomers had to change their colours if two teams in the same league had identical uniforms. Ajax opted for white shorts and white shirt with a broad, vertical red stripe over chest and back, which still is Ajax's outfit.\n",
"\n===AFC Ajax N.V.===\n\nAFC Ajax are the only Dutch club with an Initial public offering (IPO). The club is registered as a Naamloze vennootschap (N.V.) listed on the stock exchange Euronext Amsterdam, since 17 May 1998. With a launch price of ƒ25,- (Guilders) the club managed to a bring their total revenue up to €54 million euros (converted) in their first year on the market. After short-lived success, however, the rate dropped, at one point as low as €3.50. Criticism was brought forth that the legal grid for a naamloze vennootschap would not be suitable for a Football club, and that the sports related ambitions would suffer from the new commercial interests of the now listed Ajax. Shares of the company in the year 2008 were valued at approximately €5.90 per share.\n\nIn 2008, a Commission under guidance of honorary member Uri Coronel concluded that the IPO was of no value to the club, and that measures should be taken to exit the stock exchange by purchasing back all public shares. Ajax remain on the stock exchange.\n\n===Sponsorship===\n2011 AFC Ajax team wearing their home kit by adidas with the AEGON sponsor across the chest, ahead of their UEFA Champions League match against Olympique Lyonnais.\nAjax's shirts have been sponsored by TDK from 1982 to 1991, and by ABN AMRO from 1991 to 2008. AEGON then replaced ABN AMRO as the new head sponsor for a period of seven years. On 1 April 2007, Ajax wore a different sponsor for the match against Heracles Almelo, ''Florius''. Florius is a banking programme launched by ABN AMRO who wanted it to be the shirt sponsor for one match.\n\nThe shirts have been manufactured by Le Coq Sportif (1973–1977), Puma (1977–1980), Le Coq Sportif (1980–1984), Kappa (1985–1989) and Umbro (1989–2000) in the past, and by Adidas since 2000 (until at least 2019).\n\nIn conclusion of the 2013–14 season, Ajax won the Football shirt of the Year award for their black and rose colored away shirt by adidas. The annual award was presented by Subside Sports, which had previously given the award to Internazionale, Juventus and the Belgium national team. It was Ajax's first time winning the award.\n\nOn 7 November 2014, it was announced that Ajax had agreed to a four-and-a-half-year contract worth €8 million annually with Dutch cable operating company Ziggo as the new shirt sponsor for the club. Having extended their contract with AEGON for half a season until December, the club featured ''Fonds Gehandicaptensport'', a charitable fund for handicapped sports on its away shirts for a six-month period before transitioning to Ziggo in 2015.\n\n\n\nPeriod\nClothing sponsor\nShirt sponsor\n\n1973–1977\nLe Coq Sportif\n''none''\n\n1977–1979\nPuma\n\n1979-1980\nCor du Buy\n\n1980–1982\nLe Coq Sportif\n\n1982–1984\nTDK\n\n1985–1989\nKappa\n\n1989–1991\nUmbro\n\n1991–2000\nABN AMRO\n\n2000–2008\nAdidas\n\n2008–2014\n\nAEGON\n\n2014–2019\nZiggo\n\n",
"\n===Reserves team===\n\nJong Ajax (''formerly more commonly known as Ajax 2'') is the reserve team of AFC Ajax. The team is composed mostly of professional footballers, who are often recent graduates from the highest youth level (Ajax A1) serving their first professional contract as a reserve, or players who are otherwise unable to play in the first team.\n\nSince 1992, Jong Ajax competed in the Beloften Eredivisie, competing against other reserve teams such as Jong PSV, Jong FC Groningen or Jong AZ. They have won the Beloften Eredivisie title a record eight times, as well as the KNVB Reserve Cup three times, making them the most successful reserve squad in the Netherlands. By winning the Beloften Eredivisie title, Jong Ajax were able to qualify for the actual KNVB Cup, even advancing to the semi-finals on three occasions. Their best result in the Dutch Cup was under manager Jan Olde Riekerink in 2001–02, when a semi-final loss to FC Utrecht in a Penalty shoot-out after extra time, which saw Utrecht advance, and thus preventing an Ajax vs. Jong Ajax Dutch Cup final.\n\nThe 2013–14 season marked the Jupiler League debut of the Ajax reserves' squad, Jong Ajax. Previously playing in the Beloften Eredivisie (a separate league for reserve teams, not included in the Dutch professional or amateur league structure), players were allowed to move around freely between the reserve team and the first team during the season. This is no longer the case as Jong Ajax now registers and fields a separate squad from that of Ajax first team for the Eerste Divisie, the second tier of professional football in the Netherlands. Their home matches are played at Sportpark De Toekomst, except for the occasional match in the Amsterdam Arena. Now regarded a semi-professional team in their own respect, the only period in which players are able to move between squads are during the transfer windows, unless the player has made less than 15 appearances for the first team, then he is still eligible to appear in both first team and second team matches during the season. Furthermore, the team is not eligible for promotion to the Eredivisie or to participate in the KNVB Cup. Jong Ajax were joined in the Eerste Divisie by Jong Twente and Jong PSV, reserve teams who have also moved from the Beloften Eredivisie to the Eerste Divisie, in place of VV Katwijk, SC Veendam and AGOVV Apeldoorn, increasing the total number of teams in the Jupiler League from 18 to 20.\n\nAjax reserve squad Jong Ajax left the Beloften Eredivisie in 2013, having held a 21-year tenure in the reserves league, having also won the league title a record eight times. (1994, 1996, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2009)\n\n===Amateur team===\n\nAFC Ajax Amateurs, better known as '''Ajax Zaterdag''' is a Dutch amateur football club founded 18 March 1900. It is the amateur team of the professional club AFC Ajax, who play their home matches at the Sportpark De Toekomst training grounds to a capacity of 5,000. The team was promoted from the Eerste Klasse to the Hoofdklasse ahead of the 2011–12 season, the league in which they are currently competing. The team has won the Eerste Klasse title twice, as well as the *KNVB District Cup West I on two occasions as well.\n\nFurthermore, Ajax Zaterdag have also managed to qualify for the KNVB Cup on their own accord on three occasions, namely in 2004, 2005 and in 2008, even advancing to the second round before bowing out to Vitesse on 24 September 2008 during their last appearance in the cup tournament.\n\n===Women's team===\n\nAFC Ajax Vrouwen (''English: AFC Ajax Women'') are the women's team of AFC Ajax, competing in the BeNe League, the highest level of professional football in Belgium and the Netherlands. Founded on 18 May 2012, the women's team saw Ajax attracting many of the Netherlands top talents, with International players such as Anouk Hoogendijk, Daphne Koster and Petra Hogewoning joining the Amstedam club on its maiden season in women's professional football. The team won their first piece of silverware when the defeated PSV/FC Eindhoven 2–1 in the final of the KNVB Women's Cup.\n",
"\n===Baseball===\n\nAjax HVA (1922–1972) was the baseball team of AFC Ajax founded in 1922, and competing as founding members of the Honkbal Hoofdklasse, the top flight of professional baseball in the Netherlands. Ajax won the national baseball title a total of four times (1924, 1928, 1942, 1948) before the club opted to no longer field a baseball team, and to focus solely on football in 1972. Ajax spent a total of 50 years at the top flight of Baseball in the Netherlands from 1922 to 1972. The dissolution of Ajax baseball club resulted in the players finding a new sponsor in a mustard manufacturing company called Luycks, while merging with the Diemen Giants to become the Luycks Giants, thus replacing both former clubs.\n",
"\nThe following clubs are currently affiliated with AFC Ajax:\n* Ajax Cape Town (1999–present)\n* Almere City (2005–present)\n* Barcelona (2007–present)\n* Cruzeiro (2007–present)\n* Beijing Guoan (2007–present)\n* Palmeiras (2010–present)\n* AS Trenčín (2012–present)\n* ''Various HETT-clubs (See main article)''\nThe following clubs were affiliated with AFC Ajax in the past:\n* Germinal Beerschot (1999–2003)\n* Ashanti Goldfields (1999–2003)\n* Ajax Orlando Prospects (2003–2007)\n* HFC Haarlem (2006–2010)\n* FC Volendam (2007–2010)\n",
"''As one of the traditional big three clubs in the Netherlands, Ajax have amassed a number of intense rivalries over the years. Listed below are the most significant of the rivalries involving Ajax.''\n\n===Rivalry with Feyenoord===\n\nFeyenoord from Rotterdam are Ajax's archrivals. Every year both clubs play the ''De Klassieker'' (\"The Classic\"), a match between the teams from the two largest cities of the Netherlands. During the 1970s, Ajax and Feyenoord were the only two clubs in the Netherlands who were able to clinch national titles, as well as achieve continental and even global success. A meeting between the two clubs became the measure for who was truly the best club in the Netherlands. The ''Klassieker'' is the most famous of all the rivalries in the Netherlands and the matches are always sold out. The fixture is seen in the public eye as \"the graceful and elegant football of Ajax, against the indomitable fighting spirit of Feyenoord\"; the confidence of the capital city versus the blue collar mentality of Rotterdam. Matches are known for their tension and violence, both on and off the pitch. Over the years, several violent incidents have taken place involving rival supporters, leading to the current prohibition of away supporters in both stadiums. The lowest point was reached on 23 March 1997, when supporters of both clubs meet on a field near Beverwijk, where Ajax-supporter Carlo Picornie was fatally injured, the incident is commonly referred to as the \"Battle of Beverwijk\".\n\n===Rivalry with PSV===\n\nPSV are also a rival of Ajax, but in terms of tension and rivalry, these matches are not as loaded as the duels with Feyenoord. The rivalry has existed for some time with PSV and stems from various causes, such as the different interpretations of whether current national and international successes of both clubs correlates and the supposed opposition between the Randstad and the province. The matches between these two teams is commonly referred to as \"De Topper\" (\"The Topper\"), and involves the two most trophy-laden sides in Dutch football and is essentially a clash of two competing schools of thought in Dutch football. Historically, PSV compete with a workmanlike ethic, preferring a more robust 4–3–1–2 or 4–2–3–1, typically shunning the seductive 4–3–3 approach favoured in Amsterdam. While Rinus Michels and Johan Cruyff helped to innovate Total Football in the sixties and seventies, a different philosophy was honed in Eindhoven by Kees Rijvers and Guus Hiddink in the late 1970s and '80s. This in turn has created one of the more philosophical rivalries in football, an ideological battleground, which is gradually becoming as heated and intense as the matches Ajax and Feyenoord partake in.\n\n===Rivalries with other clubs===\n\nAside from Feyenoord and PSV, Ajax have several other rivalries, although in most cases the sentiment is mostly felt by the opposition and is more directed towards Ajax, with one of them being FC Utrecht. Although the rivalry is more felt on the Utrecht side then with Ajax, matchups between the two sides are often quite intense. Both teams have fanatic supporters, and clashes off the pitch are more often the rule than the exception. The same goes for ADO Den Haag, with both supporter-groups often getting in conflicts, when ADO-Hooligans set fire to the Supporters home of Ajax, and Ajax-Hooligans subsequently broke into the Supporters home of ADO tensions between the two clubs rose. In 2006 Supporters from both clubs were banned from attending away matches for five years, due to frequent violent outbreaks and clashes.\n\nFurther teams who share a rivalry with Ajax include FC Twente, FC Groningen and AZ, although the latter is often regarded by Ajax-supporters as the club's \"little brother\". Being from nearby Alkmaar, and with both clubs sharing the same Province, match-ups between the two sides are commonly known as the \"De Noord-Hollandse Derby\" (\"North Holland Derby\") and are often very competitive, intense and loaded fixtures.\n\nPast rivalries include local Amsterdam derbies between Ajax and clubs such as Blauw-Wit, DWS and De Volewijckers (who later merged to become FC Amsterdam in 1972). The tension between the local sides lessened, however, as the division of the clubs through playing in different leagues over time became greater. Years of not competing in the same league resulted in less frequent match-ups, until tensions finally settled between the Amsterdam clubs. The last Amsterdam derby to take place in an official league match was when Ajax defeated FC Amsterdam 5–1, on 19 March 1978.\n",
"\nSupporters\nAjax are known for having fanatic core supporter-groups, of which F-Side and VAK410 are the most famous. F-Side were founded on 3 October 1976, and are situated right behind the goal In the Amsterdam ArenA, on the southern end of the stadium in rows 125–129. Their name is derived from the group's former location on the F-side of the old De Meer Stadion. The F-side supporters are responsible for a big part of the atmosphere in the stadium, but are also known for rioting during and after matches. If in any match Ajax should win the coin toss, the second half of the match Ajax always play towards the south-end of the stadium. VAK410 (English: Row 410) were founded in 2001 and are situated in the Zuidhoek (''South corner'') of the stadium on the upper ring in rows 424–425. The group was originally situated on the North-West side of the stadium in row 410, from where it derives its name, until relocating to their current place in the stands in 2008. Members of VAK410 are known to perform various stunts, which include massive banners, to enhance the atmosphere in the stadium. Neither F-Side or VAK410 have seats in their sections of the stadium, and both groups stand for the duration of the match.\n\nThrough the official ''Football Top 20'' of Dutch sports research group ''SPORT+MARKT'', it was revealed in 2010 that Ajax had approximately 7.1 million supporters throughout Europe. This is slightly more than rivals Feyenoord and PSV (each 1.6 and 1.3 million, respectively), which put Ajax in 15th place for most supporters in all of Europe. The study also revealed that approximately 39% of the Netherlands were Ajax supporters. Not only does Ajax have a lot of supporters, but several fans attend their matches in European competition, with an average attendance of 48,677 spectators for every international match Ajax played, putting the team at 12th place in Europe for highest attendance, ahead of high-profile clubs such as Milan, Manchester City or Chelsea. It is noteworthy that not all stadiums share the capacity of the Amsterdam Arena.\n\n=== Supporters clubs ===\n\nAjax supporters celebrating the club's 30th Dutch national championship in 2011\nThe Supporters Club Ajax () is officially the largest Supporters club in the Netherlands with 94,000 members. Founded on 7 May 1992, the supporters club organize big monthly events throughout the Netherlands, and particularly around the official Ajax Open Training Day, which attracts thousands of supporters each year. Furthermore, the Supporters group is responsible for the Ajax Life website, as well as the fanzine which is issued 20 times a year. In 2006, the AFCA Supportersclub was introduced as the club's second official supporters' association, through the merger of the Onafhankelijke Fanclub Ajax (OFA) and the Ajax Supporters Delegatie (ASD). The AFCA Supportersclub has a reported 42,000 members, as well as a former member on the Board of Administration of Ajax, in Ronald Pieloor.\n\n=== Average attendance ===\nThis graph displays the average attendance for home matches of Ajax from 1988–2017, whereby the difference in capacity of the De Meer Stadion and the Amsterdam Arena (est. 1996) is clearly visible.\n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n88/89\n89/90\n90/91\n91/92\n92/93\n93/94\n94/95\n95/96\n96/97\n97/98\n98/99\n99/00\n00/01\n01/02\n02/03\n03/04\n04/05\n05/06\n06/07\n07/08\n08/09\n09/10\n10/11\n11/12\n12/13\n13/14\n14/15\n15/16\n16/17\n\n\n\n",
"Israeli flags in 2008\n\nHistorically, Ajax was popularly seen as having \"Jewish roots\". Although not an official Jewish club like the city's WV-HEDW, Ajax has had a Jewish image since the 1930s when the home stadium was located next to a Jewish neighbourhood of Amsterdam-Oost and opponents saw many supporters walking through the Nieuwmarkt/Waterloopleinbuurt (de Jodenhoek—the \"Jews' corner\") to get to the stadium. The city of Amsterdam was historically referred to as a Mokum city, Mokum (מקום) being the Yiddish word for \"place\" or \"safe haven\", and as anti-Semitic chants and name calling developed and intensified at the old De Meer Stadion from frustrated supporters of opposing clubs, Ajax fans (few of whom are actually Jewish) responded by embracing Ajax's \"Jewish\" identity: calling themselves \"super Jews\", chanting \"Jews, Jews\" (\"Joden, Joden\") at games, and adopting Jewish symbols such as the Star of David and the Israeli flag.\n\nThis Jewish imagery eventually became a central part of Ajax fans' culture. At one point ringtones of \"Hava Nagila\", a Hebrew folk song, could be downloaded from the club's official website. Beginning in the 1980s, fans of Ajax's rivals escalated their antisemitic rhetoric, chanting slogans like \"Hamas, Hamas/Jews to the gas\" (\"Hamas, hamas, joden aan het gas\"), hissing to imitate the flow of gas, giving Nazi salutes, etc. The eventual result was that many (genuinely) Jewish Ajax fans stopped going to games.\n\nIn the 2000s, the club began trying to persuade fans to drop their Jewish image. In 2013, a documentary titled ''Superjews'' was released by NTR and Viewpoint Productions which premiered at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (IDFA). The film was directed by Nirit Peled, an Israeli living in Amsterdam, and an independent film maker who offers a very personal view into the game, the lore of Ajax and its relation to Judaism from both the supporters as well as from a Jewish perspective.\n",
"\n===Current squad===\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Players out on loan===\n\n\n\n\n\n====Retired numbers====\n*'''14''' – Johan Cruyff (Forward, 1964–73, 1981–83). ''Number retired on 25 April 2007 at Cruyff's 60th birthday celebration match.''\n\n====Mascot====\n* Lucky Lynx, is the official team mascot. (2000–present)\n\n===Youth/reserves squad===\n''For the reserve squad of Ajax see: Jong Ajax.''\n",
"\n\n\n* Toby Alderweireld (2008–2013)\n* Wim Anderiesen (1925–1932)\n* Frank Arnesen (1976–1981)\n* Shota Arveladze (1997–2001)\n* Ryan Babel (2004–2007, 2012–2013)\n* Marco van Basten (1982–1986)\n* Dennis Bergkamp (1986–1993)\n* Danny Blind (1986–1999)\n* Daley Blind (2008–2014)\n* Frank de Boer (1988–1999)\n* Ronald de Boer (1988–1999)\n* Peter Boeve (1979–1988)\n* Theo Brokmann (1913–1924)\n* Theo Brokmann, Jr. (1939–1951)\n* Cristian Chivu (1999–2003)\n* Jasper Cillessen (2011–2016)\n* Johan Cruyff (1964–1973, 1981–1983)\n* Edgar Davids (1991–1996, 2007–2008)\n* Gé van Dijk (1943–1957)\n* Jan van Dort (1913–1922)\n* Urby Emanuelson (2004–2011)\n* Christian Eriksen (2010–2013)\n* Guus Dräger (1941–1951)\n* Gerrit Fischer (1934–1950)\n* Gabri (2006–2010)\n* Tomáš Galásek (2000–2006)\n* Ruud Geels (1974–1978)\n* Finidi George (1993–1996)\n* Cees Groot (1959–1964)\n\n* Henk Groot (1959–1969)\n* Jesper Grønkjær (1998–2000)\n* Arie Haan (1969–1975)\n* John Heitinga (2001–2008, 2015–2016)\n* Barry Hulshoff (1966–1977)\n* Zlatan Ibrahimović (2001–2004)\n* Nigel de Jong (2002–2006)\n* Nwankwo Kanu (1993–1996)\n* Davy Klaassen (2011–2017)\n* Piet Keizer (1961–1974)\n* Patrick Kluivert (1994–1997)\n* Ronald Koeman (1983–1986)\n* Ruud Krol (1968–1980)\n* Tschen La Ling (1975–1982)\n* Søren Lerby (1976–1983)\n* Jari Litmanen (1992–1999, 2002–2004)\n* Maxwell (2001–2006)\n* Stanley Menzo (1984–1994)\n* Rinus Michels (1946–1958)\n* Arkadiusz Milik (2014-2016)\n* Arnold Mühren (1971–1974, 1985–1989)\n* Gerrie Mühren (1968–1976)\n* Bennie Muller (1958–1970)\n* Jan de Natris (1917–1929)\n* Johan Neeskens (1970–1974)\n* Klaas Nuninga (1964–1969)\n* Marc Overmars (1992–1997)\n* Stefan Petterson (1988–1994)\n\n* Steven Pienaar (2001–2006)\n* Michael Reiziger (1990–1996)\n* Piet van Reenen (1929–1942)\n* Johnny Rep (1971–1975)\n* Frank Rijkaard (1980–1987, 1993–1995)\n* Bryan Roy (1988–1992)\n* Davinson Sánchez (2016–2017)\n* Edwin van der Sar (1991–1999)\n* John van 't Schip (1981–1992)\n* Dick Schoenaker (1976–1985)\n* Piet Schrijvers (1974–1983)\n* Clarence Seedorf (1992–1995)\n* Sonny Silooy (1980–1987, 1989–1996)\n* Wesley Sneijder (2003–2007)\n* Jaap Stam (2006–2007)\n* Maarten Stekelenburg (2002–2011)\n* Luis Suárez (2007–2011)\n* Wim Suurbier (1964–1977)\n* Sjaak Swart (1956–1973)\n* Hatem Trabelsi (2001–2006)\n* Rafael van der Vaart (2000–2005)\n* Gerald Vanenburg (1981–1986)\n* Velibor Vasović (1966–1971)\n* Thomas Vermaelen (2003–2009)\n* Jan Vertonghen (2006–2012)\n* Wim Volkers (1923–1936)\n* Gregory van der Wiel (2007–2012)\n* Aron Winter (1986–1992, 1999–2003)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"\n===Current board===\n;Executive Board\n*Chairman: Hennie Henrichs\n**Board members: '''7''' – ( Tonny Bruins Slot, Jan Buskerolen, Dick Schoenaker, Cees Vervoorn, Ronald Pieloor and Maarten Oldenhof)\nFrank de Boer led the club to four consecutive national titles during his tenure as manager from 2010-2016.\n;Board of directors\n*General director: Edwin van der Sar\n*Financial director: Jeroen Slop\n*Marketing director: Menno Geelen\n*Technical director: Marc Overmars\n\n;Supervisory Board\n*Chairman: Hans Wijers\n**Board members: '''2''' – ( Theo van Duivenbode, Leo van Wijk)\nEdwin van der Sar became the General director for Ajax in 2016.\n\n===Current staff===\n;Coaching staff\n*Manager: Marcel Keizer\n*Assistant manager: Hennie Spijkerman\n*Assistant manager: Dennis Bergkamp\n*Assistant manager: Aron Winter\n*Goalkeepers trainer: Carlo l'Ami\n\n;Medical staff\n*Manager physical performance: Gavin Benjafield\n*Team doctor: Bas Peijs\n*Team doctor: Don de Winter\n*Physiotherapist: Ralph van der Horst\n*Physiotherapist: Pim van Dord\n*Physiotherapist: Frank van Deursen\n*Fitness coach / Recovery trainer: Björn Rekelhof\n\n;Accompanying staff\n*Team manager: Tjerk Smeets\n*Players supervisor: Herman Pinkster\n*Performance coach: Guillaume Elmont\n*Press officer: Miel Brinkhuis\n\n===List of Ajax chairmen===\n\n\n* Floris Stempel (1900–08)\n* Chris Holst (1908–10)\n* Han Dade (1910–12)\n* Chris Holst (1912–13)\n* Willem Egeman (1913–25)\n\n* Frans Schoevaart (1925–32)\n* Marius Koolhaas (1932–56)\n* Wim Volkers (1956–58)\n* Jan Melchers (1958–64)\n* Jaap van Praag (1964–78)\n\n* Ton Harmsen (1978–88)\n* Michael van Praag (1989–03)\n* John Jaakke (2003–08)\n* Uri Coronel (2008–11)\n* Hennie Henrichs (2011–)\n\n\n===List of Ajax managers===\n\n\n* Jack Kirwan (1910–15)\n* Jack Reynolds (1915–25)\n* Harold Rose (1925–26)\n* Stanley Castle (1926–28)\n* Jack Reynolds (1928–40)\n* Vilmos Halpern (1940–41)\n* Wim Volkers (1941–42)\n* Dolf van Kol (1942–45)\n* Jack Reynolds (1945–47)\n* Robert Smith (1947–48)\n* Walter Crook (1948–50)\n* Robert Thomson (1950–53)\n* Walter Crook (1953–54)\n* Karl Humenberger (1954–59)\n* Vic Buckingham (1959–61)\n* Keith Spurgeon (1961–62)\n* Joseph Gruber (1962–63)\n\n* Jack Rowley (1963–64)\n* Vic Buckingham (1964–65)\n* Rinus Michels (1965–71)\n* Ștefan Kovács (1971–73)\n* George Knobel (1973–74)\n* Bobby Haarms (1974)\n* Hans Kraay (1974–75)\n* Rinus Michels (1975–76)\n* Tomislav Ivić (1976–78)\n* Cor Brom (1978–79)\n* Leo Beenhakker (1979–81)\n* Kurt Linder (1981–82)\n* Aad de Mos (1982–85)\n* Johan Cruyff (1985–88)\n* Kurt Linder (1988)\n* Spitz Kohn, Bobby Haarms and Barry Hulshoff (1988–89, interim)\n* Leo Beenhakker (1989–91)\n\n* Louis van Gaal (1991–97)\n* Morten Olsen (1997–99)\n* Jan Wouters (1999–00)\n* Hans Westerhof (2000, interim)\n* Co Adriaanse (2000–01)\n* Ronald Koeman (2001–05)\n* Ruud Krol (2005, interim)\n* Danny Blind (2005–06)\n* Henk ten Cate (2006–07)\n* Adrie Koster (2007–08, interim)\n* Marco van Basten (2008–09)\n* John van 't Schip (2009, interim)\n* Martin Jol (2009–10)\n* Frank de Boer (2010–16)\n* Peter Bosz (2016–17)\n* Marcel Keizer (2017–)\n\n",
"\n\n===Official trophies (recognized by UEFA and FIFA)===\n\n====National====\n*'''Netherlands Football League Championship / Eredivisie: 33'''\n:: 1917–18, 1918–19, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1933–34, 1936–37, 1938–39, 1946–47, 1956–57, 1959–60, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1969–70, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1984–85, 1989–90, 1993–94, 1994–95, 1995–96, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14\n*'''KNVB Cup: 18'''\n:: 1916–17, 1942–43, 1960–61, 1966–67, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1978–79, 1982–83, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1992–93, 1997–98, 1998–99, 2001–02, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2009–10\n*'''Johan Cruyff Shield: 8'''\n:: 1993, 1994, 1995, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2013\n\n====International====\nSeveral of Ajax' international trophies\n*'''European Cup / Champions League: 4'''\n:: 1970–71, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1994–95\n*'''European Cup Winners' Cup: 1'''\n:: 1986–87\n*'''UEFA Cup: 1'''\n:: 1991–92\n*'''UEFA Super Cup: 2'''\n:: 1973, 1995 *(Ajax also won in 1972, however, UEFA only sanctioned the UEFA Super Cup for the first time in 1973 so the 1972 edition was an unofficial one. Played against Rangers, winners of the 1971–72 European Cup Winners' Cup, it actually went ahead as 'a celebration of the Centenary of Rangers F.C.' (See below) because Rangers were serving a one-year ban at the time imposed by UEFA for the misbehaviour of their fans. That victory meant Ajax had won every tournament (5 in total) they entered that year, a feat Celtic achieved in 1967 (with 6 trophies) and Barcelona (also 6 trophies) repeated in 2009)\n*'''Intercontinental Cup: 2'''\n:: 1972, 1995\n*'''Rangers First Centenary 1872–1972: 1'''\n:: 1972\n*'''Karl Rappan Cup: 1'''\n:: 1962\n\n====Other trophies====\nAjax have won numerous friendly tournaments, unsanctioned by UEFA or FIFA, including the Amsterdam Tournament, Bruges Matins Trophy, Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu, Eusébio Cup, Ted Bates Trophy, Jalkapalloturnaus and Chippie Polar Cup. (''For a complete list, see main article'')\n\n===Club Awards===\n*'''World Team of the Year''' : '''1'''\n:: 1995\n*'''European Team of the Year''' : '''4'''\n:: 1969, 1971, 1972, 1973\n*'''Dutch Sports Team of the Year''' : '''5'''\n:: 1968, 1969, 1972, 1987, 1995\n*'''Sports Team of the Year''' : '''1'''\n:: 1990\n*'''Dick van Rijn Trophy''' : '''1'''\n:: 1995\n*'''Amsterdam Sportsteam of the year''': '''3'''\n:: 2011, 2013, 2014\n*'''ING Fair Play Award''' : '''2'''\n:: 2013, 2014\n*'''Fair Play Cup''' : '''1'''\n:: 1995\n*'''FIFA Club of the Century''' : shared 5th place\n:: 20th Century\n*'''''kicker Sportmagazin'' Club of the Century''': 2nd place\n:: 20th Century\n*'''Best Dutch club after 50 years of professional football''' : '''1'''\n:: 2004\n*'''Football shirt of the Year''' : '''Ajax away shirt by adidas'''\n:: 2013–14\n*'''The Four-Four-Two Greatest Club Side Ever''' : '''Ajax (1965 – 1973)'''\n:: 2013\n*'''VVCS Best Pitch of the Year''' : '''1'''\n:: 2012\n",
"Ajax have a total of 45 honorary club members, from people who have been invested within the club's administrative engagements, to committed players who have excelled in the athletic department. Of those 45 members 40 have since passed away. Five members still remain, having been reduced from eight members after Piet Keizer denounced his membership, seven after the passing of Johan Cruyff, and six after the passing of Uri Coronel.\n\n\n* Hennie Henrichs\n* Arie van Os\n\n* Michael van Praag\n* Rob Been\n\n* Sjaak Swart\n\n\n\nThe remaining 40 honorary members who have since died:\n\n\n* Floris Stempel\n* Han Dade\n* Chris Holst\n* L.W. van Fliet\n* K.W.F. van der Lee\n* Henk Alofs\n* Frans Schoevaart\n* Jan Grootmeijer\n* J. Oudheusden\n\n* Willem Egeman\n* Jan Schoevaart\n* Marius Koolhaas\n* Jordanus Roodenburgh\n* Theo Brokmann\n* F.H.W. de Bruijn\n* Jan de Boer\n* Frans Couton\n* A.L. Desmit\n\n* Wim Anderiesen\n* Wim Volkers\n* Jan Elzenga\n* Roef Vunderink\n* Kick Geudeker\n* G. de Jongh\n* Jack Reynolds\n* Ferry Dukker\n* Arie de Wit\n\n* W.F.C. Bruijnesteijn\n* Jan Westrik\n* Jaap van Praag\n* Henk Hordijk\n* M.J.W. Middendorp\n* Rinus Michels\n* Henk Timman\n* Jan Potharst\n* Bobby Haarms\n\n* André Kraan\n* Willem Schoevaart\n* Johan Cruyff\n* Uri Coronel\n\n",
"\n===Domestic results===\nBelow is a table with Ajax's domestic results since the introduction of the Eredivisie in 1956.\n\n\n\n Domestic Results since 1956\n\nDomestic league\nLeague result\nQualification to\nKNVB Cup season\nCup result\n\n2016-17 Eredivisie\n2nd\nChampions League (Q3)\n2016-17\nthird round\n\n2015-16 Eredivisie\n2nd\nChampions League (Q3)\n2015-16\nthird round\n\n2014–15 Eredivisie\n2nd\nChampions League (Q3)\n2014–15\nround of 16\n\n2013–14 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n2013–14\nfinal\n\n2012–13 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n2012–13\nsemi-final\n\n2011–12 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n2011–12\nfourth round\n\n2010–11 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n2010–11\nfinal\n\n2009–10 Eredivisie\n2nd\nChampions League (Q2)\n2009–10\nwinners\n\n2008–09 Eredivisie\n3rd\nEuropa League (Q4)\n2008–09\nthird round\n\n2007–08 Eredivisie\n2nd\nUEFA Cup (after losing CL-play-offs)\n2007–08\nround of 16\n\n2006–07 Eredivisie\n2nd\nChampions League (winning CL-play-offs) (Q3)\n2006–07\nwinners\n\n2005–06 Eredivisie\n4th\nChampions League (winning CL-play-offs) (Q3)\n2005–06\nwinners\n\n2004–05 Eredivisie\n2nd\nChampions League (Q3)\n2004–05\nsemi-final\n\n2003–04 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n2003–04\nround of 16\n\n2002–03 Eredivisie\n2nd\nChampions League (Q3)\n2002–03\nsemi-final\n\n2001–02 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n2001–02\nwinners\n\n2000–01 Eredivisie\n3rd\nChampions League (Q3)\n2000–01\nround of 16\n\n1999–2000 Eredivisie\n5th\nUEFA Cup\n1999–2000\nround of 16\n\n1998–99 Eredivisie\n6th\nUEFA Cup\n1998–99\nwinners\n\n1997–98 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n1997–98\nwinners\n\n1996–97 Eredivisie\n4th\nUEFA Cup\n1996–97\nsecond round\n\n1995–96 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n1995–96\nround of 16\n\n1994–95 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n1994–95\nquarter final\n\n1993–94 Eredivisie\n1st\nChampions League\n1993–94\nsemi-final\n\n1992–93 Eredivisie\n3rd\nCup Winners' Cup\n1992–93\nwinners\n\n1991–92 Eredivisie\n2nd\nUEFA Cup\n1991–92\nquarter final\n\n1990–91 Eredivisie\n2nd\nUEFA Cup\n1990–91\nquarter final\n\n1989–90 Eredivisie\n1st\n'''DSQ'''\n1989–90\nsemi-final\n\n1988–89 Eredivisie\n2nd\nUEFA Cup\n1988–89\nquarter final\n\n1987–88 Eredivisie\n2nd\nUEFA Cup\n1987–88\nsecond round\n\n1986–87 Eredivisie\n2nd\nCup Winners' Cup\n1986–87\nwinners\n\n1985–86 Eredivisie\n2nd\nCup Winners' Cup\n1985–86\nwinners\n\n1984–85 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1984–85\nround of 16\n\n1983–84 Eredivisie\n3rd\nUEFA Cup\n1983–84\nround of 16\n\n1982–83 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1982–83\nwinners\n\n1981–82 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1981–82\nround of 16\n\n1980–81 Eredivisie\n2nd\nCup Winners' Cup\n1980–81\nfinal\n\n1979–80 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1979–80\nfinal\n\n1978–79 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1978–79\nwinners\n\n1977–78 Eredivisie\n2nd\nUEFA Cup\n1977–78\nfinal\n\n1976–77 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1976–77\nsecond round\n\n1975–76 Eredivisie\n3rd\nUEFA Cup\n1975–76\nquarter final\n\n1974–75 Eredivisie\n3rd\nUEFA Cup\n1974–75\nround of 16\n\n1973–74 Eredivisie\n3rd\nUEFA Cup\n1973–74\nsemi-final\n\n1972–73 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup (R2)\n1972–73\nsecond round\n\n1971–72 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup (R2)\n1971–72\nwinners\n\n1970–71 Eredivisie\n2nd\nEuropean Cup\n1970–71\nwinners\n\n1969–70 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1969–70\nwinners\n\n1968–69 Eredivisie\n2nd\nInter-Cities Fairs Cup\n1968–69\nround of 16 \n\n1967–68 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1967–68\nfinal\n\n1966–67 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1966–67\nwinners\n\n1965–66 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1965–66\nquarter final \n\n1964–65 Eredivisie\n13th\n –\n1964–65\nfirst round \n\n1963–64 Eredivisie\n5th\n –\n1963–64\nsemi-final \n\n1962–63 Eredivisie\n2nd\n –\n1962–63\nround of 16 \n\n1961–62 Eredivisie\n4th\n –\n1961–62\n? \n\n1960–61 Eredivisie\n2nd\n –\n1960–61\nwinners\n\n1959–60 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n''not held''\n''not held''\n\n1958–59 Eredivisie\n6th\n –\n1958–59\n? \n\n1957–58 Eredivisie\n3rd\n –\n1957–58\n? \n\n1956–57 Eredivisie\n1st\nEuropean Cup\n1956–57\n? \n\n\n===Continental results===\n\n",
"\n* Most match appearances: '''463''' – Sjaak Swart \n* Most goals scored: '''273'''– Piet van Reenen \n* Most goals scored in a season: '''41'''– Henk Groot\n* First Ajax player to receive an International cap: Gerard Fortgens for the Netherlands in 1911\n* First Ajax player to score a goal for the National team: Theo Brokmann for the Netherlands in 1919\n",
"\nThe Club van 100 is the official list of Football players who have appeared in one hundred or more official matches for AFC Ajax. The club currently has a total of 150 members with Daley Blind being the latest addition. The record for league appearances is held by '''Mr. Ajax''' himself Sjaak Swart, who appeared in 463 league matches for Ajax 1. There is a beneficiary team called Lucky Ajax, which was initiated by Sjaak Swart. Lucky Ajax participate in at least one match a year, usually in the name of charity, and commonly at football ceremonies to bid farewell to retiring players. One of the prerequisites for playing on Lucky Ajax, which is invitational only, is that you are a member of the Club van 100, having made at least 100 official match appearances for Ajax Amsterdam in the first team of the club.\n",
"Lucky Ajax are a beneficiary team that was initiated by Sjaak Swart in the seventies, competing in at least one match a year, usually in the name of charity and/or to bid farewell to retiring former Ajax players. The team is made up of various members of the Club van 100 of Ajax who will come out of retirement for this match to face the Ajax squad that is current of that year. Past participants have included Barry Hulshoff, Sonny Silooy, Simon Tahamata, Ronald Koeman, Tscheu La Ling, Gerrie Mühren, John van 't Schip, Brian Roy, Stanley Menzo, Peter van Vossen and Fred Grim. The name Lucky Ajax is derived from the famous \"Lucky Ajax\" nickname from how people used to refer to the club when Ajax would either win a match by chance, by a decision of a referee, or by coincidence such as was said to be the case during the infamous ''Mistwedstrijd'' (\"Fog Match\").\n",
"\nAs of the 2007–08 season, no player could wear the number 14 shirt at Ajax after the club decided to retire the shirt out of respect for Johan Cruyff, \"the legendary number fourteen\". Cruyff himself laughed off the tribute, saying the club had to let its best player play with number 14. Spanish midfielder Roger was the last player to wear the number. Marvin Zeegelaar wore the shirt number In preparation for the 2011–12 season in one preseason match, while Aras Özbiliz wore the number 14 shirt in one pre-season match ahead of the 2011–12 season as well. The club stated that this was, in fact, not done in error.\n\nBelow is a list of all players to wear the number 14 shirt since Johan Cruyff's departure.\n\n\n\n* Zoltán Varga – 1973–74 season\n* Jan Mulder – 1974–75 season\n* Geert Meijer – 1975–76 season\n* Frank Arnesen – 1976–77 and 1977–78 seasons\n* Tscheu La Ling – 1978–79 season\n* Karel Bonsink – 1979–80 season\n* Frank Rijkaard – 1980–81 season (''uncertain'')\n* Sonny Silooy – 1981–82 season\n* Marco van Basten – 1982–83 season\n''From 1983–1997, reserves no longer received permanent shirt numbers.''\n\n* Dani – 1997–98 and 1998–99 seasons\n* Martijn Reuser – 1999–00 season\n* Brutil Hosé – 2000–01 season\n* Shota Arveladze – 2001–02 season\n* Jan van Halst – 2002–03 season\n* Jelle Van Damme – 2003–04 season\n* Thomas Vermaelen – 2004–05 season\n* Maxwell – 2005–06 season\n* Roger – 2006–07 season\n\n",
"\n\n\nDates\nName\nNotes\n\n 1995–1999\n Danny Blind\n \n\n 1999–2001\n Tomáš Galásek\n \n\n 2001–2003\n Cristian Chivu\n \n\n 2003–2004\n Jari Litmanen\n \n\n 2004\n Rafael van der Vaart\n \n\n 2004–2006\n Tomáš Galásek\n \n\n 2006\n Julien Escudé\n \n\n 2006–2008\n Jaap Stam\n \n\n 2008–2009\n Klaas-Jan Huntelaar\n \n\n 2009\n Thomas Vermaelen\n \n\n 2009–2011\n Luis Suárez\n \n\n 2011\n Maarten Stekelenburg\n \n\n 2011–2012\n Jan Vertonghen\n \n\n 2012–2014\n Siem de Jong\n \n\n 2014–2015\n Niklas Moisander\n \n\n 2015–2017\n Davy Klaassen\n \n\n 2017–\n Joël Veltman\n \n\n\n",
"\n===Amsterdam Tournament===\n\nEstablished in 1975 as the Amsterdam 700 Tournament to celebrate 700 years of history in the city. The tournament was hosted annually each summer by Ajax until 1992, when the last edition of the original tournament was played. It returned in 1999 with the backing of the International Event Partnership (IEP). Four teams participate in the competition, played in a league format since 1986. Since its return, the tournament has used an unusual point scoring system. As with most league competitions, three points are awarded for a win, one for a draw, and none for a loss. An additional point, however, is awarded for each goal scored. The system is designed to reward teams that adopt a more attacking style of play. Each entrant plays two matches, with the winner being the club that finishes at the top of the table. The original competition was held at De Meer Stadion, Ajax's home between 1934 and 1996. The Amsterdam Arena has played host to the event since its return until the last edition was played in 2009. Ajax is the most successful team of the tournament, having won it a record ten times, while Benfica from Portugal were the last team to win the tournament, in 2009.\n\n===Copa Amsterdam===\n\nEstablished in 2005, the Copa Amsterdam is an international friendly football tournament for Under-19 youth teams, that is organized by Ajax and the Amsterdam city council, which takes place at the Olympic Stadium as part of the annual Amsterdam Sports Weekend, a citywide sponsored initiative to promote 'sports and recreation' within the city of Amsterdam. Each Summer the city of Amsterdam and Ajax invite U-19 teams from various top clubs from around the World to participate in the tournament. Seven teams are invited and play in the competition every year with the ninth edition of the tournament having occurred in 2013. Over the years, clubs such as Barcelona, Juventus, Chelsea and Real Madrid have had their senior youth teams participate in the tournament. Cruzeiro from Brazil are the most successful club in the history of the tournament, having won it three times in total, while Ajax Cape Town from South Africa are the current cup holders.\n\n===Future Cup===\n\nEstablished in 2010, the AEGON Future Cup is an international friendly tournament for Under-17 youth teams, which is organized by AFC Ajax and their main sponsor, the insurance company AEGON. The tournament is held each year at the Amsterdam Arena and at the Sportpark De Toekomst, the teams training ground, which also inspired the name of the competition, since ''De Toekomst'' in Dutch means The Future. Every year during the Easter weekend, six U-17 teams are invited to participate in the competition, while the seventh place for the contesters is reserved for the winners of the \"Craques Mongeral AEGON Future Cup\" in Brazil, the sister competition of the tournament in South America. Youth teams from top clubs such as Manchester United, Bayern Munich, Milan and many more have participated in the competition over the years. Ajax are the most successful club of the tournament, having won the trophy a total of three times, and current cup holders having defeated Liverpool in the final of the latest edition.\n",
"\n\n* List of football clubs in the Netherlands\n",
"* David Endt, ''De godenzonen van Ajax'', Rap, Amsterdam, 1993, \n* Jan Baltus Kok, ''Naar Ajax. Mobiliteitspatronen van bezoekers bij vier thuiswedstrijden van Ajax'', University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 1992, \n*Simon Kuper, ''Ajax, The Dutch, The War. Football in Europe during the Second World War'', Orion Books, London (Translation of: Ajax, de Joden en Nederland (\"Ajax, the Jews, The Netherlands)\", 2003, \n* Evert Vermeer, ''95 jaar Ajax. 1900–1995'', Luitingh-Sijthoff, Amsterdam, 1996, \n",
"\n",
"\n*\n* AFC Ajax at weltfussballarchiv\n* AFC Ajax at soccerway\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
"Youth programme",
"Stadiums",
"Crest and colours",
" Financial ",
"Other teams",
"Other sports",
"Affiliated clubs",
"Rivalries",
" Supporters ",
"Jewish connection",
"Players",
"Notable former players",
"Board and staff",
"Honours",
"Honorary club members",
"Results",
"Team records",
"Club van 100",
"Lucky Ajax",
"Number 14 shirt",
"Former captains",
"Team tournaments",
"See also",
"Bibliography",
"References",
"External links"
] | AFC Ajax |
[
"\n\n\n'''Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington''' (28 December 1882 – 22 November 1944) was an English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician of the early 20th century who did his greatest work in astrophysics. He was also a philosopher of science and a populariser of science. The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour.\n\nHe is famous for his work concerning the theory of relativity. Eddington wrote a number of articles that announced and explained Einstein's theory of general relativity to the English-speaking world. World War I severed many lines of scientific communication and new developments in German science were not well known in England. He also conducted an expedition to observe the Solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 that provided one of the earliest confirmations of general relativity, and he became known for his popular expositions and interpretations of the theory.\n",
"Eddington was born 28 December 1882 in Kendal, Westmorland (now Cumbria), England, the son of Quaker parents, Arthur Henry Eddington, headmaster of the Quaker School, and Sarah Ann Shout.\n\nHis father taught at a Quaker training college in Lancashire before moving to Kendal to become headmaster of Stramongate School. He died in the typhoid epidemic which swept England in 1884. His mother was left to bring up her two children with relatively little income. The family moved to Weston-super-Mare where at first Stanley (as his mother and sister always called Eddington) was educated at home before spending three years at a preparatory school. The family lived at a house called Varzin, 42 Walliscote Road, Weston-super-Mare. There is a commemorative plaque on the building explaining Sir Arthur's contribution to science.\n\nIn 1893 Eddington entered Brynmelyn School. He proved to be a most capable scholar, particularly in mathematics and English literature. His performance earned him a scholarship to Owens College, Manchester (what was later to become the University of Manchester) in 1898, which he was able to attend, having turned 16 that year. He spent the first year in a general course, but turned to physics for the next three years. Eddington was greatly influenced by his physics and mathematics teachers, Arthur Schuster and Horace Lamb. At Manchester, Eddington lived at Dalton Hall, where he came under the lasting influence of the Quaker mathematician J. W. Graham. His progress was rapid, winning him several scholarships and he graduated with a B.Sc. in physics with First Class Honours in 1902.\n\nBased on his performance at Owens College, he was awarded a scholarship to Trinity College at the University of Cambridge in 1902. His tutor at Cambridge was Robert Alfred Herman and in 1904 Eddington became the first ever second-year student to be placed as Senior Wrangler. After receiving his M.A. in 1905, he began research on thermionic emission in the Cavendish Laboratory. This did not go well, and meanwhile he spent time teaching mathematics to first year engineering students. This hiatus was brief. Through a recommendation by E. T. Whittaker, his senior colleague at Trinity College, he secured a position at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich where he was to embark on the career in astronomy, a career whose seeds had been sown even as a young child when he would often \"try to count the stars\".\n",
"\nIn January 1906, Eddington was nominated to the post of chief assistant to the Astronomer Royal at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. He left Cambridge for Greenwich the following month. He was put to work on a detailed analysis of the parallax of 433 Eros on photographic plates that had started in 1900. He developed a new statistical method based on the apparent drift of two background stars, winning him the Smith's Prize in 1907. The prize won him a Fellowship of Trinity College, Cambridge. In December 1912 George Darwin, son of Charles Darwin, died suddenly and Eddington was promoted to his chair as the Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in early 1913. Later that year, Robert Ball, holder of the theoretical Lowndean chair also died, and Eddington was named the director of the entire Cambridge Observatory the next year. In May 1914 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and won their Royal Medal in 1918 and delivered their Bakerian Lecture in 1926.\n\nEddington also investigated the interior of stars through theory, and developed the first true understanding of stellar processes. He began this in 1916 with investigations of possible physical explanations for Cepheid variable stars. He began by extending Karl Schwarzschild's earlier work on radiation pressure in Emden polytropic models. These models treated a star as a sphere of gas held up against gravity by internal thermal pressure, and one of Eddington's chief additions was to show that radiation pressure was necessary to prevent collapse of the sphere. He developed his model despite knowingly lacking firm foundations for understanding opacity and energy generation in the stellar interior. However, his results allowed for calculation of temperature, density and pressure at all points inside a star, and Eddington argued that his theory was so useful for further astrophysical investigation that it should be retained despite not being based on completely accepted physics. James Jeans contributed the important suggestion that stellar matter would certainly be ionized, but that was the end of any collaboration between the pair, who became famous for their lively debates.\n\nEddington defended his method by pointing to the utility of his results, particularly his important mass-luminosity relation. This had the unexpected result of showing that virtually all stars, including giants and dwarfs, behaved as ideal gases. In the process of developing his stellar models, he sought to overturn current thinking about the sources of stellar energy. Jeans and others defended the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism, which was based on classical mechanics, while Eddington speculated broadly about the qualitative and quantitative consequences of possible proton-electron annihilation and nuclear fusion processes.\n\nWith these assumptions, he demonstrated that the interior temperature of stars must be millions of degrees. In 1924, he discovered the mass-luminosity relation for stars (see Lecchini in #External links and references ). Despite some disagreement, Eddington's models were eventually accepted as a powerful tool for further investigation, particularly in issues of stellar evolution. The confirmation of his estimated stellar diameters by Michelson in 1920 proved crucial in convincing astronomers unused to Eddington's intuitive, exploratory style. Eddington's theory appeared in mature form in 1926 as ''The Internal Constitution of the Stars'', which became an important text for training an entire generation of astrophysicists.\n\nEddington's work in astrophysics in the late 1920s and the 1930s continued his work in stellar structure, and precipitated further clashes with Jeans and Edward Arthur Milne. An important topic was the extension of his models to take advantage of developments in quantum physics, including the use of degeneracy physics in describing dwarf stars.\n\n===Dispute with Chandrasekhar on existence of black holes===\n\nThe topic of extension of his models precipitated his famous dispute with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was then a student at Cambridge. Chandrasekhar's work presaged the discovery of black holes, which at the time seemed so absurdly non-physical that Eddington refused to believe that Chandrasekhar's purely mathematical derivation had consequences for the real world. History clearly proved Eddington wrong, but his motivation remains a matter of some controversy. Chandrasekhar's narrative of this incident, in which his work is harshly rejected, portrays Eddington as rather cruel, dogmatic, and racist. This is at variance with Eddington's character as described by other contemporaries. Eddington's criticism seems to have been based on a suspicion that a purely mathematical derivation from relativity theory was not enough to explain away the seemingly daunting physical paradoxes that were inherent to degenerate stars.\n",
"\nDuring World War I, Eddington was Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, which meant he was the first to receive a series of letters and papers from Willem de Sitter regarding Einstein’s theory of general relativity. Eddington was fortunate in being not only one of the few astronomers with the mathematical skills to understand general relativity, but owing to his internationalist and pacifist views inspired by his Quaker religious beliefs, one of the few at the time who was still interested in pursuing a theory developed by a German physicist. He quickly became the chief supporter and expositor of relativity in Britain. He and Astronomer Royal Frank Watson Dyson organized two expeditions to observe a solar eclipse in 1919 to make the first empirical test of Einstein’s theory: the measurement of the deflection of light by the sun's gravitational field. In fact, Dyson’s argument for the indispensability of Eddington’s expertise in this test was what prevented Eddington from eventually having to enter military service.\n\nWhen conscription was introduced in Britain on 2 March 1916, Eddington intended to apply for an exemption as a conscientious objector. Cambridge University authorities instead requested and were granted an exemption on the ground of Eddington's work being of national interest. In 1918, this was appealed against by the Ministry of National Service. Before the appeal tribunal in June, Eddington claimed conscientious objector status, which was not recognized and would have ended his exemption in August 1918. A further two hearings took place in June and July, respectively. Eddington's personal statement at the June hearing about his objection to war based on religious grounds is on record. Astronomer Royal, Sir Frank Dyson, supported Eddington at the July hearing with a written statement, emphasising Eddington's essential role in the solar eclipse expedition to Principe in May 1919. Eddington made clear his willingness to serve in the Friends' Ambulance Unit, the Red Cross, or as a harvest labourer. However, the tribunal's decision to grant a further twelve months exemption from military service was on condition of Eddington continuing his astronomy work, in particular in preparation for the Principe expedition. The war ended before the end of his exemption.\n\nOne of Eddington's photographs of the total solar eclipse of 29 May 1919, presented in his 1920 paper announcing its success, confirming Einstein's theory that light \"bends\"\nAfter the war, Eddington travelled to the island of Príncipe off the west coast of Africa to watch the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. During the eclipse, he took pictures of the stars (several stars in the Hyades cluster include Kappa Tauri of the constellation Taurus) in the region around the Sun. According to the theory of general relativity, stars with light rays that passed near the Sun would appear to have been slightly shifted because their light had been curved by its gravitational field. This effect is noticeable only during eclipses, since otherwise the Sun's brightness obscures the affected stars. Eddington showed that Newtonian gravitation could be interpreted to predict half the shift predicted by Einstein.\n\nEddington's observations published the next year confirmed Einstein's theory, and were hailed at the time as a conclusive proof of general relativity over the Newtonian model. The news was reported in newspapers all over the world as a major story. Afterward, Eddington embarked on a campaign to popularize relativity and the expedition as landmarks both in scientific development and international scientific relations.\n\nIt has been claimed that Eddington's observations were of poor quality, and he had unjustly discounted simultaneous observations at Sobral, Brazil, which appeared closer to the Newtonian model, but a 1979 re-analysis with modern measuring equipment and contemporary software validated Eddington's results and conclusions. The quality of the 1919 results was indeed poor compared to later observations, but was sufficient to persuade contemporary astronomers. The rejection of the results from the Brazil expedition was due to a defect in the telescopes used which, again, was completely accepted and well understood by contemporary astronomers.\n\nThroughout this period, Eddington lectured on relativity, and was particularly well known for his ability to explain the concepts in lay terms as well as scientific. He collected many of these into the ''Mathematical Theory of Relativity'' in 1923, which Albert Einstein suggested was \"the finest presentation of the subject in any language.\" He was an early advocate of Einstein's General Relativity, and an interesting anecdote well illustrates his humour and personal intellectual investment: Ludwik Silberstein, a physicist who thought of himself as an expert on relativity, approached Eddington at the Royal Society's (6 November) 1919 meeting where he had defended Einstein's Relativity with his Brazil-Principe Solar Eclipse calculations with some degree of skepticism, and ruefully charged Arthur as one who claimed to be one of three men who actually understood the theory (Silberstein, of course, was including himself and Einstein as the other). When Eddington refrained from replying, he insisted Arthur not be \"so shy\", whereupon Eddington replied, \"Oh, no! I was wondering who the third one might be!\"\n",
"Eddington was also heavily involved with the development of the first generation of general relativistic cosmological models. He had been investigating the instability of the Einstein universe when he learned of both Lemaître's 1927 paper postulating an expanding or contracting universe and Hubble's work on the recession on the spiral nebulae. He felt the cosmological constant must have played the crucial role in the universe's evolution from an Einsteinian steady state to its current expanding state, and most of his cosmological investigations focused on the constant's significance and characteristics. In ''The Mathematical Theory of Relativity,'' Eddington interpreted the cosmological constant to mean that the universe is \"self-gauging\".\n",
"\nDuring the 1920s until his death, Eddington increasingly concentrated on what he called \"fundamental theory\" which was intended to be a unification of quantum theory, relativity, cosmology, and gravitation. At first he progressed along \"traditional\" lines, but turned increasingly to an almost numerological analysis of the dimensionless ratios of fundamental constants.\n\nHis basic approach was to combine several fundamental constants in order to produce a dimensionless number. In many cases these would result in numbers close to 1040, its square, or its square root. He was convinced that the mass of the proton and the charge of the electron were a ''natural and complete specification for constructing a Universe'' and that their values were not accidental. One of the discoverers of quantum mechanics, Paul Dirac, also pursued this line of investigation, which has become known as the Dirac large numbers hypothesis, and some scientists even today believe it has something to it.\n\nA somewhat damaging statement in his defence of these concepts involved the fine structure constant, α. At the time it was measured to be very close to 1/136, and he argued that the value should in fact be exactly 1/136 for epistemological reasons. Later measurements placed the value much closer to 1/137, at which point he switched his line of reasoning to argue that one more should be added to the degrees of freedom, so that the value should in fact be exactly 1/137, the Eddington number. Wags at the time started calling him \"Arthur Adding-one\". This change of stance detracted from Eddington's credibility in the physics community. The current measured value is estimated at 1/137.035 999 074(44).\n\nEddington believed he had identified an algebraic basis for fundamental physics, which he termed \"E-numbers\" (representing a certain group – a Clifford algebra). These in effect incorporated spacetime into a higher-dimensional structure. While his theory has long been neglected by the general physics community, similar algebraic notions underlie many modern attempts at a grand unified theory. Moreover, Eddington's emphasis on the values of the fundamental constants, and specifically upon dimensionless numbers derived from them, is nowadays a central concern of physics. In particular, he predicted a number of hydrogen atoms in the Universe 136 × 2256, or equivalently the half of the total number of particles protons + electrons. When equalized with the non-dark energy equivalent number of hydrogen atoms (3/10) × Rc2/GmH, this corresponds to a Universe radius R = 13.8 Giga light year, a value predicted for years from universal constants using an atomic-cosmic symmetry, and compatible with ''c'' times the so-called age of the Universe, 13.80(4) Gyr, as determined by the Planck mission in March 2003.\n\nHe did not complete this line of research before his death in 1944; his book ''Fundamental Theory'' was published posthumously in 1948.\n\n===Eddington number for cycling===\nEddington is credited with devising a measure of a cyclist's long-distance riding achievements. The Eddington number in the context of cycling is defined as the maximum number E such that the cyclist has cycled E miles on E days. For example, an Eddington number of 70 would imply that the cyclist has cycled at least 70 miles in a day on 70 occasions. Achieving a high Eddington number is difficult since moving from, say, 70 to 75 will probably require more than five new long distance rides since any rides shorter than 75 miles will no longer be included in the reckoning. Eddington's own E-number was 84.\n\nThe Eddington number for cycling is analogous to the ''h''-index that quantifies both the actual scientific productivity and the apparent scientific impact of a scientist.\n\nIt should be noted that the Eddington Number for cycling has units (indeed applying it to any physical property will result in E having units). For example, an E of 62 miles means a cyclist has covered 62 or more miles on 62 or more days. However, in units of kilometers the 62 miles becomes 100 km. It is possible that the cyclist, while having covered 100 km on 62 days or more, may '''not''' have covered 100 km on 100 days or more. Thus the order of bicyclists may change depending on units used. Using the original miles, one cyclist may have an Eddington number of 60 - 60 miles (97 km) in 55 days, another of 50 (corresponding to 80 km). However, the latter may be a regular on a distance like this and get a km-Eddington of 80, while the former only had those 60 days riding, and thus stays at a km-Eddington of 60.\n",
"\n===Idealism===\n\nSir Arthur Eddington wrote in his book ''The Nature of the Physical World'' that \"The stuff of the world is mind-stuff.\"\n\n\nThe idealist conclusion was not integral to his epistemology but was based on two main arguments.\n\nThe first derives directly from current physical theory. Briefly, mechanical theories of the ether and of the behaviour of fundamental particles have been discarded in both relativity and quantum physics. From this, Eddington inferred that a materialistic metaphysics was outmoded and that, in consequence, since the disjunction of materialism or idealism are assumed to be exhaustive, an idealistic metaphysics is required. The second, and more interesting argument, was based on Eddington's epistemology, and may be regarded as consisting of two parts. First, all we know of the objective world is its structure, and the structure of the objective world is precisely mirrored in our own consciousness. We therefore have no reason to doubt that the objective world too is \"mind-stuff.\" Dualistic metaphysics, then, cannot be evidentially supported.\n\nBut, second, not only can we not know that the objective world is nonmentalistic, we also cannot intelligibly suppose that it could be material. To conceive of a dualism entails attributing material properties to the objective world. However, this presupposes that we could observe that the objective world has material properties. But this is absurd, for whatever is observed must ultimately be the content of our own consciousness, and consequently, nonmaterial.\n\nIan Barbour, in his book Issues in Science and Religion (1966), p. 133, cites Arthur Eddington's The Nature of the Physical World (1928) for a text that argues The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principles provides a scientific basis for \"the defense of the idea of human freedom\" and his Science and the Unseen World (1929) for support of philosophical idealism \"the thesis that reality is basically mental\".\n\nCharles De Koninck points out that Eddington believed in objective reality existing apart from our minds, but was using the phrase \"mind-stuff\" to highlight the inherent intelligibility of the world: that our minds and the physical world are made of the same \"stuff\" and that our minds are the inescapable connection to the world. As De Koninck quotes Eddington,\n\n\n\n===Indeterminism===\n\nAgainst Albert Einstein and others who advocated determinism, indeterminism—championed by Eddington—says that a physical object has an ontologically undetermined component that is not due to the epistemological limitations of physicists' understanding. The uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics, then, would not necessarily be due to hidden variables but to an indeterminism in nature itself.\n",
"\nEddington wrote a clever parody of ''The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam'', recounting his 1919 solar eclipse experiment. It contained the following quatrain:\n\n\n\nDuring the 1920s and 30s, Eddington gave numerous lectures, interviews, and radio broadcasts on relativity, in addition to his textbook ''The Mathematical Theory of Relativity'', and later, quantum mechanics. Many of these were gathered into books, including ''The Nature of the Physical World'' and ''New Pathways in Science''. His skillful use of literary allusions and humour helped make these famously difficult subjects quite accessible.\n\nEddington's books and lectures were immensely popular with the public, not only because of Eddington’s clear and entertaining exposition, but also for his willingness to discuss the philosophical and religious implications of the new physics. He argued for a deeply rooted philosophical harmony between scientific investigation and religious mysticism, and also that the positivist nature of modern physics (i.e., relativity and quantum physics) provided new room for personal religious experience and free will. Unlike many other spiritual scientists, he rejected the idea that science could provide proof of religious propositions.\n\nHe is sometimes misunderstood as having promoted the infinite monkey theorem in his 1928 book ''The Nature of the Physical World'', with the phrase \"If an army of monkeys were strumming on typewriters, they might write all the books in the British Museum\". It is clear from the context that Eddington is not suggesting that the probability of this happening is worthy of serious consideration. On the contrary, it was a rhetorical illustration of the fact that below certain levels of probability, the term ''improbable'' is functionally equivalent to ''impossible''.\n\nHis popular writings made him, quite literally, a household name in Great Britain between the world wars.\n",
"Eddington died of cancer in the Evelyn Nursing Home, Cambridge, on 22 November 1944. His body was cremated at Cambridge Crematorium (Cambridgeshire) on 27 November 1944; the cremated remains were buried in the grave of his mother in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge.\n\nCambridge University's North West Cambridge Development has been named \"Eddington\" in his honour.\n\n===Obituaries===\n* Obituary by Henry Norris Russell, ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''101''' (1943–46) 133\n* Obituary by A. Vibert Douglas, ''Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada,'' '''39''' (1943–46) 1\n* Obituary by H. Spencer Jones and E. T. Whittaker, ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' '''105''' (1943–46) 68\n* Obituary by Herbert Dingle, ''The Observatory'' '''66''' (1943–46) 1\n* ''The Times'', Thursday, 23 November 1944; pg. 7; Issue 49998; col D: Obituary (unsigned) – Image of cutting available at \n",
"\n\n'''Awards'''\n*Smith's Prize (1907)\n*Bruce Medal of Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1924)\n*Henry Draper Medal of the National Academy of Sciences (1924)\n*Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1924)\n*Foreign membership of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1926)\n*Prix Jules Janssen of the Société astronomique de France (French Astronomical Society) (1928)\n*Royal Medal of the Royal Society (1928)\n*Knighthood (1930)\n*Order of Merit (1938)\n*Hon. Freeman of Kendal, 1930\n\n'''Named after him'''\n*Lunar crater Eddington\n*asteroid 2761 Eddington\n*Royal Astronomical Society's Eddington Medal\n*Eddington mission, now cancelled\n*Eddington Tower, halls of residence at the University of Essex\n*Eddington Astronomical Society, an amateur society based in his hometown of Kendal\n*Eddington, a house (group of students, used for in-school sports matches) of Kirkbie Kendal School\n\n'''Service'''\n*Gave the Swarthmore Lecture in 1929\n*Chairman of the National Peace Council 1941–1943\n*President of the International Astronomical Union; of the Physical Society, 1930–32; of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1921–23\n*Romanes Lecturer, 1922\n*Gifford Lecturer, 1927\n\n",
"* Eddington is a central figure in the short story \"The Mathematician's Nightmare: The Vision of Professor Squarepunt\" by Bertrand Russell, a work featured in ''The Mathematical Magpie'' by Clifton Fadiman.\n* He was portrayed by David Tennant in the television film ''Einstein and Eddington'', a co-production of the BBC and HBO, broadcast in the United Kingdom on Saturday, 22 November 2008, on BBC2.\n",
"* 1914. ''Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe''. London: Macmillan.\n* 1918. '' Report on the relativity theory of gravitation''. London, Fleetway press, Ltd.\n* 1920. ''Space, Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory''. Cambridge University Press. \n* 1923, 1952. The Mathematical Theory of Relativity. Cambridge University Press.\n* 1925. ''The Domain of Physical Science''. 2005 reprint: \n* 1926. '' Stars and Atoms''. Oxford: British Association.\n* 1926. ''The Internal Constitution of Stars''. Cambridge University Press. \n* 1928. ''The Nature of the Physical World''. MacMillan. 1935 replica edition: , University of Michigan 1981 edition: (1926–27 Gifford lectures)\n* 1929. '' Science and the Unseen World''. US Macmillan, UK Allen & Unwin. 1980 Reprint Arden Library . 2004 US reprint — Whitefish, Montana : Kessinger Publications: . 2007 UK reprint London, Allen & Unwin (Swarthmore Lecture), with a new foreword by George Ellis.\n* 1930. ''Why I Believe in God: Science and Religion, as a Scientist Sees It''\n* 1933. ''The Expanding Universe: Astronomy's 'Great Debate', 1900-1931''. Cambridge University Press. \n* 1935. ''New Pathways in Science''. Cambridge University Press.\n* 1936. ''Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons''. Cambridge Univ. Press.\n* 1939. ''Philosophy of Physical Science''. Cambridge University Press. (1938 Tarner lectures at Cambridge)\n* 1946. ''Fundamental Theory''. Cambridge University Press.\n",
"\n===Astronomy===\n*Chandrasekhar limit\n*Eddington luminosity (also called the Eddington limit)\n*Gravitational lens\n*Outline of astronomy\n*Stellar nucleosynthesis\n*Timeline of stellar astronomy\n*List of astronomers\n\n===Science===\n*Arrow of time\n*Classical unified field theories\n*Dimensionless physical constant\n*Dirac large numbers hypothesis (also called the Eddington–Dirac number)\n*Eddington number\n*General relativity\n*Introduction to quantum mechanics\n*Luminiferous aether\n*Special relativity\n*Theory of everything (also called \"final theory\" or \"ultimate theory\")\n*Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity\n*List of famous experiments\n\n===People===\n*Georges Lemaître\n*List of science and religion scholars\n\n===Organizations===\n*Quakers (also called the Religious Society of Friends)\n*Royal Astronomical Society\n*Trinity College, Cambridge\n\n===Other===\n*Infinite monkey theorem\n*Numerology\n*Ontic structural realism\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Trinity College Chapel\n* Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882–1944). University of St Andrews, Scotland.\n* Quotations by Arthur Eddington\n* Arthur Stanley Eddington The Bruce Medalists.\n* Russell, Henry Norris, \"'' Review of The Internal Constitution of the Stars by A.S. Eddington''\". Ap.J. 67, 83 (1928).\n* Experiments of Sobral and Príncipe repeated in the space project in proceeding in fórum astronomical.\n* \n* Biography and bibliography of Bruce medalists: Arthur Stanley Eddington\n* Links to online copies of important books by Eddington: 'The Nature of the Physical World', 'The Philosophy of Physical Science', 'Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons', and 'Fundamental Theory'\n",
"* Durham, Ian T., \"''Eddington & Uncertainty''\". Physics in Perspective (September – December). Arxiv, History of Physics.\n* \n* Lecchini, Stefano, \"'' How Dwarfs Became Giants. The Discovery of the Mass-Luminosity Relation''\". ''Bern Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science'', pp. 224 (2007).\n* \n* Stanley, Matthew. \"An Expedition to Heal the Wounds of War: The 1919 Eclipse Expedition and Eddington as Quaker Adventurer.\" Isis 94 (2003): 57–89.\n* Stanley, Matthew. \"So Simple a Thing as a Star: Jeans, Eddington, and the Growth of Astrophysical Phenomenology\" in British Journal for the History of Science, 2007, 40: 53-82.\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early years",
"Astronomy",
"Relativity",
"Cosmology",
"Fundamental theory and the Eddington number",
"Philosophy",
"Popular and philosophical writings",
"Death",
"Honours",
"In popular culture",
"Publications",
"See also",
"References",
"External links",
"Further reading"
] | Arthur Eddington |
[
"\n\n\n\nAn Apple II computer with an external modem\n\nThe '''Apple II''' is an 8-bit home computer, one of the first highly successful mass-produced microcomputer products, designed primarily by Steve Wozniak (Steve Jobs oversaw the development of the Apple II's foam-molded plastic case and Rod Holt developed the switching power supply). It was introduced in 1977 at the West Coast Computer Faire by Jobs and was the first consumer product sold by Apple Computer. It is the first model in a series of computers which were produced until Apple IIe production ceased in November 1993. The Apple II marks Apple's first launch of a personal computer aimed at a consumer market – branded towards American households rather than businessmen or computer hobbyists. \n\nAlong with the PET 2001 and the TRS-80, ''Byte'' magazine referred to these as the \"1977 Trinity\" of personal computing.\nThe Apple II had the defining feature of being able to display color graphics, and this capability was the reason why the Apple logo was redesigned to have a spectrum of colors.\n",
"By 1976, Steve Jobs had convinced the product designer Jerry Manock (who had formerly worked at Hewlett Packard designing calculators) to create the \"shell\" for the Apple II – a smooth case inspired by kitchen appliances that would conceal the internal mechanics. The earliest Apple IIs were assembled in Silicon Valley, and later in Texas; printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland and Singapore. The first computers went on sale on June 10, 1977 with a MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor running at 1.023 MHz, two game paddles (no longer bundled as of 1980 because they violated FCC regulations), 4 kB of RAM, an audio cassette interface for loading programs and storing data, and the Integer BASIC programming language built into the ROMs. The video controller displays 24 lines by 40 columns of monochrome, upper-case-only (the original character set matches ASCII characters 20h to 5Fh) text on the screen, with NTSC composite video output suitable for display on a TV monitor, or on a regular TV set by way of a separate RF modulator. The original retail price of the computer was $1,298 (with 4 kB of RAM) and $2,638 (with the maximum 48 kB of RAM). To reflect the computer's color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing has rainbow stripes, which remained a part of Apple's corporate logo until early 1998. Perhaps most significantly, the Apple II was a catalyst for personal computers across many industries; responsible for opening the doors to software marketed at consumers.\n",
"In the May 1977 issue of ''Byte'', Steve Wozniak published a detailed description of his design; the article began, \"To me, a personal computer should be small, reliable, convenient to use and inexpensive\".\n\nThe Apple II used a multiplicity of idiosyncratic engineering shortcuts to save hardware and reduce costs. For example: \n*Taking advantage of the way that 6502 processor only accesses memory on alternate phases of the clock cycle, the video generation circuitry's memory access on the otherwise unused phase avoids memory contention issues and interruptions of the video stream. \n*This arrangement simultaneously eliminated the need for a separate refresh circuit for the DRAM chips, as the video transfer accessed each row of the dynamic memory within the timeout period. \n*Rather than use a complex analog-to-digital circuit to read the outputs of the game controller, Wozniak used a simple timer circuit whose period is proportional to the resistance of the game controller, and used a software loop to measure the timer.\n*A single 7 MHz master oscillator was divided by various ratios to produce all other required frequencies, including the microprocessor clock signals, the video transfer counters, and the color-burst samples.\n\nThe text and graphics screens have a complex arrangement (the scanlines were not stored in sequential areas of memory) which is reputedly due to Wozniak's realization that doing it that way would allow for the refresh of the dynamic RAM as a side effect, as described above; it had no cost overhead to have software calculate or look up the address of the required scanline and avoided the need for significant extra hardware. Similarly, in the high-resolution graphics mode, color is determined by pixel position and can thus be implemented in software, saving Wozniak the chips needed to convert bit patterns to colors. This also allows for subpixel font rendering since orange and blue pixels appear half a pixel-width farther to the right on the screen than green and purple pixels.\n\nThe Apple II at first used data cassette storage like most other microcomputers of the time. In 1978 the company introduced an external -inch floppy disk drive, the Disk II, attached via a controller card that plugs into one of the computer's expansion slots (usually slot 6). The Disk II interface, created by Wozniak, is regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components.\n\nThe approach taken in the Disk II controller is typical of Wozniak's designs. With a few small-scale logic chips and a cheap PROM (programmable read-only memory), he created a functional floppy-disk interface at a fraction of the component cost of standard circuit configurations.\n\n===Innovation of integrated User Interface===\nWith the Apple I and the Apple II, Wozniak introduced an entirely novel configuration of the microcomputer concept which was immediately adopted as the industry standard, and remains taken for granted to this day—namely the integration of the standard input and output devices (the typewriter-style keyboard and the video display screen) into the computer itself. Until that time, microcomputer devices either had an extremely limited I/O capability—such as perhaps a hex keypad and a 16- or 32-character display, or no built-in user interface at all, following the convention of mainframe and minicomputers in requiring the connection of an external teleprinter unit or visual display terminal to complete a usable system. The cost of such terminals could easily exceed the price of the computer itself. Wozniak's inclusion of an RF output which could connect to the aerial socket of a standard domestic television set enabled users to acquire a complete system without incurring the cost of a video monitor.\n",
"The Apple II's PCB underwent several revisions as Steve Wozniak made modifications to it. The earliest version was known as Revision 0, and the first 6000 units shipped used it. Later revisions added a color killer circuit to prevent color fringing when the computer was in text mode, as well as modifications to improve the reliability of cassette I/O. Revision 0 Apple IIs powered up in an undefined mode and had garbage on screen, requiring the user to press Reset. This was eliminated on the later board revisions. Revision 0 Apple IIs could display only four colors, but Wozniak was later able to generate 16 in low-res mode.\n\nOriginal Apple IIs were designed to accommodate either 2104 (4kx1) DRAM or 4116 (16kx1) DRAM and had jumper switches to adjust the RAM size. The early Apple II+ models retained this feature, but after a drop in DRAM prices, Apple redesigned the circuit boards without the jumpers so that only 16k chips were supported. A few months later they started shipping all machines with a full complement of 48k DRAM.\n",
"Color on the Apple II series uses a quirk of the NTSC television signal standard, which made color display relatively easy and inexpensive to implement. The original NTSC television signal specification was black-and-white. Color was added on later by adding a 3.58-MHz subcarrier signal that was partially ignored by black-and-white TV sets. Color is encoded based on the ''phase'' of this signal in relation to a reference ''color burst'' signal. The result is that the position, size, and intensity of a series of pulses define color information. These pulses can translate into ''pixels'' on the computer screen, with the possibility of exploiting composite artifact colors.\n\nThe Apple II display provides two pixels per subcarrier cycle. When the color burst reference signal is turned on and the computer attached to a color display, it can display green by showing one alternating pattern of pixels, magenta with an opposite pattern of alternating pixels, and white by placing two pixels next to each other. Blue and orange are available by tweaking the offset of the pixels by half a pixel-width in relation to the color-burst signal. The high-resolution display offers more colors by compressing more (and narrower) pixels into each subcarrier cycle.\n\nThe coarse, low-resolution graphics display mode works differently, as it can output a pattern of dots per pixel to offer more color options. These patterns are stored in the character generator ROM and replace the text character bit patterns when the computer is switched to low-res graphics mode. The text mode and low-res graphics mode use the same memory region and the same circuitry is used for both.\n",
"Rather than a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II has a toggle circuit that can only emit a click through a built-in speaker or a line out jack; all other sounds (including two, three and, eventually, four-voice music and playback of audio samples and speech synthesis) are generated entirely by software that clicked the speaker at just the right times. Similar techniques are used for cassette storage: the cassette output works the same as the speaker, and the input is a simple zero-crossing detector that serves as a relatively crude (1-bit) audio digitizer. Routines in the ROM encode and decode data in frequency-shift keying for the cassette.\n",
"Initially, the Apple II was shipped with Integer BASIC encoded in the motherboard ROM chips. Written by Wozniak, the interpreter enabled users to write software applications without needing to purchase additional development utilities. Written with game programmers and hobbyists in mind, the language only supported the encoding of numbers in 16-bit integer format. But limiting numerical values to whole numbers between -32768 and +32767 reduced the machine's attractiveness to business users. Jobs responded by licensing a floating-point version of BASIC from Microsoft which was initially available as a plug-in expansion card. Named Applesoft BASIC, this more versatile (but slower) variant was more popular with customers, so later models were shipped with it as standard and anyone wanting Integer BASIC had to get that on a language card.\n\nAs shipped, the machine incorporated a \"monitor\" program which supported functions such as displaying and altering the contents of the computer's RAM memory in hexadecimal format, either one byte at a time or in blocks of 256 bytes at once. This feature enabled hackers to write and debug machine code programs without needing further development software.\n\nA 6502 assembler was soon offered on disk, and later the UCSD compiler and operating system for the Pascal language were made available. The Pascal system required a 16k RAM card to be installed in the language card position (expansion slot 0) in addition to the full 48k of motherboard memory.\n",
"Wozniak's open-architecture design and the Apple II's multiple expansion slots permit a wide variety of third-party devices, including peripheral cards such as serial controllers, display controllers, memory boards, hard disks, networking components, and realtime clocks. There are plug-in expansion cards – such as the Z-80 SoftCard – that permit the Apple to use the Z80 processor and run programs for the CP/M operating system, including the dBase II database and the WordStar word processor. The Z80 card also allows the connection to a modem and thereby to any networks that the user might have access to. In the early days, these were scarce, but expanded significantly with the development of bulletin board systems. There is also a third-party 6809 card that allows OS-9 Level One to be run. Third-party sound cards greatly improve audio capabilities, allowing simple music synthesis and text-to-speech functions. Apple II accelerator cards double or quadruple the computer's speed.\n",
"Advertisement for the Apple II (1977)\nJesse Adams Stein wrote, \"As the first company to release a 'consumer appliance' micro-computer, Apple Computer offers us a clear view of this shift from a ''machine'' to an ''appliance''.\" But the company also had \"to negotiate the attitudes of its potential buyers, bearing in mind social anxieties about the uptake of new technologies in multiple contexts. The office, the home and the 'office-in-the-home' were implicated in these changing spheres of gender stereotypes and technological development.\" After seeing a crude, wire-wrapped prototype demonstrated by Wozniak and Steve Jobs in November 1976, ''Byte'' predicted in April 1977 that the Apple II \"may be the first product to fully qualify as the 'appliance computer' ... a completed system which is purchased off the retail shelf, taken home, plugged in and used\". The computer's color graphics capability especially impressed the magazine. The magazine published a favorable review of the computer in March 1978, concluding, \"For the user that wants color graphics, the Apple II is the only practical choice available in the 'appliance' computer class\".\n\n''Personal Computer World'' in August 1978 also cited the color capability as a strength, stating that \"the prime reason that anyone buys an Apple II must surely be for the colour graphics\". While mentioning the \"oddity\" of the artifact colors that produced output \"that is not always what one wishes to do\", it noted that \"no-one has colour graphics like this at this sort of price\". The magazine praised the sophisticated monitor software, user expandability, and comprehensive documentation, and concluded that \"the Apple II is a very promising machine\" which \"would be even more of a temptation were its price slightly lower ... for the moment, colour is an Apple II\".\n\nAlthough it sold well from the launch, the initial market was to hobbyists, games players and computer enthusiasts. Sales expanded exponentially into the business and professional market when the spreadsheet program VisiCalc was launched in mid-1979. VisiCalc is credited as being the defining \"killer app\" in the microcomputer industry.\n\nDuring the first five years of operations, revenues doubled about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980, yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118 million, an average annual growth rate of 533%. During this period the sole products of the company were the Apple II and its peripherals, accessories and software.\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"* Additional documentation in Bitsavers PDF Document archive\n* Apple II on Old-computers.com\n* Online Apple II Resource\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Overview",
"PCB revisions",
"Display and graphics",
"Sound",
"Languages",
"Third-party devices and applications",
"Reception",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Apple II |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"* 686 – Maya king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ahk' assumes the crown of Calakmul.\n* 801 – King Louis the Pious captures Barcelona from the Moors after a siege of several months.\n*1043 – Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.\n*1077 – The first Parliament of Friuli is created.\n*1559 – The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis treaty is signed, ending the Italian Wars.\n*1834 – The generals in the Greek War of Independence stand trial for treason.\n*1860 – The first successful United States Pony Express run from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, begins.\n*1865 – American Civil War: Union forces capture Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederate States of America.\n*1882 – American Old West: Robert Ford kills Jesse James.\n*1885 – Gottlieb Daimler is granted a German patent for his engine design.\n*1888 – The first of eleven unsolved brutal murders of women committed in or near the impoverished Whitechapel district in the East End of London, occurs.\n*1895 – The trial in the libel case brought by Oscar Wilde begins, eventually resulting in his imprisonment on charges of homosexuality.\n*1922 – Joseph Stalin becomes the first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.\n*1933 – First flight over Mount Everest, a British expedition, led by the Marquis of Clydesdale, and funded by Lucy, Lady Houston.\n*1936 – Bruno Richard Hauptmann is executed for the kidnapping and death of Charles Augustus Lindbergh, Jr., the baby son of pilot Charles Lindbergh.\n*1942 – World War II: Japanese forces begin an assault on the United States and Filipino troops on the Bataan Peninsula.\n*1946 – Japanese Lt. General Masaharu Homma is executed in the Philippines for leading the Bataan Death March.\n*1948 – United States President Harry S. Truman signs the Marshall Plan, authorizing $5 billion in aid for 16 countries.\n* 1948 – In Jeju Province, South Korea, a civil-war-like period of violence and human rights abuses begins, known as the Jeju uprising.\n*1955 – The American Civil Liberties Union announces it will defend Allen Ginsberg's book ''Howl'' against obscenity charges.\n*1956 – Hudsonville–Standale tornado: The western half of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan is struck by a deadly F5 tornado.\n*1968 – Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his \"I've Been to the Mountaintop\" speech.\n*1969 – Vietnam War: United States Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird announces that the United States will start to \"Vietnamize\" the war effort.\n*1973 – Martin Cooper of Motorola makes the first handheld mobile phone call to Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs.\n*1974 – The 1974 Super Outbreak occurs, the second biggest tornado outbreak in recorded history (after the 2011 Super Outbreak). The death toll is 315, with nearly 5,500 injured.\n*1975 – Bobby Fischer refuses to play in a chess match against Anatoly Karpov, giving Karpov the title of World Champion by default.\n*1981 – The Osborne 1, the first successful portable computer, is unveiled at the West Coast Computer Faire in San Francisco.\n*1996 – Suspected \"Unabomber\" Theodore Kaczynski is captured at his Montana cabin in the United States.\n*1997 – The Thalit massacre begins in Algeria; all but one of the 53 inhabitants of Thalit are killed by guerrillas.\n*2000 – ''United States v. Microsoft Corp.'': Microsoft is ruled to have violated United States antitrust law by keeping \"an oppressive thumb\" on its competitors.\n*2004 – Islamic terrorists involved in the 2004 Madrid train bombings are trapped by the police in their apartment and kill themselves.\n*2007 – Conventional-Train World Speed Record: A French TGV train on the LGV Est high speed line sets an official new world speed record.\n*2008 – ATA Airlines, once one of the ten largest U.S. passenger airlines and largest charter airline, files for bankruptcy for the second time in five years and ceases all operations.\n* 2008 – Texas law enforcement cordons off the FLDS's YFZ Ranch. Eventually 533 women and children will be taken into state custody.\n*2009 – Jiverly Antares Wong opens fire at the American Civic Association immigration center in Binghamton, New York, killing thirteen and wounding four before committing suicide.\n*2010 – Apple Inc. released the first generation iPad, a tablet computer.\n*2013 – More than 50 people die in floods resulting from record-breaking rainfall in La Plata and Buenos Aires, Argentina.\n*2016 – The Panama Papers, a leak of legal documents, reveals information on 214,488 offshore companies.\n*2017 – A bomb explodes in the St Petersburg metro system, killing 14 and injuring several more people.\n",
"\n*1016 – Emperor Xingzong of Liao (d. 1055)\n*1151 – Igor Svyatoslavich, Russian prince (d. 1202)\n*1245 – King Philip III of France (d. 1285)\n*1438 – John III of Egmont, Dutch noble (d. 1516)\n*1529 – Michael Neander, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1581)\n*1540 – Maria de' Medici, Italian noble (d. 1557)\n*1593 – George Herbert, English poet (d. 1633)\n*1639 – Alessandro Stradella, Italian composer (d. 1682)\n*1643 – Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1690)\n*1682 – Valentin Rathgeber, German organist and composer (d. 1750)\n*1693 – George Edwards, English ornithologist and entomologist (d. 1773)\n*1715 – William Watson, English physician, physicist, and botanist (d. 1787)\n*1764 – John Abernethy, English surgeon and anatomist (d. 1831)\n*1769 – Christian Günther von Bernstorff, Danish-Prussian politician and diplomat (d. 1835)\n*1770 – Theodoros Kolokotronis, Greek general (d. 1843)\n*1778 – Pierre Bretonneau, French doctor who performed the first successful tracheotomy (d. 1862)\n*1781 – Swaminarayan, Indian religious leader (d. 1830)\n*1782 – Alexander Macomb, American general (d. 1841)\n*1783 – Washington Irving, American short story writer, essayist, biographer, historian (d. 1859)\n*1791 – Anne Lister, English diarist, mountaineer, and traveller (d.1840)\n*1798 – Charles Wilkes, American admiral, geographer, and explorer (d.1877)\n*1807 – Mary Carpenter, English educational and social reformer (d. 1877)\n*1814 – Lorenzo Snow, American religious leader, 5th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1901)\n*1822 – Edward Everett Hale, American minister, historian, and author (d. 1909)\n*1823 – George Derby, American lieutenant and journalist (d. 1861)\n* 1823 – William M. Tweed, American politician (d. 1878)\n*1826 – Cyrus K. Holliday, American businessman (d. 1900)\n*1837 – John Burroughs, American botanist and author (d. 1921)\n*1842 – Ulric Dahlgren, American colonel (d. 1864)\n*1848 – Arturo Prat, Chilean lawyer and captain (d. 1879)\n*1858 – Jacob Gaudaur, Canadian rower (d. 1937)\n*1860 – Frederik van Eeden, Dutch psychiatrist and author (d. 1932)\n*1864 – Emil Kellenberger, Swiss target shooter (d. 1943)\n*1876 – Margaret Anglin, Canadian actress, director, and producer (d. 1958)\n* 1876 – Tomáš Baťa, Czech businessman, founded Bata Shoes (d. 1932)\n*1880 – Otto Weininger, Jewish-Austrian philosopher and author (d. 1903)\n*1881 – Alcide De Gasperi, Italian journalist and politician, 30th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1954)\n*1882 – Philippe Desranleau, Canadian archbishop (d. 1952)\n*1883 – Ikki Kita, Japanese philosopher and author (d. 1937)\n*1885 – Allan Dwan, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1981)\n* 1885 – Bud Fisher, American cartoonist (d. 1954)\n* 1885 – Marie-Victorin Kirouac, Canadian botanist and academic (d. 1944)\n* 1885 – St John Philby, English colonial and explorer (d. 1960)\n*1886 – Dooley Wilson, American actor and singer (d. 1953)\n*1887 – Ōtori Tanigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 24th Yokozuna (d. 1956)\n* 1887 – Nishizō Tsukahara, Japanese admiral (d. 1966)\n*1888 – Neville Cardus, English author and critic (d. 1975)\n* 1888 – Thomas C. Kinkaid, American admiral (d. 1972)\n*1889 – Grigoraș Dinicu, Romanian violinist and composer (d. 1949)\n*1893 – Leslie Howard, English actor (d. 1943)\n*1895 – Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian-American composer and educator (d. 1968)\n* 1895 – Zez Confrey, American pianist and composer (d. 1971)\n*1897 – Joe Kirkwood Sr., Australian golfer (d. 1970)\n* 1897 – Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos, Greek general (d. 1989)\n*1898 – George Jessel, American actor, singer, and producer (d. 1981)\n* 1898 – Henry Luce, American publisher, co-founded ''Time Magazine'' (d. 1967)\n*1899 – David Jack, English footballer and manager (d. 1958)\n* 1899 – Maria Redaelli, Italian super-centenarian (d. 2013)\n*1900 – Camille Chamoun, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 7th President of Lebanon (d. 1987)\n* 1900 – Albert Walsh, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland (d. 1958)\n*1904 – Iron Eyes Cody, American actor and stuntman (d. 1999)\n* 1904 – Sally Rand, American dancer (d. 1979)\n* 1904 – Russel Wright, American furniture designer (d. 1976)\n*1905 – Robert Sink, American general (d. 1965)\n*1910 – Ted Hook, Australian public servant (d. 1990)\n*1911 – Nanette Bordeaux, Canadian-American actress (d. 1956)\n* 1911 – Michael Woodruff, English-Scottish surgeon and academic (d. 2001)\n* 1911 – Stanisława Walasiewicz, Polish-American runner (d. 1980)\n*1912 – Dorothy Eden, New Zealand-English author (d. 1982)\n* 1912 – Grigoris Lambrakis, Greek physician and politician (d. 1963)\n*1913 – Per Borten, Norwegian politician, 18th Prime Minister of Norway (d. 2005)\n*1914 – Ray Getliffe, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2008)\n* 1914 – Sam Manekshaw, Indian field marshal (d. 2008)\n*1915 – Piet de Jong, Dutch politician and naval officer, Minister of Defence (1963–1967), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1967–1971) (d. 2016)\n* 1915 – İhsan Doğramacı, Turkish physician and academic (d. 2010)\n*1916 – Herb Caen, American journalist and author (d. 1997)\n* 1916 – Cliff Gladwin, English cricketer (d. 1988)\n* 1916 – Louis Guglielmi, Catalan composer (d. 1991)\n*1918 – Mary Anderson, American actress (d. 2014)\n* 1918 – Louis Applebaum, Canadian composer and conductor (d. 2000)\n*1919 – Ervin Drake, American songwriter and composer (d. 2015)\n* 1919 – Clairette Oddera, French-Canadian actress and singer (d. 2008)\n*1920 – Stan Freeman, American composer and conductor (d. 2001)\n* 1920 – Yoshibayama Junnosuke, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 43rd Yokozuna (d. 1977)\n*1921 – Robert Karvelas, American actor (d. 1991)\n* 1921 – Jan Sterling, American actress (d. 2004)\n*1922 – Yevhen Bulanchyk, Ukrainian hurdler (d. 1996)\n* 1922 – Doris Day, American singer and actress\n*1923 – Daniel Hoffman, American poet and academic (d. 2013)\n*1924 – Marlon Brando, American actor and director (d. 2004)\n* 1924 – Roza Shanina, Russian sergeant and sniper (d. 1945)\n*1925 – Tony Benn, English pilot and politician, Secretary of State for Industry (d. 2014)\n*1926 – Alex Grammas, American baseball player, manager, and coach\n* 1926 – Gus Grissom, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1967)\n* 1927 – Wesley A. Brown, American general and engineer (d. 2012)\n*1928 – Don Gibson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)\n* 1928 – Emmett Johns, Canadian priest, founded Dans la Rue\n* 1928 – Earl Lloyd, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015)\n* 1928 – Jennifer Paterson, English chef and television personality (d. 1999)\n*1929 – Fazlur Khan, Bangladeshi engineer and architect, co-designed the Willis Tower and John Hancock Center (d. 1982)\n* 1929 – Poul Schlüter, Danish lawyer and politician, 37th Prime Minister of Denmark\n*1930 – Lawton Chiles, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 41st Governor of Florida (d. 1998)\n* 1930 – Helmut Kohl, German politician, Chancellor of Germany (d. 2017)\n* 1930 – Mario Benjamín Menéndez, Argentinian general and politician (d. 2015)\n* 1930 – Wally Moon, American baseball player and coach\n*1931 – William Bast, American screenwriter and author (d. 2015)\n*1933 – Bob Dornan, American politician\n*1933 – Rod Funseth, American golfer (d. 1985)\n*1934 – Jane Goodall, English primatologist and anthropologist\n*1934 – Jim Parker, American football player (d. 2005)\n*1936 – Jimmy McGriff, American organist and bandleader (d. 2008)\n* 1936 – Harold Vick, American saxophonist and flute player (d. 1987)\n*1938 – Jeff Barry, American singer-songwriter, and producer\n* 1938 – Phil Rodgers, American golfer\n*1939 – François de Roubaix, French composer (d. 1975)\n* 1939 – Hawk Taylor, American baseball player and coach (d. 2012)\n* 1939 – Paul Craig Roberts, American economist and politician\n*1941 – Jan Berry, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004)\n* 1941 – Philippé Wynne, American soul singer (d. 1984)\n*1942 – Marsha Mason, American actress \n* 1942 – Wayne Newton, American singer \n* 1942 – Billy Joe Royal, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015)\n*1943 – Mario Lavista, Mexican composer\n* 1943 – Jonathan Lynn, English actor, director, and screenwriter\n* 1943 – Richard Manuel, Canadian singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1986)\n* 1943 – Hikaru Saeki, Japanese admiral, the first female star officer of the Japan Self-Defense Forces\n*1944 – Peter Colman, Australian biologist and academic\n* 1944 – Tony Orlando, American singer \n*1945 – Doon Arbus, American author and journalist\n* 1945 – Bernie Parent, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1945 – Catherine Spaak, French actress \n*1946 – Dee Murray, English bass player (d. 1992)\n* 1946 – Hanna Suchocka, Polish lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Poland\n*1947 – Anders Eliasson, Swedish composer (d. 2013)\n*1948 – Arlette Cousture, Canadian author and screenwriter\n* 1948 – Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, Dutch academic, politician, and diplomat, 11th Secretary General of NATO\n* 1948 – Carlos Salinas de Gortari, Mexican economist and politician, 53rd President of Mexico\n*1949 – Lyle Alzado, American football player and actor (d. 1992)\n* 1949 – A. C. Grayling, English philosopher and academic\n* 1949 – Hans-Georg Schwarzenbeck, German footballer\n*1950 – Indrajit Coomaraswamy, Sri Lankan cricketer and economist\n*1951 – Brendan Barber, English trade union leader\n* 1951 – Annette Dolphin, British academician and educator \n* 1951 – Mitch Woods, American singer-songwriter and pianist\n*1952 – Mike Moore, American lawyer and politician\n*1953 – Sandra Boynton, American author and illustrator\n* 1953 – Wakanohana Kanji II, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 56th Yokozuna\n* 1953 – James Smith, American boxer\n* 1953 – Craig Taubman, American singer-songwriter and producer\n*1954 – Elisabetta Brusa, Italian composer\n* 1954 – K. Krishnasamy, Indian physician and politician\n*1956 – Kalle Kulbok, Estonian politician\n* 1956 – Boris Miljković, Serbian director and producer\n* 1956 – Ray Combs, American game show host (d. 1996)\n*1958 – Alec Baldwin, American actor, comedian, producer and television host\n* 1958 – Francesca Woodman, Jewish-American photographer (d. 1981)\n*1959 – David Hyde Pierce, American actor and activist \n*1960 – Arjen Anthony Lucassen, Dutch singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n*1961 – Tim Crews, American baseball player (d. 1993)\n* 1961 – Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian\n*1962 – Dave Miley, American baseball player and manager\n* 1962 – Mike Ness, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n*1963 – Les Davidson, Australian rugby league player\n* 1963 – Ricky Nixon, Australian footballer and manager\n* 1963 – Criss Oliva, American guitarist and songwriter \n*1964 – Nigel Farage, English politician\n* 1964 – Claire Perry, English banker and politician\n* 1964 – Bjarne Riis, Danish cyclist and manager\n* 1964 – Andy Robinson, English rugby player and coach\n*1966 – John de Vries, Australian race car driver\n*1967 – Cat Cora, American chef and author\n* 1967 – Pervis Ellison, American basketball player\n* 1967 – Brent Gilchrist, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1967 – Cristi Puiu, Romanian director and screenwriter\n* 1967 – Mark Skaife, Australian race car driver and sportscaster\n*1968 – Sebastian Bach, Bahamian-Canadian singer-songwriter and actor \n* 1968 – Charlotte Coleman, English actress (d. 2001)\n* 1968 – Jamie Hewlett, English author and illustrator\n* 1968 – Tomoaki Kanemoto, Japanese baseball player\n*1969 – Rodney Hampton, American football player\n* 1969 – Peter Matera, Australian footballer and coach\n* 1969 – Lance Storm, Canadian wrestler and trainer\n*1971 – Vitālijs Astafjevs, Latvian footballer and manager\n* 1971 – Emmanuel Collard, French race car driver\n* 1971 – Picabo Street, American skier\n*1972 – Jennie Garth, American actress and director\n* 1972 – Catherine McCormack, English actress\n* 1972 – Sandrine Testud, French tennis player\n*1973 – Nilesh Kulkarni, Indian cricketer\n*1974 – Marcus Brown, American basketball player\n* 1974 – Drew Shirley, American guitarist and songwriter \n* 1974 – Lee Williams, Welsh model and actor\n*1975 – Shawn Bates, American ice hockey player\n* 1975 – Michael Olowokandi, Nigerian-American basketball player\n* 1975 – Aries Spears, American comedian and actor\n* 1975 – Yoshinobu Takahashi, Japanese baseball player\n* 1975 – Koji Uehara, Japanese baseball player\n*1976 – Nicolas Escudé, French tennis player\n*1978 – Matthew Goode, English actor\n* 1978 – Tommy Haas, German-American tennis player\n* 1978 – John Smit, South African rugby player\n* 1979 – Simon Black, Australian footballer and coach\n*1980 – Andrei Lodis, Belarusian footballer\n*1981 – Aaron Bertram, American trumpet player \n* 1981 – DeShawn Stevenson, American basketball player\n*1982 – Jared Allen, American football player\n* 1982 – Iain Fyfe, Australian footballer\n* 1982 – Cobie Smulders, Canadian actress\n*1983 – Ben Foster, English footballer\n* 1983 – Stephen Weiss, Canadian ice hockey player\n*1984 – Jonathan Blondel, Belgian footballer\n* 1984 – Maxi López, Argentinian footballer\n*1985 – Jari-Matti Latvala, Finnish race car driver\n* 1985 – Leona Lewis, English singer-songwriter and producer\n*1986 – Amanda Bynes, American actress\n* 1986 – Stephanie Cox, American soccer player\n* 1986 – Annalisa Cucinotta, Italian cyclist\n* 1986 – Sergio Sánchez Ortega, Spanish footballer\n*1987 – Rachel Bloom, American actress, writer, and producer\n* 1987 – Jay Bruce, American baseball player\n* 1987 – Yileen Gordon, Australian rugby league player\n* 1987 – Jason Kipnis, American baseball player\n* 1987 – Martyn Rooney, English sprinter\n* 1987 – Julie Sokolow, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n*1988 – Kam Chancellor, American football player\n* 1988 – Brandon Graham, American football player\n* 1988 – Peter Hartley, English footballer\n* 1988 – Tim Krul, Dutch footballer\n*1989 – Romain Alessandrini, French footballer\n* 1989 – Israel Folau, Australian rugby player and footballer\n* 1989 – Joel Romelo, Australian rugby league player\n*1990 – Karim Ansarifard, Iranian footballer\n* 1990 – Madison Brengle, American tennis player\n* 1990 – Sotiris Ninis, Greek footballer\n*1991 – Stanislav Engovatov, Russian footballer\n* 1991 – Hayley Kiyoko, American actress and singer \n*1992 – Simone Benedetti, Italian footballer\n* 1992 – Yuliya Yefimova, Russian swimmer\n*1993 – Pape Moussa Konaté, Senegalese footballer\n*1994 – Kodi Nikorima, New Zealand rugby league player\n*1996 – Mayo Hibi, Japanese tennis player\n\n",
"* 963 – William III, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 915)\n*1171 – Philip of Milly, seventh Grand Master of the Knights Templar (b. c. 1120)\n*1203 – Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (b. 1187)\n*1253 – Saint Richard of Chichester\n*1287 – Pope Honorius IV (b. 1210)\n*1325 – Nizamuddin Auliya, Sufi saint (b. 1238)\n*1350 – Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1295)\n*1538 – Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire (b. 1480)\n*1545 – Antonio de Guevara, Spanish chronicler and moralist (b. 1481)\n*1606 – Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1563)\n*1680 – Shivaji, Indian emperor, founded the Maratha Empire (b. 1630)\n*1682 – Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1618)\n*1691 – Jean Petitot, French-Swiss painter (b. 1608)\n*1695 – Melchior d'Hondecoeter, Dutch painter (b. 1636)\n*1717 – Jacques Ozanam, French mathematician and academic (b. 1640)\n*1728 – James Anderson, Scottish lawyer and historian (b. 1662)\n*1792 – George Pocock, English admiral (b. 1706)\n*1804 – Jędrzej Kitowicz, Polish priest, historian, and author (b. 1727)\n*1827 – Ernst Chladni, German physicist and academic (b. 1756)\n*1838 – François Carlo Antommarchi, French physician and author (b. 1780)\n*1844 – Edward Bigge, English cleric, 1st Archdeacon of Lindisfarne (b. 1807)\n*1846 – William Braine, English soldier and explorer (b. 1814)\n*1849 – Juliusz Słowacki, Polish-French poet and playwright (b. 1809)\n*1868 – Franz Berwald, Swedish composer and surgeon (b. 1796)\n*1882 – Jesse James, American criminal and outlaw (b. 1847)\n*1897 – Johannes Brahms, German pianist and composer (b. 1833)\n*1901 – Richard D'Oyly Carte, English composer and talent agent (b. 1844)\n*1902 – Esther Hobart Morris, American lawyer and judge (b. 1814)\n*1930 – Emma Albani, Canadian-English operatic soprano (b. 1847)\n*1936 – Richard Hauptmann, German-American murderer (b. 1899)\n*1941 – Tachiyama Mineemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 22nd Yokozuna (b. 1877)\n* 1941 – Pál Teleki, Hungarian academic and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1879)\n*1943 – Conrad Veidt, German actor, director, and producer (b. 1893)\n*1946 – Masaharu Homma, Japanese general (b. 1887)\n*1950 – Kurt Weill, German-American composer and pianist (b. 1900)\n* 1950 – Carter G. Woodson, American historian, author, and journalist, founded Black History Month (b. 1875)\n*1951 – Henrik Visnapuu, Estonian poet and playwright (b. 1890)\n*1952 – Miina Sillanpää, Finnish minister and politician (b. 1866)\n*1957 – Ned Sparks, Canadian-American actor (b. 1883)\n*1958 – Jaan Kärner, Estonian poet and author (b. 1891)\n*1962 – Manolis Kalomiris, Greek composer and educator (b. 1883)\n*1971 – Joseph Valachi, American gangster (b. 1904)\n*1972 – Ferde Grofé, American pianist and composer (b. 1892)\n*1975 – Mary Ure, Scottish-English actress (b. 1933)\n*1976 – David M. Dennison, American physicist and academic (b. 1900)\n* 1976 – Claude-Henri Grignon, Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1894)\n*1978 – Ray Noble, English bandleader, composer, and actor (b. 1903)\n* 1978 – Winston Sharples, American composer (b. 1909)\n*1981 – Juan Trippe, American businessman, founded Pan American World Airways (b. 1899)\n*1982 – Warren Oates, American actor (b. 1928)\n*1983 – Jimmy Bloomfield, English footballer and manager (b. 1934)\n*1986 – Peter Pears, English tenor and educator (b. 1910)\n*1987 – Tom Sestak, American football player (b. 1936)\n*1988 – Milton Caniff, American cartoonist (b. 1907)\n*1990 – Sarah Vaughan, American singer (b. 1924)\n*1991 – Charles Goren, American bridge player and author (b. 1901)\n* 1991 – Graham Greene, English novelist, playwright, and critic (b. 1904)\n*1993 – Pinky Lee, American television host (b. 1907)\n*1994 – Frank Wells, American businessman (b. 1932)\n*1995 – Alfred J. Billes, Canadian businessman, co-founded Canadian Tire (b. 1902)\n*1996 – Ron Brown, American captain and politician, 30th United States Secretary of Commerce (b. 1941)\n*1998 – Mary Cartwright, English mathematician and academic (b. 1900)\n*1999 – Lionel Bart, English composer (b. 1930)\n* 1999 – Geoffrey Walsh, Canadian general (b. 1909)\n*2000 – Terence McKenna, American botanist and philosopher (b. 1946)\n*2005 – François Gérin, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1944)\n*2007 – Nina Wang, Chinese businesswoman (b. 1937)\n*2008 – Hrvoje Ćustić, Croatian footballer (b. 1983)\n*2012 – Mingote, Spanish cartoonist and journalist (b. 1919)\n* 2012 – Richard Descoings, French civil servant (b. 1958)\n* 2012 – Govind Narain, Indian politician, 8th Governor of Karnataka (b. 1917)\n* 2012 – Chief Jay Strongbow, American wrestler (b. 1928)\n* 2012 – José María Zárraga, Spanish footballer and manager (b. 1930)\n*2013 – Mariví Bilbao, Spanish actress (b. 1930)\n* 2013 – Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, German-American author and screenwriter (b. 1927)\n*2014 – Régine Deforges, French author, playwright, and director (b. 1935)\n* 2014 – Fred Kida, American illustrator (b. 1920)\n* 2014 – Prince Michael of Prussia (b. 1940)\n* 2014 – Jovan Pavlović, Serbian metropolitan (b. 1936)\n* 2014 – Arthur \"Guitar Boogie\" Smith, American guitarist, fiddler, and composer (b. 1921)\n*2015 – Sarah Brady, American activist and author (b. 1942)\n* 2015 – Bob Burns, American drummer and songwriter (b. 1950)\n* 2015 – Shmuel Wosner, Austrian-Israeli rabbi and author (b. 1913)\n*2016 – Cesare Maldini, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1932)\n* 2016 – Joe Medicine Crow, American anthropologist, historian, and author (b. 1913)\n\n",
"* Christian feast day:\n** Agape, Chionia, and Irene\n** Luigi Scrosoppi\n** Mary of Egypt (Roman Catholic)\n** Richard of Chichester\n** April 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | April 3 |
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