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"\n\n'''Arnulf of Carinthia''' ( 850 – December 8, 899) was the duke of Carinthia who overthrew his uncle, Emperor Charles the Fat, became the Carolingian king of East Francia from 887, the disputed King of Italy from 894 and the disputed Holy Roman Emperor from February 22, 896 until his death at Regensburg, Bavaria.\n",
"\n===Illegitimacy and early life===\nArnulf was the illegitimate son of Carloman of Bavaria, and his wife Liutswind, who may have been the sister of Ernst, Count of the Bavarian Nordgau Margraviate in the area of the Upper Palatinate, or perhaps the burgrave of Passau, according to other sources. After Arnulf's birth, Carloman married, before 861, a daughter of that same Count Ernst, who died after 8 August 879. As it is mainly West-Franconian historiography that speaks of Arnulf's illegitimacy, it is quite possible that the two females are actually one and the same person and that Carloman married Arnulf's mother, thus legitimizing his son.\n\nArnulf was granted the rule over the Duchy of Carinthia, a Frankish vassal state and successor of the ancient Principality of Carantania by his father Carloman, after Carloman reconciled with his own father, king Louis the German and was made king in Duchy of Bavaria.\n\nArnulf spent his childhood in ''Mosaburch'' or Mosapurc, which is widely believed to be Moosburg in Carinthia, a few miles away from one of the Imperial residences, the Carolingian Kaiserpfalz at Karnburg (Krnski grad), which had been the residence of the Carantanian princes. Arnulf kept his seat here and from later events it may be inferred that the Carantanians, from an early time, treated him as their own Duke. Later, after he had been crowned King of East Francia, Arnulf turned his old territory of Carinthia into the March of Carinthia, a part of the Duchy of Bavaria.\n\n===Regional ruler===\nAfter king Carloman was incapacitated by a stroke in 879, Louis the Younger inherited Bavaria, Charles the Fat was given the Kingdom of Italy and Arnulf was confirmed in Carinthia by an agreement with Carloman. However, Bavaria was more or less ruled by Arnulf. Arnulf already ruled Bavaria during the summer and autumn of 879 while his father arranged his succession and he himself was granted \"Pannonia,\" in the words of the ''Annales Fuldenses'', or \"Carantanum,\" in the words of Regino of Prüm. The division of the realm was confirmed in 880 after Carloman’s death.\n\nWhen Engelschalk II of Pannonia in 882 rebelled against Aribo, Margrave of Pannonia and ignited the Wilhelminer War, Arnulf supported him and accepted his and his brother's homage. This ruined Arnulf's relationship with his uncle the Emperor and put him at war with Svatopluk of Moravia. Pannonia was invaded, but Arnulf refused to give up the young Wilhelminers. Arnulf did not make peace with Svatopluk until late 885, by which time Moravian ruler was loyal to the emperor. Some scholars see this war as destroying Arnulf's hopes at succeeding Charles the Fat.\n",
"Arnulf took the leading role in the deposition of his uncle, Emperor Charles the Fat. With the support of the Frankish nobles, Arnulf called a Diet at Tribur and deposed Charles in November 887, under threat of military action. Charles peacefully agreed to this involuntary retirement, but not without first chastising his nephew for his treachery and asking for a few royal villas in Swabia, which Arnulf mercifully granted him, on which to live out his final months. Arnulf, having distinguished himself in the war against the Slavs, was then elected king by the nobles of East Francia (only the eastern realm, though Charles had ruled the whole of the Frankish Empire). West Francia, the Kingdom of Burgundy and the Kingdom of Italy at this point elected their own kings from the Carolingian family.\n\nLike all early Germanic rulers, he was heavily involved in ecclesiastical disputes. In 895, at the Diet of Tribur, he presided over a dispute between the Episcopal sees of Bremen, Hamburg and Cologne over jurisdictional authority, which saw Bremen and Hamburg remain a combined see, independent of the see of Cologne.\n\nArnulf was a fighter, not a negotiator. In 890 he was successfully battling Slavs in Pannonia. In 891 Danes invaded Lotharingia, and crushed an East Frankish army at Maastricht. At the decisive Battle of Leuven in September 891 in Lotharingia, Arnulf repelled an invasion by the Normans (Northmen or Vikings), essentially ending their invasions on that front. The ''Annales Fuldenses'' report that the bodies of dead Northmen blocked the run of the river. After this victory Arnulf built a new castle on an island in the Dijle river (Dutch: Dijle, English and French: Dyle).\n\n===Intervention in West Francia===\nArnulf took advantage of the problems in West Francia after the death of Charles the Fat to secure the territory of Lotharingia, which he converted into a kingdom for his son Zwentibold. In 889 Arnulf supported the claim of Louis the Blind to the kingdom of Provence, after receiving a personal appeal from Louis’ mother, Ermengard, who came to see Arnulf at Forchheim in May 889.\n\nRecognising the superiority of Arnulf’s position, in 888 king Odo of France formally accepted the suzerainty of Arnulf. In 893 Arnulf switched his support from Odo to Charles the Simple after being persuaded by Fulk, Archbishop of Reims, that it was in his best interests. Arnulf then took advantage of the following fighting between Odo and Charles in 894, taking more territory from West Francia. At one point, Charles the Simple was forced to flee to Arnulf and ask for his protection. His intervention soon forced Pope Formosus to get involved, as he was worried that a divided and war weary West Francia would be easy prey for the Vikings.\n\nIn 895 Arnulf summoned both Charles and Odo to his residence at Worms. Charles’s advisers convinced him not to go, and he sent a representative in his place. Odo, on the other hand, personally attended, together with a large retinue, bearing many gifts for Arnulf. Angered by the non-appearance of Charles, he welcomed Odo at the Diet of Worms in May 895, and again supported Odo's claim to the throne of West Francia. In the same assembly he crowned his illegitimate son Zwentibold as the king of Lotharingia.\n\n===Wars with Moravia===\nAs early as 880 Arnulf had designs on Great Moravia, and had the Frankish bishop Wiching of Nitra interfere with the missionary activities of Eastern Orthodox priest Methodius, with the aim of preventing any potential for creating a unified Moravian state.\n\nArnulf failed to conquer the whole of Great Moravia in wars of 892, 893, and 899. Yet Arnulf did achieve some successes, in particular in 895, when Duchy of Bohemia broke away from Great Moravia and became his vassal state. An accord was reached between him and Duke of Bohemia Borivoj I (reigned 870-95). Bohemia was thus freed from the dangers of Frankish invasion. In 893 or 894 Great Moravia probably lost a part of its territory — present-day Western Hungary — to him. As a reward, Wiching became Arnulf’s chancellor in 892. In his attempts to conquer Moravia, in 899 Arnulf reached out to Magyars who had settled in Pannonia, and with their help he imposed a measure of control over Moravia.\n",
"Arnulf of Carinthia, 13c picture\nArnulf of Carinthia and Louis the Child by Johann Jakob Jung (19th century).\nIn Italy Guy III of Spoleto and Berengar of Friuli fought over the Iron Crown of Lombardy. Berengar had been crowned king in 887, but Guy was then crowned in 889. While Pope Stephen V supported Guy, even crowning him Roman Emperor in 891, Arnulf threw his support behind Berengar.\n\nIn 893 the new Pope Formosus, not trusting the newly crowned co-emperors Guy III of Spoleto and his son Lambert II of Spoleto, sent an embassy to Omuntesberch, where Arnulf was meeting with Svatopluk I of Moravia, to request that Arnulf come and liberate Italy, where he would be crowned emperor in Rome. Arnulf met the ''Primores'' of the Kingdom of Italy, dismissed them with gifts and promised to assist the pope. Arnulf then sent his son Zwentibold with a Bavarian army to join Berengar of Friuli. They defeated Guy, but were bought off and left in autumn.\n\nWhen pope Formosus again asked Arnulf to invade, the duke personally led an army across the Alps early in 894. In January 894 Bergamo fell, and Count Ambrose, Guy’s representative in the city, was hung from a tree by the city’s gates. Conquering all of the territory north of the Po River, Arnulf forced the surrender of Milan and then drove Guy out of Pavia, where he was crowned King of Italy. Arnulf went no further before Guy died suddenly in late autumn, and a fever incapacitated his troops. His march northward through the Alps was interrupted by Rudolph I of Burgundy, and it was only with great difficulty that Arnulf crossed the mountain range. In retaliation, Arnulf ordered his illegitimate son Zwentibold to ravage Rudolph's kingdom. In the meantime, Lambert and his mother Ageltrude travelled to Rome to receive papal confirmation of his imperial succession, but when pope Formosus, still desiring to crown Arnulf, refused, he was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo.\n\nIn September 895 a new papal embassy arrived in Regensburg beseeching Arnulf's aid. In October Arnulf undertook his second campaign into Italy. He crossed the Alps quickly and again, took Pavia, but then he continued slowly, garnering support among the nobility of Tuscany. First Maginulf, Count of Milan, and then Walfred of Friuli, joined him. Eventually even Adalbert II of Tuscany abandoned Lambert. Finding Rome locked against him and held by Ageltrude, Arnulf had to take the city by force on February 21, 896, freeing the pope. Arnulf was then greeted at the Ponte Milvio by the Roman Senate who escorted him into the Leonine City, where he was received by Pope Formosus on the steps of the Santi Apostoli.\n\nOn February 22, 896 Formosus led the king into the church of St.Peter, anointed and crowned him as emperor, and saluted him as ''Augustus''. Arnulf then proceeded to the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, where he received the homage of the Roman people, who swore \"never to hand over the city to Lambert or his mother Ageltrude\". Arnulf then proceeded to exile to Bavaria two leading senators, Constantine and Stephen, who had helped Ageltrude to seize Rome.\n\nLeaving one of his vassals, Farold, to hold Rome, two weeks later Arnulf marched on Spoleto, where Ageltrude had fled to join Lambert, but now Arnulf suffered a stroke, forcing him to call off the campaign and return to Bavaria. Rumours of the time made Arnulf's condition to be a result of poisoning at the hand of Ageltrude.\n\nArnulf retained power in Italy only as long as he was personally there. On his way north, he stopped at Pavia where he crowned his illegitimate son Ratold, as sub-King of Italy, after which he left Ratold in Milan in an attempt to preserve his hold on Italy. That same year pope Formosus died, leaving Lambert once again in power, and both he and Berengar proceeded to kill any officials who had been appointed by Arnulf, forcing Ratold to flee from Milan to Bavaria. For the rest of his life Arnulf excersised very little control in Italy, and his agents in Rome did not prevent the accession of Pope Stephen VI in 896. Pope initially gave his support to Arnulf, but eventually became a supporter of Lambert.\n",
"After 896 Arnulf's health - besides suffering a stroke he had morbus pediculosis, infestation of pubic lice of the eyelid – prevented him from effectively dealing with the problems besetting his reign. Italy was lost, raiders from Moravia and Magyars were continually raiding his lands, and Lotharingia was in revolt against Zwentibold. He was also plagued by escalating violence and power struggles between the lower Frankish nobility.\n\nOn December 8, 899 Arnulf died at Ratisbonin present-day Bavaria. He is entombed in St. Emmeram's Basilica at Regensburg, which is now known as Schloss Thurn und Taxis, the palace of the Princes of Thurn und Taxis.\n\nHe was succeeded as the king of East Francia by his only legitimate son from Ota (died 903), Louis the Child. After his death in 911 at age 17 or 18, the east Frankish branch of Carolingian dynasty ceased to exist. Arnulf had had the nobility to recognize the rights of his illegitimate sons Zwentibold and Ratold as his successors. Zwentibold, whom he had made King of Lotharingia in 895, continued to rule there until his murder in 900.\n\n\n",
"\n*Kings of Germany family tree\n*List of Frankish Kings\n",
"\n",
"* \n* Duckett, Eleanor (1968). ''Death and Life in the Tenth Century''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.\n* Comyn, Robert. ''History of the Western Empire, from its Restoration by Charlemagne to the Accession of Charles V, Vol. I''. 1851\n* Bryce, James, ''The Holy Roman Empire'', MacMillan. 1913\n* Mann, Horace, K. ''The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol III: The Popes During the Carolingian Empire, 858–891''. 1925\n* Mann, Horace, K. ''The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol IV: The Popes in the Days of Feudal Anarchy, 891–999''. 1925\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"King of East Francia",
"King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor",
"Final years",
" See also ",
" References ",
" Sources "
] | Arnulf of Carinthia |
[
"\n\nView over Alexanderplatz\nAlexanderplatz at night\nNeighborhoods in Berlin-Mitte: Old Cölln 1 (with Museum Island 1a, Fisher Island 1b), Altberlin 2 (with Nikolaiviertel 2a), Friedrichswerder 3, Neukölln am Wasser 4, Dorotheenstadt 5, Friedrichstadt 6, Luisenstadt 7, Stralauer Vorstadt (with Königsstadt) 8, Alexanderplatz Area (Königsstadt and Altberlin) 9, Spandauer Vorstadt 10 (with Scheunenviertel 10a), Friedrich-Wilhelm-Stadt 11, Oranienburger Vorstadt 12, Rosenthaler Vorstadt 13 \n\n'''Alexanderplatz''' () is a large public square and transport hub in the central Mitte district of Berlin, near the Fernsehturm. Berliners often call it simply '''''Alex''''', referring to a larger neighbourhood stretching from ''Mollstraße'' in the northeast to ''Spandauer Straße'' and the Rotes Rathaus in the southwest.\n",
"Alexanderplatz in 1796\nAlexanderplatz in 1912\nWorld Clock\nAlexander Platz\n\n===Early history===\nOriginally a cattle market outside the city fortifications, it was named in honor of a visit of the Russian Emperor Alexander I to Berlin on 25 October 1805 by order of King Frederick William III of Prussia. The square gained a prominent role in the late 19th century with the construction of the Stadtbahn station of the same name and a nearby market hall, followed by the opening of a department store of Hermann Tietz in 1904, becoming a major commercial centre. The U-Bahn station of the present-day U2 line opened on 1 July 1913.\n\nIts heyday was in the 1920s, when together with Potsdamer Platz it was at the heart of Berlin's nightlife, inspiring the 1929 novel ''Berlin Alexanderplatz'' (see 1920s Berlin) and the two films based thereon, Piel Jutzi's 1931 film and Rainer Werner Fassbinder's 15½ hour second adaptation, released in 1980. About 1920 the city's authorities started a rearrangement of the increasing traffic flows laying out a roundabout, accompanied by two buildings along the Stadtbahn viaduct, ''Alexanderhaus'' and ''Berolinahaus'' finished in 1932 according to plans designed by Peter Behrens.\n\n===East Germany===\nThe Press Cafe in 1977. The mural displaying the Marxist view of the press has been covered over by commercial advertising.\nThe Fernsehturm Berlin seen from a distance\n\nAlexanderplatz has been subject to redevelopment several times in its history, most recently during the 1960s, when it was turned into a pedestrian zone and enlarged as part of the German Democratic Republic's redevelopment of the city centre. It is surrounded by several notable structures including the Fernsehturm (TV Tower), the second tallest structure in the European Union.\n\n''Alex'' also accommodates the Park Inn Berlin and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe, and Hermann Henselmann's ''Haus des Lehrers''. During the Peaceful Revolution of 1989, the Alexanderplatz demonstration on 4 November was the largest demonstration in the history of East Germany.\n\n===After German reunification===\nEver since German reunification, Alexanderplatz has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated. Despite the reconstruction of the tram line crossing, it has retained its socialist character, including the much-graffitied \"Fountain of Friendship between Peoples\" (''Brunnen der Völkerfreundschaft''), a popular venue.\n\nIn 1993, architect Hans Kollhoff's master plan for a major redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers was published. Due to a lack of demand it is unlikely these will be constructed, with the exception (announced January 2014) of a 39-storey residential tower designed by Frank Gehry on which work is expected to begin in 2015. However, beginning with the reconstruction of the ''Kaufhof'' department store in 2004, and the biggest underground railway station of Berlin, some buildings will be redesigned and new structures built on the square's south-eastern side. Sidewalks were expanded to shrink one of the avenues, a new underground garage was built, and commuter tunnels meant to keep pedestrians off the streets were removed. The surrounding buildings now house chain stores, fast-food restaurants, and fashion discounters. The ''Alexa'' shopping mall, with approximately 180 stores opened nearby during 2007 and a large ''Saturn'' electronic store was built and is open on Alexanderplatz since 2008. The CUBIX multiplex cinema, which opened in November 2000, joined in 2007 the team of Berlinale cinemas and the festival is showing films on three of its screens.\n\nMany historic buildings are located in the vicinity of Alexanderplatz. The traditional seat of city government, the Rotes Rathaus, or ''Red City Hall'', is located nearby, as was the former East German parliament building, the Palast der Republik, demolition of which began in February 2006 and has been completed. The reconstruction of the Baroque Stadtschloss near Alexanderplatz has been in planning for several years.\n\nAlexanderplatz is also the name of the S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations there. It is one of Berlin's largest and most important transportation hubs, being a meetingplace of three subway (U-Bahn) lines, three S-Bahn lines, and many tram and bus lines, as well as regional trains.\n",
"\nFile:Weltzeituhr.jpg|The World Clock with the Fernsehturm in the background\nFile:Bahnhof Berlin-Alexanderplatz.jpg|Bahnhof Alexanderplatz\nFile:Berlin Alexanderplatz - Alexanderhaus 1.jpg|Alexanderhaus\nFile:Project-blinkenlights-aerial-view.jpg|Project Blinkenlights\nFile:Berlin TV tower reflection.jpg|Park Inn with a reflection from the Fernsehturm.\nFile:Die mitte Alexanderplatz IMGP1725.jpg|Shopping mall ''die mitte''\nFile:Berlin Alexanderplatz abend.JPG|Bahnhof Alexanderplatz and the Fernsehturm\nFile:Apstatue.jpg|Neptunbrunnen\nFile:Alexplatz1.jpg|Tram at Alexanderplatz\nFile:Alexanderplatz 01.jpg|Fernsehturm on \"Alex\"\nFile:Urania-Weltzeituhr auf dem Alexanderplatz in Berlin 2015 Weitwinkel.jpg|The World clock and Park Inn hotel in the background\nFile:Reloj Mundial, Berlín, Alemania, 2016-04-22, DD 46-48 HDR.jpg|Night view of the World Clock\n\n",
"\n",
"* Weszkalnys, Gisa (2010). ''Berlin, Alexanderplatz: Transforming Place in a Unified Germany''. Berghahn Books.\n",
"\n* Alexanderplatz - Overview of the changes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Image gallery",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Alexanderplatz |
[
"\n\n\n'''Adelaide of Italy''' (93116 December 999), also called '''Adelaide of Burgundy''', was a Holy Roman Empress by marriage to Holy Roman Emperor Otto the Great; she was crowned as the Holy Roman Empress with him by Pope John XII in Rome on February 2, 962. She was regent of the Holy Roman Empire as the guardian of her grandson in 991-995.\n",
"===Early life===\nBorn in Orbe Castle, Orbe, Kingdom of Upper Burgundy (now in modern-day Switzerland), she was the daughter of Rudolf II of Burgundy, a member of the Elder House of Welf, and Bertha of Swabia. Her first marriage, at the age of fifteen, was to the son of her father's rival in Italy, Lothair II, the nominal King of Italy; the union was part of a political settlement designed to conclude a peace between her father and Hugh of Provence, the father of Lothair. Their daughter, Emma of Italy, was born about 948.\n\n===Empress===\nAdelaide and her second spouse Otto I; Meissen Cathedral, Germany.\n\nThe Calendar of Saints states that her first husband was poisoned by the holder of real power, his successor, Berengar II of Italy, who attempted to cement his political power by forcing her to marry his son, Adalbert; when she refused and fled, she was tracked down and imprisoned for four months at Como.\n\nAccording to Adelaide's contemporary biographer, Odilo of Cluny, she managed to escape from captivity. After a time spent in the marshes nearby, she was rescued and taken to a \"certain impregnable fortress,\" likely the fortified town of Canossa near Reggio. She managed to send an emissary to Otto I, and asked the East Frankish king for his protection. The widow met Otto at the old Lombard capital of Pavia and they married in 951. Pope John XII crowned Otto Holy Roman Emperor in Rome on February 2, 962, and, breaking tradition, also crowned Adelaide as Holy Roman Empress.\n\nIn Germany, the crushing of a revolt in 953 by Liudolf, Otto's son by his first marriage, cemented Adelaide's position, for she retained all her dower lands. She and their eleven-year-old son, the crown prince who became Otto II, accompanied Otto in 966 on his third expedition to Italy, where Otto restored the newly elected Pope John XIII to his throne (and executed some of the Roman rioters who had deposed him). Adelaide remained in Rome for six years while Otto ruled his kingdom from Italy. Their son Otto II was crowned co-emperor in 967, then married the Byzantine princess Theophanu in April 972, resolving the conflict between the two empires in southern Italy, as well as ensuring the imperial succession. Adelaide and her husband then returned to Germany, where Otto died in May 973, at the same Memleben palace where his father had died 37 years earlier.\n\n===Regency===\nIn 983, her son Otho II died and was succeeded by her grandson Otho III under the regency of his mother Adelaide's daughter-in-law Dowager Empress Theophanu. When Theophanu died in 991, Adelaide assumed regency on behalf of her grandson the Emperor until he reached legal majority four years later. Adelaide resigned as regent when Otho III was declared of legal majority in 995. \n\nAdelaide had long entertained close relations with Cluny, then the center of the movement for ecclesiastical reform, and in particular with its abbots Majolus and Odilo. She retired to a nunnery she had founded in c. 991 at Selz in Alsace. \n\nOn her way to Burgundy to support her nephew Rudolf III against a rebellion, she died at Selz Abbey on December 16, 999, days short of the millennium she thought would bring the Second Coming of Christ. She had constantly devoted herself to the service of the church and peace, and to the empire as guardian of both; she also interested herself in the conversion of the Slavs. She was thus a principal agent—almost an embodiment—of the work of the pre-schism Orthodox Catholic Church at the end of the Early Middle Ages in the construction of the religious culture of Central Europe.\nSome of her relics are preserved in a shrine in Hanover. Her feast day, December 16, is still kept in many German dioceses.\n",
"In 947, Adelaide was married to King Lothair II of Italy. The union produced one child:\n*Emma of Italy (born 948), queen of France and wife of Lothair of France\n\nIn 951, Adelaide was married to King Otto I, the future Holy Roman Emperor. The union produced four children:\n*Henry (born 952)\n*Bruno (born 953)\n*Matildaborn 954, the first Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg\n*Otto II (born 955), later Holy Roman Emperor\n",
"*''Lotario'' is an opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel. It is a fictionalisation of some events in the life of Adeläide.\n*Adelaïde is the heroine of Gioacchino Rossini's 1817 opera, ''Adelaide di Borgogna'' and William Bernard McCabe's 1856 novel ''Adelaide, Queen of Italy, or The Iron Crown''.\n*Adelaide is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece ''The Dinner Party'', being represented as one of the 999 names on the ''Heritage Floor.''\n",
"\n* List of Eastern Orthodox saints\n* List of Holy Roman Empresses\n* List of Roman Catholic saints\n",
"\n",
"*Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. ''The Penguin Dictionary of Saints''. New York: Penguin Books (1993). .\n*Chicago, Judy. ''The Dinner Party: From Creation to Preservation''. London: Merrell (2007). \n*Gilsdorf, Sean, trans. ''Queenship and Sanctity: The'' Lives ''of Mathilda and the'' Epitaph ''of Adelheid''. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press (2004). \n",
"* Genealogie-Mittelalter: \"Adelheid von Burgund\".\n",
"\n\n* ''Women's Biography: Adelaide of Burgundy, Ottonian empress''\n* Monks of Ramsgate. \"Adelaide\". Book of Saints, 1921. Saints.SQPN.com. 1 May 2012. Web. {2012-9-20}. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Issue",
"Legacy",
"See also",
"Notes",
"Bibliography",
"References",
"External links"
] | Adelaide of Italy |
[
"\nSelfportrait as a watchmaker\n''Head of a Faun'' (c. 1595) 181 × 187 mm Pen and brown ink on laid paperNational Gallery of Art, Washington\n''The Communion of St. Jerome'' (1592)Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna\n\n\n'''Agostino Carracci''' (or '''Caracci''') (16 August 1557 – 22 March 1602) was an Italian painter and printmaker. He was the brother of the more famous Annibale and cousin of Lodovico Carracci.\n\nHe posited the ideal in nature, and was the founder of the competing school to the more gritty view of nature as expressed by Caravaggio. He was one of the founders of the Accademia degli Incamminati along with his brother, Annibale Carracci, and cousin, Ludovico Carracci. The academy helped propel painters of the School of Bologna to prominence.\n",
"Agostino Carracci was born in Bologna, and trained at the workshop of the architect Domenico Tibaldi. Starting from 1574 he worked as a reproductive engraver, copying works of 16th century masters such as Federico Barocci, Tintoretto, Antonio Campi, Veronese and Correggio. He also produced some original prints, including two etchings.\n\nHe travelled to Venice (1582, 1587–1589) and Parma (1586–1587). Together with Annibale and Ludovico he worked in Bologna on the fresco cycles in Palazzo Fava (''Histories of Jason and Medea'', 1584) and Palazzo Magnani (''Histories of Romulus'', 1590–1592). In 1592 he also painted the ''Communion of St. Jerome'', now in the Pinacoteca di Bologna and considered his masterwork. From 1586 is his altarpiece of the ''Madonna with Child and Saints'', in the National Gallery of Parma. In 1598 Carracci joined his brother Annibale in Rome, to collaborate on the decoration of the Gallery in Palazzo Farnese. From 1598–1600 is a ''triple Portrait'', now in Naples, an example of genre painting. In 1600 he was called to Parma by Duke Ranuccio I Farnese to begin the decoration of the Palazzo del Giardino, but he died before it was finished.\n\nAgostino's son Antonio Carracci was also a painter, and attempted to compete with his father's Academy.\n\nAn engraving by Agostino Carraci after the painting ''Love in the Golden Age'' by the 16th-century Flemish painter Paolo Fiammingo was the inspiration for Matisse's ''Le bonheur de vivre'' (Joy of Life).\n",
"*''Head of a Faun in a Concave'' (drawing in roundel, c. 1595, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC)\n*''The Penitent Magdalen'' (private collection)\n*''The Annunciation'', Musée du Louvre, Paris\n*''The Lamentation'', Hermitage, St. Petersburg\n*''Reciprico Amore'', Baltimore Museum of Art\n*Carracci's erotic work\n",
"\n",
"* ''Orazio and Artemisia Gentileschi'', a fully digitized exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries, which contains material on Agostino Carracci (see index)\n* Catholic Encyclopedia: Carracci\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Works",
"References",
"External links"
] | Agostino Carracci |
[
"\n\n\n'''Adenylyl cyclase''' (, also commonly known as '''adenyl cyclase''' and '''adenylate cyclase''', abbreviated '''AC''') is an enzyme with key regulatory roles in essentially all cells. It is the most polyphyletic known enzyme: six distinct classes have been described, all catalyzing the same reaction but representing unrelated gene families with no known sequence or structural homology. The best known class of adenylyl cyclases is class III or AC-III (Roman numerals are used for classes). AC-III occurs widely in eukaryotes and has important roles in many human tissues.\n\nAll classes of adenylyl cyclases catalyse the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to 3',5'-cyclic AMP (cAMP) and pyrophosphate. Magnesium ions are generally required and appears to be closely involved in the enzymatic mechanism. The cAMP produced by AC then serves as a regulatory signal via specific cAMP-binding proteins, either transcription factors, enzymes (e.g., cAMP-dependent kinases), or ion transporters.\n\nATP to 3',5'-cyclic AMP\n",
"\n=== Class I ===\nThe first class of adenylyl cyclases occur in many bacteria including ''E. coli''. This was the first class of AC to be characterized. It was observed that ''E. coli'' deprived of glucose produce cAMP that serves as an internal signal to activate expression of genes for importing and metabolizing other sugars. cAMP exerts this effect by binding the transcription factor CRP, also known as CAP. Class I AC's are large cytosolic enzymes (~100 kDa) with a large regulatory domain (~50 kDa) that indirectly senses glucose levels. , no crystal structure is available for class I AC.\n\n=== Class II ===\nThese adenylyl cyclases are toxins secreted by pathogenic bacteria such as ''Bacillus anthracis'' and ''Bordetella pertussis'' during infection. These bacteria also secrete proteins that enable the AC-II to enter host cells, where the exogenous AC activity undermines normal cellular processes. The genes for Class II AC's are known as cyaA. Several crystal structures are known for AC-II enzymes.\n\n=== Class III ===\nThese adenylyl cyclases are the most familiar based on extensive study due to their important roles in human health. They are also found in some bacteria, notably ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' where they appear to have a key role in pathogenesis. Most AC-III's are integral membrane proteins involved in transducing extracellular signals into intracellular responses. A Nobel Prize was awarded to Earl Sutherland in 1971 for discovering the key role of AC-III in human liver, where adrenaline indirectly stimulates AC to mobilize stored energy in the \"fight or flight\" response. The effect of adrenaline is via a G protein signaling cascade, which transmits chemical signals from outside the cell across the membrane to the inside of the cell (cytoplasm). The outside signal (in this case, adrenaline) binds to a receptor, which transmits a signal to the G protein, which transmits a signal to adenylyl cyclase, which transmits a signal by converting adenosine triphosphate to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP is known as a second messenger.\n\nCyclic AMP is an important molecule in eukaryotic signal transduction, a so-called second messenger. Adenylyl cyclases are often activated or inhibited by G proteins, which are coupled to membrane receptors and thus can respond to hormonal or other stimuli. Following activation of adenylyl cyclase, the resulting cAMP acts as a second messenger by interacting with and regulating other proteins such as protein kinase A and cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels.\n\nPhotoactivatable adenylyl cyclase (PAC) was discovered in ''Euglena gracilis'' and can be expressed in other organisms through genetic manipulation. Shining blue light on a cell containing PAC activates it and abruptly increases the rate of conversion of ATP to cAMP. This is a useful technique for researchers in neuroscience because it allows them to quickly increase the intracellular cAMP levels in particular neurons, and to study the effect of that increase in neural activity on the behavior of the organism. For example, PAC expression in certain neurons has been shown to alter the grooming behavior in fruit flies exposed to blue light. Channelrhodopsin-2 is also used in a similar fashion.\n\n==== Structure ====\nStructure of adenylyl cyclase\nMost class III adenylyl cyclases are transmembrane proteins with 12 transmembrane segments. The protein is organized with 6 transmembrane segments, then the C1 cytoplasmic domain, then another 6 membrane segments, and then a second cytoplasmic domain called C2. The important parts for function are the N-terminus and the C1 and C2 regions. The C1a and C2a subdomains are homologous and form an intramolecular 'dimer' that forms the active site. In ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'', the AC-III polypeptide is only half as long, comprising one 6-transmembrane domain followed by a cytoplasmic domain, but two of these form a functional homodimer that resembles the mammalian architecture.\n\n==== Types ====\nThere are ten known isoforms of adenylyl cyclases in mammals:\n\nThese are also sometimes called simply AC1, AC2, etc., and, somewhat confusingly, sometimes Roman numerals are used for these isoforms that all belong to the overall AC class III. They differ mainly in how they are regulated, and are differentially expressed in various tissues throughout mammalian development.\n\n==== Regulation ====\nAdenylyl cyclase is dually regulated by G proteins (Gs stimulating activity and Gi inhibiting it), and by forskolin, as well as other isoform-specific effectors:\n* Isoforms III, V and VIII are also stimulated by Ca2+/calmodulin.\n* Isoforms I and VI are inhibited by Ca2+ in a calmodulin-independent manner.\n* Isoforms II, IV and IX are stimulated by beta gamma subunits of the G protein.\n* Isoforms I, V and VI are most clearly inhibited by Gi, while other isoforms show less dual regulation by the inhibitory G protein.\n* Soluble AC (sAC) is not a transmembrane form and is not regulated by G proteins or forskolin, instead acts as a bicarbonate/pH sensor. It is anchored at various locations within the cell and, with phosphodiesterases, forms local cAMP signalling domains. \nIn neurons, calcium-sensitive adenylyl cyclases are located next to calcium ion channels for faster reaction to Ca2+ influx; they are suspected of playing an important role in learning processes. This is supported by the fact that adenylyl cyclases are ''coincidence detectors'', meaning that they are activated only by several different signals occurring together (source?). In peripheral cells and tissues adenylyl cyclases appear to form molecular complexes with specific receptors and other signaling proteins in an isoform-specific manner.\n\n==== Function ====\nAdenylyl cyclase has been implicated in memory formation, functioning as a coincidence detector \n\n=== Class IV ===\n\nAC-IV was first reported in the bacterium ''Aeromonas hydrophila'', and the structure of the AC-IV from ''Yersinia pestis'' has been reported. These are the smallest of the AC enzyme classes; the AC-IV from ''Yersinia'' is a dimer of 19 kDa subunits with no known regulatory components.\n\n=== Classes V and VI ===\nThese forms of AC have been reported in specific bacteria (''Prevotella ruminicola'' and ''Rhizobium etti'', respectively) and have not been extensively characterized.\n",
"\n File:Beta adrenergic receptor kinase.JPG|Beta adrenergic receptor kinase pathway\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n\n",
"* \n* Interactive 3D views of Adenylate cyclase at \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Classes ",
"Additional images",
"References",
" Further reading ",
"External links"
] | Adenylyl cyclase |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Alexandra''' (Greek: ) is the feminine form of the given name Alexander (Greek: , ''Alexandros''). Etymologically, the name is a compound of the Greek verb (''alexein'') \"to defend\" and (''anēr'') \"man\" (GEN ''andros''). Thus it may be roughly translated as \"defender of man\" or \"protector of man\". The name was one of the titles or epithets given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean \"one who comes to save warriors\". The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek , ''a-re-ka-sa-da-ra'', written in the Linear B syllabic script.\n",
"*Alastríona (Irish)\n*Alejandra (Spanish)\n*Alejandrina (Spanish)\n*Αλεξάνδρα (Greek)\n*Aleksandra (Latvian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Estonian, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Serbian, Albanian)\n*Alessia (Italian)\n*Alessandra (Italian)\n*Alex (English)\n*Alexa (English, Romanian)\n*Alexandra (Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Icelandic, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Swedish)\n*Alexandrea (English)\n*Alexandria (English)\n*Alexandrie (French)\n*Alexandrina (English, Portuguese)\n*Alexandrine (French, German)\n*Alexis, various languages \n*Alexsandra (English)\n*Ālēkjāndrā / আলেকজান্দ্রা (Bengali)\n*Aliaksandra (Belarusian)\n*Alissandra (Sicilian)\n*Allie (English)\n*Ally (English)\n*Alondra (Spanish)\n*Lekszi (Hungarian)\n*Leska (Czech)\n*Lesya (Russian, Ukrainian)\n*Lexa (English)\n*Lexi (English)\n*Lexie (English)\n*Lexine (English)\n*Lexy (English)\n*Ola (Polish)\n*Oleksandra (Ukrainian)\n*Oleńka (Polish)\n*Olka (Polish)\n*Olunia (Polish)\n*Olusia (Polish)\n*Sacha (French)\n*Sanda (Romanian)\n*Sandie (English)\n*Sandra (Croatian, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, German, Icelandic, Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Serbian, Slovene, Swedish, Polish)\n*Sandrina (Italian)\n*Sandrine (French)\n*Sandy (English)\n*Saša (Czech, Croatian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene)\n*Saška (Serbian)\n*Saskia (Dutch)\n*Sascha (German)\n*Sasha (Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian)\n*Saundra (English, Scottish)\n*Shura (Russian)\n*Sondra (English)\n*Szandra (Hungarian)\n*Xandra (Dutch, English)\n*Zandra (English)\n",
"\n=== People whose full name is Alexandra ===\n* Alexandra or Cassandra, a prophetess in Greek mythology\n* Saint Alexandra, a martyr of the Diocletianic persecutions\n* Alexandra, sister of the Rhetor Calliopius of Antioch\n* Alexandra (singer) (1942–1969), German singer (stage name; real name Doris Nefedov)\n* Princess Alexandra (disambiguation), list of princesses named Alexandra.\n\n=== Nobility ===\n* Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925), Queen consort of the United Kingdom, Empress consort of India as the wife of King-Emperor Edward VII\n* Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna of Russia, formerly Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark (1870–1891)\n* Queen Alexandra of Yugoslavia, formerly Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark (1921–1993)\n* Princess Alexandra of Greece (born 1968), first daughter of Prince Michael of Greece and Denmark and his wife (née Marina Karella)\n\n=== People with the given name Alexandra ===\n* Elena Alexandra Apostoleanu (born 1986), Romanian singer, better known as Inna\n* Alexandra Asimaki, Greek water polo player\n* Alexandra Breckenridge (born 1982), American actress, model, photographer\n* Alexandra Burke (born 1988), British singer\n* Alexandra Caso (born 1987), Dominican Republic volleyball player\n* Alexandra Chando (born 1986), American actress\n* Alexandra Charles (born 1946), Swedish \"nightclub queen\"\n* Alexandra Daddario (born 1986), American actress\n* Alexandra Dahlström (born 1984), Swedish actress\n* Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969), French explorer and spiritualist\n* Allie DeBerry (born 1994), American actress and model\n* Alexandra Dulgheru (born 1989), Romanian tennis player\n* Aleksandra von Engelhardt (1754–1838), Russian lady-in-waiting\n* Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) (1872–1918), Tsarina of Russia and wife of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia\n* Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia) (13 July 1798 – 1 November 1860), was Empress consort of Russia.\n* Alexandra Flood (born 1990), Australian operatic soprano\n* Alexandra Fusai (born 1973), French tennis player\n* Aleksandra Jakubowska (born 1955), Polish journalist and politician\n* Alexz Johnson (born 1986), Canadian actress\n* Alex Kingston (born 1963), English Actress\n* Alexandra Kollontai (1872–1952), Russian politician\n* Aleksandra Krunic (born 1993), Serbian tennis player\n* Alexandra Lee (stage name Alexandra Starlight), American singer and songwriter\n* Alexandra Lencastre (born 1965), Portuguese actress\n* Alexandra Maria Lara (born 1978), German actress\n* Alexandra Mavrokordatou (1605–1684), Greek intellectual\n* Alexandra Panova (born 1989), Russian tennis player\n* Alexandra Papageorgiou, Greek hammer thrower\n* Alexandra Park (actress) (born 1989), Australian actress\n* Alexandra Paschalidou-Moreti, Greek architect\n* Alexandra Patsavas (born 1968), Greek-American music supervisor\n* Alexandra Paul (born 1963), American actress\n* Aly Raisman (born 1994), American gymnast\n* Alexandra Shiryayeva (born 1983), Russian beach volleyball player\n* Alexandra Smirnoff (1838–1913) Finnish pomologist\n* Alexandra Sokoloff, American novelist and screenwriter\n* Alexandra Stan (born 1989), Romanian singer\n* Alexandra Stevenson (born 1980), American tennis player\n* Alexandra Tolstaya (1884–1979), daughter of Leo Tolstoy\n* Alexandra Tsiavou, Greek rower\n* Alexandra Tydings (born 1972), American actress\n* Alexandra Vinogradova, Russian volleyballer\n* Aleksandra Wozniak (born 1987), Canadian tennis player\n* Alexandra Zaretsky (born 1987), Israeli ice dancer\n\n=== Fictional characters ===\n* Alexandra Mack, a.k.a. Alex Mack, main character in the popular American television series ''The Secret World of Alex Mack''\n* Alexandra Brooks DiMera, a.k.a. Lexie Carver, character on the American soap opera ''Days of Our Lives''\n* Alexandra Nuñez, a.k.a. Alex Nuñez, character in ''Degrassi: The Next Generation''\n* Alexandra Margarita Russo, a.k.a. Alex Russo, character in ''Wizards of Waverly Place''\n*Alexandra, ''Nikita'' character\n* Alexandra Dunphy, a.k.a. Alex Dunphy, character in the popular American Television series \"Modern Family\"\n* Alexandra Grey, a.k.a. Lexie Grey, character in the American Television Drama ''Grey's Anatomy''\n* Alexandra \"Alex\" Cahill character in the American Television series ''Walker, Texas Ranger''\n* Alexandra Borgia an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order, played by Annie Parisse\n* Alexandra Cabot an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order Special Victims Unit, played by Stephanie March\n* Alexandra Eames an detective in Law & Order Criminal Intent, played by Kathryn Erbe\n* Alexandra Garcia, a character in the anime and manga series ''Kuroko's Basketball''\n* Aleksandra 'Zarya' Zaryanova a Russian weightlifter turned soldier in ''Overwatch (video game)''\n* Alexandra Vause, a.k.a. Alex Vause, imprisoned drug dealer and love interest to protagonist to Piper Chapman in ''Orange Is The New Black''.\n* Alexandra Danvers, a.k.a. Alex Danvers, Kara Danvers' sister in ''Supergirl''.\n",
"\n",
"* Alexandra Park (disambiguation)\n* Alessandra\n* Alexandria (disambiguation)\n* Sandra (given name)\n* Alexander\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Feminine variants",
" People ",
" References ",
" See also "
] | Alexandra |
[
"\n\n'''Articolo 31''' was a band from Milan, Italy, formed in 1990 by J-Ax and DJ Jad, combining hip hop, funk, pop and traditional Italian musical forms. They are one of the most popular Italian hip hop groups.\n",
"Articolo 31 were formed by rapper J-Ax (real name Alessandro Aleotti) and DJ Jad (Vito Luca Perrini).\nIn the spoken intro of ''Strade di Città'' (\"City Streets\"), it is stated that the band is named after the article of the Irish constitution guaranteeing freedom of the press, although it must be noted that article 31 of the Irish constitution is not about the freedom of the press. They probably meant the Section 31 of the Broadcasting Authority Act.\n\n'''Articolo 31''' released one of the first Italian hip hop records, ''Strade di città'', in 1993. Soon, they signed with BMG Ricordi and started to mix rap with pop music - a move that earned them great commercial success but that alienated the underground hip hop scene, who perceived them as traitors.\nIn 1997, DJ Gruff dissed Articolo 31 in a track titled ''1 vs 2'' on the first album of the beatmaker Fritz da Cat, starting a feud that would go on for years. \n\nIn 2001, Articolo 31 collaborated with the American old school rapper Kurtis Blow on the album ''XChé SI!''. In the same year, they made the movie ''Senza filtro'' (in English, ''\"Without filter\"''). Their producer was Franco Godi, who also produced the music for the ''Signor Rossi'' animated series.\n\nTheir 2002 album ''Domani smetto'' represented a further departure from hip hop, increasingly relying on the formula of rapping over pop music samples.\n\nFollowing their 2003 album \"Italiano medio\", the band took a break. Both J Ax and DJ Jad have been involved with solo projects. In 2006, the group declared an indefinite hiatus.\n\nTheir posse, ''Spaghetti Funk'', includes other popular performers like Space One and pop rappers Gemelli DiVersi.\n",
"*J-Ax - vocals\n*DJ Jad - turntables\n",
"{| class=\"wikitable\"\n '''Year''' \n '''Title''' \n '''Label'''\n\n 1993 \n ''Strade di città'' \n Best Sound\n\n 1994 \n ''Messa di Vespiri'' \n Best Sound \n\n 1996 \n ''Così com'è'' \n Best Sound\n\n 1998 \n ''Nessuno'' \n Best Sound\n\n 2001 \n ''Xché Sì!'' \n Best Sound \n\n 2002 \n ''Domani smetto'' \n Best Sound\n\n 2003 \n ''Italiano Medio'' \n Best Sound\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Band history",
"Band members",
"Discography"
] | Articolo 31 |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky''' (, ; 4 May 1881 – 11 June 1970) was a Russian lawyer and key political figure in the Russian Revolution of 1917. After the February Revolution of 1917 he joined the newly formed Russian Provisional Government, first as Minister of Justice, then as Minister of War, and after July 1917 as the government's second Minister-Chairman. A leader of the moderate-socialist Trudoviks faction of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, he was also vice-chairman of the powerful Petrograd Soviet. On 7 November, his government was overthrown by the Lenin-led Bolsheviks in the October Revolution. He spent the remainder of his life in exile, in Paris and New York City, and worked for the Hoover Institution.\n",
"Alexander Kerensky was born in Simbirsk (now Ulyanovsk) on the Volga River on 4 May 1881 and was the eldest son in the family. His father, Fyodor Mikhailovich Kerensky, was a teacher and director of the local gymnasium and was later promoted to Inspector of public schools. His maternal grandfather was head of the Topographical Bureau of the Kazan Military District. His mother, Nadezhda Aleksandrovna (née Adler), with the first-named Nadezhda (meaning \"Hope\"; her patronymic last or \"maiden\" name was Kalmykova), was the daughter of a former serf who had had to purchase his freedom before serfdom was abolished in 1861. He subsequently embarked upon a mercantile career, in which he prospered, allowing him to move his business to Moscow, where he continued his success, becoming a wealthy Moscow merchant.\n\nKerensky's father was the teacher of Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin), and members of the Kerensky and Ulyanov families were friends. In 1889, when Kerensky was eight, the family moved to Tashkent, where his father had been appointed the main inspector of public schools (superintendent). Alexander graduated with honours in 1899. The same year he entered St. Petersburg University, where he studied history and philology. The next year he switched to law. He earned his law degree in 1904 and married Olga Lvovna Baranovskaya, the daughter of a Russian general, the same year. Kerensky joined the Narodnik movement and worked as a legal counsel to victims of the Revolution of 1905. At the end of 1904, he was jailed on suspicion of belonging to a militant group. Afterwards he gained a reputation for his work as a defence lawyer in a number of political trials of revolutionaries.\n\nIn 1912, Kerensky became widely known when he visited the goldfields at the Lena River and published material about the Lena Minefields incident. In the same year, Kerensky was elected to the Fourth Duma as a member of the Trudoviks, a moderate, non-Marxist labour party founded by Alexis Aladin that was associated with the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, and joined a Freemason society uniting the anti-monarchy forces that strived for the democratic renewal of Russia. He was a brilliant orator and skilled parliamentary leader of the socialist opposition to the government of Tsar Nicholas II.\nOn May 28, 1914 Kerensky appealed to Rodzianko with a request from the Council of elders to inform the Tsar that to succeed in war he must:\n1) change his domestic policy,\n2) proclaim a General Amnesty for political prisoners,\n3) restore the Constitution of Finland,\n4) declare the autonomy of Poland,\n5) provide national minorities autonomy in the field of culture,\n6) abolish restrictions against Jews,\n7) end religious intolerance,\n8) stop the harassment of legal trade union organizations.\n",
"In response to bitter resentments held against the imperial favorite Grigori Rasputin in the midst of Russia's failing effort in World War I, Kerensky, at the opening of the Duma on 2 November 1916, called the imperial ministers \"hired assassins\" and \"cowards\", and alleged that they were \"guided by the contemptible Grishka Rasputin!\" Grand Duke Nikolai Mikhailovich, Prince Lvov and general Mikhail Alekseyev attempted to persuade the emperor Nicholas II to send away the empress Alexandra Feodorovna, Rasputin's steadfast patron, either to the Livadia Palace in Yalta or to England. Mikhail Rodzianko, Zinaida Yusupova (the mother of Felix Yusupov), Alexandra's sister Elisabeth, Grand Duchess Victoria and the empress's mother-in-law Maria Feodorovna also tried to influence and pressure the imperial couple to remove Rasputin from his position of influence within the imperial household, but without success. According to Kerensky, Rasputin had terrorised the empress by threatening to return to his native village.\n\nRasputin was murdered in December 1916 by monarchists and buried near the imperial residence in Tsarskoye Selo. Shortly after the February Revolution of 1917, a group of soldiers were ordered by Kerensky to re-bury the corpse at an unmarked spot in the countryside, but the truck broke down or was forced to stop because of the snow on Lesnoe Road outside of St. Petersburg. It is likely the corpse was incinerated (between 3 and 7 in the morning) in the cauldrons of the nearby boiler shop of the Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University, including the coffin, without leaving a single trace. Anything that had to do with Rasputin disappeared permanently.\n",
"Kerensky as Minister of War\n\nWhen the February Revolution broke out in 1917, Kerensky was one of its most prominent leaders: he was a member of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and was elected vice-chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. Simultaneously, he became the first Minister of Justice in the newly formed Russian Provisional Government. When the Soviet passed a resolution prohibiting its leaders from joining the government, Kerensky delivered a stirring speech at a Soviet meeting. Although the decision was never formalised, he was granted a ''de facto'' exemption and continued acting in both capacities.\n\nAfter the first government crisis over Pavel Milyukov's secret note re-committing Russia to its original war aims on 2–4 May, Kerensky became the Minister of War and the dominant figure in the newly formed socialist-liberal coalition government. On 10 May (Julian calendar), Kerensky started for the front and visited one division after another, urging the men to do their duty. His speeches were impressive and convincing for the moment, but had little lasting effect. Under Allied pressure to continue the war, he launched what became known as the Kerensky Offensive against the Austro-Hungarian/German South Army on 17 June (Julian Calendar). At first successful, the offensive was soon stopped and then thrown back by a strong counter-attack. The Russian army suffered heavy losses, and it was clear from the many incidents of desertion, sabotage, and mutiny that the army was no longer willing to attack.\n\nKerensky in May 1917\n\nKerensky was heavily criticised by the military for his liberal policies, which included stripping officers of their mandates and handing over control to revolutionary inclined \"soldier committees\" instead; the abolition of the death penalty; and allowing revolutionary agitators to be present at the front. Many officers jokingly referred to commander-in-chief Kerensky as \"persuader-in-chief.\"\n\nOn 2 July 1917, the first coalition collapsed over the question of Ukraine's autonomy. Following the July Days unrest in Petrograd and suppression of the Bolsheviks, Kerensky succeeded Prince Lvov as Russia's Prime Minister. Following the Kornilov Affair, an attempted military coup d'état at the end of August, and the resignation of the other ministers, he appointed himself Supreme Commander-in-Chief as well.\n\nKerensky's next move, on 15 September, was to proclaim Russia a republic, which was contrary to the non-socialists' understanding that the Provisional Government should hold power only until a Constituent Assembly should meet to decide Russia's form of government, but which was in line with the long proclaimed aim of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. He formed a five-member Directory, which consisted of himself, minister of foreign affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko, minister of war General Verkhovsky, minister of the navy Admiral Dmitry Verderevsky and minister of post and telegraph Nikitin. He retained his post in the final coalition government in October 1917 until it was overthrown by the Bolsheviks.\n\nKerensky in office\n\nKerensky's major challenge was that Russia was exhausted after three years of its participation in World War I, while the provisional government offered little motivation for a victory outside of continuing Russia's obligations towards its allies. Russia's continued involvement in the war was not popular among the lower and middle classes, and especially not popular among the soldiers. They had all believed that Russia would stop fighting when the Provisional Government took power, and now they felt deceived. Furthermore, Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik party were promising \"peace, land, and bread\" under a communist system. The army was disintegrating owing to a lack of discipline, leading to desertion in large numbers. By autumn 1917, an estimated two million men had unofficially left the army.\n\nKerensky and the other political leaders continued their obligation to Russia's allies by continuing involvement in World War I, fearing that the economy, already under huge stress from the war effort, might become increasingly unstable if vital supplies from France and the United Kingdom were cut off. The dilemma of whether to withdraw was a great one, and Kerensky's inconsistent and impractical policies further destabilised the army and the country at large.\n\nFurthermore, Kerensky adopted a policy that isolated the right-wing conservatives, both democratic and monarchist-oriented. His philosophy of \"no enemies to the left\" greatly empowered the Bolsheviks and gave them a free hand, allowing them to take over the military arm or \"voyenka\" of the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets. His arrest of Lavr Kornilov and other officers left him without strong allies against the Bolsheviks, who ended up being Kerensky's strongest and most determined adversaries, as opposed to the right wing, which evolved into the White movement.\n",
"During the Kornilov Affair, Kerensky had distributed arms to the Petrograd workers, and by November most of these armed workers had gone over to the Bolsheviks. On 1917, the Bolsheviks launched the second Russian revolution of the year. Kerensky's government in Petrograd had almost no support in the city. Only one small force, a subdivision of the 2nd company of the First Petrograd Women's Battalion, also known as The Women's Death Battalion, was willing to fight for the government against the Bolsheviks, but this force was overwhelmed by the numerically superior pro-Bolshevik forces, defeated, and captured. It took fewer than 20 hours for the Bolsheviks to seize the government.\n\nNational Press Club in 1938\n1938\n\nKerensky escaped the Bolsheviks and fled to Pskov, where he rallied some loyal troops for an attempt to re-take the city. His troops managed to capture Tsarskoe Selo, but were beaten the next day at Pulkovo. Kerensky narrowly escaped, and he spent the next few weeks in hiding before fleeing the country, eventually arriving in France. During the Russian Civil War he supported neither side, as he opposed both the Bolshevik regime and the White Movement.\n",
"Kerensky settled in Paris, while visiting the United States to raise money for his cause. In 1939, Kerensky married the former Australian journalist Lydia \"Nell\" Tritton at Martins Creek, Pennsylvania. When Germany invaded France in 1940, they emigrated to the United States.\n\nAfter the Nazi-led invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Kerensky offered his support to Joseph Stalin.\n\nWhen his wife became terminally ill in 1945, Kerensky travelled with her to Brisbane, Australia, and lived there with her family. She suffered a stroke in February 1946, and he remained there until her death on 10 April 1946. Kerensky returned to the United States, where he spent the rest of his life.\n\nKerensky eventually settled in New York City living in Upper East Side on 91st Street near Central Park but spent much of his time at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University in California, where he both used and contributed to the Institution's huge archive on Russian history, and where he taught graduate courses. He wrote and broadcast extensively on Russian politics and history. His last public speech was delivered at Kalamazoo College in Kalamazoo, Michigan in 1967.\n\nKerensky died of arteriosclerotic heart disease at St. Luke's Hospital in New York City in 1970, one of the last surviving major participants in the turbulent events of 1917. The local Russian Orthodox Churches in New York refused to grant Kerensky burial, because of his association with Freemasonry and because it saw him as largely responsible for Russia falling to the Bolsheviks. A Serbian Orthodox Church also refused burial. Kerensky's body was flown to London, where he was buried at the non-denominational Putney Vale Cemetery.\n",
"Kerensky was married to Olga Lvovna Baranovskaya and they had two sons, Oleg and Gleb, who both went on to become engineers. Kerensky and Olga were divorced in 1939 and soon after he married Lydia Ellen (Nell) Tritton (1899–1946). His grandson Oleg, Jr. played him in the 1981 film ''Reds''.\n",
"* ''The Prelude to Bolshevism'' (1919). .\n* ''The Catastrophe'' (1927)\n* ''The Crucifixion of Liberty'' (1934)\n* ''Russia and History's Turning Point'' (1965)\n",
"\n",
"* \n* Lipatova, Nadezhda V. \"On the Verge of the Collapse of Empire: Images of Alexander Kerensky and Mikhail Gorbachev.\" ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 65.2 (2013): 264-289.\n* Thatcher, Ian D. \"Post-Soviet Russian Historians and the Russian Provisional Government of 1917.\" ''Slavonic & East European Review'' 93.2 (2015): 315-337. online\n* Thatcher, Ian D. \"Memoirs of the Russian Provisional Government 1917.\" ''Revolutionary Russia'' 27.1 (2014): 1-21.\n",
"\n* \n* Alexander Kerensky Archive at marxists.org\n* An account of Kerensky at Stanford in the 1950s\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life and activism",
"Rasputin",
"February Revolution of 1917",
"October Revolution of 1917",
"Life in exile",
"Personal life",
"Works",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Alexander Kerensky |
[
"\n\n\n'''Saint Ansgar''' (8 September 801 – 3 February 865), also known as '''Anskar''' or '''Saint Anschar''', was a Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen - a northern part of the '''Kingdom of the East Franks'''. The See of Hamburg was designated a mission to bring Christianity to Northern Europe, and Ansgar became known as the \"Apostle of the North\".\n",
"Ansgar was the son of a noble Frankish family, born near Amiens. After his mother's early death, Ansgar was brought up in Corbie Abbey, and was educated at the Benedictine monastery in Picardy,. According to the ''Vita Ansgarii'' (\"Life of Ansgar\"), when the little boy learned in a vision that his mother was in the company of Saint Mary, his careless attitude toward spiritual matters changed to seriousness (\"Life of Ansgar\", 1). His pupil, successor, and eventual biographer Rimbert considered the visions of which this was the first to be the main motivation of the saint's life.\n\nAnsgar was a product of the phase of Christianization of Saxony (present day Northern Germany) begun by Charlemagne and continued by his son and successor, Louis the Pious. A group of monks including Ansgar were sent back to Jutland with the baptized exiled king Harald Klak. Ansgar returned two years later after educating young boys who had been purchased because Harald had possibly been driven out of his kingdom. In 822 Ansgar was one of a number of missionaries sent to found the abbey of Corvey (New Corbie) in Westphalia, and there became a teacher and preacher. Then in 829 in response to a request from the Swedish king Björn at Hauge for a mission to the Swedes, Louis appointed Ansgar missionary. With an assistant, the friar Witmar, he preached and made converts for six months at Birka, on Lake Mälaren. They organized a small congregation there with the king's steward, Hergeir, and Mor Frideborg as its most prominent members. In 831 he returned to Louis' court at Worms and was appointed to the Archbishopric of Hamburg. This was a new archbishopric with a see formed from those of Bremen and Verden, plus the right to send missions into all the northern lands and to consecrate bishops for them. He was given the mission of evangelizing Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The King of Sweden decided to cast lots as to whether the Christian missionaries should be admitted into his kingdom. Ansgar recommended the issue to the care of God, and the lot was favorable.\n\nAnsgar was consecrated in November 831, and, the arrangements having been at once approved by Gregory IV, he went to Rome to receive the pallium directly from the hands of the pope and to be named legate for the northern lands. This commission had previously been bestowed upon Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims, but the jurisdiction was divided by agreement, with Ebbo retaining Sweden for himself. For a time Ansgar devoted himself to the needs of his own diocese, which was still missionary territory with but a few churches. He founded a monastery and a school in Hamburg; the school was intended to serve the Danish mission, but accomplished little.\n\nAfter Louis died in 840, his empire was divided and Ansgar lost the abbey of Turholt, which had been given as an endowment for his work. Then in 845, the Danes unexpectedly raided Hamburg, destroying all the church's treasures and books and leaving the entire diocese unrestorable. Ansgar now had neither see nor revenue. Many of his helpers deserted him, but the new king, Louis the German, came to his aid; after failing to recover Turholt for him, in 847 he awarded him the vacant diocese of Bremen, where he took up residence in 848. However, since Hamburg had been an archbishopric, the sees of Bremen and Hamburg were combined for him. This presented canonical difficulties and also aroused the anger of the Bishop of Cologne, to whom Bremen had been suffragan, but after prolonged negotiations, Pope Nicholas I approved the union of the two dioceses in 864.\n\nThrough all this political turmoil, Ansgar continued his mission to the northern lands. The Danish civil war compelled him to establish good relations with two kings, Horik the Elder and his son, Horik II. Both assisted him until his death (Wood, 124–125). He was able to secure recognition of Christianity as a tolerated religion and permission to build a church in Sleswick. He did not forget the Swedish mission, and spent two years there in person (848–850), at the critical moment when a pagan reaction was threatened, which he succeeded in averting. In 854, Ansgar returned to Sweden when king Olof ruled in Birka. According to Rimbert, he was well disposed to Christianity. On a Viking raid to Apuole (current village in Lithuania) in Courland, the Swedes plundered the Curonians.\n\nAnsgar wore a rough hair shirt, lived on bread and water, and showed great charity to the poor. Being the first missionary in Sweden and the organiser of the hierarchy in the Nordic countries, he was declared Patron of Scandinavia. Ansgar was buried in Bremen in 865.\n\nHis life story was written by his successor as archbishop, Rimbert, in the ''Vita Ansgarii''.\n",
"Relics are located in Hamburg on two places: St. Mary's Cathedral (germ.: Domkirche St. Marien) and St. Ansgar's and St. Bernard's Church (germ.: St. Ansgar und St. Bernhard Kirche).\n",
"Saint Ansgar statue in Hamburg\nAlthough a historical document and primary source written by a man whose existence can be proven historically, the ''Vita Ansgarii'' (\"The Life of Ansgar\") aims above all to demonstrate Ansgar's sanctity. It is partly concerned with Ansgar's visions, which, according to the author Rimbert, encouraged and assisted Ansgar's remarkable missionary feats.\n\nThrough the course of this work, Ansgar repeatedly embarks on a new stage in his career following a vision. According to Rimbert, his early studies and ensuing devotion to the ascetic life of a monk were inspired by a vision of his mother in the presence of Saint Mary. Again, when the Swedish people were left without a priest for some time, he begged King Horik to help him with this problem; then after receiving his consent, consulted with Bishop Gautbert to find a suitable man. The two together sought the approval of King Louis, which he granted when he learned that they were in agreement on the issue. Ansgar was convinced he was commanded by heaven to undertake this mission, and was influenced by a vision he received when he was concerned about the journey, in which he met a man who reassured him of his purpose and informed him of a prophet that he would meet, the abbot Adalhard, who would instruct him in what was to happen. In the vision, he searched for and found Adalhard, who commanded, \"Islands, listen to me, pay attention, remotest peoples\", which Ansgar interpreted as God's will that he go to the Scandinavian countries as \"most of that country consisted of islands, and also, when 'I will make you the light of the nations so that my salvation may reach to the ends of the earth' was added, since the end of the world in the north was in Swedish territory\".\n\nStatues dedicated to him stand in Hamburg, Copenhagen, Ribe as well as a stone cross at Birka. A crater on the Moon, Ansgarius, has been named for him. His feast day is 3 February.\n",
"\n\n*List of Catholic saints\n*List of Eastern Orthodox saints\n* Hochkirchlicher Apostolat St. Ansgar\n*''Vita Ansgarii''\n",
"\n* Jakobsson, Sverrir. ''Mission Miscarried: The Narrators of the Ninth-Century Missions to Scandinavia and Central Europe''. Bulgaria Medievalis 2 (2011), 49-69.\nPalmer, James T., ''Rimbert's Vita Anskarii and the Scandinavian Mission in the Ninth Century''. Journal of Ecclesiastical History 55/2 (2004), 235-56.\nPryce, Mark. ''Literary Companion to the Festivals: A Poetic Gathering to Accompany Liturgical Celebrations of Commemorations and Festivals.'' Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003.\n* Tschan, Francis J. ''History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.\n* Wood, Ian. ''The Missionary Life: Saints and the Evangelisation of Europe, 400 – 1050''. Great Britain: Longman, 2001.\n* ''Life of Ansgar''\n* \n",
"\n* Ansgar at Birka History of Birka\n*Vita Ansgari, English translation from Medieval sourcebook\n* German History Forum\n* ANSKAR The Apostle of the North (801–865). Translated from the Vita Anskarii by Bishop Rimbert his fellow missionary and successor. BY CHARLES H. ROBINSON. Im BTM format\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
" Relics ",
"Visions",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Ansgar |
[
"'''Automated theorem proving''' (also known as '''ATP''' or '''automated deduction''') is a subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic dealing with proving mathematical theorems by computer programs. Automated reasoning over mathematical proof was a major impetus for the development of computer science.\n",
"While the roots of formalised logic go back to Aristotle, the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the development of modern logic and formalised mathematics. Frege's ''Begriffsschrift'' (1879) introduced both a complete propositional calculus and what is essentially modern predicate logic. His ''Foundations of Arithmetic'', published 1884, expressed (parts of) mathematics in formal logic. This approach was continued by Russell and Whitehead in their influential ''Principia Mathematica'', first published 1910–1913, and with a revised second edition in 1927. Russell and Whitehead thought they could derive all mathematical truth using axioms and inference rules of formal logic, in principle opening up the process to automatisation. In 1920, Thoralf Skolem simplified a previous result by Leopold Löwenheim, leading to the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and, in 1930, to the notion of a Herbrand universe and a Herbrand interpretation that allowed (un)satisfiability of first-order formulas (and hence the validity of a theorem) to be reduced to (potentially infinitely many) propositional satisfiability problems.\n\nIn 1929, Mojżesz Presburger showed that the theory of natural numbers with addition and equality (now called Presburger arithmetic in his honor) is decidable and gave an algorithm that could determine if a given sentence in the language was true or false.\nHowever, shortly after this positive result, Kurt Gödel published ''On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems'' (1931), showing that in any sufficiently strong axiomatic system there are true statements which cannot be proved in the system. This topic was further developed in the 1930s by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, who on the one hand gave two independent but equivalent definitions of computability, and on the other gave concrete examples for undecidable questions.\n",
"\nShortly after World War II, the first general purpose computers became available. In 1954, Martin Davis programmed Presburger's algorithm for a JOHNNIAC vacuum tube computer at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study. According to Davis, \"Its great triumph was to prove that the sum of two even numbers is even\". More ambitious was the Logic Theory Machine, a deduction system for the propositional logic of the ''Principia Mathematica'', developed by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon and J. C. Shaw. Also running on a JOHNNIAC, the Logic Theory Machine constructed proofs from a small set of propositional axioms and three deduction rules: modus ponens, (propositional) variable substitution, and the replacement of formulas by their definition. The system used heuristic guidance, and managed to prove 38 of the first 52 theorems of the ''Principia''.\n\nThe \"heuristic\" approach of the Logic Theory Machine tried to emulate human mathematicians, and could not guarantee that a proof could be found for every valid theorem even in principle. In contrast, other, more systematic algorithms achieved, at least theoretically, completeness for first-order logic. Initial approaches relied on the results of Herbrand and Skolem to convert a first-order formula into successively larger sets of propositional formulae by instantiating variables with terms from the Herbrand universe. The propositional formulas could then be checked for unsatisfiability using a number of methods. Gilmore's program used conversion to disjunctive normal form, a form in which the satisfiability of a formula is obvious.\n",
"\nDepending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a formula varies from trivial to impossible. For the frequent case of propositional logic, the problem is decidable but co-NP-complete, and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proof tasks. For a first order predicate calculus, Gödel's completeness theorem states that the theorems (provable statements) are exactly the logically valid well-formed formulas, so identifying valid formulas is recursively enumerable: given unbounded resources, any valid formula can eventually be proven. However, ''invalid'' formulas (those that are ''not'' entailed by a given theory), cannot always be recognized.\n\nThe above applies to first order theories, such as Peano arithmetic. However, for a specific model that may be described by a first order theory, some statements may be true but undecidable in the theory used to describe the model. For example, by Gödel's incompleteness theorem, we know that any theory whose proper axioms are true for the natural numbers cannot prove all first order statements true for the natural numbers, even if the list of proper axioms is allowed to be infinite enumerable. It follows that an automated theorem prover will fail to terminate while searching for a proof precisely when the statement being investigated is undecidable in the theory being used, even if it is true in the model of interest. Despite this theoretical limit, in practice, theorem provers can solve many hard problems, even in models that are not fully described by any first order theory (such as the integers).\n",
"\nA simpler, but related, problem is '''proof verification''', where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid. For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a primitive recursive function or program, and hence the problem is always decidable.\n\nSince the proofs generated by automated theorem provers are typically very large, the problem of proof compression is crucial and various techniques aiming at making the prover's output smaller, and consequently more easily understandable and checkable, have been developed.\n\nProof assistants require a human user to give hints to the system. Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically. Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have proved a number of interesting and hard theorems, including at least one that has eluded human mathematicians for a long time, namely the Robbins conjecture. However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user.\n\nAnother distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference. Other techniques would include model checking, which, in the simplest case, involves brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force).\n\nThere are hybrid theorem proving systems which use model checking as an inference rule. There are also programs which were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true. A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the four color theorem, which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof which was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program's calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs). Another example of a program-assisted proof is the one that shows that the game of Connect Four can always be won by first player.\n",
"\nCommercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification. Since the Pentium FDIV bug, the complicated floating point units of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny. AMD, Intel and others use automated theorem proving to verify that division and other operations are correctly implemented in their processors.\n",
"In the late 1960s agencies funding research in automated deduction began to emphasize the need for practical applications. One of the first fruitful areas was that of program verification whereby first-order theorem provers were applied to the problem of verifying the correctness of computer programs in languages such as Pascal, Ada, Java etc. Notable among early program verification systems was the Stanford Pascal Verifier developed by David Luckham at Stanford University. This was based on the Stanford Resolution Prover also developed at Stanford using J.A. Robinson's resolution Principle. This was the first automated deduction system to demonstrate an ability to solve mathematical problems that were announced in the Notices of the American Mathematical Society before solutions were formally published.\n\nFirst-order theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling ''fully'' automated systems. More expressive logics, such as higher order logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed.\n",
"The quality of implemented systems has benefited from the existence of a large library of standard benchmark examples — the Thousands of Problems for Theorem Provers (TPTP) Problem Library — as well as from the CADE ATP System Competition (CASC), a yearly competition of first-order systems for many important classes of first-order problems.\n\nSome important systems (all have won at least one CASC competition division) are listed below.\n* E is a high-performance prover for full first-order logic, but built on a purely equational calculus, developed primarily in the automated reasoning group of Technical University of Munich.\n* Otter, developed at the Argonne National Laboratory, is based on first-order resolution and paramodulation. Otter has since been replaced by Prover9, which is paired with Mace4.\n* SETHEO is a high-performance system based on the goal-directed model elimination calculus. It is developed in the automated reasoning group of Technical University of Munich. E and SETHEO have been combined (with other systems) in the composite theorem prover E-SETHEO.\n* Vampire is developed and implemented at Manchester University by Andrei Voronkov and Krystof Hoder, formerly also by Alexandre Riazanov. It has won the CADE ATP System Competition in the most prestigious CNF (MIX) division for eleven years (1999, 2001–2010).\n* Waldmeister is a specialized system for unit-equational first-order logic. It has won the CASC UEQ division for the last fourteen years (1997–2010).\n* SPASS is a first order logic theorem prover with equality. This is developed by the research group Automation of Logic, Max Planck Institute for Computer Science.\n",
"\n*First-order resolution with unification\n*Model elimination\n*Method of analytic tableaux\n*Superposition and term rewriting\n*Model checking\n*Mathematical induction\n*Binary decision diagrams\n*DPLL\n*Higher-order unification\n",
"\n\n\n Name !! License type !! Web service !! Library !! Standalone !! Version !! Last update !! Author !! Notice\n\n ACL2 \n 3-clause BSD \n \n \n \n 7.2 \n 2016/01 \n Matt Kaufmann, J Strother Moore \n –\n\n Otter \n Public Domain \n \n \n \n 3.3f \n 2004/09 \n William McCune / Argonne National Laboratory \n –\n\n j'Imp \n ? \n \n \n \n – \n 2010/05/28 \n André Platzer \n –\n\n Metis \n MIT License \n \n \n \n 2.3 \n 2016/11/08 \n Joe Hurd \n –\n\n MetiTarski \n MIT \n \n \n \n 2.4 \n 2014/10/21 \n Larry Paulson, James Bridge, Grant Passmore, Behzad Akbarpour, Joe Hurd. University of Cambridge \n –\n\n Jape \n GPLv2 \n \n \n \n v7_d15 \n 2015/05/15 \n Adolfo Gustavo Neto, USP \n –\n\n PVS \n GPLv2 \n \n \n \n 6.0 \n 2013-01-14 \n Computer Science Laboratory of SRI International, California, USA \n –\n\n Leo II \n BSD License \n \n \n \n 1.7.0 \n 2013 \n Christoph Benzmüller, Frank Theiss, Larry Paulson. FU Berlin and University of Cambridge \n –\n\n EQP \n ? \n \n \n \n 0.9e \n 2009/05 \n William McCune / Argonne National Laboratory \n –\n\n SAD \n GPLv3 \n \n \n \n 2.3–25 \n 2008/08/27 \n Alexander Lyaletski, Konstantin Verchinine, Andrei Paskevich \n –\n\n PhoX \n ? \n \n \n \n 0.88.100524 \n – \n Christophe Raffalli, Philippe Curmin, Pascal Manoury, Paul Roziere \n –\n\n KeYmaera \n GPL \n \n \n \n3.6.17 \n 2015/03/11 \n André Platzer, Jan-David Quesel; Philipp Rümmer; David Renshaw \n –\n\n Gandalf \n ? \n \n \n \n 3.6 \n 2009 \n Tanel Tammet, Tallinn University of Technology \n –\n\n Tau \n ? \n \n \n \n – \n 2005 \n Jay R. Halcomb e Randall R. Schulz da H&S Information Systems \n –\n\n E \n GPL \n \n \n \n E 1.9.1 Sungma \n 2016/08/31 \n Stephan Schulz, Baden-Württemberg Cooperative State University \n –\n\n SNARK \n Mozilla Public License 1.1 \n \n \n \n snark-20120808r022 \n 2012 \n Mark E. Stickel \n –\n\n Vampire \n? \n \n \n \n Third re-incarnation Vampire\n 2011 \n Andrei Voronkov, Alexandre Riazanov, Krystof Hoder \n –\n\n Waldmeister \n? \n \n \n \n – \n – \n Thomas Hillenbrand, Bernd Löchner, Arnim Buch, Roland Vogt, Doris Diedrich \n –\n\n Saturate \n ? \n \n \n \n 2.5 \n 1996/10 \n Harald Ganzinger, Robert Nieuwenhuis, Pilar Nivela Pilar Nivela \n –\n\n Theorem Proving System (TPS) \n ? \n \n \n \n 2012-02-04 \n 2012/02/04 \n Carnegie Mellon University \n –\n\n SPASS \n FreeBSD license \n \n \n \n 3.7 \n 2005/11 \n Max Planck Institut Informatik \n –\n\n IsaPlanner \n GPL \n \n \n \n IsaPlanner 2 \n 2007 \n Lucas Dixon, Johansson Moa \n –\n\n KeY \n GPL \n \n \n \n 2.4.1 \n 2015/02 \n Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, TU Darmstadt \n –\n\n Meta Theorem \n? \n \n \n \n 0\n\n 2017 \n Robert Swartz, Northeastern Illinois University \n –\n\n Princess \n lgpl v2.1 \n \n \n \n 2016-07-01 \n 2016-07-01 \n Philipp Rümmer, Uppsala University \n –\n\n\n\n=== Free software ===\n* Alt-Ergo\n* Automath\n* CVC\n* E ()\n* Gödel machine\n* iProver\n* IsaPlanner\n* KED theorem prover\n* leanCoP\n* Leo II ()\n* LCF\n* LoTREC\n* MetaPRL\n* Mizar\n* NuPRL\n* Paradox\n* Simplify ( GPL'ed since 5/2011)\n* Twelf\n* SPARK (programming language)\n\n=== Proprietary software ===\n* Acumen RuleManager (commercial product)\n* ALLIGATOR\n* CARINE\n* KIV (freely available as a plugin for Eclipse)\n* Prover Plug-In (commercial proof engine product)\n* ProverBox\n* ResearchCyc\n* Spear modular arithmetic theorem prover\n",
"\n* Leo Bachmair, co-developer of the superposition calculus.\n* Woody Bledsoe, artificial intelligence pioneer.\n* Robert S. Boyer, co-author of the Boyer-Moore theorem prover, co-recipient of the Herbrand Award 1999.\n* Alan Bundy, University of Edinburgh, meta-level reasoning for guiding inductive proof, proof planning and recipient of 2007 IJCAI Award for Research Excellence, Herbrand Award, and 2003 Donald E. Walker Distinguished Service Award.\n* William McCune Argonne National Laboratory, author of Otter, the first high-performance theorem prover. Many important papers, recipient of the Herbrand Award 2000.\n* Hubert Comon, CNRS and now ENS Cachan. Many important papers.\n* Robert Lee Constable, Cornell University. Important contributions to type theory, NuPRL.\n* Martin Davis, author of the \"Handbook of Artificial Reasoning\", co-inventor of the DPLL algorithm, recipient of the Herbrand Award 2005.\n* Branden Fitelson University of California at Berkeley. Work in automated discovery of shortest axiomatic bases for logic systems.\n* Harald Ganzinger, co-developer of the superposition calculus, head of the MPI Saarbrücken, recipient of the Herbrand Award 2004 (posthumous).\n* Michael Genesereth, Stanford University professor of Computer Science.\n* Melvin Fitting, author of several books and several hundred articles in ATP, software researcher in tableau proof systems.\n* Keith Goolsbey chief developer of the Cyc inference engine.\n* Michael J. C. Gordon led the development of the HOL theorem prover.\n* Gérard Huet Term rewriting, HOL logics, Herbrand Award 1998.\n* Robert Kowalski developed the connection graph theorem-prover and SLD resolution, the inference engine that executes logic programs.\n* Donald W. Loveland Duke University. Author, co-developer of the DPLL-procedure, developer of model elimination, recipient of the Herbrand Award 2001.\n* David Luckham Stanford University, Developed the Stanford Resolution Theorem Prover 1968, the first automated deduction system used to solve problems announced in the Notices of the AMS, and subsequently developed the Stanford Pascal Verifier, the first program verification system for Pascal, and a widely distributed program verification system, 1968-75\n* Norman Megill, developer of Metamath, and maintainer of its site at metamath.org, an online database of automatically verified proofs.\n* J Strother Moore, co-author of the Boyer–Moore theorem prover, co-recipient of the Herbrand Award 1999.\n* Robert Nieuwenhuis University of Barcelona. Co-developer of the superposition calculus.\n* Tobias Nipkow of the Technical University of Munich, contributions to (higher-order) rewriting, co-developer of the Isabelle proof assistant\n* Ross Overbeek Argonne National Laboratory. Founder of The Fellowship for Interpretation of Genomes\n* Lawrence C. Paulson of the University of Cambridge, work on higher-order logic system, co-developer of the Isabelle Theorem Prover\n* David Plaisted University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Complexity results, contributions to rewriting and completion, instance-based theorem proving.\n* John Rushby Program Director – SRI International\n* J. Alan Robinson Syracuse University. Developed original resolution and unification based first order theorem proving, co-editor of the \"Handbook of Automated Reasoning\", recipient of the Herbrand Award 1996\n* Jürgen Schmidhuber, work on Gödel Machines: Self-Referential Universal Problem Solvers Making Provably Optimal Self-Improvements\n* Stephan Schulz, E theorem Prover.\n* Natarajan Shankar SRI International, work on decision procedures, ''little engines of proof'', co-developer of PVS.\n* Mark Stickel SRI International. Recipient of the Herbrand Award 2002.\n* Geoff Sutcliffe University of Miami. Maintainer of the TPTP collection, an organizer of the CADE annual contest.\n* Dolph Ulrich Purdue, Work on automated discovery of shortest axiomatic bases for systems.\n* Robert Veroff University of New Mexico. Many important papers.\n* Andrei Voronkov Developer of Vampire and Co-Editor of the \"Handbook of Automated Reasoning\"\n* Larry Wos Argonne National Laboratory. (Otter) Many important papers. Very first Herbrand Award winner (1992)\n* Wen-Tsun Wu Work in geometric theorem proving: Wu's method, Herbrand Award 1997\n* Christoph Weidenbach, author of SPASS, automated theorem prover.\n",
"\n* Symbolic computation\n* Computer-aided proof\n* Automated reasoning\n* Formal verification\n* Logic programming\n* Proof checking\n* Model checking\n* Proof complexity\n* Computer algebra system\n* Program analysis (computer science)\n* General Problem Solver\n* Metamath language for formalized mathematics\n\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n*\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"* A list of theorem proving tools\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Logical foundations ",
" First implementations ",
" Decidability of the problem ",
" Related problems ",
" Industrial uses ",
"First-order theorem proving",
"Benchmarks and competitions",
" Popular techniques ",
" Comparison ",
" Notable people ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Automated theorem proving |
[
"\n\nU.S. Army Huey helicopter spraying Agent Orange over agricultural land during the Vietnam War\n\n'''Agent Orange''' is an herbicide and defoliant chemical. It is widely known for its use by the U.S. Military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971. It was a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides, 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D. In addition to its damaging environmental effects, the chemical has caused major health problems for many individuals who were exposed.\n\nUp to 4 million people in Vietnam were exposed to the defoliant, with around 1 million now suffering serious health issues. The chemical is capable of damaging genes, resulting in deformities among the offspring of exposed victims. The U.S. government has documented higher cases of leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, as well as other various kinds of cancer in exposed veterans. Agent Orange also caused enormous environmental damage in Vietnam. Over 3,100,000 hectares (31,000 km2 or 11,969 mi2) of forest were defoliated. Defoliants eroded tree cover and seedling forest stock, making reforestation difficult in numerous areas. Animal species diversity sharply reduced in contrast with unsprayed areas.\n\nThe aftermath of the use of Agent Orange in Vietnam resulted in massive legal consequences. The United Nations ratified United Nations General Assembly Resolution 31/72 and the Environmental Modification Convention. Lawsuits filed on behalf of both US and Vietnamese veterans sought compensation for damages.\n\nAgent Orange was to a lesser extent used outside Vietnam. Land in neighbouring Laos and Cambodia was also sprayed with Agent Orange during the Vietnam War because forests on the border with Vietnam were used by the Vietcong. Some countries, such as Canada, saw testing, while other countries, such as Brazil, used the herbicide to clear out sections of land for agriculture.\n",
"2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)\n2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)\n2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T)\n\nThe main ingredients of Agent Orange comprise an equal mixture of two phenoxyl herbicides – 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) – in iso-octyl ester form, which contained traces of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD).\n\nThe dioxin TCDD is a significant contaminant of Agent Orange. TCDD is the most toxic of the dioxins, and is classified as a human carcinogen by the US Environmental Protection Agency.\n\nAgent Orange dries quickly after spraying and breaks down within hours to days when exposed to sunlight (if not bound chemically to a biological surface such as soil, leaves and grass) and is no longer harmful.\n\n===Toxicology===\nDue to its fat-soluble nature, dioxin enters through physical contact or ingestion. Dioxin easily accumulates in the food chain. Dioxin enters the body by attaching to a protein called the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a transcription factor. When dioxin binds to AhR, the protein moves to the nucleus, where it influences gene expression.\n",
"Several herbicides were discovered as part of efforts by the USA and the British to develop herbicidal weapons for use during World War II. These included 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), 2,4,5-T (coded LN-14, and also known as trioxone), MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid, 1414B and 1414A, recoded LN-8 and LN-32), and isopropyl phenylcarbamate (1313, recoded LN-33).\n\nIn 1943, the U.S. Department of the Army contracted the botanist and bioethicist Arthur Galston, who discovered the defoliants later used in Agent Orange, and his employer University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana to study the effects of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T on cereal grains (including rice) and broadleaf crops. Galston, then a graduate student at the University of Illinois, in his research and 1943 Ph.D. dissertation focused on finding a chemical means to make soybeans flower and fruit earlier. He discovered both that 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) would speed up the flowering of soybeans and that in higher concentrations it would defoliate the soybeans. From these studies arose the concept of using aerial applications of herbicides to destroy enemy crops to disrupt their food supply. In early 1945, the U.S. Army ran tests of various 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T mixtures at the Bushnell Army Airfield in Florida. As a result, the U.S. began a full-scale production of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T and would have used it against Japan in 1946 during Operation Downfall if the war had continued.\n\nBy the end of the war, the relationship between the two countries was well established. In the years after the war, the U.S. tested 1,100 compounds, and field trials of the more promising ones were done at British stations in India and Australia, in order to establish their effects in tropical conditions, as well as at the U.S.'s testing ground in Florida.\n\nBetween 1950 and 1952, trials were conducted in Tanganyika, at Kikore and Stunyansa, to test arboricides and defoliants under tropical conditions. The chemicals involved were 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and endothall (3,6-endoxohexahydrophthalic acid). During 1952–53, the unit supervised the aerial spraying of 2,4,5-T over the Waturi peninsula in Kenya to assess the value of defoliants in the eradication of tsetse fly.\n",
"British General Sir Gerald Templer authorized the use of 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D (Agent Orange) throughout the Malayan Emergency to destroy bushes, trees, and vegetation in order to deprive the insurgents of cover.\n\nDuring the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960), Britain was the first nation to employ the use of herbicides and defoliants to destroy bushes, trees, and vegetation to deprive insurgents of concealment and targeting food crops as part of a starvation campaign in the early 1950s. A detailed account of how the British experimented with the spraying of herbicides was written by two scientists, E.K. Woodford of Agricultural Research Council's Unit of Experimental Agronomy and H.G.H. Kearns of the University of Bristol.\n\nAfter the Malayan conflict ended in 1960, the U.S. considered the British precedent in deciding that the use of defoliants was a legal tactic of warfare. Secretary of State Dean Rusk advised President John F. Kennedy that the British had established a precedent for warfare with herbicides in Malaya.\n",
"Map showing locations of U.S. Army aerial herbicide spray missions in South Vietnam taking place from 1965 to 1971.\n\nIn mid-1961, President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam asked the United States to conduct aerial herbicide spraying in his country. In August of that year, the Republic of Vietnam Air Force conducted herbicide operations with American help. But Diem's request launched a policy debate in the White House and the State and Defense Departments. However, U.S. officials considered using it, pointing out that the British had already used herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s. In November 1961, President John F. Kennedy authorized the start of Operation Ranch Hand, the codename for the U.S. Air Force's herbicide program in Vietnam.\n\nDuring the Vietnam War, between 1962 and 1971, the United States military sprayed nearly of various chemicals – the \"rainbow herbicides\" and defoliants – in Vietnam, eastern Laos, and parts of Cambodia as part of the aerial defoliation program known as Operation Ranch Hand, reaching its peak from 1967 to 1969. For comparison purposes, an olympic size pool holds approximately 660,000 U.S. gallons (2,500,000 L). As the British did in Malaya, the goal of the US was to defoliate rural/forested land, depriving guerrillas of food and concealment and clearing sensitive areas such as around base perimeters. The program was also a part of a general policy of forced draft urbanization, which aimed to destroy the ability of peasants to support themselves in the countryside, forcing them to flee to the U.S.-dominated cities, depriving the guerrillas of their rural support base.\n\nMilitary film footage of U.S. troops spraying Agent Orange from a riverboat in Vietnam.\nAgent Orange was usually sprayed from helicopters or from low-flying C-123 Provider aircraft, fitted with sprayers and \"MC-1 Hourglass\" pump systems and chemical tanks. Spray runs were also conducted from trucks, boats, and backpack sprayers.\n\nThe first batch of herbicides was unloaded at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, on January 9, 1962. U.S. Air Force records show at least 6,542 spraying missions took place over the course of Operation Ranch Hand. By 1971, 12 percent of the total area of South Vietnam had been sprayed with defoliating chemicals, at an average concentration of 13 times the recommended U.S. Department of Agriculture application rate for domestic use. In South Vietnam alone, an estimated 10 million hectares of agricultural land was ultimately destroyed. In some areas, TCDD concentrations in soil and water were hundreds of times greater than the levels considered safe by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.\n\nThe campaign destroyed of upland and mangrove forests and millions of acres of crops. Overall, more than 20% of South Vietnam's forests were sprayed at least once over a nine-year period.\n\nIn 1965, members of the U.S. Congress were told \"crop destruction is understood to be the more important purpose ... but the emphasis is usually given to the jungle defoliation in public mention of the program.\" Military personnel were told they were destroying crops because they were going to be used to feed guerrillas. They later discovered nearly all of the food they had been destroying was not being produced for guerrillas; it was, in reality, only being grown to support the local civilian population. For example, in Quang Ngai province, 85% of the crop lands were scheduled to be destroyed in 1970 alone. This contributed to widespread famine, leaving hundreds of thousands of people malnourished or starving.\n\nThe U.S. military began targeting food crops in October 1962, primarily using Agent Blue; the American public was not made aware of the crop destruction programs until 1965 (and it was then believed that crop spraying had begun that spring). In 1965, 42 percent of all herbicide spraying was dedicated to food crops. The first official acknowledgement of the programs came from the State Department in March 1966.\n\nMany experts at the time, including Arthur Galston, opposed herbicidal warfare due to concerns about the side effects to humans and the environment by indiscriminately spraying the chemical over a wide area. As early as 1966, resolutions were introduced to the United Nations charging that the U.S. was violating the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which regulated the use of chemical and biological weapons. The U.S. defeated most of the resolutions, arguing that Agent Orange was not a chemical or a biological weapon as it was considered a herbicide and a defoliant and it was used in effort to destroy plant crops and to deprive the enemy of concealment and not meant to target human beings. The U.S. delegation argued that a weapon, by definition, is any device used to injure, defeat, or destroy living beings, structures, or systems, and Agent Orange did not qualify under that definition. It also argued that if the U.S. were to be charged for using Agent Orange, then Britain and its Commonwealth nations should be charged since they also used it widely during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s. In 1969, Britain commented on the draft Resolution 2603 (XXIV): \"The evidence seems to us to be notably inadequate for the assertion that the use in war of chemical substances specifically toxic to plants is prohibited by international law.\"\n\n\nFile:Agent-Orange--stack-of-55-gallon-drums.jpg|Stacks of 55-gallon (200 L) drums containing Agent Orange.\nFile:'Ranch Hand' run.jpg|Defoliant spray run, part of Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War by UC-123B Provider aircraft.\nFile:US-Army-APC-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg|U.S. Army armored personnel carrier (APC) spraying Agent Orange over Vietnamese rice fields during the Vietnam War.\nFile:Defoliation agent spraying.jpg|A UH-1D helicopter from the 336th Aviation Company sprays a defoliation agent over farmland in the Mekong Delta.\n\n",
"===Vietnamese people===\n\nThe government of Vietnam says that 4 million of its citizens were exposed to Agent Orange, and as many as 3 million have suffered illnesses because of it; these figures include their children who were exposed. The Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up to 1 million people are disabled or have health problems due to contaminated Agent Orange. The United States government has challenged these figures as being unreliable.\n\nAccording to a study by Dr. Nguyen Viet Nhan, children in the areas where Agent Orange was used have been affected and have multiple health problems, including cleft palate, mental disabilities, hernias, and extra fingers and toes. In the 1970s, high levels of dioxin were found in the breast milk of South Vietnamese women, and in the blood of U.S. military personnel who had served in Vietnam. The most affected zones are the mountainous area along Truong Son (Long Mountains) and the border between Vietnam and Cambodia. The affected residents are living in substandard conditions with many genetic diseases.\n\nIn 2006, Anh Duc Ngo and colleagues of the University of Texas Health Science Center published a meta-analysis that exposed a large amount of heterogeneity (different findings) between studies, a finding consistent with a lack of consensus on the issue. Despite this, statistical analysis of the studies they examined resulted in data that the increase in birth defects/relative risk (RR) from exposure to agent orange/dioxin \"appears\" to be on the order of 3 in Vietnamese funded studies but 1.29 in the rest of the world. With a casual relationship near the threshold of statistical significance in still-births, cleft palate, and neural tube defects, with spina bifida being the most statistically significant defect. The large discrepancy in RR between Vietnamese studies and those in the rest of the world has been ascribed to bias in the Vietnamese studies.\n\n28 of the former U.S. military bases in Vietnam where the herbicides were stored and loaded onto airplanes may still have high level of dioxins in the soil, posing a health threat to the surrounding communities. Extensive testing for dioxin contamination has been conducted at the former U.S. airbases in Danang, Phù Cát District and Biên Hòa. Some of the soil and sediment on the bases have extremely high levels of dioxin requiring remediation. The Da Nang Air Base has dioxin contamination up to 350 times higher than international recommendations for action. The contaminated soil and sediment continue to affect the citizens of Vietnam, poisoning their food chain and causing illnesses, serious skin diseases and a variety of cancers in the lungs, larynx, and prostate.\n\n\nFile:Agent Orange Deformities (3786919757).jpg\nFile:Agent-Orange-dioxin-skin-damage-Vietnam.jpg|Major Tự Đức Phang was exposed to dioxin-contaminated Agent Orange.\n\n\n\n===U.S. veterans===\nSeveral publications published by the Public Health Service have shown that veterans have increased rates of cancer, and nerve, digestive, skin, and respiratory disorders. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention notes that in particular, there are higher rates of acute/chronic leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, throat cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, Ischemic heart disease, soft tissue sarcoma and liver cancer. With the exception of liver cancer, these are the same conditions the U.S. Veterans Administration has determined may be associated with exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin, and are on the list of conditions eligible for compensation and treatment.\n\nMilitary personnel who were involved in storage, mixture and transportation (including aircraft mechanics), and actual use of the chemicals were probably among those who received the heaviest exposures. Military members who served on Okinawa also claim to have been exposed to the chemical but there is no verifiable evidence to corroborate these claims.\n\nMore recent research established that veterans exposed to Agent Orange suffer more than twice the rate of highly aggressive prostate cancer. Additionally, recent reports from the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences show that Agent Orange exposure also doubles the risk of invasive skin cancers.\n\nWhile in Vietnam, the veterans were told not to worry, and were persuaded the chemical was harmless. After returning home, Vietnam veterans began to suspect their ill health or the instances of their wives having miscarriages or children born with birth defects might be related to Agent Orange and the other toxic herbicides to which they had been exposed in Vietnam. Veterans began to file claims in 1977 to the Department of Veterans Affairs for disability payments for health care for conditions they believed were associated with exposure to Agent Orange, or more specifically, dioxin, but their claims were denied unless they could prove the condition began when they were in the service or within one year of their discharge.\n\nBy April 1993, the Department of Veterans Affairs had compensated only 486 victims, although it had received disability claims from 39,419 soldiers who had been exposed to Agent Orange while serving in Vietnam.\n",
"\nMangrove forests, like the top one east of Saigon, were often destroyed by herbicides.\nAbout 17.8 percent——of the total forested area of Vietnam was sprayed during the war, which disrupted the ecological equilibrium. The persistent nature of dioxins, erosion caused by loss of tree cover, and loss of seedling forest stock meant that reforestation was difficult (or impossible) in many areas. Many defoliated forest areas were quickly invaded by aggressive pioneer species (such as bamboo and cogon grass), making forest regeneration difficult and unlikely. Animal-species diversity was also impacted; in one study a Harvard biologist found 24 species of birds and five species of mammals in a sprayed forest, while in two adjacent sections of unsprayed forest there were 145 and 170 species of birds and 30 and 55 species of mammals.\n\nDioxins from Agent Orange have persisted in the Vietnamese environment since the war, settling in the soil and sediment and entering the food chain through animals and fish which feed in the contaminated areas. The movement of dioxins through the food web has resulted in bioconcentration and biomagnification. The areas most heavily contaminated with dioxins are former U.S. air bases.\n",
"American policy during the Vietnam war was to destroy crops, accepting the sociopolitical impact that that would have. The RAND Corporation's ''Memorandum 5446-ISA/ARPA'' states: \"the fact that the VC the Vietcong obtain most of their food from the neutral rural population dictates the destruction of civilian crops ... if they are to be hampered by the crop destruction program, it will be necessary to destroy large portions of the rural economy – probably 50% or more\". Crops were deliberately sprayed with Agent Orange, areas were bulldozed clear of vegetation, and the rural population was subjected to bombing and artillery fire. In consequence, the urban population in South Vietnam nearly tripled, growing from 2.8 million people in 1958 to 8 million by 1971. The rapid flow of people led to a fast-paced and uncontrolled urbanization; an estimated 1.5 million people were living in Saigon slums due to people moving to cities.\n",
"=== International ===\nThe extensive environmental damage that resulted from usage of the herbicide prompted the United Nations to pass Resolution 31/72 and ratify the Environmental Modification Convention. Many states do not regard this as a complete ban on the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare but it does require case-by-case consideration.\n\nIn the Conference on Disarmament, Article 2(4) Protocol III of the weaponry convention contains \"The Jungle Exception\", which prohibits states from attacking forests or jungles \"except if such natural elements are used to cover, conceal or camouflage combatants or military objectives or are military objectives themselves\". This exception voids any protection of any military and civilian personnel from a napalm attack or something like Agent Orange and is clear that it was designed to cover situations like U.S. tactics in Vietnam. This clause has yet to be revised.\n\n=== U.S. veterans class action lawsuit against manufacturers ===\nSince at least 1978, several lawsuits have been filed against the companies which produced Agent Orange, among them Dow Chemical, Monsanto, and Diamond Shamrock.\n\nAttorney Hy Mayerson was an early pioneer in Agent Orange litigation, working with environmental attorney Victor Yannacone in 1980 on the first class-action suits against wartime manufacturers of Agent Orange. In meeting Dr. Ronald A. Codario, one of the first civilian doctors to see afflicted patients, Mayerson, so impressed by the fact a physician would show so much interest in a Vietnam veteran, forwarded more than a thousand pages of information on Agent Orange and the effects of dioxin on animals and humans to Codario's office the day after he was first contacted by the doctor. The corporate defendants sought to escape culpability by blaming everything on the U.S. government.\n\nMayerson, with Sgt. Charles E. Hartz as their principal client, filed the first US Agent Orange class-action lawsuit, in Pennsylvania in 1980, for the injuries military personnel in Vietnam suffered through exposure to toxic dioxins in the defoliant. Attorney Mayerson co-wrote the brief that certified the Agent Orange Product Liability action as a class action, the largest ever filed as of its filing. Hartz's deposition was one of the first ever taken in America, and the first for an Agent Orange trial, for the purpose of preserving testimony at trial, as it was understood that Hartz would not live to see the trial because of a brain tumor that began to develop while he was a member of Tiger Force, Special Forces, and LRRPs in Vietnam. The firm also located and supplied critical research to the Veterans' lead expert, Dr. Codario, including about 100 articles from toxicology journals dating back more than a decade, as well as data about where herbicides had been sprayed, what the effects of dioxin had been on animals and humans, and every accident in factories where herbicides were produced or dioxin was a contaminant of some chemical reaction.\n\nThe chemical companies involved denied that there was a link between Agent Orange and the veterans' medical problems. However, on May 7, 1984, seven chemical companies settled the class-action suit out of court just hours before jury selection was to begin. The companies agreed to pay $180 million as compensation if the veterans dropped all claims against them. Slightly over 45% of the sum was ordered to be paid by Monsanto alone. Many veterans who were victims of Agent Orange exposure were outraged the case had been settled instead of going to court, and felt they had been betrayed by the lawyers. \"Fairness Hearings\" were held in five major American cities, where veterans and their families discussed their reactions to the settlement, and condemned the actions of the lawyers and courts, demanding the case be heard before a jury of their peers. Federal Judge Julius Weinstein refused the appeals, claiming the settlement was \"fair and just\". By 1989, the veterans' fears were confirmed when it was decided how the money from the settlement would be paid out. A totally disabled Vietnam veteran would receive a maximum of $12,000 spread out over the course of 10 years. Furthermore, by accepting the settlement payments, disabled veterans would become ineligible for many state benefits that provided far more monetary support than the settlement, such as food stamps, public assistance, and government pensions. A widow of a Vietnam veteran who died of Agent Orange exposure would only receive $3700.\n\nIn 2004, Monsanto spokesman Jill Montgomery said Monsanto should not be liable at all for injuries or deaths caused by Agent Orange, saying: \"We are sympathetic with people who believe they have been injured and understand their concern to find the cause, but reliable scientific evidence indicates that Agent Orange is not the cause of serious long-term health effects.\"\n\n===New Jersey Agent Orange Commission===\nIn 1980, New Jersey created the New Jersey Agent Orange Commission, the first state commission created to study its effects. The commission's research project in association with Rutgers University was called \"The Pointman Project\". It was disbanded by Governor Christine Todd Whitman in 1996.\n\nDuring Pointman I, commission researchers devised ways to determine small dioxin levels in blood. Prior to this, such levels could only be found in the adipose (fat) tissue. The project studied dioxin (TCDD) levels in blood as well as in adipose tissue in a small group of Vietnam veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange and compared them to those of a matched control group; the levels were found to be higher in the former group.\n\nThe second phase of the project continued to examine and compare dioxin levels in various groups of Vietnam veterans, including Army, Marines and brown water riverboat Navy personnel.\n\n===U.S. Congress===\nIn 1991, Congress enacted the Agent Orange Act, giving the Department of Veterans Affairs the authority to declare certain conditions 'presumptive' to exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin, making these veterans who served in Vietnam eligible to receive treatment and compensation for these conditions. The same law required the National Academy of Sciences to periodically review the science on dioxin and herbicides used in Vietnam to inform the Secretary of Veterans Affairs about the strength of the scientific evidence showing association between exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin and certain conditions. The authority for the National Academy of Sciences reviews and addition of any new diseases to the presumptive list by the VA is expiring in 2015 under the sunset clause of the Agent Orange Act of 1991. Through this process, the list of 'presumptive' conditions has grown since 1991, and currently the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, type II diabetes mellitus, Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, soft tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange as conditions associated with exposure to the herbicide. This list now includes B cell leukemias, such as hairy cell leukemia, Parkinson's disease and ischemic heart disease, these last three having been added on August 31, 2010. Several highly placed individuals in government are voicing concerns about whether some of the diseases on the list should, in fact, actually have been included.\n\nIn 2011, an appraisal of the 20 year long ''Air Force Health Study'' that began in 1982 indicates that the results of the AFHS as they pretain to Agent Orange, do not provide evidence of disease in the Ranch Hand veterans due to \"their elevated levels of exposure to Agent Orange\".\n\nThe VA denied the applications of post-Vietnam C-123 aircrew veterans because as veterans without \"boots on the ground\" service in Vietnam, they were not covered under VA's interpretation of \"exposed\". At the request of the VA, the Institute Of Medicine evaluated whether or not service in these C-123 aircraft could have plausibly exposed soldiers and been detrimental to their health. Their report \"Post-Vietnam Dioxin Exposure in Agent Orange-Contaminated C-123 Aircraft\" confirmed it. In June 2015 the Secretary of Veterans Affairs issued an Interim final rule providing presumptive service connection for post-Vietnam C-123 aircrews, maintenance staff and aeromedical evacuation crews. VA now provides medical care and disability compensation for the recognized list of Agent Orange illnesses.\n\n===U.S.–Vietnamese government negotiations===\nIn 2002, Vietnam and the U.S. held a joint conference on Human Health and Environmental Impacts of Agent Orange. Following the conference, the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) began scientific exchanges between the U.S. and Vietnam, and began discussions for a joint research project on the human health impacts of Agent Orange.\n\nThese negotiations broke down in 2005, when neither side could agree on the research protocol and the research project was cancelled. More progress has been made on the environmental front. In 2005, the first U.S.-Vietnam workshop on remediation of dioxin was held.\n\nStarting in 2005, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began to work with the Vietnamese government to measure the level of dioxin at the Da Nang Airbase. Also in 2005, the Joint Advisory Committee on Agent Orange, made up of representatives of Vietnamese and U.S. government agencies, was established. The committee has been meeting yearly to explore areas of scientific cooperation, technical assistance and environmental remediation of dioxin.\n\nA breakthrough in the diplomatic stalemate on this issue occurred as a result of United States President George W. Bush's state visit to Vietnam in November 2006. In the joint statement, President Bush and President Triet agreed \"further joint efforts to address the environmental contamination near former dioxin storage sites would make a valuable contribution to the continued development of their bilateral relationship.\"\n\nOn May 25, 2007, President Bush signed the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007 into law for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan that included an earmark of $3 million specifically for funding for programs for the remediation of dioxin 'hotspots' on former U.S. military bases, and for public health programs for the surrounding communities; some authors consider this to be completely inadequate, pointing out that the U.S. airbase in Da Nang, alone, will cost $14 million to clean up, and that three others are estimated to require $60 million for cleanup. The appropriation was renewed in the fiscal year 2009 and again in FY 2010. An additional $12 million was appropriated in the fiscal year 2010 in the Supplemental Appropriations Act and a total of $18.5 million appropriated for fiscal year 2011.\n\nSecretary of State Hillary Clinton stated during a visit to Hanoi in October 2010 that the U.S. government would begin work on the clean-up of dioxin contamination at the Da Nang airbase.\n\nIn June 2011, a ceremony was held at Da Nang airport to mark the start of U.S.-funded decontamination of dioxin hotspots in Vietnam. Thirty-two million dollars has so far been allocated by the U.S. Congress to fund the program.\n\nA $43 million project began in the summer of 2012, as Vietnam and the U.S. forge closer ties to boost trade and counter China's rising influence in the disputed South China Sea.\n\n====Vietnamese victims class action lawsuit in U.S. courts====\nOn January 31, 2004, a victim's rights group, the Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/dioxin (VAVA), filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York in Brooklyn, against several U.S. companies for liability in causing personal injury, by developing, and producing the chemical, and claimed that the use of Agent Orange violated the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, 1925 Geneva Protocol, and the 1949 Geneva Conventions. Dow Chemical and Monsanto were the two largest producers of Agent Orange for the U.S. military, and were named in the suit, along with the dozens of other companies (Diamond Shamrock, Uniroyal, Thompson Chemicals, Hercules, etc.). On March 10, 2005, Judge Jack B. Weinstein of the Eastern District – who had presided over the 1984 U.S. veterans class-action lawsuit – dismissed the lawsuit, ruling there was no legal basis for the plaintiffs' claims. He concluded Agent Orange was not considered a poison under international law at the time of its use by the U.S.; the U.S. was not prohibited from using it as a herbicide; and the companies which produced the substance were not liable for the method of its use by the government. Weinstein used the British example to help dismiss the claims of people exposed to Agent Orange in their suit against the chemical companies that had supplied it.\n\n\n\nGeorge Jackson stated that \"if the Americans were guilty of war crimes for using Agent Orange in Vietnam, then the British would be also guilty of war crimes as well since they were the first nation to deploy the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare and used them on a large scale throughout the Malayan Emergency. Not only was there no outcry by other states in response to Britain's use, but the U.S. viewed it as establishing a precedent for the use of herbicides and defoliants in jungle warfare.\" The U.S. government was also not a party in the lawsuit, due to sovereign immunity, and the court ruled the chemical companies, as contractors of the U.S. government, shared the same immunity.\nThe case was appealed and heard by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in Manhattan on June 18, 2007. Three judges on the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld Weinstein's ruling to dismiss the case. They ruled that, though the herbicides contained a dioxin (a known poison), they were not intended to be used as a poison on humans. Therefore, they were not considered a chemical weapon and thus not a violation of international law. A further review of the case by the whole panel of judges of the Court of Appeals also confirmed this decision. The lawyers for the Vietnamese filed a petition to the U.S. Supreme Court to hear the case. On March 2, 2009, the Supreme Court denied certiorari and refused to reconsider the ruling of the Court of Appeals.\n\nIn a November 2004 Zogby International poll of 987 people, 79% of respondents thought the U.S. chemical companies which produced Agent Orange defoliant should compensate U.S. soldiers who were affected by the toxic chemical used during the war in Vietnam. Also, 51% said they supported compensation for Vietnamese Agent Orange victims.\n\n===Help for those affected in Vietnam===\nTo assist those who have been affected by Agent Orange/dioxin, the Vietnamese have established \"peace villages\", which each host between 50 and 100 victims, giving them medical and psychological help. As of 2006, there were 11 such villages, thus granting some social protection to fewer than a thousand victims. U.S. veterans of the war in Vietnam and individuals who are aware and sympathetic to the impacts of Agent Orange have supported these programs in Vietnam. An international group of veterans from the U.S. and its allies during the Vietnam War working with their former enemy—veterans from the Vietnam Veterans Association—established the Vietnam Friendship Village outside of Hanoi.\n\nThe center provides medical care, rehabilitation and vocational training for children and veterans from Vietnam who have been affected by Agent Orange. In 1998, The Vietnam Red Cross established the Vietnam Agent Orange Victims Fund to provide direct assistance to families throughout Vietnam that have been affected. In 2003, the Vietnam Association of Victims of Agent Orange (VAVA) was formed. In addition to filing the lawsuit against the chemical companies, VAVA provides medical care, rehabilitation services and financial assistance to those injured by Agent Orange.\n\nThe Vietnamese government provides small monthly stipends to more than 200,000 Vietnamese believed affected by the herbicides; this totaled $40.8 million in 2008 alone. The Vietnam Red Cross has raised more than $22 million to assist the ill or disabled, and several U.S. foundations, United Nations agencies, European governments and nongovernmental organizations have given a total of about $23 million for site cleanup, reforestation, health care and other services to those in need.\n\nVuong Mo of the Vietnam News Agency described one of the centers:\n\nMay is 13, but she knows nothing, is unable to talk fluently, nor walk with ease due to for her bandy legs. Her father is dead and she has four elder brothers, all mentally retarded ... The students are all disabled, retarded and of different ages. Teaching them is a hard job. They are of the 3rd grade but many of them find it hard to do the reading. Only a few of them can. Their pronunciation is distorted due to their twisted lips and their memory is quite short. They easily forget what they've learned ... In the Village, it is quite hard to tell the kids' exact ages. Some in their twenties have a physical statures as small as the 7- or 8-years-old. They find it difficult to feed themselves, much less have mental ability or physical capacity for work. No one can hold back the tears when seeing the heads turning round unconsciously, the bandy arms managing to push the spoon of food into the mouths with awful difficulty ... Yet they still keep smiling, singing in their great innocence, at the presence of some visitors, craving for something beautiful.\n\nOn June 16, 2010, members of the U.S.-Vietnam Dialogue Group on Agent Orange/Dioxin unveiled a comprehensive 10-year Declaration and Plan of Action to address the toxic legacy of Agent Orange and other herbicides in Vietnam. The Plan of Action was released as an Aspen Institute publication and calls upon the U.S. and Vietnamese governments to join with other governments, foundations, businesses, and nonprofits in a partnership to clean up dioxin \"hot spots\" in Vietnam and to expand humanitarian services for people with disabilities there. On September 16, 2010, Senator Patrick Leahy (D-VT) acknowledged the work of the Dialogue Group by releasing a statement on the floor of the United States Senate. The statement urges the U.S. government to take the Plan of Action's recommendations into account in developing a multi-year plan of activities to address the Agent Orange/dioxin legacy.\n\n\n",
"===Australia===\nIn 2008, Australian researcher Jean Williams claimed that cancer rates in the town of Innisfail, Queensland were 10 times higher than the state average due to secret testing of Agent Orange by the Australian military scientists during the Vietnam War. Williams, who had won the Order of Australia medal for her research on the effects of chemicals on U.S. war veterans, based her allegations on Australian government reports found in the Australian War Memorial's archives. A former soldier, Ted Bosworth, backed up the claims, saying that he had been involved in the secret testing. Neither Williams or Bosworth have produced verifiable evidence to support their claims. The Queensland health department determined that cancer rates in Innisfail were no higher than those in other parts of the state.\n\n===Brazil===\nThe Brazilian government in the late 1960s used herbicides to defoliate a large section of the Amazon rainforest so that Alcoa could build the Tucuruí dam to power mining operations. Large areas of rainforest were destroyed, along with the homes and livelihoods of thousands of rural peasants and indigenous tribes.\n\n===Cambodia===\nAgent Orange was used as a defoliant in eastern Cambodia during the Vietnam War, but its impacts are difficult to assess due to the chaos caused by the Khmer Rouge regime.\n\n===Canada===\nThe U.S. military, with the permission of the Canadian government, tested herbicides, including Agent Orange, in the forests near the Canadian Forces Base Gagetown in New Brunswick. In 2007, the government of Canada offered a one-time ex gratia payment of $20,000 as compensation for Agent Orange exposure at CFB Gagetown. On July 12, 2005, Merchant Law Group LLP on behalf of over 1,100 Canadian veterans and civilians who were living in and around the CFB Gagetown filed a lawsuit to pursue class action litigation concerning Agent Orange and Agent Purple with the Federal Court of Canada. On August 4, 2009, the case was rejected by the court due to lack of evidence. The ruling was appealed.\nIn 2007, the Canadian government announced that a research and fact-finding program initiated in 2005 had found the base was safe.\n\nOn February 17, 2011, the ''Toronto Star'' revealed that Agent Orange was employed to clear extensive plots of Crown land in Northern Ontario. The ''Toronto Star'' reported that, \"records from the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s show forestry workers, often students and junior rangers, spent weeks at a time as human markers holding red, helium-filled balloons on fishing lines while low-flying planes sprayed toxic herbicides including an infamous chemical mixture known as Agent Orange on the brush and the boys below.\" In response to the ''Toronto Star'' article, the Ontario provincial government launched a probe into the use of Agent Orange.\n\n===Guam===\nAn analysis of chemicals present in the island's soil, together with resolutions passed by Guam's legislature, suggest that Agent Orange was among the herbicides routinely used on and around military bases Anderson Air Force Base, Naval Air Station Agana, Guam. Despite the evidence, the Department of Defense continues to deny that Agent Orange was ever stored or used on Guam. Several Guam veterans have collected an enormous amount of evidence to assist in their disability claims for direct exposure to dioxin containing herbicides such as 2,4,5-T which are similar to the illness associations and disability coverage that has become standard for those who were harmed by the same chemical contaminant of Agent Orange used in Vietnam.\n\n===Korea===\nAgent Orange was used in Korea in the late 1960s.\n\nThe United States local press KPHO-TV in Phoenix, Arizona, alleged (in 2011) that the United States Army had in 1978 buried 250 drums of Agent Orange in Camp Carroll, the U.S. Army base in Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea.\n\nIn 1999, about 20,000 South Koreans filed two separated lawsuits against U.S. companies, seeking more than $5 billion in damages. After losing a decision in 2002, they filed an appeal.\n\nIn January 2006, the South Korean Appeals Court ordered Dow Chemical and Monsanto to pay $62 million in compensation to about 6,800 people. The ruling acknowledged that \"the defendants failed to ensure safety as the defoliants manufactured by the defendants had higher levels of dioxins than standard\", and, quoting the U.S. National Academy of Science report, declared that there was a \"causal relationship\" between Agent Orange and a range of diseases, including several cancers. The judges failed to acknowledge \"the relationship between the chemical and peripheral neuropathy, the disease most widespread among Agent Orange victims\".\n\nCurrently, veterans who provide evidence meeting VA requirements for service in Vietnam, and who can medically establish that anytime after this 'presumptive exposure' they developed any medical problems on the list of presumptive diseases, may receive compensation from the VA. Certain veterans who served in Korea and are able to prove they were assigned to certain specified around the DMZ during a specific time frame are afforded similar presumption.\n\n===Laos===\nParts of Laos were sprayed with Agent Orange during the Vietnam War.\n\n===New Zealand===\nThe Ivon Watkins-Dow factory in New Plymouth, New Zealand\nThe use of Agent Orange has been controversial in New Zealand, because of the exposure of New Zealand troops in Vietnam and because of the production of Agent Orange for Vietnam and other users at an Ivon Watkins-Dow chemical plant in Paritutu, New Plymouth. There have been continuing claims, as yet unproven, that the suburb of Paritutu has also been polluted; see New Zealand in the Vietnam War.\nThere are cases of New Zealand soldiers developing cancers such as bone cancer but none has been scientifically connected to exposure to herbicides.\n\n===Philippines===\nHerbicide persistence studies of Agents Orange and White were conducted in the Philippines.\n\n===Johnston Atoll===\nLeaking Agent Orange barrels at Johnston Atoll circa 1973.\nRusting Agent Orange barrels at Johnston Atoll, circa 1976.\nThe U.S. Air Force operation to remove Herbicide Orange from Vietnam in 1972 was named Operation Pacer IVY, while the operation to destroy the Agent Orange stored at Johnston Atoll in 1977 was named Operation Pacer HO. Operation Pacer IVY (InVentorY) collected Agent Orange in South Vietnam and removed it in 1972 aboard the ship for storage on Johnston Atoll. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that 1,800,000 gallons of Herbicide Orange was stored at Johnston Island in the Pacific and 480,000 gallons at Gulfport in Mississippi.\n\nResearch and studies were initiated to find a safe method to destroy the materials and it was discovered they could be incinerated safely under special conditions of temperature and dwell time. However, these herbicides were expensive and the Air Force wanted to resell its surplus instead of dumping it at sea. Among many methods tested, a possibility of salvaging the herbicides by reprocessing and filtering out the 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) contaminant with carbonized (charcoaled) coconut fibers. This concept was then tested in 1976 and a pilot plant constructed at Gulfport.\n\nFrom July to September 1977 during Operation Pacer HO (Herbicide Orange), the entire stock of Agent Orange from both Herbicide Orange storage sites at Gulfport and Johnston Atoll was subsequently incinerated in four separate burns in the vicinity of Johnson Island aboard the Dutch-owned waste incineration ship .\n\nAs of 2004, some records of the storage and disposition of Agent Orange at Johnston Atoll have been associated with the historical records of Operation Red Hat.\n\n===Okinawa, Japan===\nThere have been dozens of reports in the press about use and/or storage of military formulated herbicides on Okinawa that are based upon statements by former U.S. service members that had been stationed on the island, photographs, government records, and unearthed storage barrels. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) has denied these allegations with statements by military officials and spokespersons, as well as a January 2013 report authored by Dr. Alvin Young that was released in April 2013.\n\nA scientific study of the effects military contamination at Johnston Atoll included a statement confirming records of Agent Orange storage in Okinawa.\n\nIn particular, the 2013 report refuted articles written by journalist Jon Mitchell as well as a statement from \"An Ecological Assessment of Johnston Atoll\" a 2003 publication produced by the United States Army Chemical Materials Agency that states, \"in 1972, the U.S. Air Force also brought about 25,000 55-gallon (208L) drums of the chemical, Herbicide Orange (HO) to Johnston Island that originated from Vietnam and was stored on Okinawa.\" The 2013 report stated: \"The authors of the 2003 report were not DoD employees, nor were they likely familiar with the issues surrounding Herbicide Orange or its actual history of transport to the Island.\" and detailed the transport phases and routes of Agent Orange from Vietnam to Johnston Atoll, none of which included Okinawa.\n\nExcerpt of U.S. Army 1971 Fort Detrick report describes Tactical Herbicide stockpiles of U.S. Government restricted materials on Okinawa at Kadena AFB, in Thailand, and Vietnam.\n\nFurther official confirmation of restricted (dioxin containing) herbicide storage on Okinawa appeared in a 1971 Fort Detrick report titled \"Historical, Logistical, Political and Technical Aspects of the Herbicide/Defoliant Program\", which mentioned that the environmental statement should consider \"Herbicide stockpiles elsewhere in PACOM (Pacific Command) U.S. Government restricted materials Thailand and Okinawa (Kadena AFB).\" The 2013 DoD report says that the environmental statement urged by the 1971 report was published in 1974 as \"The Department of Air Force Final Environmental Statement\", and that the latter did not find Agent Orange was held in either Thailand or Okinawa.\n\n===Thailand===\nAgent Orange was tested by the United States in Thailand during the war in Southeast Asia. Buried drums were uncovered and confirmed to be Agent Orange in 1999. Workers who uncovered the drums fell ill while upgrading the airport near Hua Hin District, 100 km south of Bangkok.\n\nVietnam-era Veterans whose service involved duty on or near the perimeters of military bases in Thailand anytime between February 28, 1961, and May 7, 1975, may have been exposed to herbicides and may qualify for VA benefits.\n\nA declassified Department of Defense report written in 1973, suggests that there was a significant use of herbicides on the fenced-in perimeters of military bases in Thailand to remove foliage that provided cover for enemy forces.\n\nIn 2013, VA determined that herbicides used on the Thailand base perimeters may have been tactical and procured from Vietnam, or a strong, commercial type resembling tactical herbicides.\n\n===United States===\nThe University of Hawaii has acknowledged extensive testing of Agent Orange on behalf of the United States Department of Defense in Hawaii along with mixtures of Agent Orange on Kaua'i Island in 1967–68 and on Hawaii Island in 1966; testing and storage in other U.S. locations has been documented by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.\n\nIn 1971, the C-123 aircraft used for spraying Agent Orange were returned to the United States and assigned various East Coast USAF Reserve squadrons, and then employed in traditional airlift missions between 1972 and 1982. In 1994, testing by the Air Force identified some former spray aircraft as \"heavily contaminated\" with dioxin residue. Inquiries by aircrew veterans in 2011 brought a decision by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs opining that not enough dioxin residue remained to injure these post-Vietnam War veterans. On 26 January 2012, the U.S. Center For Disease Control's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry challenged this with their finding that former spray aircraft were indeed contaminated and the aircrews exposed to harmful levels of dioxin. In response to veterans' concerns, the VA in February 2014 referred the C-123 issue to the Institute of Medicine for a special study, with results released on January 9, 2015.\n\nIn 1978, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency suspended spraying of Agent Orange in National Forests.\n\nA December 2006 Department of Defense report listed Agent Orange testing, storage, and disposal sites at 32 locations throughout the United States, as well as in Canada, Thailand, Puerto Rico, Korea, and in the Pacific Ocean. The Veteran Administration has also acknowledged that Agent Orange was used domestically by U.S. forces in test sites throughout the United States. Eglin Air Force Base in Florida was one of the primary testing sites throughout the 1960s.\n",
"In February 2012, Monsanto agreed to settle a case covering Dioxin contamination around a plant in Nitro, West Virginia, that had manufactured Agent Orange. Monsanto agreed to pay up to $9 million for cleanup of affected homes, $84 million for medical monitoring of people affected, and the community's legal fees.\n\nOn 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Danang International Airport, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam. Danang was the primary storage site of the chemical. Two other cleanup sites the United States and Vietnam are looking at is Biên Hòa, in the southern province of Đồng Nai—a \"hotspot\" for dioxin—and Phù Cát airport in the central province of Bình Định, says U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam David Shear. According to the Vietnamese newspaper ''Nhân Dân'', the U.S. government provided $41 million to the project, which will reduce the contamination level in 73,000 m³ of soil by late 2016. Some 45,000 cubic meters were \"cleaned\", an equal amount began in October 2016 scheduled for completion in mid 2017.\n\nDue to the fact that destruction requires high temperatures (over 1000 degrees C), the destruction process is energy intensive.\n",
"* Environmental impact of war\n* Rainbow herbicides\n* Scorched earth\n* Teratology\n* U.S.-Vietnam Dialogue Group on Agent Orange/Dioxin\n* Vietnam Syndrome\n",
"\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Martin, Michael F.; ''Vietnamese Victims of Agent Orange and US-Vietnam Relations'', ''Congressional Research Service'', report to United States Congress, May 28, 2009\n* \n* \n* NTP (National Toxicology Program); \"Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in Female Harlan Sprague-Dawley Rats (Gavage Studies)\", CASRN 1746-01-6, April 2006.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* – both of Young's books were commissioned by the U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations and Environment)\n\n",
"===Books===\n\n* see pages 245–252.\n* with a foreword by Howard Zinn.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Martini, Edwin A. ''Agent Orange: History, Science, and the Politics of Uncertainty.'' Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2012.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n===Government/NGO reports===\n* \"Agent Orange in Vietnam: Recent Developments in Remediation: Testimony of Ms. Tran Thi Hoan\", ''Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific and the Global Environment'', U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs. July 15, 2010\n* \"Agent Orange in Vietnam: Recent Developments in Remediation: Testimony of Dr. Nguyen Thi Ngoc Phuong\", ''Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific and the Global Environment'', U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs. July 15, 2010\n* Agent Orange Policy, ''American Public Health Association'', 2007\n* \"Assessment of the health risk of dioxins\", World Health Organization/International Programme on Chemical Safety, 1998\n* Operation Ranch Hand: Herbicides In Southeast Asia History of Operation Ranch Hand, 1983\n* \"Agent Orange Dioxin Contamination in the Environment and Food Chain at Key Hotspots in Viet Nam\" Boivin, TG, ''et al.'', 2011\n\n===News===\n* Fawthrop, Tom; Agent of suffering, ''Guardian'', February 10, 2008\n* Cox, Paul; \"The Legacy of Agent Orange is a Continuing Focus of VVAW\", ''The Veteran'', Vietnam Veterans Against the War, Volume 38, No. 2, Fall 2008.\n* Barlett, Donald P. and Steele, James B.; \"Monsanto's Harvest of Fear\", ''Vanity Fair'' May 2008\n* Quick, Ben \"The Boneyard\" ''Orion Magazine'', March/April 2008\n* Cheng, Eva; \"Vietnam's Agent Orange victims call for solidarity\", ''Green Left Weekly'', September 28, 2005\n* Children and the Vietnam War 30–40 years after the use of Agent Orange\n* Tokar, Brian; \"Monsanto: A Checkered History\", ''Z Magazine'', March 1999\n\n===Video===\n* ''Agent Orange: The Last Battle''. Dir. Stephanie Jobe, Adam Scholl. DVD. 2005\n* \"HADES\" Dir. Caroline Delerue, Screenplay Mauro Bellanova 2011\n\n===Photojournalism===\n* CNN\n* Al Jazeera America\n",
"\n* U.S. Environmental Protection Agency – Dioxin Web site\n* Agent Orange ''Office of Public Health and Environmental Hazards'', U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs\n* Report from the National Birth Defects Registry - Birth Defects in Vietnam Veterans' Children\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Chemical composition",
"Development",
" Early use ",
"Use in the Vietnam War",
"Health effects",
"Ecological impact",
"Sociopolitical impact",
"Legal and diplomatic proceedings",
"Use outside Vietnam",
"Cleanup programs",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Agent Orange |
[
"\n'''Astronomical year numbering''' is based on AD/CE year numbering, but follows normal decimal integer numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a year 0; the years before that are designated with negative numbers and the years after that are designated with positive numbers. Astronomers use the Julian calendar for years before 1582, including the year 0, and the Gregorian calendar for years after 1582, as exemplified by Jacques Cassini (1740), Simon Newcomb (1898) and Fred Espenak (2007).\n\nThe prefix AD and the suffixes CE, BC or BCE (Common Era, Before Christ or Before Common Era) are dropped. The year 1 BC/BCE is numbered 0, the year 2 BC is numbered −1, and in general the year ''n'' BC/BCE is numbered \"−(''n'' − 1)\" (a negative number equal to 1 − ''n''). The numbers of AD/CE years are not changed and are written with either no sign or a positive sign; thus in general ''n'' AD/CE is simply ''n'' or +''n''. For normal calculation a number zero is often needed, here most notably when calculating the number of years in a period that spans the epoch; the end years need only be subtracted from each other.\n\nThe system is so named due to its use in astronomy. Few other disciplines outside history deal with the time before year 1, some exceptions being dendrochronology, archaeology and geology, the latter two of which use 'years before the present'. Although the absolute numerical values of astronomical and historical years only differ by one before year 1, this difference is critical when calculating astronomical events like eclipses or planetary conjunctions to determine when historical events which mention them occurred.\n",
"\nIn his Rudolphine Tables (1627), Johannes Kepler used a prototype of year zero which he labeled ''Christi'' (Christ's) between years labeled ''Ante Christum'' (Before Christ) and ''Post Christum'' (After Christ) on the mean motion tables for the Sun, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury. In 1702, the French astronomer Philippe de la Hire used a year he labeled at the end of years labeled ''ante Christum'' (BC), and immediately before years labeled ''post Christum'' (AD) on the mean motion pages in his ''Tabulæ Astronomicæ'', thus adding the designation ''0'' to Kepler's ''Christi''. Finally, in 1740 the French astronomer Jacques Cassini , who is traditionally credited with the invention of year zero, completed the transition in his ''Tables astronomiques'', simply labeling this year ''0'', which he placed at the end of Julian years labeled ''avant Jesus-Christ'' (before Jesus Christ or BC), and immediately before Julian years labeled ''après Jesus-Christ'' (after Jesus Christ or AD).\n\nCassini gave the following reasons for using a year 0:\n\n\nFred Espanak of NASA lists 50 phases of the moon within year 0, showing that it is a full year, not an instant in time. Jean Meeus gives the following explanation:\n\n",
"Although he used the usual French terms \"avant J.-C.\" (before Jesus Christ) and \"après J.-C.\" (after Jesus Christ) to label years elsewhere in his book, the Byzantine historian Venance Grumel used negative years (identified by a minus sign, −) to label BC years and unsigned positive years to label AD years in a table. He did so possibly to save space and put no year 0 between them.\n\nVersion 1.0 of the XML Schema language, often used to describe data interchanged between computers in XML, includes built-in primitive datatypes '''date''' and '''dateTime'''. Although these are defined in terms of ISO 8601 which uses the proleptic Gregorian calendar and therefore should include a year 0, the XML Schema specification states that there is no year zero. Version 1.1 of the defining recommendation realigned the specification with ISO 8601 by including a year zero, despite the problems arising from the lack of backward compatibility.\n",
"* Astronomical chronology\n* Holocene calendar\n* ISO 8601\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Year zero usage",
"Signed years without year 0",
"See also",
"References"
] | Astronomical year numbering |
[
"\nA facsimile of Adam of Bremen's magnum opus.\n'''Adam of Bremen''' (; ) was a German medieval chronicler. He lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century. He is most famous for his chronicle ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum'' (''Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church'').\n\nLittle is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. He is believed to have come from Meissen (Latin ''Misnia'') in Saxony. The dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on 12 October of an unknown year (possibly 1081, at the latest 1085). From his chronicles it is apparent that he was familiar with a number of authors. The honorary name of ''Magister Adam'' shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the ''Magdeburger Domschule''.\n\nIn 1066 or 1067 he was invited by archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg to join the Church of Bremen. Adam was accepted among the capitulars of Bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the cathedral's school. Soon thereafter he began to write the history of Bremen/Hamburg and of the northern lands in his ''Gesta''.\n\nHis position and the missionary activity of the church of Bremen allowed him to gather information on the history and the geography of Northern Germany. A stay at the court of Svend Estridson gave him the opportunity to find information about the history and geography of Denmark and the other Scandinavian countries. Among other things he wrote about in Scandinavia, includes the sailing passages across Øresund such as today's Elsinore to Helsingborg route.\n",
"\n",
"*Chłopacka Hanna: Adam Bremeński. In: Słownik Starożytności Słowiańskich. Vol. 1. 1961, p. 3-4.\n",
"\n\n* \n* Adamus Bremensis: '' Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum'' (Lat.)\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" References ",
" Further reading ",
" External links "
] | Adam of Bremen |
[
"\n\n\nAntoninianus of Pacatianus, usurper of Roman emperor Philip in 248. It bears the legend ROMAE AETERNAE ANNO MILLESIMO ET PRIMO, \"To eternal Rome, in its one thousand and first year\".\n'''''Ab urbe condita''''' (Classical orthography: ABVRBECONDITÁ; ; related to '''''anno urbis conditae'''''; '''A. U. C.''', '''AUC''', '''a.u.c.'''; also \"'''''anno urbis'''''\", short '''a.u.''') is a Latin phrase meaning \"from the founding of the City (Rome)\", traditionally dated to 753 BC. AUC is a year-numbering system used by some ancient Roman historians to identify particular Roman years. Renaissance editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the false impression that the Romans usually numbered their years using the AUC system. The dominant method of identifying Roman years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year. The regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after 537, when Justinian required its use.\n",
"The traditional date for the founding of Rome of 21 April 753 BC, was initiated by 1st century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro. Varro may have used the consular list with its mistakes and called the year of the first consuls \"245 ''ab urbe condita''\", accepting the 244-year interval from Dionysius of Halicarnassus for the kings after the foundation of Rome. The correctness of Varro's calculation has not been confirmed, but it is still used worldwide.\n\nFrom Emperor Claudius (ruled 41–54) onwards, Varro's calculation superseded other contemporary calculations. Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the city's anniversary, in 48 AD, 800 years after the founding of the city. Hadrian and Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, in 121 and 147/148 respectively.\n\nIn 248, Philip the Arab celebrated Rome's first millennium, together with Ludi saeculares for Rome's alleged tenth saeculum. Coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, Pacatianus, explicitly states \"Year one thousand and first\", which is an indication that the citizens of the Empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a ''Saeculum Novum''.\n\nWhen the Roman Empire turned Christian in the 4th century, the imagery came to be used in a more metaphysical sense, and removed legal impediments to the development and public use of the ''Anno Domini'' dating system, which came into general use during the reign of Charlemagne.\n",
"The Anno Domini (AD) year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome in 525, as a result of his work on calculating the date of Easter. In his Easter table the year 532 was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. The table counted the years starting from the presumed birth of Christ, rather than the accession of the emperor Diocletian on 20 November 284, or as stated by Dionysius: \"''sed magis elegimus ab incarnatione Domini nostri Jesu Christi annorum tempora praenotare…''\" (\"but rather we choose to name the times of the years from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ …\"). Blackburn and Holford-Strevens review interpretations of Dionysius which place the Incarnation in 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1. It was later calculated (from the historical record of the succession of Roman consuls) that the year AD 1 corresponds to the Roman year 754 AUC, based on Varro's epoch. This however resulted in that year not corresponding with the lifetimes of historical figures reputed to be alive, or otherwise mentioned in connection with the Christian incarnation, e.g. Herod the Great or Quirinius.\n\n:1 AUC (ab urbe condita) = 753 BC\n:750 AUC = 4 BC (Death of Herod the Great)\n:754 AUC = 1 AD\n:759 AUC = 6 AD (Quirinius becomes governor of Syria) \n:1000 AUC = 247 AD\n:1500 AUC = 747 AD\n:2000 AUC = 1247 AD\n:2206 AUC = 1453 AD (Fall of Constantinople)\n:2245 AUC = 1492 AD\n:2529 AUC = 1776 AD\n:2753 AUC = 2000 AD\n: AUC = AD\n",
"\n* List of Latin phrases\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Significance",
"Relationship with Anno Domini",
"See also",
"Notes and references"
] | Ab urbe condita |
[
"\n\n'''Arapaoa Island''', formerly known as '''Arapawa Island''', is a small island located in the Marlborough Sounds, at the north east tip of the South Island of New Zealand.\nThe island has a land area of . Queen Charlotte Sound defines its western side, while to the south lies Tory Channel, which is on the sea route from Wellington in the North Island to Picton. Cook Strait's narrowest point is between Arapaoa Island's Perano Head and Cape Terawhiti in the North Island.\n",
"According to Māori oral tradition, the island was where the great navigator Kupe killed the octopus Te Wheke-a-Muturangi.\n\nIt was from a hill on Arapaoa Island in 1770 that Captain James Cook first saw the sea passage from the Pacific Ocean to the Tasman Sea, which was named Cook Strait. This discovery banished the fond notion of geographers that there existed a great southern continent, Terra Australis. A monument at Cook's Lookout was erected in 1970.\n\nFrom the late 1820s until the mid-1960s, Arapaoa Island was a base for whaling in the Sounds. John Guard established a shore station at Te Awaiti in 1827 for right whales. Later, the station at Perano Head on the east coast of the island was used to hunt humpback whales from 1911 to 1964 (see Whaling in New Zealand). The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodations.\n\nIn August 2014, the spelling of the island's name was officially altered from ''Arapawa'' to ''Arapaoa''.\n\n===Aircraft accident===\nAn elevated power cable from the mainland to Arapaoa Island over Tory Channel was struck by an Air Albatross Cessna 402 commuter aircraft in 1985. The crash was witnessed by many passengers on an inter-island Cook Strait ferry. The ferry immediately stopped to dispatch a rescue lifeboat. Along with the two pilots, one entire family was lost, and all but a young girl from the other. No bodies were ever found. The sole survivor (Cindy Mosey) was travelling with her family and the other from Nelson to Wellington to attend a gymnastics competition. The Arapaoa Island crash caused public confidence in Air Albatross to falter, contributing to the company going into liquidation in December of that year.\n",
"Parts of the island have been heavily cleared of native vegetation in the past through burning and logging, A number of pine forests were planted on the island. Wilding pines, an invasive species in some parts of New Zealand, are being poisoned on the island to allow the regenerating native vegetation to grow. About at Ruaomoko Point on the south-eastern portion of the island will be killed by drilling holes into the trees and injecting poison.\n\nArapaoa Island is known for the breeds of pigs, sheep and goats found only on the island. These became established in the 19th century, but the origin of these breeds is uncertain, and a matter of some speculation. Common suggestions are that they are old English breeds introduced by the early whalers, or by Captain Cook or other early explorers. These breeds are now extinct in England, and the goats surviving in a sanctuary on the island are now also bred in other parts of New Zealand and in the northern hemisphere.\n",
"* List of islands of New Zealand\n",
"\n",
"* Arapawa Goats\n* Arapawa Pigs\n* Arapawa Sheep\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Conservation",
" See also ",
"References",
"External links"
] | Arapaoa Island |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Administrative law''' is the body of law that governs the activities of administrative agencies of government. Government agency action can include rulemaking, adjudication, or the enforcement of a specific regulatory agenda. Administrative law is considered a branch of public law. As a body of law, administrative law deals with the decision-making of administrative units of government (for example, tribunals, boards or commissions) that are part of a national regulatory scheme in such areas as police law, international trade, manufacturing, the environment, taxation, broadcasting, immigration and transport. Administrative law expanded greatly during the twentieth century, as legislative bodies worldwide created more government agencies to regulate the social, economic and political spheres of human interaction.\n\nCivil law countries often have specialized courts, administrative courts, that review these decisions.\n",
"\n\nUnlike most common-law jurisdictions, the majority of civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections to deal with administrative cases which, as a rule, will apply procedural rules specifically designed for such cases and different from that applied in private-law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims.\n\n=== Brazil ===\n\nIn Brazil, unlike most Civil-law jurisdictions, there is no specialized court or section to deal with administrative cases. In 1998, a constitutional reform, led by the government of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has been strongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (art. 37 of Federal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency.\n\n=== Chile ===\n\n\nThe President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several Ministries or other authorities with ''ministerial rank''. Each Ministry has one or more under-secretary that performs through public services the actual satisfaction of public needs. There is not a single specialized court to deal with actions against the Administrative entities, but instead there are several specialized courts and procedures of review.\n\n=== People's Republic of China ===\n\n\nAdministrative law in the People's Republic of China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. Since the 1980s, the People's Republic of China has constructed a new legal framework for administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy and disciplinary committees for the Communist Party of China. However, many have argued that the usefulness of these laws is vastly inadequate in terms of controlling government actions, largely because of institutional and systemic obstacles like a weak judiciary, poorly trained judges and lawyers, and corruption.\n\nIn 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations (行政检查条例) and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations (行政复议条例) were passed. The 1993 State Civil Servant Provisional Regulations (国家公务员暂行条例) changed the way government officials were selected and promoted, requiring that they pass exams and yearly appraisals, and introduced a rotation system. The three regulations have been amended and upgraded into laws. In 1994, the State Compensation Law (国家赔偿法) was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law (行政处罚法) in 1996. Administrative Compulsory Law was enforced in 2012. Administrative Litigation Law was amended in 2014. The General Administrative Procedure Law is under way.\n\n=== France ===\n\nIn France, most claims against the national or local governments as well as claims against private bodies providing public services are handled by administrative courts, which use the ''Conseil d'État'' (Council of State) as a court of last resort for both ordinary and special courts. The main administrative courts are the ''tribunaux administratifs'' and appeal courts are the ''cours administratives d'appel''. Special administrative courts include the National Court of Asylum Right as well as military, medical and judicial disciplinary bodies. The French body of administrative law is called \"''droit administratif''\".\n\nOver the course of their history, France's administrative courts have developed an extensive and coherent case law (''jurisprudence constante'') and legal doctrine (''principes généraux du droit'' and ''principes fondamentaux reconnus par les lois de la République''), often before similar concepts were enshrined in constitutional and legal texts. These principes include:\n\n*Right to fair trial (''droit à la défense''), including for internal disciplinary bodies\n*Right to challenge any administrative decision before an administrative court (''droit au recours'') \n*Equal treatment of public service users (''égalité devant le service public'') \n*Equal access to government employment (''égalité d'accès à la fonction publique'') without regard for political opinions \n*Freedom of association (''liberté d'association'') \n*Right to Entrepreneurship (''Liberté du Commerce et de l'industrie'', lit. freedom of commerce and industry) \n*Right to Legal certainty (''Droit à la sécurité juridique'') \n\nFrench administrative law, which is the founder of Continental administrative law, has a strong influence on administrative laws in several other countries such as Belgium, Greece, Turkey and Tunisia.\n\n\n\n=== Germany ===\n\nAdministrative law in Germany, called \"'''Verwaltungsrecht'''\" :de:Verwaltungsrecht (Deutschland), generally rules the relationship between authorities and the citizens and therefore, it establishes citizens' rights and obligations against the\nauthorities. It is a part of the public law, which deals with the organization, the tasks and the acting of the public administration. It also contains rules, regulations, orders and decisions created by and related to administrative agencies, such as federal agencies, federal state authorities, urban administrations, but also admission offices and fiscal authorities etc. Administrative law in Germany follows three basic principles.\n\n* Principle of the legality of the authority, which means that there is no acting against the law and no acting without a law.\n* Principle of legal security, which includes a principle of legal certainty and the principle of nonretroactivity\n* Principle of proportionality, which says that an act of an authority has to be suitable, necessary and appropriate\n\nAdministrative law in Germany can be divided into '''general administrative law''' and '''special administrative law'''.\n\n==== General administrative law ====\n\nThe general administration law is basically ruled in the administrative procedures law (''Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz'' VwVfG). Other legal sources are the Rules of the Administrative Courts (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung VwGO), the social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch SGB) and the general fiscal law (Abgabenordnung AO).\n\n===== Administrative procedures Law =====\n\nThe ''Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz'' (VwVfG), which was enacted in 1977, regulates the main administrative procedures of the federal government. It serves the purpose to ensure a treatment in accordance with the rule of law by the public authority. Furthermore, it contains the regulations for mass processes and expands the legal protection against the authorities. The VwVfG basically applies for the entire public administrative activities of federal agencies as well as federal state authorities, in case of making federal law. One of the central clause is § 35 VwVfG. It defines the administrative act, the most common form of action in which the public administration occurs against a citizen. The definition in § 35 says, that an administration act is characterized by the following features:\n\nIt is an official act of an authority in the field of public law to resolve an individual case with effect to the outside.\n\n§§ 36 – 39, §§ 58 – 59 and § 80 VwV––fG rule the structure and the necessary elements of the\nadministrative act. § 48 and § 49 VwVfG have a high relevance in practice, as well. In these\nparagraphs, the prerequisites for redemption of an unlawful administration act (§ 48 VwVfG ) and\nwithdrawal of a lawful administration act (§ 49 VwVfG ), are listed.\n\n===== Other legal sources =====\n\nAdministration procedural law (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung VwGO), which was enacted in 1960, rules the court procedures at the administrative court. The VwGO is divided into five parts, which are the constitution of the courts, action, remedies and retrial, costs and enforcement15 and final clauses and temporary arrangements.\n\nIn absence of a rule, the VwGO is supplemented by the code of civil procedure (Zivilprozessordnung ZPO) and the judicature act (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz GVG). In addition to the regulation of the administrative procedure, the VwVfG also constitutes the legal protection in administrative law beyond the court procedure. § 68 VwVGO rules the preliminary proceeding, called \"Vorverfahren\" or \"Widerspruchsverfahren\", which is a stringent prerequisite for the administrative procedure, if an action for rescission or a writ of mandamus against an authority is aimed. The preliminary proceeding gives each citizen, feeling unlawfully mistreated by an authority, the possibility to object and to force a review of an administrative act without going to court. The prerequisites to open the public law remedy are listed in § 40 I VwGO. Therefore, it is necessary to have the existence of a conflict in public law without any constitutional aspects and no assignment to another jurisdiction.\n\nThe social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch SGB) and the general fiscal law are less important for the administrative law. They supplement the VwVfG and the VwGO in the fields of taxation and social legislation, such as social welfare or financial support for students (BaFÖG) etc.\n\n==== Special administrative law ====\n\nThe special administrative law consists of various laws. Each special sector has its own law. The most important ones are the\n\n* Town and Country Planning Code (Baugesetzbuch BauGB)\n* Federal Control of Pollution Act (Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz BImSchG)\n* Industrial Code (Gewerbeordnung GewO)\n* Police Law (Polizei- und Ordnungsrecht)\n* Statute Governing Restaurants (Gaststättenrecht GastG).\n\nIn Germany, the highest administrative court for most matters is the federal administrative court Bundesverwaltungsgericht. There are federal courts with special jurisdiction in the fields of social security law (Bundessozialgericht) and tax law (Bundesfinanzhof).\n\n\n\n=== Italy ===\nAdministrative law in Italy, known as \"'''Diritto amministrativo''\", is a branch of public law, whose rules govern the organization of the public administration and the activities of the pursuit of the public interest of the public administration and the relationship between this and the citizens.\nIts genesis is related to the principle of division of powers of the State. The administrative power, originally called \"executive\", is to organize resources and people whose function is devolved to achieve the public interest objectives as defined by the law.\n\n=== The Netherlands ===\n\nIn The Netherlands, administrative law provisions are usually contained in separate laws. There is however a single General Administrative Law Act (\"Algemene wet bestuursrecht\" or Awb) that applies both to the making of administrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts. On the basis of the Awb, citizens can oppose a decision ('besluit') made by an administrative agency ('bestuursorgaan') within the administration and apply for judicial review in courts if unsuccessful.\n\nUnlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regular courts have an administrative \"chamber\" which specializes in administrative appeals. The courts of appeal in administrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, but most administrative appeals end up in the judicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State).\n\nBefore going to court, citizens must usually first object to the decision with the administrative body who made it. This is called \"bezwaar\". This procedure allows for the administrative body to correct possible mistakes themselves and is used to filter cases before going to court. Sometimes, instead of bezwaar, a different system is used called \"administratief beroep\" (administrative appeal). The difference with bezwaar is that administratief beroep is filed with a different administrative body, usually a higher ranking one, than the administrative body that made the primary decision. Administratief beroep is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it. An example involves objecting to a traffic ticket with the district attorney (\"officier van justitie\"), after which the decision can be appealed in court.\n\nIn addition, Netherlands General Administrative Law Act (GALA) is a rather good sample of procedural laws in Europe\n\n=== Sweden ===\n\nThe Stenbockska Palace is the seat of the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden.\n\nIn Sweden, there is a system of administrative courts that considers only administrative law cases, and is completely separate from the system of general courts. This system has three tiers, with 12 county administrative courts (''förvaltningsrätt'') as the first tier, four administrative courts of appeal (''kammarrätt'') as the second tier, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden (''Högsta Förvaltningsdomstolen'') as the third tier.\n\nMigration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within the system general administrative courts. Three of the administrative courts serve as migration courts (''migrationsdomstol'') with the Administrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the Migration Court of Appeal (''Migrationsöverdomstolen'').\n\n=== Turkey ===\nIn Turkey, the lawsuits against the acts and actions of the national or local governments and public bodies are handled by administrative courts which are the main administrative courts. The decisions of the administrative courts are checked by the Regional Administrative Courts and Council of State. Council of State as a court of last resort is exactly similar to Conseil d'État in France.\n\n=== Ukraine ===\n\n\nAs a homogeneous legal substance isolated in a system of jurisprudence, the administrative law of Ukraine is characterized as: (1) a branch of law; (2) a science; (3) a discipline.\n",
"\nGenerally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity.\n\nWhile administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions is different from an administrative appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be examined, usually by a higher body in the agency. This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries.\n\nThe scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is ''ultra vires''. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the \"Patently Unreasonable\" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v. New Brunswick), ''Wednesbury'' unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts, namely legitimate expectation and proportionality.\n\nThe powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain Common Law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.\n\n\n\n=== Australia ===\n\n\n=== Canada ===\n\n\n=== Singapore ===\n\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\n\n\n=== United States ===\n\nAmerican administrative law often involves the regulatory activities of so-called \"independent agencies\", such as the Federal Trade Commission, whose headquarters is shown above.\n\nIn the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although a few are part of the judicial or legislative branches.\n\nIn the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments, which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet. The many independent agencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by Congress exist outside of the federal executive departments but are still part of the executive branch.\n\nCongress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas of administrative law.\n\nThe actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below), Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) in 1946. Many of the independent agencies operate as miniature versions of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to \"legislate\" (through rulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), \"adjudicate\" (through administrative hearings), and to \"execute\" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the United States Constitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process. Agency procedures are drawn from four sources of authority: the APA, organic statutes, agency rules, and informal agency practice. It is important to note, though, that agencies can only act within their congressionally delegated authority, and must comply with the requirements of the APA.\n\nThe American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is the ''Administrative Law Review'', a quarterly publication that is managed and edited by students at the Washington College of Law.\n\n==== Historical development ====\n\nStephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice since 1994, divides the history of administrative law in the United States into six discrete periods, in his book, ''Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy'' (3d Ed., 1992):\n\n* English antecedents & the American experience to 1875\n* 1875 – 1930: the rise of regulation & the traditional model of administrative law\n* 1930 - 1945: the New Deal\n* 1945 – 1965: the Administrative Procedure Act & the maturation of the traditional model of administrative law\n* 1965 – 1985: critique and transformation of the administrative process\n* 1985 – ?: retreat or consolidation\n\n==== Agriculture ====\n\nThe agricultural sector is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in the U.S. economy, as it is regulated in various ways at the international, federal, state, and local levels. Consequently, administrative law is a significant component of the discipline of agricultural law. The United States Department of Agriculture and its myriad agencies such as the Agricultural Marketing Service are the primary sources of regulatory activity, although other administrative bodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency play a significant regulatory role as well.\n",
"\n* Constitutionalism\n* Rule of law\n* Rechtsstaat\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" In civil law countries ",
" In common law countries ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" Further reading "
] | Administrative law |
[
"\n\n\nAdmiral '''Arthur Phillip''' (11 October 1738 – 31 August 1814) was a Royal Navy officer and the first Governor of New South Wales who founded the British penal colony that later became the city of Sydney, Australia.\n\nAfter much experience at sea, Phillip sailed with the First Fleet as Governor-designate of the proposed British penal colony of New South Wales. In January 1788, he selected its location to be Port Jackson (encompassing Sydney Harbour).\n\nPhillip was a far-sighted governor who soon saw that New South Wales would need a civil administration and a system for emancipating the convicts. But his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the voyage had been rejected, and he faced immense problems of labour, discipline and supply. His friendly attitude towards the aborigines was also sorely tested when they killed his gamekeeper, and he was not able to assert a clear policy about them.\n\nThe arrival of the Second and Third Fleets placed new pressures on the scarce local resources, but by the time Phillip sailed home in December 1792, the colony was taking shape, with official land-grants and systematic farming and water-supply.\n\nPhillip retired in 1805, but continued to correspond with his friends in New South Wales and to promote the colony's interests.\n",
"Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, the younger of two children to Jacob Phillip and Elizabeth Breach. His father Jacob was born in Frankfurt, Germany. He was a languages teacher who may also have served in the Royal Navy as an able seaman and purser's steward. His mother Elizabeth was the widow of an ordinary seaman, John Herbert, who had served in Jamaica aboard HMS ''Tartar'' and died of disease on 13 August 1732. At the time of Arthur Phillip's birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London.\n\nThere are no surviving records of Phillip's early childhood. His father Jacob died in 1739, after which the Phillip family may have fallen on hard times. On 22 June 1751 he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In keeping with the school's curriculum, his education was focused on literacy, arithmetic and navigational skills, including cartography. He was a competent student and something of a perfectionist. His headmaster, Rev. Francis Swinden observed that in personality, Phillip was \"unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes\".\n\nPhillip remained at the Greenwich School for two and a half years, considerably longer than the average student stay of twelve months. At the end of 1753 he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard ''Fortune'', a 210-ton whaling boat commanded by merchant mariner Wiliam Readhead. He left the Greenwich School on 1 December and spent the winter aboard ''Fortune'' awaiting the commencement of the 1754 whaling season.\n",
"\nPhillip spent the summer of 1754 hunting whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea. As an apprentice, his responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce and ''Fortune''s thirty crew members supplemented their diet with bird's eggs, scurvy grass and where possible, reindeer. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754. The whaling crew were paid off and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. As an apprentice, Phillip remained aboard as ''Fortune'' undertook an outward trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains and citrus. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that year's whale hunt. Phillip was still a member of the crew, but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July. On 16 October he enlisted in the Royal Navy and was assigned the rank of ordinary seaman aboard the 68-gun .\n\nHMS ''Buckingham'', Phillip's first posting after joining the Navy in 1755. Vessel pictured on the stocks at Deptford Dockyard, c.1751.\nAs a member of ''Buckingham''s crew, Phillip saw action in the Seven Years' War, including the Battle of Minorca in 1756. By 1762 he had transferred to , and was promoted to Lieutenant in recognition of active service in the Battle of Havana. The War ended in 1763 and Phillip returned to England on half pay. In July 1763 he married Margaret Denison, a widow 16 years his senior, and moved to Glasshayes in Lyndhurst, Hampshire, establishing a farm there. The marriage was unhappy, and the couple separated in 1769 when Phillip returned to the Navy. The following year he was posted as second lieutenant aboard , a newly built 74-gun ship of the line.\n\nIn 1774 Phillip joined the Portuguese Navy as a captain, serving in the War against Spain. While with the Portuguese Navy, Phillip commanded a frigate, the ''Nossa Senhora do Pilar.'' On this ship he took a detachment of troops from Rio de Janeiro to Colonia do Sacramento on the Rio de la Plata (opposite Buenos Aires) to relieve the garrison there. This voyage also conveyed a consignment of convicts assigned to carry out work at Colonia. During a storm encountered in the course of the voyage, the convicts assisted in working the ship and, on arrival at Colonia, Phillip recommended that they be rewarded for saving the ship by remission of their sentences. A garbled version of this eventually found its way into the English press when Phillip was appointed in 1786 to lead the expedition to Sydney. Phillip played a leading part in the capture of the Spanish ship San Agustín, on 19 April 1777, off Santa Catarina. The ''San Agustin'' was commissioned into the Portuguese Navy as the ''Santo Agostinho'', and command of her was given to Phillip. The action was reported in the English press: \nMadrid, Aug. 28. Letters from Lisbon bring the following Account from Rio Janeiro: That the St. Augustine, of 70 Guns, having been separated from the Squadron of M. Casa Tilly, was attacked by two Portugueze Ships, against which they defended themselves for a Day and a Night, but being next Day surrounded by the Portugueze Fleet, was obliged to surrender.\n\nIn 1778 Britain was again at war, and Phillip was recalled to active service, and in 1779 obtained his first command, HMS ''Basilisk''. He was promoted to post-captain on 30 November 1781 and given command of .\n\n\n\nIn July 1782, in a change of government, Thomas Townshend became Secretary of State for Home and American Affairs, and assumed responsibility for organising an expedition against Spanish America. Like his predecessor, Lord Germain, he turned for advice to Arthur Phillip. A letter from Phillip to Sandwich of 17 January 1781 records Phillip's loan to Sandwich of his charts of the Plata and Brazilian coasts for use in organising the expedition. Phillip's plan was for a squadron of three ships of the line and a frigate to mount a raid on Buenos Aires and Monte Video, then to proceed to the coasts of Chile, Peru and Mexico to maraud, and ultimately to cross the Pacific to join the British Navy's East India squadron for an attack on Manila. The expedition, consisting of the ''Grafton,'' 70 guns, ''Elizabeth,'' 74 guns, ''Europe,'' 64 guns, and the frigate ''Iphigenia'', sailed on 16 January 1783, under the command of Commodore Robert Kingsmill. Phillip was given command of the 64-gun , or ''Europe''. Shortly after sailing, an armistice was concluded between Great Britain and Spain. Phillip learnt of this in April when he put in for storm repairs at Rio de Janeiro. Phillip wrote to Townshend from Rio de Janeiro on 25 April 1783, expressing his disappointment that the ending of the American War had robbed him of the opportunity for naval glory in South America.\n\nAfter his return to England from India in April 1784, Phillip remained in close contact with Townshend, now Lord Sydney, and the Home Office Under Secretary, Evan Nepean. From October 1784 to September 1786 he was employed by Nepean, who was in charge of the Secret Service relating to the Bourbon Powers, France and Spain, to spy on the French naval arsenals at Toulon and other ports. There was fear that Britain would soon be at war with these powers as a consequence of the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands.\n\nPortraits of the time depict Phillip as shorter than average, with an olive complexion, dark eyes and a \"smooth pear of a skull.\" His features were dominated by a large and fleshy nose, and by a pronounced lower lip.\n",
"\nAt this time, Lord Sandwich, together with the President of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, was advocating establishment of a British colony in New South Wales. A colony there would be of great assistance to the British Navy in facilitating attacks on the Spanish possessions in Chile and Peru, as Banks's collaborators, James Matra, Captain Sir George Young and Sir John Call pointed out in written proposals on the subject. The British Government took the decision to settle what is now Australia and found the Botany Bay colony in mid-1786. Lord Sydney, as Secretary of State for the Home Office, was the minister in charge, and in September 1786 he appointed Phillip commodore of the fleet which was to transport the convicts and soldiers who were to be the new settlers to Botany Bay. Upon arrival there, Phillip was to assume the powers of Captain General and Governor in Chief of the new colony. A subsidiary colony was to be founded on Norfolk Island, as recommended by Sir John Call, to take advantage for naval purposes of that island's native flax and timber.\n\nIn October 1786, Phillip was appointed captain of and named Governor-designate of New South Wales, the proposed British colony on the east coast of Australia, by Lord Sydney, the Home Secretary.\n\nPhillip had a very difficult time assembling the fleet which was to make the eight-month sea voyage to Australia. Everything a new colony might need had to be taken, since Phillip had no real idea of what he might find when he got there. There were few funds available for equipping the expedition. His suggestion that people with experience in farming, building and crafts be included was rejected. Most of the 772 convicts (of whom 732 survived the voyage) were petty thieves from the London slums. Phillip was accompanied by a contingent of marines and a handful of other officers who were to administer the colony.\n\nThe 11 ships of the First Fleet set sail on 13 May 1787. The leading ship, reached Botany Bay setting up camp on the Kurnell Peninsula, on 18 January 1788. Phillip soon decided that this site, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage and no reliable water source. After some exploration Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on 26 January the marines and convicts landed at Sydney Cove, which Phillip named after Lord Sydney.\n\n===Governor of New South Wales===\nShortly after landing and establishing the settlement at Port Jackson, on 15 February 1788, Phillip sent Lieutenant Philip Gidley King with 8 free men and a number of convicts to establish the second British colony in the Pacific at Norfolk Island. This was partly in response to a perceived threat of losing Norfolk Island to the French and partly to establish an alternative food source for the new colony.\nArthur Phillip\nThe early days of the settlement were chaotic and difficult. With limited supplies, the cultivation of food was imperative, but the soils around Sydney were poor, the climate was unfamiliar, and moreover very few of the convicts had any knowledge of agriculture. The colony was on the verge of outright starvation for an extended period. The marines, poorly disciplined themselves in many cases, were not interested in convict discipline. Almost at once, therefore, Phillip had to appoint overseers from among the ranks of the convicts to get the others working. This was the beginning of the process of convict emancipation which was to culminate in the reforms of Lachlan Macquarie after 1811.\n\nPhillip showed in other ways that he recognised that New South Wales could not be run simply as a prison camp. Lord Sydney, often criticised as an ineffectual incompetent, had made one fundamental decision about the settlement that was to influence it from the start. Instead of just establishing it as a military prison, he provided for a civil administration, with courts of law. Two convicts, Henry and Susannah Kable, sought to sue Duncan Sinclair, the captain of ''Alexander'', for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Convicts in Britain had no right to sue, and Sinclair had boasted that he could not be sued by them. Despite this, the court found for the plaintiffs and ordered the captain to make restitution for the loss of their possessions.\n\nFurther, soon after Lord Sydney appointed him governor of New South Wales Arthur Phillip drew up a detailed memorandum of his plans for the proposed new colony. In one paragraph he wrote: \"The laws of this country England will of course, be introduced in New South Wales, and there is one that I would wish to take place from the moment his Majesty's forces take possession of the country: That there can be no slavery in a free land, and consequently no slaves.\" Nevertheless, Phillip believed in discipline; floggings and hangings were commonplace, although Philip commuted many death sentences.\n\nPhillip also had to adopt a policy towards the Eora Aboriginal people, who lived around the waters of Sydney Harbour. Phillip ordered that they must be well-treated, and that anyone killing Aboriginal people would be hanged. Phillip befriended an Eora man called Bennelong, and later took him to England. On the beach at Manly, a misunderstanding arose and Phillip was speared in the shoulder: but he ordered his men not to retaliate. Phillip went some way towards winning the trust of the Eora, although they remained wary of the settlers. Soon, a virulent disease, smallpox that was believed to be on account of the white settlers, and other European-introduced epidemics, ravaged the Eora population.\n\nThe Governor's main problem was with his own military officers, who wanted large grants of land, which Phillip had not been authorised to grant. Scurvy broke out, and in October 1788 Phillip had to send ''Sirius'' to Cape Town for supplies, and strict rationing was introduced, with thefts of food punished by hanging. Arthur Phillip quoted \"The living conditions need to improve or my men won't work as hard, so I have come to a conclusion that I must hire surgeons to fix the convicts.\"\n\n===Stabilising the colony===\nPhillip insisted that no retaliation be taken to avenge his own non-fatal spearing. Convict John MacIntyre had been fatally speared during a hunting expedition by unknown aborigines apparently without provocation. MacIntyre swore on his death bed that he had done them no harm, but marine officer Watkin Tench was suspicious of the claim. Tench was sent on a punitive expedition but finding no Aborigines other than Bennelong took no action.\n\nPhillip, growing frustrated with the burdens of upholding a colony and his health suffering, resigned soon after this episode.\n\nBy 1790 the situation had stabilised. The population of about 2,000 was adequately housed and fresh food was being grown. Phillip assigned a convict, James Ruse, land at Rose Hill (now Parramatta) to establish proper farming, and when Ruse succeeded he received the first land grant in the colony. Other convicts followed his example. ''Sirius'' was wrecked in March 1790 at the satellite settlement of Norfolk Island, depriving Phillip of vital supplies. In June 1790 the Second Fleet arrived with hundreds more convicts, most of them too sick to work.\n\nStatue of Arthur Phillip in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney\nBy December 1790 Phillip was ready to return to England, but the colony had largely been forgotten in London and no instructions reached him, so he carried on. In 1791 he was advised that the government would send out two convoys of convicts annually, plus adequate supplies. But July, when the vessels of the Third Fleet began to arrive, with 2,000 more convicts, food again ran short, and he had to send the ship ''Atlantic'' to Calcutta for supplies.\n\nBy 1792 the colony was well established, though Sydney remained an unplanned huddle of wooden huts and tents. The whaling industry was established, ships were visiting Sydney to trade, and convicts whose sentences had expired were taking up farming. John Macarthur and other officers were importing sheep and beginning to grow wool. The colony was still very short of skilled farmers, craftsmen and tradesmen, and the convicts continued to work as little as possible, even though they were working mainly to grow their own food.\n\nIn late 1792 Phillip, whose health was suffering, relinquished his governorship and sailed for England on the ship ''Atlantic'', taking with him many specimens of plants and animals. He also took Bennelong and his friend Yemmerrawanne, another young Indigenous Australian who, unlike Bennelong, would succumb to English weather and disease and not live to make the journey home. The European population of New South Wales at his departure was 4,221, of whom 3,099 were convicts. The early years of the colony had been years of struggle and hardship, but the worst was over, and there were no further famines in New South Wales. Phillip arrived in London in May 1793. He tendered his formal resignation and was granted a pension of £500 a year.\n",
"Phillip's estranged wife, Margaret, had died in 1792 and was buried in St Beuno's Churchyard, Llanycil, Bala, Merionethshire. In 1794 Phillip married Isabella Whitehead, and lived for a time at Bath. His health gradually recovered and in 1796 he went back to sea, holding a series of commands and responsible posts in the wars against the French. In January 1799 he became a Rear-Admiral. In 1805, aged 67, he retired from the Navy with the rank of Admiral of the Blue, and spent most of the rest of his life at Bath. He continued to correspond with friends in New South Wales and to promote the colony's interests with government officials. He died in Bath in 1814.\n\nPhillip was buried in St Nicholas's Church, Bathampton. Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in 1897 and the Premier of New South Wales, Sir Henry Parkes, had it restored. An annual service of remembrance is held here around Phillip's birthdate by the Britain–Australia Society to commemorate his life.\n\nIn 2007, Geoffrey Robertson QC alleged that Phillip's remains are no longer in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton and have been lost: \"...Captain Arthur Phillip is not where the ledger stone says he is: it may be that he is buried somewhere outside, it may simply be that he is simply lost. But he is not where Australians have been led to believe that he now lies.\"\n",
"The Australia Chapel in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, near Bath, England. The memorial to the first governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip, is on the right hand wall\nA number of places in Australia bear Phillip's name, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island (Victoria), Phillip Island (Norfolk Island), the federal electorate of Phillip (1949–1993), the suburb of Phillip in Canberra, the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, and many streets, parks and schools including a state high school in Parramatta. A monument to Phillip in Bath Abbey Church was unveiled in 1937. Another was unveiled at St Mildred's Church, Bread St, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near Saint Paul's Cathedral, in 1968. A different bust and memorial is inside the nearby church of St Mary-le-Bow. There is a statue of him in the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. There is a portrait of him by Francis Wheatley in the National Portrait Gallery, London.\n\nPercival Serle wrote of Phillip in his ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'': \n\n\n===200th anniversary===\nMemorial plaque to Governor Phillip in St James' Church, Sydney\nAs part of a series of events on the bicentenary of his death, a memorial was dedicated in Westminster Abbey on 9 July 2014. In the service the Dean of Westminster, Very Reverend Dr John Hall, described Phillip as: \"This modest, yet world-class seaman, linguist, and patriot, whose selfless service laid the secure foundations on which was developed the Commonwealth of Australia, will always be remembered and honoured alongside other pioneers and inventors here in the Nave: David Livingstone, Thomas Cochrane, and Isaac Newton.\"\n\nA similar memorial was unveiled by the outgoing 37th Governor of New South Wales, Marie Bashir, in St James' Church, Sydney on 31 August 2014.\n\nA bronze bust was installed at the Museum of Sydney and a full-day symposium planned on his contributions to the founding of modern Australia.\n",
"Phillip is a prominent character in Timberlake Wertenbaker's play ''Our Country's Good'', in which he commissions Lieutenant Ralph Clark to stage a production of ''The Recruiting Officer''. He is shown as compassionate and just, but receives little support from his fellow officers. He is also prominent in ''Banished'' and is played by David Wenham.\n\nPhillip is referred to in the John Williamson song \"Chains around my ankle\".\n\nPhillip is a prominent character in a 2005 film The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant where he is portrayed by Sam Neill.\n\nKate Grenville's 2008 novel ''The Lieutenant'' portrays Phillip through the character Commodore James Gilbert.\n",
"\nImage:arthur.phillips.memorial.at.bathampton.arp.jpg|The Arthur Phillip memorial on the wall of the Australia Chapel, Bathampton\nImage:Arthur-Phillip P1010024.JPG|Bathampton Memorials\nBust of Arthur Phillip in Mary-le-Bow Church - Diliff.jpg|Bust of Phillip at St Mary-le-Bow Church in London.\n\n",
"\n* Journals of the First Fleet\n",
"\n",
"\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n",
"\n* \n* \n* Arthur Phillip High School, Parramatta – state high (years 7–12) school named for Phillip\n* B. H. Fletcher, 'Phillip, Arthur (1738–1814)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, Melbourne University Press, 1967, pp 326–333.\n* Royal Navy History Biographical Memoir of Arthur Phillip, Esq.\n* The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay – National Museum of Australia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"First voyages",
"Colonial service",
"Later life",
"Legacy",
"Popular culture",
"Memorials",
"See also",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Arthur Phillip |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Angus''' () is one of the 32 local government council areas of Scotland, a registration county and a lieutenancy area. The council area borders Aberdeenshire, Dundee City and Perth and Kinross. Main industries include agriculture and fishing. Global pharmaceuticals company GSK has a significant presence in Montrose in the north of the county.\n\nAngus was historically a county, known officially as '''Forfarshire''' from the 18th century until 1928. It remains a registration county and a lieutenancy area. In 1975 its administrative functions were transferred to the council district of the Tayside Region, and in 1995 further reform resulted in the establishment of the unitary Angus Council.\n",
"\n===Prehistory===\nThe area that now comprises Angus has been occupied since at least the Neolithic period. Material taken from postholes from an enclosure at Douglasmuir, near Friockheim, about five miles north of Arbroath has been radiocarbon dated to around 3500 BC. The function of the enclosure is unknown, but may have been for agriculture or for ceremonial purposes.\n\nBronze age archaeology is to be found in abundance in the area. Examples include the short-cist burials found near West Newbigging, about a mile to the North of the town. These burials included pottery urns, a pair of silver discs and a gold armlet. Iron Age archaeology is also well represented, for example in the souterrain nearby Warddykes cemetery and at West Grange of Conan, as well as the better-known examples at Carlungie and Ardestie.\n\n===Medieval history===\nThe county is traditionally associated with the Pictish kingdom of Circinn, which is thought to have encompassed Angus and the Mearns. Bordering it were the kingdoms of Ce (Mar and Buchan) to the North, Fotla (Atholl) to the West, and Fib (Fife) to the South.\n\nThe most visible remnants of the Pictish age are the numerous sculptured stones that can be found throughout Angus. Of particular note are the collections found at Aberlemno, St Vigeans, Kirriemuir and Monifieth.\n\nAngus shares borders with Kincardineshire to the north-east, Aberdeenshire to the north and Perthshire to the west. Southwards, it faces Fife across the Firth of Tay.\n\nAngus is marketed as the birthplace of Scotland. The signing of the Declaration of Arbroath at Arbroath Abbey in 1320 marked Scotland's establishment as an independent nation. It is an area of rich history from Pictish times onwards. Notable historic sites in addition to Arbroath Abbey include Glamis Castle, Arbroath Signal Tower museum and the Bell Rock Light House.\n\nMain industries include agriculture and fishing. Global pharmaceuticals company GSK has a significant presence in Montrose in the north of the county.\n",
"\n===Population structure===\n\nIn the 2001 census the population of Angus was recorded as 108,400. 20.14% were under the age of 16, 63.15% were between 16 and 65 and 18.05% were aged 65 or above.\n\nOf the 16 to 74 age group, 32.84% had no formal qualifications, 27.08% were educated to 'O' Grade/Standard Grade level, 14.38% to Higher level, 7.64% to HND or equivalent level and 18.06% to degree level.\n\n===Language in Angus===\nThe most recent available census results (2001) show that Gaelic is spoken by 0.45% of the Angus population. This, similar to other lowland areas, is lower than the national average of 1.16%. These figures are self-reported and are not broken down into levels of fluency.\n\n\n\n Category !! Number !! Percentage\n\n All people \n 108,400 \n 100\n\n Understands spoken Gaelic but cannot speak, read or write it \n 351 \n 0.32\n\n Speaks reads and writes Gaelic \n 238 \n 0.22\n\n Speaks but neither reads nor writes Gaelic \n 188 \n 0.17\n\n Speaks and reads but cannot write Gaelic \n 59 \n0.05\n\n Reads but neither speaks not writes Gaelic \n 61 \n 0.06\n\n Writes but neither speaks nor reads Gaelic \n 13 \n 0.01\n\n Reads and writes but does not speak Gaelic \n 22 \n 0.02\n\n Other combination of skills in Gaelic \n 7 \n 0.01\n\n No knowledge of Gaelic \n 107,461 \n 99.13\n\n\nHistorically, the dominant language in Angus was Pictish until the sixth to seventh centuries AD when the area became progressively gaelicised, with Pictish extinct by the mid-ninth century. Gaelic/Middle Irish began to retreat from lowland areas in the late-eleventh century and was absent from the Eastern lowlands by the fourteenth century. It was replaced there by Middle Scots, the contemporary local South Northern dialect of Modern Scots, while Gaelic persisted as a majority language in the highland Glens until the 19th century. Scottish English is now increasingly replacing Scots.\n\nAngus Council are planning to raise the status of Gaelic in the county by adopting a series of measures, including bilingual road signage, communications, vehicle livery and staffing.\n",
"\n===Local government===\n'''Angus Council''' is one of the 32 local government council areas of Scotland. In 1996, two-tier local government council was abolished and Angus was established as one of the replacement single-tier Council Areas. Prior to 1974 the county had been served by Angus District Council and Tayside Regional Council. As of May 2017 there are 28 seats on the council. From the May 2017 elections the seats are held as follows - Independent 9, SNP 9, Conservative 8, Liberal Democrat 2.\n\nThe council's civic head is the Provost of Angus. There have been five Provosts since its establishment in 1996 - Frances Duncan, Bill Middleton, Ruth Leslie-Melville, Helen Oswald and Alex King. On 16 May 2017 a new provost will be appointed from the councillors elected in Angus at the 2017 elections. As Angus is a county area the Lord Lieutenant of Angus is separate role.\n\nThe council has had four Chief Executives since its formation - Sandy Watson 1996 - 2006, David Sawers 2006 - 2011, Richard Stiff 2011 - 2017 and Margo Williamson 2017 to date.The council's main offices are located at Angus House at Orchardbank in Forfar and at Bruce House in Arbroath while council meetings are held in the Town and County Hall in central Forfar. The council's offices include the historic County Buildings in Forfar adjacent to the Sheriff Court. \n\nThe boundaries of the present council area are the same as those of the historic county minus the City of Dundee.\n\nThe council area borders Aberdeenshire, Dundee City and Perth and Kinross.\n",
"\n\n===UK Parliament===\n\nAngus is represented by three MPs for the UK Parliament.\n\n*Angus - covers most of the council area, is represented by Kirstene Hair of the Conservative party.\n*Dundee East - Mainly covers Dundee, however a small portion of eastern Sidlaw and Carnoustie areas are part of the constituency, is represented by Stewart Hosie of the Scottish National Party\n*Dundee West - Mainly covers Dundee, however a small portion of western Sidlaw area is part of the constituency, is represented by Chris Law of the Scottish National Party\n\n===Scottish Parliament=== \n\nAngus is represented by two constituency MSPs for the Scottish Parliament.\n\n*Angus North and Mearns - Covers the north of Angus and a southern portion of Aberdeenshire, is represented by Mairi Evans of the Scottish National Party.\n*Angus South - Covers the south of Angus, is represented by Graeme Dey of the Scottish National Party.\n\nIn addition to the two constiency MSPs, Angus is also represented by MSPs from the Mid-Scotland and Fife electoral region.\n\n\n\n\n'''Party'''\n'''Member'''\n\n\nConservative\nMurdo Fraser\n\n\nConservative\nDean Lockhart\n\n\nConservative\nElizabeth Smith\n\n\nConservative\nAlexander Stewart\n\n\nLabour\nClaire Brennan-Baker\n\n\nLabour\nAlex Rowley\n\n\nScottish Green\nMark Ruskell\n\n",
"Angus can be split into three geographic areas. To the north and west, the topography is mountainous. This is the area of the five Angus Glens, which is sparsely populated and where the main industry is hill-farming. To the south and east the topography consists of rolling hills bordering the sea. This area is well populated, with the larger towns. In between lies Strathmore (''the Great Valley''), which is a fertile agricultural area noted for the growing of potatoes, soft fruit and the raising of Angus cattle. Montrose in the north east of the county is notable for its tidal basin.\n\n",
"c.1854 Angusshire (Forfarshire) Civil Parish map.\n\n===Towns===\n\n*Arbroath, the largest town\n*Brechin\n*Carnoustie\n*Forfar, the county town and administrative centre\n*Kirriemuir\n*Monifieth\n*Montrose\n\n\n===Villages===\n\n\n*Aberlemno\n*Arbirlot\n*Auchmithie\n*Auchterhouse\n*Birkhill\n*Bridge of Craigisla\n*Carmyllie\n*Dunnichen\n*East Haven\n*Edzell\n*Edzell Woods\n*Farnell\n*Friockheim\n*Finavon\n*Glamis\n*Guthrie\n*Inverkeilor\n*Hillside\n*Kingsmuir\n*Letham\n*Liff\n*Newbigging\n*Newtyle\n*Noranside\n*Memus\n*Menmuir\n*Monikie\n*Muirhead\n*Murroes\n*St Vigeans\n*Tannadice\n*Tarfside\n*Tealing\n*Unthank\n\n",
"\n\n*Aberlemno Sculptured Stones (Pictish symbols)\n*Angus Folk Museum, Glamis\n*Arbroath Abbey, place of signing of the Declaration of Arbroath\n*Barry Mill\n*Brechin Cathedral\n*Brechin Castle\n*Brechin Round Tower\n*Caledonian Railway (Brechin)\n*Cairngorms National Park\n*Corrie Fee, National Nature Reserve\n*Eassie Stone\n*Edzell Castle\n*Glamis Castle\n* Glen Esk Folk Museum\n*House of Dun\n*Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve\n*Meffan Institute, museum and art gallery in Forfar\n*Monboddo House\n*Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre, site of the first operational military airfield in Britain RAF Montrose\n*Montrose Basin Nature Reserve\n*Montrose Museum\n\n\n\nAngus\n",
"\n\n\n\n'''Party'''\n'''Councillors'''\n\n\nScottish National Party\n9\n\n\nIndependent\n9\n\n\nConservative\n8\n\n\nLiberal Democrat\n2\n\n",
"\n* – Yantai, Shandong, China.\n",
"Most common surnames in Angus (Forfarshire) at the time of the United Kingdom Census of 1881:\n\n* 1. Smith\n* 2. Robertson\n* 3. Anderson\n* 4. Stewart\n* 5. Scott\n* 6. Mitchell\n* 7. Brown\n* 8. Duncan\n* 9. Milne\n* 10. Thomson\n",
"*Earl of Angus\n*List of counties of Scotland 1890–1975\n*Medieval Diocese of Brechin (or Angus)\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n* Angus Council\n*\n* Website showcasing the best of Angus\n* Dundee and Angus information portal\n* Angus walks\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Demography",
"Government",
"Parliamentary representation",
"Geography",
"Towns and villages",
"Places of interest",
"Council political composition",
"Sister areas",
"Surnames",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Angus, Scotland |
[
"\n\n'''André René Roussimoff''' (May 19, 1946 – January 27, 1993), best known as '''André the Giant''', was a French professional wrestler and actor.\n\nHe famously feuded with Hulk Hogan, culminating at WrestleMania III. His best-remembered film role was that of Fezzik, the giant in ''The Princess Bride''. His size was a result of gigantism caused by excess growth hormone, which later resulted in acromegaly. It also led to his being called \"The Eighth Wonder of the World\".\n\nIn the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now known as WWE), André was a one-time WWF World Heavyweight Champion and a one-time WWF Tag Team Champion. In 1993, André was the inaugural inductee into the WWE Hall of Fame.\n",
"André Roussimoff was born in Grenoble, France, to Boris and Mariann Roussimoff, a couple of Bulgarian and Polish ancestry. His nickname growing up was \"Dédé\". As a child, he displayed symptoms of his gigantism very early, reaching a height of and a weight of by the age of 12. Playwright Samuel Beckett, a neighbor who later won the Nobel Prize for Literature, bought some land in 1953 near a hamlet around northeast of Paris. He built a cottage for himself with the help of André's father Boris Roussimoff. When Beckett found out that Roussimoff was having trouble getting his son to school, Beckett offered to drive André to school in his truck, as he did not fit on the bus. When André recounted the drives with Beckett, he revealed that they rarely talked about anything other than cricket.\n\nRoussimoff was a good student, particularly in mathematics, but he dropped out after the eighth grade since he did not think having a high school education was necessary for a farm laborer. He spent years working on his father's farm, where, according to his brother, Jacques, he could perform the work of three men. He also completed an apprenticeship in woodworking, and next worked in a factory that manufactured engines for hay balers. None of these occupations, however, brought him any satisfaction.\n",
"\n=== Early career ===\nAt the age of 17, Roussimoff moved to Paris and was taught professional wrestling by a local promoter who recognized the earning potential of Roussimoff's size. He trained at night and worked as a mover during the day to pay living expenses. Roussimoff was billed as \"Géant Ferré\", a name based on the French folk hero Grand Ferré, and began wrestling in Paris and nearby areas. Canadian promoter and wrestler Frank Valois met Roussimoff in 1966, becoming his business manager and adviser. Roussimoff began making a name for himself wrestling in the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, and Africa.\n\nHe made his Japanese debut in 1970, billed as \"Monster Roussimoff\", wrestling for the International Wrestling Enterprise. Wrestling as both a singles and tag-team competitor, he quickly was made the company's tag-team champion alongside Michael Nador. During his time in Japan, doctors first informed Roussimoff that he suffered from acromegaly.\n\nRoussimoff next moved to Montréal, Canada, where he became an immediate success, regularly selling out the Montreal Forum. However, promoters eventually ran out of plausible opponents for him and, as the novelty of his size wore off, the gate receipts dwindled. Roussimoff was defeated by Adnan Al-Kaissie in Baghdad in 1971, and wrestled numerous times in 1972 for Verne Gagne's American Wrestling Association (AWA) as a special attraction until Valois appealed to Vince McMahon Sr., founder of the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF), for advice. McMahon suggested several changes. He felt Roussimoff should be portrayed as a large, immovable monster, and to enhance the perception of his size, McMahon discouraged Roussimoff from performing maneuvers such as dropkicks (although he was capable of performing such agile maneuvers before his health deteriorated in later life). He also began billing Roussimoff as \"André the Giant\" and set up a travel-intensive schedule, lending him to wrestling associations around the world, to keep him from becoming overexposed in any area. Promoters had to guarantee Roussimoff a certain amount of money as well as pay McMahon's WWWF booking fee.\n\n=== World Wide Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Federation ===\n\n==== \"Undefeated streak\" (1973–1987) ====\nOn March 26, 1973, André debuted in the World Wide Wrestling Federation (later World Wrestling Federation) as a fan favorite, defeating Buddy Wolfe in New York's Madison Square Garden.\n\nAndré was one of professional wrestling's most beloved \"babyfaces\" throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. As such, Gorilla Monsoon often stated that André had never been defeated for 15 years by pinfall or submission prior to WrestleMania III; however, André had lost in matches outside of the WWF: a pinfall loss in Mexico to Canek in 1984 and a submission loss in Japan to Antonio Inoki in 1986. He also had sixty-minute time-limit draws with the two other major world champions of the day, Harley Race and Nick Bockwinkel.\n\nIn 1976, André fought professional boxer Chuck Wepner in an unscripted boxer-versus-wrestler fight. The wild fight was shown via telecast as part of the undercard of the Muhammad Ali versus Antonio Inoki fight and ended when André threw Wepner over the top rope and outside the ring.\n\nIn 1980, he feuded with Hulk Hogan, where unlike their more famous matches in the late 1980s, Hogan was the villain and Andre was the hero, wrestling him at Shea Stadium's Showdown at Shea and in Pennsylvania, where after Andre pinned Hogan to win the match, Hogan bodyslammed Andre much like their legendary WrestleMania III match in 1987. The feud continued in Japan in 1982 and 1983 with their roles reversed and with Antonio Inoki also involved.\n\nIn 1982, Vince McMahon, Sr. sold the World Wide Wrestling Federation to his son, Vince McMahon, Jr.. As McMahon began to expand his newly acquired promotion to the national level, he required his wrestlers to appear exclusively for him. McMahon signed André to these terms in 1984, although he still allowed him to work in Japan for New Japan Pro Wrestling (NJPW).\n\nOne of André's feuds pitted him against the \"Mongolian Giant\" Killer Khan. According to the storyline, Khan had snapped André's ankle during a match on May 2, 1981, in Rochester, New York, by leaping off the top rope and crashing down upon it with his knee-drop. In reality, André had broken his ankle getting out of bed the morning before the match. The injury and subsequent rehabilitation was worked into the existing André/Khan storyline. After a stay at Beth Israel Hospital in Boston, André returned with payback on his mind. The two battled on July 20, 1981, at Madison Square Garden in a match that resulted in a double disqualification. Their feud continued as fans filled arenas up and down the east coast to witness their matches. On November 14, 1981, at the Philadelphia Spectrum, André decisively defeated Khan in what was billed as a \"Mongolian stretcher match\", in which the loser must be taken to the dressing room on a stretcher. The same type of match was also held in Toronto. In early 1982 the two also fought in a series of matches in Japan with Arnold Skaaland in Andre's corner.\n\nAndré (second from right) feuded with Big John Studd (left) in the build towards WrestleMania I, and later with King Kong Bundy (second from left)\nAnother feud involved a man who considered himself to be the \"true giant\" of wrestling: Big John Studd. Throughout the early to mid-1980s, André and Studd fought all over the world, battling to try to determine who the real giant of wrestling was. In 1984, Studd took the feud to a new level when he and partner Ken Patera knocked out André during a televised tag-team match and proceeded to cut off André's hair. After gaining revenge on Patera, André met Studd in a \"body slam challenge\" at the first WrestleMania, held March 31, 1985, at Madison Square Garden in New York City. André slammed Studd to win the match and collect the $15,000 prize, then proceeded to throw cash to the fans before having the bag taken from him by Studd's manager, Bobby \"The Brain\" Heenan.\n\nThe following year, at WrestleMania 2, on April 7, 1986, André continued to display his dominance by winning a twenty-man battle royal which featured top National Football League stars and wrestlers. André last eliminated Bret Hart to win the contest.\n\nAfter WrestleMania 2, André continued his feud with Studd and King Kong Bundy. Around this time, André requested a leave of absence to tend to his health—effects from his acromegaly that were beginning to take their toll—as well as tour Japan. He had also been cast in the film ''The Princess Bride''. To explain André's absence, a storyline was developed in which Heenan—suggesting that André was secretly afraid of Studd and Bundy, whom Heenan bragged were unbeatable—challenged André and a partner of his choosing to wrestle Studd and Bundy in a televised tag-team match. When André failed to show, WWF president Jack Tunney indefinitely suspended him. Later in the summer of 1986, upon André's return to the United States, he began wearing a mask and competing as the \"Giant Machine\" in a stable known as the Machines. (Big Machine and Super Machine were the other members, (Hulk Hogan (as \"Hulk Machine\") and Roddy Piper (as \"Piper Machine\") were also one-time members). The WWF's television announcers sold the Machines—a gimmick that was copied from the New Japan Pro Wrestling character \"Super Strong Machine\", played by Japanese wrestler Junji Hirata, —as \"a new tag-team from Japan\" and claimed not to know the identities of the wrestlers, even though it was obvious to fans that it was André competing as the Giant Machine. Heenan, Studd, and Bundy complained to Tunney, who eventually told Heenan that if it could be proven that André and the Giant Machine were the same person, André would be fired. André thwarted Heenan, Studd, and Bundy at every turn. Then, in late 1986, the Giant Machine \"disappeared,\" and André was reinstated. Foreshadowing André's heel turn, Heenan expressed his approval of the reinstatement but did not explain why.\n\n==== WWF Champion and various rivalries (1987–1989) ====\nAndré was managed by Bobby Heenan (seen in front of him) during parts of his feud with Hulk Hogan\nAndré agreed to turn heel in early 1987 to be the counter to the biggest \"babyface\" in professional wrestling at that time, Hulk Hogan. On an edition of ''Piper's Pit'' in 1987, Hogan was presented a trophy for being the WWF World Heavyweight Champion for three years; André came out to congratulate him. On the following week's ''Piper's Pit'', André was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being \"the only undefeated wrestler in wrestling history.\" Although André had suffered a handful of countout and disqualification losses in WWF, he had never been pinned or forced to submit in a WWF ring. Hogan came out to congratulate André and ended up being the focal point of the interview. Apparently annoyed, André walked out in the midst of Hogan's speech. A discussion between André and Hogan was scheduled, and on a ''Piper's Pit'' that aired February 7, 1987, the two met. Hogan was introduced first, followed by André. André was led by longtime rival Bobby Heenan.\n\nSpeaking on behalf of his new protégé, Heenan accused Hogan of being André's friend only so he would not have to defend his title against him. Hogan tried to reason with André, but his pleas were ignored as he challenged Hogan to a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania III. Hogan was still seemingly in disbelief as to what André was doing, prompting Heenan to say \"You can't believe it, maybe you'll believe this, Hogan\" before André ripped the T-shirt and crucifix from Hogan, the crucifix scratched Hogan's chest while ripping the shirt off, causing Hogan to bleed, however a closer examination of the exchange on YouTube shows Hogan \"blading\" himself, sweeping an arm upward across his chest, a few seconds after Andre tore his shirt.\n\nFollowing Hogan's acceptance of André's challenge on a later edition of ''Piper's Pit'', the two were part of a 20-man over-the-top rope battle-royal on the March 14 edition of ''Saturday Night's Main Event'' at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit. Although the battle royal was won by Hercules, André claimed to have gained a psychological advantage over Hogan when he threw the WWF World Heavyweight Champion over the top rope. The match, which was actually taped on February 21, 1987, aired only two weeks before WrestleMania III to make it seem like Hogan had met his match in André the Giant.\n\nAt WrestleMania III, he was billed at , and the stress of such immense weight on his bones and joints resulted in constant pain. After recent back surgery, he was also wearing a brace underneath his wrestling singlet. In front of a record crowd of 93,173, Hogan won the match after body-slamming André (later dubbed \"the bodyslam heard around the world\"), followed by Hogan's running leg drop finisher. Years later, Hogan claimed that André was so heavy, he felt more like , and that he actually tore his latissimus dorsi muscle slamming him.\n\nAnother famous myth about the match is that no one, not even WWF owner Vince McMahon, knew until the day of the event whether André would lose the match. In reality, André had agreed to lose the match some time before, mostly for health reasons, though he almost pinned Hogan (albeit unintentionally) in the first minute of the match after Hogan tried to slam him but could not hold his weight. Contrary to popular belief, it was not the first time that Hogan had successfully body-slammed André in a WWF match. A then-heel Hogan slammed a then-face André following their match at the \"Showdown at Shea\" on August 9, 1980, though André was much lighter (around ) and more athletic at the time (Hogan also slammed André in a match in Hamburg, Pennsylvania, a month later). This took place in the territorial days of American wrestling three years before WWF began national expansion, so many of those who watched WrestleMania III had never seen the Giant slammed (André had also previously allowed Harley Race, El Canek and Stan Hansen, among others, to slam him).\n\nBy the time of WrestleMania III, the WWF had gone national, giving more meaning to the André–Hogan match that took place then. The feud between André and Hogan simmered during the summer of 1987, as Roussimoff's health declined. The feud began heating up again when wrestlers were named the captains of rival teams at the inaugural Survivor Series event. During their approximately one minute of actually battling each other during the match, Hogan dominated André and was on the brink of knocking him from the ring, but was tripped up by André's partners, Bundy and One Man Gang, and would be counted out. André went on to be the sole survivor of the match, pinning Bam Bam Bigelow before Hogan returned to the ring to attack André and knock him out of the ring. André later got revenge when, after Hogan won a match against Bundy on ''Saturday Night's Main Event'', he snuck up from behind and began choking Hogan to the brink of unconsciousness, not letting go even after an army of seven face-aligned wrestlers ran to the ring to try to pull André away; it took Hacksaw Jim Duggan breaking a 2-by-4 over André's back (which he no-sold) for him to let go, after which Hogan was pulled to safety. As was the case with the ''SNME'' battle royal a year earlier, the series of events was one of the pieces that helped build interest in a possible one-on-one rematch between Hogan and André, and to make it seem that André was certain to win easily when they did meet.\n\nIn the meantime, the \"Million Dollar Man\" Ted DiBiase failed to persuade Hogan to sell him the WWF World Heavyweight Championship. After failing to defeat Hogan in a subsequent series of matches, DiBiase turned to André to win it for him. André and DiBiase had teamed several times in the past, including in Japan and in the WWF in the late 1970s and early 1980s when both were faces, but this was not acknowledged during this new storyline. The earlier attack and DiBiase's insertion into the feud set up the Hogan-André rematch on ''The Main Event'', to air February 5, 1988, on a live broadcast on NBC. Acting as his hired gun, André won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship from Hogan (his first singles title) in a match where it was later revealed that appointed referee Dave Hebner was \"detained backstage\", and a replacement (whom Hogan afterwards initially accused of having been paid by DiBiase to get plastic surgery to look like Dave, but in fact was revealed to have been his evil twin brother, Earl Hebner), made a three count on Hogan while his shoulders were off the mat.\n\nAfter winning, André \"sold\" the title to DiBiase; the transaction was declared invalid by then-WWF president Jack Tunney and the title was declared vacant. This was shown on WWF's NBC program ''The Main Event''. At WrestleMania IV, André and Hulk Hogan fought to a double disqualification in a WWF title tournament match (with the idea in the storyline saying that André was again working on DiBiase's behalf in giving DiBiase a clearer path in the tournament). Afterward, André and Hogan's feud died down after a steel cage match held at ''WrestleFest'' on July 31, 1988, in Milwaukee.\n\nAt the inaugural SummerSlam pay-per-view held at Madison Square Garden, André and DiBiase (billed as The Mega Bucks) faced Hogan and WWF World Heavyweight Champion \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage (known as The Mega Powers) in the main event, with Jesse \"The Body\" Ventura as the special guest referee. During the match, the Mega Powers' manager, Miss Elizabeth, (Savage's wife Elizabeth Hulette) distracted the Mega Bucks and Ventura when she climbed up on the ring apron, removed her yellow skirt and walked around in a pair of red panties. This allowed Hogan and Savage time to recover and eventually win the match with Hogan pinning DiBiase. Savage forced Ventura's hand down for the final three-count, due to Ventura's character historically being at odds with Hogan, and his unwillingness to count the fall.\n\nConcurrent with the developing feud with the Mega Powers, André was placed in a feud with Jim Duggan, which began after Duggan knocked out André with a two-by-four board during a television taping. Despite Duggan's popularity with fans, André regularly got the upper hand in the feud.\n\nAndré feuded with Jake Roberts based on André's fear of snakes\nAndré's next major feud was against Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts. In this storyline, it was said André was afraid of snakes, something Roberts exposed on ''Saturday Night's Main Event'' when he threw his snake, Damien, on the frightened André; as a result, André suffered a kayfabe mild heart attack and vowed revenge. During the next few weeks, Roberts frequently walked to ringside during André's matches, causing him to run from the ring in fright (since he knew what was inside the bag). Throughout their feud (which culminated at WrestleMania V), Roberts constantly used Damien to gain a psychological edge over the much larger and stronger André.\n\nIn 1989, André and the returning Big John Studd briefly reprised their feud, beginning at WrestleMania V, when Studd was the referee in the match with Roberts, this time with Studd as a face and André as the heel. During the late summer and fall of 1989, André engaged in a brief feud, consisting almost entirely of house shows (non-televised events), with then-Intercontinental Champion The Ultimate Warrior. The younger Warrior, WWF's rising star, regularly squashed the aging André in an attempt to showcase his star quality and promote him as the \"next big thing\".\n\n==== The Colossal Connection (1989–1990) ====\n\nIn late 1989, André was joined with fellow Heenan Family member Haku to form a new tag team called the Colossal Connection, in part to fill a void left by the departure of Tully Blanchard and Arn Anderson (the Brain Busters, who were also members of Heenan's stable) from the WWF, and also to continue to keep the aging André in the main event spotlight. The Colossal Connection immediately targeted WWF Tag Team Champions Demolition (who had recently won the belts from the Brain Busters). At a television taping on December 13, 1989, the Colossal Connection defeated Demolition to win the titles. André and Haku successfully defended their title, mostly against Demolition, until WrestleMania VI on April 1, 1990, when Demolition took advantage of a mistimed move by the champions to regain the belts. After the match, a furious Heenan blamed André for the title loss and after shouting at him, slapped him in the face; an angry André responded with a slap of his own that sent Heenan staggering from the ring. André also caught Haku's kick attempt, sending him reeling from the ring as well, prompting support for André and turning him face for the first time since 1987. Due to his ongoing health issues, André was not able to wrestle at the time of Wrestlemania VI and Haku actually wrestled the entire match against Demolition without tagging in André.\n\nOn weekend television shows following WrestleMania VI, Bobby Heenan vowed to spit in Andre's face when he came crawling back to the Heenan Family. However Andre would wrestle one more time with Haku, teaming up to face Demolition on a house show in Honolulu, HI, on April 10. Andre was knocked out of the ring and The Colossal Connection lost via countout. After the match, Andre and Haku would fight each other, marking the end of the team. Andre's final match of 1990 came at a combined WWF/All Japan/New Japan show on April 13 in Tokyo, Japan when teamed with Giant Baba to defeat Demolition in a non-title match. Andre would win by gaining the pinfall on Smash.\n\n==== Sporadic appearances (1990–1992) ====\nAndre returned in the winter of 1990, but it was not to the World Wrestling Federation. Instead, Andre made an interview appearance for Herb Abrams' fledgling Universal Wrestling Federation on October 11 in Reseda, CA. (the segment aired in 1991). He appeared in an interview segment with Captain Lou Albano and put over the UWF. The following month, on November 30 at a house show in Miami, Florida the World Wrestling Federation announced Andre's return as a participant in the 1991 Royal Rumble (to be held in Miami, FL two months later). Andre was also mentioned as a participant on television but would ultimately back out due to a leg injury.\n\nHis on-air return finally came at WrestleMania VII, when he came to the aid of The Big Boss Man in his match against Mr. Perfect. André finally returned to action on April 26, 1991, in a six-man tag-team matchup when he teamed with the Rockers in a winning effort against Mr. Fuji and the Orient Express at a house show in Belfast, Northern Ireland. On May 10 he participated in a 17-man battle-royal at a house show in Detroit. (won by Kerry Von Erich). His last major WWF storyline following WrestleMania VII had the major heel managers (Bobby Heenan, Sensational Sherri, Slick, and Mr. Fuji) trying to recruit André one-by-one, only to be turned down in various humiliating ways (e.g. Heenan had his hand crushed, Sherri received a spanking, Slick got locked in the trunk of the car he was offering to André and Mr. Fuji got a pie in his face). Finally, Jimmy Hart appeared live on ''WWF Superstars'' to announce that he had successfully signed André to tag-team with Earthquake. However, when asked to confirm this by Gene Okerlund, André denied the claims. This led to Earthquake's attacking André from behind (injuring his knee). Jimmy Hart would later get revenge for the humiliation by secretly signing Tugboat and forming the Natural Disasters. This led to André's final major WWF appearance at SummerSlam '91, where he seconded the Bushwhackers in their match against the Disasters. André was on crutches at ringside, and after the Disasters won the match, they set out to attack André, but the Legion of Doom made their way to ringside and got in between them and the Giant, who was preparing to defend himself with one of his crutches. The Disasters left the ringside area as they were outnumbered by the Legion of Doom, the Bushwhackers and André, who struck both Earthquake and Typhoon (the former Tugboat) with the crutch as they left. His final WWF appearance came at a house show in Paris, France, on October 9. He was in Davey Boy Smith's corner as the Bulldog faced Earthquake. Davey Boy hit Earthquake with André's crutch, allowing Smith to win.\n\nHis last U.S. television appearance was in a brief interview on World Championship Wrestling's (WCW) ''Clash of the Champions XX'' special that aired on TBS on September 2, 1992.\n\n=== All Japan Pro Wrestling and Universal Wrestling Association (1990–1992) ===\nAfter WrestleMania VI, André spent the rest of his in-ring career in All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW) and Mexico's Universal Wrestling Association, where he performed under the name \"André el Gigante.\" He toured with AJPW three times per year, from 1990 to 1992, usually teaming with Giant Baba in tag-team matches. He also made a couple of guest appearances for Herb Abrams' Universal Wrestling Federation, in 1991, feuding with Big John Studd, though he never had a match in the promotion. He did his final tour of Mexico in 1992 in a selection of six-man tag matches alongside Bam Bam Bigelow and a variety of Lucha Libre stars facing among others Bad News Allen and future WWF Champion Yokozuna. André wrestled his final match for AJPW in 1992. After his final match, André retired from professional wrestling.\n",
"André branched out into acting again in the 1970s and 1980s, after a 1967 French boxing movie, making his USA acting debut playing a Sasquatch (\"Bigfoot\") in a two-part episode aired in 1976 on the 1970s television series ''The Six Million Dollar Man''. He appeared in other television shows, including ''The Greatest American Hero'', ''B. J. and the Bear'', ''The Fall Guy'' and 1990's ''Zorro''.\n\nTowards the end of his career, André starred in several films. He had an uncredited appearance in the 1984 film ''Conan the Destroyer'' as Dagoth, the resurrected horned giant god who is killed by Conan (Arnold Schwarzenegger). That same year, André also made an appearance in ''Micki & Maude'' (billed as André Rousimmoff). He appeared most notably as Fezzik, his own favorite role, in the 1987 film ''The Princess Bride''. Both the film and André's performance retain a devoted following.\n\nIn his last film, he appeared in a cameo role as a circus giant in the comedy ''Trading Mom'', which was released a year after his death.\n\n=== Filmography ===\n* ''Casse tête chinois pour le judoka'' (1967)\n* ''The Six Million Dollar Man'' – \"The Secret of Bigfoot - I and II\" (1976), Bigfoot\n* ''B. J. and the Bear'' – \"Snow White and the Seven Lady Truckers\" (1981), Manny Felcher\n* ''The Greatest American Hero'' – \"Heaven Is in Your Genes\" (1983), Monster\n* \"The Goonies 'R' Good Enough\" music video by Cyndi Lauper\n* ''Conan the Destroyer'' (1984), Dagoth (uncredited)\n* ''Micki & Maude'' (1984), Himself\n* ''I Like to Hurt People'' (1985), Himself\n* ''The Princess Bride'' (1987), Fezzik\n* ''Trading Mom'' (1994), Circus Giant\n* ''Symphorien'' (1978), French Canadian sitcom on Quebec television\n* ''Les Brillants'' (1981), French Canadian sitcom on Quebec television\n",
"Roussimoff had one daughter, Robin Christensen Roussimoff, who was born in 1979. He was also the godfather of Bill Eadie's (Demolition's Ax) daughters.\n\nRoussimoff was mentioned in the ''1974 Guinness Book of World Records'' as the highest-paid wrestler in history at that time. He had earned US $400,000 in one year during the early 1970s.\n\nRoussimoff has been unofficially crowned \"the greatest drunk on Earth\" for once consuming 119 beers (over 41 litres) in six hours. On an episode of WWE's ''Legends of Wrestling'', Mike Graham said Roussimoff once drank 156 beers (over 73 litres) in one sitting, which was confirmed by Dusty Rhodes. The Fabulous Moolah wrote in her autobiography that Roussimoff drank 127 beers in a Reading, Pennsylvania, hotel bar and later passed out in the lobby. The staff could not move him and had to leave him there until he awoke. A tale recounted by Cary Elwes in his book about the making of ''The Princess Bride'' has Roussimoff falling atop somebody while drunk, after which the NYPD sent an undercover officer to follow Roussimoff around whenever he went out drinking in their city to make sure he did not fall on anyone again.\n\nAn urban legend exists surrounding Roussimoff's 1987 surgery in which his size made it impossible for the anesthesiologist to estimate a dosage via standard methods; consequently, his alcohol tolerance was used as a guideline instead.\n\nRoussimoff was arrested by the Linn County, Iowa, sheriff in 1989 and charged with assault after he allegedly roughed up a local television cameraman.\n\nWilliam Goldman, the author of the novel and the screenplay of ''The Princess Bride'', wrote in his nonfiction work ''Which Lie Did I Tell?'' that Roussimoff was one of the gentlest and most generous people he ever knew. Whenever Roussimoff ate with someone in a restaurant he would pay, but he would also insist on paying when he was a guest. After one meal, Arnold Schwarzenegger had quietly moved to the cashier to pay before Roussimoff could, but then found himself being physically lifted, carried from his table and deposited on top of his car by Roussimoff and Wilt Chamberlain.\n\nWhile Roussimoff was often billed as being tall, his true height remains a point of conjecture among wrestling fans, with a number believing that his real height was closer to , given professional wrestling's reputation for exaggerating their characters to make them appear larger than life. This is despite there being no official references to Roussimoff's height other than the (the WWE website lists Roussimoff as being 7'4\"). Indeed, many stories have been made public, including one in which he was reportedly told by the various promoters that he tried to never stand next to or be photographed with basketball players such as the Wilt Chamberlain or Kareem Abdul-Jabbar who stood at , due to their actually being taller than he was.\n\nRoussimoff owned a ranch in Ellerbe, North Carolina, looked after by two of his close friends. When he was not on the road, he loved spending time at the ranch tending to his cattle, playing with his dogs and entertaining company. While there were custom-made chairs and a few other modifications in his home to account for his size, tales that everything in his home was custom-made for a large man are said to be exaggerated. Since Roussimoff could not easily go shopping due to his fame and size, he was known to spend hours watching QVC and made frequent purchases from the shopping channel.\n",
"Roussimoff died in his sleep of congestive heart failure on the night of January 27, 1993, in a Paris hotel room. He was found by his chauffeur. He was in Paris attending his father's funeral. While there, Roussimoff decided to stay in France longer to be with his mother on her birthday. He spent the day before his death visiting and playing cards with some of his oldest friends in Molien.\n\nAndré had finalized his will in New York on October 30, 1990, with his lawyer. In the will, André specified that his remains be cremated and \"disposed of.\" Upon his death in Paris, André's family in France held a funeral for him, intending to bury him near his father. When they learned of Andre's wish to be cremated, his body was flown to the United States, where he was cremated according to his wishes. His ashes were scattered at his ranch () in Ellerbe, North Carolina.\n",
"André has made numerous appearances as himself in video games, starting with ''WWF WrestleMania (1989 video game)''. He also appears in ''WWF Superstars'', ''WWF No Mercy'', ''WWE SmackDown! vs. RAW'', ''WWE All Stars'', ''WWE 2K17'', ''WWE 2K18'' and many others.\n\nOn January 25, 2005, WWE released ''André The Giant'', a DVD focusing on the life and career of André. The DVD is a reissue of the out-of-print ''André The Giant'' VHS made by Coliseum Video in 1985, with commentary by Michael Cole and Tazz replacing Gorilla Monsoon and Jesse Ventura's commentary on his WrestleMania match with Big John Studd. The video is hosted by Lord Alfred Hayes. Later matches, including André's battles against Hulk Hogan while a heel, are not included on this VHS.\n",
"Big Show – a wrestler often compared with André due to his size – was the winner of the 2015 André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal at WrestleMania 31, and is posing alongside the André the Giant Memorial Trophy, which goes to the winner of the annual match\n* In 1993, when the then-World Wrestling Federation created the WWF Hall of Fame, André the Giant was the inaugural and sole inductee.\n* André was the inspiration for the 1998 film ''My Giant'', written by his friend Billy Crystal, whom he had met during the filming of ''The Princess Bride''.\n* Paul Wight, better known as Big Show, is more similar in body structure to André than any other wrestler since André's death. He was originally billed as the son of André during his stint in WCW (when he was known as simply \"the Giant\") despite there being no biological relationship. While also suffering from acromegaly, unlike André, Wight did get surgery on his pituitary gland in the early 1990s, which successfully halted the progress of his condition. The former wrestler Giant González suffered from problems similar to those that André had near the end of his life and died in 2010 due to diabetes complications.\n* In 1999, André was the subject of an episode of ''A&E Biography'', titled ''André the Giant: Larger Than Life''. The documentary covered André's childhood and early life in France, as well as the beginning of his wrestling career, his struggles with acromegaly, his personal life, and his final years. André's brother, Jacques Roussimoff, was interviewed for the documentary, as were fellow wrestling personalities Gorilla Monsoon, Tim White, Arnold Skaaland, Vince McMahon, Freddie Blassie, Killer Kowalski, Rene Goulet, and Frenchy Bernard, as well as wrestling historian Sheldon Goldberg. Several of André's longtime hometown friends were interviewed as well. The documentary described André as pro wrestling's \"first and only international attraction\" and that \"on his broad shoulders, wrestling rose from its status as a questionable sport to become big business, and some might argue, performance art.\"\n* The Obey brand icon originated from wheatpaste posters that artist Shepard Fairey created based upon a photo of André the Giant that he had found in a newspaper.\n* Capcom's video game character Hugo, from the ''Street Fighter'' series (known as Andore in the ''Final Fight'' series) is based on him.\n* The 2014 graphic novel ''André The Giant: The Life and The Legend'' (First Second Books), written and drawn by Box Brown, tells the story of André's life and career. Research for the book included interviews with André's fellow wrestlers and actors such as Christopher Guest, Mandy Patinkin and others.\n* On the March 10, 2014, episode of ''Raw'', WrestleMania XXX host Hulk Hogan announced that in honor of André's legacy, he was establishing the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal, that would take place at the event, with the winner receiving the André the Giant Memorial Trophy (made in the likeness of André). On April 6, 2014, at WrestleMania XXX, Cesaro won the match after eliminating Big Show using a body slam similar to the body slam Hulk Hogan used on André at WrestleMania III. At WrestleMania 31, the second annual André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal took place at Levi's Stadium, establishing the match as a yearly tradition at WWE's marquee event. Big Show won the event, last eliminating Damien Mizdow. At WrestleMania 32, the third annual Andre the Giant Memorial Battle Royal was held with Baron Corbin last eliminating Kane to win the match, which was also notable for NBA legend Shaquille O'Neal entering as a surprise participant. Mojo Rawley became the fourth winner of the battle royal last eliminating Jinder Mahal at Wrestlemania 33\n\n=== Possible biopic ===\nOn May 9, 2016, it was announced that a movie based on the 2015 authorized graphic novel biography ''André the Giant: Closer to Heaven'' was in the plans made by Lion Forge Comics along with producers Scott Steindorff, Dylan Russell and consulted by André's daughter, Robin Christensen-Roussimoff.\n\n===Documentary===\nOn February 13, 2017, HBO Sports, the WWE and Bill Simmons announced a partnership to produce a documentary on Andre's life. The documentary, titled ''Andre The Giant'', will air on HBO.\n",
"* '''Finishing moves'''\n** Double underhook suplex\n** Elbow drop\n** Seated senton\n* '''Signature moves'''\n** Bear hug\n** Big boot\n** Body slam\n** Facebreaker knee smash\n** Headbutt\n** Hip attacks to a cornered opponent.\n** Knee strike to an opponent's middle section\n** Multiple chokes variations\n*** Corner foot\n*** Double, sometimes lifting the opponent\n*** Single arm\n** Multiple chop variations\n*** Forehand\n*** Knife-edge\n*** Overhand\n** Standing on a fallen, cornered opponent\n** Stepping on a fallen opponent's stomach\n** Turnbuckle thrusts\n* '''Managers'''\n** Lou Albano\n** Ted DiBiase\n** Bobby Heenan\n** Frank Valois\n** Arnold Skaaland\n** K. Y. Wakamatsu\n* '''Nicknames'''\n* \"(The) Boss\"\n* \"The Wildcat\"\n* \"The Eighth Wonder of the World\"\n* '''Entrance themes'''\n** \"Giant Press\" (NJPW)\n** \"Giant\" by Jim Johnston (used in various WWE video games)\n** \"Ave Satanus\" by John Christopher Payne (used in ''WWE 2K14'', ''WWE 2K15'', ''WWE 2K16'' and ''WWE 2K17'')\n",
"* '''Championship Wrestling from Florida'''\n** NWA Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes\n* '''International Pro Wrestling'''\n** IWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Michael Nador\n* '''NWA Hollywood\n** Los Angeles Battle Royal (1975, 1980) \n* '''NWA San Francisco\n** Cow Palace Battle Royal (1977) \n* '''New Japan Pro Wrestling'''\n** International Wrestling Grand Prix (1985)\n** MSG League (1982)\n** MSG Tag League (1981) – with Rene Goulet\n** Sagawa Express Cup (1986)\n* '''NWA Tri-State'''\n** NWA United States Tag Team Championship ''(Tri-State version)'' (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes\n* '''Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum'''\n** Class of 2002\n* '''''Pro Wrestling Illustrated'''''\n** Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1977, 1982)\n** Match of the Year (1981) vs. Killer Khan on 2 May\n** Match of the Year (1988) vs. Hulk Hogan at ''The Main Event''\n** Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (1988)\n** Editor's Award (1993)\n** Ranked #'''3''' of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the \"PWI Years\" in 2003\n* '''Stampede Wrestling'''\n** Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame\n* '''World Championship Wrestling (Australia)'''\n** NWA Austra-Asian Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ron Miller\n* '''World Wrestling Federation/WWE'''\n** WWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Haku\n** WWF World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\n**Wrestlemania 2 WWF VS NFL Battle Royal\n** WWE Bronze Statue\n** WWF Hall of Fame (Class of 1993)\n* '''''Wrestling Observer Newsletter'''''\n** Feud of the Year (1981) vs. Killer Khan\n** Most Embarrassing Wrestler (1989)\n** Worst Feud of the Year (1984) vs. Big John Studd\n** Worst Feud of the Year (1989) vs. the Ultimate Warrior\n** Worst Worked Match of the Year (1987) vs. Hulk Hogan at WrestleMania 3\n** Worst Worked Match of the Year (1989) vs. the Ultimate Warrior on October 31\n** Worst Tag Team (1990, 1991) with Giant Baba\n** Worst Wrestler (1989, 1991, 1992)\n** Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)\n*'''Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame'''\n**Class of 2016\n",
"* List of premature professional wrestling deaths\n",
"; Notes\n\n; Bibliography\n* \n* \n",
"\n* \n* \n* Celebrity Heights.com\n* thetallestman.com\n* biography.com\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Early life ",
" Professional wrestling career ",
" Acting career ",
" Personal life ",
" Death ",
" Other media ",
" Legacy ",
"In wrestling",
" Championships and accomplishments ",
"See also",
" References ",
" External links "
] | André the Giant |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Adrastea''' ( ; ), also known as '''''', is the second by distance, and the smallest of the four inner moons of Jupiter. It was discovered in photographs taken by ''Voyager 2'' in 1979, making it the first natural satellite to be discovered from images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through a telescope. It was officially named after the mythological Adrasteia, foster mother of the Greek god Zeus—the equivalent of the Roman god Jupiter.\n\nAdrastea is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day. It orbits at the edge of Jupiter's Main Ring and is thought to be the main contributor of material to the Rings of Jupiter. Despite observations made in the 1990s by the ''Galileo'' spacecraft, very little is known about the moon's physical characteristics other than its size and the fact that it is tidally locked to Jupiter.\n",
"Discovery image of Adrastea, taken on July 8, 1979, by Voyager 2. Adrastea is the fainter dot, in the very middle, straddling the line of the Jovian rings.\n\nAdrastea was discovered by David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson in ''Voyager 2'' probe photographs taken on July 8, 1979, and received the designation ''''''. Although it appeared only as a dot, it was the first moon to be discovered by an interplanetary spacecraft. Soon after its discovery, two other of the inner moons of Jupiter (Thebe and Metis) were observed in the images taken a few months earlier by ''Voyager 1''. The ''Galileo'' spacecraft was able to determine the moon's shape in 1998, but the images remain poor. In 1983, Adrastea was officially named after the Greek nymph Adrastea, the daughter of Zeus and his lover Ananke.\n\nAlthough the Juno orbiter, which arrived at Jupiter in 2016, has a camera called JunoCam, it is almost entirely focused on observations of Jupiter itself. However, if all goes well should be able to capture some limited images of the Jupiter moons Metis and Adrastea.\n",
"Adrastea has an irregular shape and measures 20×16×14 km across. A surface area estimate would be between 840 and 1,600 (~1,200) km2. This makes it the smallest of the four inner moons. The bulk, composition and mass of Adrastea are not known, but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea, around 0.86 g/cm3, its mass can be estimated at about 2 kg. Amalthea's density implies that the moon is composed of water ice with a porosity of 10–15%, and Adrastea may be similar.\n\nNo surface details of Adrastea are known, due to the low resolution of available images.\n",
"Adrastea is the smallest and second-closest member of the inner Jovian satellite family. It orbits Jupiter at a radius of about 129,000 km (1.806 Jupiter radii) at the exterior edge of the planet's Main Ring. Adrastea is one of only three moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day—the other two being Jupiter's innermost moon Metis, and Mars' moon Phobos. The orbit has very small eccentricity and inclination—around 0.0015 and 0.03°, respectively. Inclination is relative to the equator of Jupiter.\n\nDue to tidal locking, Adrastea rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its long axis is aligned towards Jupiter, this being the lowest energy configuration.\n\nThe orbit of Adrastea lies inside Jupiter's synchronous orbit radius (as does Metis's), and as a result, tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay so that it will one day impact Jupiter. If its density is similar to Amalthea's then its orbit would actually lie within the fluid Roche limit. However, since it is not breaking up, it must still lie outside its rigid Roche limit.\n\nAdrastea is the second-fastest-moving of Jupiter's moons, with an orbital speed of 31.378 km/s.\n",
"Adrastea is the largest contributor to material in Jupiter's rings. This appears to consist primarily of material that is ejected from the surfaces of Jupiter's four small inner satellites by meteorite impacts. It is easy for the impact ejecta to be lost from these satellites into space. This is due to the satellites' low density and their surfaces lying close to the edge of their Roche spheres.\n\nIt seems that Adrastea is the most copious source of this ring material, as evidenced by the densest ring (the Main Ring) being located at and within Adrastea's orbit. More precisely, the orbit of Adrastea lies near the outer edge of Jupiter's Main Ring. The exact extent of visible ring material depends on the phase angle of the images: in forward-scattered light Adrastea is firmly outside the Main Ring, but in back-scattered light (which reveals much bigger particles) there appears to also be a narrow ringlet outside Adrastea's orbit.\n",
"",
"\n\n'''Cited sources'''\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* (discovery)\n* (naming the moon)\n* \n* \n",
"* Adrastea Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Discovery and observations ",
" Physical characteristics ",
" Orbit ",
" Relationship with Jupiter's rings ",
" Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Adrastea (moon) |
[
"'''Amalthea''' can refer to:\n*Amalthea (Technical Summit), the annual Technical Summit of IIT Gandhinagar\n*Amalthea (mythology), the foster-mother of Zeus in Greek mythology.\n*Amaltheia, alternative name of the Cumaean Sibyl\n*MV ''Amalthea'', a cargo ship\n*Amalthea (moon), a moon of Jupiter.\n*Amalthea Cellars, a winery in New Jersey\n*113 Amalthea, an asteroid in the (main) asteroid belt.\n*''Amalthea'', a ship bombed by the communist Anton Nilson in Malmö, Sweden in 1908.\n*Lady Amalthea, a character in the fantasy novel and animated movie ''The Last Unicorn''.\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction"
] | Amalthea |
[
"'''Ananke''' () has several meanings:\n\n*Ananke (moon), a moon of Jupiter\n*Ananke group, a group of satellites of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Ananke\n*Ananke (mythology), in Greek mythology, the mother of the Moirai and Adrasteia, Goddess of destiny, necessity, and fate\n*\"Ananke\", a short story by Stanislav Lem\n*''Cosmopterix ananke'', a moth of family Cosmopterigidae\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction"
] | Ananke |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Apache HTTP Server''', colloquially called '''Apache''' ( ), is free and open-source cross-platform web server software, released under the terms of Apache License 2.0. Apache is developed and maintained by an open community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation.\n\nAlthough Apache HTTP Server is cross-platform, , 92% of all Apache HTTPS Server copies run on Linux distributions. Version 2.0 improved support for non-Unix operating systems such as Windows and OS/2. Old versions of Apache were ported to run on OpenVMS, and NetWare.\n\nOriginally based on the NCSA HTTPd server, development of Apache began in early 1995 after work on the NCSA code stalled. Apache played a key role in the initial growth of the World Wide Web, quickly overtaking NCSA HTTPd as the dominant HTTP server, and has remained most popular since April 1996. In 2009, it became the first web server software to serve more than 100 million websites. was estimated to serve 46% of all active websites and 43% of the top million websites.\n",
"According to the FAQ in the Apache project website, the name Apache was chosen out of respect to the Native American tribe Apache and their superior skills in warfare and strategy. The name was widely believed to be a pun on 'A Patchy Server' (since it was a set of software patches). Official documentation used to give this explanation of the name, but in a 2000 interview, Brian Behlendorf, one of the creators of Apache, set the record straight:\n\n\n\nWhen Apache is running, its process name is sometimes httpd, which is short for \"HTTP daemon.\"\n",
"Apache supports a variety of features, many implemented as compiled modules which extend the core functionality. These can range from server-side programming language support to authentication schemes. Some common language interfaces support Perl, Python, Tcl and PHP. Popular authentication modules include mod_access, mod_auth, mod_digest, and mod_auth_digest, the successor to mod_digest. A sample of other features include Secure Sockets Layer and Transport Layer Security support (mod_ssl), a proxy module (mod_proxy), a URL rewriting module (mod_rewrite), custom log files (mod_log_config), and filtering support (mod_include and mod_ext_filter).\n\nPopular compression methods on Apache include the external extension module, mod_gzip, implemented to help with reduction of the size (weight) of Web pages served over HTTP. ModSecurity is an open source intrusion detection and prevention engine for Web applications. Apache logs can be analyzed through a Web browser using free scripts, such as AWStats/W3Perl or Visitors.\n\nVirtual hosting allows one Apache installation to serve many different Web sites. For example, one machine with one Apache installation could simultaneously serve www.example.com, www.example.org, test47.test-server.example.edu, etc.\n\nApache features configurable error messages, DBMS-based authentication databases, and content negotiation. It is also supported by several graphical user interfaces (GUIs).\n\nIt supports password authentication and digital certificate authentication. Because the source code is freely available, anyone can adapt the server for specific needs, and there is a large public library of Apache add-ons.\n",
"\n* Loadable Dynamic Modules\n* Multiple Request Processing modes (MPMs) including Event-based/Async, Threaded and Prefork.\n* Highly scalable (easily handles more than 10,000 simultaneous connections)\n* Handling of static files, index files, auto-indexing and content negotiation\n* .htaccess support\n* Reverse proxy with caching\n** Load balancing with in-band health checks\n** Multiple load balancing mechanisms\n** Fault tolerance and Failover with automatic recovery\n** WebSocket, FastCGI, SCGI, AJP and uWSGI support with caching\n** Dynamic configuration\n* TLS/SSL with SNI and OCSP stapling support, via OpenSSL.\n* Name- and IP address-based virtual servers\n* IPv6-compatible\n* HTTP/2 protocol support\n* Fine-grained authentication and authorization access control\n* gzip compression and decompression\n* URL rewriting\n* Headers and content rewriting\n* Custom logging with rotation\n* Concurrent connection limiting\n* Request processing rate limiting\n* Bandwidth throttling\n* Server Side Includes\n* IP address-based geolocation\n* User and Session tracking\n* WebDAV\n* Embedded Perl, PHP and Lua scripting\n* CGI support\n* public_html per-user web-pages\n* Generic expression parser\n* Real-time status views\n* XML support\n* FTP support (by a separate module) \n",
"Instead of implementing a single architecture, Apache provides a variety of MultiProcessing Modules (MPMs), which allow Apache to run in a process-based, hybrid (process and thread) or event-hybrid mode, to better match the demands of each particular infrastructure. This implies that the choice of correct MPM and the correct configuration is important. Where compromises in performance need to be made, the design of Apache is to reduce latency and increase throughput, relative to simply handling more requests, thus ensuring consistent and reliable processing of requests within reasonable time-frames.\n\nFor delivery of static pages, Apache 2.2 series was considered significantly slower than nginx and varnish. To address this issue, the Apache developers created the Event MPM, which mixes the use of several processes and several threads per process in an asynchronous event-based loop. This architecture, and the way it was implemented in the Apache 2.4 series, provides for performance equivalent or slightly better than event-based web servers, as is cited by Jim Jagielski and other independent sources. However, some independent, but significantly outdated, benchmarks show that it still is half as fast as nginx, e.g. \n",
"The Apache HTTP Server codebase was relicensed to the Apache 2.0 License (from the previous 1.1 license) in January 2004, and Apache HTTP Server 1.3.31 and 2.0.49 were the first releases using the new license.\n\nThe OpenBSD project did not like the change and continued the use of pre-2.0 Apache versions, effectively forking Apache 1.3.x for its purposes. They initially replaced it with Nginx, and soon after made their own replacement, OpenBSD Httpd, based on the relayd project.\n\n===Versions===\n\nVersion 1.1:\nThe Apache License 1.1 was approved by the ASF in 2000: The primary change from the 1.0 license is in the 'advertising clause' (section 3 of the 1.0 license); derived products are no longer required to include attribution in their advertising materials, but only in their documentation.\n\nVersion 2.0:\nThe ASF adopted the Apache License 2.0 in January 2004. The stated goals of the license included making the license easier for non-ASF projects to use, improving compatibility with GPL-based software, allowing the license to be included by reference instead of listed in every file, clarifying the license on contributions, and requiring a patent license on contributions that necessarily infringe a contributor's own patents.\n",
"{|class=\"wikitable\" style=\"float: right; margin-left: 1em;\"\n\nVersion\nInitial release\nLatest release\n\n\n1998-06-06\n2010-02-03 (1.3.42)\n\n\n2002-04-06\n2013-07-10 (2.0.65)\n\n\n2005-12-01\n2017-07-11 (2.2.34)\n\n\n2012-02-21\n2017-07-11 (2.4.27)\n\n\n\nThe Apache HTTP Server Project is a collaborative software development effort aimed at creating a robust, commercial-grade, feature-rich and freely available source code implementation of an HTTP (Web) server. The project is jointly managed by a group of volunteers located around the world, using the Internet and the Web to communicate, plan, and develop the server and its related documentation. This project is part of the Apache Software Foundation. In addition, hundreds of users have contributed ideas, code, and documentation to the project.\n\nApache 2.4 dropped support for BeOS, TPF and even older platforms.\n",
"\n* .htaccess\n* .htpasswd\n* ApacheBench\n* Comparison of web server software\n* IBM HTTP Server\n* LAMP (software bundle)\n* List of Apache modules\n* POSSE project\n* suEXEC\n",
"\n",
"* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Name",
"Feature overview",
"HTTP server and proxy features",
"Performance",
"Licensing",
"Development",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Apache HTTP Server |
[
"'''Alph''' may refer to:\n*Alpheus River, a river on the Peloponnese\n*Alph River, a river in Antarctica\n*Alph Lake, a lake in Antarctica\n*Alph, a fictional river in the poem ''Kubla Khan'' by Samuel Taylor Coleridge\n*Alph, a character from ''Luminous Arc''\n*Alph, a character from ''Pikmin 3''\n",
"*ALF (disambiguation)\n*Alph Lyla, the in-house band of video game developer Capcom\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"See also"
] | Alph |
[
"Arbroath Abbey, showing distinctive sandstone colouring.\n'''Arbroath Abbey''', in the Scottish town of Arbroath, was founded in 1178 by King William the Lion for a group of Tironensian Benedictine monks from Kelso Abbey. \nIt was consecrated in 1197 with a dedication to the deceased Saint Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English court. \nIt was William's only personal foundation — he was buried before the high altar of the church in 1214.\n\nThe last Abbot was Cardinal David Beaton, who in 1522 succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of St Andrews. The Abbey is cared for by Historic Scotland and is open to the public throughout the year (entrance charge). The distinctive red sandstone ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath.\n",
"seal, depicting murder of St Thomas Becket.\nKing William gave the Abbey independence from its mother church and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more. The Abbey's monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour. King John of England gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in England (except London) toll-free.\n\nThe Abbey, which was the richest in Scotland, is most famous for its association with the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath, believed to have been drafted by Abbot Bernard, who was the Chancellor of Scotland under King Robert I.\n\nSince 1947, a major historical re-enactment commemorating the Declaration's signing has been held within the roofless remains of the Abbey church. The celebration and many other events are now run by the Arbroath Abbey Timethemes a local charity, and tells the story of the events which led up to the signing. This is not an annual event; the most recent performances have been in August 2000 and 2005 but more are planned. However, a special event to mark the signing is held every year on the 6th of April and involves a street procession and short piece of street theatre.\n\nThe Abbey fell into ruin after the Reformation. From 1590 onward, its stones were raided for buildings in the town of Arbroath. This continued until 1815 when steps were taken to preserve the remaining ruins.\n\nOn Christmas Day 1950, the Stone of Destiny was stolen from Westminster Abbey. On April 11, 1951, the missing stone was found lying on the site of the Abbey's altar.\n\nIn 2005 The Arbroath Abbey campaign was launched. The campaign seeks to gain World Heritage Status for the iconic Angus landmark that was the birthplace of one of Scotland's most significant documents, the Declaration of Arbroath. Campaigners believe that the Abbey's historical pronouncement makes it a prime candidate to achieve World Heritage Status. MSP Alex Johnstone wrote \"Clearly, the Declaration of Arbroath is a literary work of outstanding universal significance by any stretch of the imagination\" In 2008, the Campaign Group Chairman, Councillor Jim Millar launched a public petition to reinforce the bid explaining \"We're simply asking people to, local people especially, to sign up to the campaign to have the Declaration of Arbroath and Arbroath Abbey recognised by the United Nations. Essentially we need local people to sign up to this campaign simply because the United Nations demand it.\"\n",
"Arbroath Abbey, showing The Round 'O'.\nThe Abbey was built over some 60 years using local red sandstone, but it gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly 'Early English', architectural design, but the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late Norman or transitional work. The triforium (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture. It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading. The cruciform church measured long by wide.\n\nWhat remains of it today are the sacristy, added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century; the southern transept, which features Scotland's largest lancet windows; part of the choir and presbytery; the southern half of the nave; parts of the western towers; and the western doorway.\nThe church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire, which would once have been visible for many miles over the surrounding countryside and certainly acted as a sea-mark for ships.\n\nThe soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally. These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, but detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect.\n\nThe distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a beacon for mariners. It is known locally as the 'Round O', and from this tradition, inhabitants of Arbroath are colloquially known as 'Reid Lichties' (Scots reid = red).\n\nLittle remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot's House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best preserved of its type in Scotland.\n\nIn the summer of 2001, a new visitors' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey's west front. This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive 'wave-shaped' organic roof planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics. The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated 'fly-through' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins. The centre won the 2002 Angus Design Award. An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons' yard while the Abbey was being built.\n",
"The ruins of the Abbey in the late 18th century\nArbroath Abbey was the basis for the description of the ruined monastery of St Ruth in Sir Walter Scott's ''The Antiquary''.\n",
"\n*William the Lion\n",
"*Abbot of Arbroath, for a list of abbots and commendators\n",
"\n",
"*\n*\n*\n",
"*\n* Angus Council, Arbroath Abbey history\n* Arbroath Abbey pageant Archive link\n* 2002 Angus Design Award\n* Engraving of Arbroath Abbey in 1693 by John Slezer at National Library of Scotland\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Architectural description",
"In fiction",
"Burial",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Arbroath Abbey |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Accounting''' or '''accountancy''' is the measurement, processing, and communication of financial information about economic entities such as businesses and corporations. The modern field was established by the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1494. Accounting, which has been called the \"language of business\", measures the results of an organization's economic activities and conveys this information to a variety of users, including investors, creditors, management, and regulators. Practitioners of accounting are known as accountants. The terms \"accounting\" and \"financial reporting\" are often used as synonyms.\n\nAccounting can be divided into several fields including financial accounting, management accounting, external auditing, tax accounting and cost accounting. Accounting information systems are designed to support accounting functions and related activities. Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information, including the preparation of financial statements, to external users of the information, such as investors, regulators and suppliers; and management accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information for internal use by management. The recording of financial transactions, so that summaries of the financials may be presented in financial reports, is known as bookkeeping, of which double-entry bookkeeping is the most common system.\n\nAccounting is facilitated by accounting organizations such as standard-setters, accounting firms and professional bodies. Financial statements are usually audited by accounting firms, and are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). GAAP is set by various standard-setting organizations such as the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the United States and the Financial Reporting Council in the United Kingdom. As of 2012, \"all major economies\" have plans to converge towards or adopt the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).\n",
"\n''Portrait of Luca Pacioli'', painted by Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495, (Museo di Capodimonte).\nThe history of accounting is thousands of years old and can be traced to ancient civilizations. The early development of accounting dates back to ancient Mesopotamia, and is closely related to developments in writing, counting and money; there is also evidence for early forms of bookkeeping in ancient Iran, and early auditing systems by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. By the time of the Emperor Augustus, the Roman government had access to detailed financial information.\n\nDouble-entry bookkeeping developed in medieval Europe, and accounting split into financial accounting and management accounting with the development of joint-stock companies. The first work on a double-entry bookkeeping system was published in Italy, by Luca Pacioli. Accounting began to transition into an organized profession in the nineteenth century, with local professional bodies in England merging to form the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales in 1880.\n",
"Early 19th-century ledger.\nBoth the words accounting and accountancy were in use in Great Britain by the mid-1800s, and are derived from the words ''accompting'' and ''accountantship'' used in the 18th century. In Middle English (used roughly between the 12th and the late 15th century) the verb \"to account\" had the form ''accounten'', which was derived from the Old French word ''aconter'', which is in turn related to the Vulgar Latin word ''computare'', meaning \"to reckon\". The base of ''computare'' is ''putare'', which \"variously meant to prune, to purify, to correct an account, hence, to count or calculate, as well as to think.\"\n\nThe word \"accountant\" is derived from the French word , which is also derived from the Italian and Latin word . The word was formerly written in English as \"accomptant\", but in process of time the word, which was always pronounced by dropping the \"p\", became gradually changed both in pronunciation and in orthography to its present form.\n\n=== Accounting and accountancy ===\n'''Accounting''' has variously been defined as the keeping or preparation of the financial records of an entity, the analysis, verification and reporting of such records and \"the principles and procedures of accounting\"; it also refers to the job of being an accountant.\n\n'''Accountancy''' refers to the occupation or profession of an accountant, particularly in British English.\n",
"Accounting has several subfields or subject areas, including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing, taxation and accounting information systems.\n\n===Financial accounting===\n\nFinancial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information to external users of the information, such as investors, potential investors and creditors. It calculates and records business transactions and prepares financial statements for the external users in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). GAAP, in turn, arises from the wide agreement between accounting theory and practice, and change over time to meet the needs of decision-makers.\n\nFinancial accounting produces past-oriented reports—for example the financial statements prepared in 2006 reports on performance in 2005—on an annual or quarterly basis, generally about the organization as a whole.\n\nThis branch of accounting is also studied as part of the board exams for qualifying as an actuary. It is interesting to note that these two professionals, accountants and actuaries, have created a culture of being archrivals.\n\n===Management accounting===\n\nManagement accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information that can help managers in making decisions to fulfil the goals of an organization. In management accounting, internal measures and reports are based on cost-benefit analysis, and are not required to follow the generally accepted accounting principle (GAAP). In 2014 CIMA created the Global Management Accounting Principles (GMAPs). The result of research from across 20 countries in five continents, the principles aim to guide best practice in the discipline.\n\nManagement accounting produces future-oriented reports—for example the budget for 2006 is prepared in 2005—and the time span of reports varies widely. Such reports may include both financial and non financial information, and may, for example, focus on specific products and departments.\n\n===Auditing===\n\nAuditing is the verification of assertions made by others regarding a payoff, and in the context of accounting it is the \"unbiased examination and evaluation of the financial statements of an organization\".\n\nAn audit of financial statements aims to express or disclaim an opinion on the financial statements. The auditor expresses an opinion on the fairness with which the financial statements presents the financial position, results of operations, and cash flows of an entity, in accordance with the generally acceptable accounting principle (GAAP) and \"in all material respects\". An auditor is also required to identify circumstances in which the generally acceptable accounting principles (GAAP) has not been consistently observed.\n\n===Accounting information systems===\n\nAn accounting information system is a part of an organisation's information system that focuses on processing accounting data.\n\n===Tax accounting===\n\nTax accounting in the United States concentrates on the preparation, analysis and presentation of tax payments and tax returns. The U.S. tax system requires the use of specialised accounting principles for tax purposes which can differ from the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) for financial reporting. U.S. tax law covers four basic forms of business ownership: sole proprietorship, partnership, corporation, and limited liability company. Corporate and personal income are taxed at different rates, both varying according to income levels and including varying marginal rates (taxed on each additional dollar of income) and average rates (set as a percentage of overall income).\n",
"\n\n=== Professional bodies ===\n\nProfessional accounting bodies include the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) and the other 179 members of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), including CPA Australia, Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) and Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW). Professional bodies for subfields of the accounting professions also exist, for example the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA). Many of these professional bodies offer education and training including qualification and administration for various accounting designations, such as certified public accountant and chartered accountant.\n\n=== Accounting firms ===\n\nDepending on its size, a company may be legally required to have their financial statements audited by a qualified auditor, and audits are usually carried out by accounting firms.\n\nAccounting firms grew in the United States and Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and through several mergers there were large international accounting firms by the mid-twentieth century. Further large mergers in the late twentieth century led to the dominance by the auditing market by the Big Four accounting firms: Arthur Andersen, Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG and PricewaterhouseCoopers. The demise of Arthur Andersen following the Enron scandal reduced the Big Five to the Big Four.\n\n=== Standard-setters ===\n\nGenerally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) are accounting standards issued by national regulatory bodies. In addition, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) issues the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) implemented by 147 countries. While standards for international audit and assurance, ethics, education, and public sector accounting are all set by independent standard settings boards supported by IFAC. The International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board sets international standards for auditing, assurance, and quality control; the International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA) sets the internationally appropriate principles- based ''Code of Ethics for Professional Accounts'' the International Accounting Education Standards Board (IAESB) sets professional accounting education standards; International Public Sector Accounting Standards Board (IPSASB) sets accrual-based international public sector accounting standards \n\nOrganizations in individual countries may issue accounting standards unique to the countries. For example, in the United States the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issues the Statements of Financial Accounting Standards, which form the basis of US GAAP, and in the United Kingdom the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) sets accounting standards. However, as of 2012 \"all major economies\" have plans to converge towards or adopt the IFRS.\n",
"\n=== Accounting degrees ===\nAt least a bachelor's degree in accounting or a related field is required for most accountant and auditor job positions, and some employers prefer applicants with a master's degree. A degree in accounting may also be required for, or may be used to fulfill the requirements for, membership to professional accounting bodies. For example, the education during an accounting degree can be used to fulfill the American Institute of CPA's (AICPA) 150 semester hour requirement, and associate membership with the Certified Public Accountants Association of the UK is available after gaining a degree in finance or accounting.\n\nA doctorate is required in order to pursue a career in accounting academia, for example to work as a university professor in accounting. The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) are the most popular degrees. The PhD is the most common degree for those wishing to pursue a career in academia, while DBA programs generally focus on equipping business executives for business or public careers requiring research skills and qualifications.\n\n=== Professional qualifications ===\n\nProfessional accounting qualifications include the Chartered Accountant designations and other qualifications including certificates and diplomas. In the United Kingdom, chartered accountants of the ICAEW undergo annual training, and are bound by the ICAEW's code of ethics and subject to its disciplinary procedures. In the United States, the requirements for joining the AICPA as a Certified Public Accountant are set by the Board of Accountancy of each state, and members agree to abide by the AICPA's Code of Professional Conduct and Bylaws. In India the Apex Accounting body constituted by parliament of India is \"Institute of Chartered Accountants of India\" (ICAI) was known for its rigorous training and study methodology for granting the Qualification.\n",
"\nAccounting research is research in the effects of economic events on the process of accounting, and the effects of reported information on economic events. It encompasses a broad range of research areas including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing and taxation.\n\nAccounting research is carried out both by academic researchers and practicing accountants. Methodologies in academic accounting research can be classified into archival research, which examines \"objective data collected from repositories\"; experimental research, which examines data \"the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects\"; and analytical research, which is \"based on the act of formally modeling theories or substantiating ideas in mathematical terms\". This classification is not exhaustive; other possible methodologies include the use of case studies, computer simulations and field research.\n",
"\n\nMany accounting practices have been simplified with the help of accounting computer-based software. An Enterprise resource planning (ERP) system is commonly used for a large organisation and it provides a comprehensive, centralized, integrated source of information that companies can use to manage all major business processes, from purchasing to manufacturing to human resources.\n\nAccounting information systems have reduced the cost of accumulating, storing, and reporting managerial accounting information and have made it possible to produce a more detailed account of all data that is entered into any given system.\n",
"\n\nThe year 2001 witnessed a series of financial information frauds involving Enron, auditing firm Arthur Andersen, the telecommunications company WorldCom, Qwest and Sunbeam, among other well-known corporations. These problems highlighted the need to review the effectiveness of accounting standards, auditing regulations and corporate governance principles. In some cases, management manipulated the figures shown in financial reports to indicate a better economic performance. In others, tax and regulatory incentives encouraged over-leveraging of companies and decisions to bear extraordinary and unjustified risk.\n\nThe Enron scandal deeply influenced the development of new regulations to improve the reliability of financial reporting, and increased public awareness about the importance of having accounting standards that show the financial reality of companies and the objectivity and independence of auditing firms.\n\nIn addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history, the Enron scandal undoubtedly is the biggest audit failure. It involved a financial scandal of Enron Corporation and their auditors Arthur Andersen, which was revealed in late 2001. The scandal caused the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the five largest accounting firms in the world. After a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures conducted throughout the 1990s, Enron filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2001.\n\nOne consequence of these events was the passage of Sarbanes–Oxley Act in the United States 2002, as a result of the first admissions of fraudulent behavior made by Enron. The act significantly raises criminal penalties for securities fraud, for destroying, altering or fabricating records in federal investigations or any scheme or attempt to defraud shareholders.\n",
"* Accounting records\n",
"\n",
"* \n* Operations Research in Accounting on the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences website\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Etymology",
" Topics ",
" Organizations ",
" Education and qualifications ",
" Accounting research ",
"Accounting information system",
"Accounting scandals",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Accounting |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Ants''' are eusocial insects of the family '''Formicidae''' and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the Cretaceous period, about 99 million years ago, and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. More than 12,500 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified. They are easily identified by their elbowed antennae and the distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender waists.\n\nAnts form colonies that range in size from a few dozen predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies that may occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals. Larger colonies consist of various castes of sterile, wingless females, most of which are workers (ergates), as well as soldiers (dinergates) and other specialised groups. Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called \"drones\" (aner) and one or more fertile females called \"queens\" (gynes). The colonies are described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity, collectively working together to support the colony.\n(video) Ants gathering food\n\nAnts have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands. Ants thrive in most ecosystems and may form 15–25% of the terrestrial animal biomass. Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships.\n\nAnt societies have division of labour, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems. These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study. Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication, and rituals. Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents. Their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans, however, as they can damage crops and invade buildings. Some species, such as the red imported fire ant (''Solenopsis invicta''), are regarded as invasive species, establishing themselves in areas where they have been introduced accidentally.\n",
"The word \"ant\" is derived from '''', '''' of Middle English which are derived from '''' of Old English, and is related to the dialectal Dutch '''' and the Old High German '''', hence the modern German ''''. All of these words come from West Germanic ''*'', and the original meaning of the word was \"the biter\" (from Proto-Germanic ''*'', \"off, away\" + ''*'' \"cut\"). The family name Formicidae is derived from the Latin '''' (\"ant\") from which the words in other Romance languages, such as the Portuguese '''', Italian '''', Spanish '''', Romanian '''', and French '''' are derived. It has been hypothesised that a Proto-Indo-European word *morwi- was used, cf. Sanskrit vamrah, Latin formīca, Greek μύρμηξ ''mýrmēx'', Old Church Slavonic ''mraviji'', Old Irish ''moirb'', Old Norse ''maurr'', Dutch ''mier''.\n",
"Ants fossilised in Baltic amber\n\n\nThe family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees, and wasps. Ants evolved from a lineage within the aculeate wasps, and a 2013 study suggests that they are a sister group of the Apoidea. In 1966, E. O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant (''Sphecomyrma'') that lived in the Cretaceous period. The specimen, trapped in amber dating back to around 92 million years ago, has features found in some wasps, but not found in modern ants. ''Sphecomyrma'' was possibly a ground forager, while ''Haidomyrmex'' and ''Haidomyrmodes'', related genera in subfamily Sphecomyrminae, are reconstructed as active arboreal predators. Older ants in the genus ''Sphecomyrmodes'' have been found in 99 million year-old amber from Myanmar. After the rise of flowering plants about 100 million years ago they diversified and assumed ecological dominance around 60 million years ago. Some groups, such as the Leptanillinae and Martialinae, are suggested to have diversified from early primitive ants that were likely to have been predators underneath the surface of the soil.\n\nDuring the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian supercontinent (the Northern Hemisphere). They were scarce in comparison to the populations of other insects, representing only about 1% of the entire insect population. Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Paleogene period. By the Oligocene and Miocene, ants had come to represent 20–40% of all insects found in major fossil deposits. Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch, around one in 10 genera survive to the present. Genera surviving today comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene).\n\nTermites, although sometimes called 'white ants', are not ants. They belong to the sub-order Isoptera within the order Blattodea. Termites are more closely related to cockroaches and mantids. Termites are eusocial, but differ greatly in the genetics of reproduction. The similarity of their social structure to that of ants is attributed to convergent evolution. Velvet ants look like large ants, but are wingless female wasps.\n",
"{| class=\"wikitable sortable\" style=\"float:right; margin:10px;\"\n\n Region !! Number ofspecies \n\n Neotropics \n 2162\n\n Nearctic \n 580\n\n Europe \n 180\n\n Africa \n 2500\n\n Asia \n 2080\n\n Melanesia \n 275\n\n Australia \n 985\n\n Polynesia \n 42\n\nAnts are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands, such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species. Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches and exploit many different food resources as direct or indirect herbivores, predators and scavengers. Most ant species are omnivorous generalists, but a few are specialist feeders. Their ecological dominance is demonstrated by their biomass: ants are estimated to contribute 15–20 % (on average and nearly 25% in the tropics) of terrestrial animal biomass, exceeding that of the vertebrates.\n\nAnts range in size from , the largest species being the fossil ''Titanomyrma giganteum'', the queen of which was long with a wingspan of . Ants vary in colour; most ants are red or black, but a few species are green and some tropical species have a metallic lustre. More than 12,000 species are currently known (with upper estimates of the potential existence of about 22,000) (see the article List of ant genera), with the greatest diversity in the tropics. Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants. Online databases of ant species, including AntBase and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of the known and newly described species. The relative ease with which ants may be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in biodiversity studies.\n",
"Ants are distinct in their morphology from other insects in having elbowed antennae, metapleural glands, and a strong constriction of their second abdominal segment into a node-like petiole. The head, mesosoma, and metasoma are the three distinct body segments. The petiole forms a narrow waist between their mesosoma (thorax plus the first abdominal segment, which is fused to it) and gaster (abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole). The petiole may be formed by one or two nodes (the second alone, or the second and third abdominal segments).\n\nBull ant showing the powerful mandibles and the relatively large compound eyes that provide excellent vision\n\nLike other insects, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates. Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases, such as carbon dioxide, pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles. Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the \"dorsal aorta\") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph toward the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids. The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages.\n\nDiagram of a worker ant (''Pachycondyla verenae'')\n\n===Head===\nAn ant's head contains many sensory organs. Like most insects, ants have compound eyes made from numerous tiny lenses attached together. Ant eyes are good for acute movement detection, but do not offer a high resolution image. They also have three small ocelli (simple eyes) on the top of the head that detect light levels and polarization. Compared to vertebrates, most ants have poor-to-mediocre eyesight and a few subterranean species are completely blind. However, some ants, such as Australia's bulldog ant, have excellent vision and are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a metre away.\n\nTwo antennae (\"feelers\") are attached to the head; these organs detect chemicals, air currents, and vibrations; they also are used to transmit and receive signals through touch. The head has two strong jaws, the mandibles, used to carry food, manipulate objects, construct nests, and for defence. In some species, a small pocket (infrabuccal chamber) inside the mouth stores food, so it may be passed to other ants or their larvae.\n\n===Legs===\nAll six legs are attached to the mesosoma (\"thorax\") and terminate in a hooked claw.\n\n===Wings===\nOnly reproductive ants, queens, and males, have wings. Queens shed their wings after the nuptial flight, leaving visible stubs, a distinguishing feature of queens. In a few species, wingless queens (ergatoids) and males occur.\n\n===Metasoma===\nThe metasoma (the \"abdomen\") of the ant houses important internal organs, including those of the reproductive, respiratory (tracheae), and excretory systems. Workers of many species have their egg-laying structures modified into stings that are used for subduing prey and defending their nests.\n\n===Polymorphism===\nSeven Leafcutter ant workers of various castes (left) and two queens (right)\n\nIn the colonies of a few ant species, there are physical castes—workers in distinct size-classes, called minor, median, and major ergates. Often, the larger ants have disproportionately larger heads, and correspondingly stronger mandibles. These are known as macrergates while smaller workers are known as micrergates. Although formally known as dinergates, such individuals are sometimes called \"soldier\" ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting, although they still are workers and their \"duties\" typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers. In a few species, the median workers are absent, creating a sharp divide between the minors and majors. Weaver ants, for example, have a distinct bimodal size distribution. Some other species show continuous variation in the size of workers. The smallest and largest workers in ''Pheidologeton diversus'' show nearly a 500-fold difference in their dry-weights. Workers cannot mate; however, because of the haplodiploid sex-determination system in ants, workers of a number of species can lay unfertilised eggs that become fully fertile, haploid males. The role of workers may change with their age and in some species, such as honeypot ants, young workers are fed until their gasters are distended, and act as living food storage vessels. These food storage workers are called ''repletes''. For instance, these replete workers develop in the North American honeypot ant ''Myrmecocystus mexicanus''. Usually the largest workers in the colony develop into repletes; and, if repletes are removed from the colony, other workers become repletes, demonstrating the flexibility of this particular polymorphism. This polymorphism in morphology and behaviour of workers initially was thought to be determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and hormones that led to different developmental paths; however, genetic differences between worker castes have been noted in ''Acromyrmex'' sp. These polymorphisms are caused by relatively small genetic changes; differences in a single gene of ''Solenopsis invicta'' can decide whether the colony will have single or multiple queens. The Australian jack jumper ant (''Myrmecia pilosula'') has only a single pair of chromosomes (with the males having just one chromosome as they are haploid), the lowest number known for any animal, making it an interesting subject for studies in the genetics and developmental biology of social insects.\n",
"Meat eater ant nest during swarming\nThe life of an ant starts from an egg. If the egg is fertilised, the progeny will be female diploid; if not, it will be male haploid. Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larva stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult. The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers. Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis, a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop. This is also how adults share food, stored in the \"social stomach\". Larvae, especially in the later stages, may also be provided solid food, such as trophic eggs, pieces of prey, and seeds brought by workers.\n\nThe larvae grow through a series of four or five moults and enter the pupal stage. The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa. The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers, is influenced in some species by the nutrition the larvae obtain. Genetic influences and the control of gene expression by the developmental environment are complex and the determination of caste continues to be a subject of research. Winged male ants, called drones, emerge from pupae along with the usually winged breeding females. Some species, such as army ants, have wingless queens. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so often, are moved around among the various brood chambers within the colony.\n\nA new ergate spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. She then graduates to digging and other nest work, and later to defending the nest and foraging. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging, making it an acceptable risk only for ants who are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes.\n\nAnt colonies can be long-lived. The queens can live for up to 30 years, and workers live from 1 to 3 years. Males, however, are more transitory, being quite short-lived and surviving for only a few weeks. Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times as long as solitary insects of a similar size.\n\nAnts are active all year long in the tropics, but, in cooler regions, they survive the winter in a state of dormancy or inactivity. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state (diapause), while in others, the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity.\n\n===Reproduction===\nAnts mating\nA wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species. Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through thelytokous parthenogenesis. Secretions from the male accessory glands in some species can plug the female genital opening and prevent females from re-mating. Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens, while others may exist without queens. Workers with the ability to reproduce are called \"gamergates\" and colonies that lack queens are then called gamergate colonies; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right.\n\nDrones can also mate with existing queens by entering a foreign colony. When the drone is initially attacked by the workers, it releases a mating pheromone. If recognized as a mate, it will be carried to the queen to mate. Males may also patrol the nest and fight others by grabbing them with their mandibles, piercing their exoskeleton and then marking them with a pheromone. The marked male is interpreted as an invader by worker ants and is killed.\n\nFertilised meat-eater ant queen beginning to dig a new colony\n\nMost ants are univoltine, producing a new generation each year. During the species-specific breeding period, new reproductives, females, and winged males leave the colony in what is called a nuptial flight. The nuptial flight usually takes place in the late spring or early summer when the weather is hot and humid. Heat makes flying easier and freshly fallen rain makes the ground softer for mated queens to dig nests. Males typically take flight before the females. Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground, for example, a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge. Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow. Males will mount females in the air, but the actual mating process usually takes place on the ground. Females of some species mate with just one male but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males, storing the sperm in their spermathecae.\n\nMated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females can selectively fertilise future eggs with the sperm stored to produce diploid workers or lay unfertilized haploid eggs to produce drones. The first workers to hatch are known as nanitics, and are weaker and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food, and care for the other eggs. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site, a process akin to swarming in honeybees.\n",
"\n===Communication===\nTwo ''Camponotus sericeus'' workers communicating through touch and pheromones\nAnts communicate with each other using pheromones, sounds, and touch. The use of pheromones as chemical signals is more developed in ants, such as the red harvester ant, than in other hymenopteran groups. Like other insects, ants perceive smells with their long, thin, and mobile antennae. The paired antennae provide information about the direction and intensity of scents. Since most ants live on the ground, they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that may be followed by other ants. In species that forage in groups, a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony; this trail is followed by other ants, these ants then reinforce the trail when they head back with food to the colony. When the food source is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates. This behaviour helps ants deal with changes in their environment. For instance, when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If an ant is successful, it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return. Successful trails are followed by more ants, reinforcing better routes and gradually identifying the best path.\n\nAnts use pheromones for more than just making trails. A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy and attracts more ants from farther away. Several ant species even use \"propaganda pheromones\" to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves. Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour's glands, poison glands and glands on the hindgut, pygidium, rectum, sternum, and hind tibia. Pheromones also are exchanged, mixed with food, and passed by trophallaxis, transferring information within the colony. This allows other ants to detect what task group (''e.g.'', foraging or nest maintenance) other colony members belong to. In ant species with queen castes, when the dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone, workers begin to raise new queens in the colony.\n\nSome ants produce sounds by stridulation, using the gaster segments and their mandibles. Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species.\n\n===Defence===\n\nA ''Plectroctena'' sp. attacks another of its kind to protect its territory\n\nAnts attack and defend themselves by biting and, in many species, by stinging, often injecting or spraying chemicals, such as formic acid in the case of formicine ants, alkaloids and piperidines in fire ants, and a variety of protein components in other ants. Bullet ants (''Paraponera''), located in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect, although it is usually not fatal to humans. This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index.\n\nThe sting of jack jumper ants can be fatal, and an antivenom has been developed for it.\n\nFire ants, ''Solenopsis'' spp., are unique in having a venom sac containing piperidine alkaloids. Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people.\n\nA weaver ant in fighting position, mandibles wide open\nTrap-jaw ants of the genus ''Odontomachus'' are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws, which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom. One study of ''Odontomachus bauri'' recorded peak speeds of between , with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average.\nThe ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backward to escape a threat. Before striking, the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism. Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory organs resembling hairs on the inside of the mandibles. The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks. Trap-jaws also are seen in the following genera: ''Anochetus'', ''Orectognathus'', and ''Strumigenys'', plus some members of the Dacetini tribe, which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution.\n\nA Malaysian species of ant in the ''Camponotus'' ''cylindricus'' group has enlarged mandibular glands that extend into their gaster. When disturbed, workers rupture the membrane of the gaster, causing a burst of secretions containing acetophenones and other chemicals that immobilise small insect attackers. The worker subsequently dies.\n\nSuicidal defences by workers are also noted in a Brazilian ant, ''Forelius pusillus'', where a small group of ants leaves the security of the nest after sealing the entrance from the outside each evening.\n\nAnt mound holes prevent water from entering the nest during rain.\nIn addition to defence against predators, ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens. Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or ''necrophory'', the disposal of dead nest-mates. Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released from dead ants that triggers necrophoric behaviour in ''Atta mexicana'' while workers of ''Linepithema humile'' react to the absence of characteristic chemicals (dolichodial and iridomyrmecin) present on the cuticle of their living nestmates to trigger similar behaviour.\n\nNests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and overheating by elaborate nest architecture. Workers of ''Cataulacus muticus'', an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows, respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest, and excreting it outside. ''Camponotus anderseni'', which nests in the cavities of wood in mangrove habitats, deals with submergence under water by switching to anaerobic respiration.\n\n===Learning===\nMany animals can learn behaviours by imitation, but ants may be the only group apart from mammals where interactive teaching has been observed. A knowledgeable forager of ''Temnothorax albipennis'' will lead a naive nest-mate to newly discovered food by the process of tandem running. The follower obtains knowledge through its leading tutor. The leader is acutely sensitive to the progress of the follower and slows down when the follower lags and speeds up when the follower gets too close.\n\nControlled experiments with colonies of ''Cerapachys biroi'' suggest that an individual may choose nest roles based on her previous experience. An entire generation of identical workers was divided into two groups whose outcome in food foraging was controlled. One group was continually rewarded with prey, while it was made certain that the other failed. As a result, members of the successful group intensified their foraging attempts while the unsuccessful group ventured out fewer and fewer times. A month later, the successful foragers continued in their role while the others had moved to specialise in brood care.\n\n===Nest construction===\n\nthumb\nLeaf nest of weaver ants, Pamalican, Philippines\nComplex nests are built by many ant species, but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. These nests may be found in the ground, under stones or logs, inside logs, hollow stems, or even acorns. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter, and ants carefully select their nest sites; ''Temnothorax albipennis'' will avoid sites with dead ants, as these may indicate the presence of pests or disease. They are quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of threats.\n\nThe army ants of South America, such as the ''Eciton burchellii'' species, and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests, but instead, alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) from their own bodies, by holding each other together.\n\nWeaver ant (''Oecophylla'' spp.) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges. Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of ''Polyrhachis''.\n\n''Formica polyctena'', among other ant species, constructs nests that maintain a relatively constant interior temperature that aids in the development of larvae. The ants maintain the nest temperature by choosing the location, nest materials, controlling ventilation and maintaining the heat from solar radiation, worker activity and metabolism, and in some moist nests, microbial activity in the nest materials.\n\nSome ant species, such as those that use natural cavities, can be opportunistic and make use of the controlled micro-climate provided inside human dwellings and other artificial structures to house their colonies and nest structures.\n\n===Cultivation of food===\n\n''Myrmecocystus'', honeypot ants, store food to prevent colony famine\nMost ants are generalist predators, scavengers, and indirect herbivores, but a few have evolved specialised ways of obtaining nutrition. It is believed that many ant species that engage in indirect herbivory rely on specialized symbiosis with their gut microbes to upgrade the nutritional value of the food they collect and allow them to survive in nitrogen poor regions, such as rainforest canopies. Leafcutter ants (''Atta'' and ''Acromyrmex'') feed exclusively on a fungus that grows only within their colonies. They continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony, cut into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens. Ergates specialise in related tasks according to their sizes. The largest ants cut stalks, smaller workers chew the leaves and the smallest tend the fungus. Leafcutter ants are sensitive enough to recognise the reaction of the fungus to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is found to be toxic to the fungus, the colony will no longer collect it. The ants feed on structures produced by the fungi called ''gongylidia''. Symbiotic bacteria on the exterior surface of the ants produce antibiotics that kill bacteria introduced into the nest that may harm the fungi.\n\n===Navigation===\nAn ant trail\nForaging ants travel distances of up to from their nest and scent trails allow them to find their way back even in the dark. In hot and arid regions, day-foraging ants face death by desiccation, so the ability to find the shortest route back to the nest reduces that risk. Diurnal desert ants of the genus ''Cataglyphis'' such as the Sahara desert ant navigate by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled. Distances travelled are measured using an internal pedometer that keeps count of the steps taken and also by evaluating the movement of objects in their visual field (optical flow). Directions are measured using the position of the sun.\nThey integrate this information to find the shortest route back to their nest.\nLike all ants, they can also make use of visual landmarks when available as well as olfactory and tactile cues to navigate. Some species of ant are able to use the Earth's magnetic field for navigation. The compound eyes of ants have specialised cells that detect polarised light from the Sun, which is used to determine direction.\nThese polarization detectors are sensitive in the ultraviolet region of the light spectrum. In some army ant species, a group of foragers who become separated from the main column may sometimes turn back on themselves and form a circular ant mill. The workers may then run around continuously until they die of exhaustion.\n\n===Locomotion===\nThe female worker ants do not have wings and reproductive females lose their wings after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking. Some species are capable of leaping. For example, Jerdon's jumping ant (''Harpegnathos saltator'') is able to jump by synchronising the action of its mid and hind pairs of legs. There are several species of gliding ant including ''Cephalotes atratus''; this may be a common trait among most arboreal ants. Ants with this ability are able to control the direction of their descent while falling.\n\nOther species of ants can form chains to bridge gaps over water, underground, or through spaces in vegetation. Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods. These rafts may also have a role in allowing ants to colonise islands. ''Polyrhachis sokolova'', a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live in underwater nests. Since they lack gills, they go to trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests to breathe.\n\n===Cooperation and competition===\nMeat-eater ants feeding on a cicada: social ants cooperate and collectively gather food\nNot all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most basal of ants. Like virtually all ants, they are eusocial, but their social behaviour is poorly developed compared to other species. Each individual hunts alone, using her large eyes instead of chemical senses to find prey.\n\nSome species (such as ''Tetramorium caespitum'') attack and take over neighbouring ant colonies. Others are less expansionist, but just as aggressive; they invade colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers or slaves. Extreme specialists among these slave-raiding ants, such as the Amazon ants, are incapable of feeding themselves and need captured workers to survive. Captured workers of the enslaved species ''Temnothorax'' have evolved a counter strategy, destroying just the female pupae of the slave-making ''Protomognathus americanus'', but sparing the males (who don't take part in slave-raiding as adults).\n\nA worker ''Harpegnathos saltator'' (a jumping ant) engaged in battle with a rival colony's queen\nAnts identify kin and nestmates through their scent, which comes from hydrocarbon-laced secretions that coat their exoskeletons. If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent. Any ant that enters a colony without a matching scent will be attacked. Also, the reason why two separate colonies of ants will attack each other even if they are of the same species is because the genes responsible for pheromone production are different between them. The Argentine ant, however, does not have this characteristic, due to lack of genetic diversity, and has become a global pest because of it.\n\nParasitic ant species enter the colonies of host ants and establish themselves as social parasites; species such as ''Strumigenys xenos'' are entirely parasitic and do not have workers, but instead, rely on the food gathered by their ''Strumigenys perplexa'' hosts. This form of parasitism is seen across many ant genera, but the parasitic ant is usually a species that is closely related to its host. A variety of methods are employed to enter the nest of the host ant. A parasitic queen may enter the host nest before the first brood has hatched, establishing herself prior to development of a colony scent. Other species use pheromones to confuse the host ants or to trick them into carrying the parasitic queen into the nest. Some simply fight their way into the nest.\n\nA conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with these reproducers apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible. The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring. An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in ''Wasmannia auropunctata'', where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process whereby a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males who are clones of the father.\n\n===Relationships with other organisms===\nThe spider ''Myrmarachne plataleoides'' (female shown) mimics weaver ants to avoid predators.\nAnts form symbiotic associations with a range of species, including other ant species, other insects, plants, and fungi. They also are preyed on by many animals and even certain fungi. Some arthropod species spend part of their lives within ant nests, either preying on ants, their larvae, and eggs, consuming the food stores of the ants, or avoiding predators. These inquilines may bear a close resemblance to ants. The nature of this ant mimicry (myrmecomorphy) varies, with some cases involving Batesian mimicry, where the mimic reduces the risk of predation. Others show Wasmannian mimicry, a form of mimicry seen only in inquilines.\n\nhoneydew from an aphid\nAphids and other hemipteran insects secrete a sweet liquid called honeydew, when they feed on plant sap. The sugars in honeydew are a high-energy food source, which many ant species collect. In some cases, the aphids secrete the honeydew in response to ants tapping them with their antennae. The ants in turn keep predators away from the aphids and will move them from one feeding location to another. When migrating to a new area, many colonies will take the aphids with them, to ensure a continued supply of honeydew. Ants also tend mealybugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealybugs may become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealybugs from their natural enemies.\n\nMyrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the butterfly family Lycaenidae (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. Some caterpillars produce vibrations and sounds that are perceived by the ants. Other caterpillars have evolved from ant-loving to ant-eating: these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone that makes the ants act as if the caterpillar is one of their own larvae. The caterpillar is then taken into the ant nest where it feeds on the ant larvae.\nFungus-growing ants that make up the tribe Attini, including leafcutter ants, cultivate certain species of fungus in the ''Leucoagaricus'' or ''Leucocoprinus'' genera of the Agaricaceae family. In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival. The ant ''Allomerus decemarticulatus'' has evolved a three-way association with the host plant, ''Hirtella physophora'' (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey.\nAnts may obtain nectar from flowers such as the dandelion but are only rarely known to pollinate flowers.\nLemon ants make devil's gardens by killing surrounding plants with their stings and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees, (''Duroia hirsuta''). This modification of the forest provides the ants with more nesting sites inside the stems of the ''Duroia'' trees. Although some ants obtain nectar from flowers, pollination by ants is somewhat rare. Some plants have special nectar exuding structures, extrafloral nectaries, that provide food for ants, which in turn protect the plant from more damaging herbivorous insects. Species such as the bullhorn acacia (''Acacia cornigera'') in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants (''Pseudomyrmex ferruginea'') who defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines. Isotopic labelling studies suggest that plants also obtain nitrogen from the ants. In return, the ants obtain food from protein- and lipid-rich Beltian bodies. In Fiji ''Philidris nagasau'' (Dolichoderinae) are known to selectively grow species of epiphytic ''Squamellaria'' (Rubiaceae) which produce large domatia inside which the ant colonies nest. The ants plant the seeds and the domatia of young seedling are immediately occupied and the ant faeces in them contribute to rapid growth. Similar dispersal associations are found with other dolichoderines in the region as well. Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the ''Macaranga'' tree, which has stems adapted to house colonies of ''Crematogaster'' ants.\n\nMany tropical tree species have seeds that are dispersed by ants. Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread and new estimates suggest that nearly 9% of all plant species may have such ant associations. Some plants in fire-prone grassland systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal as the seeds are transported to safety below the ground. Many ant-dispersed seeds have special external structures, elaiosomes, that are sought after by ants as food.\n\nA convergence, possibly a form of mimicry, is seen in the eggs of stick insects. They have an edible elaiosome-like structure and are taken into the ant nest where the young hatch.\nA meat ant tending a common leafhopper nymph\n\nMost ants are predatory and some prey on and obtain food from other social insects including other ants. Some species specialise in preying on termites (''Megaponera'' and ''Termitopone'') while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants. Some termites, including ''Nasutitermes corniger'', form associations with certain ant species to keep away predatory ant species. The tropical wasp ''Mischocyttarus drewseni'' coats the pedicel of its nest with an ant-repellent chemical. It is suggested that many tropical wasps may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants. Other wasps, such as ''A. multipicta'', defend against ants by blasting them off the nest with bursts of wing buzzing. Stingless bees (''Trigona'' and ''Melipona'') use chemical defences against ants. \n\nFlies in the Old World genus ''Bengalia'' (Calliphoridae) prey on ants and are kleptoparasites, snatching prey or brood from the mandibles of adult ants. Wingless and legless females of the Malaysian phorid fly (''Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea'') live in the nests of ants of the genus ''Aenictus'' and are cared for by the ants.\n\nFungi in the genera ''Cordyceps'' and ''Ophiocordyceps'' infect ants. Ants react to their infection by climbing up plants and sinking their mandibles into plant tissue. The fungus kills the ants, grows on their remains, and produces a fruiting body. It appears that the fungus alters the behaviour of the ant to help disperse its spores in a microhabitat that best suits the fungus. Strepsipteran parasites also manipulate their ant host to climb grass stems, to help the parasite find mates.\n\nA nematode (''Myrmeconema neotropicum'') that infects canopy ants (''Cephalotes atratus'') causes the black-coloured gasters of workers to turn red. The parasite also alters the behaviour of the ant, causing them to carry their gasters high. The conspicuous red gasters are mistaken by birds for ripe fruits, such as ''Hyeronima alchorneoides'', and eaten. The droppings of the bird are collected by other ants and fed to their young, leading to further spread of the nematode.\n\nSpiders sometimes feed on ants\nSouth American poison dart frogs in the genus ''Dendrobates'' feed mainly on ants, and the toxins in their skin may come from the ants.\n\nArmy ants forage in a wide roving column, attacking any animals in that path that are unable to escape. In Central and South America, ''Eciton burchellii'' is the swarming ant most commonly attended by \"ant-following\" birds such as antbirds and woodcreepers. This behaviour was once considered mutualistic, but later studies found the birds to be parasitic. Direct kleptoparasitism (birds stealing food from the ants' grasp) is rare and has been noted in Inca doves which pick seeds at nest entrances as they are being transported by species of ''Pogonomyrmex''. Birds that follow ants eat many prey insects and thus decrease the foraging success of ants. Birds indulge in a peculiar behaviour called anting that, as yet, is not fully understood. Here birds rest on ant nests, or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers; this may be a means to remove ectoparasites from the birds.\n\nAnteaters, aardvarks, pangolins, echidnas and numbats have special adaptations for living on a diet of ants. These adaptations include long, sticky tongues to capture ants and strong claws to break into ant nests. Brown bears (''Ursus arctos'') have been found to feed on ants. About 12%, 16%, and 4% of their faecal volume in spring, summer, and autumn, respectively, is composed of ants.\n",
"Weaver ants are used as a biological control for citrus cultivation in southern China\nAnts perform many ecological roles that are beneficial to humans, including the suppression of pest populations and aeration of the soil. The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is considered one of the oldest known applications of biological control. On the other hand, ants may become nuisances when they invade buildings, or cause economic losses.\n\nIn some parts of the world (mainly Africa and South America), large ants, especially army ants, are used as surgical sutures. The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it. The ant seizes the edges of the wound in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles remain in place to close the wound. The large heads of the dinergates (soldiers) of the leafcutting ant ''Atta cephalotes'' are also used by native surgeons in closing wounds.\n\nSome ants have toxic venom and are of medical importance. The species include ''Paraponera clavata'' (tocandira) and ''Dinoponera'' spp. (false tocandiras) of South America and the ''Myrmecia'' ants of Australia.\n\nIn South Africa, ants are used to help harvest rooibos (''Aspalathus linearis''), which are small seeds used to make a herbal tea. The plant disperses its seeds widely, making manual collection difficult. Black ants collect and store these and other seeds in their nest, where humans can gather them ''en masse''. Up to half a pound (200 g) of seeds may be collected from one ant-heap.\n\nAlthough most ants survive attempts by humans to eradicate them, a few are highly endangered. These tend to be island species that have evolved specialized traits and risk being displaced by introduced ant species. Examples include the critically endangered Sri Lankan relict ant (''Aneuretus simoni'') and ''Adetomyrma venatrix'' of Madagascar.\n\nIt has been estimated by E.O. Wilson that the total number of individual ants alive in the world at any one time is between one and ten quadrillion (short scale) (i.e. between 1015 and 1016). According to this estimate, the total biomass of all the ants in the world is approximately equal to the total biomass of the entire human race. Also, according to this estimate, there are approximately 1 million ants for every human on Earth.\n\n===As food===\n\nRoasted ants in Colombia\nAnt larvae for sale in Isaan, Thailand\nAnts and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world. The eggs of two species of ants are used in Mexican ''escamoles''. They are considered a form of insect caviar and can sell for as much as US$40 per pound ($90/kg) because they are seasonal and hard to find. In the Colombian department of Santander, ''hormigas culonas'' (roughly interpreted as \"large-bottomed ants\") ''Atta laevigata'' are toasted alive and eaten.\n\n\nIn areas of India, and throughout Burma and Thailand, a paste of the green weaver ant (''Oecophylla smaragdina'') is served as a condiment with curry. Weaver ant eggs and larvae, as well as the ants, may be used in a Thai salad, ''yam'' (), in a dish called ''yam khai mot daeng'' () or red ant egg salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or north-eastern region of Thailand. Saville-Kent, in the ''Naturalist in Australia'' wrote \"Beauty, in the case of the green ant, is more than skin-deep. Their attractive, almost sweetmeat-like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species\". Mashed up in water, after the manner of lemon squash, \"these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates\".\n\nIn his ''First Summer in the Sierra'', John Muir notes that the Digger Indians of California ate the tickling, acid gasters of the large jet-black carpenter ants. The Mexican Indians eat the replete workers, or living honey-pots, of the honey ant (''Myrmecocystus'').\n\n===As pests===\n\nThe tiny pharaoh ant is a major pest in hospitals and office blocks; it can make nests between sheets of paper\n\nSome ant species are considered as pests, primarily those that occur in human habitations, where their presence is often problematic. For example, the presence of ants would be undesirable in sterile places such as hospitals or kitchens. Some species or genera commonly categorized as pests include the Argentine ant, pavement ant, yellow crazy ant, banded sugar ant, Pharaoh ant, carpenter ants, odorous house ant, red imported fire ant, and European fire ant. Some ants will raid stored food, others may damage indoor structures, some can damage agricultural crops directly (or by aiding sucking pests), and some will sting or bite. The adaptive nature of ant colonies make it nearly impossible to eliminate entire colonies and most pest management practices aim to control local populations and tend to be temporary solutions. Ant populations are managed by a combination of approaches that make use of chemical, biological and physical methods. Chemical methods include the use of insecticidal bait which is gathered by ants as food and brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other colony members through trophallaxis. Management is based on the species and techniques can vary according to the location and circumstance.\n\n===In science and technology===\n''right\n\nObserved by humans since the dawn of history, the behaviour of ants has been documented and the subject of early writings and fables passed from one century to another. Those using scientific methods, myrmecologists, study ants in the laboratory and in their natural conditions. Their complex and variable social structures have made ants ideal model organisms. Ultraviolet vision was first discovered in ants by Sir John Lubbock in 1881. Studies on ants have tested hypotheses in ecology and sociobiology, and have been particularly important in examining the predictions of theories of kin selection and evolutionarily stable strategies. Ant colonies may be studied by rearing or temporarily maintaining them in ''formicaria'', specially constructed glass framed enclosures. Individuals may be tracked for study by marking them with dots of colours.\n\nThe successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems, for example Ant colony optimization and Ant robotics. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of \"foraging trails\", fault-tolerant storage, and networking algorithms.\n\n===As pets===\nFrom the late 1950s through the late 1970s, ant farms were popular educational children's toys in the United States. Some later commercial versions use transparent gel instead of soil, allowing greater visibility at the cost of stressing the ants with unnatural light.\n\n===In culture===\nAesop's ants: picture by Milo Winter, 1888–1956 \nAnthropomorphised ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort. They also are mentioned in religious texts. In the Book of Proverbs in the Bible, ants are held up as a good example for humans for their hard work and cooperation. Aesop did the same in his fable The Ant and the Grasshopper. In the Quran, Sulayman is said to have heard and understood an ant warning other ants to return home to avoid being accidentally crushed by Sulayman and his marching army. In parts of Africa, ants are considered to be the messengers of the deities. Some Native American mythology, such as the Hopi mythology, considers ants as the very first animals. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. The sting of some species of ''Pseudomyrmex'' is claimed to give fever relief. Ant bites are used in the initiation ceremonies of some Amazon Indian cultures as a test of endurance.\n\nAnt society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously. Mark Twain wrote about ants in his 1880 book ''A Tramp Abroad''. Some modern authors have used the example of the ants to comment on the relationship between society and the individual. Examples are Robert Frost in his poem \"Departmental\" and T. H. White in his fantasy novel ''The Once and Future King''. The plot in French entomologist and writer Bernard Werber's ''Les Fourmis'' science-fiction trilogy is divided between the worlds of ants and humans; ants and their behaviour is described using contemporary scientific knowledge. H.G. Wells wrote about intelligent ants destroying human settlements in Brazil and threatening human civilization in his 1905 science-fiction short story, ''The Empire of the Ants.'' In more recent times, animated cartoons and 3-D animated films featuring ants have been produced including ''Antz'', ''A Bug's Life'', ''The Ant Bully'', ''The Ant and the Aardvark'', ''Ferdy the Ant'' and ''Atom Ant.'' Renowned myrmecologist E. O. Wilson wrote a short story, \"Trailhead\" in 2010 for ''The New Yorker'' magazine, which describes the life and death of an ant-queen and the rise and fall of her colony, from an ants' point of view. The French neuroanatomist, psychiatrist and eugenicist Auguste Forel believed that ant societies were models for human society. He published a five volume work from 1921 to 1923 that examined ant biology and society.\n\nIn the early 1990s, the video game SimAnt, which simulated an ant colony, won the 1992 Codie award for \"Best Simulation Program\". \n\nAnts also are quite popular inspiration for many science-fiction insectoids, such as the Formics of ''Ender's Game'', the Bugs of ''Starship Troopers'', the giant ants in the films ''Them!'' and ''Empire of the Ants,'' Marvel Comics' super hero Ant-Man, and ants mutated into super-intelligence in ''Phase IV''. In computer strategy games, ant-based species often benefit from increased production rates due to their single-minded focus, such as the Klackons in the ''Master of Orion'' series of games or the ChCht in ''Deadlock II''. These characters are often credited with a hive mind, a common misconception about ant colonies.\n",
"\n\n* Ant robotics\n* Ant venom\n* Glossary of ant terms\n* International Union for the Study of Social Insects\n* ''Myrmecological News'' (journal)\n* Task allocation and partitioning of social insects\n",
"\n\n===Cited texts===\n* \n* \n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n\n\n* AntWeb from The California Academy of Sciences\n* AntBase – a taxonomic database with literature sources\n* AntWiki – Bringing Ants to the World\n* Ant Species Fact Sheets from the National Pest Management Association on Argentine, Carpenter, Pharaoh, Odorous, and other ant species\n* Ant Genera of the World – distribution maps\n* The super-nettles. A dermatologist's guide to ants-in-the-plants\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"Taxonomy and evolution",
"Distribution and diversity",
"Morphology",
"Life cycle",
"Behaviour and ecology",
"Relationship with humans",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Ant |
[
"'''Arbitration''', in the context of United States law, is a form of alternative dispute resolution—specifically, a legal alternative to litigation whereby the parties to a dispute agree to submit their respective positions (through agreement or hearing) to a neutral third party (the arbitrator(s) or arbiter(s)) for resolution. In practice arbitration is generally used as a substitute for judicial systems, particularly when the judicial processes are viewed as too slow, expensive or biased. Arbitration is also used by communities which lack formal law, as a substitute for formal law.\n\nArbitration may also serve a distinct purpose: as an alternative to strikes and lockouts as a means of resolving labor disputes. Labor arbitration comes in two varieties: '''interest arbitration''', which provides a method for resolving disputes about the terms to be included in a new contract when the parties are unable to agree, and '''grievance arbitration''', which provides a method for resolving disputes over the interpretation and application of a collective bargaining agreement.\n",
"\n===Commercial and other forms of contract arbitration===\nAgreements to arbitrate were not enforceable at common law, traced back to dictum by Lord Coke in ''Vynor’s Case'', 8 Co. Rep. 81b, 77 Eng. Rep. 597 (1609), that agreements to arbitrate were revocable by either party.\n\nDuring the Industrial Revolution, large corporations became increasingly opposed to this policy. They argued that too many valuable business relationships were being destroyed through years of expensive adversarial litigation, in courts whose rules differed significantly from the informal norms and conventions of businesspeople (the private law of commerce, or ''jus merchant''). Arbitration was promoted as being faster, less adversarial, and cheaper.\n\nThe result was the New York Arbitration Act of 1920, followed by the United States Arbitration Act of 1925 (now known as the Federal Arbitration Act). Both made agreements to arbitrate valid and enforceable (unless one party could show fraud or unconscionability or some other ground for rescission which undermined the validity of the entire contract). Due to the subsequent judicial expansion of the meaning of interstate commerce, the U.S. Supreme Court reinterpreted the FAA in a series of cases in the 1980s and 1990s to cover almost the full scope of interstate commerce. In the process, the Court held that the FAA preempted many state laws covering arbitration, some of which had been passed by state legislatures to protect their consumers against powerful corporations.\n\nSince commercial arbitration is based upon either contract law or the law of treaties, the agreement between the parties to submit their dispute to arbitration is a legally binding contract. All arbitral decisions are considered to be \"final and binding.\" This does not, however, void the requirements of law. Any dispute not excluded from arbitration by virtue of law (for example, criminal proceedings) may be submitted to arbitration.\n\nFurthermore, arbitration agreements can only bind parties who have agreed, expressly or impliedly to arbitrate. Arbitration cannot bind nonsignatories to an arbitration contract, even if those nonsignatories later become involved with a signatory to a contract by accident (usually through the commission of a tort).\n\n===Labor arbitration===\nArbitration has also been used as a means of resolving labor disputes for more than a century. Labor organizations in the United States, such as the National Labor Union, called for arbitration as early as 1866 as an alternative to strikes to resolve disputes over the wages, benefits and other rights that workers would enjoy. Governments have also relied on arbitration to resolve particularly large labor disputes, such as the Coal Strike of 1902. This type of arbitration, wherein a neutral arbitrator decides the terms of the collective bargaining agreement, is commonly known as interest arbitration. The United Steelworkers of America adopted an elaborate form of interest arbitration, known as the Experimental Negotiating Agreement, in the 1970s as a means of avoiding the long and costly strikes that had made the industry vulnerable to foreign competition. Major League Baseball uses a variant of interest arbitration, in which an arbitrator chooses between the two sides' final offers, to set the terms for contracts for players who are not eligible for free agency. Interest arbitration is now most frequently used by public employees who have no right to strike (for example, law enforcement and firefighters).\n\nUnions and employers have also employed arbitration to resolve employee and union grievances arising under a collective bargaining agreement. The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America made arbitration a central element of the ''Protocol of Peace'' it negotiated with garment manufacturers in the second decade of the twentieth century. Grievance arbitration became even more popular during World War II, when most unions had adopted a no-strike pledge. The War Labor Board, which attempted to mediate disputes over contract terms, pressed for inclusion of grievance arbitration in collective bargaining agreements. The Supreme Court subsequently made labor arbitration a key aspect of federal labor policy in three cases which came to be known as the Steelworkers' Trilogy. The Court held that grievance arbitration was a preferred dispute resolution technique and that courts could not overturn arbitrators' awards unless the award does not draw its essence from the collective bargaining agreement. State and federal statutes may allow vacating an award on narrow grounds (''e.g.'', fraud). These protections for arbitrator awards are premised on the union-management system, which provides both parties with due process. Due process in this context means that both parties have experienced representation throughout the process, and that the arbitrators practice only as neutrals. ''See'' National Academy of Arbitrators.\n\n===Securities arbitration===\nIn the United States securities industry, arbitration has long been the preferred method of resolving disputes between brokerage firms, and between firms and their customers. The securities industry uses a pre-dispute arbitration agreement, where the parties agree to arbitrate their disputes before any such dispute arises. Those agreements were upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Shearson v. MacMahon, 482 U.S. 220 (1987) and today nearly all disputes involving brokerage firms, other than Securities class action claims, are resolved in arbitration. The SEC has come under fire from members of the Senate Judiciary Committee for not fulfilling statutory duty to protect individual investors, because all brokers require arbitration, and arbitration does not provide a court-supervised discovery process, require arbitrators to follow rules of evidence or result in written opinions establishing precedence, or case law, or provide the efficiency gains it once did. Arbitrator selection bias, hidden conflicts of interest, and a case where an arbitration panel refused to follow instructions handed down from a judge, were also raised as issues. The final result in the case where the arbitrators were in contempt of court is unknown; it was settled out of court under settlement agreement terms that, at the broker's insistence, are confidential.\n\nThe process operates under its own rules. Securities arbitrations are held primarily by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority.\n\n===Judicial arbitration===\nSome state court systems have promulgated court-ordered arbitration; family law (particularly child custody) is the most prominent example. Judicial arbitration is often merely advisory dispute resolution technique, serving as the first step toward resolution, but not binding either side and allowing for trial de novo. Litigation attorneys present their side of the case to an independent teritary lawyer, who issues an opinion on settlement. Should the parties in question decide to continue to dispute resolution process, there can be some sanctions imposed from the initial arbitration per terms of the contract.\n",
"\nThe validity of arbitration clauses in the US is not a settled legal matter. Typically, the validity of an arbitration clause is decided by a court rather than an arbitrator. However, if the validity of the entire arbitration agreement is in dispute, then the Supreme Court of the United States case of ''Rent-A-Center, West, Inc. v. Jackson'' may apply. In that case, the court held that \"under the FAA, where an agreement to arbitrate includes an agreement that the arbitrator will determine the enforceability of the agreement, if a party challenges specifically the enforceability of that particular agreement, the district court considers the challenge, but if a party challenges the enforceability of the agreement as a whole, the challenge is for the arbitrator.\" In other words, the law typically allows federal courts to decide these types of \"gateway\" or validity questions, but the Supreme Court ruled that since Jackson targeted the entire contract rather than a specific clause, the arbitrator decided the validity. Public Citizen, an advocacy organization opposed to the enforcement of pre-dispute arbitration agreements, characterized the decision negatively: \"the court said that companies can write their contracts so that the companies' own arbitrator decides whether it's fair to submit a case to that arbitrator.\"\n\nArbitration clauses of companies such as AT&T and Ralphs have been ruled unconscionable and, therefore, unenforceable. However arbitration clauses have been upheld repeatedly as well.\n\nIn insurance law, arbitration is complicated by the fact that insurance is regulated at the state level under the McCarran–Ferguson Act. From a federal perspective, however, a circuit court ruling has determined that McCarran-Ferguson requires a state statute rather than administrative interpretations. The Missouri Department of Insurance attempted to block a binding arbitration agreement under its state authority, but since this action was based only on a policy of the department and not on a state statute, the United States district court found that the Department of Insurance did not have the authority to invalidate the arbitration agreement.\n\nIn ''AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion'' (2011), the Supreme Court of the United States upheld an arbitration clause in a consumer standard form contract which waived the right to a lawsuit and class action. However, this clause was relatively generous in that the business paid all fees unless the action was determined to be frivolous and a small-claims court action remained available; these types of protections are recommended for the contract to remain enforceable and not unconscionable.\n",
"Various bodies of rules have been developed that can be used for arbitration proceedings. The rules to be followed by the arbitrator are specified by the agreement establishing the arbitration.\n\n=== Enforcement of award ===\n\n\nIn some cases, a party may comply with an award voluntarily. However, in other cases a party will have to petition to receive a court judgment for enforcement through various means such as a writ of execution, garnishment, or lien. If the property is in another state, then a sister-state judgment (relying on the Full Faith and Credit Clause) can be received by filing a form in the state where the property is located.\n\n=== Vacatur===\nUnder the Federal Arbitration Act, courts can only vacate awards for limited reasons set out in statute with similar language in the state model Uniform Arbitration Act.\n\nThe court will generally not change the arbitrator's findings of fact but will decide only whether the arbitrator was guilty of malfeasance, or whether the arbitrator exceeded the limits of his or her authority in the arbitral award or whether the award was made in manifest disregard of law or conflicts with well-established public policy.\n",
"Arbitrators have wide latitude in crafting remedies in the arbitral decision, with the only real limitation being that they may not exceed the limits of their authority in their award. An example of exceeding arbitral authority might be awarding one party to a dispute the personal automobile of the other party when the dispute concerns the specific performance of a business-related contract.\n\nIt is open to the parties to restrict the possible awards that the arbitrator can make. If this restriction requires a straight choice between the position of one party or the position of the other, then it is known as ''pendulum arbitration'' or ''final offer arbitration''. It is designed to encourage the parties to moderate their initial positions so as to make it more likely they receive a favorable decision.\n\nNo definitive statement can be made concerning the credentials or experience levels of arbitrators, although some jurisdictions have elected to establish standards for arbitrators in certain fields. Several independent organizations, such as the American Arbitration Association and the National Arbitration Forum, offer arbitrator training programs and thus in effect, credentials. Generally speaking, however, the credibility of an arbitrator rests upon reputation, experience level in arbitrating particular issues, or expertise/experience in a particular field. Arbitrators are generally not required to be members of the legal profession.\n\nTo ensure effective arbitration and to increase the general credibility of the arbitral process, arbitrators will sometimes sit as a panel, usually consisting of three arbitrators. Often the three consist of an expert in the legal area within which the dispute falls (such as contract law in the case of a dispute over the terms and conditions of a contract), an expert in the industry within which the dispute falls (such as the construction industry, in the case of a dispute between a homeowner and his general contractor), and an experienced arbitrator.\n",
"The umpire is a third party chosen either by the method of the arbitral parties or by a court to render an independent decision usually in labour disputes when the arbitrators disagree on something. Umpire is another word for \"arbitrator\" or an arbitrator appointed to resolve an arbitration when the arbitrators can't agree.\n",
"The \"judge shows\" that have become popular in many countries, especially the United States, are actually binding arbitration. ''The People's Court'' and Judge Judy are notable examples.\n",
"\n\n",
"* Arbitration award\n* Consumer arbitration\n* Conciliation\n* Dispute resolution\n* Expert determination\n* London Court of International Arbitration\n* Mediation\n* Negotiation\n* Special referee\n* Subrogation\n* Tort reform\n* UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration\n* National Arbitration Forum\n* National Academy of Arbitrators\nFor the relevant conflict of laws elements, see contract, forum selection clause, choice of law clause, proper law, and ''lex loci arbitri''\n",
"* Jerold S. Auerbach, ''Justice Without Law?: Non-Legal Dispute Settlement in American History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983).\n* Mark J. Astarita, Esq., ''Introduction to Securities Arbitration'' (SECLaw.com, 2000 - )\n* David Sherwyn, Bruce Tracey & Zev Eigen. \"In Defense of Mandatory Arbitration of Employment Disputes: Saving the Baby, Tossing out the Bath Water, and Constructing a New Sink in the Process,\" 2 U. Pa. J. Lab. & Emp. L. 73 (1999); n.b., abbreviated source in this legal citation format is the ''University of Pennsylvania Journal of Labor and Employment Law,'' Vol. 2, p. 73.\n* Ed Brunet, J.D., Arbitration Law in America: A Critical Assessment, Cambridge University Press, 2006.\n* Gary Born, ''International Civil Litigation in United States Courts'' (Aspen 4th ed. 2006) (with Bo Rutledge) (3rd ed. 1996) (2nd ed. 1992) (1st ed. 1989)\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* Read actual arbitration awards and find arbitrator's resumes at GVSU\n* American Arbitration Association's Home Page\n* An Example of Labor Arbitration in the United States (Vulcan Iron Works and the Machinists' Union, 1981).\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Species of Arbitration",
"Validity of arbitration clauses",
"Proceedings",
"Arbitrators",
"Umpire",
"Arbitration on television",
"Arbitration Fairness Act",
"See also",
"References",
"Footnotes",
"External links"
] | Arbitration in the United States |
[
"\nThe '''adversarial system''' or '''adversary system''' is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties' case or position before an impartial person or group of people, usually a jury or judge, who attempt to determine the truth and pass judgment accordingly. It is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic code) where a judge investigates the case.\n\nThe adversarial system is the two-sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate that pits the prosecution against the defense.\n",
"Some writers trace the process to the medieval mode of trial by combat, in which some litigants, notably women, were allowed a champion to represent them. The use of the jury in the common law system seems to have fostered the adversarial system and provides the opportunity for both sides to argue their point of view.\n",
"As an accused is not compelled to give evidence in a criminal adversarial proceeding, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to do so. However, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person's right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer's manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.\n\nBy contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give a statement, this statement is not subject to cross-examination by the prosecutor and not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain his side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judges who question the defendant. The concept of \"cross\"-examination is entirely due to adversarial structure of the common law.\n\nJudges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision, rendering obsolete the judicial process in question—rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances.\n\nThe rules of evidence are also developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence he/she believes is not trustworthy or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand.\n\nAll evidence must be relevant and not hearsay evidence.\n\nPeter Murphy in his ''Practical Guide to Evidence'' recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, 'Am I never to hear the truth?' 'No, my lord, merely the evidence', replied counsel.\n\nThe name \"adversarial system\" may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversarial and inquisitorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.\n\nThe right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England gave suspects of felonies the formal right to have legal counsel (the Prisoners' Counsel Act 1836), although in practise English courts routinely allowed defendants to be represented by counsel from the mid-18th century. During the second half of the 18th century advocates like Sir William Garrow and Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine helped usher in the adversarial court system used in most common law countries today. In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the Constitution and in state cases at least since the end of the Civil War, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier. Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases. It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts. See ''Gideon v. Wainwright'', .\n\nOne of the most significant differences between the adversarial system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversarial system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime; an obviously false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitiorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for plea bargaining in adversarial systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains.\n\nIn some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused's failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defense. In England the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 allowed such inferences to be made for the first time in England and Wales (it was already possible in Scotland under the rule of criminative circumstances). This change was disparaged by critics as an end to the 'right to silence', though in fact an accused still has the right to remain silent and cannot be compelled to take the stand. The criticism reflects the idea that if the accused can be inferred to be guilty by exercising their right to silence, it no longer confers the protection intended by such a right. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant's invocation of his right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.\n\nLord Devlin in ''The Judge'' said: \"It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle.\"\n",
"There are many differences in the way cases are reviewed. It is questionable that the results would be different if cases were conducted under the differing approaches; in fact no statistics exist that can show whether or not these systems would come to the same results. However, these approaches are often a matter of national pride and there are opinions amongst jurists about the merits of the differing approaches and their drawbacks as well.\n\nProponents of the adversarial system often argue that the system is more fair and less prone to abuse than the inquisitional approach, because it allows less room for the state to be biased against the defendant. It also allows most private litigants to settle their disputes in an amicable manner through discovery and pre-trial settlements in which non-contested facts are agreed upon and not dealt with during the trial process.\n\nIn addition, adversarial procedure defenders argue that the inquisitorial court systems are overly institutionalized and removed from the average citizen. The common law trial lawyer has ample opportunity to uncover the truth in the courtroom. Most cases that go to trial are carefully prepared through a discovery process that aids in the review of evidence and testimony before it is presented to judge or jury. The lawyers involved have a very good idea of the scope of agreement and disagreement of the issues to present at trial which develops much in the same way as the role of investigative judges.\n\nProponents of inquisitorial justice dispute these points. They point out that many cases in adversarial systems, and most cases in the United States, are actually resolved by plea bargain or settlement. Plea bargain as a system does not exist in an inquisitorial system. Many legal cases in adversarial systems, and most in the United States, do not go to trial, which may lead to injustice when the defendant has an unskilled or overworked attorney, which is likely to be the case when the defendant is poor. In addition, proponents of inquisitorial systems argue that the plea bargain system causes the participants in the system to act in perverse ways, in that it encourages prosecutors to bring charges far in excess of what is warranted and defendants to plead guilty even when they believe that they are not.\n",
"\n* Exclusionary rule\n* Parallel thinking - described as a systemic alternative\n",
"\n",
"*\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Basic features",
"Comparisons with the inquisitorial approach",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading"
] | Adversarial system |
[
"\n\n\n'''Abano Terme''' (known as ''Abano Bagni'' until 1924) is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Padua, in the Veneto region, Italy, on the eastern slope of the Colli Euganei; it is southwest by rail from Padua. Abano Terme's population is 19,062 (2001) (in 1901 it was only 4,556).\n\nThe town's hot springs and mud baths are the main economic resource. The waters have a temperature of some \n",
"The baths were known to the Romans as ''Aponi fons'' or ''Aquae Patavinae''. A description of them is given in a letter to Theodoric, the king of the Ostrogoths, from Cassiodorus. Some remains of the ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, ''Trattato dei Bagni d'Abano,'' Padua, 1789). An oracle of Geryon lay near, and the so-called ''sortes Praenestinae'' (C.I.L. i., Berlin, 1863; 1438–1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century.\n\nThe baths were destroyed by the Lombards in the 6th century, but they were rebuilt and enlarged when Abano became an autonomous comune in the 12th century and, again, in the late 14th century. The city was under the Republic of Venice from 1405 to 1797.\n",
"*Abano Cathedral, or the cathedral (''duomo'') of St. Lawrence. The current edifice was erected in 1780 over a pre-existing church which was allegedly destroyed by Cangrande della Scala. The bell tower has parts from the 9th/10th and 14th centuries.\n*The Montirone Gallery, housing works of Il Moretto, Palma the Younger, Guido Reni, Giandomenico Tiepolo and others.\n*The Sanctuary of the ''Madonna della Salute'' or of Monteortone (built from 1428). It lies on the site where the Madonna appeared to Pietro Falco, healing his wounds. The church is on the Latin cross plan, with a nave and two aisles with three apses decorated by a frieze. It has with a Baroque portal (1667), a noteworthy bell tower, presbytery frescoes portraying the ''Histories of St. Peter'' and ''Virgin'' by Jacopo da Montagnana (1495) and Palma the Younger's altarpiece depicting ''Christ Crucifixed Between St. Augustine and St. Jerome''.\n\nJust outside the city is San Daniele Abbey (11th century). 6 km from the city is also Praglia Abbey, founded in the 11th century by Benedictine monks and rebuilt in 1496–1550. The abbey church of the Assumption, with a marble portal from 1548, has a Renaissance style interior. Noteworthy is the four cloister complex.\n",
"* Peter of Abano (1316), physician and philosopher\n",
"\n\n",
"*''L'Italia da scoprire'', Giorgio Mondadori, 2006.\n",
"\n* Abano.it Touristic informations web site\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Main sights",
"Notable people",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Abano Terme |
[
":''See also, Abatement.''\n'''Abated''', an ancient technical term applied in masonry and metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"References"
] | Abated |
[
"\n'''Abati''' is a surname. It was used by an ancient noble family of Florence. \n\nNotable people with the surname include:\n\n*Antonio Abati (died 1667), Italian poet\n*Baldo Angelo Abati (sixteenth century), Italian naturalist\n*Joaquín Abati (1865-1936), Spanish writer\n*Joël Abati (born 1970), French handball player\n*Megliore degli Abati (thirteenth century), Italian poet\n*Niccolò dell'Abbate (1509 or 1512-1571), Italian painter\n*Reuben Abati (born 1965), Nigerian newspaper columnist\n",
"* Abati, Iran, village in Iran\n* Marauna abati, species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae\n",
"\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Other uses",
"References"
] | Abati |
[
"\nAbatisses are used in war to keep the approaching enemy under fire for as long as possible.\n\nAn '''abatis''', '''abattis''', or '''abbattis''' is a field fortification consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy. The trees are usually interlaced or tied with wire. Abatis are used alone or in combination with wire entanglements and other obstacles.\n",
"Abatis improvised by Japanese troops during World War II\n\nThere is evidence it was used as early as the Roman Imperial period, and as recently as the American Civil War.\n\nA classic use of an abatis was at the Battle of Carillon during the Seven Years' War. The 3,600 French troops defeated a massive army of 16,000 British and Colonial troops by fronting their defensive positions with an extremely dense abatis. The British found the defences almost impossible to breach and were forced to withdraw with some 2,600 casualties. Other uses of an abatis can be found at the Battle of the Chateauguay, 26 October 1813, when approximately 1,300 Canadian voltigeurs, under the command of Charles-Michel de Salaberry, defeated an American corps of approximately 4,000 men, or at the Battle of Plattsburgh.\n",
"Giant abatis, made from entire trees, can make an effective anti-vehicle obstacle. This formation can be achieved by use of explosives—note the splintered stumps\n\nAn important weakness of abatis, in contrast to barbed wire, is that it can be destroyed by fire. Also, if laced together with rope instead of wire, the rope can be very quickly destroyed by such fires, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by grappling hooks thrown from a safe distance.\n\nAn important advantage is that an improvised abatis can be quickly formed in forested areas. This can be done by simply cutting down a row of trees so that they fall with their tops toward the enemy. An alternative is to place explosives so as to blow the trees down.\n",
"thumb\nUnited States military symbol for an abatis\n\nAbatis are rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by wire obstacles. However, it may be used as a replacement or supplement when barbed wire is in short supply. A form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an improvised anti-tank obstacle.\n\nThough rarely used by modern conventional military units, abatises are still officially maintained in United States Army and Marine Corps training. Current US training instructs engineers or other constructors of such obstacles to fell trees, leaving a stump, in such a manner as the trees fall interlocked pointing at a 45-degree angle towards the direction of approach of the enemy. Furthermore, it is recommended that the trees remain connected to the stumps and the length of roadway covered be at least . US military maps record an abatis by use of an inverted \"V\" with a short line extending from it to the right.\n",
"\n*Zasechnaya cherta (\"Great Abatis Line\")\n",
"\n\n",
"\n\n*\n\n",
"* Pamplin Historical Park & The National Museum of the Civil War Soldier includes large and authentic reproduction of abatis used in the U.S. Civil War.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Construction ",
" Modern use ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Abatis |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie d'Arrast''' (3 January 181019 March 1897) was a French explorer, geographer, ethnologist, linguist and astronomer notable for his travels in Ethiopia during the first half of the 19th century. He was the older brother of Arnaud Michel d'Abbadie, with whom he traveled.\n",
"He was born in the (then) British city of Dublin, Ireland, from a partially Basque noble family of the French province of Soule. His father, Michel Abbadie, was born in Arrast-Larrebieu and his mother was Irish. His grandfather Jean-Pierre was an abbot and a notary in Soule. The family moved to France in 1818 where the brothers received a careful scientific education. In 1827, Antoine received a bachelier (bachelor) degree in Toulouse. Starting in 1829, he began his education in Paris, where he studied law.\n\nHe married Virginie Vincent de Saint-Bonnet on 21 February 1859, and settled in Hendaye where he purchased 250ha to build a castle, and became the mayor of the city from 1871 to 1875.\n\nAbbadie was a knight of the Legion of Honour, which he received on 27 September 1850, and a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He died in 1897, and bequeathed the Abbadi domain and castle in Hendaye, yielding 40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences.\n",
"In 1835 the French Academy sent Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results being published at a later date (1873) under the title of ''Observations relatives à la physique du globe faites au Brésil et en Éthiopie''. In 1837, the two brothers started for Ethiopia, landing at Massawa in February 1838. They journeyed throughout Ethiopia, travelling as far south as the Kingdom of Kaffa, sometimes together and sometimes separately. In addition to his studies in the sciences, he delved into the political fray exerting influence in favor of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries. While in Ethiopia they returned to France in 1848 with notes on the geography, geology, archaeology, and natural history of the region.\n\nAntoine became involved in various controversies relating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues. He was especially attacked by Charles Tilstone Beke, who impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to Kana. But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong in his contention—hotly contested by Beke—that the Blue Nile was the main stream. The topographical results of his explorations were published in Paris between 1860 and 1873 in ''Géodésie d'Éthiopie'', full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps. Of the ''Géographie de l'Éthiopie'' (Paris, 1890) only one volume was published. In ''Un Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits éthiopiens'' (Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts collected by Antoine. He also compiled various vocabularies, including a ''Dictionnaire de la langue amariñña'' (Paris, 1881), and prepared an edition of the ''Shepherd of Hermas'', with the Latin version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the geography of Ethiopia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions. Under the title of ''Reconnaissances magnétiques'' he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observations made by him in the course of several journeys to the Red Sea and the Levant. The general account of the travels of the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of ''Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie''.\n\nAntoine was responsible for streamlining techniques towards geodesy, along with inventing a new theodolite for measuring angles.\n",
"Basque through his father, Abbadie developed a particular interest about the Basque Language after meeting the Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte in London. He started his academic work on Basque in 1852.\n\nA speaker of both Souletin and Lapurdian, a resident of Lapurdi, Abbadie considered himself a Basque from Soule. The popularity of the motto Zazpiak Bat is attributed to Abbadie, coined in the framework of the ''Lore Jokoak'' Basque festivals, fostered by himself.\n",
"Domaine d'Abbadia in Hendaye, designed by Viollet-le-Duc\nAbbadie gave his castle home the name ''Abbadia'', which is the name still used in Basque. However, in French it is usually referred to as ''Chateau d'Abbadie'' or ''Domaine d'Abbadia'', and locally it is not unusual for it to be called ''le Chateau d'Antoine d'Abbadie''.\n\nThe château was built between 1864 and 1879 on a cliff by the Atlantic Ocean, and was designed by Viollet Le Duc in the Neo Gothic style, and is considered one of the most important examples of French Gothic Revival Architecture. It is divided in three parts : the observatory and library, the chapel, and the living quarters.\n\nNowadays the château still belongs to the Academy of Science to which it was bequeathed in 1895 on condition of its producing a catalogue of half-a-million stars within fifty years' time, with the work to be carried out by members of religious orders.\n\nThe château was classified as a protected historical monument by France in 1984. Most of the château property now belongs to the Coastal Protection Agency, and is managed by the city of Hendaye.\n",
"{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"width: 50%\"\n+ In Basque\n Year !! Area of Study !! Title !! Translation !! Notes\n\n 1836 \n Basque Language \n ''Études grammaticales sur la langue euskarienne'' \n Grammatical Studies of the Euskarian Language \n\n\n 1854 \n Basque Language \n ''Le Dictionnaire de Chaho'' \n Dictionary of Chaho \n\n\n 1854 \n Basque Language \n ''Lettres sur l'orthographe basque'' \n Letters on the Basque Spelling \n\n\n 1859 \n Basque Language \n ''Travaux récents sur la langue basque'' \n Recent Studies on the Basque language \n\n\n 1859 \n Ethiopia \n ''Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits éthiopiens'' \n Catalog of Ethiopian Manuscripts \n Paris\n\n 1859 \n Ethiopia, Geography of \n ''Résumé Géodésique des positions déterminées en Éthiopie'' \n Summarized Geodetic Positions Determined in Ethiopia \n Paris\n\n 1860–1873 \n Ethiopia, Geography of \n ''Géodésie d'Éthiopie ou triangulation d'une partie de la Haute Éthiopie'' \n Surveying of Ethiopia and Triangulation of Parts of Upper Ethiopia \n 4 Vols. Paris:Gauthier-Villars\n\n 1862–1869 \n Ethiopia, Geography of \n ''Éthiopie'' \n Ethiopia \n Map in 10 sections\n\n 1864 \n \n ''Zuberoatikaco gutun bat'' \n \n\n\n 1867 \n Exploration \n ''Instructions pour les voyages d'exploration'' \n Guidelines for Exploratory Voyages \n\n\n 1868 \n Basque Language \n ''Sur la carte de la langue basque'' \n The Map of the Basque Language \n\n\n 1868 \n Ethiopia, History of \n ''L'Abyssinie et le roi Théodoros'' \n Abyssinia and King Theodore \n\n\n 1868 \n Ethiopia \n ''Monnaie d'Éthiopie'' \n Ethiopian Currency \n\n\n 1872 \n Language \n ''Notice sur les langues de Kamw'' \n Brochure of Languages Kamw \n\n\n 1873 \n Basque, History of \n ''Le basque et le berbère'' \n Both Basque and the Berber \n\n\n 1873 \n Geography \n ''Observations relatives à la physique du globe, faites au Brésil et en Éthiopie'' \n Observations on Earth Physics, Made in Brazil and Ethiopia \n Paris:Gauthier-Villars\n\n 1880 \n Exploration \n ''Préparation des voyageurs aux observations astronomiques et géodésiques'' \n Preparation of Travelers With Astronomical Observations and Geodetic Surveys \n \n\n 1881 \n Science \n ''Recherches sur la verticale'' \n Researching the Vertical \n\n\n 1881 \n Language \n ''Dictionnaire de la langue Amarrinna'' \n Dictionary of the Amharic Language \n \n\n 1884 \n Exploration \n ''Credo d'un vieux voyageur'' \n The Creed of an Old Traveler \n\n\n 1890 \n Geography \n ''Reconnaissances magnétiques'' \n Magnetic Reconnaissance \n Paris\n\n 1890 \n Ethiopia, Geography of \n ''Géographie de l'Éthiopie, ce que j'ai entendu, faisant suite à ce que j'ai vu'' \n Geography of Ethiopia, I Have Heard, Following That I Have Seen \n \n\n 1895 \n Basque Language \n ''Lettre sur la préservation de la langue basque'' \n Letter on Preserving the Basque Language \n\n\n\n\n===Awards and memberships===\nAntoine received the French Legion of Honor on 27 September 1850 with the order of chevalier or knight. He was a member of the Bureau des Longitudes and also the French Academy of Sciences. Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 1850.\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* - Antoine d'Abbadie\n* \n",
"* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
" Science and explorations ",
"Abbadie, a Basque and bascophile",
"The castle or château",
"Literary works",
"Notes",
"Footnotes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie |
[
"\n'''Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph''', was a Provençal rabbi, born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of the 13th century. He is also known as '''Yarhi''' from his birthplace (Hebrew ''Yerah'', i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the name '''Astruc''', '''Don Astruc''' or '''En Astruc of Lunel'''.\n\nThe descendant of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted with the writings of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well as with the ''Talmud''.\n\nIn Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian rationalism, which in his opinion, through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title ''Minhat Kenaot'', i.e., \"Jealousy Offering\") called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Aderet of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Adret, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than twenty-five years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Adret in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis.\n\nOn the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.\n",
"(Graetz and others have, incorrectly, En Duran): Leader of the opposition to the rationalism of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303-1306; born at Lunel—hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ = Moon = Lune). He was a descendant of Meshullam ben Jacob of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition. Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to science and philosophy. The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim of Villefranche, near the town of Perpignan, and Jacob Anatolio) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire Scriptures into allegory and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition. He was not without some philosophical training. He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides. Above all, he was a thorough believer in revelation and in a divine providence, and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle, \"the searcher after God among the heathen,\" to be ranked with Moses.\n",
"Abba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of ''Minḥat Ḳenaot'' (''Jealousy Offering''), to Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona, the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his anathema against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret's aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of excommunication, the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except medicine, by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon, the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a schism ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari's letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon's leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern France and Spain.\n\nEncouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of Argentière and Lunel, and particularly by the support of Kalonymus ben Todros, the ''nasi'' of Narbonne, and of the eminent Talmudist Asheri of Toledo, Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study physics or metaphysics before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, ''Guide for the Perplexed'' part one chapter 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, July 26, 1305. When this heresy-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene. But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end. The expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV (\"the Fair\"), in, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in Provence, partly in Perpignan and partly in Majorca. Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to Arles, and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view. There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues.\n",
"Abba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this collection, called ''Minḥat Ḳenaot,'' there are several manuscript copies extant; namely, at Oxford (Neubauer, ''Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.,'' Nos. 2182 and 2221); Paris, Bibl. Nat. No. 976; Günzburg Libr., Saint Petersburg; Parma; Ramsgate Montefiore College Library (formerly Halberstam, No. 192); and Turin. Some of these (Oxford, No. 2221, and Paris, Bibl. Nat.) are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the incorporeality of God; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called ''Sefer ha-Yarḥi,'' included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of ''The Guide'' and its author by Shem-Tob Palquera (Grätz, ''Gesch. d. Juden,'' vii. 173). As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) That of the recognition of God's existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the ''Decalogue''; (2) that of the world's creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) that of the special providence of God, as manifested in the Biblical miracles. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of creation ''ex nihilo'' and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of ''Minḥat Ḳenaot.''\n",
"The correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Casually, other theological questions are discussed. For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a talisman, is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as idolatrous. In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don Vidal Shlomo (the Meiri) and Rabbi Meshullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate, No. 52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies. In the ''Sefer ha-Yarḥi'', Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old as regards the teaching of the mysteries of philosophy, and recommended by men like the Hai Gaon, Maimonides, and David Kimhi. A response of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No. 136; and Zunz (''Literaturgeschichte der Synagogalen Poesie,'' p. 498), mentions a ''ḳinah'' composed by Abba Mari.\n\nThe ''Minḥat Ḳenaot'' is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the Church of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect. At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, Solomon of Perpignan, and Don Bonet Crescas of Lunel.\n",
"\n*Geiger, ''Zeit. für Jüdische Theologie,'' v. 82\n*Leopold Zunz, ''Z. G.'' p. 477\n*Ernest Renan, ''Les Rabbins Français,'' pp. 647–695\n*Henri Gross, ''Gallia Judaica,'' pp. 286, 331, 466\n*''idem'', in ''Rev. Ét. Juives,'' 1882, pp. 192–207\n*Joseph Perles, ''Salomo ben Abraham ben Adereth und seine Schriften,'' pp. 15–54\n*Heinrich Grätz, ''Gesch. der Juden,'' iii. 27-50, Breslau, 1863.\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Defender of Law and Tradition",
"Opponent of Rationalism",
"His Works",
"Contents of the ''Minḥat Ḳenaot''",
"References"
] | Abba Mari |
[
"\n\n\n'''Abbas II Hilmi''' '''Bey''' (also known as '''‘Abbās Ḥilmī Pasha''') () (14 July 1874 – 19 December 1944) was the last Khedive (Ottoman viceroy) of Egypt and Sudan, ruling from 8 January 1892 to 19 December 1914. In 1914, after Turkey joined the Central Powers in World War I, the nationalist Khedive was removed by the British, then ruling Egypt, in favor of his more pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel, marking the ''de jure'' end of Egypt's four-century era as a province of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun in 1517.\n",
"Abbas II (full name: Malik Muhammad Abbas Hilmi Sheikh Abdul Hamid Amir Ghulam Ali Mirza Khan Pasha), the great-great-grandson of Muhammad Ali, was born in Alexandria, Egypt on 14 July 1874. He succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as Khedive of Egypt and Sudan on 8 January 1892. In 1887 he was ceremonially circumcised together with his younger brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. The festivities lasted for three weeks and were carried out under great pomp. As a boy he visited the United Kingdom, and he had a number of British tutors in Cairo including a governess who taught him English. In a profile of Abbas II, the boys' annual, ''Chums'', gives a lengthy account of his education. His father established a small school near the Abdin Palace in Cairo where European, Arab and Turkish masters taught Abbas and his brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. An American officer in the Egyptian army took charge of his military training. He attended school at Lausanne, Switzerland; then, at the age of twelve he was sent to the Haxius School in Geneva, in preparation for his entry into the Theresianum in Vienna. In addition to Turkish, he had good conversational knowledge of English, French and German.\n",
"He was still in college in Vienna when he assumed the throne of the Khedivate of Egypt upon the sudden death of his father, 8 January 1892. He was barely of age according to Egyptian law; normally, eighteen in cases of succession to the throne. For some time he did not cooperate very cordially with the British, whose army had occupied Egypt in 1882. As he was young and eager to exercise his new power, he resented the interference of the British Agent and Consul General in Cairo, Sir Evelyn Baring, later made Lord Cromer. At the outset of his reign, Khedive Abbas II surrounded himself with a coterie of European advisers who opposed the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan and encouraged the young khedive to challenge Cromer by replacing his ailing prime minister with an Egyptian nationalist. At Cromer's behest, Lord Rosebery, the British foreign secretary, sent Abbas II a letter stating that the Khedive was obliged to consult the British consul on such issues as cabinet appointments. In January 1894 Abbas II, while on an inspection tour of Egyptian army installations near the southern border, the Mahdists being at the time still in control of Sudan, made public remarks disparaging the Egyptian army units commanded by British officers. The British commander of the Egyptian army, Sir Herbert Kitchener, immediately offered to resign. Cromer strongly supported Kitchener and pressed the Khedive and prime minister to retract the Khedive's criticisms of the British officers.\n\nBy 1899 he had come to accept British counsels. Also in 1899 British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt, and in 1900 Abbas II paid a second visit to Britain, during which he said he thought the British had done good work in Egypt, and declared himself ready to cooperate with the British officials administering Egypt and Sudan. He gave his formal approval for the establishment of a sound system of justice for Egyptian nationals, a great reduction in taxation, increased affordable and sound education, the inauguration of the substantial irrigation works such as the Aswan Low Dam and the Assiut Barrage, and the reconquest of Sudan. He displayed more interest in agriculture than in statecraft. His farm of cattle and horses at Qubbah, near Cairo, was a model for agricultural science in Egypt, and he created a similar establishment at Muntazah, just east of downtown Alexandria. He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children. Muhammad Abdul Mun'im, the heir-apparent, was born on 20 February 1899. \n\nAlthough Abbas II no longer ''publicly'' opposed the British, he secretly created, supported, and sustained the Egyptian nationalist movement, which came to be led by Mustafa Kamil. He also funded the anti-British newspaper Al-Mu'ayyad. As Kamil's thrust was increasingly aimed at winning popular support for a National Party, Khedive Abbas publicly distanced himself from the Nationalists. Their demand for a constitutional government in 1906 was rebuffed by Abbas II, and the following year he formed the National Party, led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha, to counter the Ummah Party of the Egyptian moderates. However, in general, he had no real political power. When the Egyptian Army was sent to fight Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi in Sudan in 1896, he only found out about it because the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was in Egypt and told him after being informed of it by a British Army officer.\n\nHis relations with Cromer's successor, Sir Eldon Gorst, however, were excellent, and they co-operated in appointing the cabinets headed by Butrus Ghali in 1908 and Muhammad Sa'id in 1910 and in checking the power of the Nationalist Party. The appointment of Kitchener to succeed Gorst in 1912 displeased Abbas II, and relations between the Khedive and the British deteriorated. Kitchener, who exiled or imprisoned the leaders of the National party, often complained about \"that wicked little Khedive\" and wanted to depose him.\n\nOn 25 July 1914, at the onset of World War I, Abbas II was in Constantinople and was wounded in his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November 1914 when Great Britain declared war on Turkey, he was accused of deserting Egypt by not returning home forthwith. The British also believed that he was plotting against their rule, as he had attempted to appeal to Egyptians and Sudanese to support the Central Powers against the British, so when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the United Kingdom declared Egypt a Sultanate under British protection on 18 December 1914 and deposed Abbas II. During the war, Abbas II supported the Ottomans, including leading an attack on the Suez Canal. He was replaced by the British by his uncle Hussein Kamel from 1914 to 1917, with the title of sultan. Hussein Kamel issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas II of property in Egypt and Sudan and forbade contributions to him. These also barred Abbas from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts. This did not prevent his progeny, however, from exercising their rights. Abbas II finally accepted the new order on 12 May 1931 and formally abdicated. He retired to Switzerland, where he wrote ''The Anglo-Egyptian Settlement'' (1930) and died at Geneva on 19 December 1944, aged 70.\n",
"His first marriage in Cairo on 19 February 1895 was to Ikbal Hanem (Crimean Peninsula, Russian Empire, 22 October 1876Jerusalem, 10 February 1941), and they had six children - two sons and four daughters: \n* Princess Emine Hilmi (Montaza Palace, Alexandria, 12 February 18951954), unmarried and without issue\n* Princess Atiyetullah (Cairo, 9 June 18961971), married first Jalaluddin Pasha (Caucasus 1885Istanbul 1930), fourth son of Mehmed Ferid Pasha, married second Ahmad Shavkat Bey Bayur, second son of Kâmil Pasha. She had issue two sons by her first Husband.\n* Princess Fethiye (27 November 189730 November 1923), married Hami Bey, without issue.\n* Prince Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim, Heir Apparent and Regent of Egypt and Sudan (Montaza Palace, Alexandria, 20 February 1899Istanbul, 1 December 1979), married Fatma Neslişah (Nişantaşı Palace, Istanbul 4 February 1921Heliopolis Palace, Cairo 2 April 2012) in Cairo 26 September 1940, and had two children:\n**Prince Sultanzade Abbas Hilmi (born 1941), married and had one daughter and one son \n**Princess İkbal Hilmi Abdulmunim Hanımsultan (born 1944), unmarried and without issue \n* Princess Lutfiya Shavkat (Lütfiye Şevket) (Cairo, 29 September 19001975 Cairo), married Omar Muhtar Katırcıoğlu (Çamlıca, Turkey 1902Istanbul 15 July 1935), third son of Mahmud Muhtar Pasha and Princess Nimetullah Khanum Effendi, a daughter of Isma'il Pasha, on 5 May 1923 and had two daughters:\n** Emine Neşedil Katırcıoğlu (born 1927), widow who had three daughters\n** Zehra Kadriye Katırcıoğlu (Istanbul 12 March 1929Istanbul 15 May 2012), married Ahmet Cevat Tugay and had four sons and a daughter\n* Prince Muhammed Abdel Kader (4 February 1902Montreux, 21 April 1919)\n\nHis second marriage in Çubuklu, Turkey on 1 March 1910 was to Hungarian noblewoman Marianna Török de Szendrö, who took the name Zübeyde Cavidan Hanım (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S., 8 January 1874after 1951). They divorced in 1913 without issue.\n",
"\n\n\n+ Honours\n date !! Award !! Nation !! Ribbon\n\n 1890 \n Order of the Polar Star, Grand Cross \n Sweden \n 100px\n\n 1891 \n Order of Franz Joseph, Grand Cross \n Austria-Hungary \n 100px\n\n 1891 \n Order of St Michael and St George, Knight Grand Cross (Honorary) \n United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland \n 100px\n\n 1892 \n Order of the Bath, Knight Grand Cross (Honorary) \n United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland \n 100px\n\n 1892 \n Légion d'honneur, Grand-Croix \n France \n 100px\n\n 1892 \n Order of the Dannebrog, Grand Cross \n Denmark \n 100px\n\n 1892 \n Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross \n The Netherlands \n 100px\n\n 1895 \n Order of the Medjidie, 1st Class \n Ottoman Empire \n 100px\n\n 1895 \n Order of Osmanieh, 1st Class \n Ottoman Empire \n 100px\n\n 1897 \n Order of Leopold, Grand Cross \n Austria-Hungary \n 100px\n\n 1897 \n Order of Chula Chom Klao, Knight Grand Cordon \n Kingdom of Siam \n 100px\n\n 1900 \n Royal Victorian Order, Knight Grand Cross (honorary) \n United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland \n 100px\n\n 1902 \n Order of St. Alexander Nevsky \n Russian Empire \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n Royal Victorian Chain \n United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n Order of Charles III, Grand Cross \n Kingdom of Spain \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis, Grand Cross \n Grand Duchy of Oldenburg \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n Saxe-Ernestine House Order, Grand Cross \n Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n Order of Albert, Grand Cross \n Saxony \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n Order of the Redeemer, Grand Cross \n Greece \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n Order of Prince Danilo I, Knight Grand Cross \n Montenegro \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n Order of Carol I, Grand Cross \n Romania \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n Order of Pius IX, Knight Grand Cross \n Vatican \n 100px\n\n 1905 \n Order of Saint Stephen, Grand Cross \n Austria-Hungary \n 100px\n\n 1908 \n Order of Saint Stanislaus (Imperial House of Romanov), Knight \n Russia \n 65px\n\n 1908 \n Order of the Royal House of Chakri, Knight \n Kingdom of Siam \n 100px\n\n 1911 \n Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, Knight Grand Cross \n Italy \n 100px\n\n 1911 \n Order of Ludwig, Grand Cross \n Grand Duchy of Hesse \n 100px\n\n 1911 \n Order of Leopold, Grand Cordon \n Belgium \n 100px\n\n 1911 \n Order of the Star, Grand Cross \n Ethiopia \n\n\n 1913 \n Order of Ouissam Alaouite, Grand Cross \n Morocco \n 100px\n\n 1914 \n Order of the Black Eagle, Grand Cross \n Albania \nFile:ALB_Order_of_the_Black_Eagle_BAR.png\n\n 1914 \n Order of the Red Eagle, Grand Cross with Collar \n Prussia \n 100px\n\n 1914 \n Order of the Exalted, Grand Cordon \n Sultanate of Zanzibar \n \n\n",
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"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n\n* Al-Ahram on Abbas in exile\n* Mehmet Ali genealogy\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Reign",
"Marriages and issue",
"Honours",
"Ancestry",
"Notes",
"Footnotes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Abbas II of Egypt |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''George Abbot''' (19 October 15625 August 1633) was an English divine who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633. He also served as the fourth Chancellor of Trinity College, Dublin, from 1612 to 1633.\n\nThe Chambers Biographical Dictionary describes him as \"a sincere but narrow-minded Calvinist\". Among his five brothers, Robert became Bishop of Salisbury and Maurice became Lord Mayor of London. He was a translator of the King James Version.\n",
"\n===Early years===\nBorn at Guildford in Surrey, where his father Maurice Abbot (died 1606) was a cloth-worker, he was taught at the Royal Grammar School, Guildford. According to an eighteenth century biographical dictionary, when Abbot's mother was pregnant with him she had a dream in which she was told that if she ate a pike her child would be a son and rise to great prominence. Some time afterwards she accidentally caught a pike while fetching water from the River Wey and it \"being reported to some gentlemen in the neighbourhood, they offered to stand sponsors for the child, and afterwards shewed him many marks of favour.\" He later studied, and then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen Master of University College in 1597, and appointed Dean of Winchester in 1600. He was three times Vice-Chancellor of the University, and took a leading part in preparing the authorised version of the New Testament. In 1608, he went to Scotland with George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of England and Scotland. He so pleased King James in this affair that he was made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609 and was translated to the see of London a month afterwards.\n\nAbbot's Hospital in Guildford\n\n===Archbishop of Canterbury===\nOn 4 March 1611, Abbot was raised to the position of Canterbury. As archbishop, he defended the apostolic succession of the Anglican archbishops and bishops and the validity of the Church's priesthood in 1614. In consequence of the Nag's Head Fable, the archbishop invited certain Roman Catholics to inspect the register in the presence of six of his own episcopal colleagues, the details of which inspection were preserved. It was agreed by all parties that:\n\n\n\"The register agrees in every particular with what we know of the history of the times, and there exists not the semblance of a reason for pronouncing it a forgery.\"\n\nIn spite of his defence of the catholic nature of the priesthood, his Puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics, but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, such as when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against the Earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the Declaration of Sports listing the permitted Sunday recreations.\nHe was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the king's daughter, Princess Elizabeth, and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the new Prince of Wales (later Charles I) and the Spanish Infanta, Maria Anna. This policy brought upon the archbishop the hatred of William Laud (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the king's court, although the King himself never forsook Abbot.\n\nIn July 1621, while hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill in Hampshire, a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melancholia.\nHis enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting which had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge.\nThe King had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that \"an angel might have miscarried after this sort.\"\nThe commission was equally divided, and the King gave a casting vote in the Archbishop's favour, though signing also a formal pardon or dispensation. Gustavus Paine notes that Abbot was both the \"only translator of the 1611 Bible and the only Archbishop of Canterbury ever to kill a human being.\"\n\nThe tomb of George Abbot in Holy Trinity Church, Guildford\n\nAfter this the Archbishop seldom appeared at the Council, chiefly on account of his infirmities. In 1625 he attended the King constantly, however, in his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation of King Charles I as king of England. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Dr Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on 22 February 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in commission. The need of summoning parliament, however, soon brought about a nominal restoration of the Archbishop's powers. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy.\nHe died at Croydon on 5 August 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of £300 a year.\n",
"Abbot statue at Guildford\n\nAbbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards both separatists and Roman Catholics. He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being his discursive ''Exposition on the Prophet Jonah'' (1600), which was reprinted in 1845. His ''Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World'' (1599), passed through numerous editions. The newest edition, edited by the current Master of the Abbot's Hospital, was published by Goldenford Publishers Ltd on 20 June 2011, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of his enthronement as Archbishop of Canterbury.\n\nGuildford remembers the Archbishop with his hospital, a statue in the High Street, a pub and also a secondary school (George Abbot School) named after him. His tomb can be seen in Holy Trinity Church.\n",
"* Maurice Abbot\n",
"\n\n===Bibliography===\n* Endnote: The best account of him is in S. R. Gardiner's ''History of England''.\n",
"*\n* Works by George Abbot at Early English Books Online\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Legacy",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | George Abbot (bishop) |
[
"\n\n'''Adware''', or '''advertising-supported software''', is any software package that automatically renders advertisements in order to generate revenue for its author. The advertisements may be in the user interface of the software or on a screen presented to the user during the installation process. The functions may be designed to analyze which Internet sites the user visits and to present advertising pertinent to the types of goods or services featured there. The term is sometimes used to refer to software that displays unwanted advertisements known as malware.\n",
"In legitimate software, the advertising functions are integrated into or bundled with the program. Adware is usually seen by the developer as a way to recover development costs, and in some cases, it may allow the software to be provided to the user free of charge or at a reduced price. The income derived from presenting advertisements to the user may allow or motivate the developer to continue to develop, maintain and upgrade the software product. The use of advertising-supported software in business is becoming increasingly popular, with a third of IT and business executives in a 2007 survey by McKinsey & Company planning to be using ad-funded software within the following two years. Advertisement-funded software is also one of the business models for open-source software.\n\n=== In application software ===\nSome software is offered in both an advertising-supported mode and a paid, advertisement-free mode. The latter is usually available by an online purchase of a license or registration code for the software that unlocks the mode, or the purchase and download of a separate version of the software.\n\nSome software authors offer advertising-supported versions of their software as an alternative option to business organizations seeking to avoid paying large sums for software licenses, funding the development of the software with higher fees for advertisers.\n\nExamples of advertising-supported software include Adblock Plus (\"Acceptable Ads\"), the Windows version of the Internet telephony application Skype, and the Amazon Kindle 3 family of e-book readers, which has versions called \"Kindle with Special Offers\" that display advertisements on the home page and in sleep mode in exchange for substantially lower pricing.\n\nIn 2012, Microsoft and its advertising division, Microsoft Advertising, announced that Windows 8, the major release of the Microsoft Windows operating system, would provide built-in methods for software authors to use advertising support as a business model. The idea had been considered since as early as 2005.\n\n=== In software as a service ===\nSupport by advertising is a popular business model of software as a service (SaaS) on the Web. Notable examples include the email service Gmail and other Google Apps (now G Suite) products, and the social network Facebook. Microsoft has also adopted the advertising-supported model for many of its social software SaaS offerings. The Microsoft Office Live service was also available in an advertising-supported mode.\n\nIn the view of Federal Trade Commission staff, there appears to be general agreement that software should be considered \"spyware\" only if it is downloaded or installed on a computer without the user's knowledge and consent. However, unresolved issues remain concerning how, what, and when consumers need to be told about software installed on their computers for consent to be adequate. For instance, distributors often disclose in an end-user license agreement that there is additional software bundled with primary software, but some panelists and commenters did not view such disclosure as sufficient to infer consent to the installation of the bundled software.\n",
"The term ''adware'' is frequently used to describe a form of malware (malicious software) which presents unwanted advertisements to the user of a computer. The advertisements produced by adware are sometimes in the form of a pop-up or sometimes in an \"unclosable window\".\n\nWhen the term is used in this way, the severity of its implication varies. While some sources rate adware only as an \"irritant\", others classify it as an \"online threat\" or even rate it as seriously as computer viruses and trojans. The precise definition of the term in this context also varies. Adware that observes the computer user's activities without their consent and reports it to the software's author is called spyware. However most adware operates legally and some adware manufacturers have even sued antivirus companies for blocking adware.\n\nPrograms that have been developed to detect, quarantine, and remove advertisement-displaying malware, including Ad-Aware, Malwarebytes' Anti-Malware, Spyware Doctor and Spybot – Search & Destroy. In addition, almost all commercial antivirus software currently detect adware and spyware, or offer a separate detection module.\n\nA new wrinkle is adware (using stolen certificates) that disables anti-malware and virus protection; technical remedies are available.\n\nAdware has also been discovered in certain low-cost Android devices, particularly those made by small Chinese firms running on Allwinner systems-on-chip. There are even cases where adware code is embedded deep into files stored on the system and boot partitions, to which removal involves extensive (and complex) modifications to the firmware.\n",
"* Malvertising\n* Typhoid adware\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Advertising-supported software ",
" As malware ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References "
] | Adware |
[
"\n\n''Aeacus and Telamon'' by Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune.'''Aeacus''' (; also spelled '''Eacus'''; Ancient Greek: Αἰακός) was a mythological king of the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf.\n",
"Aeacus was the son of Zeus and Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus. According to some accounts, Aeacus was a son of Zeus and Europa. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of Achilles and Telemonian Ajax.\n",
"''Myrmidons; People from ants for King Aeacus,'' engraving by Virgil Solis for Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'' Book VII, 622-642. \n\n=== Birth and early days ===\nAeacus was born on the island of Oenone or Oenopia, where Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents; afterward, this island became known as Aegina. Some traditions related that, at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus either changed the ants () of the island into the men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or he made the men grow up out of the earth. Ovid, on the other hand, supposed that the island was not uninhabited at the time of the birth of Aeacus, instead stating that during the reign of Aeacus, Hera, jealous of Aegina, ravaged the island bearing the name of the latter by sending a plague or a fearful dragon into it, by which nearly all its inhabitants were carried off. Afterward, Zeus restored the population by changing the ants into men.These legends seem to be a mythical account of the colonization of Aegina, which seems to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians, and afterwards received colonists from Phthiotis, the seat of the Myrmidons, and from Phlius on the Asopus. While he reigned in Aegina, Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his justice and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle disputes not only among men, but even among the gods themselves. He was such a favourite with the latter, that when Greece was visited by a drought as a consequence of a murder that had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods to end it. Aeacus prayed, and as a result, the drought ceased. Aeacus then demonstrated his gratitude by erecting a temple to ''Zeus Panhellenius'' on Mount Panhellenion, and afterward, the Aeginetans built a sanctuary on their island called Aeaceum, which was a square temple enclosed by walls of white marble. Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar of this sacred enclosure.\n\n=== Later adventures ===\nA legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy. When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Thereafter, Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus's descendants, the Aeacidae.\n\nAeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliffs in order to protect it against pirates. Several other incidents connected to the story of Aeacus are mentioned by Ovid. By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon (father of Ajax and Teucer) and Peleus (father of Achilles), and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the former two sons, both of whom conspired to kill Phocus during a contest, and then subsequently fled from their native island.\n''Minos, Aeacus and Rhadamanthys'' by Ludwig Mack, Bildhauer\n\n=== In the Afterlife ===\nAfter his death, Aeacus became one of the three judges in Hades (along with the Cretan brothers Rhadamanthus and Minos) and, according to Plato, was specifically concerned with the shades of Europeans upon their arrival to the underworld. In works of art he was depicted bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades. Aeacus had sanctuaries in both Athens and in Aegina, and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island by celebrating the Aeacea in his honor.\n\nIn ''The Frogs'' (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and proclaims himself to be Heracles. Aeacus, lamenting the fact that Heracles had stolen Cerberus, sentences Dionysus to Acheron to be tormented by the hounds of Cocytus, the Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons.\n\nAlexander the Great traced his ancestry (through his mother) to Aeacus.\n",
"\n\n\n",
"*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Family ",
"Mythology",
"References",
"Sources"
] | Aeacus |
[
"\n\n'''Aeclanum''' (also spelled '''Aeculanum''', , ) was an ancient town of Samnium, southern Italy, c. 25 km east-southeast of Beneventum, on the Via Appia. It lies in Passo di Mirabella, near the modern Mirabella Eclano.\n",
"View of the town\nAeclanum was on a promontory naturally defended, to some extent, by a steep slope on the south side down to the river Calore, while the north side lay open towards the crest of the ridge that carried what under the Roman Empire became the Via Appia. This led through Lacus Ampsanctus to Aquilonia and Venusia. Another route to Apulia, the Via Aurelia Aeclanensis diverged here, leading through modern Ariano to Herdoniae. The road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (mod. Avellino) may also follow an ancient line. Today there are ruins of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphitheatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered. Excavation has revealed a long history of pre-Roman settlement.\n",
"Aeclanum became the chief town of the Hirpini, after Beneventum had become a Roman colony. Sulla captured it in 89 BC by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and sacked it. It quickly recovered, new fortifications were erected, and it became a ''municipium''. Hadrian, who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a ''colonia''. With the Lombard invasion of Italy it was annexed to the Duchy of Benevento, but was captured and destroyed by Byzantine Empire under Constans II in 663 and never recovered, being reduced to a small hamlet known as Quintodecimo, a name that referred to its distance of 15 miles from Benevento.\n",
"Aeclanum became a Christian episcopal see, whose best known bishop was Julian of Eclanum, who was consecrated by Pope Innocent I in about 417. He refused to sign the condemnation of Pelagianism issued by Pope Innocent's successor, Pope Zosimus, and carried on a war of writings against Augustine of Hippo. It has been thought that the diocese was united to that of Frequentium as early as the 5th century, but there is mention of Quintodecimo as a suffragan see of Benevento in 969 and 1058. From 1059 it was definitively united with Frequentium. No longer a residential bishopric, Aeclanum is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.\n",
"\nFile:Aeclanum (Ancient Roman Street).jpg|The central road\nFile:Aeclanum (Ruins-01).jpg|Remains of the houses (1)\nFile:Aeclanum (Ruins-02).jpg|Remains of the houses (2)\nFile:Aeclanum (Thermae-02).jpg|Side view of the ''thermae''\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* Aeclanum (Cultural Property of Campania website)\n* Aeclanum (Mirabella Eclano municipal website)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Location ",
" History ",
" Bishopric ",
"Gallery",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aeclanum |
[
"\n'''Aedesius''' (, died 355 AD) was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic born of a noble Cappadocian family.\n",
"Aedesius was born into a wealthy Cappadocian family, but he moved to Syria, where he was apprenticed to Iamblichos. He quickly became his best pupil and the two became friends. Aedesius' own philosophical doctrine, however, was somewhere between Platonism and eclecticism and, according to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic.\n\nAfter the death of his master the school of Syria was dispersed, and Aedesius seems to have modified his doctrines out of fear of Constantine, and took refuge in divination. An oracle in hexameter verse represented a pastoral life as his only retreat, but his disciples, perhaps calming his fears by a metaphorical interpretation, compelled him to resume his instructions.\n",
"Aedesius founded a school of philosophy at Pergamon, which emphasized theurgy and the revival of polytheism, and where he numbered among his pupils Eusebius of Myndus, Maximus of Ephesus, and the emperor Julian. After the accession of the latter to the imperial purple he invited Aedesius to continue his instructions, but the declining strength of the sage being unequal to the task, two of his most learned disciples, Chrysanthius and the aforementioned Eusebius, were by his own desire appointed to supply his place.\n\nNone of his writings have survived, but there is an extant biography by Eunapius, a Greek sophist and historian of the 4th century who wrote a collection of biographies titled ''Lives of the Sophists''.\n",
"\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Career",
" School of philosophy at Pergamon ",
"References"
] | Aedesius |
[
"Front of Celsus Library with aediculae in Ephesus.\nChristian religious tradition, the body of Jesus was buried.\nGothic facade of Exeter Cathedral, with rows of figures in aedicular or tabernacle frames above the door, and two above the crenellations\n\nIn ancient Roman religion, an '''''aedicula''''' (plural '''''aediculae''''') is a small shrine. The word ''aedicula'' is the diminutive of the Latin ''aedes'', a temple building.\n\nMany aediculae were household shrines that held small altars or statues of the Lares and Penates. The Lares were Roman deities protecting the house and the family household gods. The Penates were originally patron gods (really genii) of the storeroom, later becoming household gods guarding the entire house.\n\nOther aediculae were small shrines within larger temples, usually set on a base, surmounted by a pediment and surrounded by columns. In Roman architecture the aedicula has this representative function in the society. They are installed in public buildings like the Triumphal arch, City gate, or Thermes. The Celsus Library in Ephesus (2. c. AD) is a good example. From the 4th century Christianization of the Roman Empire onwards such shrines, or the framework enclosing them, are often called by the Biblical term tabernacle, which becomes extended to any elaborated framework for a niche, window or picture.\n",
"As in Classical architecture, in Gothic architecture, too, an aedicule or tabernacle frame is a structural framing device that gives importance to its contents, whether an inscribed plaque, a cult object, a bust or the like, by assuming the tectonic vocabulary of a little building that sets it apart from the wall against which it is placed. A tabernacle frame on a wall serves similar hieratic functions as a free-standing, three-dimensional architectural baldaquin or a ciborium over an altar.\n\nIn Late Gothic settings, altarpieces and devotional images were customarily crowned with gables and canopies supported by clustered-column piers, echoing in small the architecture of Gothic churches. Painted ædicules frame figures from sacred history in initial letters of illuminated manuscripts.\n",
"Two \"tabernacle windows\" in the Palazzo Medici Riccardi in Florence. These are of the type known as \"inginocchiata\", \"kneeling\" on two brackets. \nClassicizing architectonic structure and decor ''all'antica'', in the \"ancient Roman mode\", became a fashionable way to frame a painted or bas-relief portrait, or protect an expensive and precious mirror during the High Renaissance; Italian precedents were imitated in France, then in Spain, England and Germany during the later 16th century.\n",
"Aedicular door surrounds that are architecturally treated, with pilasters or columns flanking the doorway and an entablature even with a pediment over it came into use with the 16th century. In the neo-Palladian revival in Britain, architectonic aedicular or tabernacle frames, carved and gilded. are favourite schemes for English Palladian mirror frames of the late 1720s through the 1740s, by such designers as William Kent.\n",
"Similar small shrines, called ''naiskoi'', are found in Greek religion, but their use was strictly religious.\n\nAediculae exist today in Roman cemeteries as a part of funeral architecture.\n\nPresently the most famous aedicule is situated inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in city of Jerusalem.\n\nContemporary American architect Charles Moore uses the concept of aediculae in his work to create spaces within spaces and to evoke the spiritual significance of the home.\n",
"*Pilaster\n*Portico\n",
"\n",
"*Adkins, Lesley & Adkins, Roy A. (1996). ''Dictionary of Roman Religion''. Facts on File, inc. .\n",
"\n* Conservation glossary\n\n´\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Gothic aediculae",
"Renaissance aediculae",
"Post-Renaissance classicism",
"Other aedicula",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aedicula |
[
"\nA map of Gaul in the 1st century BC, showing the location of the Aedui tribe.\n\nThe '''Aedui''', '''Haedui''', or '''Hedui''' () were a Gallic people of Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the Arar (Saône) and Liger (Loire), in today's France. Their territory thus included the greater part of the modern departments of Saône-et-Loire, Côte-d'Or and Nièvre.\n",
"The country of the Aedui is defined by reports of them in ancient writings. The upper Loire formed their western border, separating them from the Bituriges. The Saône formed their eastern border, separating them from the Sequani. The Sequani did not reside in the region of the confluence of the Doubs into the Saône and of the latter into the Rhône, as Caesar says that the Helvetii, following the pass between the Jura Mountains and the Rhône southwards, which belonged to the Sequani, plundered the territory of the Aedui. These circumstances explain an apparent contradiction in Strabo, who in one sentence says that the Aedui lived between the Saône and the Doubs, and in the next, that the Sequani lived across the Saône (eastward). Both statements are true, the first in the south, and the second to the north.\n",
"Denarius of the Aedui, 1st century BCE, 1940mg. Hotel de la Monnaie.\n\nOutside of the Roman province and prior to Roman rule, Independent Gaul was occupied by self-governing tribes divided into cantons, and each canton was further divided into communes. The Aedui, like other powerful tribes in the region (the Arverni, the Sequani, and the Helvetii), had replaced their monarchy with a council of magistrates called grand-judges. The grand-judges were under the authority of the senate. The senate was made up of the descendants of ancient royal families. Free men in the tribes were vassals to the heads of these families in exchange for military, financial and political interests. \n\nAccording to Livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century BC.\n\nBefore Julius Caesar's time, they had attached themselves to the Romans and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people.\n\nWhen the Sequani, their hereditary rivals, with the assistance of a Germanic chieftain named Ariovistus, defeated and massacred the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga, the Aedui sent Diviciacus, the druid, to Rome to appeal to the senate for help, but his mission was unsuccessful.\n\nOn his arrival in Gaul (58 BC), Caesar restored their independence. In spite of this, the Aedui joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (''B. G.'' vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, were glad to return to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled their native capital Bibracte on Mont Beuvray and substituted a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern Autun).\n\nIn 21, during the reign of Tiberius, they revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but they were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus ''Ann.'' iii. 43-46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of ''jus honorum'', thus being the first Gauls permitted to become senators.\n\nThe oration of Eumenius, in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, shows that the district was neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobretus (according to Mommsen, \"judgment-worker\"), who was elected annually, possessed powers of life and death but was forbidden to go beyond the frontier. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui.\n\nIt is possible that the Aedui adopted many of the governmental practices of the Romans, such as electing magistrates and other officials or perhaps it was a natural development in their political system. It is thought that other Celtic tribes, such as the Remi and the Baiocasses, also elected their leaders.\n",
"* List of peoples of Gaul\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n*A. E. Desjardins, ''Geographie de la Gaule'', ii. (1876–1893)\n*T. Rice Holmes, ''Caesar's Conquest of Gaul'' (1899).\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"History",
"See also",
"Notes",
"Bibliography"
] | Aedui |
[
"\nA map showing the Aegadian Islands\nCala Rossa, Favignana\n\nThe '''Aegadian Islands ''' (; Sicilian: ''Ìsuli Ègadi'', , , meaning \"the islands of goats\") are a group of five small mountainous islands in the Mediterranean Sea off the northwest coast of Sicily, Italy, near the cities of Trapani and Marsala, with a total area of .\n\nThe Island of Favignana (''Aegusa''), the largest, lies southwest of Trapani; Levanzo (''Phorbantia'') lies west; and Marettimo, the ancient ''Iera Nesos'', west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. There are also two minor islands, Formica and Maraone, lying between Levanzo and Sicily. For administrative purposes the archipelago constitutes the comune of Favignana in the Province of Trapani.\n\nThe overall population in 1987 was estimated at about 5,000. Winter frost is unknown and rainfall is low. The main occupation of the islanders is fishing, and the largest tuna fishery in Sicily is here.\n\nCala azzurra, Favignana\nA view from Erice to Favignana and Levanzo. On the horizon Marettimo is faintly visible.\n",
"There is evidence of Neolithic and even Paleolithic paintings in caves on Levanzo, and to a lesser extent on Favignana.\n\nThe islands were the scene of the Battle of the Aegates Islands of 241 BC, in which the Carthaginian fleet was defeated by the Roman fleet led by C. Lutatius Catulus; the engagement ended the First Punic War. After the end of Western Roman power in the first millennium AD, the islands, to the extent that they were governed at all, were part of territories of Goths, Vandals, Saracens, before the Normans fortified Favignana in 1081.\n\nThe islands belonged to the Pallavicini-Rusconi family of Genoa until 1874, when the Florio family of Palermo bought them.\n\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aegadian Islands |
[
"\n'''Aegean civilization''' is a general term for the European Bronze Age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea. There are three distinct but communicating and interacting geographic regions covered by this term: Crete, the Cyclades and the Greek mainland. Crete is associated with the Minoan civilization from the Early Bronze Age. The Cyclades converge with the mainland during the Early Helladic (\"Minyan\") period and with Crete in the Middle Minoan period. From ca. 1450 BC (Late Helladic, Late Minoan), the Greek Mycenaean civilization spreads to Crete.\n",
"\n===Mainland===\n\n* Early Helladic (EH): 3200/3100–2050/2001 BC\n* Middle Helladic (MH): 2000/1900–1550 BC\n* Late Helladic (LH): 1550–1050 BC\n\n===Crete===\n\n*Early Minoan (EM): 3650–2160 BC\n*Middle Minoan (MM): 2160–1600 BC\n*Late Minoan (LM): 1600–1170 BC\n\n===Cyclades===\n\n*Early Cycladic (EC): 3300–2000 BC\n*Kastri (EH II–EH III): ca. 2500–2100 BC\n*Convergence with MM from ca. 2000 BC\n",
"Commerce was practiced to some extent in very early times, as is proved by the distribution of Melian obsidian over all the Aegean area. We find Cretan vessels exported to Melos, Egypt and the Greek mainland. Melian vases came in their turn to Crete. After 1600 BC there is very close commerce with Egypt, and Aegean things find their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean. No traces of currency have come to light, unless certain axeheads, too slight for practical use, had that character. Standard weights have been found, as well as representations of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet proved (by being found outside the area) to be epistolary (letter writing) correspondence with other countries. Representations of ships are not common, but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings, frying pans and vases. They are vessels of low free-board, with masts and oars. Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine motifs in decoration. The most detailed illustrations are to be found on the 'ship fresco' at Akrotiri on the island of Thera (Santorini) preserved by the ash fall from the volcanic eruption which destroyed the town there.\n\nDiscoveries, later in the 20th century, of sunken trading vessels such as those at Uluburun and Cape Gelidonya off the south coast of Turkey have brought forth an enormous amount of new information about that culture.\n",
"For details of monumental evidence the articles on Crete, Mycenae, Tiryns, Troad, Cyprus, etc., must be consulted. The most representative site explored up to now is Knossos (see Crete) which has yielded not only the most various but the most continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight of classical civilization. Next in importance come Hissarlik, Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palaikastro and Gournia.\n\n===Internal evidence===\n*'''Structures'''; Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean islands, Greek mainland and northwestern Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and frescoes. From the sources and from inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses.\n*'''Structural decoration'''; Architectural features, such as columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration, such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay. Roof tiles were also occasionally employed, as at early Helladic Lerna and Akovitika, and later in the Mycenaean towns of Gla and Midea.\n*'''Furniture'''; (a) Domestic furniture, such as vessels of all sorts and in many materials, from huge store jars down to tiny unguent pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables, etc., these all in stone or plastered terracotta. (b) Sacred furniture, such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these we have also numerous pictorial representations. (c) Funerary furniture, for example, coffins in painted terracotta.\n*'''Art products'''; for example, plastic objects, carved in stone or ivory, cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or modelled in clay, faience, paste, etc. Very little trace has yet been found of large free-standing sculpture, but many examples exist of sculptors' smaller work. Vases of all kinds, carved in marble or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay, the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decoration. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent. Engraved objects in great number for example, ring-bezels and gems; and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.\n*'''Weapons, tools and implements'''; In stone, clay and bronze, and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid. Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae or the full length body armour from Dendra.\n*'''Articles of personal use'''; for example, brooches (fibulae), pins, razors, tweezers, etc., often found as dedications to a deity, for example, in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived other than impressions in clay.\n*'''Written documents'''; for example, clay tablets and discs (so far in Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, papyrus, etc.; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on stone or pottery. These show a number of systems of script employing either ideograms or syllabograms (see Linear B).\n*'''Excavated tombs'''; Of either the pit, chamber or the tholos kind, in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings.\n*'''Public works'''; Such as paved and stepped roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, etc.\n\n===External evidence===\n*'''Monuments and records of other contemporary civilizations'''; for example, representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or Babylonian records.\n*'''Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations'''; Especially the Hellenic; such as, for example, those embodied in the Homeric poems, the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, etc.; statements as to the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus Siculus, etc.\n*'''Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, etc.'''; In the Aegean area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which they were practiced and indicating survival from earlier systems. There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to be considered.\nMycenae and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the ancient Greeks.\n",
"The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel, its gate with heraldic lions, and the great \"Treasury of Atreus\" had borne silent witness for ages before Heinrich Schliemann's time; but they were supposed only to speak to the Homeric, or, at farthest, a rude Heroic beginning of purely Hellenic civilization. It was not until Schliemann exposed the contents of the graves which lay just inside the gate, that scholars recognized the advanced stage of art which prehistoric dwellers in the Mycenaean citadel had attained.\n\nThere had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before 1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually made. Although it was recognized that certain tributaries, represented for example, in the XVIIIth Dynasty tomb of Rekhmara at Egyptian Thebes as bearing vases of peculiar forms, were of some Mediterranean race, neither their precise habitat nor the degree of their civilization could be determined while so few actual prehistoric remains were known in the Mediterranean lands. Nor did the Aegean objects which were lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken seriously. Aegean vases have been exhibited both at Sèvres and Neuchatel since about 1840, the provenance (i.e. source or origin) being in the one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia.\n\nLudwig Ross, the German archaeologist appointed Curator of the Antiquities of Athens at the time of the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as Inselsteine; but it was not until 1878 that C. T. Newton demonstrated these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866 primitive structures were discovered on the island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana, a siliceous volcanic ash, for the Suez Canal works. When this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neighbouring Santorini (Thera), by representatives of the French School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immediately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone and metal objects, were found. These were dated by the geologist Ferdinand A. Fouqué, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 BC, by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum.\n\nMeanwhile, in 1868, tombs at Ialysus in Rhodes had yielded to Alfred Biliotti many fine painted vases of styles which were called later the third and fourth \"Mycenaean\"; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than they deserved, being supposed to be of some local Asiatic fabric of uncertain date. Nor was a connection immediately detected between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut \"bee-hive\" grave near the Argive Heraeum.\n\nEven Schliemann's first excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad did not excite surprise. But the \"Burnt City\" of his second stratum, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and vases, and a hoard of gold, silver and bronze objects, which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse a curiosity which was destined presently to spread far outside the narrow circle of scholars. As soon as Schliemann came on the Mycenae graves three years later, light poured from all sides on the prehistoric period of Greece. It was recognized that the character of both the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not that of any well-known art. A wide range in space was proved by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. A relationship between objects of art described by Homer and the Mycenaean treasure was generally allowed, and a correct opinion prevailed that, while certainly posterior, the civilization of the Iliad was reminiscent of the Mycenaean.\n\nSchliemann got to work again at Hissarlik in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his \"Lydian\" city of the sixth stratum. These were not to be fully revealed until Dr. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who had become Schliemann's assistant in 1879, resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after the first explorer's death. But by laying bare in 1884 the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns, Schliemann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified two years later by Christos Tsountas's discovery of the palace at Mycenae. Schliemann's work at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed.\n\nFrom 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the continuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at Athens. In that year tholos-tombs, most already pillaged but retaining some of their furniture, were excavated at Arkina and Eleusis in Attica, at Dimini near Volos in Thessaly, at Kampos on the west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889, and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which remained an enigma until the excavation of Knossos.\n\nIn 1890 and 1893, Staes cleared out certain less rich tholos-tombs at Thoricus in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut \"bee-hives\" or chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina and Salamis, at the Argive Heraeum and Nauplia in the Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian Larissa. During the Acropolis excavations in Athens, which terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean (in dating). The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean periods.\n\nPrehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean islands, Antiparos, Ios, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found to be singularly rich in evidence of the Middle-Aegean period. The series of Syran-built graves, containing crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the Aegean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects but not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic.\n\nA map of Cyprus in the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than 25 settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, like that of Hissariik, in central Phtygia and at Pteria, and the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyndncus, Sangarius and Halys.\n\nIn Egypt in 1887, Flinders Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889. There have now been recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriot pottery have been found during recent excavations of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund.\n\nSicily, ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in 1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia has Aegean sites, for example, at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cadiz and from Saragossa.\n\nOne land, however, has eclipsed all others in the Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages— Crete; and so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as the fountainhead of Aegean civilization, and probably for long its political and social centre. The island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna (also called Gortyn). But the first undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in 1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the S. plain Messara by F. Halbherr. Unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus were made by both W. J. Stillman and H. Schliemann, and A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeeding years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not suspected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897–1898 opened the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, for which see Crete.\n\nThus the \"Aegean Area\" has now come to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic peninsula with the Ionian islands, and Western Anatolia. Evidence is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Offshoots are found in the western Mediterranean area, in Sicily, Italy, Sardinia and Spain, and in the eastern Mediterranean area in Syria and Egypt. Regarding the Cyrenaica, we are still insufficiently informed.\n",
"* History of discovery and distribution of the remains of Aegean civilization\n* Mycenaean Greece\n* Prehistory of Southeastern Europe\n",
"\n",
"\n* Jeremy B. Rutter, \"The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean\": chronology, history, bibliography\n* Aegean and Balkan Prehistory: Articles, site-reports and bibliography database concerning the Aegean, Balkans and Western Anatolia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Periodization",
"Commerce",
"Evidence",
"Discovery",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aegean civilizations |
[
"\n''Theseus Recognized by his Father'' by Hippolyte Flandrin (1832)\nIn Greek mythology, '''Aegeus''' () or '''Aegeas''' (), was an archaic figure in the founding myth of Athens. The \"goat-man\" who gave his name to the Aegean Sea was, next to Poseidon, the father of Theseus, the founder of Athenian institutions and one of the kings of Athens.\n",
"left\n\n===His reign===\nUpon the death of the king, Pandion II, Aegeus and his three brothers, Pallas, Nisos, and Lykos, took control of Athens from Metion, who had seized the throne from Pandion. They divided the government in four and Aegeus became king.\nAegeus' first wife was Meta, and his second wife was Chalciope. Still without a male heir, Aegeus asked the oracle at Delphi for advice. Her cryptic words were \"Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.\" Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed.''Thésée reconnu par son père'' by Antoine-Placide Gibert (1832)This puzzling oracle forced Aegeus to visit Pittheus, king of Troezen, who was famous for his wisdom and skill at expounding oracles. Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeus to his daughter, Aethra, when Aegeus was drunk. They lay with each other, and then in some versions, Aethra waded to the island of Sphairia (a.k.a. Calauria) and bedded Poseidon. When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, he buried his sandal, shield, and sword under a huge rock and told her that, when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons to his father, who would acknowledge him. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea, who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason. Aegeus and Medea had one son named Medus.\n\n===Conflict with Crete===\nWhile visiting in Athens, King Minos' son, Androgeus managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games. Out of envy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter.''Arrival or departure of a young warrior or hero, maybe Theseus arriving at Athens and being recognized because of his sword by Aegeus''. Apulian red-figured volute-krater, ca. 410–400 BC, from Ruvo (South Italy).|left\n\n===Theseus and the Minotaur===\n\nIn Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man. He managed to move the rock and took his father's weapons. His mother then told him the identity of his father and that he should take the weapons back to him at Athens and be acknowledged. Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way, or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land.\n\nWhen Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity. He was welcomed by Aegeus, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens. Medea tried to have Theseus killed by encouraging Aegeus to ask him to capture the Marathonian Bull, but Theseus succeeded. She tried to poison him, but at the last second, Aegeus recognized his son and knocked the poisoned cup out of Theseus' hand. Father and son were thus reunited, and Medea was sent away to Asia.\n\nTheseus departed for Crete. Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. However, when Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions. When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain, he killed himself by jumping from a height : according to some, from the Acropolis or another unnamed rock; according to some Latin authors, into the sea which was therefore known as the Aegean Sea.\n\nSophocles' tragedy ''Aegeus'' has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripides' ''Medea''.\n",
"At Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeus, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself.\n",
"*Catullus, LXIV.\n*Plutarch, ''Theseus''.\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* Theoi Project - Aegeus\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"The Myth",
"Legacy",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aegeus |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Aegina''' (; , ''Aígina'' , ) is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina the mother of the hero Aeacus, who was born on the island and became its king. During ancient times Aegina was a rival of Athens, the great sea power of the era.\n",
"\n===Municipality===\nThe municipality of Aegina consists of the island of Aegina and a few offshore islets. It is part of the Islands regional unit, Attica region. The municipality is subdivided into the following five communities (population in 2011 in parentheses ):\n* Aegina (7253)\n* Kypseli (2124)\n* Mesagros (1361)\n* Perdika (823)\n* Vathy (1495)\n\nThe capital is the town of Aegina, situated at the northwestern end of the island. Due to its proximity to Athens, it is a popular vacation place during the summer months, with quite a few Athenians owning second houses on the island.\n\n===Province===\nThe province of Aegina () was one of the provinces of the Piraeus Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Aegina and Agkistri. It was abolished in 2006.\n",
"Aegina is roughly triangular in shape, approximately from east to west and from north to south, with an area of .\n\nAn extinct volcano constitutes two thirds of Aegina. The northern and western sides consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds, olives and figs, but the most characteristic crop of Aegina today (2000s) is pistachio. Economically, the sponge fisheries are of notable importance. The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren. Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros (531 m) in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side.\n\nThe beaches are also a popular tourist attraction. Hydrofoil ferries from Piraeus take only forty minutes to reach Aegina; the regular ferry takes about an hour, with ticket prices for adults within the 4–15 euro range. There are regular bus services from Aegina town to destinations throughout the island such as Agia Marina. Portes is a fishing village on the east coast.\n\n",
"\n===Earliest history (20th–7th centuries BC)===\nAegina, according to Herodotus, was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject. Its placement between Attica and the Peloponnesus made it a site of trade even earlier, and its earliest inhabitants allegedly came from Asia Minor. Minoan ceramics have been found in contexts of ca. 2000 BC. The famous Aegina Treasure, now in the British Museum is estimated to date between 1700 and 1500 BC. The discovery on the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the last period of Mycenaean art suggests that Mycenaean culture existed in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon. It is probable that the island was not doricised before the 9th century BC.\n\nOne of the earliest historical facts is its membership in the Amphictyony or League of Calauria, attested around the 8th century BC. This ostensibly religious league included—besides Aegina—Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia, and Prasiae. It was probably an organisation of city-states that were still Mycenaean, for the purpose of suppressing piracy in the Aegean that began as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes.\n\nAegina seems to have belonged to the Eretrian league during the Lelantine War; this, perhaps, may explain the war with Samos, a major member of the rival Chalcidian league during the reign of King Amphicrates (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century BC.\n\n===Coinage and sea power (7th–5th centuries BC)===\n\n\nIts early history reveals that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon of Argos established a mint in Aegina, the first city-state to issue coins in Europe, the Aeginetic stater. One stamped stater (having the mark of some authority in the form of a picture or words) can be seen in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris. It is an electrum stater of a turtle, an animal sacred to Aphrodite, struck at Aegina that dates from 700 BC. Therefore, it is thought that the Aeginetes, within 30 or 40 years of the invention of coinage in Asia Minor by the Ionian Greeks or the Lydians (c. 630 BC), might have been the ones to introduce coinage to the Western world. The fact that the Aeginetic standard of weights and measures (developed during the mid-7th century) was one of the two standards in general use in the Greek world (the other being the Euboic-Attic) is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island. The Aeginetic weight standard of about 12.3 grams was widely adopted in the Greek world during the 7th century BC. The Aeginetic stater was divided into three drachmae of 4.1 grams of silver. Staters depicting a sea-turtle were struck up to the end of the 5th century BC. Following the end of the Peloponnesian War, 404 BC, it was replaced by the land tortoise.\n\nDuring the naval expansion of Aegina during the Archaic Period, Kydonia was an ideal maritime stop for Aegina's fleet on its way to other Mediterranean ports controlled by the emerging sea-power Aegina. During the next century Aegina was one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Naucratis in Egypt, and it was the only Greek state near Europe that had a share in this factory. At the beginning of the 5th century BC it seems to have been an entrepôt of the Pontic grain trade, which, at a later date, became an Athenian monopoly.\n\nUnlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, such as Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina did not found any colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement.\n\n===Rivalry with Athens (5th century BC)===\nThe known history of Aegina is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens, which began to compete with the thalassocracy (sea power) of Aegina about the beginning of the sixth century BC. Solon passed laws limiting Aeginetan commerce in Attica. The legendary history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79–89; vi. 49–51, 73, 85–94), involves critical problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces the hostility of the two states back to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetes had carried off from Epidauros, their parent state.\n\nThe Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal of the Aeginetes to continue these offerings, the Athenians endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was frustrated miraculously – according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees – and only a single survivor returned to Athens. There he became victim to the fury of his comrades' widows who pierced him with their brooch-pins. No date is assigned by Herodotus for this \"old feud\"; recent writers, e.g. J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan, suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, circa 570 BC. It is possible that the whole episode is mythical. A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological traditions (explanatory of cults and customs), e.g. of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to the Ionian style.\n\nColour depiction of the Temple of Aphaea, sacred to a mother goddess, particularly worshiped on Aegina.\nThe Temple of Aphaea.\n\nThe account which Herodotus gives of the hostilities between the two states during the early years of the 5th century BC is to the following effect. The Thebans, after the defeat by Athens about 507 BC, appealed to Aegina for assistance. The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subsequently, however, they contracted an alliance, and ravaged the seaboard of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of Hippias.\n\nIn 491 BC Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (\"earth and water\") to Achaemenid Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I, one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.\n\nAfter the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetes retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engagement followed in which the Aeginetes were defeated. Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet.\n\nAll the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are referred expressly by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 BC and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94).\n\nThere are difficulties with this story, of which the following are the principal elements:\n# Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 BC, nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Hence it would follow that the war lasted from soon after 507 BC until the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 BC\n# It is only for two years (BC 490 and 491) out of the twenty-five that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between the battles of Marathon and Salamis, since at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war was described as the most important one then being waged in Greece,\n# It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 499 BC if at the time it was at war with Aegina.\n# There is an incidental indication of time, which indicates the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens.\nThe ruins of the Temple of Apollo.\n\nAs the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 BC, the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 BC as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the beginning of hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes \"for the war against Aegina\" on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the ''Constitution of Athens'' as 483–482 BC. It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina (c. 507 BC) and in claiming the episode of Nicodromus occurred prior to the battle of Marathon.\n\nOvertures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 BC, but they came to nothing. The refusal of Aegina was in the diplomatic guise of \"sending the Aeacidae.\" The real occasion of the beginning of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481 BC. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary.\n\nIt may be noted, in confirmation of this opinion, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490–480.\n\n===Decline===\nIn the repulse of Xerxes I it is possible that the Aeginetes played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. Greek History, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the Philo-Laconian policy of Cimon secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC, resulted in what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, during which most of the fighting was experienced by Corinth and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 BC). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents.\n\nBy the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace (445 BC) Athens promised to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained ineffective. During the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC) Athens expelled the Aeginetans and established a cleruchy in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. A force commanded by Nicias landed in 424 BC, and killed most of them. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens during the Corinthian War. Its greatness, however, was at an end. The part which it plays henceforward is insignificant.\n\nIt would be a mistake to attribute the demise of Aegina solely to the development of the Athenian navy. It is probable that the power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which seems to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with Persia. Aegina's medism in 491 is to be explained by its commercial relations with the Persian Empire. It was forced into patriotism in spite of itself, and the glory won by the battle of Salamis was paid for by the loss of its trade and the decay of its marine. The completeness of the ruin of so powerful a state is explained by the economic conditions of the island, the prosperity of which was based on slave-labour. It is impossible, indeed, to accept Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of 470,000 as the number of the slave-population; it is clear, however, that the number must have been much greater than that of the free inhabitants. In this respect the history of Aegina does but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole.\n\nThe constitutional history of Aegina is unusually simple. So long as the island retained its independence the government was an oligarchy. There is no trace of heroic monarchy and no tradition of a ''tyrannis''. The story of Nicodromus, while it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, at the same time, that it could count upon little support.\n\n===Hellenistic period and Roman rule===\nAegina with the rest of Greece became dominated successively by the Macedonians (322-229 BC), the Achaeans (229-211 BC), Aetolians (211/10 BC), Attalus of Pergamum (210-133 BC) and the Romans (after 133 BC). A sign at the Archaeological Museum of Aegina is reported to say that a Jewish community is believed to have been established in Aegina \"at the end of the second and during the third century AD\" by Jews fleeing the barbarian invasions of the time in Greece. However, the first phases of those invasions began in the 4th century. Local Christian tradition has it that a Christian community was established there in the 1st century, having as its bishop Crispus, the ruler of the Corinthian synagogue, who became a Christian, and was baptised by Paul the Apostle. There are written records of participation by later bishops of Aegina, Gabriel and Thomas, in the Council of Constantinople (869) and the Council of Constantinople (879). The see was at first a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Corinth, but was later given the rank of archdiocese. No longer a residential bishopric, Aegina is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.\n\n===Byzantine period===\nChurch of Theotokos\nAegina belonged to the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire after the division of the Roman Empire in 395. It remained Eastern Roman during the period of crisis of the 7th–8th centuries, when most of the Balkans and the Greek mainland were overrun by Slavic invasions. Indeed, according to the ''Chronicle of Monemvasia'', the island served as a refuge for the Corinthians fleeing these incursions. The island flourished during the early 9th century, as evidenced by church construction activity, but suffered greatly from Arab raids originating from Crete. Various hagiographies record a large-scale raid ca. 830, that resulted in the flight of much of the population to the Greek mainland. During that time, some of the population sought refuge in the island's hinterland, establishing the settlement of Palaia Chora.\n\nAccording to the 12th-century bishop of Athens, Michael Choniates, by his time the island had become a base for pirates. This is corroborated by Benedict of Peterborough's graphic account of Greece, as it was in 1191; he states that many of the islands were uninhabited for fear of pirates and that Aegina, along with Salamis and Makronisos, were their strongholds.\n\n===Frankish rule after 1204===\n\nAfter the dissolution and partition of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Aegina was accorded to the Republic of Venice. In the event, it became controlled by the Duchy of Athens. The Catalan Company seized control of Athens, and with it Aegina, in 1317, and in 1425 the island became controlled by the Venetians, when Alioto Caopena, at that time ruler of Aegina, placed himself by treaty under the Republic's protection in order to escape the danger of a Turkish raid. The island must then have been fruitful, for one of the conditions by which Venice accorded him protection was that he should supply grain to Venetian colonies. He agreed to surrender the island to Venice if his family became extinct. Antonio II Acciaioli opposed the treaty for one of his adopted daughters had married the future lord of Aegina, Antonello Caopena.\n\n===Venetians in Aegina (1451–1537)===\nThe Venetian era Markellos tower\n\nIn 1451, Aegina became Venetian. The islanders welcomed Venetian rule; the claims of Antonello’s uncle Arnà, who had lands in Argolis, were satisfied by a pension. A Venetian governor (''rettore'') was appointed, who was dependent on the authorities of Nauplia. After Arnà's death, his son Alioto renewed his claim to the island but was told that the republic was resolved to keep it. He and his family were pensioned and one of them aided in the defence of Aegina against the Turks in 1537, was captured with his family, and died in a Turkish dungeon.\n\nIn 1463 the Turco-Venetian war began, which was destined to cost the Venetians Negroponte (Euboea), the island of Lemnos, most of the Cyclades islands, Scudra and their colonies in the Morea. Peace was concluded in 1479. Venice still retained Aegina, Lepanto (Naupactus), Nauplia, Monemvasia, Modon, Navarino, Coron, and the islands Crete, Mykonos and Tinos. Aegina remained subject to Nauplia.\n\n====Administration====\nAegina obtained money for its defences by reluctantly sacrificing its cherished relic, the head of St. George, which had been carried there from Livadia by the Catalans. In 1462, the Venetian Senate ordered the relic to be removed to St. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice and on 12 November, it was transported from Aegina by Vettore Cappello, the famous Venetian commander. In return, the Senate gave the Aeginetes 100 ducats apiece towards fortifying the island.\n\nIn 1519, the government was reformed. The system of having two rectors was found to result in frequent quarrels and the republic thenceforth sent out a single official styled Bailie and Captain, assisted by two councillors, who performed the duties of camerlengo by turns. The Bailie’s authority extended over the rector of Aegina, whereas Kastri (opposite the island Hydra) was granted to two families, the Palaiologoi and the Alberti.\n\nSociety at Nauplia was divided into three classes: nobles, citizens and plebeians, and it was customary for nobles alone to possess the much-coveted local offices, such as the judge of the inferior court and inspector of weights and measures. The populace now demanded its share and the home government ordered that at least one of the three inspectors should be a non-noble.\n\nAegina had always been exposed to the raids of corsairs and had oppressive governors during these last 30 years of Venetian rule. Venetian nobles were not willing to go to this island. In 1533, three rectors of Aegina were punished for their acts of injustice and there is a graphic account of the reception given by the Aeginetans to the captain of Nauplia, who came to command an enquiry into the administration of these delinquents (vid. inscription over the entrance of St. George the Catholic in Paliachora). The rectors had spurned their ancient right to elect an islander to keep one key of the money-chest. They had also threatened to leave the island en masse with the commissioner, unless the captain avenged their wrongs. To spare the economy of the community, it was ordered that appeals from the governor's decision should be made on Crete, instead of in Venice. The republic was to pay a bakshish to the Turkish governor of the Morea and to the voivode who was stationed at the frontier of Thermisi (opposite Hydra). The fortifications too, were allowed to become decrepit and were inadequately guarded.\n\n====16th century====\nAfter the end of the Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia, the only Latin possessions left on the mainland of Greece were the papal city of Monemvasia, the fortress of Vonitsa, the Messenian stations Coron and Modon, Lepanto, Pteleon, Navarino, and the castles of Argos and Nauplia, to which the island of Aegina was subordinate.\n\nIn 1502/03, the new peace treaty left Venice with nothing but Cephalonia, Monemvasia and Nauplia, with their appurtenances in the Morea. And against the sack of Megara, it had to endure the temporary capture of the castle of Aegina by Kemal Reis and the abduction of 2000 inhabitants. This treaty was renewed in 1513 and 1521. All supplies of grain from Nauplia and Monemvasia had to be imported from Turkish possessions, while corsairs rendered dangerous all traffic by sea.\n\nIn 1537, sultan Suleiman declared war upon Venice and his admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa devastated much of the Ionian Islands, and in October invaded the island of Aegina. On the fourth day Palaiochora was captured, but the Latin church of St George was spared. Hayreddin Barbarossa had the adult male population massacred and took away 6000 surviving women and children as slaves. Then Barbarossa sailed to Naxos, whence he carried off an immense booty, compelling the Duke of Naxos to purchase his further independence by paying a tribute of 5000 ducats.\n\nWith the peace of 1540, Venice ceded Nauplia and Monemvasia. For nearly 150 years afterwards, Venice ruled no part of the mainland of Greece except Parga and Butrinto (subordinate politically to the Ionian Islands), but it still retained its insular dominions Cyprus, Crete, Tenos and six Ionian islands.\n\n===First Ottoman period (1540–1687)===\nThe island was attacked and left desolate by Francesco Morosini during the Cretan War (1654).\n\n===Second Venetian period (1687–1715)===\nAegina in 1845, by Carl Rottmann.\n\nIn 1684, the beginning of the Morean War between Venice and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the temporary reconquest of a large part of the country by the Republic. In 1687 the Venetian army arrived in Piraeus and captured Attica. The number of the Athenians at that time exceeded 6000, the Albanians from the villages of Attica excluded, whilst in 1674 the population of Aegina did not seem to exceed 3000 inhabitants, ⅔ of which were women. The Aeginetans had been reduced to poverty to pay their taxes. The most significant plague epidemic began in Attica during 1688, an occasion that caused the massive migration of Athenians toward the south; most of them settled in Aegina. In 1693 Morosini resumed command, but his only acts were to refortify the castle of Aegina, which he had demolished during the Cretan war in 1655, the cost of upkeep being paid as long as the war lasted by the Athenians, and to place it and Salamis under Malipiero as Governor. This caused the Athenians to send him a request for the renewal of Venetian protection and an offer of an annual tribute. He died in 1694 and Zeno was appointed at his place.\n\nIn 1699, thanks to English mediation, the war ended with the peace of Karlowitz by which Venice retained possession of the 7 Ionian islands as well as Butrinto and Parga, the Morea, Spinalonga and Suda, Tenos, Santa Maura and Aegina and ceased to pay a tribute for Zante, but which restored Lepanto to the Ottoman sultan. Cerigo and Aegina were united administratively since the peace with Morea, which not only paid all the expenses of administration but furnished a substantial balance for the naval defence of Venice, in which it was directly interested.\n\n===Second Ottoman period (1715–1821)===\nDuring the early part of the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1714–1718 the Ottoman Fleet commanded by Canum Hoca captured Aegina. Ottomans rule in Aegina and the Morea was resumed and confirmed by the Treaty of Passarowitz, and they retained control of the island with the exception of a brief Russian occupation Orlov Revolt (early 1770s), until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.\n\n===Greek Revolution===\nDuring the Greek War of Independence, Aegina became an administrative center for the Greek revolutionary authorities. Ioannis Kapodistrias was briefly established here.\n",
"Panorama of Aegina's port.\nView of the port.\nSaint Nectarios of Aegina.\nTraditional street at the town\nAegina town centre.\nA bust of Kapodistrias\n\n* '''Temple of Aphaea''', dedicated to its namesake, a goddess who was later associated with Athena; the temple was part of a pre-Christian, equilateral holy triangle of temples including the Athenian Parthenon and the temple of Poseidon at Sounion.\n* '''Monastery of Agios Nectarios''', dedicated to Saint Nectarios, a recent saint of the Greek Orthodox Church.\n* '''Ioannis Kapodistrias''' (1776–1831), the first administrator of free modern Greece, had a large building constructed; intended as a barracks, it was used subsequently as a museum, a library and a school. The museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the collection was transferred to Athens in 1834. A statue in the principal square commemorates him.\n* '''Temple of Zeus Hellanios''', near the village of Pachia Rachi, is a 13th-century Byzantine church, built on the ruins of the ancient temple to Zeus Hellanios, built in the 4th century BC. The staircase leading up to the church, some of the original walls, and loose stones from the earlier temple remain.\n",
"\n===Mythology===\nIn Greek mythology, '''Aegina''' was a daughter of the river god Asopus and the nymph Metope. She bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by the god Zeus. When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to Oenone, an island close to Attica. Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; thenceforth, the island's name was Aegina.\n\nAegina was the gathering place of Myrmidons; in Aegina they gathered and trained. Zeus needed an elite army and at first thought that Aegina, which at the time did not have any villagers, was a good place.\nSo he changed some ants (, Myrmigia) into warriors who had 6 hands and wore black armour. Later, the Myrmidons, commanded by Achilles, were known as the most fearsome fighting unit in Greece.\n\n===Famous Aeginetans===\n* Aeacus, the first king of Aegina according to mythology, in whose honour the Aeacea were celebrated\n* Smilis (6th century BC), sculptor\n* Onatas (5th century BC), sculptor\n* Ptolichus (5th century BC), sculptor\n* Philiscus of Aegina (4th century BC), Cynic philosopher\n* Cosmas II Atticus (12th century), Patriarch of Constantinople\n* Paul of Aegina (7th century), medical scholar and physician\n* Saint Athanasia of Aegina (9th century), abbess and saint\n* Nectarios of Aegina (1846–1920), bishop and saint\n\nThe influential Leoussi family originated on the isle of Aigina; their ancestry can be traced as far back as the 15th century.\n",
"{| class=wikitable\n\n Year !! Town population !! Municipal/Island population\n\n 1981 \n 6,730 \n 11,127\n\n 1991 \n 6,373 \n 11,639\n\n 2001 \n 7,410 \n 13,552\n\n 2011 \n 7,253 \n 13,056\n\n",
"\n",
"* Welter Gabriel, ''Aigina'', Archäol. Inst. d. Deutschen Reiches, Berlin 1938.\n* \n* \n* Miller William, ''Essays on the Latin orient'', Rome 1921 (reprint: Amsterdam 1964).\n* Miller William, «Η Παληαχώρα της Αιγίνης. Ηρημωμένη ελληνική πόλις», Νέος Ελληνομνήμων Κ΄ (1926), p. 363–365.\n* Rubio y Lluch A., «Συμβολαί εις την ιστορίαν των Καταλωνίων εν Ελλάδι», Δελτίον της Ιστορικής και Εθνολογικής Εταιρείας της Ελλάδος Β΄(1883), p. 458–466.\n* Lambros Spyridon ed., ''Έγγραφα αναφερόμενα εις την μεσαιωνικήν ιστορίαν των Αθηνών'', Athens 1906.\n* D’ Olwer Nic., ''Les seigneurs Catalans d’ Egine'', τόμος εις μνήμην του Σπυρίδωνος Λάμπρου, Athens 1935.\n* Koulikourdi Georgia, ''Αίγινα'', 2 vols., Athens 1990.\n* Moutsopoulos Nikolaos, ''Η Παλιαχώρα της Αιγίνης. Ιστορική και μορφολογική εξέτασις των μνημείων'', Athens 1962.\n* Nikoloudis Nikolaos , \"Η Αίγινα κατά τον Μεσαίωνα και την Τουρκοκρατία\", Βυζαντινός Δόμος 7(1993–94), pp:13–21.\n* Pennas Charalambos ,'' The Byzantine Aegina'', Athens 2004.\n* John N. Koumanoudes , ''Ανεμομυλικά ΙΙ, Αγκίστρι, Αίγινα, Αστυπάλαια, Λήμνος, Σαλαμίνα, Σπέτσες, Σύμη, Χίος και Ψαρά'', Τεχνικό Επιμελητήριο Ελλάδας, 2010.\n",
"\n\n* The feud between Athens and Aegina\n* The Municipality of Aegina – official website\n* Richard Stillwell, ed. ''Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'', 1976: \"Aigina, Greece\"\n* Map of Ancient Greece (includes Aegina Island)\n* AeginaGreece.com Tourist guide \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Administration",
"Geography",
"History",
"Landmarks",
"Culture",
"Historical population",
"References",
"Sources",
"External links"
] | Aegina |
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"\nThe aegis on the ''Lemnian Athena'' of Phidias, represented by a cast at the Pushkin Museum\nThe '''aegis''' (; ''aigis''), as stated in the ''Iliad'', is carried by Athena and Zeus, but its nature is uncertain. It had been interpreted as an animal skin or a shield, sometimes bearing the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex ''or Aix'', a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, ''Astronomica'' 2. 13). The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in the ''Iliad''. \"It produced a sound as from a myriad roaring dragons (''Iliad'', 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle ... and among them went bright-eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen.\"\n\nThe modern concept of doing something \"under someone's ''aegis''\" means doing something under the protection of a powerful, knowledgeable, or benevolent source. The word ''aegis'' is identified with protection by a strong force with its roots in Greek mythology and adopted by the Romans; there are parallels in Norse mythology and in Egyptian mythology as well, where the Greek word ''aegis'' is applied by extension.\n",
"Virgil imagines the Cyclopes in Hephaestus' forge, who \"busily burnished the aegis Athena wears in her angry moods—a fearsome thing with a surface of gold like scaly snake-skin, and the linked serpents and the Gorgon herself upon the goddess's breast—a severed head rolling its eyes\", furnished with golden tassels and bearing the ''Gorgoneion'' (Medusa's head) in the central boss. Some of the Attic vase-painters retained an archaic tradition that the tassels had originally been serpents in their representations of the aegis. When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born of Metis (inside Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and \"re-born\" through the head of Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments.\n\nWhen the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear. \"Aegis-bearing Zeus\", as he is in the ''Iliad'', sometimes lends the fearsome aegis to Athena. In the ''Iliad'' when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore. According to Edith Hamilton's ''Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes'', the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was \"awful to behold\". However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.\n",
"\nAthena's aegis, bearing the Gorgon, here resembles closely the skin of the great serpent who guards the golden fleece (regurgitating Jason); cup by Douris, Classical Greece, early fifth century BC—Vatican Museums\n\nClassical Greece interpreted the Homeric aegis usually as a cover of some kind borne by Athena. It was supposed by Euripides (''Ion'', 995) that the aegis borne by Athena was the skin of the slain Gorgon, yet the usual understanding is that the ''Gorgoneion'' was ''added'' to the aegis, a votive offering from a grateful Perseus.\n\nIn a similar interpretation, Aex, a daughter of Helios, represented as a great fire-breathing chthonic serpent similar to the Chimera, was slain and flayed by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin, the aegis, as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii. 70), or as a chlamys. The Douris cup shows that the aegis was represented exactly as the skin of the great serpent, with its scales clearly delineated.\n\nJohn Tzetzes says that aegis was the skin of the monstrous giant Pallas whom Athena overcame and whose name she attached to her own.\n\nIn a late rendering by Gaius Julius Hyginus (''Poetical Astronomy'' ii. 13), Zeus is said to have used the skin of a pet goat owned by his nurse Amalthea (''aigis'' \"goat-skin\") which suckled him in Crete, as a shield when he went forth to do battle against the Titans.\n\n First century BC mosaic of Alexander the Great wearing the aegis on the Alexander Mosaic, Pompeii (Naples National Archaeological Museum)\nThe aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal's skin thrown over Athena's shoulders and arms, occasionally with a border of snakes, usually also bearing the Gorgon head, the ''gorgoneion''. In some pottery it appears as a tasselled cover over Athena's dress. It is sometimes represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on cameos and vases. A vestige of that appears in a portrait of Alexander the Great in a fresco from Pompeii dated to the first century BC, which shows the image of the head of a woman on his armor that resembles the Gorgon.\n",
"Herodotus thought he had identified the source of the ægis in ancient Libya, which was always a distant territory of ancient magic for the Greeks. \"Athene's garments and ægis were borrowed by the Greeks from the Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents.\"\n\nRobert Graves in ''The Greek Myths'' (1955; 1960) asserts that the ægis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous serpent-haired visage with tusk-like teeth and a protruding tongue which was meant to frighten away the uninitiated. In this context, Graves identifies the aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena.\n\nAugustus is shown with an ''aegis'' thrown over his shoulder as a divine attribute in the Blacas Cameo; the hole for the head appears at the point of his shoulder.\n\nOne current interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (''kursas''), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H.G. Güterbock, was a source of the aegis.\n",
"The Greek ''aigis'', has many meanings including:\n# \"violent windstorm\", from the verb ''aïssō'' (word stem ''aïg-'') = \"I rush or move violently\". Akin to ''kataigis'', \"thunderstorm\".\n# The shield of a deity as described above.\n# \"goatskin coat\", from treating the word as meaning \"something grammatically feminine pertaining to goat\": Greek ''aix'' (stem ''aig-'') = \"goat\", + suffix ''-is'' (stem ''-id-'').\n\nThe original meaning may have been the first, and ''Zeus Aigiokhos'' = \"Zeus who holds the aegis\" may have originally meant \"Sky/Heaven, who holds the thunderstorm\". The transition to the meaning \"shield\" or \"goatskin\" may have come by folk etymology among a people familiar with draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield.\n",
"\n",
"\n* Theoi Project: \"Aigis\"\n* ''Die Aigis: Zu Typologie und Ikonographie eines Mythischen Gegenstandes'': a Doctoral dissertation on the Ægis (Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität, Münster 1991) by Sigrid Vierck.\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"In Greek mythology",
"The aegis in classical poetry and art",
"Origins",
"Etymology",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aegis |
[
"\n\nAegisthus being murdered by Orestes and Pylades – The Louvre\n\n'''Aegisthus''' (; ; also transliterated as '''Aigisthos''') is a figure in Greek mythology. He was the son of Thyestes and his daughter, Pelopia. The product of an incestuous union motivated by his father's rivalry with the house of Atreus for the throne of Mycenae, Aegisthus murdered Atreus to restore his father to power. Later, he lost the throne to Atreus's son Agamemnon.\n\nWhile Agamemnon was at the Trojan war, Aegisthus became the lover of the king's estranged wife Clytemnestra. The couple killed Agamemnon on his return. He became king of Mycenae for seven years before he was killed in his turn by Agamemnon's son Orestes.\n",
"Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the Mycenean throne unfairly by his brother, Atreus. The two battled back and forth several times. In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus' wife, Aerope. In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes' sons and served them to him unknowingly. After realizing he had eaten his own sons' corpses, Thyestes asked an oracle how best to gain revenge. The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus.\n\nThyestes raped Pelopia after she performed a sacrifice, hiding his identity from her. When Aegisthus was born, his mother abandoned him, ashamed of his origin, and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat, hence his name Aegisthus (from , male goat). Atreus, not knowing the baby's origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own son.\n",
"In the night in which Pelopia had been raped by her father, she had taken from him his sword which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus. When she discovered that the sword belonged to her own father, she realised that her son was the product of incestuous intercourse. In despair, she killed herself. Atreus in his enmity towards his brother sent Aegisthus to kill him; but the sword which Aegisthus carried was the cause of the recognition between Thyestes and his son, and the latter returned and slew his uncle Atreus, while he was offering a sacrifice on the seacoast. Aegisthus and his father now took possession of their lawful inheritance from which they had been expelled by Atreus.\n",
"Aegisthus and Thyestes thereafter ruled over Mycenae jointly, exiling Atreus' sons, Agamemnon and Menelaus to Sparta, where King Tyndareus gave the pair his daughters, Clytemnestra and Helen, to take as wives. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra and Chrysothemis.\n\nAfter the death of Tyndareus, Meneleaus became king of Sparta. He used the Spartan army to drive out Aegisthus and Thyestes from Mycenae and place Agamemnon on the throne. Agamemnon extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful ruler in Greece. However, when Agamemnon sacrificed his own daughter Iphigenia to appease the gods before the war with Troy, Clytemnestra turned against him. While Agamemnon was away at the Trojan War, Aegisthus became Clytemnestra's lover. He helped Clytemnestra kill her husband upon his return home. In the older versions of the story, such as Homer, Aegisthus himself kills Agamemnon. In later accounts Clytemnestra stabs him when he is naked and vulnerable after a bath.\n\nAfter this event Aegisthus reigned seven years longer over Mycenae. He and Clytemnestra had a son, Aletes, and two daughters, Erigone and Helen. In the eighth year of his reign Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, returned home and avenged the death of his father by killing Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. The impiety of matricide was such that Orestes was forced to flee from Mycenae, pursued by the Furies. Aletes became king until Orestes returned several years later and killed him. Orestes later married Aegisthus' daughter Erigone.\n",
"Pierre-Narcisse Guérin's ''Clytemnestra and Agamemnon'', in which Aegisthus appears as a shadowy figure pushing Clytemnestra forward\nHomer gives no information about Aegisthus' back-story. We learn from him only that, after the death of Thyestes, Aegisthus ruled as king at Mycenae and took no part in the Trojan expedition. While Agamemnon was absent on his expedition against Troy, Aegisthus seduced Clytemnestra, and was so wicked as to offer up thanks to the gods for the success with which his criminal exertions were crowned. In order not to be surprised by the return of Agamemnon, he sent out spies, and when Agamemnon came, Aegisthus invited him to a repast at which he had him treacherously murdered.\n\nIn Aeschylus's ''Oresteia'', Aegisthus is a minor figure. In the first play, ''Agamemnon'', he appears at the end to claim the throne, after Clytemnestra herself has killed Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytemnestra wields the axe she has used to quell dissent. In ''The Libation Bearers'' he is killed quickly by Orestes, who then struggles over having to kill his mother. Aegisthus is referred to as a \"weak lion\", plotting the murders but having his lover commit the deeds. According to Johanna Leah Braff, he \"takes the traditional female role, as one who devises but is passive and does not act.\" Christopher Collard describes him as the foil to Clytemnestra, his brief speech in ''Agamemnon'' revealing him to be \"cowardly, sly, weak, full of noisy threats - a typical 'tyrant figure' in embryo.\"\n\nAeschylus's portrayal of Aegisthus as a weak, implicitly feminised figure, influenced later writers and artists who often depict him as an effeminate or decadent individual, either manipulating or dominated by the more powerful Clytemnestra. He appears in Seneca's ''Agamemnon'', enticing her to murder. In Richard Strauss's and Hugo von Hofmannsthal's opera, ''Elektra'' his voice is \"a decidedly high-pitched tenor, punctuated by irrational upward leaps, that rises to high pitched squeals during his death colloquy with Elektra.\" In the first production he was depicted as \"an epicene...with long curly locks and rouged lips, half-cringing, half-posturing seductively.\"\n\nAn ancient tomb in Mycenae is fancifully known as the 'Tomb of Aigisthus'. It dates from around 1470 BC.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Death of Atreus",
"Power struggle over Mycenae",
"In culture",
"References"
] | Aegisthus |
[
"'''Aegospotami''' () or '''Aegospotamos''' (i.e. ''Goat Streams'') is the ancient Greek name for a small river issuing into the Hellespont (Modern Turkish ''Çanakkale Boğazı''), northeast of Sestos.\n\nAt its mouth was the scene of the decisive battle in 405 BC in which Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet, ending the Peloponnesian War. The ancient Greek township of the same name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 4th centuries, and the river itself were located in ancient Thrace in the Chersonese.\n\nAccording to ancient sources including Pliny the Elder and Aristotle, in 467 BC a large meteorite landed near Aegospotami. It was described as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load; it was a local landmark for more than 500 years. A comet, tentatively identified as Halley's Comet, was reported at the time the meteorite landed. This is possibly the first European record of Halley's comet.\n\nAegospotami is located on the Dardanelles, northeast of the modern Turkish town of Sütlüce, Gelibolu.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"References"
] | Aegospotami |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Aelia Capitolina''' (; Latin in full: ''COLONIA AELIA CAPITOLINA'') was a Roman colony, built under the emperor Hadrian on the site of Jerusalem, which was in ruins following the siege of 70 AD, leading in part to the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 AD. ''Aelia Capitolina'' remained the official name of Jerusalem until 638 AD, when the Arabs conquered the city and kept the first part of it as 'إلياء' (Iliyā').\n",
"''Aelia'' came from Hadrian's ''nomen gentile'', ''Aelius'', while ''Capitolina'' meant that the new city was dedicated to ''Jupiter Capitolinus'', to whom a temple was built on the site of the former Jewish temple, the Temple Mount. (The Latin name ''Aelia'' is the source of the much later Arabic term Iliyā' (إلياء), a 7th-century Islamic name for Jerusalem.)\n",
"Jerusalem, once heavily rebuilt by Herod, was still in ruins following the decisive siege of the city, as part of the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 AD. Josephus – a contemporary historian and apologist for Judaism who was born in Jerusalem and fought the Romans in that war – reports that \"Jerusalem ... was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation.\"\n\n\n\nWhen the Roman Emperor Hadrian vowed to rebuild Jerusalem from the wreckage in 130 AD, he considered reconstructing Jerusalem as a gift to the Jewish people. The Jews awaited with hope, but then after Hadrian visited Jerusalem, he was told that rebuilding the Second Temple would encourage sedition. He then decided to rebuild the city as a Roman colony which would be inhabited by his legionaries. Hadrian's new plans included temples to the major regional deities, and certain Roman gods, in particular Jupiter Capitolinus.\n\nThe Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt, which took the Romans three years to suppress, enraged Hadrian, and he became determined to erase Judaism from the province. Circumcision was forbidden, Iudaea province was renamed Syria Palaestina and Jews expelled from the city.\n\nIndeed, following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian renamed Iudaea Province with the new name of ''Syria Palaestina'', dispensing with the name of Judea. The city was renamed \"Aelia Capitolina\", and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially \"secularized\" the city. The ban was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman Emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.\nJerusalem Mural depicting the Cardo in Byzantine era\n\n\nIn the fifth century, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire that was ruled from the recently renamed Constantinople, maintained control of the city. Within the span of a few decades, the city shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule, then back to Roman-Byzantine dominion. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early seventh century push through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked Jerusalem () aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen up against the Byzantines.\n\nIn the Siege of Jerusalem of 614 AD, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629.\n\nByzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the Arab armies of Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638 AD. Among Muslims of Islam's earliest era it was referred to as ''Madinat bayt al-Maqdis'' (\"City of the Temple\") which was restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city was called \"Iliya\", reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of\n70 CE: ''Aelia Capitolina''\".\n",
"\nAccording to Eusebius, the Jerusalem church was scattered twice, in 70 and 135, with the difference that from 70-130 the bishops of Jerusalem have evidently Jewish names, whereas after 135 the bishops of Aelia Capitolina appear to be Greeks. Eusebius' evidence for continuation of a church at Aelia Capitolina is confirmed by the Bordeaux Pilgrim.\n",
"\nFile:Madaba map.jpg|The Madaba Map depiction of 6th-century Jerusalem has the ''Cardo Maximus'', the town’s main street, beginning at the northern gate, today's Damascus Gate, and traversing the city in a straight line from north to south to \"Nea Church\"\nFile:Roman Jerusalem.PNG|The two pairs of main roads - the cardines (north-south) and decumani (east-west) - in Aelia Capitolina.\nFile:1283 Descriptio Terrae Sanctae.jpg|1455 painting of the Holy Land. Jerusalem is viewed from the west; the Dome of the Rock still retains its octagonal shape, to the right stands Al-Aqsa, shown as a church.\n\n\n\nThe city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of the Tenth Legion, during the Late Roman Period. The detachment at Jerusalem, which apparently encamped all over the city’s western hill, was responsible for preventing Jews from returning to the city. Roman enforcement of this prohibition continued through the 4th century.\n\nThe urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical Roman town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the urban grid lengthwise and widthwise. The urban grid was based on the usual central north-south road (''cardo'') and central east-west route (''decumanus''). However, as the main cardo ran up the western hill, and the Temple Mount blocked the eastward route of the main decumanus, a second pair of main roads was added; the secondary cardo ran down the Tyropoeon Valley, and the secondary decumanus ran just to the north of the Temple Mount. The main Hadrianic cardo terminated not far beyond its junction with the decumanus, where it reached the Roman garrison's encampment, but in the Byzantine era it was extended over the former camp to reach the southern walls of the city.\n\nThe two cardines converged near the ''Damascus Gate'', and a semicircular piazza covered the remaining space; in the piazza a columnar monument was constructed, hence the Arabic name for the gate - ''Bab el-Amud'' (''Gate of the Column''). Tetrapylones were constructed at the other junctions between the main roads.\n\nThis street pattern has been preserved in the Old City of Jerusalem to the present. The original thoroughfare, flanked by rows of columns and shops, was about 73 feet (22 meters) wide, but buildings have extended onto the streets over the centuries, and the modern lanes replacing the ancient grid are now quite narrow. The substantial remains of the western cardo have now been exposed to view near the junction with Suq el-Bazaar, and remnants of one of the tetrapylones are preserved in the 19th century Franciscan chapel at the junction of the Via Dolorosa and Suq Khan ez-Zeit.\n\nAs was standard for new Roman cities, Hadrian placed the city's main Forum at the junction of the main cardo and decumanus, now the location for the (smaller) Muristan. Adjacent to the Forum, at the junction of the same cardo, and the other decumanus, Hadrian built a large temple to Venus, which later became the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; despite 11th century destruction, which resulted in the modern Church having a much smaller footprint, several boundary walls of Hadrian's temple have been found among the archaeological remains beneath the Church. The ''Struthion Pool'' lay in the path of the northern decumanus, so Hadrian placed vaulting over it, added a large pavement on top, and turned it into a secondary Forum; the pavement can still be seen under the Convent of the Sisters of Zion.\n",
"\n*Names of Jerusalem\n*Caesarea Maritima\n*Alexander of Jerusalem\n",
"\n",
"* Detailed description (including map) of the city of Aelia Capitolina\n* Pictures of the cave where it is believed by Christians that Jesus was buried and from which it is believed he resurrected and a picture of the remains of the walls of the Temple of Venus previously constructed on that site by the Emperor Hadrian\n* \"Archaeologists bringing Jerusalem's ancient Roman city back to life\" by Nir Hasson, Ha'aretz, February 21, 2012\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Name",
"Foundation",
"Christianity",
"Plan of the city",
"See also",
"Notes",
"External links"
] | Aelia Capitolina |
[
"'''Aelian''' or '''Aelianus''' may refer to:\n\n* Aelianus Tacticus, Greek military writer of the 2nd century, who lived in Rome\n* Casperius Aelianus, Praetorian Prefect, executed by Trajan\n* Claudius Aelianus, Roman writer, teacher and historian of the 3rd century, who wrote in Greek\n* Lucius Aelianus, one of the thirty tyrants under the Roman empire\n* Aelianus Meccius, ancient Greek physician, tutor of Galen\n* Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus, adopted nephew of Plautia Urgulanilla, first wife of Claudius; consul 45 and 74 AD\n* Aelianus (rebel), leader of the Bagaudae peasant rebels\n* Count Aelianus, leader of the Roman defensive forces at the Siege of Amida in 359.\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction"
] | Aelian |
[
"\n''In hoc codice continentur Helianus De instruendis aciebus et Onosander De optimo imperatore'', ca. 1480, by Aelianus Tacticus\n'''Aelianus Tacticus''' (; fl. 2nd century AD), also known as '''Aelian''' (), was a Greek military writer who lived in Rome.\n\nAelian's military treatise in fifty-three chapters on the tactics of the Greeks, titled ''On tactical arrays of the Greeks'' (), is dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and the date 106 AD has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practiced by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the most important of which was a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of war, and in the fullness of his technical details in matters of drill.\n\nHe also gives a brief account of the constitution of a Roman army at that time. The work arose, he says, from a conversation he had with the emperor Nerva at Frontinus's house at Formiae. He promises a work on Naval Tactics also; but this, if it was written, is lost.\n\nCritics of the 18th century — Guichard Folard and the Prince de Ligne — were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but Aelian exercised a great influence both on his immediate successors, the Byzantines, and later on the Arabs, (who translated the text for their own use). Emperor Leo VI the Wise incorporated much of Aelian's text in his own work on the military art (Τέχνη Τακτική). The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 1350. It was first translated into Latin by Theodore Gaza, published at Rome in 1487. The Greek editio princeps was edited by Francesco Robortello and published at Venice in 1552.\n\nIn spite of its academic nature, the copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value to the army organizers of the 16th century, who were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses of pikemen and the squadrons of cavalry of the Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the 16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and tactics.\n\nThe first significant reference to the influence of Aelian in the 16th century is a letter to Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange from his cousin William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg on December 8, 1594. The letter is influential in supporting the thesis of the early-modern Military Revolution. In the letter William Louis discusses the use of ranks by soldiers of Imperial Rome as discussed in Aelian's Tactica. Aelian was discussing the use of the counter march in the context of the Roman sword gladius and spear pilum. William Louis in a 'crucial leap' realized that the same technique could work for men with firearms.\n",
"\n",
"*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" References ",
" Sources"
] | Aelianus Tacticus |
[
"An agarose gel in tray used for gel electrophoresis\nAn '''agarose''' is a polysaccharide polymer material, generally extracted from seaweed. Agarose is a linear polymer made up of the repeating unit of agarobiose, which is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose. Agarose is one of the two principal components of agar, and is purified from agar by removing agar's other component, agaropectin.\n\nAgarose is frequently used in molecular biology for the separation of large molecules, especially DNA, by electrophoresis. Slabs of agarose gels (usually 0.7 - 2%) for electrophoresis are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mold. A wide range of different agaroses of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose. Agarose may also be formed into beads and used in a number of chromatographic methods for protein purification.\n",
"The structure of an agarose polymer.\nAgarose is a linear polymer with a molecular weight of about 120,000, consisting of alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose linked by α-(1→3) and β-(1→4) glycosidic bonds. The 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose is an L-galactose with an anhydro bridge between the 3 and 6 positions, although some L-galactose unit in the polymer may not contain the bridge. Some D-galactose and L-galactose units can be methylated, and pyruvate and sulfate are also found in small quantities.\n\nEach agarose chain contains ~800 molecules of galactose, and the agarose polymer chains form helical fibres that aggregate into supercoiled structure with a radius of 20-30 nm. The fibers are quasi-rigid, and have a wide range of length depending on the agarose concentration. When solidified, the fibres form a three-dimensional mesh of channels of diameter ranging from 50 nm to >200 nm depending on the concentration of agarose used - higher concentrations yield lower average pore diameters. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state.\n",
"Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools. Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e. it gels and melts at different temperatures. The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose. Standard agaroses derived from ''Gelidium'' has a gelling temperature of and a melting temperature of , while those derived from ''Gracilaria'', due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of and melting temperature of . The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%. The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.\n\nNatural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature. Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature. A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.\n\nOn standing the agarose gels are prone to syneresis (extrusion of water through the gel surface), but the process is slow enough to not interfere with the use of the gel.\n\nAgarose gel can have high gel strength at low concentration, making it suitable as an anti-convection medium for gel electrophoresis. Agarose gels as dilute as 0.15% can form slabs for gel electrophoresis. The agarose polymer contains charged groups, in particular pyruvate and sulfate. These negatively charged groups can retard the movement of DNA in a process called electroendosmosis (EEO), and low EEO agarose is therefore generally preferred for use in agarose gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids. Zero EEO agaroses are also available but these may be undesirable for some applications as they may be made by adding positively charged groups that can affect subsequent enzyme reactions. Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used preferentially over agar as agaropeptin in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulphate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropeptin in agarose substantially reduce the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropeptin may be added in the gel used.\n\n===Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses===\nThe melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures than standard agaroses. The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at range. This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be carried out directly after the DNA gel electrophoresis by adding slices of melted gel containing DNA fragment of interest to a reaction mixture. The LMP agarose contains fewer sulphates which can affect some enzymatic reactions, and is therefore preferably used for some applications. Hydroxyethylation may reduce the pore size by reducing the packing density of the agarose bundles, therefore LMP gel can also have an effect on the time and separation during electrophoresis. Ultra-low melting or gelling temperature agaroses may gel only at .\n",
"UV light on a UV Transilluminator.\nAgarose is a preferred matrix for work with proteins and nucleic acids as it has a broad range of physical, chemical and thermal stability, and its lower degree of chemical complexity also makes it less likely to interact with biomolecules. Agarose is most commonly used as the medium for analytical scale electrophoretic separation in agarose gel electrophoresis. Gels made from purified agarose have a relatively large pore size, making them useful for separation of large molecules, such as proteins and protein complexes >200 kilodaltons, as well as DNA fragments >100 basepairs. Agarose is also used widely for a number of other applications, for example immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis, as the agarose fibers functions as an anchor for immunocomplexes.\n\n=== Agarose gel electrophoresis ===\n\n\nAgarose gel electrophoresis is the routine method for resolving DNA in the laboratory. Agarose gels have lower resolving power for DNA than acrylamide gels, but they have greater range of separation, and are therefore usually used for DNA fragments of 50-20,000 bp in size, although resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large protein, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5-10 nm.\n\nThe pore size of the gel affects the size of the DNA that can be sieved. The lower the concentration of the gel, the larger the pore size, and the larger the DNA that can be sieved. However low-concentration gels (0.1 - 0.2%) are fragile and therefore hard to handle, and the electrophoresis of large DNA molecules can take several days. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb. This limit can be overcome by PFGE, where alternating orthogonal electric fields are applied to the gel. The DNA fragments reorientate themselves when the applied field switches direction, but larger molecules of DNA take longer to realign themselves when the electric field is altered, while for smaller ones it is quicker, and the DNA can therefore be fractionated according to size.\n\nAgarose gels are cast horizontally in a mold, and when set, usually run horizontally submerged in a buffer solution. The DNA is normally visualized by staining with ethidium bromide and then viewed under UV light, but other methods of staining are available, such as SYBR Green, GelRed, methylene blue, and crystal violet. If the separated DNA fragments are needed for further downstream experiment, they can be cut out from the gel in slices for further manipulation.\n\nFPLC machine.\n\n=== Protein purification ===\nAgarose gel matrix is often used for protein purification, for example, in column-based preparative scale separation as in gel filtration chromatography, affinity chromatography and ion exchange chromatography. It is however not used as a continuous gel, rather it is formed into porous beads or resins of varying fineness. The beads are highly porous so that protein may flow freely through the beads. These agarose-based beads are generally soft and easily crushed, so they should be used under gravity-flow, low-speed centrifugation, or low-pressure procedures. The strength of the resins can be improved by increased cross-linking and chemical hardening of the agarose resins, however such changes may also result in a lower binding capacity for protein in some separation procedures such as affinity chromatography.\n\nAgarose is a useful material for chromatography because it does not absorb biomolecules to any significant extent, has good flow properties, and can tolerate extremes of pH and ionic strength as well as high concentration of denaturants such as 8M urea or 6M guanidine HCl. Examples of agarose-based matrix for gel filtration chromatography are Sepharose and WorkBeads 40 SEC (cross-linked beaded agarose), ''Praesto'' and Superose (highly cross-linked beaded agaroses), and Superdex (dextran covalently linked to agarose).\n\nFor affinity chromatography, beaded agarose is the most commonly used matrix resin for the attachment of the ligands that bind protein. The ligands are linked covalently through a spacer to activated hydroxyl groups of agarose bead polymer. Proteins of interest can then be selectively bound to the ligands to separate them from other proteins, after which it can be eluted. The agarose beads used are typically of 4% and 6% densities with a high binding capacity for protein.\n\n===Solid culture media===\nAgarose plate may sometimes be used instead of agar for culturing organisms as agar may contain impurities that can affect the growth of the organism or some downstream procedures such as PCR. Agarose is also harder than agar and may therefore be preferable where greater gel strength is necessary, and its lower gelling temperature may prevent causing thermal shock to the organism when the cells are suspended in liquid before gelling. It may be used for the culture of strict autotrophic bacteria, plant protoplast, ''Caenorhabditis elegans'', other organisms and various cell lines.\n\n=== 3D Cell culture ===\nAgarose is often used as a support for the tri-dimensional culture of human and animal cells. Because agarose forms a non-cytotoxic hydrogels, it can be utilized to reproduce the natural environment of cells in the human body, the extracellular matrix. However, agarose forms a stiff inert hydrogel that do not carry any biological information, thus the human and animal cells can not adhere to the polysaccharide. Because of these specifics properties, agarose hydrogel mimics the natural environment of cartilage cells and have been shown to be support the differentiation of chondrocytes into cartilage. In order to modify the mechanical properties of agarose to reproduce the natural environment of other human cells, agarose can be chemically modified through the precise oxidation of the primary alcohol of the D-galactose into carboxylic acid. This chemical modification provides a novel class of materials named carboxylated agarose. Through the control over the number of carboxylated D-galactose on the polysaccharide backbone, the mechanical properties of the resulting hydrogel can be precisely controlled. These carboxylated agarose hydrogels can be then covalently bond to peptides to form hydrogel on which cells can adhere. These carboxylated agarose hydrogels have been shown to direct the organization of human endothelial cells into polarized lumens.\nMixing of fully carboxylated agarose with natural agarose can be used to make hydrogels that span a whole range of mechanical properties.\n\n=== Motility assays ===\nAgarose is sometimes used instead of agar to measure microorganism motility and mobility. Motile species will be able to migrate, albeit slowly, throughout the porous gel and infiltration rates can then be visualized. The gel's porosity is directly related to the concentration of agar or agarose in the medium, so different concentration gels may be used to assess a cell's swimming, swarming, gliding and twitching motility. Under-agarose cell migration assay may be used to measure chemotaxis and chemokinesis. A layer of agarose gel is placed between a cell population and a chemoattractant. As a concentration gradient develops from the diffusion of the chemoattractant into the gel, various cell populations requiring different stimulation levels to migrate can then be visualized over time using microphotography as they tunnel upward through the gel against gravity along the gradient.\n",
"*Agar\n*SDD-AGE\n",
"\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Structure",
"Properties",
"Applications",
"See also",
"References"
] | Agarose |
[
"Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy instrument\n\n'''Atomic absorption spectroscopy''' ('''AAS''') is a spectroanalytical procedure for the quantitative determination of chemical elements using the absorption of optical radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state.\n\nIn analytical chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of a particular element (the analyte) in a sample to be analyzed. AAS can be used to determine over 70 different elements in solution or directly in solid samples used in pharmacology, biophysics and toxicology research.\n\nAtomic absorption spectroscopy was first used as an analytical technique, and the underlying principles were established in the second half of the 19th century by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, both professors at the University of Heidelberg, Germany.\n\nThe modern form of AAS was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of Australian chemists. They were led by Sir Alan Walsh at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Division of Chemical Physics, in Melbourne, Australia.\n\nAtomic absorption spectrometry has many uses in different areas of chemistry such as clinical analysis of metals in biological fluids and tissues such as whole blood, plasma, urine, saliva, brain tissue, liver, muscle tissue, semen, in some pharmaceutical manufacturing processes, minute quantities of a catalyst that remain in the final drug product, and analyzing water for its metal content.\n",
"The technique makes use of absorption spectrometry to assess the concentration of an analyte in a sample. It requires standards with known analyte content to establish the relation between the measured absorbance and the analyte concentration and relies therefore on the Beer-Lambert Law.\n\nIn short, the electrons of the atoms in the atomizer can be promoted to higher orbitals (excited state) for a short period of time (nanoseconds) by absorbing a defined quantity of energy (radiation of a given wavelength. This amount of energy, i.e., wavelength, is specific to a particular electron transition in a particular element. In general, each wavelength corresponds to only one element, and the width of an absorption line is only of the order of a few picometers (pm), which gives the technique its elemental selectivity.\nThe radiation flux without a sample and with a sample in the atomizer is measured using a detector, and the ratio between the two values (the absorbance) is converted to analyte concentration or mass using the Beer-Lambert Law.\n",
"Atomic absorption spectrometer block diagram\nIn order to analyze a sample for its atomic constituents, it has to be atomized. The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are flames and electrothermal (graphite tube) atomizers. The atoms should then be irradiated by optical radiation, and the radiation source could be an element-specific line radiation source or a continuum radiation source. The radiation then passes through a monochromator in order to separate the element-specific radiation from any other radiation emitted by the radiation source, which is finally measured by a detector.\n\n=== Atomizers ===\nThe atomizers most commonly used nowadays are (spectroscopic) flames and electrothermal (graphite tube) atomizers. Other atomizers, such as glow-discharge atomization, hydride atomization, or cold-vapor atomization might be used for special purposes.\n\n==== Flame atomizers ====\nThe oldest and most commonly used atomizers in AAS are flames, principally the air-acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2300 °C and the nitrous oxide system (N2O)-acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2700 °C. The latter flame, in addition, offers a more reducing environment, being ideally suited for analytes with high affinity to oxygen.A laboratory flame photometer that uses a propane operated flame atomizer\n\nLiquid or dissolved samples are typically used with flame atomizers. The sample solution is aspirated by a pneumatic analytical nebulizer, transformed into an aerosol, which is introduced into a spray chamber, where it is mixed with the flame gases and conditioned in a way that only the finest aerosol droplets (−1 range, and may be extended down to a few μg L−1 for some elements.\n\n==== Electrothermal atomizers ====\nGFAA method development\nGraphite tube \nElectrothermal AAS (ET AAS) using graphite tube atomizers was pioneered by Boris V. L’vov at the Saint Petersburg Polytechnical Institute, Russia, since the late 1950s, and investigated in parallel by Hans Massmann at the Institute of Spectrochemistry and Applied Spectroscopy (ISAS) in Dortmund, Germany.\n\nAlthough a wide variety of graphite tube designs have been used over the years, the dimensions nowadays are typically 20–25 mm in length and 5–6 mm inner diameter. With this technique liquid/dissolved, solid and gaseous samples may be analyzed directly. A measured volume (typically 10–50 μL) or a weighed mass (typically around 1 mg) of a solid sample are introduced into the graphite tube and subject to a temperature program. This typically consists of stages, such as drying – the solvent is evaporated; pyrolysis – the majority of the matrix constituents are removed; atomization – the analyte element is released to the gaseous phase; and cleaning – eventual residues in the graphite tube are removed at high temperature.\n\nThe graphite tubes are heated via their ohmic resistance using a low-voltage high-current power supply; the temperature in the individual stages can be controlled very closely, and temperature ramps between the individual stages facilitate separation of sample components. Tubes may be heated transversely or longitudinally, where the former ones have the advantage of a more homogeneous temperature distribution over their length. The so-called stabilized temperature platform furnace (STPF) concept, proposed by Walter Slavin, based on research of Boris L’vov, makes ET AAS essentially free from interference. The major components of this concept are atomization of the sample from a graphite platform inserted into the graphite tube (L’vov platform) instead of from the tube wall in order to delay atomization until the gas phase in the atomizer has reached a stable temperature; use of a chemical modifier in order to stabilize the analyte to a pyrolysis temperature that is sufficient to remove the majority of the matrix components; and integration of the absorbance over the time of the transient absorption signal instead of using peak height absorbance for quantification.\n\nIn ET AAS a transient signal is generated, the area of which is directly proportional to the mass of analyte (not its concentration) introduced into the graphite tube. This technique has the advantage that any kind of sample, solid, liquid or gaseous, can be analyzed directly. Its sensitivity is 2–3 orders of magnitude higher than that of flame AAS, so that determinations in the low μg L−1 range (for a typical sample volume of 20 µL) and ng g−1 range (for a typical sample mass of 1 mg) can be carried out. It shows a very high degree of freedom from interferences, so that ET AAS might be considered the most robust technique available nowadays for the determination of trace elements in complex matrices.\n\n====Specialized atomization techniques====\nWhile flame and electrothermal vaporizers are the most common atomization techniques, several other atomization methods are utilized for specialized use.\n\n=====Glow-discharge atomization=====\nA glow-discharge device (GD) serves as a versatile source, as it can simultaneously introduce and atomize the sample. The glow discharge occurs in a low-pressure argon gas atmosphere between 1 and 10 torr. In this atmosphere lies a pair of electrodes applying a DC voltage of 250 to 1000 V to break down the argon gas into positively charged ions and electrons. These ions, under the influence of the electric field, are accelerated into the cathode surface containing the sample, bombarding the sample and causing neutral sample atom ejection through the process known as sputtering. The atomic vapor produced by this discharge is composed of ions, ground state atoms, and fraction of excited atoms. When the excited atoms relax back into their ground state, a low-intensity glow is emitted, giving the technique its name.\n\nThe requirement for samples of glow discharge atomizers is that they are electrical conductors. Consequently, atomizers are most commonly used in the analysis of metals and other conducting samples. However, with proper modifications, it can be utilized to analyze liquid samples as well as nonconducting materials by mixing them with a conductor (e.g. graphite).\n\n=====Hydride atomization=====\nHydride generation techniques are specialized in solutions of specific elements. The technique provides a means of introducing samples containing arsenic, antimony, tin, selenium, bismuth, and lead into an atomizer in the gas phase. With these elements, hydride atomization enhances detection limits by a factor of 10 to 100 compared to alternative methods. Hydride generation occurs by adding an acidified aqueous solution of the sample to a 1% aqueous solution of sodium borohydride, all of which is contained in a glass vessel. The volatile hydride generated by the reaction that occurs is swept into the atomization chamber by an inert gas, where it undergoes decomposition. This process forms an atomized form of the analyte, which can then be measured by absorption or emission spectrometry.\n\n=====Cold-vapor atomization=====\nThe cold-vapor technique an atomization method limited to only the determination of mercury, due to it being the only metallic element to have a large enough vapor pressure at ambient temperature. Because of this, it has an important use in determining organic mercury compounds in samples and their distribution in the environment. The method initiates by converting mercury into Hg2+ by oxidation from nitric and sulfuric acids, followed by a reduction of Hg2+ with tin(II) chloride. The mercury, is then swept into a long-pass absorption tube by bubbling a stream of inert gas through the reaction mixture. The concentration is determined by measuring the absorbance of this gas at 253.7 nm. Detection limits for this technique are in the parts-per-billion range making it an excellent mercury detection atomization method.\n\n=== Radiation sources ===\nWe have to distinguish between line source AAS (LS AAS) and continuum source AAS (CS AAS). In classical LS AAS, as it has been proposed by Alan Walsh, the high spectral resolution required for AAS measurements is provided by the radiation source itself that emits the spectrum of the analyte in the form of lines that are narrower than the absorption lines. Continuum sources, such as deuterium lamps, are only used for background correction purposes. The advantage of this technique is that only a medium-resolution monochromator is necessary for measuring AAS; however, it has the disadvantage that usually a separate lamp is required for each element that has to be determined. In CS AAS, in contrast, a single lamp, emitting a continuum spectrum over the entire spectral range of interest is used for all elements. Obviously, a high-resolution monochromator is required for this technique, as will be discussed later.\n\nHollow cathode lamp (HCL)\n\n==== Hollow cathode lamps ====\nHollow cathode lamps (HCL) are the most common radiation source in LS AAS. Inside the sealed lamp, filled with argon or neon gas at low pressure, is a cylindrical metal cathode containing the element of interest and an anode. A high voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, resulting in an ionization of the fill gas. The gas ions are accelerated towards the cathode and, upon impact on the cathode, sputter cathode material that is excited in the glow discharge to emit the radiation of the sputtered material, i.e., the element of interest. Most lamps will handle a handful of elements, i.e. 5-8. A typical machine will have two lamps, one will take care of five elements and the other will handle four elements for a total of nine elements analyzed.\n\n==== Electrodeless discharge lamps ====\nElectrodeless discharge lamps (EDL) contain a small quantity of the analyte as a metal or a salt in a quartz bulb together with an inert gas, typically argon gas, at low pressure. The bulb is inserted into a coil that is generating an electromagnetic radio frequency field, resulting in a low-pressure inductively coupled discharge in the lamp. The emission from an EDL is higher than that from an HCL, and the line width is generally narrower, but EDLs need a separate power supply and might need a longer time to stabilize.\n\n==== Deuterium lamps ====\nDeuterium HCL or even hydrogen HCL and deuterium discharge lamps are used in LS AAS for background correction purposes. The radiation intensity emitted by these lamps decreases significantly with increasing wavelength, so that they can be only used in the wavelength range between 190 and about 320 nm.\n\nXenon lamp as a continuous radiation source\n\n==== Continuum sources ====\nWhen a continuum radiation source is used for AAS, it is necessary to use a high-resolution monochromator, as will be discussed later. In addition, it is necessary that the lamp emits radiation of intensity at least an order of magnitude above that of a typical HCL over the entire wavelength range from 190 nm to 900 nm. A special high-pressure xenon short arc lamp, operating in a hot-spot mode has been developed to fulfill these requirements.\n\n=== Spectrometer ===\nAs already pointed out above, there is a difference between medium-resolution spectrometers that are used for LS AAS and high-resolution spectrometers that are designed for CS AAS. The spectrometer includes the spectral sorting device (monochromator) and the detector.\n\n==== Spectrometers for LS AAS ====\nIn LS AAS the high resolution that is required for the measurement of atomic absorption is provided by the narrow line emission of the radiation source, and the monochromator simply has to resolve the analytical line from other radiation emitted by the lamp. This can usually be accomplished with a band pass between 0.2 and 2 nm, i.e., a medium-resolution monochromator. Another feature to make LS AAS element-specific is modulation of the primary radiation and the use of a selective amplifier that is tuned to the same modulation frequency, as already postulated by Alan Walsh. This way any (unmodulated) radiation emitted for example by the atomizer can be excluded, which is imperative for LS AAS. Simple monochromators of the Littrow or (better) the Czerny-Turner design are typically used for LS AAS. Photomultiplier tubes are the most frequently used detectors in LS AAS, although solid state detectors might be preferred because of their better signal-to-noise ratio.\n\n==== Spectrometers for CS AAS ====\nWhen a continuum radiation source is used for AAS measurement it is indispensable to work with a high-resolution monochromator. The resolution has to be equal to or better than the half width of an atomic absorption line (about 2 pm) in order to avoid losses of sensitivity and linearity of the calibration graph. The research with high-resolution (HR) CS AAS was pioneered by the groups of O’Haver and Harnly in the USA, who also developed the (up until now) only simultaneous multi-element spectrometer for this technique. The break-through, however, came when the group of Becker-Ross in Berlin, Germany, built a spectrometer entirely designed for HR-CS AAS. The first commercial equipment for HR-CS AAS was introduced by Analytik Jena (Jena, Germany) at the beginning of the 21st century, based on the design proposed by Becker-Ross and Florek. These spectrometers use a compact double monochromator with a prism pre-monochromator and an echelle grating monochromator for high resolution. A linear charge coupled device (CCD) array with 200 pixels is used as the detector. The second monochromator does not have an exit slit; hence the spectral environment at both sides of the analytical line becomes visible at high resolution. As typically only 3–5 pixels are used to measure the atomic absorption, the other pixels are available for correction purposes. One of these corrections is that for lamp flicker noise, which is independent of wavelength, resulting in measurements with very low noise level; other corrections are those for background absorption, as will be discussed later.\n",
"The relatively small number of atomic absorption lines (compared to atomic emission lines) and their narrow width (a few pm) make spectral overlap rare; there are only few examples known that an absorption line from one element will overlap with another. Molecular absorption, in contrast, is much broader, so that it is more likely that some molecular absorption band will overlap with an atomic line. This kind of absorption might be caused by un-dissociated molecules of concomitant elements of the sample or by flame gases. We have to distinguish between the spectra of di-atomic molecules, which exhibit a pronounced fine structure, and those of larger (usually tri-atomic) molecules that don’t show such fine structure. Another source of background absorption, particularly in ET AAS, is scattering of the primary radiation at particles that are generated in the atomization stage, when the matrix could not be removed sufficiently in the pyrolysis stage.\n\nAll these phenomena, molecular absorption and radiation scattering, can result in artificially high absorption and an improperly high (erroneous) calculation for the concentration or mass of the analyte in the sample. There are several techniques available to correct for background absorption, and they are significantly different for LS AAS and HR-CS AAS.\n\n=== Background correction techniques in LS AAS ===\nIn LS AAS background absorption can only be corrected using instrumental techniques, and all of them are based on two sequential measurements, firstly, total absorption (atomic plus background), secondly, background absorption only, and the difference of the two measurements gives the net atomic absorption. Because of this, and because of the use of additional devices in the spectrometer, the signal-to-noise ratio of background-corrected signals is always significantly inferior compared to uncorrected signals. It should also be pointed out that in LS AAS there is no way to correct for (the rare case of) a direct overlap of two atomic lines. In essence there are three techniques used for background correction in LS AAS:\n\n==== Deuterium background correction ====\nThis is the oldest and still most commonly used technique, particularly for flame AAS. In this case, a separate source (a deuterium lamp) with broad emission is used to measure the background absorption over the entire width of the exit slit of the spectrometer. The use of a separate lamp makes this technique the least accurate one, as it cannot correct for any structured background. It also cannot be used at wavelengths above about 320 nm, as the emission intensity of the deuterium lamp becomes very weak. The use of deuterium HCL is preferable compared to an arc lamp due to the better fit of the image of the former lamp with that of the analyte HCL.\n\n==== Smith-Hieftje background correction ====\nThis technique (named after their inventors) is based on the line-broadening and self-reversal of emission lines from HCL when high current is applied. Total absorption is measured with normal lamp current, i.e., with a narrow emission line, and background absorption after application of a high-current pulse with the profile of the self-reversed line, which has little emission at the original wavelength, but strong emission on both sides of the analytical line. The advantage of this technique is that only one radiation source is used; among the disadvantages are that the high-current pulses reduce lamp lifetime, and that the technique can only be used for relatively volatile elements, as only those exhibit sufficient self-reversal to avoid dramatic loss of sensitivity. Another problem is that background is not measured at the same wavelength as total absorption, making the technique unsuitable for correcting structured background.\n\n==== Zeeman-effect background correction ====\n\nAn alternating magnetic field is applied at the atomizer (graphite furnace) to split the absorption line into three components, the π component, which remains at the same position as the original absorption line, and two σ components, which are moved to higher and lower wavelengths, respectively. Total absorption is measured without magnetic field and background absorption with the magnetic field on. The π component has to be removed in this case, e.g. using a polarizer, and the σ components do not overlap with the emission profile of the lamp, so that only the background absorption is measured. The advantages of this technique are that total and background absorption are measured with the same emission profile of the same lamp, so that any kind of background, including background with fine structure can be corrected accurately, unless the molecule responsible for the background is also affected by the magnetic field and using a chopper as a polariser reduces the signal to noise ratio. While the disadvantages are the increased complexity of the spectrometer and power supply needed for running the powerful magnet needed to split the absorption line.\n\n=== Background correction techniques in HR-CS AAS ===\nIn HR-CS AAS background correction is carried out mathematically in the software using information from detector pixels that are not used for measuring atomic absorption; hence, in contrast to LS AAS, no additional components are required for background correction.\n\n==== Background correction using correction pixels ====\nIt has already been mentioned that in HR-CS AAS lamp flicker noise is eliminated using correction pixels. In fact, any increase or decrease in radiation intensity that is observed to the same extent at all pixels chosen for correction is eliminated by the correction algorithm. This obviously also includes a reduction of the measured intensity due to radiation scattering or molecular absorption, which is corrected in the same way. As measurement of total and background absorption, and correction for the latter, are strictly simultaneous (in contrast to LS AAS), even the fastest changes of background absorption, as they may be observed in ET AAS, do not cause any problem. In addition, as the same algorithm is used for background correction and elimination of lamp noise, the background corrected signals show a much better signal-to-noise ratio compared to the uncorrected signals, which is also in contrast to LS AAS.\n\n==== Background correction using a least-squares algorithm ====\nThe above technique can obviously not correct for a background with fine structure, as in this case the absorbance will be different at each of the correction pixels. In this case HR-CS AAS is offering the possibility to measure correction spectra of the molecule(s) that is (are) responsible for the background and store them in the computer. These spectra are then multiplied with a factor to match the intensity of the sample spectrum and subtracted pixel by pixel and spectrum by spectrum from the sample spectrum using a least-squares algorithm. This might sound complex, but first of all the number of di-atomic molecules that can exist at the temperatures of the atomizers used in AAS is relatively small, and second, the correction is performed by the computer within a few seconds. The same algorithm can actually also be used to correct for direct line overlap of two atomic absorption lines, making HR-CS AAS the only AAS technique that can correct for this kind of spectral interference.\n",
"*Absorption spectroscopy\n*Beer-Lambert law\n*Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry\n*Laser absorption spectrometry\n",
"\n",
"*B. Welz, M. Sperling (1999), ''Atomic Absorption Spectrometry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, .\n*A. Walsh (1955), ''The application of atomic absorption spectra to chemical analysis'', Spectrochim. Acta 7: 108–117.\n*J.A.C. Broekaert (1998), ''Analytical Atomic Spectrometry with Flames and Plasmas'', 3rd Edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany.\n*B.V. L’vov (1984), ''Twenty-five years of furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy'', Spectrochim. Acta Part B, 39: 149–157.\n*B.V. L’vov (2005), ''Fifty years of atomic absorption spectrometry''; J. Anal. Chem., 60: 382–392.\n*H. Massmann (1968), ''Vergleich von Atomabsorption und Atomfluoreszenz in der Graphitküvette'', Spectrochim. Acta Part B, 23: 215–226.\n*W. Slavin, D.C. Manning, G.R. Carnrick (1981), ''The stabilized temperature platform furnace'', At. Spectrosc. 2: 137–145.\n*B. Welz, H. Becker-Ross, S. Florek, U. Heitmann (2005), ''High-resolution Continuum Source AAS'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, .\n*H. Becker-Ross, S. Florek, U. Heitmann, R. Weisse (1996), ''Influence of the spectral bandwidth of the spectrometer on the sensitivity using continuum source AAS'', Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 355: 300–303.\n*J.M. Harnly (1986), ''Multielement atomic absorption with a continuum source'', Anal. Chem. 58: 933A-943A.\n*Skoog, Douglas (2007). Principles of Instrumental Analysis (6th ed.). Canada: Thomson Brooks/Cole. .\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Principles ",
" Instrumentation ",
" Background absorption and background correction ",
" See also ",
" References ",
"Further reading"
] | Atomic absorption spectroscopy |
[
"\n\n\n'''Arthur St. Clair''' ( – August 31, 1818) was an American soldier and politician. Born in Thurso, Scotland, he served in the British Army during the French and Indian War before settling in Pennsylvania, where he held local office. During the American Revolutionary War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Continental Army, but lost his command after a controversial retreat from Fort Ticonderoga.\n\nAfter the war, he served as President of the Continental Congress, which during his term passed the Northwest Ordinance. He was then made governor of the Northwest Territory in 1788, and then the portion that would become Ohio in 1800. In 1791, St. Clair commanded the American forces in what was the United States's worst ever defeat against the American Indians. Politically out-of-step with the Jefferson administration, he was replaced as governor in 1802.\n",
"St. Clair was born in Thurso, Caithness, Scotland. Little is known of his early life. Early biographers estimated his year of birth as 1734, but subsequent historians uncovered a birth date of March 23, 1736, which in the modern calendar system means that he was born in 1737. His parents, unknown to early biographers, were probably William Sinclair, a merchant, and Elizabeth Balfour. He reportedly attended the University of Edinburgh before being apprenticed to the renowned physician William Hunter.\n\nIn 1757, St. Clair purchased a commission in the British Army, Royal American Regiment, and came to America with Admiral Edward Boscawen's fleet for the French and Indian War. He served under General Jeffrey Amherst at the capture of Louisburg, Nova Scotia on July 26, 1758. On April 17, 1759, he received a lieutenant's commission and was assigned under the command of General James Wolfe, under whom he served at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which resulted in the capture of Quebec City.\n",
"On April 16, 1762, he resigned his commission, and, in 1764, he settled in Ligonier Valley, Pennsylvania, where he purchased land and erected mills. He was the largest landowner in Western Pennsylvania.\n\nIn 1770, St. Clair became a justice of the court, of quarter sessions and of common pleas, a member of the proprietary council, a justice, recorder, and clerk of the orphans' court, and prothonotary of Bedford and Westmoreland counties.\n\nIn 1774, the colony of Virginia took claim of the area around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and some residents of Western Pennsylvania took up arms to eject them. St. Clair issued an order for the arrest of the officer leading the Virginia troops. Lord Dunmore's War eventually settled the boundary dispute.\n",
"By the mid-1770s, St. Clair considered himself more of an American than a British subject. In January 1776, he accepted a commission in the Continental Army as a colonel of the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment. He first saw service in the later days of the Quebec invasion, where he saw action in the Battle of Trois-Rivières. He was appointed a brigadier general in August 1776, and was sent by Gen. George Washington to help organize the New Jersey militia. He took part in George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River on the night of December 25–26, 1776, before the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26. Many biographers credit St. Clair with the strategy that led to Washington's capture of Princeton, New Jersey on January 3, 1777. St. Clair was promoted to major general in February 1777.\n\nIn April 1777, St. Clair was sent to defend Fort Ticonderoga. His small garrison could not resist British General John Burgoyne's larger force in the Saratoga campaign. St. Clair was forced to retreat at the Siege of Fort Ticonderoga on July 5, 1777. He withdrew his forces and played no further part in the campaign. In 1778 he was court-martialed for the loss of Ticonderoga. The court exonerated him and he returned to duty, although he was no longer given any battlefield commands. He still saw action, however, as an aide-de-camp to General Washington, who retained a high opinion of him. St. Clair was at Yorktown when Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army.\n",
"St. Clair was a member of the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783, and was elected a delegate to the Confederation Congress, serving from November 2, 1785, until November 28, 1787. Chaos ruled the day in early 1787 with Shays's Rebellion in full force and the states refusing to settle land disputes or contribute to the now six-year-old federal government. On February 2, 1787, the delegates finally gathered into a quorum and elected St. Clair to a one-year term as President of the Continental Congress. Congress enacted its most important piece of legislation, the Northwest Ordinance, during St. Clair's tenure as president. Time was running out for the Confederation Congress, however: during St. Clair's presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was drafting a new United States Constitution, which would abolish the old Congress.\n",
"\n''A Narrative'' printed by Jane Aitken\nUnder the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory, General St. Clair was appointed governor of what is now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, along with parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota. He named Cincinnati, Ohio, after the Society of the Cincinnati, and it was there that he established his home. When the territory was divided in 1800, he served as governor of the Ohio Territory.\n\nAs Governor, he formulated Maxwell's Code (named after its printer, William Maxwell), the first written laws of the territory. He also sought to end Native American claims to Ohio land and clear the way for white settlement. In 1789, he succeeded in getting certain Indians to sign the Treaty of Fort Harmar, but many native leaders had not been invited to participate in the negotiations, or had refused to do so. Rather than settling the Indian's claims, the treaty provoked them to further resistance in what is also sometimes known as the \"Northwest Indian War\" (or \"Little Turtle's War\"). Mutual hostilities led to a campaign by General Josiah Harmar, whose 1,500 militiamen were defeated by the Indians in October 1790.\n\nIn March 1791, St. Clair succeeded Harmar as commander of the United States Army and was commissioned as a major general. He personally led a punitive expedition involving two Regular Army regiments and some militia. In October 1791 as an advance post for his campaign, Fort Jefferson (Ohio) was built under the direction of General Arthur St. Clair. Located in present-day Darke County in far western Ohio, the fort was built of wood and intended primarily as a supply depot; accordingly, it was originally named Fort Deposit. One month later, near modern-day Fort Recovery, his force advanced to the location of Indian settlements near the headwaters of the Wabash River, but on November 4 they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket. More than 600 soldiers and scores of women and children were killed in the battle, which has since borne the name \"St. Clair's Defeat\", also known as the \"Battle of the Wabash\", the \"Columbia Massacre,\" or the \"Battle of a Thousand Slain\". It remains the greatest defeat of a US Army by Native Americans in history, with about 623 American soldiers killed in action and about 50 Native Americans killed. Although an investigation exonerated him, St. Clair resigned his army commission in March 1792 at the request of President Washington, but he continued to serve as Governor of the Northwest Territory.\n\nSt.Clair signed check while Governor of Northwest Territory (1796)\nA Federalist, St. Clair hoped to see two states made of the Ohio Territory in order to increase Federalist power in Congress. However, he was resented by Ohio Democratic-Republicans for what were perceived as his partisanship, high-handedness, and arrogance in office. In 1802, his opposition to plans for Ohio statehood led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him from office as territorial governor. He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in 1803.\n\nThe first Ohio Constitution provided for a weak governor and a strong legislature, in part as a reaction to St. Clair's method of governance.\n",
"St. Clair met Phoebe Bayard, a member of one of the most prominent families in Boston, and they were married in 1760. Miss Bayard's mother's maiden name was Bowdoin and she was the sister of James Bowdoin, colonial governor of Massachusetts.\n",
"In retirement St. Clair lived with his daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family on the ridge between Ligonier and Greensburg.\n\nGeneral St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818 at the age of 81. His remains are buried under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park in downtown Greensburg. His wife Phoebe died shortly after and is buried beside him.\n",
"A portion of the Hermitage, St. Clair's home in Oak Grove, three miles north of Ligoner, Pennsylvania, was later moved to Ligonier, Pennsylvania, where it is now preserved, along with St. Clair artifacts and memorabilia at the Fort Ligonier Museum.\n\nAn American Civil War steamer was named USS ''St. Clair''.\n\nPlaces named in honor of Arthur St. Clair include:\n\nIn Pennsylvania:\n* Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania\n* St. Clairsville, Pennsylvania\n* St. Clair Township, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania\n* East St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania\n* West St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania\n* The St. Clair neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania\nIn Ohio:\n*St. Clair Township in Butler County, Ohio\n* St. Clair Township in Columbiana County, Ohio,\n* St. Clairsville, Ohio\n* Fort St. Clair in Eaton, Ohio\nOther States:\n* St. Clair County, Illinois\n* St. Clair County, Michigan\n* St. Clair County, Missouri\n* St. Clair County, Alabama\nIn Scotland:\n* The three-star St Clair Hotel in Sinclair St, Thurso, Caithness, is named after him.\n\nSt. Clair Street in Frankfort, Kentucky, was named for the general by Gen. James Wilkinson, who laid out the town that became the state capital. The street's north end is at the Old Capitol, and near its south end is the Franklin County Court House; both were designed by Gideon Shryock.\n",
";Notes\n\n\n;Books\n* Kopper, Kevin Patrick. \"Arthur St. Clair and the Struggle For Power in the Old Northwest, 1763–1803\" (Dissertation. Kent State University, 2005) online\n* \n* \n",
"\n* Ohio Memory\n* Ohio History Central\n* The Hermitage – home of Arthur St. Clair\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life and career",
"Settler in America",
"Revolutionary War",
"\"President of the United States in Congress Assembled\"",
"Northwest Territory",
"Family life",
"Death",
"Legacy",
"References",
"External links"
] | Arthur St. Clair |
[
"\n\n\n'''Ajaigarh''' or '''Adjygurh''' () is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India.\n",
"\nFlag of Ajaigarh state\nAjaigarh was the capital of a princely state of the same name during the British Raj. Ajaigarh was founded in 1765 by Guman Singh, a bundela Rajput who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of Jaitpur. After Ajaigarh was captured by the British in 1809, it became a princely state in the Bundelkhand Agency of the Central India Agency. It had an area of , and a population of 78,236 in 1901. The rulers bore the title of ''sawai maharaja''. He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-. The chief resided at the town of Nowgong, at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name. This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than 800 ft (244 m) above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. The town was often afflicted by malaria, and suffered severely from famine in 1868–1869 and 1896–1897.\n\nThe state acceded to the Government of India on 1 January 1950; the ruling chief was granted a privy purse of Rs. 74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles. All of these were revoked by the government of India in 1971, at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes. The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of Vindhya Pradesh, and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to Chhatarpur District. Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 1956.\n\nEntrance gate of Ajaigarh Palace\nInside of Ajaigarh Palace\n\n===Rulers Of Ajaygarh===\n\n Maharajadhiraja Chhatrasal : 1649–1731\n (founder ruler of many kingdoms)\n ___________________________|______________________________\n Hirdeshah Jagatraj Bhartichandra\n (Panna) (Jaitpur) (Jaso)\n ____________________________|______________________________\n Vir Singh Kirat Singh Pahar Singh (1758–1765)\n ____________________________|______________________________\n Khuman Singh Guman Singh (1765–1792) Durg Singh\n (Charkari) (Banda)(No issues) |\n |__________________Son of______|\n Bhakhat Singh :b. 1792-d. 1837\n (Founder ruler of Ajaigarh)\n _____________________________|_______________________________\n Madho Singh (r. 1837-1849) Mahipat Singh (r. 1849–1853)\n (No male issue) |\n |\n Ranjore Singh (K.C.I.E)__________Vijay Singh (R. 1853–1855)\n (born 1844; died 1919) (died early, fell from horse)\n | \n Punyapratap Singh: born 1884; died 1958 \n \nDevendra Vijay Singh :born 1913-died 1984\n (Privy Purses, titles abolished)\n",
"Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh Fort is listed among the top attractions of the region. It stands alone on a hilltop in the district of Panna and is easily accessible from Khajuraho. The fort is bordered by beautiful Vindhya Hills and provides absolutely stunning views of the Ken River. This grand fort is noted for its rich historical past and architectural beauty, which speaks volumes about the Chandela dynasty.\n\nThere is plenty to explore at the fort, which makes it a treat for history and art lovers. Reminiscent of old times, this fort has two gates (earlier there were five), two temples and two rock-cut tanks, close to the northern gate. These tanks have been named as Ganga and Yamuna.\n",
"\nFile:Ajaigarh temple on hill.jpg|Temple Chandela style 10 Century CE.\nFile:0B Ajaigarh 4 sides temple.jpg|Ajaigarh 4 sides temple 10 century CE.\nFile:Ajaigarh 4 sides temple 2nd floor.jpg|Ajaigarh 4 sides temple 2nd floor 10 Century CE.\nFile:Ajaighar pre-Paal era Ganesha on monolithic rock cut.jpg|Ajaighar pre-Paal era Ganesha on monolithic rock cut.\nFile:Ajaigarh pre-Pal Ganesha with 8 hands and snake.jpg|Ajaigarh pre-Pal Ganesha with 8 hands and snake.\nFile:Aaygarh pre-paal ganesga script.jpg|Aaygarh pre-paal ganesga script.\nFile:Ajaigarh panca mukhi lingam.jpg|Ajaigarh pancha mukhi Shiv linga.\nFile:Ajaigarh lady worshiping panchmukhi Shiva monolithic rock cut.jpg|Ajaigarh lady worshiping panchmukhi Shiva monolithic rock cut.\nFile:Ajaighar tantrik Navdurga.jpg|Ajaigarh tantrik Navdurga 1 on monolithic rock cut.\nFile:Ajaighar tantrik Navdurga on monolithic rock cut.jpg|Ajaighar tantrik Navdurga on monolithic rock cut 1.\nFile:Ajaygarh old Nagri script in the entrance gate of fort.jpg|Ajayghar old Nagri script in the entrance gate of fort.\nFile:Ajaygarh treasure sign.jpg|A monolithic rock cut at Ajaigarh fort hill with cow and treasure sign.\nFile:Ajaygarh fort Entrance script.jpg|Ajayghar fort Entrance script 10 Century CE.\nFile:Ajaygarh Alians ship.jpg|A beautiful stone carving at Ajaigarh.\nFile:Ajaygarh temple Jhaar.jpg|Ajaygarh temple Jhaar.\nFile:Ajaygarh yogi.jpg|A stone carving of yogi in the hill fort of Ajaighar.\nFile:Ajaygarh Shramanas Egyptian style rock cut.jpg|Jain shramanas.\nFile:Ajaygarh Neel Swarshwati.jpg|'Ajayghar Neel' Swarshwati with 24 Jain Tirthankaras monolithic rock cut.\nFile:Ajaygarh seven heavens of Jain.jpg|Ajaighar seven heavens of Jainism.\nFile:Ajaygarh Jain Nagababa.jpg|A 12 feet statue Shantinatha in Ajaigarh hill.\n\n",
"As of 2001 India census, Ajaigarh had a population of 13,979. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Ajaigarh has an average literacy rate of 59%, which is lower than the national average of 59.5%; with 61% of the males and 39% of females literate. 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.\n",
"'''Ajaigarh Fort''' was sold to Oberoi Group and they plan to develop a tiger resort there.\n",
"\n",
"\n* Ajaigarh Photo Gallery\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
" Ajaigarh Fort ",
"Gallery",
"Demographics",
"Cultural references",
"References",
"External links"
] | Ajaigarh |
[
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Ajanta Caves''' in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state of India are about 29 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments which date from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 or 650 CE. The caves include paintings and rock cut sculptures described as among the finest surviving examples of ancient Indian art, particularly expressive paintings that present emotion through gesture, pose and form.\n\nAccording to UNESCO, these are masterpieces of Buddhist religious art that influenced Indian art that followed. The caves were built in two phases, the first group starting around the 2nd century BC, while the second group of caves built around 400–650 CE according to older accounts, or all in a brief period of 460 to 480 according to Walter M. Spink. The site is a protected monument in the care of the Archaeological Survey of India, and since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\n\nThe Ajanta Caves constitute ancient monasteries and worship halls of different Buddhist traditions carved into a 250 feet wall of rock. The caves also present paintings depicting the past lives and rebirths of the Buddha, pictorial tales from Aryasura's ''Jatakamala'', as well as rock-cut sculptures of Buddhist deities in vogue between the 2nd century BCE and 5th century CE. Textual records suggest that these caves served as a monsoon retreat for monks, as well as a resting site for merchants and pilgrims in ancient India. While vivid colours and mural wall painting were abundant in Indian history as evidenced by historical records, Caves 16, 17, 1 and 2 of Ajanta form the largest corpus of surviving ancient Indian wall-painting.\n\nPanoramic view of Ajanta Caves from the nearby hill\nAjanta is famous for its ancient Buddhist paintings.\nThe Ajanta Caves site are mentioned in the memoirs of several medieval era Chinese Buddhist travelers to India and by a Mughal era official of Akbar era in early 17th century. They were covered by jungle until accidentally \"discovered\" and brought to the Western attention in 1819 by a colonial British officer on a tiger hunting party. The Ajanta caves are located on the side of a rocky cliff that is on the north side of a U-shaped gorge on the small river Waghur, in the Deccan plateau. Further round the gorge are a number of waterfalls, which when the river is high are audible from outside the caves.\n\nWith the Ellora Caves, Ajanta is the major tourist attraction of Maharashtra. They are about from the city of Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India, from Pachora, from the city of Aurangabad, and east-northeast from Mumbai. They are from the Ellora Caves, which contain Hindu, Jain as well as Buddhist caves, the last dating from a period similar to Ajanta. The Ajanta style is also found in the Ellora Caves and other sites such as the Elephanta Caves and the cave temples of Karnataka.\n",
"Map of Ajanta Caves\nThe Ajanta Caves are generally agreed to have been made in three distinct periods, the first belonging to the 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE, and second period that followed several centuries later.\n\nThe caves consist of 36 identifiable foundations, some of them discovered after the original numbering of the caves from 1 through 29. The later identified caves have been suffixed with the letters of the alphabet, such as 15A identified between originally numbered caves 15 and 16. The cave numbering is a convention of convenience, and has nothing to do with chronological order of their construction.\n\n=== Caves of the first (Satavahana) period ===\nCave 9, a first period Hinayana style worship hall with stupa but no idols.\nThe earliest group constructed consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A. This grouping and that they belong to the Hinayana (Theravada) tradition of Buddhism is generally accepted by scholars, but there are differing opinions on which century the early caves were built. According to Walter Spink, they were made during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE, probably under the patronage of the Hindu Satavahana dynasty (230 BCE – c. 220 CE) who ruled the region. Other datings prefer the period of the Maurya Empire (300 BCE to 100 BCE). Of these, caves 9 and 10 are stupa containing worship halls of ''chaitya-griha'' form, and caves 12, 13, and 15A are ''vihāras'' (see the architecture section below for descriptions of these types).\n\nAccording to Spink, once the Satavahana period caves were made, the site was not further developed for a considerable period until the mid-5th century. However, the early caves were in use during this dormant period, and Buddhist pilgrims visited the site according to the records left by Chinese pilgrim Fa Hien around 400 CE.\n\n=== Caves of the later, or Vākāṭaka, period ===\nThe second phase of construction at the Ajanta Caves site began in the 5th century. For a long time it was thought that the later caves were made over an extended period from the 4th to the 7th centuries CE, but in recent decades a series of studies by the leading expert on the caves, Walter M. Spink, have argued that most of the work took place over the very brief period from 460 to 480 CE, during the reign of Hindu Emperor Harishena of the Vākāṭaka dynasty. This view has been criticised by some scholars, but is now broadly accepted by most authors of general books on Indian art, for example Huntington and Harle.\n\nCave 26, a second period Mahayana style worship hall with stupa and idols.\nThe second phase is attributed to the theistic Mahāyāna, or Greater Vehicle tradition of Buddhism. Caves of the second period are 1–8, 11, 14–29, some possibly extensions of earlier caves. Caves 19, 26, and 29 are ''chaitya-grihas'', the rest ''viharas''. The most elaborate caves were produced in this period, which included some refurbishing and repainting of the early caves.\n\nSpink states that it is possible to establish dating for this period with a very high level of precision; a fuller account of his chronology is given below. Although debate continues, Spink's ideas are increasingly widely accepted, at least in their broad conclusions. The Archaeological Survey of India website still presents the traditional dating: \"The second phase of paintings started around 5th – 6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two centuries\".\n\nAccording to Spink, the construction activity at the incomplete Ajanta Caves was abandoned by wealthy patrons in about 480 CE, a few years after the death of Harishena. However, states Spink, the caves appear to have been in use for a period of time as evidenced by the wear of the pivot holes of caves constructed close to 480 CE. According to Richard Cohen, 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuanzang's reports about the caves, and the scattered graffiti from the medieval centuries uncovered at the site suggests that the Ajanta Caves were known and probably in use, but without a stable or steady Buddhist community presence at the site. The Ajanta caves are mentioned in the 17th-century text ''Ain-i-Akbari'' by Abu al-Fazl, as twenty four rock-cut cave temples each with remarkable idols.\n\n=== Rediscovery by the Western world ===\n\nOn 28 April 1819, a British officer named John K Smith, of the 28th Cavalry, while hunting tiger, \"discovered\" the entrance to Cave No. 10 when a local shepherd boy guided him to the location and the door. The caves were well known by locals already. Captain Smith went to a nearby village and asked the villagers to come to the site with axes, spears, torches and drums, to cut down the tangled jungle growth that made entering the cave difficult. He then vandalised the wall by scratching his name and the date over the painting of a bodhisattva. Since he stood on a five-foot high pile of rubble collected over the years, the inscription is well above the eye-level gaze of an adult today. A paper on the caves by William Erskine was read to the Bombay Literary Society in 1822.\n\nName and date inscribed by John Smith after he found Cave 10 in 1819.\nWithin a few decades, the caves became famous for their \"exotic\" setting, impressive architecture, and above all their exceptional and unique paintings. A number of large projects to copy the paintings were made in the century after rediscovery. In 1848, the Royal Asiatic Society established the \"Bombay Cave Temple Commission\" to clear, tidy and record the most important rock-cut sites in the Bombay Presidency, with John Wilson as president. In 1861 this became the nucleus of the new Archaeological Survey of India.\n\nDuring the colonial era, the Ajanta site was in the territory of the princely state of the Hyderabad and not British India. In early 1920s, the Nizam of Hyderabad appointed people to restore the artwork, converted the site into a museum and built a road to bring tourists to the site for a fee. These efforts resulted in early mismanagement, states Richard Cohen, and hastened the deterioration of the site. Post-independence, the state government of Maharashtra built arrival, transport, facilities and better site management. The modern Visitor Center has good parking facilities and public conveniences and ASI operated buses run at regular intervals from Visitor Center to the caves.\n\nThe Ajanta Caves, along with the Ellora Caves, have become the most popular tourist destination in Maharashtra, and are often crowded at holiday times, increasing the threat to the caves, especially the paintings. In 2012, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation announced plans to add to the ASI visitor centre at the entrance complete replicas of caves 1, 2, 16 & 17 to reduce crowding in the originals, and enable visitors to receive a better visual idea of the paintings, which are dimly-lit and hard to read in the caves.\n",
"\nMural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. Several fragments of murals preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 9 and 11) are effectively unique survivals of ancient painting in India from this period, and \"show that by Sātavāhana times, if not earlier, the Indian painters had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups of people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars\".\n\nSasanian embassy to Pulakesin II (610–642 CE), or simply a genre scene during the Vakataka Dynasty if the 460-480 CE dating is retained (photograph and drawing).\nFour of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which, states James Harle, \"have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist\", and represent \"the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art\". They fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently later paintings in Caves 1 and 2. The latter group were thought to be a century or more later than the others, but the revised chronology proposed by Spink would place them in the 5th century as well, perhaps contemporary with it in a more progressive style, or one reflecting a team from a different region. The Ajanta frescos are classical paintings and the work of confident artists, without cliches, rich and full. They are luxurious, sensuous and celebrate physical beauty, aspects that early Western observers felt were shockingly out of place in these caves presumed to be meant for religious worship and ascetic monastic life.\n\nThe paintings are in \"dry fresco\", painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into wet plaster. All the paintings appear to be the work of painters supported by discriminating connoisseurship and sophisticated patrons from an urban atmosphere. We know from literary sources that painting was widely practised and appreciated in the Gupta period. Unlike much Indian mural painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre. The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture. The paintings in cave 1, which according to Spink was commissioned by Harisena himself, concentrate on those Jataka tales which show previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather than as deer or elephant or another Jataka animal. The scenes depict the Buddha as about to renounce the royal life.\n\nIn general the later caves seem to have been painted on finished areas as excavating work continued elsewhere in the cave, as shown in caves 2 and 16 in particular. According to Spink's account of the chronology of the caves, the abandonment of work in 478 after a brief busy period accounts for the absence of painting in places including cave 4 and the shrine of cave 17, the later being plastered in preparation for paintings that were never done.\n\n=== Copies ===\nDancing girl in Ajanta fresco, a 2012 photograph (left) and Robert Gill's copy in 19th-century.\n\nLady Herringham (1915) right\nThe paintings have deteriorated significantly since they were rediscovered, and a number of 19th-century copies and drawings are important for a complete understanding of the works. A number of attempts to copy the Ajanta paintings began in the 19th-century for European and Japanese museums. Some of these works have later been lost in natural and fire disasters. In 1846 for example, Major Robert Gill, an Army officer from Madras Presidency and a painter, was appointed by the Royal Asiatic Society to make copies of the frescoes on the cave walls. Gill worked on his painting at the site from 1844 to 1863. He made 27 copies of large sections of murals, but all but four were destroyed in a fire at the Crystal Palace in London in 1866, where they were on display. Gill returned to the site, and recommenced his labours, replicating the murals until his death in 1875.\n\nAnother attempt was made in 1872 when the Bombay Presidency commissioned John Griffiths to work with his students to make copies of Ajanta paintings, again for shipping to England. They worked on this for thirteen years and some 300 canvases were produced, many of which were displayed at the Imperial Institute on Exhibition Road in London, one of the forerunners of the Victoria and Albert Museum. But in 1885 another fire destroyed over a hundred of the paintings in storage in a wing of the museum. The V&A still has 166 paintings surviving from both sets, though none have been on permanent display since 1955. The largest are some 3 × 6 metres. A conservation project was undertaken on about half of them in 2006, also involving the University of Northumbria. Griffith and his students had unfortunately painted many of the paintings with \"cheap varnish\" in order to make them easier to see, which has added to the deterioration of the originals, as has, according to Spink and others, recent cleaning by the ASI.\n\nA further set of copies were made between 1909 and 1911 by Christiana Herringham (Lady Herringham) and a group of students from the Calcutta School of Art that included the future Indian Modernist painter Nandalal Bose. The copies were published in full colour as the first publication of London's fledgling India Society. More than the earlier copies, these aimed to fill in holes and damage to recreate the original condition rather than record the state of the paintings as she was seeing them. According to one writer, unlike the paintings created by her predecessors Griffiths and Gill, whose copies were influenced by British Victorian styles of painting, those of the Herringham expedition preferred an 'Indian Renascence' aesthetic of the type pioneered by Abanindranath Tagore.\n\nEarly photographic surveys were made by Robert Gill, who learnt to use a camera from about 1856, and whose photos, including some using stereoscopy, were used in books by him and Fergusson (many are available online from the British Library), then Victor Goloubew in 1911 and E.L. Vassey, who took the photos in the four volume study of the caves by Ghulam Yazdani (published 1930–1955).\n\nAnother attempt to make copies of the murals was made by the Japanese artist Arai Kampō (荒井寛方:1878–1945) after being invited by Rabindranath Tagore to India to teach Japanese painting techniques. He worked on making copies with tracings on Japanese paper from 1916 to 1918 and his work was conserved at Tokyo Imperial University until the materials perished during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.\n\nFile:Indischer Maler des 6. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|A painting from Cave 1. This cave features, states Spink, superb murals and imperial quality paintings.\nFile:Aurangabad - Ajanta Caves (55).JPG|Cave 2, showing the extensive paint loss of many areas. It was never finished by its artists, and shows Vidhura Jataka.\nFile:Ajanta cave 17, frescoes above a lintel.JPG|Cave 17, Buddha in his past lives, couples and their everyday life, and decorative motifs.\nFile:Coming Of Sinhala (Mural At Ajanta In Cave No 17).jpg|Section of the mural in Cave 17, the 'coming of Sinhala'. The prince (Prince Vijaya) is seen in both groups of elephants and riders.\nFile:Exposition Clemenceau, le Tigre et l'Asie (MNAA-Guimet, Paris) (13888446659).jpg|Copy of Ajanta painting, in Musée Guimet, Paris\nFile:Hamsa jâtaka, Ajanta, India.jpg|Hamsa jâtaka, cave 17. This painting probably shows one of the previous lives of the Buddha\n\n\n=== Significance ===\nThe Ajanta Caves painting are a significant source of socio-economic information in ancient India. The Cave 1, for example, shows some Sassanian (or Persian) characters, as do other paintings that states Spink, are \"filled with such foreign\" looking types. This likely reflects merchants and visitors from the flourishing trade routes of that age.\n",
"\n=== Site ===\nAjanta Caves have been carved into a massive rock of the Deccan plateau.\nThe caves are carved out of flood basalt rock of a cliff, part of the Deccan Traps formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the end of the Cretaceous geological period. The rock is layered horizontally, and somewhat variable in quality. This variation within the rock layers required the artists to amend their carving methods and plans in places. The inhomogeneity in the rock have also led to cracks and collapses in the centuries that followed, as with the lost portico to cave 1. Excavation began by cutting a narrow tunnel at roof level, which was expanded downwards and outwards; as evidenced by some of the incomplete caves such as the partially-built ''vihara'' caves 21 through 24 and the abandoned incomplete cave 28.\n\nThe sculpture artists likely worked at both excavating the rocks and making the intricate carvings of pillars, roof and idols; further, the sculpture and painting work inside a cave were an integrated parallel tasks. A grand gateway to the site was carved, at the apex of the gorge's horseshoe between caves 15 and 16, as approached from the river, and it is decorated with elephants on either side and a nāga, or protective Naga (snake) deity. Similar methods and application of artist talent is observed in other cave temples of India, although many with very different themes such as those from Hinduism and Jainism. These include the Ellora caves, Ghototkacha caves, Elephanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Badami Caves and Aurangabad Caves.\n\nThe caves from the first period seem to have been paid for by a number of different patrons to gain merit, with several inscriptions recording the donation of particular portions of a single cave. The later caves were each commissioned as a complete unit by a single patron from the local rulers or their court elites, again for merit in Buddhist afterlife beliefs as evidenced by inscriptions such as those in Cave 17. After the death of Harisena, smaller donors motivated by getting merit added small \"shrinelets\" between the caves or add statues to existing caves, and some two hundred of these \"intrusive\" additions were made in sculpture, with a further number of intrusive paintings, up to three hundred in cave 10 alone.\n\n=== Monasteries ===\nSquare-principle plan of Cave 6 two levels, a ''vihara'' (monastery) layout\nThe majority of the caves are ''vihara'' halls with symmetrical square plans. To each vihara hall are attached smaller square dormitory cells cut into the walls. A vast majority of the caves were carved in the second period, wherein a shrine or sanctuary is appended at the rear of the cave, centred on a large statue of the Buddha, along with exuberantly detailed reliefs and deities near him as well as on the pillars and walls, all carved out of the natural rock. This change reflects the shift from Hinayana to Mahāyāna Buddhism. These caves are often called monasteries.\n\nThe central square space of the interior of the viharas is defined by square columns forming a more or less square open area. Outside this are long rectangular aisles on each side, forming a kind of cloister. Along the side and rear walls are a number of small cells entered by a narrow doorway; these are roughly square, and have small niches on their back walls. Originally they had wooden doors. The centre of the rear wall has a larger shrine-room behind, containing a large Buddha statue. The viharas of the earlier period are much simpler, and lack shrines. Spink places the change to a design with a shrine to the middle of the second period, with many caves being adapted to add a shrine in mid-excavation, or after the original phase.\n\nThe plan of Cave 1 (right) shows one of the largest viharas, but is fairly typical of the later group. Many others, such as Cave 16, lack the vestibule to the shrine, which leads straight off the main hall. Cave 6 is two viharas, one above the other, connected by internal stairs, with sanctuaries on both levels.\n\n=== Worship halls ===\n \n\nThe other type of main hall architecture is the narrower rectangular plan with high arched ceiling type ''chaitya-griha'' – literally, \"the house of stupa\". This hall is longitudinally divided into a nave and two narrower side aisles separated by a symmetrical row of pillars, with a stupa in the apse. The stupa is surrounded by pillars and a concentric walking space for circumambulation. Some of the caves have elaborate carved entrances, some with large windows over the door to admit light. There is often a colonnaded porch or verandah, with another space inside the doors running the width of the cave. The oldest worship halls at Ajanta were built in the 2nd to 1st century BCE, the newest ones in late 5th century CE, and the architecture of both resembles the architecture of a Christian church, but without the crossing or chapel chevette. The Ajanta Caves follow the Cathedral-style architecture found in still older rock-cut cave carvings of ancient India, such as the Lomas Rishi Cave of the Ajivikas near Gaya in Bihar dated to the 3rd century BCE. These chaitya-griha are called worship or prayer halls.\n\nThe four completed ''chaitya'' halls are caves 9 and 10 from the early period, and caves 19 and 26 from the later period of construction. All follow the typical form found elsewhere, with high ceilings and a central \"nave\" leading to the stupa, which is near the back, but allows walking behind it, as walking around stupas was (and remains) a common element of Buddhist worship (''pradakshina''). The later two have high ribbed roofs carved into the rock, which reflect timber forms, and the earlier two are thought to have used actual timber ribs and are now smooth, the original wood presumed to have perished. The two later halls have a rather unusual arrangement (also found in Cave 10 at Ellora) where the stupa is fronted by a large relief sculpture of the Buddha, standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26. Cave 29 is a late and very incomplete ''chaitya'' hall.\n\nThe form of columns in the work of the first period is very plain and un-embellished, with both ''chaitya'' halls using simple octagonal columns, which were later painted with images of the Buddha, people and monks in robes. In the second period columns were far more varied and inventive, often changing profile over their height, and with elaborate carved capitals, often spreading wide. Many columns are carved over all their surface with floral motifs and Mahayana deities, some fluted and others carved with decoration all over, as in cave 1.\n",
"View into the sanctuary of cave 1 from the central hall. The Buddha in the shrine room is seen through the aisle and vestibule.\n\n=== Cave 1 ===\nCave 1 was built on the eastern end of the horse-shoe shaped scarp and is now the first cave the visitor encounters. This cave, when first made, would have been a less prominent position, right at the end of the row. According to Spink, it is one of the last caves to have been excavated, when the best sites had been taken and was never fully inaugurated for worship by the dedication of the Buddha image in the central shrine. This is shown by the absence of sooty deposits from butter lamps on the base of the shrine image, and the lack of damage to the paintings that would have happened if the garland-hooks around the shrine had been in use for any period of time. Although there is no epigraphic evidence, Spink believes that the Vākāţaka Emperor Harishena was the benefactor of the work, and this is reflected in the emphasis on imagery of royalty in the cave, with those Jataka tales being selected that tell of those previous lives of the Buddha in which he was royal.\n\nThe cliff has a more steep slope here than at other caves, so to achieve a tall grand facade it was necessary to cut far back into the slope, giving a large courtyard in front of the facade. There was originally a columned portico in front of the present facade, which can be seen \"half-intact in the 1880s\" in pictures of the site, but this fell down completely and the remains, despite containing fine carvings, were carelessly thrown down the slope into the river, from where they have been lost.\nCave 1, porch: Nagendra panel flanked by yaksa panels\n\nThis cave has one of the most elaborate carved façades, with relief sculptures on entablature and ridges, and most surfaces embellished with decorative carving. There are scenes carved from the life of the Buddha as well as a number of decorative motifs. A two pillared portico, visible in the 19th-century photographs, has since perished. The cave has a front-court with cells fronted by pillared vestibules on either side. These have a high plinth level. The cave has a porch with simple cells on both ends. The absence of pillared vestibules on the ends suggests that the porch was not excavated in the latest phase of Ajanta when pillared vestibules had become a norm. Most areas of the porch were once covered with murals, of which many fragments remain, especially on the ceiling. There are three doorways: a central doorway and two side doorways. Two square windows were carved between the doorways to brighten the interiors.\n\nEach wall of the hall inside is nearly long and high. Twelve pillars make a square colonnade inside supporting the ceiling, and creating spacious aisles along the walls. There is a shrine carved on the rear wall to house an impressive seated image of the Buddha, his hands being in the ''dharmachakrapravartana mudra.'' There are four cells on each of the left, rear, and the right walls, though due to rock fault there are none at the ends of the rear aisle.\n\nThe walls and ceilings of Cave 1 are covered with paintings in a fair state of preservation, though the full scheme was never completed. The scenes depicted are mostly didactic, devotional, and ornamental, with scenes from the Jataka stories of the Buddha's former lives as a bodhisattva), the life of the Gautama Buddha, and those of his veneration. The two most famous individual painted images at Ajanta are the two over-life-size figures of the protective bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani on either side of the entrance to the Buddha shrine on the wall of the rear aisle (see illustrations above).\n\nCave 1 also features a fresco with characters with foreign looking faces and dresses. One of these shows Sassanian (or Persian) characters bowing before an Indian king. According to Spink, James Fergusson, a 19th-century architectural historian, had decided that this scene corresponded to the Persian ambassador in 625 CE to the court of the Hindu Chalukya king Pulakeshin II. An alternate theory has been that the fresco represents a Hindu ambassador visiting the Persian king Khusrau II in 625 CE, a theory that Fergusson disagreed with. These assumptions by colonial British era art historians, state Spink and other scholars, has been responsible for wrongly dating this painting to the 7th century, when in fact this reflects an incomplete Harisena-era painting of a Jataka tale with the representation of trade between India and distant lands such as Sassanian near East that was common by the 5th century.\n\n=== Cave 2 ===\nCave 2 is known for its feminine focus in its carvings and paintings. Above two females in Cave 2 fresco.\nCave 2, adjacent to Cave 1, is known for the paintings that have been preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars. It looks similar to Cave 1 and is in a better state of preservation. This cave is best known for its feminine focus, intricate rock carvings and paint artwork yet it is incomplete and lacks consistency. One of the 5th-century frescoes in this cave also shows children at a school, with those in the front rows paying attention to the teacher, while those in the back row are shown distracted and acting.\n\nCave 2 was started in the 460s, but mostly carved between 475 and 477 CE, probably sponsored and influenced by a woman closely related to emperor Harisena. It has a porch quite different from Cave 1. Even the façade carvings seem to be different. The cave is supported by robust pillars, ornamented with designs. The front porch consists of cells supported by pillared vestibules on both ends.\n\nThe hall has four colonnades which are supporting the ceiling and surrounding a square in the center of the hall. Each arm or colonnade of the square is parallel to the respective walls of the hall, making an aisle in between. The colonnades have rock-beams above and below them. The capitals are carved and painted with various decorative themes that include ornamental, human, animal, vegetative, and semi-divine motifs. Major carvings include that of goddess Hariti. She is a Buddhist deity who originally was the demoness of smallpox and a child eater, who the Buddha converted into a guardian goddess of fertility, easy child birth and one who protects babies.\n\nThe paintings on the ceilings and walls of this porch have been widely published. They depict the Jataka tales that are stories of the Buddha's life in former existences as Bodhisattva. Just as the stories illustrated in cave 1 emphasise kingship, those in cave 2 show many noble and powerful women in prominent roles, leading to suggestions that the patron was an unknown woman. The porch's rear wall has a doorway in the center, which allows entrance to the hall. On either side of the door is a square-shaped window to brighten the interior.\n\nPaintings appear on almost every surface of the cave except for the floor. At various places, the artwork has become eroded due to decay and human interference. Therefore, many areas of the painted walls, ceilings, and pillars are fragmentary. The painted narratives of the Jataka tales are depicted only on the walls, which demanded the special attention of the devotee. They are didactic in nature, meant to inform the community about the Buddha's teachings and life through successive rebirths. Their placement on the walls required the devotee to walk through the aisles and 'read' the narratives depicted in various episodes. The narrative episodes are depicted one after another although not in a linear order. Their identification has been a core area of research since the site's rediscovery in 1819. Dieter Schlingloff's identifications have updated our knowledge on the subject.\n\n=== Cave 4 ===\nThe Buddha in a preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvas, Cave 4\nThe Archaeological Survey of India board outside the caves gives the following detail about cave 4:\"This is the largest monastery planned on a grandiose scale but was never finished. An inscription on the pedestal of the buddha's image mentions that it was a gift from a person named ''Mathura'' and paleographically belongs to 6th century A.D. It consists of a verandah, a hypostylar hall, sanctum with an antechamber and a series of unfinished cells. The rear wall of the verandah contains the panel of Litany of Avalokiteśvara\". Spink, in contrast, dates this along with all other caves to pre-480 CE period.\n\nThe sanctuary houses a colossal image of the Buddha in preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvas and celestial nymphs hovering above.\n\n=== Caves 9–10 ===\nEntrance of cave no. 9.\nCaves 9 and 10 are the two ''chaitya'' halls from the first period of construction, though both were also undergoing an uncompleted reworking at the end of the second period. Cave 10 was perhaps originally of the 1st century BCE and cave 9 about a hundred years later. The small \"shrinelets\" called caves 9A to 9D and 10A also date from the second period, and were commissioned by individuals.\n\nThe paintings in cave 10 include some surviving from the early period, many from an incomplete programme of modernisation in the second period, and a very large number of smaller late intrusive images for votive purposes, around the 479–480 CE, nearly all Buddhas and many with donor inscriptions from individuals. These mostly avoided over-painting the \"official\" programme and after the best positions were used up are tucked away in less prominent positions not yet painted; the total of these (including those now lost) was probably over 300, and the hands of many different artists are visible.\n\n=== Cave 17 ===\nCave 19 is known for the grandeur of its façade sponsored by king Upendragupta, the standing Buddhas likely intrusively added in 479 CE by others.\nCave 17 along with Cave 16 with two great stone elephants at the entrance and Cave 26 with sleeping Buddha, were some of the many caves sponsored by the Hindu Vakataka prime minister Varahadeva. Cave 17 had additional donors such as the local king Upendragupta, as evidenced by the inscription therein. It features a large and most sophisticated vihara design, along with some of the best-preserved and well known paintings of all the caves. The Vihara includes a colonnaded porch, a number of pillars each with a distinct style, a peristyle design for the interior hall, a shrine antechamber located deep in the cave, larger windows and doors for more light, along with extensive integrated carvings of Indian gods and goddesses. The grand scale of the carving also introduced errors of taking out too much rock to shape the walls, states Spink, which led to the cave being splayed out toward the rear.\n\nThe paintings in Cave 17 include those of the Buddha in various styles, Avalokitesvara, frescoes with the story of Udayin and Gupta, the story of Nalagiri, the Visvantara Jataka, the Hamsa Jataka, the Wheel of life, a panel celebrating various ancient Indian musicians, a panel that tells of Prince Simhala’s expedition to Sri Lanka. This includes details of a shipwreck and the escape from ogresses by a flying horse. Other notable paintings include a princess applying makeup, lovers in scenes of dalliance, and a wine drinking scene of a couple with the woman and man amorously seated, while attendants watch them.\n\n=== Other caves ===\nthumb\nSitting Buddha statue in Cave 16Cave 3 is merely a start of an excavation; according to Spink it was begun right at the end of the final period of work and soon abandoned. Caves 5 and 6 are ''viharas'', the latter on two floors, that were late works of which only the lower floor of cave 6 was ever finished. The upper floor of cave 6 has many private votive sculptures, and a shrine Buddha, but is otherwise unfinished. Cave 7 has a grand facade with two porticos but, perhaps because of faults in the rock, which posed problems in many caves, was never taken very deep into the cliff, and consists only of the two porticos and a shrine room with antechamber, with no central hall. Some cells were fitted in.\n\nCave 8 was long thought to date to the first period of construction, but Spink sees it as perhaps the earliest cave from the second period, its shrine an \"afterthought\". The statue may have been loose rather than carved from the living rock, as it has now vanished. The cave was painted, but only traces remain.\nCave 9 was found between Cave 15 and 16 during debris clearance. It is a small vihara with a narrow door opening into courtyard having three cells in each wall.\n",
"Walter M. Spink has over recent decades developed a very precise and circumstantial chronology for the second period of work on the site, which unlike earlier scholars, he places entirely in the 5th century. This is based on evidence such as the inscriptions and artistic style, dating of nearby cave temple sites, comparative chronology of the dynasties, combined with the many uncompleted elements of the caves. He believes the earlier group of caves, which like other scholars he dates only approximately, to the period \"between 100 BCE – 100 CE\", were at some later point completely abandoned and remained so \"for over three centuries\". This changed during the Hindu emperor Harishena of the Vakataka Dynasty, who reigned from 460 to his death in 477, who sponsored numerous new caves during his reign. Harisena's rule extended the Central Indian Vakataka Empire to include a stretch of the east coast of India; the Gupta Empire ruled northern India at the same period, and the Pallava dynasty much of the south.\nPanoramic view from \"The Viewpoint\" above the caves; the cave numbers count up from right to left\n\nAccording to Spink, Harisena encouraged a group of associates, including his prime minister Varahadeva and Upendragupta, the sub-king in whose territory Ajanta was, to dig out new caves, which were individually commissioned, some containing inscriptions recording the donation. This activity began in many caves simultaneously about 462. This activity was mostly suspended in 468 because of threats from the neighbouring Asmaka kings. Thereafter work continued on only Caves 1, Harisena's own commission, and 17–20, commissioned by Upendragupta. In 472 the situation was such that work was suspended completely, in a period that Spink calls \"the Hiatus\", which lasted until about 475, by which time the Asmakas had replaced Upendragupta as the local rulers.\n\nWork was then resumed, but again disrupted by Harisena's death in 477, soon after which major excavation ceased, except at cave 26, which the Asmakas were sponsoring themselves. The Asmakas launched a revolt against Harisena's son, which brought about the end of the Vakataka Dynasty. In the years 478–480 CE major excavation by important patrons was replaced by a rash of \"intrusions\" – statues added to existing caves, and small shrines dotted about where there was space between them. These were commissioned by less powerful individuals, some monks, who had not previously been able to make additions to the large excavations of the rulers and courtiers. They were added to the facades, the return sides of the entrances, and to walls inside the caves. According to Spink, \"After 480, not a single image was ever made again at the site\".\n\nSpink does not use \"circa\" in his dates, but says that \"one should allow a margin of error of one year or perhaps even two in all cases\".\n\n=== Role of Hindus in building Buddhist caves ===\nThe Ajanta Caves were built in a period when both the Buddha and the Hindu gods were simultaneously revered in Indian culture. According to Spink and other scholars, not only the Ajanta Caves but other nearby cave temples were sponsored and built by Hindus. This is evidenced by inscriptions wherein the role as well as the Hindu heritage of the donor is proudly proclaimed. According to Spink,\n\n\n",
"\nThe Ajanta paintings, or more likely the general style they come from, influenced painting in Tibet and Sri Lanka.\n\nThe rediscovery of ancient Indian paintings at Ajanta provided Indian artists examples from ancient India to follow. Nandalal Bose experimented with techniques to follow the ancient style which allowed him to develop his unique style. Abanindranath Tagore and Syed Thajudeen also used the Ajanta paintings for inspiration.\n",
"\n* Dharashiv Caves\n* Barabar Caves\n* Shivleni Caves, Ambajogai\n",
"\n",
"* \"ASI\": Archaeological Survey of India website, with a concise entry on the Caves, accessed 20 October 2012\n* Cohen, Richard S. ''Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity''. (Oxford and New York: Routledge, 2006)\n* Gordon, Sophie (2011), ''Monumental visions: architectural photography in India, 1840–1901'', PhD thesis, SOAS, University of London, PDF available\n*\n*\n*Nagaraju, S. ''Buddhist Architecture of Western India'' (Delhi: 1981)\n*Singh, Rajesh K. ''An Introduction to the Ajanta Caves'' (Baroda: Hari Sena Press, 2012). \n*\n*\n*\n",
"\n*Burgess, James and Fergusson J. ''Cave Temples of India.'' (London: W.H. Allen & Co., 1880. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd., Delhi, 2005). \n*Burgess, James, and Indraji, Bhagwanlal. ''Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, Memoirs, 10 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1881).\n*Burgess, James. ''Buddhist Cave Temples and Their Inscriptions'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, 4 (London: Trubner & Co., 1883; Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1964).\n*Burgess, James. “Notes on the Bauddha Rock Temples of Ajanta, Their Paintings and Sculptures,” Archaeological Survey of Western India, 9 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1879).\n*Behl, Benoy K. ''The Ajanta Caves'' (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998).\n*Cohen, Richard S. “Ajanta’s Inscriptions.” In Walter M. Spink, ''Ajanta: History And Development, volume 2: Arguments About Ajanta'' (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2006), pp. 273–339.\n*Cohen, Richard S. “Nāga, Yaksinī, Buddha: Local Deities and Local Buddhism at Ajanta,” ''History of Religions''. 37/4 (May 1998): 360–400.\n*Cohen, Richard S. “Problems in the Writing of Ajanta’s History: The Epigraphic Evidence,” ''Indo-Iranian Journal''. 40/2 (April 1997): 125–48.\n*Cohen, Richard Scott. ''Setting the Three Jewels: The Complex Culture of Buddhism at the Ajanta Caves.'' A Ph.D. dissertation (Asian Languages and Cultures: Buddhist Studies, University of Michigan, 1995).\n*Cowell, E.B. ''The Jataka,'' I-VI (Cambridge: Cambridge, 1895; reprint, 1907).\n*Dhavalikar, M.K. ''Late Hinayana Caves of Western India'' (Pune: 1984).\n*Griffiths, J. ''Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta,'' 2 vols. (London: 1896–1897).\n*Halder, Asit Kumar. \"AJANTA\" Edited and annotated by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul, with a Foreword by Gautam Halder LALMATI. Kolkata. 2009\n*Kramrisch, Stella. ''A Survey of Painting in the Deccan'' (Calcutta and London: The India Society in co-operation with the Dept. of Archaeology, 1937). Reproduced: “Ajanta,” ''Exploring India’s Sacred Art: Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch,'' ed. Miller, Barbara Stoler (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 1983), pp. 273–307; reprint (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1994), pp. 273–307.\n*Majumdar, R.C. and A.S. Altekar, eds. ''The Vakataka-Gupta Age.'' New History of Indian People Series, VI (Benares: Motilal Banarasidass, 1946; reprint, Delhi: 1960).\n*Mirashi, V.V. “Historical Evidence in Dandin’s Dasakumaracharita,” ''Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute'', 24 (1945), 20ff. Reproduced: Studies in Indology, 1 (Nagpur: Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal, 1960), pp. 164–77.\n*Mirashi, V.V. ''Inscription of the Vakatakas''. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Series, 5 (Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India, 1963).\n*Mirashi, V.V. ''The Ghatotkacha Cave Inscriptions with a Note on Ghatotkacha Cave Temples by Srinivasachar, P''. (Hyderabad: Archaeological Department, 1952).\n*Mirashi, V.V. ''Vakataka inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta''. Hyderabad Archaeological Series, 14 (Calcutta: Baptist mission Press for the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizam’s Dominions, 1941).\n*Mitra, Debala. ''Ajanta'', 8th ed. (Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1980).\n*Parimoo, Ratan; et al. ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', 2 vols (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991).\n*Schlingloff, Dieter. ''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 1; Narrative Wall Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999)\n*Schlingloff, Dieter. ''Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations'' (New Delhi: 1987).\n*Shastri, Ajay Mitra, ed. ''The Age of the Vakatakas'' (New Delhi: Harman, 1992).\n*Singh, Rajesh Kumar. ‘The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta,’ ''South Asian Studies'' (London: March 2012), vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 37–68.\n*Singh, Rajesh Kumar. ‘Buddhabhadra’s Dedicatory Inscription at Ajanta: A Review,’ in ''Pratnakirti: Recent Studies in Indian Epigraphy, History, Archaeology, and Art'', 2 vols, Professor Shrinivas S. Ritti Felicitation volume, ed. by Shriniwas V. Padigar and Shivanand V (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 2012), vol. 1, pp. 34–46.\n*Singh, Rajesh Kumar, et al. ''Ajanta: Digital Encyclopaedia'' CD-Rom (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts, 2005).\n*Singh, Rajesh Kumar. “Enumerating the Sailagrhas of Ajanta,” ''Journal of the Asiatic Society of Mumbai'' 82, 2009: 122–26.\n*Singh, Rajesh Kumar. “Ajanta: Cave 8 Revisited,” ''Jnana-Pravah Research Journal'' 12, 2009: 68–80.\n*Singh, Rajesh Kumar. “Some Problems in Fixing the Date of Ajanta Caves,” ''Kala, the Journal of Indian Art History Congress'' 17, 2008: 69–85.\n*Sister Nivedita. \"The Ancient Abbey of Ajanta\" Edited and annotated by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul, with a Foreword by Dr Gautam Sengupta. LALMATI. Kolkata. 2009.\n*\n*Spink, Walter M. “A Reconstruction of Events related to the development of Vakataka caves,” ''C.S. Sivaramamurti felicitation volume'', ed. M.S. Nagaraja Rao (New Delhi: 1987).\n*Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 1’s Patronage,” ''Chhavi'' 2, ed. Krishna, Anand (Benares: Bharat Kala Bhawan, 1981), pp. 144–57.\n*Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 7’s Twice-born Buddha,” ''Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia'', ed. Narain, A.K. (New Delhi: 1985), pp. 103–16.\n*Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Politics and Patronage,” ''Kaladarsana'', ed. Williams, Joanna (New Delhi: 1981), pp. 109–26.\n*Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: The Crucial Cave,” ''Ars Orientalis'', 10 (1975), pp. 143–169.\n*Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: The Problem of Cave 11,” ''Ars Orientalis'', 7 (1968), pp. 155–168.\n*Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Paintings: A Checklist for their Dating,” ''Dimensions of Indian Art, Pupul Jayakar Felicitation Volume'', ed. Chandra, Lokesh; and Jain, Jyotindra (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1987), p. 457.\n*Spink, Walter M. “Notes on Buddha Images,” ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 213–41.\n*Spink, Walter M. “The Achievement of Ajanta,” ''The Age of the Vakatakas'', ed. Shastri, Ajaya Mitra (New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1992), pp. 177–202.\n*Spink, Walter M. “The Vakataka’s Flowering and Fall,” ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 71–99.\n*Spink, Walter M. “The Archaeology of Ajanta,” ''Ars Orientalis'', 21, pp. 67–94.\n*Weiner, Sheila L. ''Ajanta: It’s Place in Buddhist Art'' (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977).\n*Yazdani, Gulam. ''Ajanta: the Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescoes Based on Photography'', 4 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1930 31?, 1955).\n*Yazdani, Gulam. ''The Early History of the De''ccan, Parts 7–9 (Oxford: 1960).\n*Zin, Monika. ''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 2; Devotional and Ornamental Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2003)\n",
"\n\n\n* Ajanta Caves Bibliography, Akira Shimada (2014), Oxford University Press\n* The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta\n* National Geographic feature 'Faces of the Divine'\n* The Greatest Ancient Picture Gallery. William Dalrymple, New York Review of Books (23 Oct 2014)\n* Ajanta Caves in UNESCO List\n* \"Ajanta\", Jacques-Edouard Berger Foundation, World Art Treasures (choose French or English)\n* Research resources and photographs of each Ajanta cave, Rajendra Singh\n* Video Travelogue on Ajanta Cave Temples\n* Ajanta: Written in the Stone. Documentary by Laurence Castle based on Walter Spink's finding.\n* Ajanta: Some Kind of Miracle. Documentary by Laurence Castle, the history of Ajanta.\n* Video of the caves MTDC site\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Paintings ",
" Architecture and sculpture ",
" Cave-by-cave ",
" Spink's chronology and cave history ",
" Impact on modern paintings ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" Further reading ",
" External links "
] | Ajanta Caves |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Ajmer''' () is one of the major cities in the Indian state of Rajasthan and is the centre of the eponymous Ajmer District. According to the 2011 census, Ajmer has a population of around 552,360 in its urban agglomeration and 542,580 in the city. The city is located at a distance of 135 km from the state capital Jaipur and 391 km from the national capital New Delhi.\n\nThe city was established by a Shakambhari Chahamana (Chauhan) ruler, either Ajayaraja I or Ajayaraja II, and served as the Chahamana capital until the 12th century CE.\n\nAjmer is surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains. It is a pilgrimage centre for the shrine of the Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and is also the base for visiting Pushkar (11 km), an ancient Hindu pilgrimage city, famous for the temple of Brahma. Ajmer has been selected as one of the heritage cities for the HRIDAY - Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of Government of India.\n",
"\nJahangir receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on his return from the Mewar campaign\n\nAjmer was originally known as ''Ajayameru''. The 12th century text ''Prithviraja Vijaya'' states that the Shakambhari Chahamana (Chauhan) king Ajayaraja II (ruled 1135 CE) established the city of Ajayameru. Historian Dasharatha Sharma notes that the earliest mention of the city's name occurs in Palha's ''Pattavali'', which was copied in 1113 CE (1170 VS) at Dhara. This suggests that Ajmer was founded sometime before 1113 CE. A ''prashasti'' (eulogistic inscription), issued by Vigraharaja IV and found at Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra, states Ajayadeva (that is, Ajayaraja II) moved his residence to Ajmer.\n\nThe later text ''Prabandha-Kosha'' states that it was the 8th century king Ajayaraja I who commissioned the Ajayameru fort, which later came to be known as the Taragarh fort of Ajmer. According to historian R. B. Singh, this claim appears to be true, as inscriptions dated to the 8th century CE have been found at Ajmer. Singh theorizes that Ajayaraja II later enlarged the town, constructed palaces, and moved the Chahamana capital from Shakambhari to Ajmer.\n",
"Ajmer is in the northwest section of India and is surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains. It is situated on the lower slopes of the Taragarh Hill of that range. The massive rocks of Nagpathar range protects Ajmer from the Thar Desert to the west.\n\nAjmer is antipodal to the Chilean island Isla Salas y Gómez.\n",
"\nAjmer has a hot, semi-arid climate with over of rain every year, but most of the rain occurs in the monsoon months, between June and September. Temperatures remain relatively high throughout the year, with the summer months of April to early July having an average daily temperature of about . During the monsoon there is frequent heavy rain and thunderstorms, but flooding is not a common occurrence. The winter months of November to February are mild and temperate with average temperatures ranging from with little or no humidity. There are, however, occasional cold weather fronts that cause temperatures to fall to near freezing levels.\n",
"The Pushkar Ghati connecting Ajmer and Pushkar\nA long shot of Pushkar ghati\nAjmer is well connected to the major cities of India by land and rail.\n\n===Air===\nWork on the Kishangarh Airport near Ajmer was inaugurated by Former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in September 2013 and it is expected to commence operations in 2017. At present the nearest airport is the Jaipur International Airport, about 132 km away, with daily flights to major cities in India.\n",
"Statue of Parshvanatha at a Jain temple in Ajmer\n Ajmer Sharif Dargah\nBaradari on Lake Anasagar\n*'''The Ajmer Sharif Dargah''': It is a shrine of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti which is situated at the foot of the Taragarh hill, and consists of several white marble buildings arranged around two courtyards, including a massive gate donated by the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Akbari Mosque, built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and containing the domed tomb of the saint. Akbar and his queen used to come here by foot every year on pilgrimage from Agra in observance of a vow when he prayed for a son. The large pillars called \"Kose ('Mile') Minars\", erected at intervals of about along the entire way between Agra and Ajmer mark the places where the royal pilgrims halted every day. It has been estimated that around 125,000 pilgrims visit the site every day.\n*'''Official Website Of Dargah ''': http://www.ajmergharibnawaz.com Dargah Website for Deg Booking, offering flower, ittar at Sufi Shrine Khwaja Gharib Nawaz, Ajmer Sharif Dargah, India. Devotees / Pilgrims usually offer Chadar, Flowers, Ittar at Sufi Shrine Khwaja Garib Nawaz, Ajmer Sharif Dargah, India. The ''urs'' for Moinuddin Chishti is celebrated every year on the 6th and 7th of Rajab.\n\nthumb\n'''Nareli jain temple'''\n'''Nareli Jain Temple''': It is a beautiful Jain temple. It is located on the outskirts of Ajmer and lies on the national highway NH8. This temple is It is getting popular amongst the tourist for its beautiful architecture and intricate stone carvings which gives both traditional and contemporary look. . The view from the top is spectacular and breathtaking \n\n*'''Happy valley''' (Chashma a Noor)\n*'''Dargah Of Syed Meeran Hussain Khing Sawar''': At the highest point of Taragarh fort stands the Dargah of Hazrat Syed Meeran Hussian Khing Sawar who was the governor of Ajmer after its conquest by Sultan Muhammad Ghori (Persian: معز الدین محمد غوری), born Shihab ad-Din. During the reign of Qutubuddin Ebak, Syed Meeran Hussain was the resident Garrison of Taragarh Fort. While playing polo in Lahore, Qutubuddin Ebak fell down from the back of the horse and died, in 1210CE.\nAs soon as the news of his death reached Ajmer, the Thakur and Rajput landlords of adjoining areas jointly launched a night attack on Taragarh and entered the fort. It was in the black of night and caught the garrison sleeping unaware. Most of them were slashed and rest of them were awaken in a panic and started resisting, but it was futile in the face of a larger and powerful enemy. The entire garrison was killed and the enemies fled before daybreak. Meer Husain Khing Sawar was also killed in the attack.\n\nWhen the Muslims of the city heard the news of the bloodshed there was a mass mourning. Knowing about the tragedy, Gharib nawaz visited the fort with his followers and after the Namaz-e-Janaza, buried the garrison of Taragarh. Presently only the ruins of the fort are left, but however everyone visits the Dargah of Syed Meeran Hussain Khing Sawar.\n\n*'''Taragarh Fort''': The fort guarding Ajmer, was the seat of the Chauhan rulers and was originally believed to be built by Mughal ruler Akbar. It is reputed to be one of the oldest hill forts in India and the world. It was built by King Ajaypal Chauhan on the summit of Taragarh Hill and overlooks Ajmer. The battlements run along the top of the hill. The walls are about in circumference and the fort can only be approached by way of a very steep slope. When it fell to the British Raj, the fort was dismantled on the orders of Lord William Bentinck and was converted into a sanatorium for the British troops stationed at the garrison town of Nasirabad.\n*'''Adhai Din Ka Jhonpda''': A mosque by Qutubuddin Aibak built in 1193, is situated on the lower slope of Taragarh hill. Aibak's successor, Shams al-Din Iltutmish added to the mosque. It is noted for its double-depth calligraphy inscriptions in the Naskh and Kufic scripts. Apart from the mosque, called Jama Iltutmish (pronounced ''Altamash'' locally), nearly the whole of the ancient temple has fallen into ruins, but the relics are still unsurpassed as examples of Hindu architecture and sculpture. Forty columns support the roof, but no two are alike and the ornaments are exceptional in their decorations.\n*'''Akbari Fort & Museum''' : The city's museum, was once the residence of Prince Salīm, the son of the Emperor Akbar, and presently houses a collection of Mughal and Rajput armour and sculpture. This is a magnificent example of Mughal architecture, construction of which was commissioned by Akbar in 1570. This is where Salim, as the Emperor Jahangir, read out the firman permitting the British East India Company to trade with India.\n\nLake Foysagar at sunset\n\n*'''Tomb of Khwaja Husain Ajmeri:''' Tomb of Khwaja Husain Ajmeri Behind Shahjahani Masjid Dargah Khwaja Sahab Ajmer tomb (Maqbara, Shrine ) of Khwaja Husain Ajmeri Chishty Rehamatullah Alaih (Shaikh Husain Ajmeri) who was the suprintendant and Sajjada Nasheen of Ajmer Sharif Dargah in Emperor Akbar's Time. He was the great grandson of Khwaja Moinuddin Hasan Chishty Rehmatullah Alaih, his tomb was built in 1637–1638 near Sola Khamba (tomb of Khwaja Alauddin Chishty), both tomb are behind the shahjahani mosque Dargah Khwaja Saheb Ajmer. \n*'''Mayo College''': The college was founded in 1875 by Lord Mayo, Viceroy of India. The architecture of the buildings is in the same style as royal Rajasthani architecture. The main building, in white marble, is a classic example of Indo-Saracenic architecture.\n'''Ajmer Sightseeing''':\n*'''Anasagar Lake''': This is an historic man-made lake built by Maharaja Anaji (1135–1150 AD). By the lake is the Daulat Bagh, a garden laid out by Emperor Jahangir. Emperor Shah Jahan later added five pavilions, known as the Baradari, between the garden and the lake.\n*'''The Sai Baba Temple''': located on the way to the Prithviraj Chauhan Statue, this temple is also an important tourist destination which has the same style of architecture as that of the Sai Baba Temple in Shirdi.243x243px\n*Lord Ram (at centre)'''Soniji Ki Nasiyan''': It is an architecturally rich Digambara Jain temple. It was built in the late nineteenth century. The main chamber, known as the Swarna Nagari \"City of Gold\", has several gold-plated wooden figures, depicting figures in the Jain religion. it has a gold model of the city of Ayodhya, the birthplace of '''''Ram'''''.\n*'''Lake Foy Sagar''': It is situated in the outskirts of the city, it is a picturesque artificial lake that was created as a famine relief project in 1892. It offers panoramic views of the neighbouring Aravalli mountains as well as of the evening flights of nearby birds.\n*\n*Located about 11 kilometres from Ajmer, '''Pushkar''' is also an important tourist destination. It is famous for '''Pushkar Lake''' and the 14th century '''Brahma Temple at Pushkar''', dedicated to Brahmā, according to the ''Padma Purāņa'', Pushkar is the only place where Brahmā may be worshipped.\n*Prithviraj Smarak: Prithviraj Smarak is dedicated to Mahraja Prithviraj of Rajput Chauhan dynasty of Ajmer. It is located on the way from Ajmer to Pushkar. Tourists enjoys a great view of Ajmer city from here. This place has a life size statue of King pritthiraj chauhan and features a daily light & music show.\n",
"\n\n Source:\n\nAccording to the 2011 India census, Ajmer district has a population of 2,584,913, which was made up of 1,325,911 males and 1,259,002 females. Ajmer district had an average literacy rate of 70.46%, male literacy being 83.93% and female literacy 56.42%. There was a total of 1,557,264 literates compared to 1,168,856 in the 2001 census. The population density in Ajmer district was 305 compared to 257 per km2 in 2001. The female to male ratio in Ajmer was 950/1,000. This represents an increase of 2.04% from the 2001 census. Ajmer's population growth in the decade was 18.48%, this compares to a growth figure of 20.93% for the previous decade.\nThe population of Ajmer city according census 2011 is 542,580 positioning Ajmer in top 100 major cities of India and 5th in Rajasthan.\n",
"*Garib Nawaz Khawja Moinuddin Chishty\n*Luni River\n*Pushkar\n*Central University of Rajasthan\n",
"\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* W.D. Begg: The Holy Biography of Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Millat Book Centre, Delhi, 1999).\n* Ajmer The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 5, p. 137-146.\n",
"\n\n* Ajmer District website\n* R. Nath Mughal Architecture Image Collection, Images from Ajmer - University of Washington Digital Collection\n* Ajmer sharif Dargah \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
"Geography",
"Climate",
" Transportation ",
" Tourist sites ",
"Demographics",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Ajmer |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Ajmer-Merwara''', also known as '''Ajmir Province''' and as '''Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri''', is a former province of British India in the historical Ajmer region. The territory was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia by a treaty on 25 June 1818. \nIt was under the Bengal Presidency until 1936 when it became part of the North-Western Provinces comissionat el 1842. Finally on 1 April 1871 it became a separate province as Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri. \nIt became a part of independent India on 15 August 1947 when the British left India.\n\nThe province consisted of the districts of Ajmer and Merwar, which were physically separated from the rest of British India forming an enclave amidst the many princely states of Rajputana. Unlike these states, which were ruled by local nobles who acknowledged British suzerainty, Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British.\n\nIn 1842 the two districts were under a single commissioner, then they were separated in 1856 and were administered by the East India Company. Finally, after 1858, by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the Governor-General of India's agent for the Rajputana Agency.\n",
"The area of the province was . The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmer, may be considered as the highest point in the plains of North India; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away on every side - towards river valleys on the east, south, west and towards the Thar Desert region on the north. The Aravalli Range is the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills which runs between Ajmer and Nasirabad marks the watershed of the continent of India. The rain which falls on the southeastern slopes drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that which falls on the northwest side into the Luni River, which discharges itself into the Rann of Kutch.\n\nThe province is on the border of what may be called the arid zone; it is the debatable land between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps up the Narmada valley from Bombay and crossing the tableland at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and Kota and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal River.\n\nThe clouds which strike Kathiawar and Kutch are deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those countries (now the majority of this region is in Gujarat state within independent India), and the greater part of the remainder is deposited on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli Range, leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and still less for Ajmer. It is only when the monsoon is in considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it. The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Rajasthan, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude of Ajmer. The rainfall of the district depends on the varying strength of these two monsoons. The agriculturist of Ajmer-Merwara could never rely upon two good harvests in succession.\n",
"In ancient times, the Mair Gurjars were the dominant inhabitants. They were defeated by the Chauhan Kings Rao Anoop and Rao Anhal, whose descendents the Rawat-Thakurs and Cheeta-Kathat were the dominant group here. These castes continue to have influence on the politics of the region.\n\nBefore the arrival of the British, Rajputs, Jats, the Kathats, Cheetas and Rawat Rajputs were land-holders, as well as cultivators. \"Thakur\" was the title of the Rajputs and Rawat-Rajputs, 11 prominent Rajput chieftains were Bhinai, Pisangan, Kharwa, Masuda, Bandanwara, Para, Kairot, Junia, Baghera, Tanoti, and Bagsuri.These were prominent Rajput Thikanas of the Mertia/Jodha clan. Prominent chieftains of the Mehrawats\\Kathats were the lords of Athoon, Chaang, Shyamgarh, Borwa etc. \"Khan\" was the title of Merat Rajputs, such as the Khan of Athun, a major Thikana of the Kathat clan, The two major thikanas of Rawat Rajputs are Bhim ruled by the sujawat clan and Diver, ruled by the Varaat clan .Thakur is the title used by the Rawat Rajputs and many Mehrats who refer each other as Thaakar in general conversation.\n\n===British rule===\nPart of the Ajmer region, the territory of the future province was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia of Gwalior State as part of a treaty dated 25 June 1818. Then in May 1823 the Merwara (Mewar) part was ceded to Britain by Udaipur State. Thereafter Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British East India Company. After the Indian Mutiny of 1857, in 1858 the powers of the Company were transferred to the British Crown and the Governor-General of India. His administration of Ajmer-Merwara was controlled by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the British agent for the Rajputana Agency.\n\n====Superintendents for Ajmer ====\n* 9 Jul 181817 Jul 1818 Nixon\n*18 Jul 181815 Dec 1824 Francis Boyle Shannon Wilder (1785–1849) \n*16 Dec 182421 Apr 1825 Richard Moore (1st time)\n*22 Apr 182523 Oct 1827 Henry Middleton\n*24 Oct 182728 Nov 1831 Richard Cavendish\n*29 Nov 18311 Jul 1832 Richard Moore (2nd time)\n* 2 Jul 183216 Apr 1834 Alexander Speirs\n*17 Apr 183430 Jun 1836 George Frederick Edmonstone (1813–1864)\n* 1 Jul 183625 Jul 1837 Charles E. Trevelyan (1807–1886)\n*26 Jul 1837Feb 1842 J.D. Macnaghten\n\n====Superintendents for Merwara (from Feb 1842, Ajmer-Merwara)====\n*18231836 Henry Hall (1789–1875)\n*18361857 Charles George Dixon (died 1857)\n\n====Agents of the Governors-general for the Rajputana agency==== \n*183229 Nov 1833 Abraham Lockett (1781–1834)\n*29 Nov 1833Jun 1834 Alexander Speirs\n*Jun 18341 Feb 1839 Nathaniel Alves \n* 1 Feb 18391839 John Ludlow (acting) (1788–1880)\n*Apr 1839Dec 1847 James Sutherland (died 1848) \n*Jan 1844Oct 1846 Charles Thoresby (died 1862) (acting for Sutherland)\n*Dec 1847Jan 1853 John Low (1788–1880)\n*25 Jun 184819 Nov 1848 Showers (acting for Low)\n* 8 Sep 18511 Dec 1851 D.A. Malcolm (acting for Low)\n*18521853 George St. Patrick Lawrence (1804–1884) (1st time) \n* 5 Mar 1853Feb 1857 Henry Montgomery Lawrence (1806–1857) \n*15 Mar 1857Apr 1864 George St. Patrick Lawrence (s.a.) (2nd time) \n*10 Apr 185924 Nov 1860 William Frederick Eden (1814–1867) (acting for Lawrence)\n*Apr 18641867 William Frederick Eden (s.a.) \n*18671870 Richard Harte Keatinge (1825–1904) \n*15 Jun 18701 Apr 1871 John Cheap Brooke (1818–1899) (acting for Keatinge)\n\n====Chief Commissioners====\n\n* 1 Apr 187121 Jun 1873 Richard Harte Keatinge (s.a.) \n* 1 Apr 187121 Jun 1873 John Cheape Brooke (s.a.) (acting for Keatinge)\n*21 Jun 18736 Apr 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (1st time) (1825–1892) (acting to 6 Feb 1874)\n* 6 Apr 18746 Jul 1874 William H. Beynon (acting) (1903)\n* 6 Jul 187412 Nov 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (2nd time) (s.a.) \n*12 Nov 187418 Aug 1876 Alfred Comyns Lyall (acting) (1835–1911) \n*18 Aug 18765 Mar 1877 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833–1892) (1st time)(acting)\n* 5 Mar 187712 Dec 1878 Sir Lewis Pelly (3rd time) (s.a.) \n*12 Dec 187827 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (1836–1911) (1st time)\n*17 Mar 188128 Nov 1882 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (s.a.) (2nd time) (acting)\n*28 Nov 188227 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (s.a.) (2nd time)\n*27 Mar 188720 Mar 1890 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833–1892) (3rd time)(acting to 1 Apr 1887)\n*20 Mar 189027 Aug 1891 George Herbert Trevor (1st time) (1840–1927) \n*27 Aug 18912 Dec 1891 P.W. Powlett (acting)\n* 2 Dec 189122 Nov 1893 George Herbert Trevor (2nd time) (s.a.) \n*22 Nov 189311 Jan 1894 William Francis Prideaux (acting) (1840–1914)\n*11 Jan 189520 Mar 1895 George Herbert Trevor (3rd time) (s.a.) \n*20 Mar 189510 Mar 1898 Robert Joseph Crosthwaite (1841–1917) \n*10 Mar 18981 May 1900 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (1854–1942) (1st time)\n* 1 May 19001 Apr 1901 William Hutt Curzon Wyllie (acting)(1848–1909)\n* 1 Apr 19013 Feb 1902 A.P. Thornton (acting)\n* 3 Feb 19021 Apr 1905 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (s.a.) (2nd time) \n* 1 Apr 19054 Jan 1918 Elliot Graham Colvin (1861–1940) \n* 4 Jan 191822 Dec 1919 John Manners Smith (1864–1920) \n*22 Dec 19197 Aug 1925 Robert Erskine Holland (1873–1965) \n* 7 Aug 192518 Mar 1927 Stewart Blakeley Agnew Patterson (1872–1942) \n*18 Mar 192714 Oct 1932 Leonard William Reynolds (1874–1946) \n*14 Oct 193228 Oct 1937 George Drummond Ogilvie (1882–1966) \n*28 Oct 19371 Dec 1944 Arthur Cunningham Lothian (1887–1962) \n*May 1939Oct 1939 Conrad Corfield (1893–1980) (acting for Lothian)\n* 1 Dec 194415 Aug 1947 Hiranand Rupchand Shivdasani (1904–1949)\n\n===Post-independence===\nFrom the date of partition and independence in 1947 until 1950, Ajmer-Merwara remained a province of the new Dominion of India. In 1950 it became Ajmer State, which on 1 November 1956, was merged into the state of Rajasthan.\n\nThe Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 was the landmark in the legal history of land reforms in Rajasthan which was followed by Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 that became applicable to the whole of Rajasthan. The overriding effect of this Act provided relief to the existing tenants and the rights accrued to tenants accordingly. Now the Jats are major land holders in the region.\n",
"*Rawat Rajputs\n*The Mers are a Hindu caste from the Gujarat and Central India who emigrated hundred of years ago from Ajmer-Merwara and the surrounding regions of Rajputana.\n*Mair Rajputs of Punjab are a Hindu caste who emigrated hundreds of years ago to Punjab from Ajmer-Merwara and the surrounding regions of Rajputana.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Extent and geography",
"History",
"See also",
"References"
] | Ajmer-Merwara |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Abatement of debts and legacies''' is a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.\n\nIn the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy. Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies.\n\nThe order of abatement is usually:\n# Intestate property\n# The residuary of the estate\n# General Devises—''i.e.'', cash gifts\n# Demonstrative Devises—''i.e.'', cash gifts from a specific account, stocks, bonds, securities, etc.\n# Specific Devises—''i.e.'', specified items of personal property, real property, etc.\nNon-probate property—''i.e.'', life insurance policies—do not abate.\n",
"A '''specific devise''', is a specific gift in a will to a specific person other than an amount of money. For example, if James's will states that he is leaving his $500,000 yacht to his brother Mike, the yacht would be a specific devise.\n\nA '''general devise''', is a monetary gift to a specific person to be satisfied out of the overall estate. For example, if James's will states that he is leaving $500,000 to his son Sam then the money would be a general devise.\n\nA '''demonstrative devise''', is money given from a particular account. For example, \"$10,000 to be paid from the sale of my GM stock.\"\n\nA '''residual devise''' is one left to a devisee after all specific and general devices have been made. For example, James's will might say: \"I give all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate to my daughter Lilly.\" Lilly would be the residual devisee and entitled to James's residuary estate.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Definitions",
"References"
] | Abatement of debts and legacies |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Affection,''' '''attraction''', '''infatuation''', or '''fondness''' is a \"disposition or state of mind or body\" that is often associated with a feeling or type of love. It has given rise to a number of branches of philosophy and psychology concerning emotion, disease, influence, and state of being. \"Affection\" is popularly used to denote a feeling or type of love, amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. Writers on ethics generally use the word to refer to distinct states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic. Some contrast it with ''passion'' as being free from the distinctively sensual element.\n\nEven a very simple demonstration of affection can have a broad variety of emotional reactions, from embarrassment to disgust to pleasure and annoyance. It also has a different physical effect on the giver and the receiver.\n",
"\n\n\nMore specifically, the word has been restricted to emotional states, the object of which is a living thing such as a human or animal. Affection is compared with passion, from the Greek \"pathos\". As such it appears in the writings of French philosopher René Descartes, Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza, and most of the writings of early British ethicists. However, on various grounds (e.g., that it does not involve anxiety or excitement and that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the entire absence of the sensuous element), it is generally and usefully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have spoken of the social or parental ''affections'' as in some sense a part of moral obligation. For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, ''Methods of Ethics'' pp. 345–349.\n",
"\n\nAffection can be communicated by words, gestures, or touches. Affectionate behavior may have evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards. Such affection has been shown to influence brain development in infants. \nExpressions of affection can be unwelcome if they pose implied threats to one's well being. If welcomed, affectionate behavior may be associated with various health benefits. It has been proposed that positive sentiment increases the propensity of people to interact and that familiarity gained through affection increases positive sentiment among them.\n \nAffection can be displayed in different manners in different cultural societies. For example, in the Manchu ethnic group, mothers publicly kissing their infant is viewed as inappropriate, while publicly performing fellatio on their infant son is considered an appropriate act of affection. Some individuals such as alexithymics may have difficulty or even an inability to feel or express affection.\n",
"\n* Affectional orientation\n* Affectionism\n* Affective filter\n* Affective videogames\n* Attraction\n* Crush\n* Doctrine of the affections\n* Emotion\n* Infatuation\n* List of emotions\n* List of terms of endearment\n* ''The Four Loves''\n* Terms of endearment\n\n",
"\n",
"*Janice Raymond. 2001. A Passion for Friends. Publisher. Spinifex Press, , 9781876756086\n*Elizabeth Sibthorpe Pinchard.2012. Family Affection: A Tale for Youth. Publisher- Hardpress Publishing, 2012 , 9781290006705\n*Joshua Hordern. 2013. ''Political Affections: Civic Participation and Moral Theology''. Oxford University Press. \n*Robin Becker. 2006. Domain of Perfect Affection. Publisher University of Pittsburgh Press. , 9780822959311\n*Kory Floyd. 2006. Communicating Affection: Interpersonal Behavior and Social Context. Advances in Personal Relationships. Publisher Cambridge University Press. , 9780521832052\n*Tuan Yi-fu. 1984. Dominance & affection: The making of pets. Publisher-Yale University Press (New Haven). \n*International Journal of Infant Observation and Its Applications. 2011. \n* Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences ; Vol 16 Issue 2. 2006.\n*Infant Observation: International Journal of Infant Observation and Its Applications.Why love matters: How affection shapes a baby's brain.2006.\n*Gustav Moritz. 1850. Duty and Affection. Publisher-Oxford University\n*Sue Gerhardt. 2004. Why Love Matters: How Affection Shapes a Baby's Brain. Publisher-Taylor & Francis. , 9781583918173\n*Gretchen Reydams-Schils. 2005. The Roman Stoics: Self, Responsibility, and Affection. Publisher University of Chicago Press. , 9780226308371\n*Ariel Knafo & Robert Plomin. 2006. Parental Discipline and Affection and Children’s Prosocial Behavior:Genetic and Environmental Links\n*MAURICE A. FELDMAN, LAURIE CASE ET AL. 1989. PARENT EDUCATION PROJECT III: INCREASING AFFECTION AND RESPONSIVITY IN DEVELOPMENTALLY HANDICAPPED MOTHERS: COMPONENT ANALYSIS, GENERALIZATION, AND EFFECTS ON CHILD LANGUAGE\n*Halliday, James L. 1953. Concept of a Psychosomatic Affection. Publisher- Ronald Press Company\n*Kory Floyd & Mark T. Morman. Affection received from fathers as a predictor of men's affection with their own sons: Tests of the modeling and compensation hypotheses. 2009.\n",
"*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Restricted definition ",
"Expression",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Affection |
[
"\n\nIn law, '''affiliation ''' (from Latin ''affiliare'', \"to adopt as a son\") was perviously the term to describe legal establishment of paternity. The following description, for the most part, was written in the early 20th century, and it should be understood as a historical document.\n",
"In England a number of statutes on the subject have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act of the Parliament of 1845, and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of 1872 and 1873.\nThe mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to petty sessions within 12 months of the birth (or at any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support within 12 months after the birth), and the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the proceedings. An order ceases to be valid after the child reaches the age of 13, but the justices (also referred to as Gold writers under these circumstances) may in the order direct the payments to be continued until the child is 16 years of age. \n\nAn appeal to quarter sessions is open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the King's Bench by rule ''nisi or certiorari''. Should the child afterwards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative father for a contribution.\n\nAny woman who is single, a widow, or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the child is begotten, provided it is born in England. An application for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but in this case, the statement of the mother must be in the form of a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over 14 years of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum down in a discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins, it is usual to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses.\n\nThe Summary Jurisdiction Act (1879) makes due provision for the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of soldiers an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by the Army Act (1881), if an order has been made against a soldier of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier's pay to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard to sailors in the Royal Navy.\n",
"\nIn the British colonies, and in the states of the United States (with the exception of California, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon, Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed ''filiation'') akin to that described above, by means of which a mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate child from the putative father. The amount ordered to be paid may subsequently be increased or diminished (1905; 94 N.Y. Supplt. 372).\n\nOn the continent of Europe, however, the legislation of the various countries differs rather widely. France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Russia, Serbia and the canton of Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls upon the mother; on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the majority of the Swiss cantons provide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the father.\n\nAffiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of adoption by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased.\n\nIn India, affiliation cases are decided by section 125 of Criminal Procedure Code (Cr.P.C.). According to this section - among other things - if a person having sufficient means neglects or refuses to maintain his illegitimate child, a magistrate of the first class may, upon proof of such neglect or refusal, order such person to make a monthly allowance for the maintenance of such child.\n",
"* Adoption\n* Illegitimacy\n* Paternity (law)\n* Poor Laws\n",
"\n",
"*\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Affiliation procedures in England ",
" Affiliation procedures in other countries ",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Affiliation (family law) |
[
"\n\n'''Affinity''' may refer to:\n\n",
"* Affinity (law), kinship by marriage\n* Affinity analysis, a market research and business management technique \n* Affinity fraud, a type of scam targeting a specific demographic\n* Affinity marketing, a method of extending market reach by forming partnerships and cross-selling relationships\n* Affinity Equity Partners, an Asian private equity firm\n",
"* Affinity (canon law), a kinship arising from the sexual intercourse of a man and a woman\n* Affinity (Christian organisation), formerly known as the British Evangelical Council\n* Affinity group, a private, non-commercial and non-governmental organisation formed around a shared interest or goal\n",
"* ''Affinity'', the UK's first road-legal solar car, built by Cambridge University Eco Racing\n* Affinity (mathematics), an affine transformation preserving collinearity\n* Affinity (pharmacology), a characterisation of protein-ligand binding strength\n* Affinity (sociology), a shared interest and commitment between persons in groups and/or willingness to associate\n* Affinity (taxonomy), a suggestion of common descent or type\n* Affinity chromatography\n* Affinity electrophoresis\n* Affinity laws, laws used in hydraulics to express relationships between variables involved in fan or pump performance\n* Affinity Photo, computer software, a raster graphics editor\n* Affine transformation, a type of transformation applied to a geometry\n* Chemical affinity, used to describe or characterise elements' or compounds' readiness to form bonds\n* Electron affinity\n* Processor affinity, a computing term for the assignment of a task to a given core of a multicore CPU\n",
"\n===Music===\n* Affinity (band), a jazz/rock band active in the late 60s and early 70s\n*: ''Affinity'' (Affinity album), their eponymous début album\n* ''Affinity'' (Bill Evans album), an album by jazz pianist Bill Evans\n* ''Affinity'' (Oscar Peterson album), an album by jazz pianist Oscar Peterson\n* Affinity (Philippines band), a jazz collective based in Manila\n* Affinity Records, a US jazz record label established during the 1950s\n* ''Affinity'' (Haken album), an album by the progressive metal band Haken\n\n===Other media===\n* ''Affinity'' (novel), a 1999 novel by Sarah Waters\n*: ''Affinity'' (film), a 2008 feature film based on this novel\n\n* \"Affinity\" (Stargate SG-1), an episode from season 8 of the TV sci-fi spin-off series ''Stargate SG-1''\n* ''Elective Affinities'', a novel by Goethe\n",
"* Affine (disambiguation)\n*: Refining, also known as \"affining\"\n* Afinidad (disambiguation)\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Commerce, finance and law ",
" Religion and belief ",
" Science and technology ",
" Media-related ",
" See also "
] | Affinity |
[
"\nA street fight\n\n\nIn many legal jurisdictions related to English common law, '''affray''' is a public order offence consisting of the fighting of one or more persons in a public place to the terror (in ) of ordinary people. Depending on their actions, and the laws of the prevailing jurisdiction, those engaged in an affray may also render themselves liable to prosecution for assault, unlawful assembly, or riot; if so, it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged.\n",
"\n===England and Wales===\nThe common law offence of affray was abolished for England and Wales on 1 April 1987. Affray is now a statutory offence that is triable either way. It is created by section 3 of the Public Order Act 1986 which provides:\n\n\n\nThe term \"violence\" expression is defined by section 8.\n\nSection 3(6) once provided that a constable could arrest without warrant anyone he reasonably suspected to be committing affray, but that subsection was repealed by paragraph 26(2) of Schedule 7 to, and Schedule 17 to, the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005.\n\nThe '''mens rea''' of affray is that person is guilty of affray only if he intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his conduct may be violent or threaten violence.\n\nThe offence of affray has been used by HM Government to address the problem of drunken or violent individuals who cause serious trouble on airliners.\n\nIn R v Childs & Price 2015, the Court of Appeal quashed a murder verdict and replaced it with affray, having dismissed an allegation of common purpose.\n\n===Northern Ireland===\nAffray is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008.\n",
"In New South Wales, section 93C of the Crimes Act of 1900 defines that a person will be guilty of affray if he or she threatens unlawful violence towards another and his or her conduct is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his or her personal safety. A person will only be guilty of affray if the person intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his or her conduct may be violent or threaten violence. The maximum penalty for an offence of affray contrary to section 93C is a period of imprisonment of 10 years.\n\nIn Queensland, section 72 of the Criminal Code of 1899 defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Section 72 says \"Any person who takes part in a fight in a public place, or takes part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access, commits a misdemeanour. Maximum penalty—1 year’s imprisonment.\"\n",
"The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the old English common law definition of affray, with the substitution of \"actual disturbance of the peace for causing terror to the ''lieges''\".\n",
"In New Zealand affray has been codified as \"fighting in a public place\" by section 7 of the Summary Offences Act 1981.\n",
"Under the Roman-Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of ''vis publica''.\n",
"In the United States the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states.\n",
"*Combat\n*Assault\n*battery\n",
"* ''Blackstones Police Manual Volume 4: General police duties'', Fraser Simpson (2006). pp. 247. Oxford University Press. \n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"United Kingdom",
"Australia",
"India",
"New Zealand",
"South Africa",
"United States",
"See also",
"References"
] | Affray |
[
"Approximate boundaries of ''Afghan Turkestan'' (in orange), with respect to modern-day provinces of Afghanistan.\n'''Afghan Turkestan''' is a region in northern Afghanistan, on the border with the former Soviet republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In the 19th century there was a province in Afghanistan named Turkestan Province until abolished by Abdur Rahman, and was centred on Mazari Sharif and included territory in the modern provinces of Balkh, Jowzjan, Faryab and Sar-e Pol. The whole territory, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Amu Darya on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, was some in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 miles (183 km). It thus comprised about or roughly two-ninths of the former Kingdom of Afghanistan.\n",
"The area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the Karakum Desert.\n\nThe province included the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh, and Akcha in the east and the four khanates or ''Chahar Vidayet'' (\"four domains\") of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhui and Maimana in the west.\n",
"The bulk of the people are Uzbek and Turkmen with large concentrations of Hazara, Tajik, and Pashtuns.\n",
"Ancient Balkh or Bactria was an integral part of Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, and was occupied by Indo-Iranians. In the 5th century BCE, it became a province of the Achaemenian Empire and later became part of the Seleucid Empire. About 250 BC Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 BC. After this came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The district was devastated by Genghis Khan, and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbek hands. In the 18th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Shah Durrani, and so remained under his son Timur. But under the fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbek chiefs. At the beginning of the 19th century they belonged to Bukhara; but under the emir Dost Mahommed the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. The sovereignty over Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul, and Maimana was in dispute between Bukhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, many ethnic Pashtuns either voluntarily or involuntarily settled in Afghan Turkestan.\n\nIn 1890, the district of Qataghan and Badakhshan was divided from Afghan Turkestan and made into the Qataghan-Badakhshan Province. Administration of the province was assigned to the Northern Bureau in Kabul.\n",
"\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"Population",
"History",
"References"
] | Afghan Turkestan |
[
"\n\n\n'''Afyonkarahisar''' (, \"poppy, opium\", ''kara'' \"black\", ''hisar'' \"fortress\") is a city in western Turkey, the capital of Afyon Province. Afyon is in mountainous countryside inland from the Aegean coast, south-west of Ankara along the Akarçay River. Elevation . Population (2010 census) 173,100 \nIn Turkey, Afyonkarahisar stands out as a capital city of thermal and spa, an important junction of railway, highway and air traffic in West-Turkey, and the grounds where independence had been won.\nIn addition, Afyonkarahisar is one of the top leading provinces in agriculture, globally renown for its marble and globally largest producer of pharmaceutical opium.\n",
"The name '''Afyon Kara Hisar''' (literally ''opium black castle'' in Turkish), since opium was widely grown here and there is a castle on a black rock. Also known simply as '''Afyon'''. Older spellings include '''Karahisar-i Sahip''', '''Afium-Kara-hissar''' and '''Afyon Karahisar'''. The city was known as Afyon (opium), until the name was changed to Afyonkarahisar by the Turkish Parliament in 2004.\n",
"Photo of a 15th-century map showing region containing Nicopolis.\n\nThe top of the rock in Afyon has been fortified for a long time. It was known to the Hittites as '''Hapanuwa''', and was later occupied by Phrygians, Lydians and Achaemenid Persians until it was conquered by Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander the city (now known as '''Akroinοn''' (Ακροϊνόν) or '''Nikopolis''' (Νικόπολις) in Ancient Greek), was ruled by the Seleucids and the kings of Pergamon, then Rome and Byzantium. The Byzantine emperor Leo III after his victory over Arab besiegers in 740 renamed the city '''Nicopolis''' (Greek for \"city of victory\"). The Seljuq Turks then arrived in 1071 and changed its name to '''Kara Hissar''' (\"black castle\") after the ancient fortress situated upon a volcanic rock 201 meters above the town. Following the dispersal of the Seljuqs the town was occupied by the Sâhib Ata and then the Germiyanids.\n\nThe castle was much fought over during the Crusades and was finally conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Beyazid I in 1392 but was lost after the invasion of Timur Lenk in 1402. It was recaptured in 1428 or 1429.\n\nThe area thrived during the Ottoman Empire, as the centre of opium production and Afyon became a wealthy city. During the 1st World War British prisoners of war who had been captured at Gallipoli were housed here in an empty Armenian church at the foot of the rock. During the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) campaign (part of the Turkish War of Independence) Afyon and the surrounding hills were occupied by Greek forces. However, it was recovered on 27 August 1922, a key moment in the Turkish counter-attack in the Aegean region. After 1923 Afyon became a part of the Republic of Turkey.\n\nThe region was a major producer of raw opium (hence the name ''Afyon'') until the late 1960s when under international pressure, from the USA in particular, the fields were burnt and production ceased. Now poppies are grown under a strict licensing regime. They do not produce raw opium any more but derive Morphine and other opiates using the poppy straw method of extraction.\n\nAfyon was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 lira banknote of 1927-1938.\n",
"The economy of Afyonkarahisar is based on agriculture, industries and thermal tourism. \nEspecially its agriculture is strongly developed from the fact, a large part of its population living in the countrysides. Which stimulated agricultural activities greatly.\n\n===Marble===\nAfyonkarahisar produces an important chunk of Turkish processed marbles, it ranks second on processed marble exports and fourth on travertine. Afyon holds an important share of Turkish marble reserves, with some 12,2% of total Turkish reserves.\n\nAfyon has unique marble types and colors, which were historically very renown and are unique to Afyon. Like \"Afyon white\", historically known as \"Synnadic white\". \"Afyon Menekse\", historically known as \"Pavonazzetto\" and \"Afyon kaplan postu\", this type wasn't popular.\nHistorically marble from Afyon was generally referred to as \"Docimeaen marble\".\nDocimian marble was highly admired and valued for its unique colors and fine grained quality, by ancients such as Romans. When the Romans took control over Docimian quarries, they were blown away about the beautiful color combinations of Docimian Pavonazzetto, which is a type of white marble with purple veins. A trend started about it right away. Emperors Augustus, Trajan, Hadrian, all made extensive use of Docimian marble to all their major building projects.\n\nDocimian Pavonazzetto was extensively used in major building projects in the very heart of Rome aka Forum Romanum and all over the empire. Pavonazzetto was used on the most eye catching places such as, columns, wall and floor veneer and wall reliefs. Other marbles from all corners of the empire were used in combination, whenever Pavonazzetto was used as floor cover, it was usually in combination with other decorative marbles. But, the Pavonazzetto being a white marble was mostly the dominant color and gave the buildings a freshening white color. \nPantheon, Rome. White Docimian marble is used on the floor and some of the columns such as the two protruding columns of the main apse. The white Docimian color on the floor is very dominant\nOne of the greatest Roman architectural piece, the Pantheon contains Docimian Pavonazzetto as floor pavement along with other marble types. The dominant white color is the Pavonazzetto, also some of the interior main columns and pilasters are made from Docimian marble.\nOther buildings in Roman capital which contains or contained Docimian marble were, \nForum of Augustus, Forum of Trajan (floor and 184 column shafts), Temple of Mars Ultor (floor), Temple of Apollo (floor), Basilica Aemelia (20 statues), Basilica Julia (floor and some columns), Basilica Ulpia (some of the columns),\nBasilica San Paolo Fuori Le Mura (24 columns, destroyed by fire in 1823),\nThe eight statues on the Arch of Constantine,\nThe greatest Roman bath, Baths of Caracalla (some of the columns and wall veneer.\nright\nOther major buildings outside Italy, Rome were :\n\nThe Hagia Sophia, one of the greatest buildings ever built, has Docimian marble as veneer on the aisles and galleries.\n\nThe heart of Catholic Christianity, Saint Peter's Basilica, as veneer.\n\nLepcis Magna, former limestone columns were replaced with Pavonazzetto. \n \nLibrary of Celsus, the columns on the famous wall.\n\nAncient City of Sagalassos, as wall and floor covering, 40 tons of veneer were recovered.\n\nTemple of Zeus and Hera in Greece, 100 columns and wall.\n\nDocimian marble was also preferred for sarcophagi sculpting, some emperors preferred this marble for its high value and majestic looks. As a result, one of the greatest masterpieces were made from this material. Such as sarcophagus of, Sidamara, Silifkeh, Seleukeia, Eudocia, Heraclius....several hundreds sarcophagi were constructed.\n\n===Thermal sector===\nThe geography of Afyon has great geothermal activity. Hence, the place has plenty thermal springs, there are about 5 main springs. Each of them have high mineral contents and high degree's, 40 °C-100 °C. The waters have strong healing properties to some diseases.\nAs a result, plenty of thermals commenced over time.\n\nIn time Afyon has developed it's thermal sector with more capacity, comfort and innovation. Afyon combined the traditional bath houses with 5 star resorts, the health benefits of the natural springs have put the thermal resorts further then a mere attraction.\nHospitals and universities have come in association with thermal resorts, to utilize the full health potentials of the thermals. \nAs such, Kocatepe University Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Hospital opened for that purpose. \nAfyon now has the largest residence capacity of thermal resorts, of which a large part are 5 star thermal hotels which give medical care with qualified personnel.\n\n===Spa water===\nKizilay, was the first mineral water factory in Turkey which opened in Afyon, in 1926 by Atatürk. After the mineral water from Gazligöl springs, healed Ataturks kidneys and proved its health benefits. Since its foundation, \"Kizilay Spa Water\" grew as the biggest spa water distributor in Turkey, Middle-East and Balkans.\n\n===Pharmaceuticals and morphine===\nAlmost a third of all the morphine produced in the world derives from alkaloids factory in Afyon, named as \"Afyon Alkaloids\". this large capacity is the byproduct of Afyon's poppy plantations. The pharmaceuticals derive from the opium of the poppy capsules. \n\"Afyon Alkaloids\" factory is the largest of its kind in the world, with high capacity processing ability and modern laboratories. The raw opium is put through a chain of biochemical processes, resulting into several types of morphine.\n\nIn the Alkaloid Extraction Unit only base morphine is produced. In the adjacent Derivatives Unit half of the morphine extracted is converted to morphine hydrochloride, codeine, codeine phosphate, codeine sulphate, codeine hydrochloride, morphine sulphate, ethylmorphine hydrochloride.\n\n===Agriculture===\n\n'''Livestocks'''\nAfyon breeds a large amount of livestocks, its landscape and demography is suitable for this field. As such it ranks in the top 10 within Turkey in terms of amounts of sheep and cattle it has.\n\n'''Meat and meat products'''\nAs a result of being an important source of livestock, related sectors such as meat and meat products are also very productive in afyon. Its one of the leading provinces in red meat production and has very prestigious brand marks of sausages, such as \"Cumhuriyet Sausages\".\n\n'''Eggs'''\nAfyon is the sole leader in egg production within Turkey. It has the largest amount of laying hens, with a figure of 12,7 million. And produces a record amount of 6 million eggs per day.\n\n'''Cherries and sour cherries'''\nSour cherries are cultivated in Afyon in very large numbers, so much so that it became very iconic to Afyon. Every year, a sour cherry festival takes place in the Cay district. It is the largest producer of sour cherries in Turkey. The sour cherries grown in Afyon are of excellent quality because of the ideal climate they're grown in. For the same reason Afyon is also an ideal place for cherry cultivation. First quality cherries known as \"Napolyon Cherries\" are grown in abundance, its one of the top 5 leading provinces.\n \n'''Poppy'''\nOne of the iconic agricultural practices of Afyon is the cultivation of poppy. Afyon's climate is ideal for the cultivation of this plant, hence a large amount of poppy plantation occurs in this region. Though, a strong limitation came some decades ago from international laws, cause of the opium content of poppy plants peels. Nevertheless, Afyon is the largest producer of poppy in Turkey and accounts for a large amount of global production.\n\n'''Potatoes and sugar-beets'''\nAfyon has a durable reputation in potato production, it produces around 8% of Turkish potato need. It ranks in the top 5 in potato, sugar-beets, cucumber and barley production.\n",
"Afyonkarahisar has a hot and dry summer continental climate (Dsa) under the Köppen classification and a hot summer continental (Dca) or hot summer oceanic climate (Doa) under the Trewartha classification. The winters are cold and snowy winters and the summers are hot and dry with cool nights. Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn.\n\n\n",
"Afyon is the centre of an agricultural area and the city has a country town feel to it. There is little in the way of bars, cafes, live music or other cultural amenities, and the standards of education are low for a city in the west of Turkey. However Afyon Kocatepe University opened in the 1990s and this must surely lead to improvements eventually.\nNowadays Afyon is known for its marble (in 2005 there were 355 marble quarries in the province of Afyon producing high quality white stone), its ''sucuk'' (spiced sausages), its ''kaymak'' (meaning either ''cream'' or a white Turkish Delight) and various handmade weavings. There is also a large cement factory.\n\nThis is a natural crossroads, the routes from Ankara to İzmir and from Istanbul to Antalya intersect here and Afyon is a popular stopping-place on these journeys. There are a number of well-established roadside restaurants for travellers to breakfast on the local cuisine. Some of these places are modern well-equipped hotels and spas; the mineral waters of Afyon are renowned for their healing qualities. There is also a long string of roadside kiosks selling the local Turkish delight.\n\n===Transport===\nAfyon is also an important rail junction between İzmir, Konya, Ankara and Istanbul. Afyon is on the route of the planned high-speed rail line between Ankara and Izmir.\n\nSee also: Afyon Ali Çetinkaya railway station, Afyon City railway station\n\n===Cuisine ===\n\n==== Courses ====\n** ''sucuk'' - the famed local speciality, a spicy beef sausage, eaten fried or grilled. The best known brands include ''Cumhuriyet'', Ahmet İpek, İkbal, İtimat\n.\n** ağzaçık or bükme - filo-style pastry stuffed with cheese or lentils.\n** keşkek - boiled wheat and chick peas stewed with meat.\nKaymak lokum, Turkish delight of cream, a speciality of Afyonkarahisar.|169x169px\n\n==== Sweets ====\n* local cream kaymak eaten with honey, with a bread pudding ekmek kadayıf, or with pumpkin simmered in syrup. Best eaten at the famous Ikbal restaurants (either the old one in the town centre or the big place on the main road).\n* Turkish delight.\n* helva - sweetened ground sesame\n",
"* Afyonkarahisar Castle\n* Victory Museum (Zafer Müzesi), a national military and war museum, which was used as headquarters by then Commander-in-Chief Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk), his chief general staff and army commanders before the Great Offensive in August 1922. In the very city center, across the fortress, featuring maps, uniforms, photos, guns from the Greco-Turkish War.\n* The partly ruined fortress which has given the city its name. To reach at the top, eight hundred stairs need to be climbed.\n* The Afyonkarahisar Archaeological Museum which houses thousands of Hellenic, Frigian, Hittite, Roman, Ottoman finds.\n* Ulu Camii (the Great Mosque)\n* Altıgöz Bridge, like the Ulu Camii built by the Seljuqs in the 13th century.\n* Afyon mansion (Afyon konagi) situated on a hill overlooking the panoramic plain.\n* the White Elephant - Afyon is twinned with the town of Hamm in Germany, and now has a large statue of Hamm's symbolic white elephant.\n\nWith its rich architectural heritage, the city is a member of the European Association of Historic Towns and Regions .\n\n\n+ '''Table of population over years'''\n\n '''Year''' \n1914\n 1990 \n 1995 \n 2000\n\n '''Population''' \n285,750\n 95,643 \n 103,000 \n 128,516\n\n",
"* Hamm, Germany, since 2006\n* Muscat, Oman, Start since 5 August 2011\n* Khorramabad, Iran since 2015\n",
"Following list is alphabetically sorted after family name.\n* Mihran Mesrobian (1889-1975), architect and decorated Ottoman soldier\n* İlker Başbuğ (1943), former Chief of the General Staff of Turkey\n* Ali Çetinkaya (1879-1949), Ottoman Army officer and Turkish politician\n* Fikret Emek (1963), retired military personnel of the Special Forces Command\n* Veysel Eroğlu (1948), Minister of Environment and Forestry\n* Bülent İplikçioğlu (1952), historian\n* Fazıl Şenel (1972), High Commissioner / Board Member of EMRA (EPDK), Ex-President of BOTAŞ\n* Ahmed Karahisari (1468- 1566), Ottoman calligrapher\n* Gülcan Mıngır (1989), European Champion Middle distance runner\n* Ahmet Necdet Sezer (1941), former President of Turkey\n* Sibel Özkan Öz (1988), Olympic medalist female weightlifter\n* Nurgül Yeşilçay (1976), actress\n",
"* 2012 Afyonkarahisar arsenal explosion\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n* Afyon Karahisar \n* City council website \n* Governor's office\n* Afyonkarahisar community and information\n* Afyon Blog and \n* Afyonkarahisar City Daily Photo and \n* Afyon Guide and Photo Album \n* Afyon and the Phrygians \n* Afyon Kocatepe University \n* Department of forestry and the environment \n* Afyon Science High School * * Afyon Zafer College \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"History",
"Economy",
"Climate",
"Afyon today",
"Main sights",
"Twin towns – sister cities",
"Notable natives",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Afyonkarahisar |
[
"\n\n'''Abba Arikha''' (175–247) (Talmudic Aramaic: ; born: ''Abba bar Aybo'', Hebrew: רב אבא בר איבו) was a Jewish Talmudist who was born and lived in Kafri, Sassanid Babylonia, known as an amora (commentator on the Oral Law) of the 3rd century who established at Sura the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the ''Mishnah'' as text, led to the compilation of the ''Talmud''. With him began the long period of ascendancy of the great academies of Babylonia , around the year 220. He is commonly known simply as '''Rav''' (or '''Rab''', Hebrew: ).\n",
"His surname, '''Arikha''' (English, \"Long\"—that is, \"Tall\"; it occurs only once—''Hullin'' 137b), he owed to his height, which, according to a reliable record, exceeded that of his contemporaries. Others, reading '''Arekha,''' consider it an honorary title, \"Lecturer\" (Weiss, ''Dor,'' iii. 147; Jastrow, ''Dictionary'' under the word). In the traditional literature he is referred to almost exclusively as '''Rav''', \"the Master\", (both his contemporaries and posterity recognizing in him a master), just as his teacher, Judah I, was known simply as Rabbi. He is called Rabbi Abba only in the ''tannaitic'' literature (for instance, ''Tosefta'', ''Beitzah '' 1:7), where a number of his sayings are preserved. He occupies a middle position between the ''Tannaim'' and the ''Amoraim'', and is accorded the right, rarely conceded to one who is only an '' 'amora'', of disputing the opinion of a ''tanna'' (''Bava Batra '' 42a and elsewhere).\n\nRav was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family which claimed to trace its origin to Shimei, brother of King David (''Sanhedrin'' 5a; ''Ketubot '' 62b). His father, Aibo, was a brother of Chiyya, who lived in Palestine, and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah I. From his associations in the house of his uncle, and later as his uncle's disciple and as a member of the academy at Sepphoris, Rav acquired such an extraordinary knowledge of traditional lore as to make him its foremost exponent in his native land. While Judah I was still living, Rav, having been duly ordained as teacher—though not without certain restrictions (''Sanhedrin'' 5a)—returned to Babylonia, where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism.\n\nThe Aleinu prayer first appeared in the manuscript of the Rosh Hashana liturgy by Rav. He included it in the Rosh Hashana mussaf service as a prologue to the Kingship portion of the Amidah. For that reason some attribute to Rav the authorship, or at least the revising, of Aleinu.\n",
"In the annals of the Babylonian schools the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting-point in the chronology of the Talmudic age. It was the 530th year of the Seleucidan and the 219th year of the common era. As the scene of his activity, Rav first chose Nehardea, where the exilarch appointed him ''agoranomos'', or market-master, and Rabbi Shela made him lecturer (''amora'') of his college (''Jerusalem Talmud Bava Batra'' v. 15a; ''Yoma,'' 20b). Then he removed to Sura, on the Euphrates, where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples, who came from all sections of the Jewish world, Rav lived and worked in Sura until his death. Samuel, another disciple of Judah I, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it was at the school of Rav that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center. Rav's activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine, and gave it that predominant position which it was destined to occupy for several centuries.\n",
"The method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rav. That method takes the ''Mishnah'' of Judah ha-Nasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other ''tannaitic'' traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law. The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rav's name and his disputes with Samuel constitute the main body of the Babylonian Talmud. His numerous disciples—some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel—amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rav. In the Babylonian schools, Rav was rightly referred to as \"our great master.\" Rav also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of the strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of marriage and divorce, and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of ritual observance.\n",
"Rav, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in (''Hullin'' 110a). Special attention was given by him to the liturgy of the synagogue. He is reputed to be the author of one of the finest compositions in the Jewish prayerbook, the ''Mussaf'' service of the New Year. In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the Hebrew language in a natural, expressive, and classical manner (''Jerusalem Talmud Rosh Hashanah'' i. 57a). The many homiletic and ethical (haggadistic) sayings recorded of him show similar ability. As a haggadist, Rav is surpassed by none of the Babylonian ''Amoraim''. He is the only one of the Babylonian teachers whose haggadistic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists. The Jerusalem Talmud has preserved a large number of his halakic and aggadistic utterances; and the Palestinian ''Midrashim'' also contain many of his ''aggadot''. Rav delivered homiletic discourses, both in the Beth midrash (college) and in the synagogues. He especially loved to treat in his homilies of the events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the aggadah, are his creations. His ''aggadah'' is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another. A few of these utterances may be quoted here: (''Shabbat'' 10b)\n* \"The commandments of the Torah were only given to purify men's morals\" (''Genesis Raba'' 44).\n* \"Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber\" (''Shabbat'' 64b).\n* \"It is well that people busy themselves with the study of the Law and the performance of charitable deeds, even when not entirely disinterested; for the habit of right-doing will finally make the intention pure\" (''Pesahim'' 50b).\n* \"Man will be called to account for having deprived himself of the good things which the world offered\" (''Jerusalem Talmud Kiddushin'' end).\n* \"Whosoever hath not pity upon his fellow man is no child of Abraham\" (''Beitzah'' 32b).\n* \"It is better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than publicly to put to shame one's fellow creature\" (''Bava Metzia'' 59a).\n* \"One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself'\" (''Kiddushin'' 41a).\n* \"A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of Joseph shows what evil results may follow therefrom\".\n",
"Rav loved the ''Book of Ecclesiasticus'' (Sirach), and warned his disciple Hamnuna against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting advice contained therein—that, considering the transitoriness of human life (''Eruvin'' 54a), one should not despise the good things of this world. To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words: (''Berakhot'' 17a)\n\n:\"There is naught on earth to compare with the future life. In the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking, neither trading nor toil, neither hatred nor envy; but the righteous shall sit with crowns upon their heads, and rejoice in the radiance of the Divine Presence\".\n\nRav also devoted much attention to mystical and transcendental speculations which the rabbis connect with the Biblical account of creation (''Genesis'' 1, ''Ma'aseh Bereshit''), the vision of the mysterious chariot of God (''Ezekiel'' 1, ''Ma'aseh Merkabah''), and the Divine Name. Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction (''Hagigah'' 12a, ''Kiddushin'' 71a).\n",
"Concerning the social position and the personal history of Rav we were not informed. That he was rich seems probable; for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture (''Hullin'' 105a). He is referred to as the son of noblemen (Shabbat 29a) but it is not clear if this is an affectionate term or a true description of his status. Rashi does tell us that he is being described as the son of great men. That he was highly respected by the Gentiles as well as by the Jews of Babylonia is proved by the friendship which existed between him and the last Parthian king, Artaban (''Avodah Zarah'' 10b). He was deeply affected by the death of Artaban (226) and the downfall of the Arsacid dynasty, and does not appear to have sought the friendship of Ardeshir, founder of the Sassanian dynasty, although Samuel of Nehardea probably did so. Rav became closely related, through the marriage of one of his daughters, to the family of the exilarch. Her sons, Mar Ukba and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy. Rav had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in the ''Talmud'', the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya. The latter did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rav's disciple Rav Huna. Two of his grandsons occupied in succession the office of exilarch (''resh galuta'') (''Hullin'' 92a).\n\nRav died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to the leading position in Judaism (''Shabbat'' 110a, ''Mo'ed Katan'' 24a).\n\n\n",
"\n* \n* .\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Overview",
"Beginning of the Talmudic Age",
"Rav as teacher",
"Ethical teaching",
"Rav reproves extreme asceticism",
"Status in life",
"References"
] | Abba Arika |
[
"\n'''Abbahu''' ('''''') was a Jewish Talmudist, known as an ''amora'', who lived in the Land of Israel, of the 3rd amoraic generation (about 279-320), sometimes cited as R. Abbahu of Caesarea (Ḳisrin). His rabbinic education was acquired mainly at Tiberias, in the academy presided over by R. Johanan, with whom his relations were almost those of a son (''Yer. Berakhot'' chapter II ''halachah'' 1, page 4b in Daniel Bomberg's Venice edition; 12b in current editions; ''Gittin'' 44b; ''Bava Batra'' 39a). He frequently made pilgrimages to Tiberias, even after he had become well known as rector of the Caesarean Academy (''Yer. Shab.'' chapter VIII ''halachah'' 1, page 11a in Bomberg's Venice edition; 54b in current editions; Yer. ''Pesahim'' chapter X ''halachah'' 1, page 37c in Bomberg's Venice edition).\n",
"Abbahu was an authority on weights and measures (''Yer. Terumot'' chapter V, ''halachah'' 3 page 43c in Bomberg's Venice edition; ''halachah'' 1 in current editions). He encouraged the study of Greek by Jews. He learned Greek himself in order to become useful to his people, then under the Roman ''proconsuls'', that language having become, to a considerable extent, the rival of the Hebrew even in prayer (''Yer. Sotah'' chapter VII, 21b). In spite of the bitter protest of Simon b. Abba, he also taught his daughters Greek (''Yer. Shab.'' chapter VI, 7d; ''Yer. Sotah'' chapter IX, 24c; ''Sanhedrin'' 14a). Indeed, it was said of Abbahu that he was a living illustration of the maxim (Ecc. ; compare Targum), \"It is good that thou shouldest take hold of this the study of the Law; yea, also from that other branches of knowledge withdraw not thine hand: for he that feareth God shall come forth of them all\" (''Ecc. R.'' to 7:18).\n",
"Being wise, handsome, and wealthy (''Bava Metzia'' 84a; ''Yer. Bava Metzia'' chapter IV, 9d), Abbahu became not only popular with his coreligionists, but also influential with the proconsular government (''Hagigah'' 14a; ''Ketubot'' 17a). On one occasion, when his senior colleagues, Ḥiyya b. Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi, had punished a certain woman, and feared the wrath of the proconsul, Abbahu was deputed to intercede for them. He had, however, anticipated the rabbis' request, and wrote them that he had appeased the informers but not the accuser. The witty enigmatic letter describing this incident, preserved in the Talmud (''Yer. Meg.'' chapter III, 74a), is in the main pure Hebrew, and even includes Hebrew translations of Greek proper names, to avoid the danger of possible exposure should the letter have fallen into the hands of enemies and informers (compare ''Eruvin'' 53b).\n\nAfter his ordination he declined a teacher's position, recommending in his stead a more needy friend, R. Abba of Acre (Acco), as worthier than himself (''Sotah'' 40a). He thereby illustrated his own doctrine that it is a divine virtue to sympathize with a friend in his troubles as well as to partake of his joys (''Tan.'', ''Wa-yesheb'', ed. Buber, 16). Later he assumed the office of rector in Caesarea, the former seat of Hoshaiah Rabbah, and established himself at the so-called Kenishta Maradta (Insurrectionary Synagogue; ''Yer. Nazir'' chapter VII, 56a; ''Yer. San.'' chapter I, 18a; compare Josephus, ''B. J.'' ii. 14, § 5; Jastrow, ''Dict.'' p. 838), whence some of the most prominent teachers of the next generation issued. He did not, however, confine his activity to Caesarea, where he originated several ritualistic rules (''Yer. Demai'' chapter II, 23a, ''R.H.'' 34a), one of which—that regulating the sounding of the shofar—has since been universally adopted, and is referred to by medieval Jewish casuists as \"''Takkanat R. Abbahu''\" (the Enactment of R. Abbahu; compare \"''Maḥzor Vitry''\", Berlin, 1893, p. 355). He also visited and taught in many other Jewish towns (''Yer. Berakhot'' chapter VIII, 12a; ''Yer. Shab.'' chapter III, 5c).\n\nWhile on these journeys, Abbahu gathered so many ''Halakot'' that scholars turned to him for information on mooted questions (''Yer. Shabbat'' chapter VIII, 11a; ''Yer. Yevamot'' chapter I, 2d). In the course of these travels he made a point of complying with all local enactments, even where such compliance laid him open to the charge of inconsistency (''Yer. Berakhot'' chapter VIII, 12a; ''Yer. Beitzah'' chapter I, 60d). On the other hand, where circumstances required it, he did not spare even the princes of his people (''Yer. Avodah Zarah'' chapter I, 39b). Where, however, the rigorous exposition of laws worked hardship on the masses, he did not scruple to modify the decisions of his colleagues for the benefit of the community (''Shabbat'' 134b; ''Yer. Shabbat'' chapter XVII, 16b; ''Yer. Mo'ed Katan'' chapter I, 80b). As for himself, he was very strict in the observance of the laws. On one occasion he ordered some Samaritan wine, but subsequently learning that there were no longer any strict observers of the dietary laws among the Samaritans, with the assistance of his colleagues, Ḥiyya b. Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi, he investigated the report, and, ascertaining it to be well founded, did not hesitate to declare the Samaritans, for all ritualistic purposes, Gentiles (''Yer. Avodah Zarah'' chapter V, 44d; ''Hullin'' 6a).\n",
"R. Abbahu's chief characteristic seems to have been modesty. While lecturing in different towns, he met R. Ḥiyya b. Abba, who was lecturing on intricate ''halakic'' themes. As Abbahu delivered popular sermons, the masses naturally crowded to hear him, and deserted the halakist. At this apparent slight, R. Ḥiyya manifested chagrin, and R. Abbahu hastened to comfort him by comparing himself to the pedler of glittering fineries that always attracted the eyes of the masses, while his rival was a trader in precious stones, the virtues and values of which were appreciated only by the connoisseur. This speech not having the desired effect, R. Abbahu showed special respect for his slighted colleague by following him for the remainder of that day. \"What,\" said Abbahu, \"is my modesty as compared with that of R. Abba of Acre (Acco), who does not even remonstrate with his interpreter for interpolating his own comments in the lecturer's expositions.\" When his wife reported to him that his interpreter's wife had boasted of her own husband's greatness, R. Abbahu simply said, \"What difference does it make which of us is really the greater, so long as through both of us heaven is glorified?\" (''Sotah'' 40a). His principle of life he expressed in the maxim,\n\n\n\nR. Abbahu, though eminent as a halakist, was more distinguished as a haggadist and controversialist. He had many interesting disputes with the Christians of his day (''Shab.'' 152b; ''San.'' 39a; ''Av. Zarah'' 4a). Sometimes these disputes were of a jocular nature. Thus, a heretic bearing the name of Sason (=Joy) once remarked to him, \"In the next world your people will have to draw water for me; for thus it is written in the Bible (Isaiah 12:3), 'With joy shall ye draw water.'\" To this R. Abbahu replied, \"Had the Bible said 'for joy' ''le-sason'', it would mean as thou sayest, but since it says 'with joy' ''be-sason'', it means that we shall make bottles of thy hide and fill them with water\" (''Suk.'' 48b). These controversies, though forced on him, provoked resentment, and it is even related that his physician, Jacob the Schismatic (''Minaah''), was slowly poisoning him, but R. Ammi and R. Assi discovered the crime in time (''Av. Zarah'' 28a).\n\nAbbahu had two sons, Zeira and Ḥanina. Some writers ascribe to him a third son, Abimi (Bacher, ''Agada der Babylonischen Amoräer''). Abbahu sent Ḥanina to the academy at Tiberias, where he himself had studied, but the lad occupied himself with the burial of the dead, and on hearing of this, the father sent him a reproachful message in this laconic style: \"Is it because there are no graves in Cæsarea (compare Exodus 14:11) that I have sent thee off to Tiberias? Study must precede practice\" (''Yer. Pesahim'' chapter III, 30b). Abbahu left behind him a number of disciples, the most prominent among whom were the leaders of the 4th amoraic generation, R. Jonah and R. Jose. At Abbahu's death the mourning was so great that it was said, \"Even the statues of Cæsarea shed tears\" (''Mo'ed Katan'' 25b; ''Yer. Av. Zarah'' chapter III, 42c).\n",
"There are several other Abbahus mentioned in the Talmudim and Midrashim, prominent among whom is Abbahu (Abuha, Aibut) b. Ihi (Ittai), a Babylonian halakist, contemporary of Samuel and Anan (''Eruvin'' 74a), and brother of Minyamin (Benjamin) b. Ihi. While this Abbahu repeatedly applied to Samuel for information, Samuel in return learned many Halakot from him (''Naz.'' 24b; ''Bava Metzia'' 14a; 75a).\n",
"\"When does your Messiah come?\" a Christian (''Minaah'') once asked Abbahu in a tone of mockery, whereupon he replied: \"When you will be wrapped in darkness, for it says, 'Behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the nations; then shall the Lord rise upon thee and His glory shall be seen on thee' Isaiah 60:2,\" (''Sanhedrin'' 99a). A Christian came to Abbahu with the quibbling question: \"How could your God in His priestly holiness bury Moses without providing for purificatory rites, yet oceans are declared insufficient?\" (Isaiah 40:12). \"Why,\" said Abbahu, \"does it not say, 'The Lord cometh with fire'?\" (Isaiah 64:15). \"Fire is the true element of purification, according to Numbers 31:23,\" was his answer (''Sanhedrin'' 39a). Another question of the same character: \"Why the boastful claim: 'What nation on earth is like Thy people Israel' (II Sam. 7:23), since we read, 'All the nations are as nothing before Him'?\" (Isaiah 40:17), to which Abbahu replied: \"Do we not read of Israel, he 'shall not be reckoned among the nations'?\" (, ''Sanhedrin'' as above).\n\nAbbahu made a notable exception with reference to the Tosefta's statement that the ''Gilionim'' (Evangels) and other books of the Mineans (''Minnin'') are not to be saved from a conflagration on Sabbath: \"the books of those written by ''Minnin'' for the purpose of debating with Jews at Abidan may or may not be saved\" (''Shab.'' 116a). In regard to the benediction \"''Baruk Shem Kebod Malkuto''\" (Blessed be the Name of His glorious Kingdom) after the \"''Shema' Yisrael'',\" Abbahu says that in Palestine, where the Christians look for points of controversy, the words should be recited aloud (lest the Jews be accused of silently tampering with the unity of God proclaimed in the ''Shema''), whereas in the Babylonian city of Nehardea, where there are no Christians, the words are recited with a low voice (''Pesahim'' 56a). Preaching directly against the Christian dogma, Abbahu says: \"A king of flesh and blood may have a father, a brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sovereignty, but the Lord saith, 'I am the Lord thy God! I am the first; that is, I have no father, and I am the last; that is, I have no brother, and besides me there is no God; that is, I have no son'\" (Isaiah 44:6; ''Ex. R.'' 29). His comment on Numbers 23:19 has a still more polemical tone: \"God is not a man that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent; if a man says: 'I am God,' he is a liar; if he says: 'I am a son of man,' he will have cause to regret it; and if he says, 'I will go up to heaven,' he has said ''something'' but will not keep his word\" (''Yer. Ta'anit'' chapter II ''halachah'' 1, end, page 65b in Bomberg's Venice edition; 9a in current editions).\n\nSome of his controversies on Christian theological subjects, as on Adam (''Yalḳ.'', Gen. 47), on Enoch (''Gen. R.'' 25), and on the resurrection (''Shab.'' 152b), are less clear and direct (see Bacher, ''Agada der Pal. Amor.'' ii. 97, 115-118).\n'''Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography:'''\n*Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, 2d ed., iv. 304, 307-317;\n* Jost, ''Gesch. des Judenthums und seiner Sekten'', ii.161-164;\n* Frankel, ''Mebo'', pp. 58a-60;\n* Weiss, ''Dor'', iii. 103-105;\n* Bacher, ''Ag. Pal. Amor.'' ii. 88-142.\n\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Knowledge of Greek literature",
"Rector in Caesarea",
"Abbahu and Ḥiyya b. Abba",
" Other Abbahus ",
" Against the Christians ",
"References"
] | Abbahu |
[
"An '''Abbreviator''' (plural \"'''Abbreviators'''\" in English and \"'''Abbreviatores'''\" in Latin) or '''Breviator''' was a writer of the Papal Chancery who adumbrated and prepared in correct form Papal bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees before these were written out ''in extenso'' by the ''scriptores''.\n\nThey are first mentioned in the Papal bull ''Extravagantes'' of Pope John XXII and in a Papal bull of Pope Benedict XII.\n\nAfter the protonotaries left the adumbration of the minutes to the Abbreviators, those ''de Parco majori'' of the dignity of prelate were the most important officers of the Papal Chancery. By the pontificate of Pope Martin V their signature was essential to the validity of the acts of the Chancery. Over time they obtained many important privileges.\n",
"Abbreviators make an abridgment or abstract of a long writing or discourse by contracting the parts, i. e., the words and sentences; an abbreviated form of writing common among the ancient Romans. Abbreviations were of two kinds: the use of a single letter for a single word and the use of a sign, note, or mark for a word or phrase.\nThe Emperor Justinian forbade the use of abbreviations in the compilation of the ''Digest'' and afterward extended his prohibition to all other writings. This prohibition was not universally obeyed. The Abbreviators found it convenient to use the abbreviated form, and this was especially the case in Rome. The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren.\n",
"In course of time the Papal Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the \"curial\" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs \"ae\" and \"oe\", and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation. The ''Abbreviatores'' were officials of the Roman Curia.\n\nThe scope of its labour, as well as the number of its officials, varied over time. Up to the twelfth or thirteenth century, the duty of the Apostolic – or Roman – Chancery was to prepare and expedite the Papal letters and writs for collation of ecclesiastical dignitaries and other matters of grave importance which were discussed and decided in Papal consistory. About the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Popes, then residing in Avignon, France, began to reserve the collation of a great many benefices, so that all the benefices, especially the greater ones, were to be conferred through the Roman Curia (Lega, ''Praelectiones Jur. Can.'', 1, 2, 287). As a consequence, the labour was immensely augmented, and the number of ''Abbreviatores'' necessarily increased. To regulate the proper expedition of these reserved benefices, Pope John XXII instituted the rules of chancery to determine the competency and mode of procedure of the Chancery. Afterwards the establishment of the ''Dataria Apostolica'' and the Secretariate of Briefs lightened the work of the Chancery and led to a reduction in the number of ''Abbreviatores''.\n\nAccording to Ciampini (''Lib. de abbreviatorum de parco majore etc.'', Cap. 1) the institution of curial abbreviators was very ancient, succeeding after the persecutions to the notaries who recorded the acts of the martyrs. Other authors reject this early institution and ascribe it to Pope John XXII in 1316. It is certain that he uses the name \"''abbreviatores''\", but speaks as if they had existed before his time, and had, by over-taxation of their labour, caused much complaint and protest. He (''Extravag. Joan.'', Tit. 13, \"Cum ad Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae\") prescribed their work, determined how much they could charge for their labour, fixed a certain tax for an abstract or abridgment of twenty-five words or their equivalent at 150 letters, forbade them to charge more, even though the abstract was over twenty-five words but less than fifty words, enacted that the basis of the tax was the labour employed in writing, expediting, etc. the bulls, and by no means the emoluments that accrued to the recipient of the favour or benefice conferred by the bull, and declared that whoever charged more than the tax fixed by him was suspended for six months from office, and upon a second violation of the law, was deprived of it altogether, and if the delinquent was an abbreviator, he was excommunicated. Should a large letter have to be rewritten, owing to the inexact copy of the abbreviator, the abbreviator and not the receiver of the bull had to pay the extra charge for the extra labour to the Apostolic writer.\n\nWhatever may be the date of the institution of the office of abbreviator, it is certain that it became of greater importance and more highly privileged upon its erection into a college of prelates. Pope Martin V (Constit. 3 \"In Apostolicae\", 2 and 5) fixed the manner for their examination and approbation and also the tax they could demand for their labour and the punishment for overcharge. He also assigned to them certain remunerations. The Abbreviators of the lower, or lesser, were to be promoted to the higher, or greater, bar or presidency. Their offices were compatible with other offices, i. e. they could hold two benefices or offices simultaneously, some conferred by the Cardinal Vice Chancellor, others by the Pope.\n",
"In the pontificate of Pope Pius II, their number, which had been fixed at twenty-four, had overgrown to such an extent as to diminish considerably the individual remuneration, and, as a consequence, competent men no longer sought the office, and hence the old style of writing and expediting the bulls was no longer used, to the great injury of justice, the interested parties, and the dignity of the Apostolic See. To remedy this and to restore the old established chancery style, the Pope selected out of the many then living Abbreviators seventy, and formed them into a college of prelates denominated the \"'''College of Abbreviators'''\", and decreed that their office should be perpetual, that certain remunerations should be attached to it, and granted certain privileges to the possessors of the same. He ordained further that some should be called \"Abbreviators of the Upper Bar\" (''Abbreviatores de Parco Majori''; the name derived from a place in the Chancery that was surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the Vice Chancellor), the others of the Lower Bar (''Abbreviatores de Parco Minori''); that the former should sit upon a slightly raised portion of the chamber, separated from the rest of the chamber by lattice work, assist the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, subscribe the letters and have the principal part in examining, revising, and expediting the Apostolic letters to be issued with the leaden seal; that the latter, however, should sit among the Apostolic writers upon benches in the lower part of the chamber, and their duty was to carry the signed schedules or supplications to the prelates of the Upper Bar. Then one of the prelates of the Upper Bar made an abstract, and another prelate of the same bar revised it. Prelates of the Upper Bar formed a quasi-tribunal, in which as a college they decided all doubts that might arise about the form and quality of the letters, of the clauses and decrees to be adjoined to the Apostolic letters, and sometimes about the payment of the remunerations and other contingencies. Their opinion about questions concerning Chancery business was held in the highest estimation by all the Roman tribunals.\n\nPope Paul II suppressed the College; but Pope Sixtus IV (''Constitutio'' 16, \"Divina\") re-instituted it. He appointed seventy-two abbreviators, of whom twelve were of the upper, or greater, and twenty-two of the lower, or lesser, presidency (\"parco\"), and thirty-eight examiners on first appearance of letters. They were bound to be in attendance on certain days under penalty of fine, and sign letters and diplomas. Ciampini mentions a decree of the Vice Chancellor by which absentees were mulcted in the loss of their share of the remuneration of the following session of the Chancery. The same Pope also granted many privileges to the College of Abbreviators, but especially to the members of the greater presidency.\n\nPope Pius VII suppressed many of the offices of the Chancery, and so the Tribunal of Correctors and the Abbreviators of the lower presidency disappeared. Of the Tribunal of Correctors, a substitute-corrector alone remains. Bouix (''Curia Romana'', edit. 1859) chronicled the suppression of the lower presidency and put the number of Abbreviators at that date at eleven. Later the College consisted of seventeen prelates, six substitutes, and one sub-substitute, all of whom, except the prelates, were clerics or laity. Although the duty of Abbreviators was originally to make abstracts and abridgments of the Apostolic letters, diplomas, et cetera, using the legal abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, in course of time, as their office grew in importance they delegated that part of their office to their substitute and confined themselves to overseeing the proper expedition of the Apostolic letters. Prior to 1878, all Apostolic letters and briefs requiring for their validity the leaden seal were engrossed upon rough parchment in Gothic characters or round letters, also called \"Gallicum\" and commonly \"Bollatico\", but in Italy \"Teutonic\", without lines, diphthongs, or marks of punctuation. Bulls engrossed on a different parchment, or in different characters with lines and punctuation marks, or without the accustomed abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, were rejected as spurious. Pope Leo XIII in his ''Constitutio Universae Eccles.'' of 29 December 1878 ordained that they should be written henceforth in ordinary Latin characters upon ordinary parchment and that no abbreviations were to be used except those easily understood.\n",
"Many great privileges were conferred upon Abbreviators. By decree of Pope Leo X they were elevated as Papal nobles, ranking as ''Comes palatinus'' (\"Count Palatine\"), familiars and members of the Papal household, so that they might enjoy all the privileges of domestic prelates and of prelates in actual attendance on the Pope, as regards plurality of benefices as well as expectives. They and their clerics and their properties were exempt from all jurisdiction except the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, and they were not subject to the judgments of the Auditor of Causes or the Cardinal Vicar. He also empowered them to confer, later within strict limitations, the degree of Doctor, with all university privileges, institute notaries (later abrogated), legitimize children so as to make them eligible to receive benefices vacated by their fathers (later revoked), also to ennoble three persons and to make Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester (''Militiae Aureae''), the same to enjoy and to wear the insignia of nobility. Pope Gregory XVI rescinded this privilege and reserved to the Pope the right of institution of such knights (''Acta Pont. Greg. XVI'', Vol. 3, 178-179-180).\n\nPope Paul V, who in early manhood was a member of the College (Const. 2, \"Romani\"), made them Referendaries of Favours, and after three years of service, Referendaries of Justice, enjoying the privileges of Referendaries and permitting one to assist in the signatures before the Pope, giving all a right to a portion in the Papal palace and exempting them from the registration of favours as required by Pope Pius IV (Const., 98) with regard to matters pertaining to the Apostolic Chamber.\n\nThey followed immediately after the twelve voting members of the Signature ''in capella''. Abbreviators of the greater presidency were permitted to wear the purple cassock and ''cappa'', as also rochet ''in capella''. Abbreviators of the lower presidency before their suppression were simple clerics, and according to permission granted by Pope Sixtus IV (loc. cit.) might be even married.\n\nThese offices becoming vacant by death of the Abbreviator, no matter where the death occurred, were reserved to the Roman Curia. The prelates could resign their office in favour of others. Formerly these offices as well as those of the other Chancery officers from the Regent down were occasions of venality, until Popes, especially Pope Benedict XIV and Pope Pius VII, gradually abolished that. Pope Leo XIII in a motu proprio of 4 July 1898 most solemnly decreed the abolition of all venality in the transfer or collation of the said offices.\n\nAs domestic prelates, prelates of the Roman Curia, they had personal preeminence in every diocese of the world. They were addressed as \"Reverendissimus\", \"Right Reverend\", and \"Monsignor\". As prelates, and therefore possessing the legal dignity, they were competent to receive and execute Papal commands. Pope Benedict XIV (Const. 3, \"Maximo\") granted prelates of the greater presidency the privilege of wearing a hat with a purple band, which right they held even after they ceased to be abbreviators.\n",
"Pope St. Pius X abrogated the College in 1908 and their obligations were transferred to the ''protonotarii apostolici participantes''.\n",
"\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Roman lay origin ",
" Ecclesiastical ''abbreviatores'' ",
" Institution of the College of Abbreviators ",
" Titles and privileges ",
" Suppression ",
" References "
] | Abbreviator |
[
"\n\n'''Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi''', short for Muwaffaq al-Din Muhammad Abd al-Latif ibn Yusuf al-Baghdadi (; 1162–1231), or Abdallatif al-Baghdadi (), born in Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate (modern Iraq), was a physician, historian, Egyptologist and traveler, and one of the most voluminous writers of the Near East in his time.\n",
"Many details of Abd al-Latif's life are known from his autobiography. As a young man, he studied grammar, law, tradition, medicine, alchemy and philosophy. He focused his studies on ancient authors, in particular Aristotle, after first adopting Avicenna as his philosophical mentor at the suggestion of a wandering scholar from the Maghreb. He traveled extensively and resided for a while in Mosul (in 1189) where he studied the works of al-Suhrawardi before traveling on to Damascus (1190) and the camp of Saladin outside Acre (1191). It was at the latter location that he met Baha’ al-Din Ibn Shaddad and ‘Imad al-Din al-Isfahani and acquired the qadi al-Fadil's patronage. He went on to Cairo, where he met Abu'l-Qasim al-Shari'i, who introduced him to the works of al-Farabi, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and Themistius and (according to al-Latif) turned him away from Avicenna and alchemy.\n\nHe met Saladin himself in 1192 in Jerusalem, then went to Damascus again before returning to Cairo. In later years he again journeyed to Jerusalem and to Damascus in 1207-8, and eventually made his way via Aleppo to Erzindjan, where he remained at the court of Ala’-al-Din Da’ud until the city was conquered by the Seljuk ruler Kayqubadh. ‘Abd al-Latif returned to Baghdad in 1229, travelling back via Erzerum, Kamakh, Diwrigi and Malatiya. He died in Baghdad two years later.\n",
"Abdullatif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Osaiba ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed ''Account of Egypt'' (in two parts), appears to be known in Europe.\n\n===Archeology===\nAbd-al-Latif was well aware of the value of ancient monuments and praised Muslim rulers for preserving and protecting pre-Islamic artifacts and monuments. He noted that the preservation of antiquities presented a number of benefits for Muslims:\n* \"monuments are useful historical evidence for chronologies;\"\n* \"they furnish evidence for Holy Scriptures, since the Qur'an mentions them and their people;\"\n* \"they are reminders of human endurance and fate;\"\n* \"they show, to a degree, the politics and history of ancestors, the richness of their sciences, and the genius of their thought.\"\n\nWhile discussing the profession of treasure hunting, he notes that poorer treasure hunters were often sponsored by rich businessmen to go on archeological expeditions. In some cases, an expedition could turn out to be fraud, with the treasure hunter disappearing with large amounts of money extracted from sponsors. This fraudulent practice continues to the present day, with rich businessmen in Egypt still being deceived by local treasure hunters.\n\n===Egyptology===\nThis work was one of the earliest works on Egyptology. It contains a vivid description of a famine caused, during the author's residence in Egypt, by the Nile failing to overflow its banks. He also wrote detailed descriptions on ancient Egyptian monuments.\n\n===Autopsy===\nAl-Baghdadi wrote that during the famine in Egypt in 597 AH (1200 AD), he had the opportunity to observe and examine a large number of skeletons. This was one of the earliest examples of a postmortem autopsy, through which he discovered that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw and sacrum.\n\n===Translation===\nThe Arabic manuscript was discovered in 1665 by Edward Pococke the orientalist, and preserved in the Bodleian Library. He then published the Arabic manuscript in the 1680s. His son, Edward Pococke the Younger, translated the work into Latin, though he was only able to publish less than half of his work. Thomas Hunt attempted to publish Pococke's complete translation in 1746, though his attempt was unsuccessful. Pococke's complete Latin translation was eventually published by Joseph White of Oxford in 1800. The work was then translated into French, with valuable notes, by Silvestre de Sacy in 1810.\n",
"\n===''Al-Mukhtarat fi al-Tibb''===\nAl-Baghdadi's ''Mukhtarat fi al-Tibb'' was one of the earliest works on hirudotherapy. He introduced a more modern use for medicinal leech, stating that leech could be used for cleaning the tissues after surgical operations. He did, however, understand that there is a risk over using leech, and advised patients that leech need to be cleaned before being used and that the dirt or dust \"clinging to a leech should be wiped off\" before application. He further writes that after the leech has sucked out the blood, salt should be \"sprinkled on the affected part of the human body.\"\n\n===''Medicine from the Book and the Life of the Prophet''===\nHe wrote a book called ''Al-Tibb min al-Kitab wa-al-Sunna'' (''Medicine from the Book and the Life of the Prophet'') describing the Islamic medical practices from the time of Muhammad.\n\n===Diabetes===\nAl-Baghdadi was also the author of a major book dealing with diabetes.\n",
"\n",
"* Cecilia Martini Bonadeo, '' 'Abd al-Laṭif al-Baghdadi's Philosophical Journey: from Aristotle's \"Metaphysics\" to the \"Metaphysical Science\" '', Brill, 2013, XII-378 p.\n* Silvestre de Sacy, Relation de l'Egypt par Adb al-Latif, Paris, 1810. – French translation of the \"Account of Egypt\".\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"''Account of Egypt''",
"Medical works",
"Notes",
"References"
] | Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi |
[
"\n\n\n'''Abd ar-Rahman II''' () (792–852) was the fourth Umayyad Emir of Córdoba in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) from 822 until his death.\n",
"Abd ar-Rahman II was born in Toledo, the son of Emir Al-Hakam I. In his youth he took part in the so-called \"massacre of the ditch\", when from 700 to 5,000 people come to pay homage to the princes who were killed by order of Al-Hakam.\n\nHe succeeded his father as Emir of Córdoba in 822 and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted (822–842). \nIn 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo. \nHe issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.\n\nIn 844, Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. \nThereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids.\n\nHe responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald's nominations.\n\nAbd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba where he died in 852. He made additions to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts. \nHe was also involved in the execution of the \"Martyrs of Córdoba\".\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"References"
] | Abd ar-Rahman II |
[
"\n\n\n'''Abd-ar-Rahman III''' ('''′Abd ar-Rahmān ibn Muhammad ibn ′Abd Allāh ibn Muhammad ibn ′abd ar-Rahman ibn al-Hakam ar-Rabdi ibn Hisham ibn ′abd ar-Rahman ad-Dakhil'''; ; 11 January 889/9115 October 961) was the Emir and Caliph of Córdoba (912–961) of the Umayyad dynasty in al-Andalus. Called ''al-Nasir li-Din Allah'' (\"the Defender of God's Faith\"), he ascended the throne in his early 20s, and reigned for half a century as the most powerful prince of Iberia. Although people of all creeds enjoyed tolerance and freedom of religion under his rule, he repelled the Fatimids, partly by supporting their Maghrawa enemies in North Africa, and partly by claiming the title Caliph (ruler of the Islamic world) for himself.\n",
"\n===Early years===\nAbd ar-Rahman was born in Córdoba, the grandson of Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi , seventh independent Umayyad emir of al-Andalus. His parents were Abdullah's son Muhammad and Muzna (or Muzayna), a Christian concubine. His paternal grandmother was also a Christian, the royal infanta Onneca Fortúnez, daughter of the captive king Fortún Garcés of Pamplona. Abd ar-Rahman was thus nephew in the half-blood of queen Toda of Pamplona. He is described as having \"white skin, blue eyes and attractive face; good looking, although somewhat sturdy and stout. His legs were short, to the point that the stirrups of his saddle were mounted just one palm under it. When mounted, he looked tall, but on his feet he was quite short. He dyed his beard black.\n\nMuhammad was assassinated by his brother Al-Mutarrif, who had allegedly grown jealous of the favour Muhammad had gained in the eyes of their father Abdallah. Al-Mutarrif had accused Muhammad of plotting with the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun, and Muhammad had been imprisoned. According to some sources, the emir himself was behind Muhammad's fall, as well as Al-Mutarrif's death in 895. Abd ar-Rahman spent his youth in his mother's harem. Al-Mutarrif's sister, known as ''al-Sayyida'' (\"the Lady\"), was entrusted with his education. She made sure that Abd ar-Rahman's education was conducted with some rigor.\n\n===Accession to throne===\n\nEmir Abdallah died at the age of 72. Despite the fact that four of his sons (Aban, Abd al Rahman, Muhammad and Ahmad) were alive at the time of his death, all of them were passed over for succession. Abdallah instead chose as his successor his grandson, Abd al-Rahman III (the son of his first son). This came as no surprise, since Abdallah had already demonstrated his affection for his grandson in many ways, namely by allowing him to live in his own tower (something he did not allow for any of his sons), and allowing him to sit on the throne on some festive occasions. Most importantly Abdallah gave Abd al-Rahman his ring, the symbol of power, when Abdallah fell ill prior to his death. Abd al-Rahman succeeded Abdallah the day after his death, 16 October 912. Historiographers of the time, such as ''Al-Bayan al-Mughrib'' and the ''Crónica anónima de Abd al-Rahman III'', state that his succession was \"without incident\". At the time, Abd al-Rahman was about 21 or 22 years old. He inherited an emirate on the verge of dissolution, his power extending not far beyond the vicinity of Córdoba. To the north, the Christian Kingdom of Asturias was continuing its program of ''Reconquista'' in the Douro valley. To the south in Ifriqiya, the Fatimids had created an independent caliphate that threatened to attract the allegiance of the Muslim population, who had suffered under the harsh rule of Abdullah. On the internal front the discontented Muladi families (Muslims of Iberian origin) represented a constant danger for the Córdoban emir. The most powerful of the latter was Umar ibn Hafsun, who, from his impregnable fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun, controlled much of eastern Al-Andalus.\n\nFrom the very early stages of his reign, Abd ar-Rahman showed a firm resolve to quash the rebels of al-Andalus, consolidate centralized power, and reestablish internal order within the emirate. Within 10 days of taking the throne, he exhibited the head of a rebel leader in Cordoba. From this point on he led annual expeditions against the northern and southern tribes to maintain control over them. To accomplish his aims he introduced into the court the ''saqalibah'', slaves of East European origin. The ''saqalibah'' represented a third ethnic group that could neutralize the endless strife between his subjects of Muslim Arab heritage, and those of Muslim Berber heritage.\n\nHasdai ibn Shaprut, a Jewish courtier of the king's court who served as financier to the king, wrote of the king's revenues on this wise:\n\n\n===Early rule===\nDuring the first 20 years of his rule, Abd ar-Rahman avoided military action against the northern Christian kingdoms, Asturias and the Kingdom of Navarre. The Muladi rebels were the first problem he confronted. Those powerful families were supported by Iberians who were openly or secretly Christians and had acted with the rebels. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse to supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy. Abd ar-Rahman moved to subdue them by means of a mercenary army that included Christians.\n\nThe Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.\nHe first had to suppress the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun. On 1 January 913 an army, led by the eunuch Badr, conquered the fortress of Écija, at some from the capital. All the city's fortifications were destroyed, aside from the citadel, which was left as residence of the governor and a garrison for the emiral troops. In the following spring, after sixty-five days of meticulous preparations, Abd ar-Rahman personally led an expedition to the south of his realm. His troops were able to recover the ''coras'' (provinces) of Jaén and Granada, while a cavalry detachment was sent to free Málaga from ibn Hafsun's siege. He also obtained the capitulation of Fiñana (in the modern province of Almería), after setting fire to its suburbs. Subsequently he moved against the castle of Juviles in the Alpujarras. After devastating its countryside to deprive it of any resource, he encircled it. Finding it difficult to bombard with catapults, he ordered the construction of a platform where his siege engines could be mounted to greater effect, and cut the water supply. The Muladi defenders surrendered after a few days: their lives, apart from fifty-five die-hards who were beheaded, were spared in exchange of their allegiance to the emir. The campaign continued in a similar vein, lasting for a total of ninety days. Abd ar-Rahman forced the defeated Muladi to send hostages and treasures to Córdoba, in order to secure their continued submission.\n\nIn the first year of his reign, Abd ar-Rahman took advantage of the rivalries between the Banu Hayyay lords of Seville and Carmona to force them to submit. He initially sent a special corps (''hasam'') under Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hudayr, governor of Écija, to Seville, to obtain their submission. This attempt failed, but gained him the support of Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Hayyay, lord of Carmona, and a cousin of the Sevillan lord, Ahmad ibn Maslama. When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, he sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers and returned to Bobastro. He next went after the forts in the provinces of Elvira, Granada, and Jaen, all of which were either directly or indirectly controlled by Hafsun. Seville finally capitulated on 20 December 913. Ibn al-Mundir al-Qurays, a member of the royal family, was named governor of the city, while the Lord of Carmona obtained the title of vizier. Muhammad ibn Ibrahim enjoyed his office for only a single day, for Abd ar-Rahman soon discovered his collusion with the rebel governor of Carmona. Muhammad was sent to prison, where he later met his death.\n\nThe region of Valencia submitted peacefully in 915.\n\n===Ibn Hafsun and other rebels===\n\nAbd ar-Rahman's next objective was to quash the longstanding rebellion of Umar ibn Hafsun.\n\nHis troops left Córdoba on 7 May 914 and, after a few days, encamped before the walls of Balda (identified with today's Cuevas de San Marcos). His cavalry ravaged the nearby woods and the countryside, while the rest of the troopes moved to Turrus, a castle located in the present municipality of Algarinejo, which was surrounded within five days, while its environs were also devastated.\n\nThe Umayyad army then moved to the citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun, while the cavalry was sent to the castle of Sant Batir, which was abandoned by the defenders, allowing Abd ar-Rahman's troops to secure a large booty. Then it was the turn of the castles of Olías and Reina. The latter fell after a violent fight, leaving the road open to the major city and provincial capital of Málaga, which he captured after one day. Abd ar-Rahman then turned and followed the coast by Montemayor, near Benahavís, Suhayl (Fuengirola) and another castle called ''Turrus ''or ''Turrus Jusayn'' (identified by Évariste Lévi-Provençal as Ojén). He finally arrived at Algeciras on 1 June 914. He ordered a patrol of the coast to destroy the boats that supplied the citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun from the Maghreb. Many of them were captured and set afire in front of the emir. The rebellious castles near Algeciras surrendered as soon as the Cordoban army manifested itself.\n\nAbd ar-Rahman launched three different campaigns against Ibn Hafsun (who died in 917) and his sons. Among them, Jafar ibn Hafsun held the stronghold of Toledo. Abd ar-Rahman ordered ravaged the city's countryside. Jafar, after two years of siege, escaped the city to ask for help in the northern Christian kingdoms. In the meantime Abd ar-Rahman obtained the surrender of the city from its population, after promising them immunity, although 4,000 rebel men escaped in a night sally. The city surrendered on 2 August 932, after a siege of two years.\n\nIn 921 the Banu Muhallab of Guadix submitted, followed by those of Jerez de la Frontera and Cádiz, as well as the trading republic of Pechina (922). In 927, Abd-ar-Rahman also launched a campaign against the rebel Banu Qasi, but was forced to break it off by the intervention of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona.\n\nThe last of Ibn Hafsun to fall was Hafs, who commanded his powerful fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun. Surrounded by Abd ar-Rahman's vizier Said ibn al-Mundhir who had ordered the construction of bastions around the city, he resisted the siege for six months, until he surrendered in 928 and had his life spared.\n\n===The Levente and Algarve rebels===\nThe continued expeditions against the Hafsunids did not distract Abd ad-Rahman III from the situation of other regions in al-Andalus, which recognized him only nominally, if not being in open revolt. Most of the loyal governors of the cities were in a weak position, such as the governor of Évora, who could not prevent the attack of the king of Galicia (future king of León), Ordoño II, who captured the city in the summer of 913, taking back a sizable booty and 4,000 prisoners and massacring many Muslims.\n\nIn much of the eastern and western province, Abd ar-Rahman's authority was completely unrecognized. The lord of Badajoz, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, grandson of Abd-ar-Rahman ibn Marwan al-Yilliqi, not only fortified his city against a possible attack from Ordoño, but also acted in complete independence from Córdoba. To avoid the fall of Évora into the hands of the Berber groups of the region, he ordered the destruction of its defensive towers and lowered the walls, though a year later he decided to reconstruct it, giving its control to his ally Masud ibn Sa' dun al-Surunbaqi. The Algarve was dominated completely by a muladí coalition led by Sa'id ibn Mal, who had expelled the Arabs from Beja, and the lords of Ocsónoba, Yahya ibn Bakr, and of Niebla, Ibn Ufayr.\n\nThe absence of royal authority enabled Ordoño II to easily campaign in this area, his main objective being the city of Mérida, in the summer of 915. Abd ar-Rahman III did not send an army and only several local Berber ''jefes'' offered some resistance which was ineffective.\n\n===Assumption of the Caliphate===\n\nIn the next year, despite having defeated only some of the rebels, Abd ar-Rahman III considered himself powerful enough to declare himself Caliph of Córdoba (16 January 929), effectively breaking his allegiance to, and ties with, the Fatimid and Abbasid caliphs. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the Emperor who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, and his ancestors had until then been content with the title of emir. But the force of this tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abd-ar-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa. He based his claim to the caliphate on his Umayyad ancestors who had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the Abbasids.\n\nAbd ar-Rahman's move made him both the political and the religious leader of all the Muslims in al-Andalus, as well as the protector of his Christian and Jewish subjects. The symbols of his new caliphate power were a scepter (''jayzuran'') and the throne (''sarir''). In the mint he had founded in November 928, Abd ar-Rahman started to coin golden dinars and silver dirhams, replacing the \"al-Andalus\" title with his name.\n\nIn his new role of caliph, he achieved the surrender of Ibn Marwan of Badajoz in 930. On the southern front, to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, abd ar-Rahmad ordered the construction of a fleet based in Almeria. The caliph helped the Maghrawa Berbers conquer Melilla (927), Ceuta (931) and Tangiers (951), which accepted his suzerainty. However, he was unable to defeat Jawhar al-Siqilli of the Fatamids. In 951 he signed a peace with the new king of León, Ordoño III, in order to have a free hand against the Fatimids whose ships were harassing the caliphate ones in the Mediterranean and had even launched an assault against Almeria. Abd ar-Rahman's force, led by prime minister Ahmad ibn Said, besieged the Fatimid port of Tunis, which bought its safety through paying a huge sum.\n\nIn the end he was able to create a protectorate covering the northern and central Maghreb, supporting the Idrisid dynasty; the caliphate influence in the area disappeared after a Fatimid offensive in 958, after which abd ar-Rahman kept only the strongholds of Ceuta and Tangiers.\n\n===War with the Christian kingdoms of the north===\nEven before al-Andalus was firmly under his rule, he had restarted the war against King Ordoño II of León, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some boundary areas and menace the Umayyad territory. In 917 the then emir had sent a large army under his general Ahmad ibn Abi Abda against León, but this force was destroyed at the Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz in September of that year.\n\nRecognizing he had underestimated the power of Ordoño II, in 920 Abd ar-Rahman mustered another powerful army to reclaim the territories lost after the previous campaign. He captured the forts of Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz. After defeating King Sancho Garcés I of Navarre and the king of Leon at Valdejunquera on 26 July, he penetrated into Navarre, overcoming Aragon by the classic route of the invasions from the south. Abd ar-Rahman reached the Basque city of Pamplona, which was sacked and its cathedral church demolished.\n\nIn 924 Abd-ar-Rahman felt obliged to avenge the massacre of Viguera castle perpetrated by King Sancho Ordóñez of Navarre one year earlier. he launched counter offensive against Sancho in which Abd-ar-Rahman devastated a large area of Basque territory.\n\nThe succession crisis which struck León after Ordoño II's death in the same year caused hostilities to cease until Ramiro II obtained the throne in 932; a first attempt by him to assist the besieged rebels in Toledo was repelled in 932, despite the Christian king capturing Madrid and scoring a victory at Osma.\n\nIn 934, after reasserting supremacy over Pamplona and Álava, Abd-ar-Rahmad forced Ramiro to retreat to Burgos, and forced the Navarrese queen Toda, his aunt, to submit to him as a vassal and withdraw from direct rule as regent for her son García Sánchez I. In 937 Abd-ar-Rahmad conquered some thirty castles in León. Next he turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim at-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the capture of his city.\n\nDespite early defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphate army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, and almost kill Abd-ar-Rahman, due, most likely, to treason by Arab elements in the caliph's army. After this defeat, Abd-ar-Rahman stopped taking personal command of his military campaigns. His cause was helped, however, by Fernán González of Castile, one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who subsequently launched a sustained rebellion against Ramiro. The victory of Simancas enabled the Christian kingdom to maintain the military initiative in the peninsula until the defeat of Ramiro's successor, Ordoño III of León, in 956. However they did not press this advantage as civil war broke out in the Christian territories.\n\nIn 950 Abd ar-Rahman received in Córdoba an embassy from count Borrell II of Barcelona, by which the northern county recognized caliphate supremacy in exchange for peace and mutual support. In 958, Sancho, the exiled king of Leon, Garcia Sanchez, King of Navarre, and Queen Toda all paid homage to Abd-ar-Rahman in Cordoba.\n\nUntil 961, the caliphate played an active role in the dynastic strife characterizing the Christian kingdom during the period. Ordoño III's half-brother and successor, Sancho the Fat, had been deposed by his cousin Ordoño IV. Together with his grandmother Toda of Navarre, Sancho sought an alliance with Córdoba. In exchange for some castles, Abd-ar-Rahman helped them to take back Zamora (959) and Oviedo (960) and to overthrow Ordoño IV.\n\n===Later years===\nAbd-ar-Rahman was accused of having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of the harem. He is known to have openly kept a male as well as a female harem. This likely influenced the polemical story of his falling in love with a 13-year-old boy (later enshrined as a Christian martyr and canonised as Saint Pelagius of Córdoba) who refused the Caliph's advances. The love story may have been a construct on top of an original tale, however, in which he ordered the boy-slave to convert to Islam. Either way, enraged, he had the boy tortured and dismembered, thus contributing to the Christian perception of Muslim brutality.\n\nAbd-ar-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Córdoba. He died in October 961 and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam II.\n",
"Abd-ar-Rahman was a patron of arts, especially architecture. A third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded, and a third was spent on buildings. After declaring the caliphate, he had a massive palace complex, known as the Medina Azahara, built some five kilometers north of Córdoba. The Medina Azahara was modeled after the old Umayyad palace in Damascus and served as a symbolic tie between the new caliph and his ancestors. It was said that Cordoba contained 3000 mosques and 100,000 shops and homes during his reign.\n\nUnder his reign, Córdoba became the most important intellectual centre of Western Europe. He expanded the city's library, which would be further enriched by his successors.\n\n\n\nHe also reinforced the Iberian fleet, which became the most powerful in Mediterranean Europe. Iberian raiders moved up to Galicia, Asturias, and North Africa. The colonizers of Fraxinetum came from al-Andalus as well.\n\nDue to his consolidation of power, Muslim Iberia became a power for a few centuries. It also brought prosperity, and with this he created mints where pure gold and silver coins were created. He renovated and added to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.\n\nHe was very wary of losing control and kept tight reins in his family. In 949, he executed one of his sons for conspiring against him. He was tolerant of non-Muslims, Jews and Christians who were treated fairly. European nations sent emissaries such as from Otto I of Germany, and the Byzantine emperor.\n",
"Abd-ar-Rahman III's mother Muzna was a Christian captive, possibly from the Pyrenean region. His paternal grandmother Onneca Fortúnez was a Christian princess from the Kingdom of Pamplona. In his immediate ancestry, Abd-ar-Rahman III was Hispano–Basque and Arab.\n\n\n\n",
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"\n\n\n'''Abd ar-Rahman IV Mortada''' ('''عبدالرحمن''') was the Caliph of Córdoba in the Umayyad dynasty of the Al-Andalus, succeeding Suleiman II, in 1018. That same year, he was murdered at Cadiz while fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by the very supporters which had brought him into power. His brief reign was similar to that of Abd ar-Rahman V Mostadir.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
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"\n\n\n'''Abd ar-Rahman V''' () was an Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba.\n\nIn the agony of the Umayyad dynasty in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia), two princes of the house were proclaimed Caliph of Córdoba for a very short time, '''Abd-ar-Rahman IV''' Mortada (1017), and '''Abd-ar-Rahman V''' Mostadir (1023–1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-Rahman IV was murdered the same year he was proclaimed at Cadiz, in flight from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Córdoba, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
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"Introduction"
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"\n\n\n\n'''Abdülaziz''' (Ottoman Turkish: عبد العزيز / ''`Abdü’l-`Azīz'', ; 9 February 18304 June 1876) was the 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and reigned between 25 June 1861 and 30 May 1876. He was the son of Sultan Mahmud II and succeeded his brother Abdülmecid I in 1861.\n\nBorn at Eyüp Palace, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), on 9/18 February 1830, Abdülaziz received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was made in the West. He was the first Ottoman Sultan who travelled to Western Europe, visiting a number of important European capitals including Paris, London and Vienna in the summer of 1867.\n\nApart from his passion for the Ottoman Navy, which had the world's third largest fleet in 1875 (after the British and French navies), the Sultan took an interest in documenting the Ottoman Empire. He was also interested in literature and was a talented classical music composer. Some of his compositions, together with those of the other members of the Ottoman dynasty, have been collected in the album ''\"European Music at the Ottoman Court\"'' by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music.\n",
"His parents were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan. (1812–1883), originally named Besime, a Circassian. He was a quarter French. In 1868 Pertevniyal was residing at Dolmabahçe Palace. That year Abdülaziz led the visiting Eugénie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother. Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugénie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident. According to another account, Pertevniyal became outraged by the forwardness of Eugénie taking the arm of one of her sons while he gave a tour of the palace garden, and she gave the Empress a slap on the stomach as a possibly more subtly intended than often represented reminder that they were not in France. The Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque was built under the patronage of his mother. The construction work began in November 1869 and the mosque was finished in 1871.\n\nHis paternal grandparents were Sultan Abdul Hamid I and Sultana Nakşidil Sultan. Several accounts identify his paternal grandmother with Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, a cousin of Joséphine de Beauharnais. Pertevniyal was a sister of Khushiyar Qadin, third wife of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. Khushiyar and Ibrahim were the parents of Isma'il Pasha.\n",
"The Ottoman Empire in 1862\n\nBetween 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of his brother Abdülmecid I were continued under the leadership of his chief ministers, Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha. New administrative districts (''vilayets'') were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and Istanbul University was reorganised as a modern institution in 1861. He was also integral in establishing the first Ottoman civil code.\n\nCulverin with the arms of Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, Siege of Rhodes (1522). Caliber: 140mm, length: 339cm, weight: 2533kg, ammunition: 10kg iron ball. Remitted by Abdülaziz to Napoleon III in 1862.\n\nAbdülaziz cultivated good relations with the Second French Empire and the British Empire. In 1867 he was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe; his trip included a visit to the United Kingdom, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet Review with Ismail Pasha. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul. His fellow Knights of the Garter created in 1867 were Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond, Charles Manners, 6th Duke of Rutland, Henry Somerset, 8th Duke of Beaufort, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (a son of Queen Victoria), Franz Joseph I of Austria and Alexander II of Russia.\n\nAlso in 1867, Abdülaziz became the first Ottoman Sultan to formally recognize the title of Khedive (Viceroy) to be used by the Vali (Governor) of the Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt and Sudan (1517–1867), which thus became the autonomous Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan (1867–1914). Muhammad Ali Pasha and his descendants had been the governors (Vali) of Ottoman Egypt and Sudan since 1805, but were willing to use the higher title of Khedive, which was unrecognized by the Ottoman government until 1867. In return, the first Khedive, Ismail Pasha, had agreed a year earlier (in 1866) to increase the annual tax revenues which Egypt and Sudan would provide for the Ottoman treasury. Between 1854 and 1894, the revenues from Egypt and Sudan were often declared as a surety by the Ottoman government for borrowing loans from British and French banks. After the Ottoman government declared a sovereign default on its foreign debt repayments on 30 October 1875, which triggered the Great Eastern Crisis in the empire's Balkan provinces that led to the devastating Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) and the establishment of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration in 1881, the importance for Britain of the sureties regarding the Ottoman revenues from Egypt and Sudan increased. Combined with the much more important Suez Canal which was opened in 1869, these sureties were influential in the British government's decision to occupy Egypt and Sudan in 1882, with the pretext of helping the Ottoman-Egyptian government to put down the Urabi Revolt (1879–1882). Egypt and Sudan (together with Cyprus) nominally remained Ottoman territories until 5 November 1914, when the British Empire declared war against the Ottoman Empire during World War I.\n\nIn 1869, Abdülaziz received visits from Eugénie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal. The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII, twice visited Constantinople.\n\nThe ''türbe'' (mausoleum) of Sultan Mahmud II (his father) on Divan Yolu street, where Abdülaziz is also buried.\n\nBy 1871 both Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War by the North German Confederation under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia. Abdülaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as unrest in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians. Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions.\n\nWhile no one event led to his being deposed, the crop failure of 1873 and his lavish expenditures on the Ottoman Navy and on new palaces which he had built, along with mounting public debt, helped to create an atmosphere conducive to his being overthrown. Abdülaziz was deposed by his ministers on 30 May 1876.\n",
"\nAbdülaziz's death at Çırağan Palace in Constantinople a few days later was documented as a suicide at the time, but suspicions of magnicide promptly erupted.\n\nIn Sultan Abdulhamid II's recently surfaced memoirs, the event is described as an assassination by the order of Hüseyin Avni Pasha and Midhat Pasha. According to this source, when Sultan Murad V began to show signs of paranoia, madness and continuous fainting and vomiting even on the day of his coronation and threw himself into a pool yelling at his guards to protect his life, they were afraid the public would become outraged and revolt to bring the former Sultan back. Within a few days, on 4 June 1876, they arranged for Sultan Abdülaziz to kill himself with scissors, cutting his wrists.\n\nOn the morning of June 5, Abdülaziz asked for a pair of scissors with which to trim his beard. Shortly after this he was found dead in a pool of blood flowing from two wounds in his arms. His body was examined by 17 physicians (\"Dr. Marco, Nouri, A. Sotto, Physician attached to the Imperial and Royal Embassy of Austria‐Hungary; Dr. Spagnolo, Marc Markel, Jatropoulo, Abdinour, Servet, J. de Castro, A. Marroin, Julius Millingen, C. Caratheodori; E. D. Dickson, Physician of the British Embassy; Dr. O. Vitalis, Physician of the Sanitary Board; Dr. E. Spadare, J. Nouridjian, Miltiadi Bey, Mustafa, Mehmed\") who certified that the death had been “caused by the loss of blood produced by the wounds of the blood‐vessels at the joints of the arms” and that “the direction and nature of the wounds, together with the instrument which is said to have produced them, lead us to conclude that suicide had been committed.” \n\nOne of those physicians also stated that “His skin was very pale, and entirely free from bruises, marks or spots of any kind whatever. There was no lividity of the lips indicating suffocation nor any sign of pressure having been applied to the throat.” \n",
"Queen Victoria and Abdülaziz aboard the HMY Victoria and Albert during the Sultan's official visit to the United Kingdom in 1867.\nThomas Gabriel's reception of H.I.M. The Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz Khan at The Guildhall on 18 July 1867, issued to The Chairman of the P. & O. Steam Navigation Company.\nSultan Abdülaziz in 1873\n\n* Abdülaziz gave special emphasis on modernizing the Ottoman Navy. In 1875, the Ottoman Navy had 21 battleships and 173 warships of other types, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies. His passion for the Navy, ships and sea can be observed in the wall paintings and pictures of the Beylerbeyi Palace on the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul, which was constructed during his reign. However, the large budget for modernizing and expanding the Navy (combined with a severe drought in 1873 and incidents of flooding in 1874 which damaged Ottoman agriculture and reduced the government's tax revenues) contributed to the financial difficulties which caused the Porte to declare a sovereign default with the \"Ramazan Kanunnamesi\" on 30 October 1875. The subsequent decision to increase agricultural taxes for paying the Ottoman public debt to foreign creditors (mainly British and French banks) triggered the Great Eastern Crisis in the empire's Balkan provinces, which culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) that devastated the already struggling Ottoman economy, and the establishment of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration in 1881, during the early years of Sultan Abdülhamid II's reign.\n* The first Ottoman railroads were opened between İzmir–Aydın and Alexandria–Cairo in 1856, during the reign of Sultan Abdülmecid I. The first large railway terminal within present-day Turkey, the Alsancak Terminal in Izmir, was opened in 1858. However, these were individual, unconnected railroads, without a railway network. Sultan Abdülaziz established the first Ottoman railway networks. On 17 April 1869, the concession for the Rumelia Railway (i.e. Balkan Railways, ''Rumeli'' (Rumelia) meaning the Balkan peninsula in Ottoman Turkish) which connected Istanbul to Vienna was awarded to Baron Maurice de Hirsch (Moritz Freiherr Hirsch auf Gereuth), a Bavaria-born banker from Belgium. The project foresaw a railway route from Istanbul via Edirne, Plovdiv and Sarajevo to the shore of the Sava River. In 1873, the first Sirkeci Terminal in Istanbul was opened. The temporary Sirkeci terminal building was later replaced with the current one which was built between 1888 and 1890 (during the reign of Abdülhamid II) and became the final destination terminus of the Orient Express. In 1871, Sultan Abdülaziz established the Anatolia Railway. Construction works of the on the Asian side of Istanbul, from Haydarpaşa to Pendik, began in 1871. The line was opened on 22 September 1872. The railway was extended to Gebze, which opened on 1 January 1873. In August 1873 the railway reached Izmit. Another railway extension was built in 1871 to serve a populated area along Bursa and the Sea of Marmara. The Anatolia Railway was then extended to Ankara and eventually to Mesopotamia, Syria and Arabia during the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II, with the completion of the Baghdad Railway and Hejaz Railway.\n* Under his reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and the Ottoman Empire joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member.\n* He also was responsible for the first civil code for the Ottoman Empire.\n* He was the first Ottoman sultan who travelled to Western Europe. His voyage in visiting order (from 21 June 1867 to 7 August 1867): Istanbul – Messina – Naples – Toulon – Marseille – Paris – Boulogne – Dover – London – Dover – Calais – Brussels – Koblenz – Vienna – Budapest – Orșova – Vidin – Ruse – Varna – Istanbul.\n* Impressed by the museums in Paris (30 June – 10 July 1867), London (12–23 July 1867) and Vienna (28–30 July 1867) which he visited in the summer of 1867, he ordered the establishment of an Imperial Museum in Istanbul: the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.\n* He was made the 756th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1867 and the 127th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword.\n",
"\nBedroom of Sultan Abdülaziz at Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul.\nSarcophagus of Sultan Abdülaziz in the mausoleum of his father, Sultan Mahmud II. Some of the sultans' descendants are also buried nearby.\n;Consorts\nAbdülaziz had five consorts:\n* Dürrünev Kadın (m. 1850; Batumi, 1835Çamlıca Palace, Istanbul, 3 December 1892, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum);\n* Hayranidil Kadın (m. 1861; Northwest Caucasus, 1846Ortaköy Palace, Istanbul, 26 November 1898, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum);\n* Edadil Kadın (m. 1662; 1847Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul, 12 December 1875, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum);\n* Neşerek Kadın (m. 1871; Sochi, 1856Ortaköy Palace, 11 June 1876, Istanbul, buried in New ladies Mausoleum);\n* Gevheri Kadın (m. 1872; Caucasus, 1857 Ortaköy Palace, Istanbul, 20 September 1894, buried in New ladies Mausoleum).\n\n;Sons\n*Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin (11 October 18571 February 1916) - with Dürrünev; His non-spear great-grandson through him is the current crown prince of Kuwait.\n* Caliph Abdülmecid II (29 May 186823 August 1944) - with Hayranidil;\n* Şehzade Mahmud Celaleddin (14 November 18621 September 1888) - with Edadil;\n* Şehzade Mehmed Selim (28 October 186521 October 1867) - with Edadil;\n* Şehzade Mehmed Şevket (5 June 187222 October 1899) - with Neşerek;\n* Şehzade Mehmed Seyfeddin (22 September 187419 October 1927) - with Gevheri.\n\n;Daughters\n* Fatma Sultan (died in infancy) - with Dürrünev;\n* Saliha Sultan (11 July 18621941) - with Dürrünev;\n* Nazime Sultan (25 February 18661947; buried Selimiye Camii, Damascus) - with Hayranidil;\n* Emine Sultan (30 November 186623 January 1867) - with Edadil;\n* Emine Sultan (24 August 187429 January 1920) - with Neşerek;\n* Esma Sultan (21 March 18737 May 1899) - with Gevheri.\n",
"\n* Finkel, Caroline, ''Osman's Dream'', (Basic Books, 2005), 57; \"Istanbul was only adopted as the city's official name in 1930..\".\n",
"\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Reign",
" Death ",
"Achievements",
"Family",
"References",
"External links"
] | Abdülaziz |
[
"\n'''Abdera''' (, Strabo; , Ptol.; , Ephor. ap. Steph. B.) was an ancient seaport town on the south coast of Spain, between Malaca (now Málaga) and Carthago Nova (now Cartagena), in the district inhabited by the Bastuli.\n\nIt was founded by the Carthaginians as a trading station, and after a period of decline became under the Romans one of the more important towns in the province of Hispania Baetica. It was situated on a hill above the modern Adra.\n\nOf its coins, the most ancient bear the Phoenician inscription ''abdrt'' with the head of Melkart and a tunny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made the place a colonia) show the chief temple of the town with two erect tunny fish in the form of columns. Earlier Roman coins were bilingual: Latin inscriptions on one side, stating the name of the emperor and the town and a Phoenician ethnic on the other side, simply stating the name of the town ('''bdrt'').\n",
"\n",
"*\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"References",
"Further reading"
] | Abdera, Spain |
[
"\n\n'''Abdera''' (; Ancient Greek: ) was a major Greek ''polis'' on the coast of Thrace. It lay 17 km east-northeast of the mouth of the Nestos River, almost directly opposite the island of Thasos. The site now lies in the Xanthi regional unit of Thrace, Greece. The municipality of Abdera (Modern Greek: ) has 19,005 inhabitants (2011). The seat of the municipality is the town Genisea.\n",
"Location of Abdera and its two successive metropolises, Clazomenae and Teos.\nThe chief coin type, with griffon.\nIts mythical foundation was attributed to Heracles who founded the city on behalf of his fallen friend Abderus. The historical founding is traced back to a colony from Klazomenai. This historical founding was traditionally dated to 654 BC, which is unverified, although evidence in 7th century BC Greek pottery tends to support it. But its prosperity dates from 544 BC, when the majority of the people of Teos (including the poet Anacreon) migrated to Abdera to escape the Persian yoke (Herodotus i.168). The chief coin type, a ''griffon'', is identical with that of Teos; the rich silver coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.\n\nIn 513 BC and 512 BC, the Persians conquered Abdera. In 496 BC, the Persians again conquered Abdera, this time under Darius I. It later became part of the Delian League and fought on the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian war.\n\nAbdera was a wealthy city, the third richest in the League, due to its status as a prime port for trade with the interior of Thrace and the Odrysian kingdom.\n\nA valuable prize, the city was repeatedly sacked: by the Triballi in 376 BC, Philip II of Macedon in 350 BC; later by Lysimachos of Thrace, the Seleucids, the Ptolemies, and again by the Macedonians. In 170 BC the Roman armies and those of Eumenes II of Pergamon besieged and sacked it.\n\nThe town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century BC. Cicero ridicules the city as a byword for stupidity in his letters to Atticus, writing of a debate in the Senate, \"Here was Abdera, but I wasn't silent\" (\"Hic, Abdera non tacente me\"). Nevertheless, the city counted among its citizens the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras and Anaxarchus, historian and philosopher Hecataeus of Abdera, and the lyric poet Anacreon.\n\nThe west gate of classical Abdera\n\nAbdera had flourished especially in ancient times mainly for two reasons: because of the large area of their territory and their highly strategic position. The city controlled two great road passages (one of Nestos river and other through the mountains north of Xanthi). Furthermore, from their ports passed the sea road, which from Troas led to the Thracian and then the Macedonian coast.\n\nThe ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra (40°56'1.02\"N 24°58'21.81\"E); they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbor; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon.\n",
"The municipality Abdera was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of three former municipalities that became municipal units: Abdera, Selero, and Vistonida.\n\nThe municipality has an area of 352.047 km2, the municipal unit 161.958 km2. The municipal unit Abdera is subdivided into the communities Abdera, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. The community Abdera consists of the settlements Abdera, Giona, Lefkippos, Pezoula and Skala.\n",
"Landmarks of Abdera include the Archaeological Museum of Abdera, and Agios Ioannis Beach (also ''Paralia Avdiron'') near the village Lefkippos.\n",
"\n",
"*Grant, Michael. ''A Guide to the Ancient World''. Michael Grant Publications, 1986.\n",
"* Richard Stillwell, ed. ''Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'', 1976: \"Abdera, Thrace, Greece\"\n* Hellenic Ministry of Culture on Abdera\n* Avdera.gr \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Municipality",
"Landmarks",
"References",
"Sources",
"External links"
] | Abdera, Thrace |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Apollos''' () was a 1st century Alexandrian Jewish Christian mentioned several times in the New Testament. A contemporary and co-worker of Paul the Apostle, he played an important role in the early development of the churches of Ephesus and Corinth.\n",
"===Acts of the Apostles===\nApollos is first mentioned as a Christian preacher who had come to Ephesus (probably in the year 52 or 53), where he is described as \"being fervent in spirit: he spoke and taught accurately the things concerning Jesus, though he knew only the baptism of John\" (). Priscilla and Aquila, a Jewish Christian couple who had come to Ephesus with the Apostle Paul, instructed Apollos:\n\n:\"When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they took him aside and explained to him the way of God more adequately.\"\n\nThe differences between the two understandings probably related to baptism with the Holy Spirit, since Apollos \"knew only the baptism of John\". Later, during Apollos' absence, the writer of the Acts of the Apostles recounts an encounter between Paul and some disciples at Ephesus:\n\n\nBefore Paul's arrival, Apollos had moved from Ephesus to Achaia and was living in Corinth, the provincial capital of Achaia. Acts reports that Apollos arrived in Achaia with a letter of recommendation from the Ephesian Christians and \"greatly helped those who through grace had believed, for he powerfully refuted the Jews in public, showing by the Scriptures that the Christ was Jesus ().\n\n===1 Corinthians===\nPaul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (55 AD) mentions Apollos as an important figure at Corinth. Paul describes Apollos' role at Corinth:\n:''I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth.'' ()\nPaul's Epistle refers to a schism between four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names (the third and fourth were Peter, identified as Cephas, and Jesus Christ himself). It is possible, though, that, as Msgr. Ronald Knox suggests, the parties were actually two, one claiming to follow Paul, the other claiming to follow Apollos. \"It is surely probable that the adherents of St. Paul ... alleged in defence of his orthodoxy the fact that he was in full agreement with, and in some sense commissioned by, the Apostolic College. Hence 'I am for Cephas'. ... What reply was the faction of Apollos to make? It devised an expedient which has been imitated by sectaries more than once in later times; appealed behind the Apostolic College itself to him from whom the Apostolic College derived its dignity; 'I am for Christ.'\" Paul states that the schism arose because of the Corinthians' immaturity in faith (). \n\nApollos was a devout Jew born in Alexandria. Pope Benedict XVI says that the name \"Apollos\" was probably short for Apollonius or Apollodorus. Apollos' origin in Alexandria has led to speculations that he would have preached in the allegorical style of Philo. Theologian Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, for example, commented: \"It is difficult to imagine that an Alexandrian Jew ... could have escaped the influence of Philo, the great intellectual leader ... particularly since the latter seems to have been especially concerned with education and preaching.\" Pope Benedict suggest there were those in Corinth \"...fascinated by his way of speaking....\"\n\nThere is no indication that Apollos favored or approved an overestimation of his person. Paul urged him to go to Corinth at the time, but Apollos refused, stating that he would come later when he had an opportunity.\n\n===Epistle to Titus===\nApollos is mentioned one more time in the New Testament. In the Epistle to Titus, the recipient is exhorted to \"speed Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way\".\n",
"Jerome states that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth that he retired to Crete with Zenas; and that once the schism had been healed by Paul's letters to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city and became one of its elders. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishop of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.\n",
"Martin Luther and some modern scholars have proposed Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, rather than Paul or Barnabas. Both Apollos and Barnabas were Jewish Christians with sufficient intellectual authority. The Pulpit Commentary treats Apollos' authorship of Hebrews as \"generally believed\". Other than this, there are no known surviving texts attributed to Apollos.\n\nApollos is regarded as a saint by several Christian churches, including the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, which hold a commemoration for him, together with saints Aquila and Priscilla, on 13 February. \n",
"\n",
"\n* Articles in\n** ''Encyclopaedia Biblica''\n** Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyklopadie''\n** ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'' ( Jewish Encyclopedia: Apollos)\n* James Hastings, ''Dictionary of the Bible''\n* Karl Heinrich von Weizsäcker, ''Das apostolische Zeitalter'' (1886)\n* A. C. McGiffert, ''History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age''.\n* ''Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion''\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biblical account",
"Extrabiblical information",
"Significance",
"Notes",
"References"
] | Apollos |
[
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Community acquis''' or '''acquis communautaire''' (; ), sometimes called the '''EU acquis''' and often shortened to '''acquis''', is the accumulated legislation, legal acts, and court decisions which constitute the body of European Union law. The term is French: ''acquis'' meaning \"that which has been acquired or obtained\", and ''communautaire'' meaning \"of the community\".\n",
"During the process of the enlargement of the European Union, the acquis was divided into 31 chapters for the purpose of negotiation between the EU and the candidate member states for the fifth enlargement (the ten that joined in 2004 plus Romania and Bulgaria which joined in 2007). These chapters were:\n\n\n\n\n#Free movement of goods\n#Free movement of persons\n#Freedom to provide services\n#Free movement of capital\n#Company law\n#Competition policy\n#Agriculture\n#Fisheries\n#Transport policy\n#Taxation\n#Economic and Monetary Union\n#Statistics\n#Social policy and employment\n#Energy\n#Industrial policy\n#Small and medium-sized enterprises\n\nScience and research\nEducation and training\nTelecommunication and information technologies\nCulture and audio-visual policy\nRegional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments\nEnvironment\nConsumers and health protection\nCooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs\nCustoms union\nExternal relations\nCommon Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)\nFinancial control\nFinancial and budgetary provisions\nInstitutions\nOthers\n\n\n\nFor the negotiations with Croatia (which joined in 2013), Iceland, Turkey, Montenegro, Serbia and in the future, with Macedonia, Albania (candidate countries), the acquis is split up into 35 chapters instead, with the purpose of better balancing between the chapters: dividing the most difficult ones into separate chapters for easier negotiation, uniting some easier chapters, moving some policies between chapters, as well as renaming a few of them in the process:\n\n\n\n\n#Free movement of goods\n#Freedom of movement for workers\n#Right of establishment and freedom to provide services\n#Free movement of capital\n#Public procurement\n#Company law\n#Intellectual property law\n#Competition policy\n#Financial services\n#Information society and media\n#Agriculture and rural development\n#Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy\n#Fisheries\n#Transport policy\n#Energy\n#Taxation\n#Economic and monetary policy\n#Statistics\n\nSocial policy and employment(including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men)\nEnterprise and industrial policy\nTrans-European networks\nRegional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments\nJudiciary and fundamental rights\nJustice, freedom and security\nScience and research\nEducation and culture\nEnvironment\nConsumer and health protection\nCustoms union\nExternal relations\nForeign, security and defence policy\nFinancial control\nFinancial and budgetary provisions\nInstitutions\nOther issues\n\n\n\nCorrespondence between chapters of the 5th and the 6th Enlargement:\n\n\n\n 5th Enlargement\n 6th Enlargement\n\n 1. Free movement of goods\n 1. Free movement of goods \n\n 7. Intellectual property law \n\n 2. Free movement of persons\n 2. Freedom of movement for workers \n\n 3. Right of establishment and freedom to provide services \n\n 3. Freedom to provide services\n\n 9. Financial services \n\n 4. Free movement of capital\n 4. Free movement of capital \n\n 5. Company law\n 6. Company law \n\n 6. Competition policy\n 8. Competition policy \n\n 5. Public procurement \n\n 7. Agriculture\n 11. Agriculture and rural development \n\n 12. Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy \n\n 8. Fisheries\n 13. Fisheries \n\n 9. Transport policy\n 14. Transport policy \n\n 21. Trans-European networks '''(one half of it)''' \n\n 10. Taxation\n 16. Taxation \n\n 11. Economic and Monetary Union\n 17. Economic and monetary policy \n\n 12. Statistics\n 18. Statistics \n\n 13. Social policy and employment\n19. Social policy and employment(including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men) \n\n 14. Energy\n 15. Energy \n\n 21. Trans-European networks '''(one half of it)''' \n\n 15. Industrial policy\n 20. Enterprise and industrial policy \n\n 16. Small and medium-sized enterprises \n\n 17. Science and research\n 25. Science and research \n\n 18. Education and training\n 26. Education and culture10. Information society and media \n\n 19. Telecommunication and information technologies \n\n 20. Culture and audio-visual policy \n\n 21. Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments\n 22. Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments \n\n 22. Environment\n 27. Environment \n\n 23. Consumer and health protection\n 28. Consumer and health protection \n\n 24. Cooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs\n 23. Judiciary and fundamental rights \n\n 24. Justice, freedom and security \n\n 25. Customs union\n 29. Customs union \n\n 26. External relations\n 30. External relations \n\n 27. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)\n 31. Foreign, security and defence policy \n\n 28. Financial control\n 32. Financial control \n\n 29. Financial and budgetary provisions\n 33. Financial and budgetary provisions \n\n 30. Institutions\n 34. Institutions \n\n 31. Others\n 35. Other issues \n\n\nSuch negotiations usually involved agreeing transitional periods before new member states needed to implement the laws of the European Union fully and before they and their citizens acquired full rights under the ''acquis''.\n",
"The term ''acquis'' is also used to describe laws adopted under the Schengen Agreement, prior to its integration into the European Union legal order by the Treaty of Amsterdam, in which case one speaks of the ''Schengen acquis''.\n\nThe term ''acquis'' has been borrowed by the World Trade Organization Appellate Body, in the case ''Japan – Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages'', to refer to the accumulation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and WTO law (\"''acquis gattien''\"), though this usage is not well established.\n\nIt has been used to describe the achievements of the Council of Europe (an international organisation unconnected with the European Union):\n:The Council of Europe's ''acquis'' in standard setting activities in the fields of democracy, the rule of law and fundamental human rights and freedoms should be considered as milestones towards the European political project, and the European Court of Human Rights should be recognised as the pre-eminent judicial pillar of any future architecture.\n\nIt has also been applied to the body of \"principles, norms and commitments\" of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE):\n\n:Another question under debate has been how the Partners and others could implement the OSCE acquis, in other words its principles, norms, and commitments on a voluntary basis.\n\nThe Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) introduced the concept of the OECD Acquis in its \"Strategy for enlargement and outreach\", May 2004.\n",
"* ''Official Journal of the European Union''\n* Primacy of European Union law\n",
"\n",
"\n* EUR-Lex: European Union Law.\n* JRC-Acquis, Aligned multilingual parallel corpus: 23,000 Acquis-related texts per language, available in 22 languages. Total size: 1 Billion words.\n* Translation Memory of the EU-Acquis: Up to 1 Million translation units each, for 231 language pairs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Chapters",
"Terminology",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Acquis communautaire |
[
"Antacid tablets\n\nAn '''antacid''' is a substance which neutralizes stomach acidity, used to relieve heartburn, indigestion or an upset stomach.\n",
"\nAntacids are available over the counter and are taken by mouth to quickly relieve occasional heartburn, the major symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease and also indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms.\n\nAntacids are distinct from acid-reducing drugs like H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors and they do not kill the bacteria ''Helicobacter pylori'', which causes most ulcers. \n",
"Versions with magnesium may cause diarrhoea, and brands with calcium or aluminium may cause constipation and rarely, long-term use may cause kidney stones. Long-term use of versions with aluminium may increase the risk for getting osteoporosis.\n",
"When excessive amounts of acids are produced in the stomach the natural mucous barrier that protects the lining of the stomach can damage the esophagus in people with acid reflux. Antacids contain alkaline ions that chemically neutralize stomach gastric acid, reducing damage and relieving pain.\n",
"Antacids may be formulated with other active ingredients such as simethicone to control gas or alginic acid to act as a physical barrier to acid.\n\n===Effervescents===\n\nEffervescent tablets are tablets which are designed to dissolve in water, and release carbon dioxide. The common ingredients are citric acid and sodium bicarbonate, which react when in contact with water to produce carbon dioxide. Effervescent antacids may also contain aspirin, sodium carbonate, or tartaric acid\n\nWell known brands are Alka-Seltzer in the United States, and Eno in the United Kingdom.\n\n===Algeldrate===\n\nWyeth amphojel tablets of aluminum hydroxide.\nUnder the generic name algeldrate, aluminium hydroxide is used as an antacid. Aluminium hydroxide is preferred over other alternatives such as sodium bicarbonate because Al(OH)3, being insoluble, does not increase the pH of stomach above 7 and hence, does not trigger secretion of excess stomach acid. Brand names include Alu-Cap, Aludrox, Gaviscon, and Pepsamar. In 2016 Gaviscon was one of the biggest selling branded over-the-counter medications sold in Great Britain, with sales of £62 million. It reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing the acidity of the stomach content, which may relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. Such products can cause constipation, because the aluminum ions inhibit the contractions of smooth muscle cells in the gastrointestinal tract, slowing peristalsis and lengthening the time needed for stool to pass through the colon. Some such products (such as Maalox) are formulated to minimize such effects through the inclusion of equal concentrations of magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Medical uses",
"Side effects",
"Mechanism of action",
"Formulations and brands",
"References"
] | Antacid |
[
"\n\nAn '''anti-diarrhoeal drug''' (or '''anti-diarrheal drug''' in American English) is any medication which provides symptomatic relief for diarrhoea.\n",
"* Electrolyte solutions, while not true antidiarrhoeals, are used to replace lost fluids and salts in acute cases.\n* Bulking agents like methylcellulose, guar gum or plant fibre (bran, sterculia, isabgol, etc.) are used for diarrhoea in functional bowel disease and to control ileostomy output.\n* Absorbents absorb toxic substances that cause infective diarrhoea, methylcellulose is an absorbent.\n* Anti-inflammatory compounds such as bismuth subsalicylate.\n* Anticholinergics reduce intestinal movement and are effective against both diarrhoea and accompanying cramping. \n* Opioids' classical use besides pain relief is as an anti-diarrhoeal drug. Opioids have agonist actions on the intestinal opioid receptors, which when activated cause constipation. Drugs such as morphine or codeine can be used to relieve diarrhoea this way. A notable opioid for the purpose of relief of diarrhoea is loperamide which is only an agonist of the μ opioid receptors in the large intestine and does not have opioid affects in the central nervous system as it doesn't cross the blood–brain barrier in significant amounts. This enables loperamide to be used to the same benefit as other opioid drugs but without the CNS side effects or potential for abuse.\n",
"* ATC code A07 ''Antidiarrheals, intestinal anti-inflammatory/anti-infective agents''\n",
"* \n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Types",
"See also",
"References"
] | Antidiarrhoeal |
[
"\n\n'''Áed mac Cináeda''' (died 878) was a son of Cináed mac Ailpín. He became king of the Picts in 877, when he succeeded his brother Constantín mac Cináeda. He was nicknamed '''Áed of the White Flowers''', '''the wing-footed''' () or '''the white-foot''' ().\n",
"The ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' says of Áed: \"Edus Áed held the same i.e. the kingdom for one year. The shortness of his reign has bequeathed nothing memorable to history. He was slain in the civitas of Nrurim.\" Nrurim is unidentified.\n\nThe Annals of Ulster say that in 878: \"Áed mac Cináeda, king of the Picts, was killed by his associates.\" Tradition, reported by George Chalmers in his ''Caledonia'' (1807), and by the New Statistical Account (1834–1845), has it that the early-historic mound of the Cunninghillock by Inverurie is the burial place of Áed. This is based on reading Nrurim as ''Inruriu''.\n\nA longer account is interpolated in Andrew of Wyntoun's ''Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland''. This says that Áed reigned one year and was killed by his successor Giric in Strathallan and other king lists have the same report.\n\nIt is uncertain which, if any, of the ''Prophecy of Berchán'''s kings should be taken to be Áed. William Forbes Skene presumed that the following verses referred to Áed:129. Another king will take sovereignty; small is the profit that he does not divide. Alas for Scotland thenceforward. His name will be the Furious.130. He will be but a short time over Scotland. The will be no word uncertain unplundered. Alas for Scotland, through the youth; alas for their books, alas for their bequests.131. He will be nine years in the kingdom. I shall tell you—it will be a tale of truth—he dies without bell, with communion, at evening, in a fatal pass.\n\nÁed's son, Constantín mac Áeda, became king in 900.\n",
"*Kingdom of Alba\n",
"\n",
"* Anderson, Alan Orr, ''Early Sources of Scottish History A.D 500–1286'', volume 1. Reprinted with corrections. Paul Watkins, Stamford, 1990. \n* Anderson, Marjorie Ogilvie, ''Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland.'' Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh, revised edition 1980. \n* Duncan, A. A. M., ''The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence.'' Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2002. \n* Smyth, Alfred P., ''Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland AD 80–1000.'' E.J. Arnold, London, 1984 (reprinted Edinburgh UP). \n",
"* The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba (CKA)\n* Friends of Grampian Stones - history of Inverurie\n* Second Statistical Account vol. XII (County of Aberdeen), p. 681\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Sources",
"See also",
"References",
"Sources",
"External links"
] | Áed mac Cináeda |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Abdülhamid I''', '''Abdul Hamid I''' or '''Abd Al-Hamid I''' (, ''`Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i evvel''; ; 20 March 1725 – 7 April 1789) was the 27th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning over the Ottoman Empire from 1773 to 1789.\n",
"He was born in Constantinople, a younger son of Sultan Ahmed III (reigned 1703–1730) and his consort Şermi Kadın. Ahmed III abdicated in favor of his nephew Mahmud I, who was succeeded by his brother Osman III, and Osman by Ahmed's elder son Mustafa III. As a potential heir to the throne, Abdül Hamid was imprisoned in comfort by his cousins and older brother, as was customary. This lasted until 1767. During this period, he received his early education from his mother Rabia Şermi, who taught him history and calligraphy.\n\nWhen his brother Mustafa III died, Abdül Hamid succeeded him on 21 January 1774.\n",
"Abdül Hamid's long imprisonment had left him indifferent to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissary Corps. The new Sultan told the Janissaries \"There are no longer gratuities in our treasury, as all of our soldier sons should learn.\"\n\nDespite his pacific inclinations, the Ottoman Empire was forced to renew the ongoing war with Russia almost immediately. This led to complete Turkish defeat at Kozludzha and the humiliating Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed on 21 July 1774. The Ottomans ceded territory to Russia, and also the right to intervene on behalf of the Orthodox Christians in the Empire.\n\nThe Ottoman Army advances from Sofia, its largest garrison in Rumelia, in the year 1788.\n\nAbdülhamid now sought to reform the Empire's armed forces. He enumerated the Janissary corps and tried to renovate it, and also the navy. He established a new artillery corps. He was also credited with the creation of the Imperial Naval Engineering School.\n\nAbdülhamid tried to strengthen Ottoman rule over Syria, Egypt, and Iraq. However, slight successes against rebellions in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimean Peninsula, which had become nominally independent in 1774, but was in practice now controlled by Russia.\n\nRussia repeatedly exploited its position as protector of Eastern Christians to interfere in the Ottoman Empire, and explicitly. Finally the Ottomans declared war against Russia in 1787. Austria soon joined Russia. Turkey held its own in the conflict, at first, but on 6 December 1788, Ochakov fell to Russia (all of its inhabitants being massacred). It is said that this sad defeat broke Abdül Hamid's spirit, as he died four months later.\n\nIn spite of his failures, Abdülhamid was regarded as the most gracious Ottoman Sultan. He personally directed the fire brigade during the Constantinople fire of 1782. He was admired by the people for his religious devotion, and was even called a ''Veli'' (\"saint\"). He also outlined a reform policy, supervised the government closely, and worked with statesmen.\n\nIn 1789, Tipu Sultan, ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore sent an embassy to Abdülhamid, urgently requesting assistance against the British East India Company, and proposed an offensive and defensive alliance. Abdul Hamid informed the Mysori ambassadors that the Ottomans were still entangled and exhausted from the ongoing war with Russia and Austria.\n",
"Abdülhamid died on 7 April 1789, at the age of sixty-four, in Constantinople. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had built for himself.\n\nHe bred Arabian horses with great passion. One breed of Küheylan Arabians was named \"Küheylan Abdülhamid\" after him.\n",
";Consorts\nAbdul Hamid had nine wives:\n* Ayşe Kadın (died 1775, buried in New Mosque, Istanbul), the principal consort;\n* Ruhşah Kadın alias El-Hace Hatice (died 1808, buried in Abdul Hamid I Mausoleum, Istanbul), the principal consort;\n* Sineperver Sultan alias Ayşe (died 11 December 1828, buried in Eyüp Sultan Mosque), the second consort;\n* Binnaz Kadın (died June 1823, buried in Abdul Hamid I Mausoleum, Istanbul), the third consort;\n* Mehtabe Kadın (married 13 August 1774), the fourth consort;\n* Mutebere Kadın (married 20 October 1774; died 16 May 1837, buried in Abdul Hamid I Mausoleum, Istanbul), the fifth consort;\n* Hümaşah Kadın (married 1775, died 1778, buried in New Mosque, Istanbul), the sixth consort;\n* Şebsafa Kadın alias Fatma (married 1781, died 1805, buried in Zeyrek Mosque, Eminönü, Istanbul), the sixth consort;\n* Nakşidil Sultan (married 1882, died 17 August 1817, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum, Fatih Mosque, Istanbul; there have been speculations that she was a cousin of Napoleon's wife Josephine; see Aimée du Buc de Rivéry), the seventh consort.\n\n;Sons\nHis sons were:\n* Mustafa IV (reigned 1807–08) – with Sineperver;\n* Mahmud II (reigned 1808–39) – with Nakşidil;\n* Şehzade Sultan Numan;\n* Şehzade Sultan Abdullah (1 January 1776 – 1 January 1776);\n* Şehzade Sultan Mehmed (22 August 1776 – 20 February 1781) – with Hümaşah;\n* Şehzade Sultan Ahmed (8 December 1776 – 18 December 1778) – with Sineperver;\n* Şehzade Sultan Abdurrahman (8 September 1777 – 8 September 1777);\n* Şehzade Sultan Süleyman (13 March 1779 – 19 January 1786) - with Mutebere;\n* Şehzade Sultan Abdülaziz (19 August 1779 – 19 August 1779);\n* Şehzade Sultan Mehmed Nusret (20 September 1782 – 23 October 1785) – with Şebsafa;\n* Şehzade Sultan Seyfullah Murad (22 October 1783 – 21 January 1786) - with Nakşidil;\n\n;Daughters\nHis daughters were:\n* Ayşe Dürrüşehvar Hanım (died 11 May 1831), married Damat Ahmed Nazif Bey (killed 21 May 1789), son of Hacı Selim Agha.\n* Hatice Sultan (12 January 1776 – 8 November 1776);\n* Ayşe Sultan (30 July 1777 – 9 September 1777);\n* Esma Sultan (17 July 1778 – 4 June 1848) – with Sineperver, married 29 May 1792, Damat Küçük Hüseyin Pasha (died 8 January 1803), foster-brother of Sultan Selim III;\n* Rabia Sultan (20 March 1780 – 28 June 1780);\n* Aynişah Sultan (9 July 1780 – 28 July 1780); \n* Melikşah Sultan (28 January 1781 – 24 December 1781); \n* Rabia Sultan (10 August 1781 – 3 October 1782);\n* Fatma Sultan (12 December 1782 – 11 January 1786) - with Sineperver;\n* Alemşah Sultan (11 October 1784 – 10 March 1786) - with Şebsafa;\n* Saliha Sultan (27 November 1786 – 10 April 1788) - with Nakşidil;\n* Emine Sultan (4 February 1788 – 9 March 1791) – with Şebsafa;\n* Hibetullah Sultan (16 March 1789 – 1 8 September 1841) – with Şebsafa, married 3 February 1804, Damat Alaeddin Pasha (died at Scutari, January 1813), son of Damat Seyid Ahmed Pasha.\n",
"\n\n",
"\n\n\naged 64\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Reign",
"Death",
"Family",
"References",
" External links "
] | Abdul Hamid I |
[
"\n\n\n'''Abdur Rahman Khan''' () (between 1840 and 1844October 1, 1901) was Emir of Afghanistan from 1880 to 1901.\n\nHe was the third son of Mohammad Afzal Khan, and grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan. Abdur Rahman Khan re-established the writ of the Afghan government after the disarray that followed the second Anglo-Afghan war. \n\nHe became known as ''The Iron Amir'' because his government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage; and for his crushing of a number of rebellions by various tribes who were led by his relatives one of which resulted in the killing and displacement of 60% of the Hazara people's population. \n",
"Before his death in Herat, on June 9, 1863, Abdur Rahman's grandfather, Dost Mohammad Khan, nominated his third son, Sher Ali Khan, as his successor, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzal Khan and Azam Khan. At first, the new Amir was quietly recognized. But after a few months, Afzal Khan raised an insurrection in the north of the country, where he had been governing when his father died. This began a fierce internecine conflict for power between Dost Mohammad's sons, which lasted for nearly five years. The Musahiban are descendants of Dost Mohammad Khan's older brother, Sultan Mohammad Khan.\n\nDescribed by the American scholar and explorer Eugene Schuyler as \"a tall well-built man, with a large head, and a marked Afghan, almost Jewish, face\", Abdur Rahman distinguished himself for his ability and energetic daring. Although his father, Afzal Khan, who had none of these qualities, came to terms with the Amir Sher Ali, the son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the Amir's suspicion, and Abdur Rahman, when he was summoned to Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bukhara. Sher Ali threw Afzal Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in southern Afghanistan.\n\nThe Amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when Abdur Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny by troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azam Khan, occupied Kabul in March 1866. The Amir Sher Ali marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on May 10, he was deserted by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as Amir of Afghanistan. Notwithstanding the new Amir's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Sher Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in 1867. When Afzal Khan died at the end of the year, Azam Khan became the new ruler, with Abdur Rahman installed as Governor in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868 Sher Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour, resulted in Abdur Rahman and Azam Khan's defeat at ''Tinah Khan'' on January 3, 1869. Both sought refuge to the east in Central Asia, whence Abdur Rahman placed himself under Russian protection at Samarkand. Azam died eventually in Kabul in October 1869.\n",
"\"Iron Amir\" Abd al-Raḥmān Khān during the Second Anglo-Afghan War. Khān was renowned for his skill and forcefulness in suppressing rebellions against his authority. He is credited with creating a centralized state in the aftermath the war, based on a cabinet called the Supreme Council, a general assembly called the Loya Jirgah, and the army. His achievements included the introduction of some modern manufacturing, agriculture, and health care. This portrait shows him as a young man in uniform, clutching the hilt of his sword\n\nAbdur Rahman lived in exile in Tashkent. The governor-general of Tashkent sent for Abdur Rahman and motivated him by bringing up the blessing of Jacob, Abdur's patriarch. He was being told to cross the Oxus and claim throne for Amir. In March 1880, a report reached India that Abdur Rahman was in northern Afghanistan; and the Governor-General, Lord Lytton, opened communications with him to the effect that the British government were prepared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman as Amir of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some districts adjacent to it. After some negotiations, and an interview with Lepel Griffin, the diplomatic representative at Kabul of the Indian government. Griffin described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand.\n",
"Abdur Rahman Khan during his younger years.\n\nAt the ''durbar'' on July 22, 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially recognized as Amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British. The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881, the British troops also handed over Kandahar to the new ''Amir''.\n\nHowever, Ayub Khan, one of Sher Ali Khan's sons, marched upon that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in July 1880. This serious reverse roused the ''Amir'', who had not at first displayed much activity. He led a force from Kabul, met Ayub's army close to Kandahar, and the complete victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to flee into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated on the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppressing insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic authority. The powerful Ghilzai tribe revolted against the severity of his measures several times. In that same year, Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia.\n\nIn 1885, at the moment when the ''Amir'' was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in India, the news came of a skirmish between Russian and Afghan troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation of the northwestern frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some debatable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was not a sufficient reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the southeast. He also published his autobiography in 1885, which served more as an advice guide for princes than anything else.\n\nHis interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Government of India made ready for that contingency, the Amir's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administration. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure.\n\nHis adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asian politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan. The Amir received an annual subsidy from the British government of 1,850,000 rupees. He was allowed to import munitions of war. He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like railways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within his country.\n\nThe Amir found himself unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah Khan went instead. \n",
"\n\nIn 1893, Mortimer Durand was deputed to Kabul by the government of British India for this purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between northeastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan other pending questions. Abdur Rahman Khan showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying insight into the real situation.\n\nIn the agreement that followed relations between the British Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India. A Royal Commission was set up to determine the boundary between Afghanistan and British Governed India was rasked to negotiate terms for agreeing to the Durand line, between the two parties camped at Parachinar, now part of FATA Pakistan, which is near Khost, Afghanistan. From the British side the camp was attended by Mortimer Durand and Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum, Political Agent Khyber. Afghanistan was represented by Sahibzada Abdul Latif and the Governor Sardar Shireendil Khan representing Amir Abdur Rahman Khan.In 1893, Mortimer Durand negotiated with Abdur Rahman Khan the ''Durand Line Treaty'' for the demarcation of the frontier between Afghanistan, the FATA, North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan Provinces of Pakistan the successor state of British India. The Durand Line still remains as an unrecognized boundary by the Government of Afghanistan. \n",
"Abdur Rahman Khan's government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable. \n\nAbdur Rahman Khan in 1897\nAbdur Rahman Khan in 1897 with family members\nIn the 1880s, the \"Iron Emir\" decided to strategically displace some members of different ethnic groups in order to bring better security. For example, he \"uprooted troublesome Durrani and Ghilzai Pashtun tribes and transported them to Uzbek and Tajik populated areas in the north, where they could spy on local Dari-speaking, non-Pashtun ethnic groups and act as a screen against further Russian encroachments on Afghan territory.\" From the end of 1888, the Amir spent eighteen months in his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion.\n\nIn 1895–1896, Abdur Rahman directed the invasion of Kafiristan and the conversion of its indigenous peoples to Islam. The region was subsequently renamed Nuristan. In 1896, he adopted the title of ''Zia-ul-Millat-Wa-ud Din'' (\"Light of the nation and religion\"), and his zeal for the cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on ''jihad''. \n\nChitral, Yarkand and Ferghana became shelters for refugees in 1887 and 1883 from Badakhshan who fled from the campaigns of Abdul Rahman.\n\n===1888-1893 Uprisings of Hazaras===\n\nIn the late 1880s some Hazara tribes revolted against Abdur Rahman in favor of Sher Ali Khan. In 1888, for example the Amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing. According to Syed Askar Mousavi, \"thousands of Hazara men, women, and children were sold as slaves in the markets of Kabul and Qandahar, while numerous towers of human heads were made from the defeated rebels as a warning to others who might challenge the rule of the Amir.\" During this period some Hazaras migrated to Quetta in Balochistan, while smaller number moved to Mashhed in northeastern Iran. The crackdown resulted in the killing and displacement of 60% of the Hazara population. \n",
"Site of Amir Abdur Rahman Khan's tomb, located in Kabul.\nAbdur Rahman died on October 1, 1901, being succeeded by his son Habibullah Khan. He had defeated all enterprises by rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his orders were irresistible throughout the whole dominion.\n\nToday, his descendants can be found in many places outside Afghanistan, such as in America, France, Germany, and even in Scandinavian countries such as Denmark. His two eldest sons, Habibullah Khan and Nasrullah Khan, were born at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family.\n",
"\n\nAfghan society has mixed feelings about his rule. Some remember him as a ruler who initiated many programs for modernization and effectively prevented the country from being occupied by Russia and Britain during the Great Game. On the other hand, some sectors of Afghanistan remember him as a domestically violent and geopolitically weak ruler in that he was brought to power by the British and declared war on Afghan minorities instead of fighting the British who were deciding Afghanistan's foreign policy for him.\n\n",
"*Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India (GCSI) – 1885\n*Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB)- 1893\n",
"\n*European influence in Afghanistan\n*Lillias Hamilton (court physician to Amir Abdur Rahman Khan in the 1890s)\n*List of monarchs of Afghanistan\n*Pashtun colonization of northern Afghanistan\n",
"\n",
"* \n",
"\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background and early career",
"Exile and negotiated return to power",
"Reign",
"Durand Line",
"Dictatorship and the \"Iron Amir\"",
"Death and Descendants",
"Legacy",
"Honours",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Abdur Rahman Khan |
[
"\nThe Slaying of the Abencerrages, by Marià Fortuny (1870)\nThe '''Abencerrages''' (from the Arabic for \"Saddler's Son\") were a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the Kingdom of Granada in the 15th century.\n\nThe name appears to have been derived from Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of Muhammed VII, Sultan of Granada (1370–1408), who did that sovereign good service in his struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.\n\nLittle is known of the family with certainty. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary records that they arrived in Spain in the 8th century but the name is familiar from the romance by Ginés Pérez de Hita, ''Guerras civiles de Granada'', which celebrates the feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris, and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. J. P. de Florian's ''Gonsalve de Cordoue'' and Chateaubriand's ''Le dernier des Abencerrages'' are imitations of Pérez de Hita's work.\n\nThe story is told that one of the Abencerrages, having fallen in love with a lady of the royal family, was caught in the act of climbing up to her window. The king, enraged, shut up the whole family in one of the halls of the Alhambra, and ordered the Zegris to kill them all. The apartment where this is said to have taken place is one of the most beautiful courts of the Alhambra, and is still called the Hall of the Abencerrages.\n\nMany poems and plays, and two operas (''Les Abencérages'', by Luigi Cherubini, and ''L'esule di Granata'', by Giacomo Meyerbeer) mention the legend.\n",
"\n",
"* ''The Abencerrages''–Part 17 of Washington Irving's ''Tales of the Alhambra''\n*\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Notes",
" External links "
] | Abencerrages |
[
"\n'''Abercarn''' is a small town and community in Caerphilly county borough, Wales, 10 miles (16 km) north-west of Newport on the A467 between Cwmcarn and Newbridge, within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire.\n",
"The district was traditionally associated with the coal mining collieries, ironworks and tinplate works of the South Wales coalfield and South Wales Valleys, although all have now closed; the town, which lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw valley, being situated on the south-eastern flank of the once great mining region of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire.\n\nOn 11 September 1878, at the Prince of Wales Colliery, an underground explosion killed 268 coal miners.\n\nAbercarn High Street\n",
"The area was part of the ancient Monmouthshire parish of Mynyddislwyn until the late 19th century. In 1892 a local board of health and local government district of Abercarn was formed. This became Abercarn urban district in 1894, governed by an urban district council of twelve members. Under the Local Government Act 1972 the urban district was abolished in 1974, becoming part of the borough of Islwyn, Gwent. Further local government organisation in 1996 placed the area in the county borough of Caerphilly. The former urban district corresponds to the three communities of Abercarn, Crumlin and Newbridge.\n",
"Abercarn is home to Abercarn Rugby Club which is a member of the Welsh Rugby Union.\n\n\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Local government",
"Sport",
"References"
] | Abercarn |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Aberdare''' ( ; ) is a town in the Cynon Valley area of Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales, at the confluence of the Rivers Dare (Dâr) and Cynon. The population at the 2001 census was 31,705 (ranked 13th largest in Wales). Aberdare is south-west of Merthyr Tydfil, north-west of Cardiff and east-north-east of Swansea. During the 19th century it became a thriving industrial settlement, which was also notable for the vitality of its cultural life and as an important publishing centre.\n",
"Aberdare dates from the Middle Ages. It was originally a small village in an agricultural district, centred around the Church of St John the Baptist, said to date from 1189. By the middle of the 15th century, Aberdare contained a water mill in addition to a number of thatched cottages, of which no evidence remains. In the early 19th century the population grew rapidly, owing to the abundance of coal and iron ore,: the population of the whole parish, 1,486 in 1801, increased tenfold during the first half of the 19th century.\n\nTwo major industries supported the growth of the community: first iron, then coal. A branch of the Glamorganshire Canal (1811) was used to transport these products; then the railway became the main means of transport to the South Wales coast. From the 1870s onwards, the economy of the town was dominated by the coal mining industry, with only a small tinplate works. There were also several brickworks and breweries. During the latter half of the 19th century, considerable improvements were made to the town, which became a pleasant place to live, despite the nearby collieries. A postgraduate theological college opened in connection with the Church of England in 1892, but in 1907 it moved to Llandaff.\nAberdare in the 1910s\nWith the ecclesiastical parishes of St Fagan's (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, Aberdare had 12 Anglican churches and one Roman Catholic church, built in 1866 in Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys monastery; and at one time there were over 50 Nonconformist chapels (including those in surrounding settlements such as Cwmaman and Llwydcoed). The services in the majority of the chapels were in Welsh. Most of these chapels have now closed, with many converted to other uses. The urban district includes what were once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmaman, Cwmbach, Cwmdare, Llwydcoed, Penywaun and Trecynon. There are several cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. Hirwaun moor, 4 miles to the north west of Aberdare, was according to tradition the scene of a battle at which Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of Dyfed, was defeated by the allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and Iestyn ap Gwrgant, the last Welsh prince of Glamorgan.\n",
"The parish population was 1,486 in 1801, but expanded fast, especially during the 1840s and 1850s: the population of the Aberdare District, centred on the town, was 9,322 in 1841; 18,774 in 1851; and 37,487 in 1861. This population growth, a result of the growth of the steam coal trade (see below) was increasingly concentrated in the previously agricultural areas of Blaengwawr and Cefnpennar to the south of the town. Many of the migrants came from the rural parts of west Wales which had been affected by an agricultural depression. Population levels continued to increase over the next forty years, albeit with a small decline in the 1870s. The first decade of the 20th century saw a further sharp increase, largely as a result of the steam coal trade, reaching 53,779 in 1911. The population has since declined owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry.\n",
"Welsh was the prominent language until the mid 20th century and Aberdare was an important centre of Welsh language publishing. A large proportion of the early migrant population were Welsh speaking, and in 1851 only ten per cent of the population had been born outside of Wales.\n\nIn his controversial evidence to the 1847 Education Reports (known in Wales as the ''Brad y Llyfrau Gleision'' or ''Treachery of the Blue Books''), the Anglican vicar of Aberdare, John Griffith, stated that the English language was \"generally understood\" and referred to the arrival of people from anglicised areas such as Radnorshire and south Pembrokeshire. Griffith also made allegations about the Welsh speaking population and what he considered to be the degraded character of the women of Aberdare, alleging sexual promiscuity was an accepted social convention, that drunkenness and improvidence amongst the miners was common and attacking what he saw as exaggerated emotion in the religious practices of the Nonconformists.\nRev Thomas Price (1820-88), minister of Capel Calfaria\n\nThis evidence helped inform the findings of the report which would go on to stigmatise Welsh people as \"ignorant\", \"lazy\" and \"immoral\" and found the reason for this was the continued use of the Welsh language, which it described as \"evil\". The controversial reports allowed the local non-conformist minister Thomas Price of Capel Calfaria to arrange public debates, from which he would emerge as a leading defender of the Welsh language and by extension, the local population, Rev. Griffiths meanwhile, was made vicar of Merthyr in order to escape local anger. The reports and subsequent defence would maintain the perceptions of Aberdare, the Cynon Valley and even the wider area as proudly Non Conformist and defiantly Welsh speaking throughout its industrialised history.\n\nBy 1901, the census recorded that 71.5% of the population of Aberdare Urban District spoke Welsh, but this fell to 65.2% in 1911. The 1911 data shows that Welsh was more widely spoken among the older generation compared to the young, and amongst women compared to men. A shift in language was expedited with the loss of men during the First World War and the resulting economic turmoil. English gradually began to replace Welsh as the community language, as shown by the decline of the Welsh language press in the town. This pattern continued after the Second World War despite the advent of Welsh medium education. Ysgol Gymraeg Aberdâr, the Welsh-medium primary school, was established in the 1950s with Idwal Rees as head teacher.\n",
"\n===Iron Industry===\nIronworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and 1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman in 1827 and 1847. The iron industry began to expand in a significant way around 1818 when the Crawshay family of Merthyr purchased the Hirwaun ironworks and place them under independent management. In the following year, Rowland Fothergill took over the ironworks at Abernant and a few years later did the same at Llwydcoed. Both concerns later fell into the hands of his nephew Richard Fothergill. The Gadlys Ironworks was established in 1827 by Matthew Wayne, who had previously managed the Cyfarthfa ironworks at Merthyr. The Gadlys works, now considered an important archaeological site, originally comprised four blast furnaces, inner forges, rowing mills and puddling furnaces. The development of these works provided impetus to the growth of Aberdare as a nucleated town. The iron industry was gradually supserseded by coal and all the five iron works had closed by 1875, as the local supply of iron ore was inadequate to meet the ever-increasing demand created by the invention of steel, and as a result the importing of ore proved more profitable.\n\n===Coal industry===\nThe iron industry had a relatively small impact upon the economy of Aberdare and in 1831 only 1.2% of the population was employed in manufacturing, as opposed to 19.8% in neighbouring Merthyr Tydfil. In the early years of Aberdare's development, most of the coal worked in the parish was coking coal, and was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks. Although the Gadlys works was small in comparison with the other ironworks it became significant as the Waynes also became involved in the production of sale coal. In 1836, this activity led to the exploitation of the \"Four-foot Seam\" of high-calorific value steam coal began, and pits were sunk in rapid succession.\n\nIn 1840, Thomas Powell sank a pit at Cwmbach, and during the next few years he opened another four pits. In the next few years, other local entrepreneurs now became involved in the expansion of the coal trade, including David Williams at Ynysgynon and David Davis at Blaengwawr, as well as the latter's son David Davis, Maesyffynnon. They were joined by newcomers such as Crawshay Bailey at Aberaman and, in due course, George Elliot in the lower part of the valley. This coal was valuable for steam railways and steam ships, and an export trade began, via the Taff Vale Railway and the port of Cardiff. The population of the parish rose from 6,471 in 1841 to 14,999 in 1851 and 32,299 in 1861 and John Davies described it as \"the most dynamic place in Wales\". In 1851, the Admiralty decided to use Welsh steam coal in ships of the Royal Navy, and this decision boosted the reputation of Aberdare's product and launched a huge international export market. Coal mined in Aberdare parish rose from in 1844 to in 1850, and the coal trade, which after 1875 was the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions.\n\nThe growth of the coal trade inevitably led to a number of industrial disputes, some of which were local and others which affected the wider coalfield. Trade unionism began to appear in the Aberdare Valley at intervals from the 1830s onwards but the first significant manifestation occurred during the Aberdare Strike of 1857–8. The dispute was initiated by the depression in trade which followed the Crimean War and saw the local coal owners successfully impose a reduction in wages. The dispute did, however, witness an early manifestation of mass trade unionism amongst the miners of the valley and although unsuccessful the dispute saw the emergence of a stronger sense of solidarity amongst the miners.\n\nSteam coal was subsequently found in the Rhondda and further west, but many of the great companies of the Welsh coal industry's Gilded Age started operation in Aberdare and the lower Cynon Valley, including those of Samuel Thomas, David Davies and Sons, Nixon's Navigation and Powell Duffryn.\n\nIn common with the rest of the South Wales coalfield, Aberdare's coal industry commenced a long decline after World War I, and the last two deep mines still in operation in the 1960s were the small Aberaman and Fforchaman collieries, which closed in 1962 and 1965 respectively.\n\nOn 11 May 1919, an extensive fire broke out on Cardiff Street, Aberdare.\nAberdare Co-operative store fire, 11 May 1919\n",
"As a small village in the upland valleys of Glamorgan, Aberdare did not play any significant part in political life until its development as an industrial settlement. It was part of the lordship of Miskin, and the ancient office of High Constable continued in ceremonial form until relatively recent times.\n\n===Parliamentary elections===\nIn 1832, Aberdare was removed from the county of Glamorgan and became part of the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil. For much of the nineteenth century, the representation was initially controlled by the ironmasters of Merthyr, notably the Guest family. From 1852 until 1868 the seat was held by Henry Austen Bruce whose main industrial interests lay in the Aberdare valley. Bruce was a Liberal but was viewed with suspicion by the more radical faction which became increasingly influential within Welsh Liberalism in the 1860s. The radicals supported such policies as the disestablishment of the Church of England and were closely allied to the Liberation Society.\n\n====1868 general election====\nNonconformist ministers played a prominent role in this new politics and, at Aberdare, they found an effective spokesman in the Rev Thomas Price minister of Calfaria, Aberdare. Following the granting of a second parliamentary seat to the borough of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867, the Liberals of Aberdare sought to ensure that a candidate from their part of the constituency was returned alongside the sitting member, Henry Austen Bruce. Their choice fell upon Richard Fothergill, owner of the ironworks at Abernant, who was enthusiastically supported by the Rev Thomas Price. Shortly before the election, however, Henry Richard intervened as a radical Liberal candidate, invited by the radicals of Merthyr. To many people's surprise, Price was lukewarm about his candidature and continued to support Fothergill. Ultimately, Henry Richard won a celebrated victory with Fothergill in second place and Bruce losing his seat. Richard thus became one of the-first radical MPs from Wales.\n\n====1874–1914====\nAt the 1874 General Election, both Richard and Fothergill were again returned, although the former was criticised for his apparent lack of sympathy towards the miners during the industrial disputes of the early 1870s. This led to the emergence of Thomas Halliday as the first labour or working-class candidate to contest a Welsh constituency. Although he polled well, Halliday fell short of being elected. For the remainder of the nineteenth century, the constituency was represented by industrialists, most notably David Alfred Thomas. In 1900, however, Thomas was joined by Keir Hardie, the ILP candidate, who became the first labour representative to be returned for a Welsh constituency independent of the Liberal Party.\n\n====Twentieth century====\nThe Aberdare constituency came into being at the 1918 election. The first representative was Charles Butt Stanton who had been elected at a by-election following Hardie's death in 1915. However, in 1922, Stanton was defeated by a Labour candidate and the party has held the seat ever since. The only significant challenge came from Plaid Cymru at the 1970 and February 1974 General Elections but this performance has not since been repeated. Since 1984 the parliamentary seat, now known as Cynon Valley has been held by Ann Clwyd.\n\n===Local government===\nUntil the mid-nineteenth century the local government of Aberdare and its locality remained in the hands of traditional structures such as the parish vestry and the High Constable, who was chosen on an annual basis. However, the rapid industrial development of the parsing resulted in the situation where these traditional bodies could not cope with the realities of an urbanised, industrial community which had developed without any planning or facilities. During the early decades of the century the iron masters gradually imposed their influence over local affairs and this remained the case following the formation of the Merthyr Board of Guardians in 1836. During the 1850s and early 1860s, however, as coal displaced iron as the main industry in the valley, the ironmasters were displaced as the dominant group in local government and administration by an alliance between mostly indigenous coal owners, shopkeepers and tradesmen, professional men and dissenting ministers. A central figure in this development was the Rev Thomas Price. The growth of this alliance was rooted in the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports and the subsequent efforts to establish a British School at Aberdare.\n\nIn the 1840s there were no adequate sanitary facilities or water supply and life expectancy was low. Outbreaks of cholera and typhus were commonplace. Against this background, Thomas Webster Rammell prepared a report for the General Board of Health on the sanitary condition of the parish, which concluded that a Local Board of Health be established. This happened in 1854. Its first chairman was Richard Fothergill and the members included David Davis, Blaengwawr, David Williams (''Alaw Goch''), Rees Hopkin Rhys and the Rev. Thomas Price. It was followed by the Aberdare School Board in 1871.\n\nBy 1889, the Local Board of Health had initiated a number of developments which included the purchase of local reservoirs from the Aberdare Waterworks Company for £97,000, a sewerage scheme costing £35,000, as well as the opening of Aberdare Public Park and a local fever hospital. The lack of a Free Library, however, remained a concern.\n\nLater, the formation of the Glamorgan County Council (upon which Aberdare had five elected members) in 1889, followed by the Aberdare Urban District Council, which replaced the Local Board in 1889, transformed the local politics of the Aberdare valley.\nAberdare in January 2013\nAt the 1889 Glamorgan County Council Elections most of the elected representatives were coalowners and industrialists and the only exception in the earlier period was the miners' agent David Morgan (Dai o'r Nant), elected in 1892 as a labour representative. From the early 1900s, however, Labour candidates began to gain ground and dominated local government from the 1920s onwards. The same pattern was seen on the Aberdare UDC.\n\nIn 1974, following local government re-organization, Aberdare became part of the county of Mid Glamorgan and the Cynon Valley Borough Council. Labour members held a majority of seats on both authorities until their abolition in 1996. Since the latest re-organization, Aberdare has been part of the Rhondda Cynon Taff unitary authority. Once again, Labour has been the majority party although Plaid Cymru controlled the authority from 1999 until 2003.\n",
"Caradog statue in Victoria Square\nAberdare, during its boom years, was considered a centre of Welsh culture: it hosted the first National Eisteddfod in 1861, with which David Williams (Alaw Goch) was closely associated. A number of local eisteddfodau had long been held in the locality, associated with figures such as William Williams (Carw Coch) The Eisteddfod was again held in Aberdare in 1885, and also in 1956 at Aberdare Park where the Gorsedd standing stones still exist. At the last National Eisteddfod held in Aberdare in 1956 Mathonwy Hughes won the chair. From the mid nineteenth century, Aberdare was an important publishing centre where a large number of books and journals were produced, the majority of which were in the Welsh language. A newspaper entitled Y Gwladgarwr (the Patriot) was published at Aberdare from 1856 until 1882 and was circulated widely throughout the South Wales valleys. From 1875 a more successful newspaper, Tarian y Gweithiwr (the Workman's Shield) was published at Aberdare by John Mills. Y Darian, as it was known, strongly supported the trade union movements among the miners and ironworkers of the valleys. The miners' leader, William Abraham, derived support from the newspaper, which was also aligned with radical nonconformist liberalism. The rise of the political labour movement and the subsequent decline of the Welsh language in the valleys, ultimately led to its decline and closure in 1934.\n\nThe Coliseum Theatre is Aberdare's main arts venue, containing a 600-seat auditorium and cinema. It is situated in nearby Trecynon and was built in 1938 using miners' subscriptions.\n\nThe Second World War poet Alun Lewis, was born near Aberdare in the village Cwmaman and there is a plaque commemorating him, including a quotation from his poem ''The Mountain over Aberdare''.\n\nThe founding members of the rock band Stereophonics originated from the nearby village of Cwmaman. It is also the hometown of guitarist Mark Parry of Vancouver rock band The Manvils. Famed anarchist-punk band Crass played their last live show for striking miners in Aberdare during the UK miners' strike.\n\nGriffith Rhys Jones − or Caradog as he was commonly known − was the Conductor of the famous 'Côr Mawr' of some 460 voices (the South Wales Choral Union), which twice won first prize at Crystal Palace choral competitions in London in the 1870s. He is depicted in the town's most prominent statue by sculptor Goscombe John, unveiled on Victoria Square in 1920.\n",
"\n===Anglican Church===\nThe original parish church of St John the Baptist was originally built in 1189. Some of its original architecture is still intact.\nSt John the Baptist's Church\n\nWith the development of Aberdare as an industrial centre in the nineteenth century it became increasingly apparent that the ancient church was far too small to service the perceived spiritual needs of an urban community, particularly in view of the rapid growth of nonconformity from the 1830s onwards. Eventually, John Griffith, the rector of Aberdare undertook to raise funds to build a new church, leading to the rapid construction of St Elvan's Church in the town centre between 1851 and 1852. This Church in Wales church still stands the heart of the parish of Aberdare and has had extensive work since its erection. The church has a modern electrical, two-manual and pedal board pipe organ, that is still used in services.\n St Elvan's Church\n\nJohn Griffith, vicar of Aberdare, who built St Elvan's, transformed the role of the Anglican church in the valley by building a number of other churches, including St Fagan's, Trecynon. Other churches in the parish are St Luke's (Cwmdare), St James's (Llwydcoed) and St Matthew's Church (1891) (Abernant).\n\nIn the parish of Aberaman and Cwmaman is St Margaret's Church, with an old, but beautiful, pipe organ with two manuals and a pedal board. Also in this parish is St Joseph's Church, Cwmaman. St Joseph's has recently undergone much recreational work, almost converting the church into a community centre. However, regular church services still take place. Here, there is a two-manual and pedal board electric organ, with speakers at the front and sides of the church.\n\nIn 1910 there were 34 Anglican churches in the Urban District of Aberdare. A survey of the attendance at places of worship on a particular Sunday in that year recorded that 17.8% of worshippers attended church services, with the remainder attending nonconformist chapels.\n\n===Nonconformity===\nThe Aberdare Valley was a stronghold of Nonconformity from the mid-nineteenth century until the inter-war years. In the aftermath of the 1847 Education Reports nonconformists became increasingly active in the political and educational life of Wales and in few places was this as prevalent as at Aberdare. The leading figure was Thomas Price, minister of Calfaria, Aberdare.\n\nAberdare was a major centre of the 1904-05 Religious Revival, which had begun at Loughor near Swansea. The revival aroused alarm among ministers for the revolutionary, even anarchistic, impact it had upon chapel congregations and denominational organization. In particular, it was seen as drawing attention away from pulpit preaching and the role of the minister. The local newspaper, the ''Aberdare Leader'', regarded the revival with suspicion from the outset, objecting to the 'abnormal heat' which it engendered. Trecynon was particularly affected by the revival, and the meetings held there were sais to have aroused more emotion and excitement than the more restrained meetings in Aberdare itself. The impact of the revival was significant in the short term, but in the longer term was fairly transient.\n\nOnce the immediate impact of the revival had faded, it was clear from the early twentieth century that there was a gradual decline in the influence of the chapels. This can be explained by several factors, including the rise of socialism and the process of linguistic change which saw the younger generation increasingly turn to the English language. There were also theological controversies such as that over the New Theology propounded by R.J. Campbell.\n\nOf the many chapels, few are still used for their original purpose and a number of closed since the turn of the millennium. Many have been converted for housing or other purposes (including one at Robertstown which has become a mosque), and others demolished. Among the notable chapels were Calfaria, Aberdare and Seion, Cwmaman (Baptist); Saron, Aberaman and Siloa, Aberdare (Independent); and Bethania, Aberdare (Calvinistic Methodist).\n\n====Independents====\nThe earliest Welsh Independent, or Congregationalist chapel in the Aberdare area was Ebenezer, trecynon, although meetings had been held from the latter years of the eighteenth century in dwelling houses in the locality, for example at Hirwaun. During the nineteenth century, the Independents showed the biggest increases in terms of places of worship: from two in 1837 to twenty-five (four of them being English causes), in 1897. By 1910 there were 35 Independent chapels, with a total membership of 8,612. Siloa Chapel was the largest of the Independent chapels in Aberdare and is one of the few that remain open today, having been 're-established' as a Welsh language chapel. The Independent ministers of nineteenth-century Aberdare included some powerful personalities but none had the kind of wider social authority which Thomas Price enjoyed amongst the Baptists.\nSiloa Chapel, Aberdare\n\nOf the other Independent chapels in the valley Saron, in Davis Street, Aberaman, was used for regular services by a small group of members until 2011. For many years, these were held in a small side-room, and not the chapel itself. The chapel has a large vestry comprising rows of two-way-facing wooden benches and a stage, with a side entrance onto Beddoe Street and back entrance to Lewis Street. Although the building is not in good repair, the interior, including pulpit and balcony seating area (back & sides), was in good order but the chapel eventually closed due to the very small number of members remaining. In February 1999, Saron was made a Grade II Listed Building.\n\n====Baptists====\nThe Baptists were the most influential of the nonconformist denominations in Aberdare and their development was led by the Rev. Thomas Price who came to Aberdare in the early 1840s as minister of Calfaria Chapel. In 1837 the Baptists had three chapels, but in 1897 there were twenty, seventeen of them being Welsh. By 1910 the number of chapels had increased to 30, with a total membership of 7,422. Most of these Baptist chapels were established under the influence of Thomas Price who encouraged members to establish branch chapels to attract migrants who flocked to the town and locality from rural Wales. The chapels came together for regular gatherings, including baptismal services which were held in the River Cynon As a result, Price exerted an influence in the religious life of the locality which was far greater than that of any other minister.\n\n====Calvinistic Methodists====\nBy 1910 there were 24 Calvinistic Methodist chapels in the Aberdare Urban District with a total membership of 4,879. The most prominent of these was Bethania, Aberdare, once the largest chapel in Aberdare. Derelict for many years, it was demolished in 2015. The Methodists were numerically powerful and while some of their ministers such as William James of Bethania served on the Aberdare School Board and other public bodies, their constitution militated against the sort of active political action which came more naturally to the Baptists and Independents.\n\n====Other denominations====\nThe other denominations were weaker, including the Wesleyan Methodists who had 14 places of worship by 1910. There was also a significant Unitarian tradition in the valley and three places of worship by 1910. Highland Place Unitarian Church celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2010, with a number of lectures on its history and the history of Unitarianism in Wales taking place there. The church has a two-manual pipe organ with pedal board that is used to accompany all services. The current organist is Jacob Jones. The connected schoolroom is used for post-service meetings and socialising.\n",
"\nThe state of education in the parish was a cause for concern during the early industrial period as is illustrated by the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports. Initially, there was an outcry, led by the Rev Thomas Price against the comments made by the vicar of Aberdare in his submission to the commissioners. However, on closer reflection, the reports related the deficiencies of educational provision, not only in Aberdare itself but also in the communities of the valleys generally. In so doing they not only criticised the ironmasters for their failure to provide schools for workers' children but also the nonconformists for not establishing British Schools. At the ten schools in Aberdare there was accommodation for only 1,317 children, a small proportion of the population. Largely as a result of these criticisms, the main nonconformist denominations worked together to establish a British School, known locally as Ysgol y Comin, which was opened in 1848, accommodating 200 pupils. Funds were raised which largely cleared the debts and the opening of the school was marked by a public meeting addressed by Price and David Williams (''Alaw Goch'').\n\nMuch energy was expended during this period on conflicts between Anglicans and nonconformists over education. The establishment of the Aberdare School Board in 1871 brought about an extension of educational provision but also intensified religious rivalries. School Board elections were invariably fought on religious grounds. Despite these tensions the Board took over a number of existing schools and established new ones. By 1889, fourteen schools were operated by the Board but truancy and lack of attendance remained a problem, as in many industrial districts.\n\nIn common with other public bodies at the time (see 'Local Government' above), membership of the School Board was dominated by coal owners and colliery officials, nonconformist ministers, professional men and tradesmen. Only occasionally was an Anglican clergyman elected and, with the exception of David Morgan (''Dai o'r Nant''), no working class candidates were elected for more than one term.\n",
"Aberdare Carnival\nAberdare Athletic F.C. were members of the Football League between 1921 and 1927 before being replaced by Torquay United after finishing bottom. The senior club folded a year later. They played their football league games at the Aberdare Athletic Ground and were known as the Darians. The reserve team carried on as Aberaman and Aberdare Athletic for one more season and were known as Aberaman Athletic F.C. Now renamed as Aberdare Town They play in the Welsh League Division Two at Aberaman Park\n\nAberdare Rugby Football Club are a rugby union team formed in 1890 which still play in Aberdare today at the Ynys Stadium.\n\nThe Aberdare Athletic Ground was the venue of the first rugby league international, played between Wales and the New Zealand All Golds on New Year's Day 1908, which was won by the Welsh 9-8.\n",
"\n===Transport===\nThe town is served by Aberdare railway station and Aberdare bus station, opposite each other in the town centre. The town has also been subject to an extensive redevelopment scheme during 2012–13.\n\n===Economy===\nWith the decline of both iron and coal, Aberdare has become reliant on commercial businesses as a major source of employment. Its industries include cable manufacture, smokeless fuels, and tourism.\n\n===Colleges===\n*Coleg y Cymoedd\n\n===Primary schools===\n*Abernant Primary School\n*Caradog primary school\n*Town Church primary school\n*St Margaret's Roman Catholic primary school\n*Ysgol Gynradd Gymraeg Aberdar\n*Blaengwawr Primary School\n*Oaklands Primary School\n*Cap Coach Primary School\n*Glynhafod Primary School\n*Cwmaman Infants School\n*Cwmdare Primary School\n*Aberdare Park Primary\n*Cwmbach Community Primary School\n\n===Secondary schools===\n\n*Aberdare Community School\n*St. John the Baptist School (Aberdare)\n*Ysgol Gyfun Rhydywaun\n",
":''See also :Category:People from Aberdare''\n\nNotable current and former residents and natives of Aberdare include:\n\n*Henry Austin Bruce – 1st Baron Aberdare & Home Secretary (1868–1873)\n*Rose Davies – Labour politician and feminist\n*Lyn Evans – particle physicist and project leader of the Large Hadron Collider\n*Ioan Gruffudd – actor, born in Llwydcoed, Aberdare\n*Patrick Hannan (presenter) – broadcaster\n*Bethan Jenkins – member of the National Assembly for Wales for the South Wales (West) Region\n*David \"Tarw\" Jones – Dual code rugby international\n*Alun Lewis – War poet\n*'Big' Jim Mills (rugby league) – Wales & Great Britain rugby league international\n*John Morgan – Canadian comedian, Royal Canadian Air Farce\n*Mihangel Morgan – Welsh language writer, born in Trecynon, some of his literary works feature Aberdare\n*Roy Noble – Welsh broadcaster, has lived near Aberdare for the past 30 years\n*R. Ifor Parry – Congregationalist Minister and schoolteacher\n*Thomas Price (Baptist minister) – Baptist Minister and radical politician\n*Ieuan Rhys – actor, from Trecynon\n*Rhys Hopkin Rhys – 19th century industrialist and prominent local figure\n*Rhian Samuel – composer and professor of music\n*Stereophonics – all three original members, Kelly Jones, Richard Jones and Stuart Cable were brought up in Cwmaman, Aberdare\n*Jo Walton – fantasy novelist, now living in Montreal, Quebec\n*David Young – rugby player and coach, raised in Penywaun\n",
"* List of twin towns and sister cities in the United Kingdom\n*Aberdare Park\n",
"\n",
"===Books===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n\n===Journals===\n* \n* \n*\n*\n* \n\n===Online===\n*\n\n===External sources===\n* BBC website on Aberdare\n* Website of the Parish of St Fagans Aberdare\n",
"\n\n* www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Aberdare and surrounding area\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Population growth",
"Language",
"Industry",
"Government",
"Culture",
"Religion",
"Education",
"Sports",
"21st Century Aberdare",
"Notable people",
"See also",
"References",
"Sources",
"External links"
] | Aberdare |
[
"\n\nAn '''aberration''' is something that deviates from the normal way.\n\n'''Aberration''' may refer to:\n\n",
"*Optical aberration, an imperfection in image formation by an optical system\n*Chromatic aberration, caused by differences in refractive index for different wavelengths of light, in contrast with monochromatic aberration, which occurs for all frequencies of light\n*Spherical aberration, which occurs when light rays pass through a lens near the edge\n*Defocus aberration, which occurs when a system is out of focus\n*Aberration of light, which produces an apparent motion of celestial objects\n*Relativistic aberration, the distortion of light at high velocities\n",
"*Chromosome abnormality, or aberration, a disruption in the normal chromosomal content of a cell\n*Cardiac aberrancy, aberration of the conduction of action potentials in the electrical conduction system of the heart\n",
"*Aberration (''Dungeons & Dragons''), a creature type in the role-playing game\n*''Aberration'' (film), a horror movie\n*Aberration (EP)\n",
"*Aberrant, a superhero roleplaying game by White Wolf Game Studio\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Optics and physics",
"Medicine",
"Entertainment",
"See also"
] | Aberration |
[
"\nThe apparent position of a star viewed from the Earth depends on the Earth's velocity. The effect is typically much smaller than illustrated.\n\nThe '''aberration of light''' (also referred to as '''astronomical aberration''', '''stellar aberration''', or '''velocity aberration''') is an astronomical phenomenon which produces an apparent motion of celestial objects about their true positions, dependent on the velocity of the observer. Aberration causes objects to appear to be displaced towards the direction of motion of the observer compared to when the observer is stationary. The change in angle is typically very small — of the order of ''v/c'' where ''c'' is the speed of light and ''v'' the velocity of the observer. In the case of \"stellar\" or \"annual\" aberration, the apparent position of a star to an observer on Earth varies periodically over the course of a year as the Earth's velocity changes as it revolves around the Sun, by a maximum angle of approximately 20 arcseconds in right ascension or declination.\n\nThe term ''aberration'' has historically been used to refer to a number of related phenomena concerning the propagation of light in moving bodies. \nAberration should not be confused with ''parallax''. The latter is a change in the apparent position of a relatively nearby object, as measured by a moving observer, relative to more distant objects that define a reference frame. The amount of parallax depends on the ''distance'' of the object from the observer, whereas aberration does not. Aberration is also related to light-time correction and relativistic beaming, although it is often considered separately from these effects.\n\nAberration is historically significant because of its role in the development of the theories of light, electromagnetism and, ultimately, the theory of special relativity. It was first observed in the late 1600s by astronomers searching for stellar parallax in order to confirm the heliocentric model of the Solar System. However, it was not understood at the time to be a different phenomenon.\nIn 1727, James Bradley provided a classical explanation for it in terms of the finite speed of light relative to the motion of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun, \nwhich he used to make one of the earliest measurements of the speed of light. However, Bradley's theory was incompatible with 19th century theories of light, and aberration became a major motivation for the aether drag theories of Augustin Fresnel (in 1818) and G. G. Stokes (in 1845), and for Hendrik Lorentz's aether theory of electromagnetism in 1892. The aberration of light, together with Lorentz's elaboration of Maxwell's electrodynamics, the moving magnet and conductor problem, the negative aether drift experiments, as well as the Fizeau experiment, led Albert Einstein to develop the theory of special relativity in 1905, which provided a conclusive explanation for the phenomenon.\n",
"Light rays striking the earth in the Sun's rest frame compared to the same rays in the Earth's rest frame according to special relativity. The effect is exaggerated for illustrative purposes.\n\nAberration may be explained as the difference in angle of a beam of light in different inertial frames of reference. A common analogy is to consider the apparent direction of falling rain. If rain is falling vertically in the frame of reference of a person standing still, then to a person moving forwards the rain will appear to arrive at an angle, requiring the moving observer to tilt their umbrella forwards. The faster the observer moves, the more tilt is needed.\n\nThe net effect is that light rays striking the moving observer from the sides in a stationary frame will come angled from ahead in the moving observer's frame. This effect is sometimes called the \"searchlight\" or \"headlight\" effect.\n\nIn the case of annual aberration of starlight, the direction of incoming starlight as seen in the Earth's moving frame is tilted relative to the angle observed in the Sun's frame. Since the direction of motion of the Earth changes during its orbit, the direction of this tilting changes during the course of the year, and causes the apparent position of the star to differ from its true position as measured in the inertial frame of the Sun.\n\nWhile classical reasoning gives intuition for aberration, it leads to a number of physical paradoxes observable even at the classical level (see history). The theory of special relativity is required to correctly account for aberration. The relativistic explanation is very similar to the classical one however, and in both theories aberration may be understood as a case of addition of velocities.\n\n===Classical explanation===\nIn the Sun's frame, consider a beam of light with velocity equal to the speed of light c, with x and y velocity components and , at an angle . If the Earth is moving at velocity in the x direction relative to the Sun, then by velocity addition the x component of the beam's velocity in the Earth's frame of reference is , and the y velocity is unchanged, . (Note that you need the velocity of the Sun with respect to the Earth which is the negative of the velocity of the Earth with respect to the Sun. Also note that we are only using vectors here without indication of direction.) Thus the angle of the light in the Earth's frame in terms of the angle in the Sun's frame is\n\n:\n\nIn the case of , this result reduces to .\n\n===Relativistic explanation===\nThe reasoning in the relativistic case is the same except that the relativistic velocity addition formulae must be used, which can be derived from Lorentz transformations between different frames of reference. These formulae are\n\n:\n:\n\nwhere , giving the components of the light beam in the Earth's frame in terms of the components in the Sun's frame. The angle of the beam in the Earth's frame is thus \n\n:\n\nIn the case of , this result reduces to , and in the limit this may be approximated by . This relativistic derivation keeps the speed of light constant in all frames of reference, unlike the classical derivation above.\n\n===Relationship to light-time correction and relativistic beaming===\nAberration, light-time correction, and relativistic beaming can be considered the same phenomenon depending on the frame of reference.\n\nAberration is related to two other phenomena, light-time correction, which is due to the motion of an observed object during the time taken by its light to reach an observer, and relativistic beaming, which is an angling of the light emitted by a moving light source. It can be considered equivalent to them but in a different inertial frame of reference. In aberration, the observer is considered to be moving relative to a (for the sake of simplicity) stationary light source, while in light-time correction and relativistic beaming the light source is considered to be moving relative to a stationary observer.\n\nConsider the case of an observer and a light source moving relative to each other at constant velocity, with a light beam moving from the source to the observer. At the moment of emission, the beam in the observer's rest frame is tilted compared to the one in the source's rest frame, as understood through relativistic beaming. During the time it takes the light beam to reach the observer the light source moves in the observer's frame, and the 'true position' of the light source is displaced relative to the apparent position the observer sees, as explained by light-time correction. Finally, the beam in the observer's frame at the moment of observation is tilted compared to the beam in source's frame, which can be understood as an aberrational effect. Thus, a person in the light source's frame would describe the apparent tilting of the beam in terms of aberration, while a person in the observer's frame would describe it as a light-time effect.\n\nThe relationship between these phenomena is only valid if the observer and source's frames are inertial frames. In practice, because the Earth is not an inertial rest frame but experiences centripetal acceleration towards the Sun, many aberrational effects such as annual aberration on Earth cannot be considered light-time corrections. However, if the time between emission and detection of the light is short compared to the orbital period of the Earth, the Earth may be approximated as an inertial frame and aberrational effects are equivalent to light-time corrections.\n",
"There are a number of types of aberration, caused by the differing components of the Earth's and observed object's motion:\n\n* '''Annual aberration''' is due to the orbital revolution of the Earth around the Sun.\n* '''Planetary aberration''' is the combination of aberration and light-time correction.\n* '''Diurnal aberration''' is due to the rotation of the Earth about its own axis.\n* '''Secular aberration''' is due to the motion of the Sun and Solar System relative to other stars in our Galaxy.\n\n===Annual aberration===\nStars at the ecliptic poles appear to move in circles, stars exactly in the ecliptic plane move in lines, and stars at intermediate angles move in ellipses. Shown here are the apparent motions of stars with the ecliptic latitudes corresponding to these cases, and with ecliptic longitude of 270 degrees.\nThe direction of aberration of a star at the northern ecliptic pole differs at different times of the year\n\nAnnual aberration is caused by the motion of an observer on the Earth revolving around the Sun. The velocity of the Earth (in the Sun's rest frame) varies periodically over the course of a year as the Earth traverses its orbit and consequently the aberration also varies periodically, typically causing stars to appear to move in small ellipses.\n\nApproximating the Earth's orbit as circular, the maximum displacement of a star due to annual aberration is known as the ''constant of aberration'', conventionally represented by . It may be calculated using the relation substituting the Earth's average speed in the Sun's frame for and the speed of light . Its accepted value is 20″.49552 arcseconds (at J2000).\n\nAssuming a circular orbit, annual aberration causes stars exactly on the ecliptic (the plane of the Earth's orbit) to appear to move back and forth along a straight line, varying by on either side of their position in the Sun's frame. A star that is precisely at one of the ecliptic poles (at 90 degrees from the ecliptic plane) will appear to move in a circle of radius about its true position, and stars at intermediate ecliptic latitudes will appear to move along a small ellipse.\n\nFor illustration, consider a star at the northern ecliptic pole viewed by an observer at a point on the Arctic Circle. Such an observer will see the star transit at the zenith, once every day (strictly speaking sidereal day). At the time of the March equinox, the Earth's orbit carries the observer in a southwards direction, and the star's apparent declination is therefore displaced to the south by an angle of . At the September equinox, the star's position is displaced to the north by an equal and opposite amount. At the June and December solstices, the displacement in declination is zero. Conversely, the amount of displacement in right ascension is zero at either equinox and maximum at the solstices.\n\n\nIn practice the Earth's orbit is slightly elliptic rather than circular and its speed changes somewhat over the course of its orbit, which means the description above is only approximate. Aberration is more accurately calculated using the Earth's instantaneous velocity relative to the center of mass of the Solar System.\n\nNote that the displacement due to aberration is orthogonal to any displacement due to parallax. If parallax were detectable, the maximum displacement to the south would occur in December, and the maximum displacement to the north in June. It is this apparently anomalous motion that so mystified early astronomers.\n\n====Solar annual aberration====\nA special case of annual aberration is the nearly constant deflection of the Sun from its position in the Sun's rest frame by towards the ''west'' (as viewed from Earth), opposite to the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic (which is from west to east, as seen from Earth). The deflection thus makes the Sun appear to be behind (or retarded) from its rest-frame position on the ecliptic by a position or angle .\n\nThis deflection may equivalently be described as a light-time effect due to motion of the Earth during the 8.3 minutes that it takes light to travel from the Sun to Earth. This is possible since the transit time of sunlight is short relative to the orbital period of the Earth, so the Earth's frame may be approximated as inertial. In the Earth's frame, the Sun moves by a distance in the time it takes light to reach Earth, for the orbit of radius . This gives an angular correction which can be solved to give , the same as the aberrational correction.\n\n===Planetary aberration===\n\nPlanetary aberration is the combination of the aberration of light (due to Earth's velocity) and light-time correction (due to the object's motion and distance), as calculated in the rest frame of the Solar System. Both are determined at the instant when the moving object's light reaches the moving observer on Earth. It is so called because it is usually applied to planets and other objects in the Solar System whose motion and distance are accurately known.\n\n===Diurnal aberration===\nDiurnal aberration is caused by the velocity of the observer on the surface of the rotating Earth. It is therefore dependent not only on the time of the observation, but also the latitude and longitude of the observer. Its effect is much smaller than that of annual aberration, and is only 0′′.32 in the case of an observer at the equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest.\n\n===Secular aberration===\nThe Sun and Solar System are revolving around the center of the Galaxy. Aberration due to this motion is known as secular aberration and affects the apparent positions of distant stars and extragalactic objects. However, since the galactic year is about 230 million years, the aberration varies very slowly and this change is extremely difficult to observe. Therefore, secular aberration is usually ignored when considering the positions of stars. In other words, star maps show the observed apparent positions of the stars, not their calculated true positions after accounting for secular aberration.\n\nFor stars significantly less than 230 million light years away, the Solar System may be approximated as an inertial frame and so the effect of secular aberration is equivalent to a light-time correction. This includes stars in the Milky Way, since the Milky Way is about 100,000 light years in diameter. For these stars the true position of the star is then easily computed from its proper motion and its distance.\n\nSecular aberration is typically a small number of arcminutes, for example the stationary star Groombridge 1830 is displaced by approximately 3 arcminutes, due to secular aberration. This is roughly 8 times the effect of annual aberration, as one would expect since the velocity of the Solar System relative to the center of the Galaxy is about 8 times the velocity of the Earth relative to the Sun.\n",
"The discovery of the aberration of light was totally unexpected, and it was only by considerable perseverance and perspicacity that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727. It originated from attempts to discover whether stars possessed appreciable parallaxes.\n\n===Search for stellar parallax===\nThe Copernican heliocentric theory of the Solar System had received confirmation by the observations of Galileo and Tycho Brahe and the mathematical investigations of Kepler and Newton. As early as 1573, Thomas Digges had suggested that parallactic shifting of the stars should occur according to the heliocentric model, and consequently if stellar parallax could be observed it would help confirm this theory. Many observers claimed to have determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and Giovanni Battista Riccioli concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers, and were due to instrumental and personal errors. However, in 1680 Jean Picard, in his ''Voyage d’Uranibourg,'' stated, as a result of ten years' observations, that Polaris, the Pole Star, exhibited variations in its position amounting to 40″ annually. Some astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these attempts failed because the motion differed from that which parallax would produce. John Flamsteed, from measurements made in 1689 and succeeding years with his mural quadrant, similarly concluded that the declination of Polaris was 40″ less in July than in September. Robert Hooke, in 1674, published his observations of γ Draconis, a star of magnitude 2m which passes practically overhead at the latitude of London (hence its observations are largely free from the complex corrections due to atmospheric refraction), and concluded that this star was 23″ more northerly in July than in October.\n\n===James Bradley's observations===\nBradley's observations of γ Draconis and 35 Camelopardalis as reduced by Busch to the year 1730.\n\nConsequently, when Bradley and Samuel Molyneux entered this sphere of research in 1725, there was still considerable uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes had been observed or not, and it was with the intention of definitely answering this question that they erected a large telescope at Molyneux's house at Kew. They decided to reinvestigate the motion of γ Draconis with a telescope constructed by George Graham (1675–1751), a celebrated instrument-maker. This was fixed to a vertical chimney stack in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the eyepiece, the amount of which (i.e. the deviation from the vertical) was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and a plumb line.\n\nThe instrument was set up in November 1725, and observations on γ Draconis were made starting in December. The star was observed to move 40″ southwards between September and March, and then reversed its course from March to September. At the same time, 35 Camelopardalis, a star with a right ascension nearly exactly opposite to that of γ Draconis, was 19\" more northerly at the beginning of March than in September. These results were completely unexpected and inexplicable by existing theories.\n\n===Early hypotheses===\n\nBradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of finding the solution. Since the apparent motion was evidently caused neither by parallax nor observational errors, Bradley first hypothesized that it could be due to oscillations in the orientation of the Earth's axis relative to the celestial sphere – a phenomenon known as nutation. 35 Camelopardalis was seen to possess an apparent motion which could be consistent with nutation, but since its declination varied only one half as much as that of γ Draconis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the answer (however, Bradley later went on to discover that the Earth does indeed nutate). He also investigated the possibility that the motion was due to an irregular distribution of the Earth's atmosphere, thus involving abnormal variations in the refractive index, but again obtained negative results.\n\nOn August 19, 1727, Bradley embarked upon a further series of observations using a telescope of his own erected at the Rectory, Wanstead. This instrument had the advantage of a larger field of view and he was able to obtain precise positions of a large number of stars over the course of about twenty years. During his first two years at Wanstead, he established the existence of the phenomenon of aberration beyond all doubt, and this also enabled him to formulate a set of rules that would allow the calculation of the effect on any given star at a specified date.\n\n===Development of the theory of aberration===\nBradley eventually developed his explanation of aberration in about September 1728 and this theory was presented to the Royal Society in mid January the following year. One well-known story was that he saw the change of direction of a wind vane on a boat on the Thames, caused not by an alteration of the wind itself, but by a change of course of the boat relative to the wind direction.\nHowever, there is no record of this incident in Bradley's own account of the discovery, and it may therefore be apocryphal.\n\nBased on his early calculations, Bradley was able to estimate the constant of aberration at 20\", and with this was able to estimate the speed of light at per second.\n\nThe discovery and elucidation of aberration is now regarded as a classic case of the application of scientific method, in which observations are made to test a theory, but unexpected results are sometimes obtained that in turn lead to new discoveries. It is also worth noting that part of the original motivation of the search for stellar parallax was to test the Copernican theory that the Earth revolves around the Sun, but of course the existence of aberration also establishes the truth of that theory.\n",
"The phenomenon of aberration became a driving force for many physical theories during the 200 years between its observation and the conclusive explanation by Albert Einstein.\n\nThe first classical explanation was provided in 1729, by James Bradley as described above, who attributed it to the finite speed of light and the motion of Earth in its orbit around the Sun. However, this explanation proved inaccurate once the wave nature of light was better understood, and correcting it became a major goal of the 19th century theories of luminiferous aether. Augustin-Jean Fresnel proposed a correction due to the motion of a medium (the aether) through which light propagated, known as \"partial aether drag\". He proposed that objects partially drag the aether along with them as they move, and this became the accepted explanation for aberration for some time. George Stokes proposed a similar theory, explaining that aberration occurs due to the flow of aether induced by the motion of the Earth. Accumulated evidence against these explanations, combined with new understanding of the electromagnetic nature of light, led Hendrik Lorentz to develop an electron theory which featured an immobile aether, and he explained that objects contract in length as they move through the aether. Motivated by these previous theories, Albert Einstein then developed the theory of special relativity in 1905, which provides the modern account of aberration.\n\n===Bradley's classical explanation===\nFigure 2: As light propagates down the telescope, the telescope moves requiring a tilt to the telescope that depends on the speed of light. The apparent angle of the star ''φ'' differs from its true angle ''θ''.\n\nBradley conceived of an explanation in terms of a corpuscular theory of light in which light is made of particles unaffected by gravity. His classical explanation appeals to the motion of the earth relative to a beam of light-particles moving at a finite velocity, and is developed in the Sun's frame of reference, unlike the classical derivation given above.\n\nConsider the case where a distant star is motionless relative to the Sun, and the star is extremely far away, so that parallax may be ignored. In the rest frame of the Sun, this means light from the star travels in parallel paths to the Earth observer, and arrives at the same angle regardless of where the Earth is in its orbit. Suppose the star is observed on Earth with a telescope, idealized as a narrow tube. The light enters the tube from the star at angle and travels at speed taking a time to reach the bottom of the tube, where it is detected. Suppose observations are made from Earth, which is moving with a speed . During the transit of the light, the tube moves a distance . Consequently, for the particles of light to reach the bottom of the tube, the tube must be inclined at an angle different from , resulting in an ''apparent'' position of the star at angle . As the Earth proceeds in its orbit it changes direction, so changes with the time of year the observation is made. The apparent angle and true angle are related using trigonometry as:\n\n:.\n\nIn the case of , this gives . While this is different from the more accurate relativistic result described above, in the limit of small angle and low velocity they are approximately the same, within the error of the measurements of Bradley's day. These results allowed Bradley to make one of the earliest measurements of the speed of light.\n\n\n\n=== Luminiferous aether ===\n\n\nYoung reasoned that aberration could only be explained if the aether were immobile in the frame of the Sun. On the left, stellar aberration occurs if an immobile aether is assumed, showing that the telescope must be tilted. On the right, the aberration disappears if the aether moves with the telescope, and the telescope does not need to be tilted.\nIn the early nineteenth century the wave theory of light was being rediscovered, and in 1804 Thomas Young adapted Bradley's explanation for corpuscular light to wavelike light traveling through a medium known as the luminiferous aether. His reasoning was the same as Bradley's, but it required that this medium be immobile in the Sun's reference frame and must pass through the earth unaffected, otherwise the medium (and therefore the light) would move along with the earth and no aberration would be observed. \n He wrote:\n\n\nHowever, it soon became clear Young's theory could not account for aberration when materials with a non-vacuum index of refraction were present. An important example is of a telescope filled with water. The velocity of the light in such a telescope will be slower than in vacuum, and is given by rather than where is the index of refraction of the water. Thus, by Bradley and Young's reasoning the aberration angle is given by\n\n:.\n\nwhich predicts a medium-dependent angle of aberration. When refraction at the telescope's objective is taken into account this result deviates even more from the vacuum result. In 1810 François Arago performed a similar experiment and found that the aberration was unaffected by the medium in the telescope, providing solid evidence against Young's theory. This experiment was subsequently verified by many others in the following decades, most accurately by Airy in 1871, with the same result.\n\n===Aether drag models===\n\n\n====Fresnel's aether drag====\nIn 1818, Augustin Fresnel developed a modified explanation to account for the water telescope and for other aberration phenomena. He explained that the aether is generally at rest in the Sun's frame of reference, but objects partially drag the aether along with them as they move. That is, the aether in an object of index of refraction moving at velocity is partially dragged with a velocity bringing the light along with it. This factor is known as \"Fresnel's dragging coefficient\". This dragging effect, along with refraction at the telescope's objective, compensates for the slower speed of light in the water telescope in Bradley's explanation. With this modification Fresnel obtained Bradley's vacuum result even for non-vacuum telescopes, and was also able to predict many other phenomena related to the propagation of light in moving bodies. Fresnel's dragging coefficient became the dominant explanation of aberration for the next decades.\n\nConceptual illustration of Stokes' aether drag theory. In the rest frame of the Sun the Earth moves to the right through the aether, in which it induces a local current. A ray of light (in red) coming from the vertical becomes dragged and tilted due to the flow of aether.\n\n====Stokes' aether drag====\nHowever, the fact that light is polarized (discovered by Fresnel himself) led scientists such as Cauchy and Green to believe that the aether was a totally immobile elastic solid as opposed to Fresnel's fluid aether. There was thus renewed need for an explanation of aberration consistent both with Fresnel's predictions (and Arago's observations) as well as polarization.\n\nIn 1845, Stokes proposed a 'putty-like' aether which acts as a liquid on large scales but as a solid on small scales, thus supporting both the transverse vibrations required for polarized light and the aether flow required to explain aberration. Making only the assumptions that the fluid is irrotational and that the boundary conditions of the flow are such that the aether has zero velocity far from the Earth, but moves at the Earth's velocity at its surface and within it, he was able to completely account for aberration.\nThe velocity of the aether outside of the Earth would decrease as a function of distance from the Earth so light rays from stars would be progressively dragged as they approached the surface of the Earth. The Earth's motion would be unaffected by the aether due to D'Alembert's paradox.\n\nBoth Fresnel and Stokes' theories were popular. However, the question of aberration was put aside during much of the second half of the 19th century as focus of inquiry turned to the electromagnetic properties of aether.\n\n===Lorentz' length contraction===\n\nIn the 1880s once electromagnetism was better understood, interest turned again to the problem of aberration. By this time flaws were known to both Fresnel's and Stokes' theories. Fresnel's theory required that the relative velocity of aether and matter to be different for light of different colors, and it was shown that the boundary conditions Stokes had assumed in his theory were inconsistent with his assumption of irrotational flow. At the same time, the modern theories of electromagnetic aether could not account for aberration at all. Many scientists such as Maxwell, Heaviside and Hertz unsuccessfully attempted to solve these problems by incorporating either Fresnel or Stokes' theories into Maxwell's new electromagnetic laws.\n\nHendrik Lorentz spent considerable effort along these lines. After working on this problem for a decade, the issues with Stokes' theory caused him to abandon it and to follow Fresnel's suggestion of a (mostly) stationary aether (1892, 1895). However, in Lorentz's model the aether was ''completely'' immobile, like the electromagnetic aethers of Cauchy, Green and Maxwell and unlike Fresnel's aether. He obtained Fresnel's dragging coefficient from modifications of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, including a modification of the time coordinates in moving frames (\"local time\"). In order to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment (1887), which apparently contradicted both Fresnel's and Lorentz's immobile aether theories, and apparently confirmed Stokes' complete aether drag, Lorentz theorized (1892) that objects undergo \"length contraction\" by a factor of in the direction of their motion through the aether. In this way, aberration (and all related optical phenomena) can be accounted for in the context of an immobile aether. Lorentz' theory became the basis for much research in the next decade, and beyond. Its predictions for aberration are identical to those of the relativistic theory.\n\n===Special relativity===\n\n\nLorentz' theory matched experiment well, but it was complicated and made many unsubstantiated physical assumptions about the microscopic nature of electromagnetic media. In his 1905 theory of special relativity, Albert Einstein reinterpreted the results of Lorentz' theory in a much simpler and more natural conceptual framework which disposed of the idea of an aether. His derivation is given above, and is now the accepted explanation. Robert S. Shankland reported some conversations with Einstein, in which Einstein emphasized the importance of aberration:\n\n\n\nOther important motivations for Einstein's development of relativity were the moving magnet and conductor problem and (indirectly) the negative aether drift experiments, already mentioned by him in the introduction of his first relativity paper. Einstein wrote in a note in 1952:\n\n\n\nWhile Einstein's result is the same as Bradley's original equation except for an extra factor of , it should be emphasized that Bradley's result does not merely give the classical limit of the relativistic case, in the sense that it gives incorrect predictions even at low relative velocities. Bradley's explanation cannot account for situations such as the water telescope, nor for many other optical effects (such as interference) that might occur within the telescope. This is because in the Earth's frame it predicts that the direction of propagation of the light beam in the telescope is not normal to the wavefronts of the beam, in contradiction with Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. It also does not preserve the speed of light c between frames. However, Bradley did correctly infer that the effect was due to relative velocities.\n",
"\n* Apparent place\n* Stellar parallax\n* Astronomical nutation\n* Proper motion\n* Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics\n* Stellar aberration (derivation from Lorentz transformation)\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"* P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.), ''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac'' (University Science Books, 1992), 127-135, 700.\n* Stephen Peter Rigaud, ''Memoirs of Bradley'' (1832)\n* Charles Hutton, ''Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary'' (1795).\n* H. H. Turner, ''Astronomical Discovery'' (1904).\n",
"* Courtney Seligman on Bradley's observations\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Explanation",
"Types of aberration",
"Discovery and first observations",
"Historical theories of aberration",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Aberration of light |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Aberration''' in optics refers to a defect in a lens such that light is not focussed to a point, but is spread out over some region of space, \nand hence an image formed by a lens with aberration is blurred or distorted, with the nature of the distortion depending on the type of abberation.\nMore specifically, it can be defined as a departure of the performance of an optical system from the predictions of paraxial optics. In an imaging system, it occurs when light from one point of an object does not converge into (or does not diverge from) a single point after transmission through the system. Aberrations occur because the simple paraxial theory is not a completely accurate model of the effect of an optical system on light, rather than due to flaws in the optical elements.\n\nAn image-forming optical system with aberration will produce an image which is not sharp. Makers of optical instruments need to correct optical systems to compensate for aberration.\n\nAbberation can be analyzed with the techniques of geometrical optics. The articles on reflection, refraction and caustics discuss the general features of reflected and refracted rays.\n",
"Reflection from a spherical mirror. Incident rays (red) away from the center of the mirror produce reflected rays (green) that miss the focal point, F. This is due to spherical aberration.\n\nIn an ideal lens, light from any point of an image will come to a focus on a single point at the focal plane (or, in the more general case, the focal surface, which need not be a plane). Deviations from this ideality, lenses in which light does not focus to a single point, are called ''abberation'' of the lens.\n\nAberrations fall into two classes: ''monochromatic'' and ''chromatic''. Monochromatic aberrations are caused by the geometry of the lens or mirror and occur both when light is reflected and when it is refracted. They appear even when using monochromatic light, hence the name.\n\nChromatic aberrations are caused by dispersion, the variation of a lens's refractive index with wavelength means that the focus will be different for different wavelengths of light. Thus, chromatic abberation does not appear when monochromatic light is used.\n\n===Monochromatic aberrations===\n\nThe most common monochromatic aberrations are:\n\n*Defocus\n*Spherical aberration\n*Coma\n*Astigmatism\n*Field curvature\n*Image distortion\n\nAlthough defocus is technically the lowest-order of the optical aberrations, it is usually not considered as a lens aberration, since it can be corrected by moving the lens (or the image plane) to bring the image plane to the optical focus of the lens. \n\nIn addition to these abberations, piston and tilt are effects which shift the position of the focal point. Piston and tilt are not true optical aberrations, since when an otherwise perfect wavefront is altered by piston and tilt, it will still form a perfect, aberration-free image, only shifted to a different position. \n\n===Chromatic aberrations===\n\n\nChromatic aberration occurs when different wavelengths are not focussed to the same point. Types of chromatic aberration are:\n*Axial (or \"longitudinal\") chromatic aberration\n*Lateral (or \"transverse\") chromatic aberration\n",
"The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem: Rays of light proceeding from any ''object point'' unite in an ''image point''; and therefore an ''object space'' is reproduced in an ''image space.'' The introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to C. F. Gauss (''Dioptrische Untersuchungen'', Göttingen, 1841), named the focal lengths and focal planes, permits the determination of the image of any object for any system (see lens). The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmetrical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions may not be realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are, in general, ill-defined and often completely blurred, if the aperture or field of view exceeds certain limits.\n\nThe investigations of James Clerk Maxwell (''Phil.Mag.,'' 1856; ''Quart. Journ. Math.,'' 1858) and Ernst Abbe showed that the properties of these reproductions, i.e. the relative position and magnitude of the images, are not special properties of optical systems, but necessary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the reproduction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner in which the reproduction is effected. These authors proved, however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflection and refraction. Consequently, the Gaussian theory only supplies a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no constructor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal. At present, all that can be attempted is to reproduce a single plane in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satisfactorily accomplished: aberrations always occur, and it is improbable that these will ever be entirely corrected.\n\nThis, and related general questions, have been treated — besides the above-mentioned authors — by M. Thiesen (''Berlin. Akad. Sitzber.,'' 1890, xxxv. 799; ''Berlin. Phys. Ges. Verh.,'' 1892) and H. Bruns (''Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber.,'' 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton's ''characteristic function'' (Irish Acad. Trans., ''Theory of Systems of Rays'', 1828, et seq.). Reference may also be made to the treatise of Czapski-Eppenstein, pp. 155–161.\n\nA review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given.\n\n===Aberration of axial points (spherical aberration in the restricted sense)===\nFigure 1\n\nLet S (fig. 1) be any optical system, rays proceeding from an axis point O under an angle u1 will unite in the axis point O'1; and those under an angle u2 in the axis point O'2. If there is refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through a thin positive lens, O'2 will lie in front of O'1 so long as the angle u2 is greater than u1 (''under correction''); and conversely with a dispersive surface or lenses (''over correction''). The caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign > (greater than); in the second < (less than). If the angle u1 is very small, O'1 is the Gaussian image; and O'1 O'2 is termed the ''longitudinal aberration,'' and O'1R the ''lateral aberration'' of the pencils with aperture u2. If the pencil with the angle u2 is that of the maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a plane perpendicular to the axis at O'1 there is a circular ''disk of confusion'' of radius O'1R, and in a parallel plane at O'2 another one of radius O'2R2; between these two is situated the ''disk of least confusion.''\n\nThe largest opening of the pencils, which take part in the reproduction of O, i.e. the angle u, is generally determined by the margin of one of the lenses or by a hole in a thin plate placed between, before, or behind the lenses of the system. This hole is termed the ''stop'' or ''diaphragm''; Abbe used the term ''aperture stop'' for both the hole and the limiting margin of the lens. The component S1 of the system, situated between the aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the diaphragm, termed by Abbe the ''entrance pupil''; the ''exit pupil'' is the image formed by the component S2, which is placed behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop. Since the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magnitude of the aberration will be determined by the position and diameter of the entrance pupil. If the system be entirely behind the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (''front stop''); if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (''back stop'').\n\nIf the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by the first member of the system are parallel, and their intersections, after traversing the system, vary according to their ''perpendicular height of incidence,'' i.e. their distance from the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding considerations; and the aperture, i.e. the radius of the entrance pupil, is its maximum value.\n\n===Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angles to the axis===\nIf rays issuing from O (fig. 1) be concurrent, it does not follow that points in a portion of a plane perpendicular at O to the axis will be also concurrent, even if the part of the plane be very small. With a considerable aperture, the neighboring point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations comparable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided if, according to Abbe, the ''sine condition,'' sin u'1/sin u1=sin u'2/sin u2, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the object point O is infinitely distant, u1 and u2 are to be replaced by h1 and h2, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the ''sine condition'' then becomes sin u'1/h1=sin u'2/h2. A system fulfilling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called ''aplanatic'' (Greek a-, privative, plann, a wandering). This word was first used by Robert Blair (d. 1828), professor of practical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to denote freedom from spherical aberration. Both the aberration of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture.\n\n===Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the axis) with narrow pencils. Astigmatism.===\nFigure 2\n\nA point O (fig. 2) at a finite distance from the axis (or with an infinitely distant object, a point which subtends a finite angle at the system) is, in general, even then not sharply reproduced if the pencil of rays issuing from it and traversing the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from the object point through the now infinitely small entrance pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil does not meet the refracting or reflecting surface at right angles; therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, stigmia, a point). Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the ''axis of the pencil'' or ''principal ray,'' it can be said: the rays of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines, which can be assumed to be at right angles to the principal ray; of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and the axis of the system, i.e. in the ''first principal section'' or ''meridional section'', and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive, therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as, for example, a focusing screen, an image of the object point; on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O\" are separately formed (in neighboring planes ellipses are formed), and in a plane between O' and O\" a circle of least confusion. The interval O'O\", termed the astigmatic difference, increases, in general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view. Two ''astigmatic image surfaces'' correspond to one object plane; and these are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines of the first kind, on the other those of the second. Systems in which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed anastigmatic or stigmatic.\n\nSir Isaac Newton was probably the discoverer of astigmation; the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas Young (''A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy,'' 1807); and the theory was developed by Allvar Gullstrand. A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in Moritz von Rohr's ''Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten''.\n\n===Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils. Coma.===\nBy opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in this case they are much more complicated. The course of the rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not symmetrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis. From this appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form of the meridional pencil—formerly the only one considered—is coma in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been treated by Arthur König and Moritz von Rohr, and later by Allvar Gullstrand.\n\n===Curvature of the field of the image===\n\nIf the above errors be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp image obtained with a wide aperture—there remains the necessity to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography. In most cases the surface is concave towards the system.\n\n===Distortion of the image===\nFig. 3a: Barrel distortion\nFig. 3b: Pincushion distortion\n\nEven if the image is sharp, it may be distorted compared to ideal pinhole projection. In pinhole projection, the magnification of an object is inversely proportional to its distance to the camera along the optical axis so that a camera pointing directly at a flat surface reproduces that flat surface. Distortion can be thought of as stretching the image non-uniformly, or, equivalently, as a variation in magnification across the field. While \"distortion\" can include arbitrary deformation of an image, the most pronounced modes of distortion produced by conventional imaging optics is \"barrel distortion\", in which the center of the image is magnified more than the perimeter (figure 3a). The reverse, in which the perimeter is magnified more than the center, is known as \"pincushion distortion\" (figure 3b). This effect is called lens distortion or image distortion, and there are algorithms to correct it.\n\nSystems free of distortion are called ''orthoscopic'' (orthos, right, skopein to look) or ''rectilinear'' (straight lines).\n\nFigure 4\nThis aberration is quite distinct from that of the sharpness of reproduction; in unsharp, reproduction, the question of distortion arises if only parts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object point, the ''center of gravity'' of the patch may be regarded as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiving the image, e.g., a focusing screen, intersects the ray passing through the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if a poor image on the focusing screen remains stationary when the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs. This ray, named by Abbe a ''principal ray'' (not to be confused with the ''principal rays'' of the Gaussian theory), passes through the center of the entrance pupil before the first refraction, and the center of the exit pupil after the last refraction. From this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature of the image field. Referring to fig. 4, we have O'Q'/OQ = a' tan w'/a tan w = 1/N, where N is the ''scale'' or magnification of the image. For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w'/a tan w must also be constant. If the ratio a'/a be sufficiently constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the ''condition of Airy,'' i.e. tan w'/ tan w= a constant. This simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. 1) is fulfilled in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their diaphragm (briefly named ''symmetrical or holosymmetrical objectives''), or which consist of two like, but different-sized, components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical objectives); in these systems tan w' / tan w = 1.\n\nThe constancy of a'/a necessary for this relation to hold was pointed out by R. H. Bow (Brit. Journ. Photog., 1861), and Thomas Sutton (Photographic Notes, 1862); it has been treated by O. Lummer and by M. von Rohr (Zeit. f. Instrumentenk., 1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4). It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced in the centers of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio a' cos w'/a tan w will be constant for one distance of the object. This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical objectives reproducing with the scale 1, and by hemisymmetrical, if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of the two components.\n\n===Zernike model of aberrations===\nCircular wavefront profiles associated with aberrations may be mathematically modeled using Zernike polynomials. Developed by Frits Zernike in the 1930s, Zernike's polynomials are orthogonal over a circle of unit radius. A complex, aberrated wavefront profile may be curve-fitted with Zernike polynomials to yield a set of fitting coefficients that individually represent different types of aberrations. These Zernike coefficients are linearly independent, thus individual aberration contributions to an overall wavefront may be isolated and quantified separately.\n\nThere are even and odd Zernike polynomials. The even Zernike polynomials are defined as\n\n:\n\nand the odd Zernike polynomials as\n\n:\n\nwhere ''m'' and ''n'' are nonnegative integers with , Φ is the azimuthal angle in radians, and ρ is the normalized radial distance. The radial polynomials have no azimuthal dependence, and are defined as\n\n:\n\nand if is odd.\n\nThe first few Zernike polynomials are:\n\n\n \n \"Piston\", equal to the mean value of the wavefront\n\n \n \"X-Tilt\", the deviation of the overall beam in the sagittal direction\n\n \n \"Y-Tilt\", the deviation of the overall beam in the tangential direction\n\n \n \"Defocus\", a parabolic wavefront resulting from being out of focus\n\n \n \"0° Astigmatism\", a cylindrical shape along the X or Y axis\n\n \n \"45° Astigmatism\", a cylindrical shape oriented at ±45° from the X axis\n\n \n \"X-Coma\", comatic image flaring in the horizontal direction\n\n \n \"Y-Coma\", comatic image flaring in the vertical direction\n\n \n \"Third order spherical aberration\"\n\n\nwhere is the normalized pupil radius with , is the azimuthal angle around the pupil with , and the fitting coefficients are the wavefront errors in wavelengths.\n\nAs in Fourier synthesis using sines and cosines, a wavefront may be perfectly represented by a sufficiently large number of higher-order Zernike polynomials. However, wavefronts with very steep gradients or very high spatial frequency structure, such as produced by propagation through atmospheric turbulence or aerodynamic flowfields, are not well modeled by Zernike polynomials, which tend to low-pass filter fine spatial definition in the wavefront. In this case, other fitting methods such as fractals or singular value decomposition may yield improved fitting results.\n\nThe circle polynomials were introduced by Frits Zernike to evaluate the point image of an aberrated optical system taking into account the effects of diffraction. The perfect point image in the presence of diffraction had already been described by Airy, as early as 1835. It took almost hundred years to arrive at a comprehensive theory and modeling of the point image of aberrated systems (Zernike and Nijboer). The analysis by Nijboer and Zernike describes the intensity distribution close to the optimum focal plane. An extended theory that allows the calculation of the point image amplitude and intensity over a much larger volume in the focal region was recently developed ( Extended Nijboer-Zernike theory). This Extended Nijboer-Zernike theory of point image or ‘point-spread function’ formation has found applications in general research on image formation, especially for systems with a high numerical aperture, and in characterizing optical systems with respect to their aberrations.\n",
"The preceding review of the several errors of reproduction belongs to the ''Abbe theory of aberrations,'' in which definite aberrations are discussed separately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be eliminated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the reproduction of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be ''infinitely small of a certain order''; and with each order of infinite smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations is associated. This connection is only supplied by theories which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of indefinite series.\n\nFigure 5\n\nA ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 5) can be defined by the coordinates (ξ, η). Of this point O in an object plane I, at right angles to the axis, and two other coordinates (x, y), the point in which the ray intersects the entrance pupil, i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may be defined by the points (ξ', η'), and (x', y'), in the planes I' and II'. The origins of these four plane coordinate systems may be collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corresponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four coordinates ξ', η', x', y' are functions of ξ, η, x, y; and if it be assumed that the field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then ξ, η, x, y are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expanding ξ', η', x', y' in ascending powers of ξ, η, x, y, series are obtained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers. It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the origins of the coordinate systems collinear with the optical axis and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs of ξ, η, x, y, the values ξ', η', x', y' must likewise change their sign, but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables.\n\nThe nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this will not be the case, for ξ', η' vary if ξ, η be constant, but x, y variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality, the Gauss image point O'0, with coordinates ξ'0, η'0, of the point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed. Writing Dξ'=ξ'-ξ'0 and Dη'=η'-η'0, then Dξ' and Dη' are the aberrations belonging to ξ, η and x, y, and are functions of these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of light, depending in size on the lowest powers of ξ, η, x, y which the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These degrees, named by J. Petzval (''Bericht uber die Ergebnisse einiger dioptrischer Untersuchungen'', Buda Pesth, 1843; ''Akad. Sitzber., Wien,'' 1857, vols. xxiv. xxvi.) ''the numerical orders of the image,'' are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the formation of an image of the mth order is that in the series for Dξ' and Dη' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th…(m-2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order.\n\nThe expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices and distances between the lenses, was solved by L. Seidel (Astr. Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, J. Petzval constructed his portrait objective, from similar calculations which have never been published (see M. von Rohr, ''Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs'', Berlin, 1899, p. 248). The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder (Munchen. Acad. Abhandl., 1891, 17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work (''München. Akad. Sitzber.,'' 1898, 28, p. 395); a simpler form was given by A. Kerber (''Beiträge zur Dioptrik'', Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8-9). A. Konig and M. von Rohr (see M. von Rohr, ''Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten'', pp. 317–323) have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the Abbe method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically (pp. 212–316).\n\nThe aberrations can also be expressed by means of the ''characteristic function'' of the system and its differential coefficients, instead of by the radii, &c., of the lenses; these formulae are not immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton (British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by Clerk Maxwell (''Proc. London Math. Soc.,'' 1874–1875; (see also the treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (''Berlin. Akad. Sitzber.,'' 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (''Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber.,'' 1895, 21, p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwarzschild (''Göttingen. Akad. Abhandl.,'' 1905, 4, No. 1), who thus discovered the aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand (vide supra, and ''Ann. d. Phys.,'' 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces.\n\nThe aberrations of the third order are: (1) aberration of the axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the axis is very small, less than of the third order — the deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature of the field; (5) distortion.\n\n:'''(1)''' Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with in all text-books on optics. It is very important in telescope design. In telescopes aperture is usually taken as the linear diameter of the objective. It is not the same as microscope aperture which is based on the entrance pupil or field of view as seen from the object and is expressed as an angular measurement. Higher order aberrations in telescope design can be mostly neglected. For microscopes it cannot be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the radii r:r', and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the power of the lens remaining constant). The total aberration of two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum of the individual aberrations, can be zero. This is also possible if the lenses have the same algebraic sign. Of thin positive lenses with n=1.5, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the third order. These systems, however, are not of great practical importance. In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of which has just so strong a positive aberration (''under-correction,'' vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however: may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained. It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect by several weaker than by one high-power lens. By one, and likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be reproduced without aberration of the third order. Freedom from aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant, is known as ''Herschel's condition.'' All these rules are valid, inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not to be taken into account.\n\n:'''(2)''' The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as ''Fraunhofer's condition.'' (4) After eliminating the aberration On the axis, coma and astigmatism, the relation for the flatness of the field in the third order is expressed by the ''Petzval equation,'' S1/r(n'-n) = 0, where r is the radius of a refracting surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighboring media, and S the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces.\n",
"Laser guide stars are used to eliminate optical aberrations. \n\nThe classical imaging problem is to reproduce perfectly a finite plane (the object) onto another plane (the image) through a finite aperture. It is impossible to do so perfectly for ''more than one'' such pair of planes (this was proven with increasing generality by Maxwell in 1858, by Bruns in 1895, and by Carathéodory in 1926, see summary in Walther, A., J. Opt. Soc. Am. A '''6''', 415–422 (1989)). For a single pair of planes (e.g. for a single focus setting of an objective), however, the problem can in principle be solved perfectly. Examples of such a theoretically perfect system include the Luneburg lens and the Maxwell fish-eye.\n\nPractical methods solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument. The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object upon a given plane with given magnification (insofar as aberrations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however, the analytical difficulties were too great for older calculation methods but may be ameliorated by application of modern computer systems. Solutions, however, have been obtained in special cases (see A. Konig in M. von Rohr's ''Die Bilderzeugung'', p. 373; K. Schwarzschild, Göttingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, Nos. 2 and 3). At the present time constructors almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test, by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays, whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples are given in A. Gleichen, ''Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik'', Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances are continually altered until the errors of the image become sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of reproduction are investigated, especially individual members, or all, of those named above. The analytical approximation theory is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not generally suffice.\n\nIn order to render spherical aberration and the deviation from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture, there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture u* (width infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*) the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to one neighboring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller than the largest aperture U or H to be used in the system). The rays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio; these deviations are called ''zones,'' and the constructor endeavors to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w: astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated for a definite value, w*, ''zones of astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion,'' attend smaller values of w. The practical optician names such systems: ''corrected for the angle of aperture u* (the height of incidence h*) or the angle of field of view w*.'' Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture, in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image surfaces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as functions of the angles of the field of view.\n\nThe final form of a practical system consequently rests on compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution of the available field of view, and vice versa. But the larger aperture will give the larger resolution. The following may be regarded as typical:\n\n:(1) Largest aperture; necessary corrections are — for the axis point, and sine condition; errors of the field of view are almost disregarded; example — high-power microscope objectives.\n\n:(2) Wide angle lens; necessary corrections are — for astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion; errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; examples — photographic widest angle objectives and oculars.\n\n:Between these extreme examples stands the normal lens: this is corrected more with regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to the field of view.\n\n:(3) Long focus lenses have small fields of view and aberrations on axis are very important. Therefore zones will be kept as small as possible and design should emphasize simplicity. Because of this these lenses are the best for analytical computation.\n",
"In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of the glass employed (see Lens (optics) and Monochromatic aberration, above). Since the index of refraction varies with the color or wavelength of the light (see dispersion), it follows that a system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different colors in somewhat different places and sizes and with different aberrations; i.e. there are ''chromatic differences'' of the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of monochromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white light) all these images are formed and they cause a confusion, named chromatic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a dark background, there is perceived a colored margin, or narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achromatism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic. A system is said to be ''chromatically under-corrected'' when it shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens, otherwise it is said to be ''overcorrected.''\n\nIf, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected — in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted — then every reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes, and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths, as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of reproduction. These constants are determined by the data of the system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, etc., of the lenses); therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and consequently on the color, are calculable. The refractive indices for different wavelengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of. In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one constant of reproduction is equal for two different colors, i.e. this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible, with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for all distances of objects is the same for the two colors, and the system is said to be in ''stable achromatism.''\n\nIn practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by a sum in which each component conlins the amount due to each refracting surface. In a plane containing the image point of one color, another colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the confusion caused by two ''zones'' in spherical aberration. For infinitely distant objects the radius Of the chromatic disk of confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent of the focal length (''vide supra'', ''Monochromatic Aberration of the Axis Point''); and since this disk becomes the less harmful with an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is proportional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the ''relative aperture.'' (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in vogue before the discovery of achromatism.)\n\nExamples:\n:'''(a)''' In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and the distance of the focal point are equal. If the refractive index for one color be , and for another , and the powers, or reciprocals of the focal lengths, be and , then (1) ; is called the dispersion, and the dispersive power of the glass.\n\n:'''(b)''' Two thin lenses in contact: let and be the powers corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices and and radii , , and , respectively; let denote the total power, and , , the changes of , , and with the color. Then the following relations hold:\n\n::(2) ; and\n\n::(3) . For achromatism , hence, from (3),\n\n::(4) , or . Therefore and must have different algebraic signs, or the system must be composed of a collective and a dispersive lens. Consequently the powers of the two must be different (in order that be not zero (equation 2)), and the dispersive powers must also be different (according to 4).\n\nNewton failed to perceive the existence of media of different dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently he constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false conception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond in 1757, who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes. (See telescope.)\n\nGlass with weaker dispersive power (greater ) is named ''crown glass''; that with greater dispersive power, ''flint glass''. For the construction of an achromatic collective lens ( positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collective lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted. This is, at the present day, the ordinary type, e.g., of telescope objective; the values of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2) and (4). Two other conditions may also be postulated: one is always the elimination of the aberration on the axis; the second either the ''Herschel'' or ''Fraunhofer Condition,'' the latter being the best vide supra, ''Monochromatic Aberration''). In practice, however, it is often more useful to avoid the second condition by making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f. Photog., 1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval equation; see L. Seidel, Astr. Nachr., 1856, p. 289). Should the cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs the weaker dispersive power (greater ), that is to say, crown glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlier kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with the refractive index; that is, decreased as increased; but some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott were crown glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, are called the ''new achromats,'' and were employed by P. Rudolph in the first ''anastigmats'' (photographic objectives).\n\nInstead of making vanish, a certain value can be assigned to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be cemented and have the same refractive index for one color, then its effect for that one color is that of a lens of one piece; by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its chromatic effect () be greater than that of the same lens, this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses employed, it is termed ''hyper-chromatic.''\n\nFor two thin lenses separated by a distance the condition for achromatism is ; if (e.g. if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to , known as the ''condition for oculars.''\n\nIf a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length, be made equal for two colors, then it is not the same for other colors, if two different glasses are employed. For example, the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since varies within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J. Fraunhofer, who defined the colors by means of the dark lines in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the dispersion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet (the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If, therefore, for two colors, a and b, , then for a third color, c, the focal length is different; that is, if c lies between a and b, then , and vice versa; these algebraic results follow from the fact that towards the red the dispersion of the positive crown glass preponderates, towards the violet that of the negative flint. These chromatic errors of systems, which are achromatic for two colors, are called the ''secondary spectrum,'' and depend upon the aperture and focal length in the same manner as the primary chromatic errors do.\n\nIn fig. 6, taken from M. von Rohr's ''Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs'', the abscissae are focal lengths, and the ordinates wavelengths. The Fraunhofer lines used are shown in adjacent table.\n\n\n A' \n C \n D \n Green Hg. \n F \n G' \n Violet Hg.\n\n 767.7 \n 656.3\n 589.3 \n 546.1 \n 486.2 \n 454.1 \n 405.1 nm\n\nFigure 6\n\nThe focal lengths are made equal for the lines C and F. In the neighborhood of 550 nm the tangent to the curve is parallel to the axis of wavelengths; and the focal length varies least over a fairly large range of color, therefore in this neighborhood the color union is at its best. Moreover, this region of the spectrum is that which appears brightest to the human eye, and consequently this curve of the secondary on spectrum, obtained by making , is, according to the experiments of Sir G. G. Stokes (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1878), the most suitable for visual instruments (''optical achromatism,''). In a similar manner, for systems used in photography, the vertex of the color curve must be placed in the position of the maximum sensibility of the plates; this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the F and violet mercury lines are united. This artifice is specially adopted in objectives for astronomical photography (''pure actinic achromatism''). For ordinary photography, however, there is this disadvantage: the image on the focusing-screen and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate are not in register; in astronomical photography this difference is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the objects. On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordinary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place; and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as the ''actinic correction'' or ''freedom from chemical focus'').\n\nShould there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. , then the relative partial dispersion must be equal for the two kinds of glass employed. This follows by considering equation (4) for the two pairs of colors ac and bc. Until recently no glasses were known with a proportional degree of absorption; but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses between glass walls. Fraunhofer prepared glasses which reduced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott. In using glasses not having proportional dispersion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or by three lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses. In uniting three colors an ''achromatism of a higher order'' is derived; there is yet a residual ''tertiary spectrum,'' but it can always be neglected.\n\nThe Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochromatic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different for different colors; and should they be compensated for one color, the image of another color would prove disturbing. The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image, after par-axial rays of different colors are united by an appropriate combination of glasses. If a collective system be corrected for the axis point for a definite wavelength, then, on account of the greater dispersion in the negative components — the flint glasses, — overcorrection will arise for the shorter wavelengths (this being the error of the negative components), and under-correction for the longer wavelengths (the error of crown glass lenses preponderating in the red). This error was treated by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F. Gauss. It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be eliminated for two colors, and if this be impossible, then it must be eliminated for those particular wavelengths which are most effectual for the instrument in question (a graphical representation of this error is given in M. von Rohr, ''Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs'').\n\nThe condition for the reproduction of a surface element in the place of a sharply reproduced point — the constant of the sine relationship must also be fulfilled with large apertures for several colors. E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the sine condition for several colors, which therefore, according to his definition, were ''aplanatic for several colors''; such systems he termed ''apochromatic''. While, however, the magnification of the individual zones is the same, it is not the same for red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnification. This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite sense, by the oculars, which Abbe used with these objectives (''compensating oculars''), so that it is eliminated in the image of the whole microscope. The best telescope objectives, and photographic objectives intended for three-color work, are also apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality of correction as microscope objectives do. The chromatic differences of other errors of reproduction have seldom practical importances.\n",
"* Wavefront coding\n* Aberrations of the eye\n",
"\n* Authorities cited:\n** H. D. Taylor, ''A System of Applied Optics'' (1906). The classical treatise in English.\n** R. S. Heath, ''A Treatise on Geometrical Optics'' (2nd ed., 1895).\n** L A. Herman, ''A Treatise on Geometrical Optics'' (1900).\n** S. Czapski, ''Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe'', published:\n*** separately at Breslau in 1893,\n*** as vol. ii of Winkelmann's ''Handbuch der Physik'' in 1894, and as\n*** S. Czapski and O. Eppenstein, ''Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe'' (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903).\n** Moritz von Rohr, ed., ''Die bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik'' (Berlin, 1904). The collection of the scientific staff of Carl Zeiss at Jena, which contains articles by Arthur König and M. von Rohr specially dealing with aberrations.\n",
"* Microscope Objectives: Optical Aberrations section of ''Molecular Expressions'' website, Michael W. Davidson, Mortimer Abramowitz, Olympus America Inc., and The Florida State University\n* Photographic optics, Paul van Walree\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Overview",
"Theory of monochromatic aberration",
"Analytic treatment of aberrations",
"Practical elimination of aberrations",
"Chromatic or color aberration",
"See also",
"References",
" External links "
] | Optical aberration |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Amy Lee Grant''' (born November 25, 1960) is an American singer, songwriter, musician, author and media personality. She is known for performing contemporary Christian music (CCM) and for a successful crossover to pop music in the 1980s and 1990s. She has been referred to as \"The Queen of Christian Pop\".\n\n, she had sold more than 30 million albums worldwide, won six Grammy Awards and 22 Gospel Music Association Dove Awards, and had the first Christian album ever to go Platinum. She was honored with a star on Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2006 for her contributions to the entertainment industry. She made her debut as a teenager, and gained fame in Christian music during the 1980s with such hits as \"Father's Eyes\", \"El Shaddai\", and \"Angels\". In the mid-1980s, she began broadening her audience and soon became one of the first CCM artists to cross over into mainstream pop on the heels of her successful albums ''Unguarded'' and ''Lead Me On''. In 1986, she scored her first ''Billboard'' Hot 100 No. 1 song in a duet with Peter Cetera, \"The Next Time I Fall\". In 1991, she released the blockbuster album ''Heart in Motion'' which became her best-selling album to date, topping the ''Billboard'' Christian album chart for 32 weeks, selling five million copies in the U.S., and producing her second No. 1 pop single \"Baby Baby\". She is the author of several books, including a memoir, ''Mosaic: Pieces of My Life So Far'', and a book based on the popular Christmas song ''Breath of Heaven (Mary's Song)'' which she co-wrote.\n\n\n",
"\nBorn in Augusta, Georgia, Grant is the youngest of four sisters. Her family settled in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1967. She is a great-granddaughter of Nashville philanthropist A. M. Burton (founder of Life and Casualty Insurance Company, eponym of Nashville's Life & Casualty Tower, WLAC Radio, and WLAC-TV) and Lillie Burton. She has acknowledged the influence of the Burtons on her development as a musician, starting with their common membership in Nashville's Ashwood Church of Christ.\n\nIn 1976, Grant wrote her first song (\"Mountain Man\"), performed in public for the first time at Harpeth Hall School, the all-girls school she attended in Nashville. She recorded a demo tape for her parents with church youth-leader Brown Bannister. When Bannister was dubbing a copy of the tape, Chris Christian, the owner of the recording studio, heard the demo and called Word Records. He played it over the phone, and she was offered a recording contract, five weeks before her 16th birthday. In 1977, she recorded her first album titled ''Amy Grant'', produced by Brown Bannister, who would also produce her next 11 albums. It was released in early 1978, one month before her high-school graduation. Toward the end of 1978 she performed her first ticketed concert after beginning her first year at Furman University. In May 1979, while at the album-release party for her second album, ''My Father's Eyes'', Grant met Gary Chapman, who had written the title track and would become her first husband. Grant and Chapman toured together in mid-1979. In late 1980, she transferred to Vanderbilt University, where she was a member of the sorority Kappa Alpha Theta. Grant then made a few more albums before dropping out of college to pursue a career in music—''Never Alone'', followed by a pair of live albums in 1981 (''In Concert'' and ''In Concert Volume Two''), both backed by an augmented edition of the DeGarmo & Key band. It was during these early shows that Grant also established one of her concert trademarks: performing barefoot. To date, Grant continues to take off her shoes midway through performances, as she has said \"it is just more comfortable.\"\n\n1982 saw the release of her breakthrough album ''Age to Age''. The album contains the signature track, \"El Shaddai\" (written by Michael Card) and the Grant-Chapman penned song, \"In a Little While\". \"El Shaddai\" was later awarded one of the \"Songs of the Century\" by the RIAA in 2001. Grant received her first Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Gospel Performance, as well as two GMA Dove Awards for Gospel Artist of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Album of the Year. ''Age to Age'' became the first Christian album by a solo artist to be certified gold (1983) and the first Christian album to be certified platinum (1985).\n\nIn the mid-1980s, Grant began touring and recording with young up-and-coming songwriter Michael W. Smith. Grant and Smith continue to have a strong friendship and creative relationship, often writing songs for or contributing vocals to each other's albums. During the 1980s, Grant was also a backup singer for Bill Gaither.\n\nGrant followed this album with the first of her Christmas albums, which would later be the basis for her holiday shows. In 1984, she released another pop-oriented Christian hit, ''Straight Ahead'', earning Grant her first appearance at the Grammy Awards show in 1985. The head of NBC took notice of Grant's performance and called her manager to book her for her own Christmas special.\n",
"\nHardly had Grant established herself as the \"Queen of Christian Pop\" when she changed directions to widen her fan base (and hence her musical message). Her goal was to become the first Christian singer-songwriter who was also successful as a contemporary pop singer. ''Unguarded'' (1985) surprised some fans for its very mainstream sound (and Grant's leopard-print jacket, in four poses for four different covers). \"Find a Way\", from ''Unguarded'', became the first non-Christmas Christian song to hit ''Billboard'' Top 40 list, also reaching No. 7 on the Adult Contemporary chart. She also scored No. 18 on ''Billboard'' AC in 1986 with \"Stay for Awhile\". Grant scored her first ''Billboard'' No. 1 song in 1986 with \"The Next Time I Fall\", a duet with former Chicago singer/bassist Peter Cetera. That year, she also recorded a duet with singer Randy Stonehill for his ''Love Beyond Reason'' album, titled \"I Could Never Say Goodbye\", and recorded ''The Animals' Christmas'' with Art Garfunkel.\n\n''Lead Me On'' (1988) contained many songs that were about Christianity and love relationships, but some interpreted it as not being an obviously \"Christian\" record. Years later, ''Lead Me On'' would be chosen as the greatest Contemporary Christian album of all time by ''CCM Magazine''. The mainstream song \"Saved by Love\" was a minor hit, receiving airplay on radio stations featuring the newly emerging Adult Contemporary format. The album's title song received some pop radio airplay and crossed over to No. 96 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, and \"1974 (We Were Young)\" and \"Saved By Love\" also charted as Adult Contemporary songs. In 1989, she appeared in a Target ad campaign, performing songs off the album.\n",
"\nGrant during her ''Behind the Eyes'' tour in 1998\nWhen ''Heart in Motion'' was released in 1991, many fans were surprised that the album was so clearly one of contemporary pop music. Grant's desire to widen her audience was frowned upon by the confines of the popular definitions of ministry at the time. The track \"Baby Baby\" (written for Grant's newborn daughter Millie, whose \"six-week-old face was my inspiration,\") became a pop hit (hitting No. 1 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100), and Grant was established as a name in the mainstream music world. \"Baby Baby\" received Grammy nominations for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, and Record and Song of the Year (although it failed to win in any of those categories). Four other hits from the album made the Pop top 20: \"Every Heartbeat\" (No. 2), \"That's What Love Is For\" (No. 7), \"Good for Me\" (No. 8), and \"I Will Remember You\" (No. 20). On the Adult Contemporary chart, all five songs were top 10 hits, with two of the five (\"Baby Baby\" and \"That's What Love Is For\") reaching No. 1. Many Christian fans remained loyal, putting the album atop ''Billboard'' Contemporary Christian Chart for 32 weeks. ''Heart in Motion'' is Grant's best-selling album, having sold over five million copies according to the RIAA. Grant followed the album with her second Christmas album, ''Home For Christmas'' in 1992, which included the song \"Breath of Heaven (Mary's Song)\", written by Chris Eaton and Grant, and would later be covered by many artists, including Donna Summer, Jessica Simpson (who acknowledged Grant as one of her favorite artists), Vince Gill, Sara Groves, Point of Grace, Gladys Knight, and Broadway star Barbara Cook.\n\n''House of Love'' in 1994 continued in the same vein, boasting catchy pop songs mingled with spiritual lyrics. The album was a multi-platinum success and produced the pop hit \"Lucky One\" (No. 18 pop and No. 2 AC; No. 1 on Radio & Records) as well as the title track (a duet with country music star and future husband Vince Gill) (No. 37 pop) and a cover of Joni Mitchell's frequently covered \"Big Yellow Taxi\" (No. 67 pop) (in which she changed the line \"And they charged the people ''a dollar and a half'' just to see'em\" to \"And then they charged the people ''25 bucks'' just to see'em\").\n\nAfter she covered the 10cc song \"The Things We Do for Love\" for the ''Mr. Wrong'' soundtrack, ''Behind the Eyes'' was released in September 1997. The album struck a much darker note, leaning more towards downtempo, acoustic soft-rock songs, with more mature (yet still optimistic) lyrics. She called it her \"razor blades and Prozac\" album. Although \"Takes a Little Time\" was a moderate hit single, the album failed to sell like the previous two albums, which had both gone multi-platinum. ''Behind The Eyes'' was eventually certified Gold by the RIAA. The video for \"Takes a Little Time\" was a new direction for Grant; with a blue light filter, acoustic guitar, the streets and characters of New York City, and a plot, Grant was re-cast as an adult light rocker. She followed up \"Behind The Eyes\" with ''A Christmas To Remember'', her third Christmas album, in 1999. The album was certified Gold in 2000.\n\nIn 2001, Grant sang \"God Bless America\" in front of a sellout crowd at the Owen County Fair Grounds in Spencer, Indiana. She dedicated her performance to the victims of 9/11, and officially started the Demolition Derby. Following the 9/11 attacks, Grant's \"I Will Remember You\" saw a resurgence in popularity as many radio DJs mixed a special tribute version of the song. That same year, Grant won $125,000 for charity on the \"Rock Star Edition\" of ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?''\n",
"\nGrant returned to her roots with the 2002 release of an album of hymns titled ''Legacy... Hymns and Faith''. The album featured a Vince Gill-influenced mix of bluegrass and pop and marked Grant's 25th anniversary in the music industry. Grant followed this up with ''Simple Things'' in 2003. The album did not have the success of her previous pop or gospel efforts. Soon after ''Simple Things'', Grant and Interscope/A&M parted ways. The same year, Grant was inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame by the Gospel Music Association, an industry trade organization of which she is a longstanding member, in her first year of eligibility. Grant released a sequel in 2005 titled ''Rock of Ages...Hymns and Faith''.\n",
"\nGrant joined the reality television phenomenon by hosting ''Three Wishes'', a show in which she and a team of helpers make wishes come true for small-town residents. The show debuted on NBC in the fall of 2005 but was canceled at the end of its first season because of high production costs. After ''Three Wishes'' was canceled, Grant won her 6th Grammy Award for ''Rock of Ages... Hymns & Faith''. In a February 2006 webchat, Grant stated she believes her \"best music is still ahead\".\nGrant performing in October 2008\nIn April 2006, a live CD/DVD titled ''Time Again...Amy Grant Live'' was recorded in Fort Worth, Texas, at Bass Performance Hall. (Grant's first paid public performance was at the Will Rogers Auditorium in Fort Worth.) The concert was released on September 26, 2006. In addition to receiving a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, media appearances included write-ups in ''CCM Magazine'', and a performance on ''The View''.\n\nIn a February 2007 web chat on her web site, Grant discussed a book she was working on titled ''Mosaic: Pieces of My Life So Far'', saying, \"It's not an autobiography, but more a collection of memories, song lyrics, poetry and a few pictures.\" The book was released on October 16, 2007. In November, it debuted at No. 35 on the New York Times Best Seller list. In the same web chat, Grant noted that she is \"anxious to get back in the studio after the book is finished, and reinvent myself as an almost-50 performing woman\".\n\n2007 was Grant's 30th year in music. She left Word/Warner, and contracted with EMI CMG who re-released her regular studio albums as remastered versions on August 14, 2007. Marking the start of Grant's new contract is a career-spanning greatest hits album, with all the songs digitally remastered. The album was released as both a single-disc CD edition, and a two-disc CD/DVD Special Edition, the DVD featuring music videos and interviews.\n\nGrant appeared with Gill on ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'' for a holiday special in December 2007. Grant has plans to appear on CMT, a Food Network special, the Gospel Music Channel, and The Hour of Power.\n\nIn February 2008, Grant joined the writing team from Compassionart as a guest vocalist at the Abbey Road studios, London, to record a song called \"Highly Favoured\", which was included on the album ''CompassionArt''.\n\nOn June 24, 2008, Grant re-released her 1988 album, ''Lead Me On'', in honor of its 20th anniversary. The two-disc release includes the original album and a second disc with new acoustic recordings, live performances from 1989, and interviews with Amy. Grant recreated the ''Lead Me On'' tour in the fall of 2008.\n\nOn June 27, 2008, Grant surprised everyone at the Creation Festival Northeast by being the special guest. She performed \"Lead Me On\" and a few other songs backed with the Hawk Nelson band. At the end of the concert, Grant returned to the stage and sang \"Thy Word\". She appeared on the 2008 album ''Anne Murray Duets: Friends & Legends'' singing \"Could I Have This Dance\".\n\nGrant in 2013\n\nOn May 5, 2009, Grant released an EP containing two new songs, \"She Colors My Day\", and \"Unafraid\", as well as the previously released songs \"Baby Baby\" and \"Oh How the Years Go By\". The EP, exclusively through iTunes, benefited the Entertainment Industry Foundation's (EIF) Women's Cancer Research Fund.\n\nIn 2010, Grant released ''Somewhere Down the Road'', featuring the hit single \"Better Than a Hallelujah\", which peaked at No. 8 on ''Billboard'' Top Christian Songs chart. When asked about the new album during an interview with CBN.com, Grant says, \"... my hope is just for those songs to provide companionship, remind myself and whoever else is listening what's important. I feel like songs have the ability to connect us to ourselves and to each other, and to our faith, to the love of Jesus, in a way that conversation doesn't do. Songs kind of slip in and move you before you realize it.\"\n\nIn September 2012, Grant took part in a campaign called \"30 Songs / 30 Days\" to support ''Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide'', a multi-platform media project inspired by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's book.\n\nGrant's next album, titled ''How Mercy Looks from Here'', was released on May 14, 2013. The album was produced by Marshall Altman. The album reached No. 12 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart, making it her highest charting album since 1997's ''Behind the Eyes''. Two singles were released from the album: \"Don't Try So Hard\" and \"If I Could See\", both of which charted on the US ''Billboard'' Hot Christian Songs chart.\n\nOn August 19, 2014, she released an album of hits remixed by well known engineers and DJs. The album was titled ''In Motion: The Remixes''. It charted at 110 on the US ''Billboard'' 200 chart and at number 5 on the US Dance chart. To promote the album, several new remix EPs were released on iTunes the following month including \"Find a Way, \"Stay for Awhile\", \"Baby Baby, \"Every Heartbeat\" and \"That's What Love Is For\". Due to club play of the remix of \"Every Heartbeat\", it charted at number 13 on the US Dance Chart. This marked her first appearance on that chart in 23 years. On September 30, 2014, Grant released a new single titled \"Welcome Yourself\". In honor of Breast Cancer Awareness Month, proceeds of the single go to breast cancer research.\n\nOn February 12, 2015, she announced a new compilation album titled ''Be Still and Know... Hymns & Faith'', to be released. The album was released on April 14, 2015 and charted at No. 7 in the U.S. on the ''Billboard'' Christian Albums chart. .\n",
"\nOn June 19, 1982, Grant married fellow Christian musician Gary Chapman. Their marriage produced three children. In March 1999, she filed for divorce from Chapman, citing \"irreconcilable differences,\" and the divorce was finalized three months later.\n\nGrant with husband Vince Gill in 2004\nOn March 10, 2000, Grant married country singer-songwriter Vince Gill, who had been previously married to country singer Janis Oliver of Sweethearts of the Rodeo. Grant and Gill have one daughter together, Corrina Grant Gill, born March 12, 2001.\n\nIn the November 1999 ''CCM Magazine'', Grant explained why she left Chapman and married Gill:\n\n\"I didn't get a divorce because 'I had a great marriage and then along came Vince Gill'. Gary and I had a rocky road from day one. I think what was so hard—and this is (what) one of our counselors said—sometimes an innocent party can come into a situation, and they're like a big spotlight. What they do is reveal, by comparison, the painful dynamics that are already in existence.\"\n",
"\nAmong praise for her contributions to the Contemporary Christian genre, Grant has also generated controversy within the Christian community, from \"complaints that she was too worldly and too sexy\" to a \"barrage of condemnation\" following her divorce and remarriage.\n\nIn an interview early in her career, Grant stated, \"I have a healthy sense of right and wrong, but sometimes, for example, using foul, exclamation-point words among friends can be good for a laugh.\" The article which was based on that interview was constructed in such a manner so as to make it appear as though Grant condoned premarital sex. Later Grant reflected on how the article misrepresented her views, stating: \"We probably talked for two hours about sexual purity, but when the interview finally came out he worded it in such a way that it sounded like I condoned premarital sex. So I picked up that article and thought, 'You've made me say something I've never said, and you've totally disregarded two hours of Bible put in one flippant comment that I made about a moan.'\"\n",
"\n=== Grammy Awards ===\n\n==== Wins ====\n\n* 1982: Best Gospel Performance, Contemporary or Inspirational – ''Age to Age''\n* 1983: Best Gospel Performance, Female – \"Ageless Medley\"\n* 1984: Best Gospel Performance, Female – \"Angels\"\n* 1985: Best Gospel Performance, Female – ''Unguarded''\n* 1988: Best Gospel Performance, Female – ''Lead Me On''\n* 2005: Best Southern, Country, or Bluegrass Gospel Album – ''Rock of Ages...Hymns & Faith''\n\n==== Nominations ====\n\n\n\n=== GMA Dove Awards ===\n\n\n\n=== Special awards and recognitions ===\nA child playing congas in the Amy Grant Music Room at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital\nGrant and husband Vince Gill being awarded the Class of 1966 Friend of West Point Award in 2008\n\n* 1992: Junior Chamber of Commerce Young Tennessean of the Year\n* 1994: St. John University Pax Christi Award\n* 1994: Nashville Symphony Harmony Award\n* 1996: Sarah Cannon Humanitarian Award – TNN Awards\n* 1996: Minnie Pearl Humanitarian Award – Columbia Hospital\n* 1996: Voice of America Award – ASCAP\n* 1996: Academy of Achievement Golden Plate Award\n* 1999: \"An Evening with the Arts\" Honor – The Nashville Chamber of Commerce, Nashville Symphony, and Tennessee Performing Arts Center\n* 1999: The Amy Grant Room for Music and Entertainment – The Target House at St. Jude's Children's Hospital\n* 2001: Easter Seals Nashvillian of the Year Award\n* 2003: Inducted into the GMA Gospel Music Hall of Fame\n* 2003: Summit Award – Seminar in the Rockies\n* 2006: Amy Grant Performance Platform – Nashville Schermerhorn Symphony Center\n* 2006: Hollywood Walk of Fame star unveiled\n* 2007: Charter member of Tiffany Circle – Red Cross\n* 2007: Inducted into the Christian Music Hall of Fame\n* 2008: Class of 1966 Friend of West Point award with Vince Gill\n* 2012: Honorary Doctorate Degree of Music and Performance – Grand Canyon University\n* 2015: No. 52 in ''The Top 100 Female Artists of the Rock Era (1955–2015)''\n",
"\nGrant with Michael W. Smith in 2011\n\n\n",
"* ''Amy Grant's Heart to Heart Bible Stories''; Worthy Pub (1985), \n* ''Breath of Heaven (Mary's Song)''; W Publishing Group (2001), \n* \"The Creation\" (narrator), in ''Rabbit Ears Beloved Bible Stories: the Creation, Noah and the Ark'' (audio book); Listening Library (Audio) (2006), \n* ''Mosaic: Pieces of My Life So Far''; Flying Dolphin Press (2007), \n\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Early life and career ",
" Widening audience ",
" In the mainstream ",
" Return to her roots ",
" Looking ahead ",
" Personal life ",
" Public views and perception ",
" Awards and achievements ",
" Discography ",
" Bibliography ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Amy Grant |
[
"Caricature of Arthur William à Beckett by Harry Furniss\n'''Arthur William à Beckett''' (25 October 1844 – 14 January 1909) was an English journalist and intellectual.\n",
"He was a younger son of Gilbert Abbott à Beckett and Mary Anne à Beckett, brother of Gilbert Arthur à Beckett and educated at Felsted School. Besides fulfilling other journalistic engagements, Beckett was on the staff of ''Punch'' from 1874 to 1902, edited the ''Sunday Times'' 1891-1895, and the ''Naval and Military Magazine'' in 1896.\n\nHe gave an account of his father and his own reminiscences in ''The à Becketts of Punch'' (1903). A childhood friend (and distant relative) of W. S. Gilbert, Beckett briefly feuded with Gilbert in 1869, but the two patched up the friendship, and Gilbert even later collaborated on projects with Beckett's brother.\n\nHe was married to Suzanne Frances Winslow, daughter of the noted psychiatrist Forbes Benignus Winslow.\n",
"He published:\n* ''Comic Guide to the Royal Academy'', with his brother Gilbert (1863–64)\n* ''Fallen Amongst Thieves'' (1869)\n* ''Our Holiday in the Highlands'' (1874)\n* ''The Shadow Witness'' and ''The Doom of Saint Quirec'', with Francis Burnand (1875–76)\n* ''The Ghost of Greystone Grange'' (1877)\n* ''The Mystery of Mostyn Manor'' (1878)\n* ''Traded Out''; ''Hard Luck''; ''Stone Broke''; ''Papers from Pump Handle Court, by a Briefless Barrister'' (1884)\n* ''Modern Arabian Nights'' (1885)\n* ''The Member for Wrottenborough'' (1895)\n* ''Greenroom Recollections'' (1896)\n* ''The Modern Adam'' (1899)\n* ''London at the End of the Century'' (1900)\n*With F. C. Burnand he co-authored:\n** ''The Doom of St. Querec'' (1875)\n** ''The Shadow Witness'' (1876)\n\nHe wrote for the theatre two three-act comedies:\n*''L.S.D.'' (Royalty Theatre, 1872);\n*''About Town'' (Court Theatre, 1873, it ran for over 150 nights);\nand\n*''On Strike'' (Court Theatre, 1873, a domestic drama in one act) ;\n*''Faded Flowers'' (The Haymarket);\n*''Long Ago'' (Royalty Theatre, 1882);\n*''From Father to Son'' (Liverpool, 1881, a dramatised version of his novel ''Fallen among Thieves'' written in 3 acts in cooperation with J. Palgrave Simpson).\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Works",
"Notes",
"References",
" External links "
] | Arthur William à Beckett |
[
"\n'''Au''', '''AU''' or '''au''' may refer to:\n",
"===Music===\n* AU (band), an experimental pop group headed by Luke Wyland\n* ''Au'', a 2010 release by Scottish rock band Donaldson, Moir and Paterson\n* ''AU'', a Northern Irish music magazine, formerly ''Alternative Ulster''\n\n===Other media===\n* Au Co, a fairy in Vietnamese mythology\n* Alternate universe (fan fiction)\n* ''Age of Ultron'', a 2013 series published by Marvel Comics\n* A.U, a Chinese media franchise and brand\n",
"*au (mobile phone company), a mobile phone operator in Japan\n*African Union\n*Americans United for Separation of Church and State\n*Athletic Union, the union of sports clubs in a British university\n*Austral Líneas Aéreas (IATA code AU)\n",
"===Austria===\n*Au, Vorarlberg, Bregenz, Austria\n*Au am Leithaberge, Austria\n*Au im Bregenzerwald, Austria\n\n===Germany===\n* A frequent element in German toponymy, see Aue (toponymy)\n*Au (Munich), Munich, Germany\n*Au (Schwarzwald), Baden-Württemberg, Germany\n*Au (squat), a building and cultural center in Frankfurt, Germany\n*Au am Rhein, Germany\n*Au in der Hallertau, Germany\n\n===Switzerland===\n*Au, St. Gallen, Switzerland\n*Au, Zurich, Switzerland\n*Au peninsula, Switzerland\n*Schloss Au, a château in Wädenswil, Switzerland\n\n===Other places===\n*Australia, by ISO 3166 country code\n**.au, the internet country code for Australia\n*Au, Papua New Guinea, in Morobe Province\n*Au, Guinea, Kankan Region\n",
"===Computing===\n*.au, the internet country code for Australia\n*Au file format, Sun Microsystems' audio format\n*Audio Units, a system level plug-in architecture from Apple Computer\n*Adobe Audition, a sound editor program\n*In Microsoft Windows:\n**Automatic Updates, also known as Windows Update\n**Windows 10 Anniversary Update of August 2016\n\n===Physics and chemistry===\n*Gold, a chemical element with the symbol Au\n*Absorbance unit, a reporting unit in spectroscopy\n*Atomic units, a system of units convenient for atomic physics and other fields\n\n===Vehicles===\n* Ford AU Falcon, a family car made in Australia\n* Vought AU, a post-World War II US Marine Corps variant of the F4U Corsair aircraft\n\n===Other uses in science and technology===\n*a'u, the Hawaiian name for the Pacific blue marlin\n*Ångström unit, a unit of length equal to 10 m or 0.1 nanometre. \n*Astronomical unit, an approximation for the average distance between the Earth and the Sun\n*Arbitrary unit, a relative placeholder unit for when the actual value of a measurement is unknown or unimportant\n",
"* Air University (disambiguation) in various locations\n\n===Asia===\n* Andhra University in Visakhapatnam, AP, India\n* Anhui University in Hefei, Anhui, China \n* Aletheia University in New Taipei City, Taiwan\n* Allahabad University in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India\n* Arellano University in Philippines\n* Assumption University (Thailand) in Thailand\n\n===Europe===\n* Aarhus University in Aarhus, Denmark\n* Aberystwyth University in Aberystwyth, Wales, United Kingdom\n* Agricultural University in Plovdiv, Bulgaria\n* Akademia Umiejętności in Kraków, Poland\n\n===Oceania===\n* Auckland University in New Zealand\n\n===North America===\n* Adelphi University in Garden City, New York\n* Alfred University in Alfred, New York\n* Algoma University in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada\n* American University in Washington, D.C.\n* Anaheim University in Anaheim, California\n* Anderson University in Anderson, Indiana\n* Anderson University in Anderson, South Carolina\n* Andrews University in Berrien Springs, Michigan\n* Antioch University in Culver City, California\n* Apollos University in Huntington Beach, California\n* Arcadia University in Glenside, Pennsylvania\n* Argosy University in Alameda, California\n* Ashland University in Ashland, Ohio\n* Athabasca University in Athabasca, Alberta, Canada\n* Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama\n* Aurora University in Aurora, Illinois\n",
"* Aú, a cartwheel in the Brazilian martial art of Capoeira\n* Au (surname), a Chinese family name\n* Ab urbe condita (sometimes abbreviated as a.u.), Latin for \"from the founding of the City\" (Rome)\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Arts and entertainment",
" Businesses and organizations ",
"Places",
"Science and technology",
"Universities",
"Other uses"
] | Au |
[
"\n\n'''Aberdour''' (; , ) is a scenic and historic village on the south coast of Fife, Scotland. It is on the north shore of the Firth of Forth, looking south to the island of Inchcolm and its Abbey, and to Leith and Edinburgh beyond. According to the 2011 census, the village has a population of 1,633.\n\nThe village's winding High Street lies a little inland from the coast. Narrow lanes run off it, providing access to the more hidden parts of the village and the shoreline itself. The village nestles between the bigger coastal towns of Burntisland to the east and Dalgety Bay to the west.\n",
"\nThe origins of the village lie with its harbour, where the Dour Burn enters the River Forth. The place-name itself is Pictish, implying an origin in the Dark Ages: ''aber'' 'confluence'. The -dour element, referring to the Burn, means simply 'water' (archaic ''dobur''), and is unconnected to the Scots/English 'dour'. For much of its history Aberdour was two villages, '''Wester Aberdour''' and '''Easter Aberdour''', on either side of the Dour Burn; however this distinction was blurred by the 19th century arrival of the railway.\n\nIn the 18th century Aberdour's harbour was improved by the addition of a stone pier to help handle the coal traffic from nearby collieries. However, in the 1850s the traffic changed dramatically, and Aberdour Harbour became a popular destination for pleasure steamers from Leith. This in turn led to the building of a deeper water pier a little around the bay at Hawkcraig, and to the development of hotels and many of the other services still on view today in the village.\n\nThe railway came to Aberdour in 1890, with the building of the line east from the newly opened Forth Bridge. The station has won many \"best kept station\" awards. The half an hour journey to the centre of Edinburgh helped build on the existing popularity of the village, though it put the steamers out of business. The main result was a growth in the building of large and attractive houses, especially down the hill from Wester Aberdour to the West Sands. Ticket inspectors on the train line through Aberdour were known for their sing song refrain: ''\"Half an hour, Half an hour, Half an hour to Aberdour - tickets please.\"''\n",
"Aberdour Castle\n\nVirtually between the two former settlements, though actually part of Easter Aberdour, lies Aberdour Castle. This started life as a modest hall house on a site overlooking the Dour Burn in the 13th century. The oldest part of the present semi-ruin constitutes one of the earliest surviving stone castles in mainland Scotland. Over the next four hundred years the Castle was successively developed according to contemporary architectural ideas. Notable are the parts, still largely roofed, built by the Earls of Morton, with refined Renaissance detail, in the second half of the 16th century. A fire in the late 17th century was followed by some repairs, but in 1725 the family purchased 17th century Aberdour House, on the west side of the burn and in Wester Aberdour, and the medieval Castle was allowed to fall into relative decay. Aberdour Castle is now in the care of Historic Scotland and open to the public (entrance charge). After a period of dereliction Aberdour House was developed for residential use in the early 1990s.\n\nSt Fillan's Church\n\nNeighbouring St Fillan's Church is one of the best-preserved medieval parish churches in Scotland, dating largely to the 12th century. A south arcade was added to the nave in the early 16th century (open in summer). The A921, the main road along the south coast of Fife, leads down the High Street of Wester Aberdour, before kinking sharply left to cross the railway line, then right again to progress through Easter Aberdour's Main Street.\n\nWester Aberdour has the more 'olde worlde' feel of the two, with the narrower through road more closely hemmed in by shops and hotels. A number of vernacular buildings of the 17th-early 19th centuries add to the historic scene. Close to the railway bridge, three lanes continue eastwards, presumably once the route of the original High Street before the arrival of the railway. One now leads to Aberdour railway station, a beautifully kept and cared for example of a traditional station, in keeping with its role of transporting at least a quarter of the village's working population to their work each day.\n\nA second lane leads alongside the railway line to Aberdour Castle, while a third leads to the restored Aberdour House. A little further west, a narrow road closely lined with high walls, Shore Road, leads down to the West Sands and the Harbour. For many this area is the highlight of any visit to Aberdour; parking at the foot of Shore Road is usually at a premium.\n\nAnother road leads coastwards from Easter Aberdour. Hawkcraig Road leads past St Fillan's Church and through Silversand Park, home to Aberdour Shinty Club, en route to the much better parking area on Hawkcraig. This was formerly a sandstone quarry and then used as the council refuse tip before becoming a carpark, part of the overgrown and rocky bluff separating Aberdour's two bays. From here is it a short walk to the Silver Sands, Aberdour's busiest and most popular beach. On the west side of Hawkcraig Point there is a short concrete jetty that was used as part of the development of radio controlled torpedoes during World War One. The foundations of the Radio Hut can still be seen in the lea of the hill.\n\nThe Aberdour obelisk was built by Lord Morton on his departure from the village to relocate to a large home in Edinburgh, it was built so he could see his former hometown from his new house when he looked through binoculars - it stands in a cowfield between the castle and the beach.\n",
"\nThe yearly festival runs from the last week in July for a week, running into early August. It is now in its 32nd year and is most notable for its marquee on the silver sands playing fields. The festival hosts a number of children's, cultural and local events. Acts that have performed at Aberdour festival have been Yard Of Ale, Percy & The Peanuts, Swings & Roundabouts, Capercaillie, Boys of the Lough, Eddi Reader and The Fence Collective's Three Craws\n\nThe Donkey brae run is held on the first Sunday of the festival and is popular nationwide, with a 7-mile race, 2-mile run and a 1-mile run for children.\n",
"\nAberdour has a very popular yearly festival, which runs from late July to early August and features musical events, shows, sporting events and children's events.\n\nAberdour was a 2005 finalist in the prestigious \"Beautiful Scotland in Bloom\" awards. It was nominated for \"''Best Coastal Resort''\" in Scotland along with St Andrews in Fife, North Berwick in East Lothian, and Rothesay in Argyll and Bute.\nIn 2014 Aberdour was voted Best Coastal Village in Fife and Best Small Coastal Village in Scotland. It also received a Gold Award in Beautiful Fife and Beautiful Scotland.\n\nAberdour is home to Fife's only senior shinty club. Aberdour Shinty Club field teams in both the men's and women's senior national leagues.\n",
"\nAberdour has two beaches - the Silver Sands, and the Black Sands.\n\nThe Silver Sands are located on the East side of the village, and has previously held a \"Blue flag\" beach award, which denotes an exemplary standard of cleanliness, facilities, safety, environmental education and management. New facilities are currently under construction by Fife Council, which will much improve the beach throughout the year.\n\nThe Black Sands (also known as the West Beach), as the contrasting name would suggest, have a rockier and darker sand, and are also popular with visitors exploring the rock caves and fascinating sea life. During the summer months (April–September), dogs are banned from the Silver Sands but they are allowed all year round at the West Beach. The two beaches are linked by part of the Fife Coastal Path which also takes you past the harbour and the Hawkcraig - a popular rock climbing location.\n\nSilver Sands is becoming more popular with open water swimmers, who swim daily in the sea, both as a leisure pursuit, and as training for open water competition. The bay provides safety from the currents, although only the adventurous swim round to the harbour.\n\nSeveral scenes of Richard Jobson's 2003 movie \"16 Years of Alcohol\" were filmed at the Black Sands in Aberdour.\n",
"\n\nThe island of Inchcolm, or Island (Gaelic ''innis'') of Columba, a quarter of a mile from the shore, forms part of the parish of Aberdour. Its name implies associations dating back to the time of Columba and, although undocumented before the 12th century, it may have served the monks of the Columban family as an 'Iona of the east' from early times.\n\nDuring the First and Second World Wars, Inchcolm was occupied by the army as part of the defences of the Firth of Forth. There are extensive remains of gun emplacements, barracks, etc. from these periods.\n\nThe island is notable for its wildlife, especially seabirds and seals. These draw many visitors in summer, along with the remains of the historic Abbey, and is a popular setting for weddings.\n",
"\nNotable past and present residents of the town include:\n*Geoffrey Keyes, recipient of the Victoria Cross\n",
"\n* - Corte Franca, Italy\n",
"\n* Aber and Inver as place-name elements\n* Aberdour Shinty Club\n* List of places in Fife\n",
"\n\n",
"\n\n\n\n* Aberdour Festival website\n* Aberdour Hotel\n* Aberdour Website\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Landmarks ",
" Festival ",
" Culture ",
" Aberdour's beaches ",
" Inchcolm ",
" Notable residents ",
" Twin cities/towns ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Aberdour |
[
"\n\n\n'''Aberfoyle''' () is a village in the historic county and registration county of Perthshire and the council area of Stirling, Scotland. The settlement lies northwest of Glasgow.\n",
"The town is situated on the River Forth at the foot of Craigmore (387 metres high). Since 1885, when the Duke of Montrose constructed a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has become the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine; this road, known as the Duke's Road or Duke's Pass, was opened to the public in 1931 when the Forestry Commission acquired the land.\n\nLoch Ard, about west of Aberfoyle, lies 40 metres above the sea. It is long (including the narrows at the east end) and one mile (1½ km) broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (''the green isle''), and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. The loch's northern shores are dominated by the mountain ridge of Beinn an Fhogharaidh (616 m). Two miles northwest of Loch Ard is Loch Chon, at 90m above the sea, long, and about half a mile broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Forth.\n",
"In the past Aberfoyle was spelt alternatively as \"Aberfoil\". \nAn old milepost near Craigmaddie House. Notice the spelling of Aberfoyle.\n",
"The slate quarries on Craigmore which operated from the 1820s to the 1950s are now defunct; at its peak this was a major industry. Other industries included an ironworks, established in the 1720s, as well as wool spinning and a lint mill.\n\nFrom 1882 the village was served by Aberfoyle railway station, the terminus of the Strathendrick and Aberfoyle Railway which connected to Glasgow via Dumbarton or Kirkintilloch The station closed to passenger traffic in 1951, and the remaining freight services ceased in 1959.\n\nThe above industries have since died out, and Aberfoyle is supported mainly by the forestry, industry and tourism.\n",
"Visitors were first attracted to Aberfoyle and the surrounding area after the publication of ''The Lady of the Lake'' by Sir Walter Scott in 1810. The poem described the beauty of Loch Katrine. Aberfoyle describes itself as ''The Gateway to the Trossachs'', and is well situated for visitors to access attractions such as Loch Lomond and Inchmahome Priory at the Lake of Menteith. A tourist information office run by VisitScotland sits in the centre of town, offering free information, selling souvenirs and acting as a booking office for many of the local B&B's and hotels. Aberfoyle Golf Club was built in 1860 and is located just south of town near the Rob Roy restaurant. Aberfoyle is also part of the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park.\n\nAberfoyle is also home to the largest Go Ape adventure course in the UK, featuring the longest death slide, or 'zip-line', in the UK.\n",
"Aberfoyle has connections to many historical figures such as Rob Roy and Mary, Queen of Scots. Robert Roy MacGregor was born at the head of nearby Loch Katrine, and his well-known cattle stealing exploits took him all around the area surrounding Aberfoyle. It is recorded, for example, that in 1691, the MacGregors raided every barn in the village of Kippen and stole all the villagers' livestock! There currently stands a tree in the village that MacGregor was reputed to have climbed and hid in to escape the clutches of the law. Also, Mary, Queen of Scots, visited nearby Inchmahome Priory often as a child, and during her short reign. She also used the priory during her short reign, particularly in 1547, where she felt safe from the English Army.\n\nHowever, the most local historical figure is the Reverend Robert Kirk, born in 1644. It was the Rev. Kirk who provided the first translation into Gaidhlig of the Book of Psalms, however, he is better remembered for the publication of his book ''\"The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns, and Fairies\"'' in 1691. Kirk had long been researching fairies, and the book collected several personal accounts and stories of folk who claimed to have encountered them. It was after this, while Kirk was minister of Aberfoyle parish, that he died in unusual circumstances.\n\nKirk had long believed that the local Doon Hill was the gateway to the \"Secret Commonwealth\", or the land of the Fairies. It was a place that Kirk visited often, taking daily walks there from his manse. The story goes that the Fairies of Doon Hill were angry with the Rev. Kirk for going into the domain of the Unseelie court, where he had been warned not to go, and decided to imprison him in Doon Hill — for one night in May 1692, the Rev. Kirk went out for a walk to the hill, in his nightshirt. Some accounts claim that he simply vanished, however he suddenly collapsed. He was found and brought home, but died soon afterwards. He was buried in his own kirkyard, although local legends claim that the fairies took his body away, and the coffin contains only stones. The huge pine tree that still stands at the top of Doon Hill is said to contain Kirk's imprisoned spirit.\n\nKirk's cousin, Graham of Duchray, was then to claim that the spectre of Kirk had visited him in the night, and told him that he had been carried off by the Fairies. Having left his widow expecting a child, the spectre of Kirk told Graham that he would appear at the baptism, whereupon Graham was to throw an iron knife at the apparition, thus freeing Kirk from the Fairies' clutches. However, when Kirk's spectre appeared, Graham was apparently too shocked by the vision to throw the knife, and Kirk's ghost faded away forever.\n\nToday, visitors to Doon Hill write their wishes on pieces of white silk, or other white cloth, and tie them to the branches of the trees for the Fairies to grant. Unfortunately some people tie plastic confectionery wrappers instead, which slightly spoils the magic of the location and may harm the ecology of the forest. It is also said that if one runs around the great 'Minister's Pine' tree at the summit seven times, then the Fairies will appear. Some people have tried this and afterwards claim to have seen apparitions. Others merely get a bit dizzy and fall over.\n",
"*List of places in Stirling (district)\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Geography ",
" Name ",
"Industry",
"Tourism",
"Historical figures",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aberfoyle, Stirling |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Abergavenny''' (; , archaically ''Abergafenni'' meaning \"Mouth of the River Gavenny\") is a market town in Monmouthshire, Wales. It is located west of Monmouth on the A40 and A465 roads, from the English border. Originally the site of a Roman fort, Gobannium, it became a medieval walled town within the Welsh marches. The town contains the remains of a medieval stone castle built soon after the Norman conquest of Wales. The town hosted the 2016 National Eisteddfod of Wales.\n\nAbergavenny is promoted as a \"Gateway to Wales\". Situated at the confluence of a tributary stream, the Gavenny, and the River Usk, it is almost surrounded by two mountains – the Blorenge () and the Sugar Loaf () – and five hills: Ysgyryd Fawr (The Skirrid), Ysgyryd Fach (Skirrid Fach), Deri, Rholben and Mynydd Llanwenarth, known locally as \"Llanwenarth Breast\". It provides access to the nearby Black Mountains and the Brecon Beacons National Park. The Offa's Dyke Path is close by and the Marches Way, the Beacons Way and Usk Valley Walk all pass through the town.\n\nIn the UK 2011 census, the six relevant wards (Lansdown, Grofield, Castle, Croesonen, Cantref and Priory) collectively listed Abergavenny's population as 12,515.\n",
"\n=== Origins of the town and its name ===\nPart of Abergavenny and Skirrid Fach (Little Skirrid) seen from the castle ruins\nThe name derives from a Brythonic word ''Gobannia'' meaning \"river of the blacksmiths\", and relates to the town's pre-Roman importance in iron smelting. The name is related to the modern Welsh word ''gof'' (blacksmith), and so is also associated with the Welsh smith Gofannon from folklore. The river later became, in Welsh, ''Gafenni'', and the town's name became Abergavenny, meaning \"mouth of (Welsh: ''Aber'') the Gavenny (''Gafenni'')\". In Welsh, the shortened form ''Y Fenni'' may have come into use for a very short period after about the 15th century, although pronounced similarly in English or Welsh the English spelling Abergavenny is in general use.\n\n=== Roman period ===\nGobannium was a Roman fort guarding the road along the valley of the River Usk, which linked the legionary fortress of Burrium (Usk) and later Isca Augusta or Isca Silurum (Caerleon) in the south with Y Gaer, Brecon and Mid Wales. It was also built to keep the peace among the local British Iron Age tribe, the Silures.\n\nRemains of the walls of this fort were discovered west of the castle when excavating the foundations for a new post office and telephone exchange building in the late 1960s.\n\n=== 11th century ===\nSt Mary's Priory Church\nAbergavenny grew as a town in early Norman times under the protection of the Lords of Abergavenny. The first Baron was Hamelin de Balun, from Ballon, a small town and castle in Maine-Anjou called \"Gateway to Maine\", near Le Mans, today in the Sarthe département of France. He founded the Benedictine priory, now the Priory Church of St Mary, in the late 11th century. The Priory belonged originally to the Benedictine foundation of St. Vincent Abbaye at Le Mans. It was subsequently endowed by William de Braose, with a tithe of the profits of the castle and town. The church contains some unique alabaster effigies, church monuments and unique medieval wood carving, such as the Tree of Jesse.\n\n=== 12th and 13th centuries ===\nOwing to its geographical location, the town was frequently embroiled in the border warfare and power play of the 12th and 13th centuries in the Welsh Marches. In 1175, Abergavenny Castle was the site of the Massacre. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter granted to the Prior by William de Braose.\n\n=== 15th to 17th centuries ===\nHoly Mountain in the 1890s\nOwain Glyndŵr attacked Abergavenny in 1404. According to popular legend, his raiders gained access to the walled town with the aid of a local woman who sympathised with the rebellion, letting a small party in via the Market Street gate at midnight. They were able to open the gate and allow a much larger party who set fire to the town and plundered its churches and homes leaving Abergavenny Castle intact. Market Street has been referred to as \"Traitors' Lane\" thereafter. In 1404 Abergavenny was declared its own nation by Ieuan ab Owain Glyndŵr, illegitimate son of Owain Glyndŵr. The arrangement lasted approximately two weeks.\n\nAt the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1541, the priory's endowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school, King Henry VIII Grammar School, the site itself passing to the Gunter family.\n\nDuring the Civil War, prior to the siege of Raglan Castle in 1645, King Charles I visited Abergavenny and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trefor Williams, 1st Baronet of Llangibby, a Royalist who changed sides, and other Parliamentarians.\n\nIn 1639, Abergavenny received a charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath of allegiance to William III in 1688, the charter was annulled, and the town subsequently declined in prosperity. Chapter 28 of the 1535 Act of Henry VIII, which provided that Monmouth, as county town, should return one burgess to Parliament, further stated that other ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being in 1685.\n\nThe right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, beginning in the 13th century, was held ever since as confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for the production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst the fashion prevailed, of goats' hair periwigs.\n\n=== 19th and 20th centuries ===\nAbergavenny Boys National School c. 1865\nAbergavenny railway station opened 2 January 1854 by the Newport, Abergavenny and Hereford Railway. The London North Western Railway sponsored the construction of the railway linking Newport station to Hereford station. The line was taken over by the West Midland Railway in 1860 before becoming part of the Great Western Railway in 1863. The station is on the Welsh Marches Line and is mostly served by Arriva Trains Wales services.\n\nThe Baker Street drill hall was completed in 1896. Adolf Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess was kept under escort at Maindiff Court Military Hospital during the Second World War, after his flight to Britain.\n",
"The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Nevill family, dates from the 15th century with Edward Nevill, 3rd Baron Bergavenny, who was the youngest son of Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland by his second wife Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt, first Duke of Lancaster. He married the heiress of Richard de Beauchamp, 1st Earl of Worcester, whose father had inherited the castle and estate of Abergavenny, and was summoned in 1392 to parliament as Lord Bergavenny. Edward Nevill was summoned to parliament with this title in 1450. His direct male descendants ended in 1587 in Henry Nevill, 6th Baron Bergavenny, but a cousin, Edward Nevill, 8th Baron Bergavenny, was confirmed in the barony in 1604. From him it has descended continuously, through fifteen individuals, the title being increased to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill 5th Earl, an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the Tory Party, was created 1st Marquess of Abergavenny.\n\nColdbrook Park was a country house in an estate some southeast of the town. The house was originally built in the 14th century and belonged to the Herbert family for many generations until purchased by John Hanbury for his son, the diplomat Sir Charles Hanbury Williams. Sir Charles reconstructed the house in 1746 with the addition of a nine-bay two-storey Georgian façade with a Doric portico. It subsequently passed down in the Hanbury Williams family until it was demolished in 1954.\n",
"\n===National Eisteddfod 2016===\n\nHeld during the first week of August every year, the National Eisteddfod is a celebration of the culture and language in Wales. The festival travels from place to place, alternating between north and south Wales, attracting around 150,000 visitors and over 250 tradestands and stalls. The Chair and Crown for 2016 were presented to the festival's Executive Committee, at a special ceremony in Monmouth held on 14 June 2016.\n\n===Other events===\n\nThe Abergavenny Food Festival, is held in the second week of September each year. The Steam, Veteran and Vintage Rally takes place in May every year. The event expands year on year with the 2016 rally including a rock choir, shire horses, motorcycling stunts, vintage cars and steam engines. The Country and Western Music Festival is attended by enthusiasts of country music. It marked its third year in 2016 and was attended by acts including Ben Thompson, LA Country and many more. The Abergavenny Writing Festival began in April 2016 and is a celebration of writing and the written word.\n",
"In recent decades the number of Welsh speakers in the town has increased dramatically. The 2001 census recorded 10% of the local population spoke the language, a five fold increase over ten years from the figure of 2% recorded in 1991.\n\nThe town has one of the two Welsh-medium primary schools in Monmouthshire, Ysgol Gymraeg y Fenni, which was founded in the early 1990s. It is also home to the Abergavenny Welsh society, Cymreigyddion y Fenni, and the local Abergavenny Eisteddfod.\n",
"Abergavenny was the home of Abergavenny Thursdays F.C., which was formed in 1927, but wound up in 2013. However, football is now represented in the town by the new Abergavenny Town team which was formerly called Govilon FC. Town play at the Penypound Stadium and are members of the Welsh League Division 2 for season 2016-17.\n\nAbergavenny Cricket Club play at Pen-y-Pound, Avenue Road, and Glamorgan CCC also play some of their games here. Abergavenny Cricket Club is one of the oldest in the country and celebrated the 175th anniversary of its foundation in 2009. Abergavenny Tennis Club also play at Pen-y-Pound and plays in the South Wales Doubles League and Aegon Team Tennis. The club engages the services of a head tennis professional to run a coaching programme for the town and was crowned Tennis Wales' Club of the Year in 2010.\n\nAbergavenny is also the home of Abergavenny RFC, a rugby union club founded in 1875 who play at Bailey Park. They play in the Welsh Rugby Union Division Two East league. Abergavenny Hockey Club, formed in 1897, currently compete in the Davis Woods hockey league and play at the Old Hereford Road ground. Abergavenny hosted the British National Cycling Championships in 2007, 2009 and 2014, as part of the town's Festival of Cycling.\n",
"\n=== Cattle market ===\nA cattle market has been held in Abergavenny on its current site since 1863. During the period 1825–1863 a sheep market was held at a site in Castle Street, to stop the sale of sheep on the streets of the town. Today the market is leased and operated by Abergavenny Market Auctioneers Ltd, who hold regular livestock auctions on the site. Market days are: Tuesday – auction sale of finished sheep, cull ewe/store and fodder (hay and straw). Some Fridays – auction sale of cattle. A few other sales are held at the market on other days throughout the year. Following the closure of Newport's cattle market for redevelopment, Newport’s sales are held at Abergavenny every Wednesday.\n\nIn 2011, doubts about the future of Abergavenny Cattle Market were raised following the granting of planning permission by Monmouthshire County Council for its demolition and replacement with a supermarket, car park, and library.\n\nIn January 2012, the Welsh Government announced the repeal the Abergavenny Improvement Acts of 1854 to 1871 which obliged the holding of a livestock market within the boundaries of Abergavenny town; that repeal being effective from 26 March 2012.\n\nMonmouthshire County Council, which requested that the Abergavenny Improvement Acts be repealed, is supporting plans for a new cattle market to be established about from Abergavenny in countryside at Bryngwyn, some from Raglan. There has been extensive local opposition to this site, which is situated on a notoriously dangerous B road.\n\n=== The Market Hall ===\nAbergavenny Market Hall in 2009\nVarious markets are held in the Market Hall, for example: Tuesdays, Fridays and Saturdays – retail market; Wednesdays – flea market; fourth Thursday of each month – farmers' market; third Sunday of each month – antique fair; second Saturday of each month – craft fair.\n",
"\n* Abergavenny hosted the National Eisteddfod of Wales in 1838, 1913 and most recently in 2016\n* Lord Abergavenny is a character in William Shakespeare's play ''Henry VIII''.\n* In 1968 \"Abergavenny\" was the title of a UK single by Marty Wilde. In 1969 it was also released in the US, under a Marty Wilde pseudonym \"Shannon\", where it was also a minor hit.\n* In 1996 a film, ''Intimate Relations'' starring Julie Walters, Rupert Graves, Les Dennis and Amanda Holden was filmed at many locations in and around Abergavenny.\n* The town's local radio stations are currently Sunshine Radio, at 107.8 FM, and NH Sound 1287 AM.\n* Abergavenny is twinned with Östringen in Germany, Beaupréau in France and Sarno in Italy.\n* Abergavenny is home to an award winning brass band. Formed in Abergavenny prior to 1884 the band became joint National Welsh League Champions in 2006 and SEWBBA and again joint National Welsh League Champions in 2011. The band also operate a Junior Band training local young musicians\n* Sherlock Holmes refers, in The Adventure of the Priory School, to a case he's working on in Abergavenny.\n*In the book Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Abergavenny is mentioned by Stan Shunpike, the conductor of the Knight Bus when the bus takes a detour there to drop off a passenger.\n* In the classic 70s period drama ''Upstairs, Downstairs'', a major character in the second season, which is circa 1909-10, is Thomas Watkins, the devious Bellamy family chauffeur. Watkins came from ''Abergavenny''. In the 1979 spinoff of ''Upstairs, Downstairs'' titled ''Thomas & Sarah'', Watkins and Sarah Moffat, another major character, marry and return briefly to Abergavenny.\n* The Borough Theatre in the town centre hosts live events covering drama, opera, ballet, music, children’s events, dance, comedy, storytelling, tribute bands and talks.\n* During September the town holds the Abergavenny Food Festival.\n* Abergavenny was named one of the best places to live in Wales in 2017.\n",
"Abergavenny Castle is located strategically just south of the town centre overlooking the River Usk. It was built in about 1067 by the Norman baron Hamelin de Ballon to guard against incursions by the Welsh from the hills to the north and west. All that remains is defensive ditches and the ruins of the stone keep, towers, and part of the curtain wall. It is a Grade I listed building.\n\nSt Mary's Priory Church, Church in Wales\nOther listed buildings in the town include the parish Church of St Mary, a medieval and Victorian building that was originally the church of the Benedictine priory founded in Abergavenny before 1100; the sixteenth century tithe barn near St Mary's; the Victorian Church of the Holy Trinity; the Grade II* listed St John's Masonic Lodge; the Museum; the Public Library; the Town Hall; and the remains of the town walls behind Neville Street.\n\nThe church of the Holy Trinity\nThe Church in Wales church of the Holy Trinity is in the Diocese of Monmouth. Holy Trinity Church was consecrated by the Bishop of Llandaff on November 6, 1840. It was originally built as a chapel to serve the adjacent almshouses and the nearby school. It has been Grade II listed since January 1974.\n\n===Monmouthshire Lunatic Asylum===\nFrom 1851, the Monmouthshire Lunatic Asylum, later Pen-y-Fal Hospital, a psychiatric hospital, stood on the outskirts of Abergavenny. Between 1851 and 1950, over 3,000 patients died at the hospital. A memorial plaque for the deceased has now been placed at the site. After closure in the 1990s, its buildings and grounds were redeveloped as a luxury housing development comprising houses as well as apartments. Some psychiatric services are now administered from Maindiff Court Hospital on the outskirts of the town, close to the foot of the Skirrid mountain. The hospital is housed in historic buildings, and is known for Rudolf Hess who was incarcerated here during WW2.\n",
"* Sarno, Italy\n* Östringen, Germany\n* Beaupréau, France\n",
":''See also :Category:People from Abergavenny''\n* Bravery: one of the eleven Victoria Cross medals won at Rorke's Drift was awarded to John Fielding from Abergavenny. He had enlisted under the false name of Williams. One was also awarded for the same action to Robert Jones, born at Clytha between Abergavenny and Raglan. Another Abergavenny-born soldier, Thomas Monaghan received his VC for defending his colonel during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.\n* Matthew Jay, the late singer-songwriter, also spent much of his life in the town.\n* Saint David Lewis, Catholic priest and martyr, was born in Abergavenny and prayed in the local Gunter Mansion.\n* Marina and the Diamonds (born Marina Lambrini Diamandis), singer-songwriter who was born and brought up in Abergavenny until she moved to London at the age of eighteen.\n* Scott Ellaway, conductor, was born and brought up locally. \n* Malcolm Nash the cricketer famous for bowling to Gary Sobers who hit six sixes off one Nash over (36 runs) is from Abergavenny.\n* Mary Penry, Moravian sister in 18c. Pennsylvania, was born in Abergavenny.\n* Owen Sheers, the poet, grew up in Abergavenny.\n* Abergavenny produced a world-famous strongwoman, Vulcana.\n*Jules Williams, writer, Director, Producer author of ''The Weigh Forward''\n* Raymond Williams (1921–1988) academic, critic and writer was born and brought up locally.\n* Oliver Thornton, West End actor, who starred 2009-11 in ''Priscilla, Queen of the Desert'', was born and grew up in Abergavenny.\n* Becky James, racing cyclist, double gold medallist at the 2013 UCI Track Cycling World Championships and double silver medallist at the 2016 Summer Olympics, was born and grew up in Abergavenny.\n\nAbergavenny as seen from the Monmouthshire Canal 2014, with the Skirrid in the centre of the picture, and showing its characteristic notched outline\n",
"\n\n* Abergavenny Castle\n* Abergavenny fireworks display\n* Abergavenny Hundred\n* Abergavenny Museum\n* Abergavenny town walls\n* Black Mountains, Wales\n* Brecon Beacons National Park\n\n* HMS ''Abergavenny'', a fourth-rate ship acquired by the Royal Navy in 1795.\n* Llanthony Priory\n* Monmouthshire & Brecon Canal\n* Nevill Hall Hospital\n* The Skirrid Mountain Inn at Llanvihangel Crucorney, maybe Wales' oldest pub\n* Tourism in Wales\n\n",
"\n",
"* Jürgen Klötgen, ''Prieuré d'Abergavenny – Tribulations mancelles en Pays de Galles au temps du Pape Jean XXII (d'après des documents français et anglais du XIV° siècle collationnés avec une source d'histoire retrouvée aux Archives Secrètes du Vatican)'', in ''Revue Historique et Archéologique du Maine'', Le Mans, 1989, p. 65–88 (1319 : cf John of Hastings, Lord of Abergavenny; Adam de Orleton, Bishop of Hereford, John of Monmouth, Bishop of Llandaff).\n",
"\n\n* Abergavenny Borough Band\n* Abergavenny and District Round Table\n* Abergavenny Food Festival\n* Abergavenny Forum\n* Abergavenny Museum\n* Abergavenny Symphony Orchestra\n* BBC, South East Wales – Feature on Abergavenny\n* Geograph British Isles – Photos of Abergavenny and surrounding areas\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Baron of Abergavenny ",
" Events ",
"Welsh language",
" Sporting traditions ",
" Markets and fairs ",
"Culture",
" Buildings of note ",
"Twin towns",
"Notable people",
" See also ",
" References ",
" Sources ",
"External links"
] | Abergavenny |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Abersychan''' is a settlement and community north of Pontypool in Torfaen, Wales, and lies within the boundaries of the historic county of Monmouthshire and the preserved county of Gwent.\n\nAbersychan lies in the narrow northern section of the Afon Lwyd valley.\n\nThe town includes two schools; Abersychan Comprehensive School and Victoria Primary School; together with various shops and other amenities including Abersychan Rugby Club.\n\nAbersychan was the birthplace of the politicians Roy Jenkins, Don Touhig and Paul Murphy (MP for Torfaen); and of the rugby footballers Wilfred Hodder, Candy Evans and Bryn Meredith.\n",
"The ironwork's derelict main office building, designed by architect Decimus Burton\nAbersychan Limestone Railway\nDisused pumping engine house at British Colliery\nLike many of the 17th century isolated agricultural hamlets in the forested South Wales Valleys, Abersychan became a thriving industrial centre in the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly for iron production.\n\nAfter the discovery of iron stone locally, the principal ironworks were built by the British Iron Company in 1825, served mainly by the LNWR's Brynmawr and Blaenavon Railway. The ironwork's main office building and quadrangle were designed by architect Decimus Burton, best known for his design of London Zoo. The works passed to the New British Iron Company in 1843 and to the Ebbw Vale Company in 1852, before closing in 1889. On 6 February 1890, an underground explosion at Llanerch Colliery killed 176.\n\nThe site of the former ironworks today is a core site of , and a total land area of , includes a number of listed buildings:\n*Abersychan Limestone Railway: built c 1830 to carry limestone from Cwm Lascarn quarry to the British Ironworks. \n*Air Furnace at British Ironworks\n*British Colliery Pumping Engine House: a Cornish beam pumping engine house built by the British Iron Company. Built of sandstone with a slate roof, and retains several fixtures\n*Cwmbyrgwm Colliery: Site of former colliery including remains of a water-balance headgear, chimney, oval shafts, water power dams, tramroad routes, and waste tips.\n\nVarious proposals have been made over the years to redevelop the site, currently under the ownership of HSBC, but none have so far passed the requirements of Torfaen county council.\n",
"Abersychan constitutes a community and electoral ward of the county borough of Torfaen. The area was part of the ancient parish of Trevethin, in Monmouthshire. On 3 June 1864 Abersychan was constituted a local government district, governed by a local board. In 1894 Abersychan became an urban district and civil parish. The urban district was abolished in 1935, with most of its area passing to Pontypool urban district, and a small area going to Abercarn UD.\n\nIn 1974 the area became part of the borough of Torfaen, in the new local government county of Gwent. The community of Abersychan was formed in 1985, but no community council has yet been formed. Abersychan and Cwmavon is now a ward for the Pontypool Community Council. In 1996 Torfaen became a unitary authority.\n\nThe Abersychan community includes Abersychan, Cwmavon, Garndiffaith, Pentwyn, Talywain, Varteg, and Victoria Village.\n",
"\nThe nearest railway stations to Abersychan are Pontypool & New Inn (3 miles), Llanhilleth (3.5 miles) and Abergavenny (7 miles). Abersychan was served by the following (disused) stations:\n*Abersychan and Talywain railway station\n*Abersychan Low Level railway station\n",
"\n=== Pentwyn ===\n''Pentwyn'', Torfaen is a small village located in the district of Abersychan. It contains a post office, a chapel, several houses and a small play park. The village has a cricket team (Pentwyn CC) and is located right next to the old railway line. The cricket club celebrated its 100-year anniversary in 2006 with a successful tour to Cork, Ireland. The village has superb views over the River Severn and Newport to the south.\n\n===Victoria Village===\n''Victoria Village'' is a small hamlet located in the district of Abersychan. It comprises a small village school and a number of houses. A small group of houses on Incline Road mark the beginning of the village and the village boundary is near Cwmavon. Victoria Primary School is also in this area, housed in large grounds. Many homes are built around the school's boundaries.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Local government",
" Local Transport ",
"Places nearby",
"References"
] | Abersychan |
[
"\n\n'''Abertillery''' (; , meaning mouth of the River Tyleri) is the largest town of the Ebbw Fach valley in what was the historic county of Monmouthshire, Wales. Following local government reorganisation it became part of the Blaenau Gwent County Borough administrative area.\n\nThe surrounding landscape borders the Brecon Beacons National Park and the Blaenavon World heritage Site. Formerly a major coal mining centre the Abertillery area was transformed in the 1990s using EU and other funding to return to a greener environment.\n\nSituated on the A467 the town is north of the M4 and south of the A465 \"Heads of the Valleys\" trunk road. It is about by road from Cardiff and from Bristol.\n\nAccording to the 2001 Census and information gathered by The Welsh Language Board (), 1,146 (9.9%) of Abertillery speaks Welsh. In the 2011 Census, this figure dropped to 7.2%, a 2.7 percentage point drop.\n",
"Pontlottyn\" department store\nAbertillery's traditional-style town centre mainly developed in the late 19th century and as such has some interesting Victorian architecture. Spread over 4 main streets the town in its heyday had two department stores and a covered Victorian arcade linking two of the main shopping areas. These were all included in a Blaenau Gwent Borough Council remodelling and modernisation project using European Union funding in a £13 million programme spread over a 5-year period ending in 2015.\n\nThe project included a new multi-storey car park, a revamp of public areas and the town's Metropole Theatre. This RICS award-winning building provides state of the art production, exhibition, conference and meeting facilities as well as housing Abertillery museum. In March 2014 Prince Edward, the Earl of Wessex, officiated at the launch of Jubilee Square, a public facility in the town centre next to St Michael's Church.\n",
"Guardian memorial at Parc Arael Griffin Six Bells.\nMajor industry came to the area in 1843 when the locality's first deep coal mine was sunk at Tir Nicholas Farm, Cwmtillery. The town developed rapidly thereafter and played a major part in the South Wales coalfield. Its population rose steeply, being 10,846 in the 1891 census and 21,945 ten years later. The population peaked just short of 40,000 around the beginning of the 1930s. Eventually there were six deep coal mines, numerous small coal levels, a tin works, brick works, iron foundry and light engineering businesses in the area. Just one of the coal mines, Cwmtillery, produced over 32 million tons of coal in its lifetime and at its height employed 2760 men and boys.\n\nIn 1960 an underground explosion at Six Bells Colliery resulted in the loss of life of 45 local miners. Fifty years later the archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams officiated at the launch of the ''Guardian'' mining memorial. This artistically acclaimed monument standing at 20m tall overlooks Parc Arael Griffin, the now reclaimed and landscaped former colliery site. The adjoining Ty Ebbw Fach visitor centre provides conference facilities, a restaurant and a \"mining valley\" experience room. Not long after the disaster the renowned artist L. S. Lowry visited the area and recorded the scene. The resultant landscape painting now hangs in the Museum of Wales in Cardiff.\n\nThe coal mines remained the predominant economic emphasis until the general run down of the industry in the 1980s.\n",
"The western outskirts of Abertillery as seen from the hillside above \"The Park\".\nAway from the town centre, the often steep sided nature of the landscape, imposes its own demands on development. Whilst this sounds limiting it has helped provide the almost amphitheatre nature of Abertillery Park, often described as one of the most attractive rugby grounds in world rugby.\n\nThe street plan and housing stock flow uninterrupted from Cwmtillery in the north to Six Bells in the south, forming the town that is Abertillery. Prior to 1974 local government was provided by Abertillery Urban District Council (AUDC). Its area included the small neighbouring villages of Aberbeeg, Llanhilleth and Brynithel. Historical data relating to Abertillery occasionally refers to this AUDC area meaning that it can be difficult to compare like with like. For example, the 2014 population for the wider conurbation area is around 20,000 rather than the 11,000 often quoted for Abertillery itself.\n\nWhilst in the main the area has an older housing stock there are several developments of modern, often large homes, generally found on the outskirts of the town with views out over the surrounding area. These apart, terraced council tax band A and B properties predominate, meaning that average house prices are among the most affordable in the UK.\n",
"There are very few written historical records relating to the area possibly because today's town developed as late as the middle of the 19th century. Nevertheless, there are facts that you can use to outline important events.\n\n*Abertillery museum has locally discovered artefacts dating as far back as the Bronze Age.\n*St Illtyd's Church overlooking the town dates to the 13th century – probably with 6th century origins.\n*St Illtyd's Motte lies just to the south west of the church. A Norman castle mound, it was probably destroyed in 1233.\n*The ruins of two more recent, probably 14th century, castles lie on private land to the northeast of St Illtyd's Church.\n*There are several ruined mediaeval farmhouses in the Abertillery area.\n*The Local Blaenau Gwent Baptist church can trace its roots back to Tŷ Nest Llewellyn, a ruined 17th-century dwelling place often used by non-conformists to escape from the religious persecution of the times.\n\nBefore the coming of major industry, Abertillery was little more than an area of scattered farms in the ancient parish of Aberystruth. In 1779 the parish minister Edmund Jones described the area thus: \"The valley of Tyleri ... is the most delightful. The trees ... especially the beech trees, abounding about rivers great and small, the hedges and lanes make these places exceeding pleasant and the passing by them delightful and affecting ... in these warm valleys, with the prospect of the grand high mountains about them would make very delightful habitations.\" In 1799 clergyman and historian Archdeacon William Coxe toured the area and in writing a diary of his travels described it as \"... richly wooded, and highly cultivated...we looked down with delight upon numerous valleys ... with romantic scenery\". The entire population of Aberystruth parish at the turn of the 19th century was just a little over 800. It is not known what the population of Abertillery was at the time but it was probably in the very low hundreds, all of whom would have spoken Welsh only.\n\nThe area's first deep coal mine was sunk in 1843.\n\nFormed in 1877, Abertillery Urban District Council incorporated the adjoining smaller communities of Six Bells, Cwmtillery, Brynithel, Aberbeeg and Llanhilleth. The population of this conurbation climbed to almost 40,000 in 1931 making it the second largest town in Monmouthshire. The council was abolished in 1974 as part of major UK wide local government reorganisation.\n",
"The reopening of Abertillery railway station has been identified as a future development of the Ebbw Valley Railway. Regular bus services in the area link with Llanhilleth railway station, away.\n",
"The modern local comprehensive provides secondary education for the town and neighbouring areas. It is fed by several small schools, the most recent of which was opened in 2000. Until the 1970s the town had its own local authority run Grammar school providing education up to the age of eighteen. Tertiary education is now provided by Coleg Gwent at Ebbw Vale – opened in 2013.\n",
"There are several small and medium-sized business parks in the area offering a range of business premises. In 2014 the largest employer was Tyleri Valley Foods. Many local people commute outside the area to work.\n",
"Abertillery Town cricket club and Abertillery Blaenau Gwent RFC formed in the 1880s. Both have their playing headquarters at \"the Park\" one of the most picturesque sporting complexes in the UK.\n\nWalking country. Climb to over 550m on one of many routes in the Tyleri valley\nThe town supports two local Saturday football teams: Abertillery Bluebirds and Abertillery Excelsiors. There are numerous other sports activities running on an organized basis such as bowls, badminton, squash etc.\n\nThe surrounding landscape provides hill walking opportunities and walker led groups are thriving in the area. One example is Ebbw Fach Trekkers walking group. The Borough Council provides details of local walks.\n\nThe local museum has displays showing what life was like in the area in its heyday. It also has its own \"valleys\" Italian café complete with original furnishings.\n\nThe Metropole theatre holds musical and drama events – from Blues to amateur dramatics and dance.\n\nThe ''Guardian'' memorial is a destination for visitors to South Wales and amateur photographers in particular as evidenced by trip advisor. The visitor centre Tŷ Ebbw Fach stands nearby and provides cafe and visitor \"mining valley\" experience facilities.\n",
":''For details of local people of note in the fields of sport, science, medicine, religion and art see :Category:People from Abertillery''\n",
"Abertillery is twinned with:\n*25px Royat, France\n",
"*Aber and Inver as place-name elements\n*Abertillery and District Hospital\n",
"\n",
"* Abertillery Online\n* BBC On This Day item about Six Bells\n* Abertillery Bluebirds Football Club\n* Photos of Abertillery and surrounding area on geograph.org.uk\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Town centre",
" Coal mining ",
" Abertillery Conurbation ",
" Local history ",
" Transport ",
" Education ",
" Industry ",
"Sport, leisure and tourism",
"Notable people",
"International relations",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Abertillery |
[
"\n'''Abettor''' (from ''to abet,'' Old French ''abeter'', ''à'' and ''beter'', to bait, urge dogs upon any one; this word is probably of Scandinavian origin, meaning to cause to bite), is a legal term implying one who instigates, encourages or assists another to commit an offence.\n\nAn abettor differs from an accessory in that he must be present at the commission of the crime; in addition they are equally guilty as they knowingly and voluntarily assist in the commission of that crime. All abettors (with certain exceptions) are principals, and, in the absence of specific statutory provision to the contrary, are punishable to the same extent as the actual perpetrator of the offence. A person may in certain cases be convicted as an abettor in the commission of an offence in which he or she could not be a principal, e.g. a woman or boy under fourteen years of age in aiding rape, or a solvent person in aiding and abetting a bankrupt to commit offences against the bankruptcy laws.\n\nMore recently, an abettor is generally known as an accomplice.\n",
"\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"References"
] | Abettor |
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