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[ "\n\n\nThe '''Association for Computing Machinery''' ('''ACM''') is an international learned society for computing. It was founded in 1947 and is the world's largest scientific and educational computing society. It is a not-for-profit professional membership group. Its membership is more than 100,000 as of 2011. Its headquarters are in New York City.\n\nThe ACM is an umbrella organization for academic and scholarly interests in computer science. Its motto is \"Advancing Computing as a Science & Profession\".\n", "Two Penn Plaza site of the ACM headquarters in New York City\nACM is organized into over 171 local chapters and 37 Special Interest Groups (SIGs), through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 500 college and university chapters. The first student chapter was founded in 1961 at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.\n\nMany of the SIGs, such as SIGGRAPH, SIGPLAN, SIGCSE and SIGCOMM, sponsor regular conferences, which have become famous as the dominant venue for presenting innovations in certain fields. The groups also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters.\n\nACM also sponsors other computer science related events such as the worldwide ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest (ICPC), and has sponsored some other events such as the chess match between Garry Kasparov and the IBM Deep Blue computer.\n", "\n===Publications===\n\nACM publishes over 50 journals including the prestigious ''Journal of the ACM'', and two general magazines for computer professionals, ''Communications of the ACM'' (also known as ''Communications'' or ''CACM'') and ''Queue''. Other publications of the ACM include:\n''ACM XRDS'', formerly \"Crossroads\", was redesigned in 2010 and is the most popular student computing magazine in the US.\n''ACM Interactions'', an interdisciplinary HCI publication focused on the connections between experiences, people and technology, and the third largest ACM publication.\n''ACM Computing Surveys'' (CSUR)\n''ACM Computers in Entertainment'' (CIE)\nA number of journals, specific to subfields of computer science, titled ''ACM Transactions''. Some of the more notable transactions include:\n''ACM Transactions on Computer Systems'' (TOCS)\n''IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics'' (TCBB)\n''ACM Transactions on Computational Logic'' (TOCL)\n''ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction'' (TOCHI)\n''ACM Transactions on Database Systems'' (TODS)\n''ACM Transactions on Graphics'' (TOG)\n''ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software'' (TOMS)\n''ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications, and Applications'' (TOMM)\n''IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking'' (TON)\n''ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems'' (TOPLAS)\n\nAlthough ''Communications'' no longer publishes primary research, and is not considered a prestigious venue, many of the great debates and results in computing history have been published in its pages.\n\nACM has made almost all of its publications available to paid subscribers online at its Digital Library and also has a Guide to Computing Literature. Individual members additionally have access to Safari Books Online and Books24x7. ACM also offers insurance, online courses, and other services to its members.\n\nIn 1997, ACM Press published ''Wizards and Their Wonders: Portraits in Computing'' (), written by Christopher Morgan, with new photographs by Louis Fabian Bachrach. The book is a collection of historic and current portrait photographs of figures from the computer industry.\n", "The '''ACM Portal''' is an online service of the ACM. \nIts core are two main sections: '''ACM Digital Library''' and the '''ACM Guide to Computing Literature'''.\n\nThe ACM Digital Library is the full-text collection of all articles published by the ACM in its articles, magazines and conference proceedings. The Guide is a bibliography in computing with over one million entries.\nThe ACM Digital Library contains a comprehensive archive starting in the 1950s of the organization's journals, magazines, newsletters and conference proceedings. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest. There is an extensive underlying bibliographic database containing key works of all genres from all major publishers of computing literature. This secondary database is a rich discovery service known as The ACM Guide to Computing Literature.\n\nACM adopted a hybrid Open Access (OA) publishing model in 2013. Authors who do not choose to pay the OA fee must grant ACM publishing rights by either a copyright transfer agreement or a publishing license agreement.\n\nACM was a \"green\" publisher before the term was invented. Authors may post documents on their own websites and in their institutional repositories with a link back to the ACM Digital Library's permanently maintained Version of Record.\n\nAll metadata in the Digital Library is open to the world, including abstracts, linked references and citing works, citation and usage statistics, as well as all functionality and services. Other than the free articles, the full-texts are accessed by subscription.\n\nThere is also a mounting challenge to the ACM's publication practices coming from the open access movement. Some authors see a centralized peer–review process as less relevant and publish on their home pages or on unreviewed sites like arXiv. Other organizations have sprung up which do their peer review entirely free and online, such as Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research (JAIR), Journal of Machine Learning Research (JMLR) and the Journal of Research and Practice in Information Technology.\n", "In addition to student and regular members, ACM has several advanced membership grades to recognize those with multiple years of membership and \"demonstrated performance that sets them apart from their peers\".\n\n===Fellows===\n\nThe ACM Fellows Program was established by Council of the Association for Computing Machinery in 1993 \"to recognize and honor outstanding ACM members for their achievements in computer science and information technology and for their significant contributions to the mission of the ACM.\" There are presently about 958 Fellows out of about 75,000 professional members.\n\n===Distinguished Members===\nIn 2006 ACM began recognizing two additional membership grades, one which was called Distinguished Members. Distinguished Members (Distinguished Engineers, Distinguished Scientists, and Distinguished Educators) have at least 15 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous ACM membership and \"have made a significant impact on the computing field\". Note that in 2006 when the Distinguished Members first came out, one of the three levels was called \"Distinguished Member\" and was changed about two years later to \"Distinguished Educator\". Those who already had the Distinguished Member title had their titles changed to one of the other three titles.\n\n===Senior Members===\nAlso in 2006, ACM began recognizing Senior Members. Senior Members have ten or more years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous ACM membership.\n", "ACM has three kinds of chapters: Special Interest Groups, Professional Chapters, and Student Chapters.\n\nAs of 2011, ACM has professional & SIG Chapters in 56 countries.\n\nAs of 2014, there exist ACM student chapters in 41 different countries.\n\n===Special Interest Groups===\n\n\n SIGACCESS: Accessible Computing\n* SIGACT: Algorithms and Computation Theory\n* SIGAda: Ada Programming Language\n* SIGAI: Artificial Intelligence\n* SIGAPP: Applied Computing\n* SIGARCH: Computer Architecture\n* SIGBED: Embedded Systems\n* SIGBio: Bioinformatics \n* SIGCAS: Computers and Society\n* SIGCHI: Computer–Human Interaction\n* SIGCOMM: Data Communication\n* SIGCSE: Computer Science Education\n* SIGDA: Design Automation\n* SIGDOC: Design of Communication\n* SIGecom: Electronic Commerce\n* SIGEVO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation\n* SIGGRAPH: Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques\n* SIGHPC: High Performance Computing\n* SIGIR: Information Retrieval\n* SIGITE: Information Technology Education\n* SIGKDD: Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining\n* SIGLOG: Logic and Computation\n* SIGMETRICS: Measurement and Evaluation\n* SIGMICRO: Microarchitecture\n* SIGMIS: Management Information Systems\n* SIGMM: Multimedia\n* SIGMOBILE: Mobility of Systems, Users, Data and Computing\n* SIGMOD: Management of Data\n* SIGOPS: Operating Systems\n* SIGPLAN: Programming Languages\n* SIGSAC: Security, Audit, and Control\n* SIGSAM: Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation\n* SIGSIM: Simulation and Modeling\n* SIGSOFT: Software Engineering\n* SIGSPATIAL: Spatial Information\n* SIGUCCS: University and College Computing Services\n* SIGWEB: Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Web\n\n", "\nACM and its Special Interest Groups (SIGs) sponsors numerous conferences with 170 hosted worldwide in 2017. ACM Conferences page has an up-to-date complete list while a partial list is shown below. Most of the SIGs also have an annual conference. ACM conferences are often very popular publishing venues and are therefore very competitive. For example, the 2007 SIGGRAPH conference attracted about 30000 visitors, and CIKM only accepted 15% of the long papers that were submitted in 2005.\n\n* ASPLOS: International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems\n* CHI: Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems\n* SIGCSE: SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education\n* CIKM: Conference on Information and Knowledge Management\n* DAC: Design Automation Conference\n* DEBS: Distributed Event Based Systems\n* FCRC: Federated Computing Research Conference\n* GECCO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference\n* SC: Supercomputing Conference\n* SIGGRAPH: International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques\n* Hypertext: Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia\n* JCDL: Joint Conference on Digital Libraries\n* TAPIA: Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing Conference \n* SIGCOMM: ACM SIGCOMM Conference\n\n* MobiHoc: International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing\nThe ACM is a co–presenter and founding partner of the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing (GHC) with the Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology.\n\nThere are some conferences hosted by ACM student branches; this includes Reflections Projections, which is hosted by UIUC ACM. . In addition, ACM sponsors regional conferences. Regional conferences facilitate increased opportunities for collaboration between nearby institutions and they are well attended.\n\nFor additional non-ACM conferences, see this list of computer science conferences.\n\n==Awards==\nThe ACM presents or co–presents a number of awards for outstanding technical and professional achievements and contributions in computer science and information technology. \n\n* ACM A. M. Turing Award\n* ACM – AAAI Allen Newell Award\n* ACM Athena Lecturer Award\n* ACM/CSTA Cutler-Bell Prize in High School Computing\n* ACM Distinguished Service Award\n* ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award\n* ACM Eugene L. Lawler Award\n* ACM Fellowship, awarded annually since 1993\n* ACM Gordon Bell Prize\n* ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award\n* ACM – IEEE CS George Michael Memorial HPC Fellowships\n* ACM – IEEE CS Ken Kennedy Award\n* ACM – IEEE Eckert-Mauchly Award\n* ACM India Doctoral Dissertation Award\n* ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award\n* ACM Paris Kanellakis Theory and Practice Award\n* ACM Policy Award\n* ACM Presidential Award\n* ACM Prize in Computing (formerly: ACM – Infosys Foundation Award in the Computing Sciences)\n* ACM Programming Systems and Languages Paper Award\n* ACM Student Research Competition\n* ACM Software System Award\n* International Science and Engineering Fair\n* Outstanding Contribution to ACM Award\n* SIAM/ACM Prize in Computational Science and Engineering\n\nOver 30 of ACM's Special Interest Groups also award individuals for their contributions with a few listed below.\n\n* ACM Alan D. Berenbaum Distinguished Service Award\n* ACM Maurice Wilkes Award\n* ISCA Influential Paper Award\n\n", "\n\nThe President of ACM for 2016–2018 is Vicki L. Hanson, Distinguished Professor in the Department of Information Sciences and Technologies at the Rochester Institute of Technology and Professor and Chair of Inclusive Technologies at the University of Dundee, UK. She is successor of Alexander L. Wolf (2014–2016), Dean of the Jack Baskin School of Engineering at the University of California, Santa Cruz; Vint Cerf (2012–2014), an American computer scientist who is recognized as one of \"the fathers of the Internet\"; Alain Chesnais (2010–2012), a French citizen living in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where he runs his company named Visual Transitions; and Dame Wendy Hall of the University of Southampton, UK (2008–2010).\n\nACM is led by a Council consisting of the President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Past President, SIG Governing Board Chair, Publications Board Chair, three representatives of the SIG Governing Board, and seven Members–At–Large. This institution is often referred to simply as \"Council\" in ''Communications of the ACM''.\n", "ACM has five \"Boards\" that make up various committees and subgroups, to help Headquarters staff maintain quality services and products. These boards are as follows:\n# Publications Board\n# SIG Governing Board\n# Education Board\n# Membership Services Board\n# Practitioners Board\n", "ACM-W, the ACM council on women in computing, supports, celebrates, and advocates internationally for the full engagement of women in computing. ACM–W's main programs are regional celebrations of women in computing, ACM-W chapters, and scholarships for women CS students to attend research conferences. In India and Europe these activities are overseen by ACM-W India and ACM-W Europe respectively. ACM-W collaborates with organizations such as the Anita Borg Institute, the National Center for Women & Information Technology (NCWIT), and Committee on the Status of Women in Computing Research (CRA-W).\n\n===Athena Lectures===\nThe ACM-W gives an annual Athena Lecturer Award to honor outstanding women researchers who have made fundamental contributions to computer science. This program began in 2006. Speakers are nominated by SIG officers.\n* 2006–2007: Deborah Estrin of UCLA\n* 2007–2008: Karen Spärck Jones of Cambridge University\n* 2008–2009: Shafi Goldwasser of MIT and the Weitzmann Institute of Science\n* 2009–2010: Susan Eggers of the University of Washington\n* 2010–2011: Mary Jane Irwin of the Pennsylvania State University\n* 2011–2012: Judith S. Olson of the University of California, Irvine\n* 2012–2013: Nancy Lynch of MIT\n* 2013–2014: Katherine Yelick of LBNL\n* 2014–2015: Susan Dumais of Microsoft Research\n* 2015–2016: Jennifer Widom of Stanford University\n* 2016–2017: Jennifer Rexford of Princeton University\n", "ACM's primary partner has been the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS), which is the largest subgroup of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues than theoretical computer science, but there is considerable overlap with ACM's agenda. They have many joint activities including conferences, publications and awards. ACM and its SIGs co-sponsor about 20 conferences each year with IEEE-CS and other parts of IEEE. Eckert-Mauchly Award and Ken Kennedy Award, both major awards in computer science, are given jointly by ACM and the IEEE-CS. They occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computing curricula.\n\nACM has also jointly sponsored on events with other professional organizations like the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM).\n", "\n\n* ACM Classification Scheme\n\n* Computer science\n* Computing\n* Fellows of the ACM (by year)\n* Fellows of the ACM (category)\n* Grace Murray Hopper Award\n\n* Presidents of the Association for Computing Machinery\n* Timeline of computing 2400 BC–1949\n* Turing Award\n* Franz Alt, former president\n* Edmund Berkeley, co–founder\n* Bernard Galler, former president\n\n", "\n", "\n\n ACM portal for publications\n* ACM Digital Library\n* Association for Computing Machinery Records, 1947-2009, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Activities", "Services", "Portal and Digital Library{{anchor\|Portal}}{{anchor\|Digital Library}}", "Membership grades", "Chapters", "Conferences", "Leadership", "Infrastructure", "ACM Council on Women in Computing", "Cooperation", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Association for Computing Machinery
[ "\n\n\n'''Anabaptism''' (from Neo-Latin ''anabaptista'', from the Greek : \"re-\" and \"baptism\") is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in Europe. The movement is generally seen as an offshoot of Protestantism, although this view has been challenged by some Anabaptists.\n\nAnabaptists are Christians who believe that baptism is valid only when the candidate confesses his or her faith in Christ and wants to be baptized. This believer's baptism is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized. Anabaptists are those who are in a traditional line with the early Anabaptists of the 16th century. Other Christian groups with different roots also practice believer's baptism, such as Baptists, but these groups are not seen as Anabaptist. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are considered later developments among the Anabaptists.\n\nThe name Anabaptist means \"one who baptizes again\". Their persecutors named them this, referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ, even if they had been \"baptized\" as infants. Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make a confession of faith that is freely chosen and so rejected baptism of infants. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers was their first true baptism:\n\n\nAnabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th century by both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics, largely because of their interpretation of scripture which put them at odds with official state church interpretations and with government. Most Anabaptists adhered to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government. Some groups who practiced rebaptism felt otherwise (though they are now extinct) and complied with these requirements of civil society. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and some historians consider them outside true Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in a letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524:\n\n", "\n=== Medieval forerunners ===\nAnabaptists are considered to have begun with the Radical Reformers in the 16th century, but historians classify certain people and groups as their forerunners because of a similar approach to the interpretation and application of the Bible. For instance, Petr Chelčický, a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life, the Hussites, Dutch Sacramentists, and some forms of monasticism. The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists.\n\nMedieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations:\n* The believer must not swear oaths or refer disputes between believers to law-courts for resolution, in accordance with .\n* The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the ''jus gladii'' (the right of the sword). \n* Civil government (i.e. \"Caesar\") belongs to the world. The believer belongs to God's kingdom, so must not fill any office nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed. \n* Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated, and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with believers unless they repent, according to and , but no force is to be used towards them.\n\n=== Zwickau prophets and the German Peasants' War ===\n\nOn December 27, 1521, three \"prophets\" appeared in Wittenberg from Zwickau who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) Thomas Müntzer—Thomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism. Their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants' War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression. Under the leadership of Müntzer, it became a war against all constituted authorities and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality among persons and the community of goods. The Zwickau prophets were not Anabaptists (that is, they did not practise \"rebaptism\"); nevertheless, the prevalent social inequities and the preaching of men such as these have been seen as laying the foundation for the Anabaptist movement. The social ideals of the Anabaptist movement coincided closely with those of leaders in the German Peasants' War. Studies have found a very low percentage of later Anabaptists to have been active participants in the peasant uprising.\n\n=== Views on origins ===\n\nResearch on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them and by the attempts of their supporters to vindicate them. It was long popular to classify all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau prophets, Jan Matthys, John of Leiden, and Thomas Müntzer. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and the most radical elements.\n\nThe modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius' publication of ''Die Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs'' (The History of the Münster Uprising) in 1855. Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman (1852–1933), who Harold S. Bender said occupied \"first position in the field of American Anabaptist historiography\", made a major contribution with his ''A History of Anti-Pedobaptism'' (1897).\n\nThree main theories on origins of the Anabaptists are the following:\n* The movement began in a single expression in Zürich and spread from there (Monogenesis);\n* It developed through several independent movements (polygenesis); and\n* It was a continuation of true New Testament Christianity (apostolic succession or church perpetuity).\n\n==== Monogenesis ====\nA number of scholars (e.g. Harold S. Bender, William Estep, Robert Friedmann) consider the Anabaptist movement to have developed from the Swiss Brethren movement of Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, George Blaurock, et al. They generally held that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich, and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and northern Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In the monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock, and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. These baptisms were the first \"re-baptisms\" known in the movement. This continues to be the most widely accepted date posited for the establishment of Anabaptism.\n\n==== Polygenesis ====\nJames M. Stayer, Werner O. Packull, and Klaus Deppermann disputed the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled \"From Monogenesis to Polygenesis\", suggesting that February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the Schleitheim Confession. The authors of the essay noted the agreement among previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, even when disputing the date for a single starting point: \"Hillerbrand and Bender (like Holl and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there was a single dispersion of Anabaptism ..., which certainly ran through Zurich. The only question was whether or not it went back further to Saxony.\" After criticizing the standard polygenetic history, the authors found six groups in early Anabaptism which could be collapsed into three originating \"points of departure\": \"South German Anabaptism, the Swiss Brethren, and the Melchiorites.\" According to their polygenesis theory, South German–Austrian Anabaptism \"was a diluted form of Rhineland mysticism\", Swiss Anabaptism \"arose out of Reformed congregationalism\", and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by \"Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of Melchior Hoffman\". As examples of how the Anabaptist movement was influenced from sources other than the Swiss Brethren movement, mention has been made of how Pilgram Marpeck's ''Vermanung'' of 1542 was deeply influenced by the ''Bekenntnisse'' of 1533 by Münster theologian Bernhard Rothmann. Melchior Hoffman influenced the Hutterites when they used his commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it.\n\nOthers who have written in support of polygensis include Grete Mecenseffy and Walter Klaassen, who established links between Thomas Müntzer and Hans Hut. In another work, Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull showed the influence of Thomas Müntzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Similarly, author Steven Ozment linked Hans Denck and Hans Hut with Thomas Müntzer, Sebastian Franck, and others. Author Calvin Pater showed how Andreas Karlstadt influenced Swiss Anabaptism in various areas, including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism.\n\n==== Apostolic succession ====\nBaptist successionists have, at times, pointed to 16th-century Anabaptists as part of an apostolic succession of churches (\"church perpetuity\") from the time of Christ. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and a number of \"true church\" movements.\n\nThe opponents of the Baptist successionism theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups clearly differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, or that the groups had no connection with one another and had origins that were separate both in time and in place.\n\nA different strain of successionism is the theory that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldensians are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Ludwig Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, H. C. Vedder, Delbert Grätz, John T. Christian and Thieleman J. van Braght (author of Martyrs Mirror) all held, in varying degrees, the position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin.\n", "Spread of the early anabaptists in Central Europe\n\n=== Switzerland ===\nAnabaptism in Switzerland began as an offshoot of the church reforms instigated by Ulrich Zwingli. As early as 1522 it became evident that Zwingli was on a path of reform preaching when he began to question or criticize such Catholic practices as tithes, the mass, and even infant baptism. Zwingli had gathered a group of reform-minded men around him, with whom he studied classical literature and the scriptures. However, some of these young men began to feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in his reform. The division between Zwingli and his more radical disciples became apparent in an October 1523 disputation held in Zurich. When the discussion of the mass was about to be ended without making any actual change in practice, Conrad Grebel stood up and asked \"what should be done about the mass?\" Zwingli responded by saying the council would make that decision. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a radical priest from Hongg, answered saying, \"The decision has already been made by the Spirit of God.\"\n\nThis incident illustrated clearly that Zwingli and his more radical disciples had different expectations. To Zwingli, the reforms would only go as fast as the city Council allowed them. To the radicals, the council had no right to make that decision, but rather the Bible was the final authority of church reform. Feeling frustrated, some of them began to meet on their own for Bible study. As early as 1523, William Reublin began to preach against infant baptism in villages surrounding Zurich, encouraging parents to not baptize their children.\n\nSeeking fellowship with other reform-minded people, the radical group wrote letters to Martin Luther, Andreas Karlstadt, and Thomas Müntzer. Felix Manz began to publish some of Karlstadt's writings in Zurich in late 1524. By this time the question of infant baptism had become agitated and the Zurich council had instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those who rejected infant baptism \"until the matter could be resolved\". Zwingli broke off the meetings after two sessions, and Felix Manz petitioned the Council to find a solution, since he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. The council then called a meeting for January 17, 1525.\n\nDissatisfaction with the outcome of a disputation in 1525 prompted Swiss Brethren to part ways with Huldrych Zwingli.\nThe Council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Since Conrad Grebel had refused to baptize his daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the Council decision was extremely personal to him and others who had not baptized their children. Thus, when sixteen of the radicals met on Saturday evening, January 21, 1525, the situation seemed particularly dark. The Hutterian Chronicle records the event:\n\n\n\nAfter Blaurock was baptized, he in turn baptized others at the meeting. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus, technically, Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day.\n\n=== Tyrol ===\nAnabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol through the labors of George Blaurock. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gasmair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. Michael Gasmair had tried to bring religious, political, and economical reform through a violent peasant uprising, but the movement was squashed. Although little hard evidence exists of a direct connection between Gasmair's uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at least a few of the peasants involved in the uprising later became Anabaptists. While a connection between a violent social revolution and non-resistant Anabaptism may be hard to imagine, the common link was the desire for a radical change in the prevailing social injustices. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants.\n\nBefore Anabaptism proper was introduced to South Tyrol, Protestant ideas had been propagated in the region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those who participated in conventicles where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. As well, the population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. George Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in the area. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on September 6, 1529.\n\nJacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol, and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Hutter made several trips between Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia because of the fierce persecution unleashed by Ferdinand I. In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was beginning to die out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution.\n\n=== The Low Countries ===\nMelchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the Low Countries. Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and Reformed ideas, but on April 23, 1530 he was \"re-baptized\" at Strasbourg and within two months had gone to Emden and baptized about 300 persons. For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. Hoffman's apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to the Münster Rebellion, even though he was \"of a different spirit\". Obbe and Dirk Philips had been baptized by disciples of Jan Matthijs, but were opposed to the violence that occurred at Münster. Obbe later became disillusioned with Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement in about 1540, but not before ordaining David Joris, his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons, the latter from whom the Mennonites received their name. David Joris and Menno Simons parted ways, with Joris placing more emphasis on \"spirit and prophecy\", while Menno emphasized the authority of the Bible. For the Mennonite side, the emphasis on the \"inner\" and \"spiritual\" permitted compromise to \"escape persecution\", while to the Joris side, the Mennonites were under the \"dead letter of the Scripture\". Because of persecution and expansion, many of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Prussia, and from there to Ukraine (which at the time was part of Russia). In the late 1800s, many of the Russian Mennonites emigrated to the prairie states and provinces of the U.S. and Canada; to Mexico; to Belize, and to South America (especially Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil) where thousands of them still live in colonies.\n\n=== Moravia ===\nAlthough Moravian Anabaptism was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together. The coming of Balthasar Hübmaier to Nikolsburg was a definite boost for Anabaptist ideas to the area. With the great influx of religious refugees from all over Europe, many variations of Anabaptism appeared in Moravia, with Jarold Zeman documenting at least ten slightly different versions. Soon, one-eyed Jacob Wiedemann appeared at Nikolsburg, and began to teach the pacifistic convictions of the Swiss Brethren, on which Hübmaier had been less authoritative. This would lead to a division between the ''Schwertler'' (sword-bearing) and the ''Stäbler'' (staff-bearing). Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of community of goods. With orders from the lords of Liechtenstein to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 ''Stäbler'' withdrew to Moravia to form a community at Austerlitz.\n\nPersecution in South Tyrol brought many refugees to Moravia, many of whom formed into communities that practised community of goods. Jacob Hutter was instrumental in organizing these into what became known as the Hutterites. But others came from Silesia, Switzerland, German lands, and the Low Countries. With the passing of time and persecution, all the other versions of Anabaptism would die out in Moravia, leaving only the Hutterites. Even the Hutterites would be dissipated by persecution, with a remnant fleeing to Transylvania, then to the Ukraine, and finally to North America in 1874.\n\n=== South Germany ===\nSouth German Anabaptism had its roots in German mysticism. Andreas Karlstadt, who first worked alongside Martin Luther, is seen as a forerunner of South German Anabaptism because of his reforming theology that rejected many Catholic practices, including infant baptism. However, Karlstadt is not known to have been \"rebaptized\", nor to have taught it. Hans Denck and Hans Hut, both with German Mystical background (in connection with Thomas Muntzer) both accepted \"rebaptism\", but Denck eventually backed off from the idea under pressure. Hans Hut is said to have brought more people into early Anabaptism than all the other Anabaptist evangelists of his time put together. However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism (at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the Tau on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Some seem to have taken it as a sign by which they would escape the apocalyptical revenge of the Turks that Hut predicted. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. The large congregation of Anabaptists at Augsburg fell apart (partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations. Pilgram Marpeck was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism.\n\n=== Persecutions and migrations ===\nThe burning of a 16th-century Dutch Anabaptist, Anneken Hendriks, who was charged by the Spanish Inquisition with heresy.\nRoman Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Anabaptists, with Felix Manz becoming the first martyr in 1527. On May 20 or 21st, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler. King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the ''third baptism'') \"the best antidote to Anabaptism\". The Tudor regime, even the Protestant monarchs (Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore a danger to religious stability. The persecution of Anabaptists was condoned by ancient laws of Theodosius I and Justinian I that were passed against the Donatists, which decreed the death penalty for any who practised rebaptism. ''Martyrs Mirror'', by Thieleman J. van Braght, describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists in various parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in Europe was largely responsible for the mass emigrations to North America by Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites.\n\nUnlike Calvinists, Anabaptists failed to get a recognition in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 and persecution continued in Europe well after that treaty.\n", "\n\nDifferent types exist among the Anabaptists, although the categorizations tend to vary with the scholar's viewpoint on origins. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must \"distinguish between the Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists\". He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Balthasar Hubmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. He groups Müntzer, Storch, et al. as inspirationists, and anti-trinitarians such as Michael Servetus, Juan de Valdés, Sebastian Castellio, and Faustus Socinus as rationalists. Mark S. Ritchie follows this line of thought, saying, \"The Anabaptists were one of several branches of 'Radical' reformers (i.e. reformers that went further than the mainstream Reformers) to arise out of the Renaissance and Reformation. Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti-Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus.\"\n\nThose of the polygenesis viewpoint use ''Anabaptist'' to define the larger movement, and include the inspirationists and rationalists as true Anabaptists. James M. Stayer used the term ''Anabaptist'' for those who ''rebaptized'' persons already \"baptized\" in infancy. Walter Klaassen was perhaps the first Mennonite scholar to define ''Anabaptists'' that way in his 1960 Oxford dissertation. This represents a rejection of the previous standard held by Mennonite scholars such as Bender and Friedmann.\n\nAnother method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch and Frisian Anabaptism (Menno Simons, Dirk Philips), and South German Anabaptism (Hübmaier, Marpeck).\n\nHistorians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build a New Jerusalem, and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as Mennonites. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Münsterites, who occupied and held the German city of Münster in 1534–1535, and the Batenburgers, who persisted in various guises as late as the 1570s.\n", "Memorial plate at Schipfe quarter in Zürich for the Anabaptists executed in the early 16th century by the Zürich city government\n\n=== Charismatic manifestations ===\nWithin the inspirationist wing of the Anabaptist movement, it was not unusual for charismatic manifestations to appear, such as dancing, falling under the power of the Holy Spirit, \"prophetic processions\" (at Zurich in 1525, at Munster in 1534 and at Amsterdam in 1535), and speaking in tongues. In Germany some Anabaptists, \"excited by mass hypnosis, experienced healings, glossolalia, contortions and other manifestations of a camp-meeting revival\". The Anabaptist congregations that later developed into the Mennonite and Hutterite churches tended not to promote these manifestations, but did not totally reject the miraculous. Pilgram Marpeck, for example, wrote against the exclusion of miracles: \"Nor does Scripture assert this exclusion ... God has a free hand even in these last days.\" Referring to some who had been raised from the dead, he wrote: \"Many of them have remained constant, enduring tortures inflicted by sword, rope, fire and water and suffering terrible, tyrannical, unheard-of deaths and martyrdoms, all of which they could easily have avoided by recantation. Moreover one also marvels when he sees how the faithful God (Who, after all, overflows with goodness) raises from the dead several such brothers and sisters of Christ after they were hanged, drowned, or killed in other ways. Even today, they are found alive and we can hear their own testimony ... Cannot everyone who sees, even the blind, say with a good conscience that such things are a powerful, unusual, and miraculous act of God? Those who would deny it must be hardened men.\" The Hutterite Chronicle and The Martyrs Mirror record several accounts of miraculous events, such as when a man named Martin prophesied while being led across a bridge to his execution in 1531: \"this once yet the pious are led over this bridge, but no more hereafter\". Just \"a short time afterwards such a violent storm and flood came that the bridge was demolished\".\n\n=== Holy Spirit leadership ===\nThe Anabaptists insisted upon the \"free course\" of the Holy Spirit in worship, yet still maintained it all must be judged according to the Scriptures. The Swiss Anabaptist document titled \"Answer of Some Who Are Called (Ana-)Baptists – Why They Do Not Attend the Churches\". One reason given for not attending the state churches was that these institutions forbade the congregation to exercise spiritual gifts according to \"the Christian order as taught in the gospel or the Word of God in 1 Corinthians 14\". \"When such believers come together, 'Everyone of you (note every one) hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an interpretation', and so on. When someone comes to church and constantly hears only one person speaking, and all the listeners are silent, neither speaking nor prophesying, who can or will regard or confess the same to be a spiritual congregation, or confess according to 1 Corinthians 14 that God is dwelling and operating in them through His Holy Spirit with His gifts, impelling them one after another in the above-mentioned order of speaking and prophesying.\"\n", "\n=== Anabaptists ===\nHutterites in North America\nMennonite family in Campeche, Mexico\nAmish children on their way to school\n\nSeveral existing denominational bodies are the direct successors of the continental Anabaptists. Mennonites, Amish and Hutterites are in a direct and unbroken line back to the Anabapists of the early 16th century. Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren emerged in the 18th century and adopted many Anabapist elements. The same is true for the Bruderhof Communities that emerged in the early 20th century. Sometimes the Apostolic Christian Church is seen as ''Neutäufer'' (\"Neo-Anabaptist\"). Some historical connections have been demonstrated for all of these spiritual descendants, though perhaps not as clearly as the noted institutionally lineal descendants.\n\nAlthough many see the more well-known Anabaptist groups (Amish, Hutterites and Mennonites) as ethnic groups, only the Amish and the Hutterites today are composed almost totally of descendants of the continental Anabaptists, while among the Mennonites there are Ethnic Mennonites and others who are not. Brethren groups have mostly lost their ethnic distinctiveness.\n\nTotal worldwide membership of the Mennonite, Brethren in Christ and related churches totals 1,616,126 (as of 2009) with about 60 percent in Africa, Asia and Latin America. In 2015 there were some 300,000 Amish, more than 200,000 \"Russian\" Mennonites in Latin America, some 60,000 to 80,000 Old Order Mennonites and some 50,000 Hutterites, who have preserved their ethnicity, their German dialects (Pennsylvania German, Plautdietsch, Hutterisch), Plain dress and many other old traditions.\n\n=== Similar groups ===\nThe Bruderhof Communities were founded in Germany by Eberhard Arnold in 1920, establishing and organisationally joining the Hutterites in 1930. The group moved to England after the Gestapo confiscated their property in 1933, and subsequently to Paraguay to avoid military conscription, and by settlement then moved the United States after World War II.\n\nGroups deriving from the Schwarzenau Brethren, often called German Baptists, while not directly descended from the 16th-century Anabaptists, are usually considered Anabaptist because of an almost identical doctrine and practice. The modern-day Brethren movement is a combination of Anabaptism and Radical Pietism.\n\nThe relations between Baptists and Anabaptists were early strained. In 1624, the then five existing Baptist churches of London issued a condemnation of the Anabaptists. Puritans of England and their Baptist branch arose independently, and although they may have been informed by Anabaptist theology, they clearly differentiate themselves from Anabaptists as seen in the London Baptist Confession of Faith A.D. 1644, \"Of those Churches which are commonly (though falsely) called ANABAPTISTS\". Moreover, Baptist historian Chris Traffanstedt maintains that Anabaptists share \"some similarities with the early General Baptists, but overall these similarities are slight and not always relational. In the end, we must come to say that this group of Christians does not reflect the historical teaching of the Baptists\". German Baptists are not related to the English Baptist movement and were inspired by central European Anabaptists. Upon moving to the United States, they associated with Mennonites and Quakers.\n\nAnabaptist characters exist in popular culture, most notably Chaplain Tappman in Joseph Heller's novel ''Catch-22'', James (Jacques) in Voltaire's novella ''Candide'', Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera ''Le prophète'' (1849), and the central character in the novel ''Q'', by the collective known as \"Luther Blissett\".\n\n=== Neo-Anabaptists ===\nThe term ''Neo-Anabaptist'' has been used to describe a late twentieth and early twenty-first century theological movement within American evangelical Christianity which draws inspiration from theologians located within the Anabaptist tradition while remaining ecclesiastically outside of it. Neo-Anabaptists have been noted for its \"low church, counter-cultural, prophetic-stance-against-empire ethos\" and for focusing on pacifism, social justice and poverty. The works of Mennonite theologians Ron Sider and John Howard Yoder are frequently cited as having a strong influence on the movement.\n\nPersons often associated with the Neo-Anabaptist movement include Stanley Hauerwas, Scot McKnight, Rob Bell, Brian McLaren, Jim Wallis, and Shane Claiborne.\n", "Common Anabaptist beliefs and practices of the 16th century continue to influence modern Christianity and Western society.\nDirk Willems saves his pursuer. This act of mercy led to his recapture, after which he was burned at the stake. .\n\nVoluntary church membership and believer's baptism\nFreedom of religion – liberty of conscience\nSeparation of church and state\nSeparation or nonconformity to the world\nNonresistance, in modernized groups interpreted as pacifism\nPriesthood of all believers\n\nThe Anabaptists were early promoters of a free church and freedom of religion (sometimes associated with separation of church and state). When it was introduced by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom independent of the state was unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy; Kropotkin traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities.\n\nAccording to Estep:\n\n", "\nAdrianists\nAmish Mennonite\nApostles' Creed § Articles 9–10\nThe Brethren Church\nBrethren, Anabaptist Group\nChristian Anarchism\nChurch of the Brethren\nConservative Mennonites\n* Donatists (first historical occurrence of Anabaptism)\nFunkite\nMelchior Rink, a central-German Anabaptist leader during the sixteenth-century\nPeace churches\nShtundists\nWaldensians\nList of Anabaptist churches\n", "\n", "\n", "* .\n* Carroll, J.M. (1931). ''The Trail of Blood: Following the Christians Down through the Ages, or, the history of Baptist Churches from the Time of Christ, Their Founder, to the Present Day''. Lexington, Ky.: Ashland Avenue Baptist Church. 56 p. + fold. chart. Without ISBN\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* Knox, Ronald. ''Enthusiasm: a Chapter in the History of Religion, with Special Reference to the XVII and XVIII Centuries''. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1950. viii, 622 p.\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n", "* .\n* .\nFast, Heinhold. \"Anabaptists.\" In ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity'', edited by Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, 45–48. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999. \n''Anabaptists and the Sword'', by James M. Stayer, ( Google Books, )\n''In Editha's Days. A Tale of Religious Liberty'', by Mary E. Bamford LCCN 06006296 (republished as ''The Bible Makes Us Baptists'', Larry Harrison, ed.), ( Google Books)\n''Mennonite Encyclopedia'', Harold S. Bender, Cornelius J. Dyck, Dennis D. Martin, Henry C. Smith, et al., editors, ( Google Books, )\n''Revelation & Revolution: Basic Writings of Thomas Muntzer'', by Michael G. Baylor, ( Google Books, )\n''The Anabaptist Vision'', by Harold S. Bender, ( Google Books, )\n''The Anatomy of a Hybrid : a Study in Church-State Relationships'' by Leonard Verduin, ( Google Books, )\n''The Bloody Theater or Martyrs Mirror'', by Thieleman J. van Braght, ( Google Books, )\n''The Encyclopedia of American Religions'', by J. Gordon Melton, ( Google Books, )\n .\n''The Pursuit of the Millennium'', by Norman Cohn, ( Google Books, )\n''The Reformers and their Stepchildren'', by Leonard Verduin, ( Google Books, )\n''The Secret of the Strength'', by Peter Hoover, ( Google Books) ( Free pdf)\n''The Tailor King: The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptist Kingdom of Munster'', by Anthony Arthur, ( Google Books, )\n", "\n\n\n \n* Anabaptist History Complete Playlist (Parts 1–20) history of the movement from the Bible to present. (YouTube videos, 27 hours)\n* \n* \n* The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists, by E. Belfort Bax 1903\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Origins ", " History ", " Types ", " Spirituality ", " Today ", " Legacy ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Anabaptism
[ "\n\n'''Ans''' may refer to:\n\nAns, a Belgian municipality in the province of Liège\nAns, Denmark, a village in Denmark\nAns (given name), A Dutch feminine given name\n\nAs an acronym '''ANS''' may refer to:\n\n;Music:\n ''ANS'' (album), a box set from the British band Coil\n* \"ANS\" (song), a single by the British band Coil\n* ANS synthesizer, a Russian photoelectric musical instrument\n* A.N.S, an American crossover thrash band\n\n;Transportation:\n* The station code of Ainsdale railway station in England\n* The IATA airport code of Andahuaylas Airport in Peru\n\n;Media:\n* Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad, a Dutch student magazine\n* ANS Group of Companies, a news organization in Azerbaijan\n\n;Science and technology:\n* Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, USA\n* American National Standards, defined by the American National Standards Institute\n* Adrenergic nervous system, adrenaline and noradrenaline neurotransmitters distribution in human body\n* Advanced Network and Services, a non-profit network service provider in the 1990s\n* American Nuclear Society\n* 8-Anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonic acid, a fluorescent chemical compound used as a molecular probe\n* Anthocyanidin synthase, an enzyme in the leucocyanidin biosynthetis pathway\n* Approximate number system, a hypothesized physiological basis for the sense of number\n* Astronomical Netherlands Satellite, a Dutch X-ray satellite\n* Asymmetric Numeral Systems, coding in data compression\n* Audubon Naturalist Society, an environmental organization based in the Washington, DC area\n* Authoritative name server, a DNS server\n* Autonomic nervous system, part of the peripheral nervous system in the body\n* ANS carriage control characters (or ASA control characters), for computer line printers\n* Air Navigation Services, as delivered by an Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP)\n\n;Other uses\n* Aktiefront Nationaal Socialisme, a forbidden Dutch neonazi group\n* Algemene Nedersaksiese Schriefwieze, a Dutch Low Saxon orthography\n* American Name Society\n* American Nicaraguan School\n* American Numismatic Society\n* Amman National School, in Amman, Jordan\n* Anna Nicole Smith, American model and actress\n* Ansvarlig selskap, a Norwegian personal responsibility company model\n* Armée Nationale Sihanoukiste, a Cambodian resistance group\n* In MATLAB, the '''ans''' variable is created automatically when no output argument is specified, and it refers to the most recent answer.\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	ANS
[ "Southeast Alaska and Alaska Marine Highway ferry routes\n'''Southeast Alaska''', sometimes referred to as the '''Alaska Panhandle''', is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska, which lies west from the northern half of the Canadian province, British Columbia. The majority of Southeast Alaska's area is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States' largest national forest. In many places, the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains (see Alaska boundary dispute). The region is noted for its scenery and mild rainy climate.\nMisty Fjords Waterfall and kayak\nKöppen climate types in southeast Alaska\nThe Tongass National Forest, near Ketchikan\nCruise ships at Ketchikan\n", "\nSoutheast Alaska is the northern terminus of the Inside Passage, a protected waterway of convoluted passages between islands and fjords, beginning in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was an important travel corridor for Tlingit and Haida Native peoples, as well as gold-rush era steamships. In modern times it is an important route for Alaska Marine Highway ferries as well as cruise ships. \nSoutheast Alaska has a land area of comprising seven entire boroughs and two census areas, in addition to the portion of the Yakutat Borough lying east of 141° West longitude. Although it has only 6.14 percent of Alaska's land area, it is larger than the state of Maine, and almost as large as the state of Indiana. The Southeast Alaskan coast is roughly as long as the west coast of Canada. The 2010 census population of Southeast was 71,616 inhabitants, about 45 percent of whom were concentrated in the city of Juneau.\nHaines Borough\nHoonah-Angoon Census Area\nJuneau Borough\nKetchikan Gateway Borough\nPetersburg Borough\nPrince of Wales-Hyder Census Area\nSitka Borough\nSkagway Borough\nWrangell Borough\nYakutat Borough (the part east of 141° W longitude; 12,506.53 km2 / 4,828.80 sq mi, or about 63.12 percent of the borough)\nIt includes the Tongass National Forest (which manages Admiralty Island National Monument and Misty Fjords National Monument), Glacier Bay National Park, Sitka National Historical Park, Alaska's Inside Passage, and myriad large and small islands. The largest islands are, from North to South, Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, Kupreanof Island, Revillagigedo Island and Prince of Wales Island. Major bodies of water of Southeast Alaska include Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal, Icy Strait, Chatham Strait, Stephens Passage, Frederick Sound, Sumner Strait, and Clarence Strait.\n\nOn August 20, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the Tongass National Forest that covers most of the region.\n", "Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve\nKlondike Gold Rush National Historical Park\nSitka National Historical Park\nWrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve (part, the southeasternmost section only)\nAdmiralty Island National Monument\nMisty Fjords National Monument\n", "Southeast Alaska is a temperate rain forest within the Pacific temperate rain forest zone, as classified by the World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion system, which extends from northern California to Prince William Sound. The most common tree species are sitka spruce and western hemlock.\nWildlife includes brown bears, black bears, the endemic Alexander Archipelago wolf, Sitka black-tailed deer, humpback whales, orcas, five species of salmon, bald eagles, harlequin ducks, scoters, and marbled murrelets.\n\nThe Ecological Atlas of Southeast Alaska, published by Audubon Alaska in 2016, offers an overview of the region's landscape, birds, wildlife, human uses, climate change, and more, synthesizing data from agencies and a variety of other sources.\n", "Major cities are Juneau, Ketchikan, and Sitka. Other towns are Petersburg, Wrangell, Metlakatla, Haines, Hoonah, Angoon, Kake, Craig, Klawock, Thorne Bay, Yakutat, Skagway, and Gustavus. There are also many towns and villages with around 100 people, such as Baranof Warm Springs, Edna Bay, Elfin Cove, Excursion Inlet, Funter Bay, Meyers Chuck, Pelican, Port Alexander, Port Frederick, Port Protection, and Tenakee Springs. This region is also home to the easternmost town in Alaska, Hyder.\n", "Totem pole at Sitka National Historical Park\nThis area is the traditional homeland of the Tlingit, and home of a historic settling of Haida as well as a modern settlement of Tsimshian. The region is closely connected to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest economically and culturally.\n\nIn modern times, southeastern Alaskans can often be identified by their fashion choices, notably\nXtratuf boots, and \"shirtjacs\" (a garment having aspects of both shirt and jacket).\n\n", "Major industries in Southeast Alaska include commercial fishing and tourism (primarily the cruise ship industry). \n\n=== Logging ===\nLogging has been an important industry in the past, but has been steadily declining with competition from other areas and the closure of the region's major pulp mills; the Alaska Forest Association described the situation as \"desperate\" in 2011. Its members include Alcan Forest Products (owned by Canadian Transpac Group, one of the top 5 log exporters in North America) and Viking Lumber, which had been founded in Maine. Debates over whether to expand logging in the federally owned Tongass are not uncommon.\n\n=== Mining ===\nMining remains important in the northern area with the Juneau mining district and Admiralty mining district hosting active mines as of 2015. Gold was discovered in 1880 and played an important part in the early history of the region.\n\nIn the 2010s, mines increasingly begun to be explored and eventually completed in neighboring British Columbia, upstream of important rivers such as the Unuk and the Stikine, which became known as the transboundary mining issue. In 2014, the Mount Polley Mine disaster focused attention on the issue, and an agreement between Canada and Alaska was drafted in 2015.\n\nThe proposed Kerr Sulphurets Mitchell exploration is upstream of the Unuk. Mines upstream of the Stikine include the Red Chris, which is owned by the same company (Imperial Metals) as the Mount Polley mine.\n", "The border between the Canadian province of British Columbia and Alaska is known as the Alaska boundary dispute, where the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom and British Columbia claimed different borderlines at the Alaskan Panhandle. While the British foreign affairs were in favor of support of the Canadian argument, the event resulted in what was thought of as a betrayal, leading to alienation of the British from the new nation of Canada.\n\nHistorian Patricia Roppel authored thirteen books and more than 100 articles, many of which regarded the region.\n", "Due to the extremely rugged, mountainous nature of Southeastern Alaska, almost all communities (with the exception of Hyder, Skagway, and Haines) have no road connections outside of their locale, so aircraft and boats are the major means of transport. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through this region.\n\n===Air transportation===\nAlaska Airlines is by far the largest air carrier in the region, with Juneau's Juneau International Airport serving as the aerial hub for all of Southeast and Ketchikan's Ketchikan International Airport serving as a secondary hub for southern Southeast Alaska. Alaska's bush airlines and air taxis serve many of the smaller and more isolated communities and villages in the regions. Many communities are accessible by air only by floatplane, as proper runways are often difficult to construct on the steep island slopes.\n\n===Marine transportation===\nSoutheast Alaska is primarily served by the state-run Alaska Marine Highway, which links Skagway, Haines, Hoonah, Juneau, Sitka, Petersburg, Wrangell, Ketchikan and other outlying communities with Prince Rupert, BC and Bellingham, Washington; and secondarily by the Prince of Wales Island-based Inter-Island Ferry Authority, which provides the only scheduled passenger and auto ferry service to the island. A new Authority, the Rainforest Islands Ferry Authority, was created and in 2014 may possibly operate the North End route. The Authority would connect Coffman Cove with Wrangell and Petersburg. Small companies like Sitka-based Allen Marine and other independent operators in the Lynn Canal occasionally also offer marine passenger service. Ship traffic in the area is seasonally busy with cruise ships.\n", "Alexander Archipelago\nAlexander Archipelago wolf\nClimate change in southeast Alaska\nList of edible plants and mushrooms of southeast Alaska\n", "\n", "* The regional economy of southeast Alaska: final report, 2007 / prepared for Alaska Conservation Foundation; prepared by Steve Colt, Darcy Dugan, Ginny Fay (EcoSystems). Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program.\n* Southeast Alaska energy export study: final report, 2006 / prepared for The Southeast Conference; by D. Hittle & Associates, Inc., in association with Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by the Alaska State Publications Program.\n* Swan - Tyee intertie economic analysis, 2006 / prepared for the Four Dam Pool Power Agency; prepared by Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program.\n* The Economic Impacts of the Alaska Marine Highway System, January 2016 / Prepared for Alaska Marine Highway System; Prepared by McDowell Group\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Geography", "National parks and monuments", "Ecology", "Cities and towns", "Culture", "Industry", " History ", "Transportation", "See also", " References ", "External links" ]	Southeast Alaska
[ "\n\nThe '''''Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad''''' is an independent student magazine for the Radboud University Nijmegen. Founded in 1985 by members of the local student union AKKU, it is now published by the Stichting Multimedia.\n", "* http://www.ans-online.nl/ (Flash required)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "External links" ]	Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad
[ "\nInterior Alaska.\nFall in Interior Alaska.\n'''Interior Alaska''' is the central region of Alaska's territory, roughly bounded by the Alaska Range to the south and the Brooks Range to the north. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Denali in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains. The native people of the interior are Alaskan Athabaskans. The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, Alaska's second-largest city, in the Tanana Valley. Other towns include North Pole, just southeast of Fairbanks, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy and Cantwell.\n\n__TOC__\n", "Northern Lights and Big Dipper at Fairbanks, AK during September.\n\nInterior Alaska experiences extreme seasonal temperature variability. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures average +62 °F (+17 °C). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as +99 °F (+37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−64 °C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter are highly variable as well; extended cold snaps of forty below zero can be followed by unseasonable warmth with temperatures above freezing due to chinook wind effects.\n\nSummers can be warm and dry for extended periods creating ideal fire weather conditions. Weak thunderstorms produce mostly dry lightning, sparking wildfires that are mostly left to burn themselves out as they are often far from populated areas. The 2004 season set a new record with over burned.\nLakes and peaks of the Alaska Range seen from the Denali Highway\nThe average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (28.7 cm). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska, south of the state, though these storms often have limited precipitation due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Alaska Range.\n\nOn clear winter nights, the aurora borealis can often be seen dancing in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than four hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter.\n\nThe interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous permafrost, which grades to continuous permafrost as the Arctic Circle is approached.\n\n\nImage:Fires in Interior Alaska.jpg\|Fires in Interior Alaska from July 7, 2009.\nImage:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska (natural).jpg\|The thick pall of smoke the fires were creating (August 2, 2009).\nImage:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska.jpg\|Visible, short wave and near-infra-red image showing burned areas (brick red) and unburned vegetation (bright green) (August 2, 2009).\n\n\n", "While the vast majority of indigenous Native people of Interior Alaska are Athabaskan Indians, a significant Eskimo (Yup'ik and Iñupiaq) population resides in Fairbanks.\n\nThe federally recognized tribes of Interior Alaska: \n* Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG): Beaver Village, Birch Creek Tribe, Circle Native Community, Native Village of Fort Yukon, Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (also known as Arctic Village and Village of Venetie).\n* Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC): Allakaket Village, Alatna Village, Village of Anaktuvuk Pass, Chalkyitsik Village, Village of Dot Lake, Native Village of Eagle, Evansville Village (also known as Bettles Field), Galena Village (also known as Louden Village), Healy Lake Village, Hughes Village, Huslia Village, Village of Kaltag, Koyukuk Native Village, Manley Hot Springs Village, Native Village of Minto, Nenana Native Association, Nikolai Village (Edzeno’ Native Council), Northway Village, Nulato Village, Rampart Village, Native Village of Ruby, Native Village of Stevens, Native Village of Tanacross, Telida Village, Native Village of Tetlin.\n* Tanana Tribal Council: Native Village of Tanana.\n* Other places in the Interior Service Area not Federally Recognized as Tribes: Alcan, Anderson, Big Delta, Canyon Village, Central, Chatanika, Chicken, Clear, Delta Junction, Fairbanks, Fox, Indian River, Kokrines, Lake Minchumina, Medfra, North Pole, Salcha, Tok, Toklat, Tolovana, Wiseman, Wood River.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Climate ", " Alaska Natives ", " References " ]	Interior Alaska
[ "\n\n\n\"'''And did those feet in ancient time'''\" is a short poem by William Blake from the preface to his epic ''Milton a Poem'', one of a collection of writings known as the Prophetic Books. The date of 1804 on the title page is probably when the plates were begun, but the poem was printed c. 1808. Today it is best known as the anthem \"'''Jerusalem'''\", with music written by Sir Hubert Parry in 1916. It is not to be confused with another poem, much longer and larger in scope, but also by Blake, called ''Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion''.\n\nThe poem was inspired by the apocryphal story that a young Jesus, accompanied by Joseph of Arimathea, a tin merchant, travelled to what is now England and visited Glastonbury during his unknown years. The poem's theme is linked to the Book of Revelation (3:12 and 21:2) describing a Second Coming, wherein Jesus establishes a New Jerusalem. The Christian church in general, and the English Church in particular, has long used Jerusalem as a metaphor for Heaven, a place of universal love and peace.\n\nIn the most common interpretation of the poem, Blake implies that a visit by Jesus would briefly create heaven in England, in contrast to the \"dark Satanic Mills\" of the Industrial Revolution. Blake's poem asks four questions rather than asserting the historical truth of Christ's visit. Thus the poem merely implies that there may, or may not, have been a divine visit, when there was briefly heaven in England.\n", "The original text is found in the preface Blake wrote for inclusion with ''Milton, a Poem'', following the lines beginning \"The Stolen and Perverted Writings of Homer & Ovid: of Plato & Cicero, which all Men ought to contemn: ...\"\n'''Blake's poem'''\n\n\nBeneath the poem Blake inscribed a quotation from the Bible:\n\n\n===\"Dark Satanic Mills\"===\nAlbion Flour Mills\nThe phrase \"dark Satanic Mills\", which entered the English language from this poem, is often interpreted as referring to the early Industrial Revolution and its destruction of nature and human relationships.\n\nThis view has been linked to the fate of the Albion Flour Mills, which was the first major factory in London. Designed by John Rennie and Samuel Wyatt, the factory was built on land purchased by Wyatt in Southwark. This rotary steam-powered flour mill by Matthew Boulton and James Watt used grinding gears by Rennie to produce 6000 bushels of flour per week.\n\nThe factory could have driven independent traditional millers out of business, but it was destroyed in 1791 by fire, perhaps deliberately. London's independent millers celebrated with placards reading, \"Success to the mills of Albion but no Albion Mills.\" Opponents referred to the factory as satanic, and accused its owners of adulterating flour and using cheap imports at the expense of British producers. A contemporary illustration of the fire shows a devil squatting on the building. The mills were a short distance from Blake's home.\n\nBlake's phrase resonates with a wider theme in his works, what he envisioned as a physically and spiritually repressive ideology based on a quantified reality. Blake saw the cotton mills and collieries of the period as a mechanism for the enslavement of millions, but the concepts underpinning the works had a wider application:\n\n\nThe first reference to Satan's \"mills\", next to images of megaliths (Milton: A Poem in Two Books, copy C, object 4) Another interpretation, amongst Nonconformists, is that the phrase refers to the established Church of England. This church preached a doctrine of conformity to the established social order and class system, in contrast to Blake. In 2007 the new Bishop of Durham, N. T. Wright, explicitly recognised this element of English subculture when he acknowledged this alternative view that the \"dark satanic mills\" refer to the \"great churches\". In similar vein, the critic F. W. Bateson noted how \"the adoption by the Churches and women's organizations of this anti-clerical paean of free love is amusing evidence of the carelessness with which poetry is read\".\n\nStonehenge and other megaliths are featured in ''Milton'', suggesting they may relate to the oppressive power of priestcraft in general; as Peter Porter observed, many scholars argue that the \"mills are churches and not the factories of the Industrial Revolution everyone else takes them for\".\n\nAn alternative theory is that Blake is referring to a mystical concept within his own mythology related to the ancient history of England. Satan's \"mills\" are referred to repeatedly in the main poem, and are first described in words which suggest neither industrialism nor ancient megaliths, but rather something more abstract: \"the starry Mills of Satan/ Are built beneath the earth and waters of the Mundane Shell...To Mortals thy Mills seem everything, and the Harrow of Shaddai / A scheme of human conduct invisible and incomprehensible\".\n\n===\"Chariot of fire\"===\nThe line from the poem \"Bring me my Chariot of fire!\" draws on the story of 2 Kings 2:11, where the Old Testament prophet Elijah is taken directly to heaven: \"And it came to pass, as they still went on, and talked, that, behold, there appeared a chariot of fire, and horses of fire, and parted them both asunder; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven.\" The phrase has become a byword for divine energy, and inspired the title of the 1981 film ''Chariots of Fire''. The plural phrase \"chariots of fire\" refers to 2 Kings 6:16–18.\n\n===\"Green and pleasant Land\"===\nBlake lived in London for most of his life, but wrote much of ''Milton'' while living in the village of Felpham in Sussex. Amanda Gilroy argues that the poem is informed by Blake's \"evident pleasure\" in the Felpham countryside.\n\nThe phrase \"green and pleasant land\" has become a collocation for identifiably English landscape or society. It appears as a headline, title or sub-title in numerous articles and books. Sometimes it refers, whether with appreciation, nostalgia or critical analysis, to idyllic or enigmatic aspects of the English countryside. In other contexts it can suggest the perceived habits and aspirations of rural middle-class life. Sometimes it is used ironically, e.g. in the Dire Straits song \"Iron Hand\".\n\n===Revolution===\nSeveral of Blake's poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity: \"As all men are alike (tho' infinitely various)\". He retained an active interest in social and political events for all his life, but was often forced to resort to cloaking social idealism and political statements in Protestant mystical allegory. Even though the poem was written during the Napoleonic Wars, Blake was an outspoken supporter of the French Revolution, and Napoleon claimed to be continuing this revolution. The poem expressed his desire for radical change without overt sedition. (In 1803 Blake was charged at Chichester with high treason for having \"uttered seditious and treasonable expressions\", but was acquitted.) The poem is followed in the preface by a quotation from ''Numbers'' ch. 11, v. 29: \"Would to God that all the Lords people were prophets.\" Christopher Rowland has argued that this includes\n\neveryone in the task of speaking out about what they saw. Prophecy for Blake, however, was not a prediction of the end of the world, but telling the truth as best a person can about what he or she sees, fortified by insight and an \"honest persuasion\" that with personal struggle, things could be improved. A human being observes, is indignant and speaks out: it's a basic political maxim which is necessary for any age. Blake wanted to stir people from their intellectual slumbers, and the daily grind of their toil, to see that they were captivated in the grip of a culture which kept them thinking in ways which served the interests of the powerful.\n\nThe words of the poem \"stress the importance of people taking responsibility for change and building a better society 'in Englands green and pleasant land.'\"\n", "\n\nThe poem, which was little known during the century which followed its writing, was included in the patriotic anthology of verse ''The Spirit of Man,'' edited by the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, Robert Bridges, and published in 1916, at a time when morale had begun to decline because of the high number of casualties in World War I and the perception that there was no end in sight.\n\nUnder these circumstances, Bridges, finding the poem an appropriate hymn text to \"brace the spirit of the nation to accept with cheerfulness all the sacrifices necessary,\" asked Sir Hubert Parry to put it to music for a Fight for Right campaign meeting in London's Queen's Hall. Bridges asked Parry to supply \"suitable, simple music to Blake's stanzas – music that an audience could take up and join in\", and added that, if Parry could not do it himself, he might delegate the task to George Butterworth.\n\nThe poem's idealistic theme or subtext accounts for its popularity across much of the political spectrum. It was used as a campaign slogan by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election; Clement Attlee said they would build \"a new Jerusalem\". It has been sung at conferences of the Conservative Party, at the Glee Club of the British Liberal Assembly, the Labour Party and by the Liberal Democrats.\n\n===Parry's setting of \"Jerusalem\"===\nIn adapting Blake's poem as a unison song, Parry deployed a two-stanza format, each taking up eight lines of Blake's original poem. He added a four-bar musical introduction to each verse and a coda, echoing melodic motifs of the song. The word \"those\" was substituted for \"these\" before \"dark satanic mills\".\n\nThe piece was to be conducted by Parry's former student Walford Davies, but Parry was initially reluctant to set the words, as he had doubts about the ultra-patriotism of Fight for Right, but not wanting to disappoint either Robert Bridges or Davies he agreed, writing it on 10 March 1916, and handing the manuscript to Davies with the comment, \"Here's a tune for you, old chap. Do what you like with it.\" Davies later recalled,\n\n\n\nDavies arranged for the vocal score to be published by Curwen in time for the concert at the Queen's Hall on 28 March and began rehearsing it. It was a success and was taken up generally.\n\nBut Parry began to have misgivings again about Fight for Right and eventually wrote to Sir Francis Younghusband withdrawing his support entirely in May 1917. There was even concern that the composer might withdraw the song, but the situation was saved by Millicent Fawcett of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). The song had been taken up by the Suffragettes in 1917 and Fawcett asked Parry if it might be used at a Suffrage Demonstration Concert on 13 March 1918. Parry was delighted and orchestrated the piece for the concert (it had originally been for voices and organ). After the concert, Fawcett asked the composer if it might become the Women Voters' Hymn. Parry wrote back,\n\n\n\nAccordingly, he assigned the copyright to the NUWSS. When that organisation was wound up in 1928, Parry's executors reassigned the copyright to the Women's Institutes, where it remained until it entered the public domain in 1968.\n\nThe song was first called \"And Did Those Feet in Ancient Time\" and the early published scores have this title. The change to \"Jerusalem\" seems to have been made about the time of the 1918 Suffrage Demonstration Concert, perhaps when the orchestral score was published (Parry's manuscript of the orchestral score has the old title crossed out and \"Jerusalem\" inserted in a different hand). However, Parry always referred to it by its first title. He had originally intended the first verse to be sung by a solo female voice (this is marked in the score), but this is rare in contemporary performances. Sir Edward Elgar re-scored the work for very large orchestra in 1922 for use at the Leeds Festival. Elgar's orchestration has overshadowed Parry's own, primarily because it is the version usually used now for the Last Night of the Proms (though Sir Malcolm Sargent, who introduced it to that event in the 1950s, always used Parry's version).\n\nDuring his folk-singing period, in 1965 Don Partridge recorded a solo version of the hymn with acoustic guitar accompaniment.\n\n===Use as a hymn===\nAlthough Parry composed the music as a unison song, many churches have adopted \"Jerusalem\"; English cathedrals, churches and chapels frequently use it as an office or recessional hymn on St George's Day.\n\nHowever, some clergy in the Church of England, according to the BBC TV programme ''Jerusalem: An Anthem for England'', have said that the song is not technically a hymn as it is not a prayer to God (which they claim hymns always are, though many counter-examples appear in any hymnal). Consequently, it is not sung in some churches in England. Despite this, it was sung as a hymn during the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton in Westminster Abbey.\n\nMany schools use the song, especially public schools in Great Britain (it was used as the title music for the BBC's 1979 series 'Public School' at Radley College), and several private schools in Australia, New Zealand, New England and Canada. \"Jerusalem\" was chosen as the opening hymn for the London Olympics 2012, although \"God Save the Queen\" was the anthem sung during the raising of the flag in salute to the Queen. Some attempts have also been made to increase its use elsewhere with other words, examples include the State Funeral of President Ronald Reagan in Washington National Cathedral on 11 June 2004 and the State Memorial Service for Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam AC QC on 5 November 2014.\n\n===Use as an anthem===\nUpon hearing the orchestral version for the first time, King George V said that he preferred \"Jerusalem\" over the British national anthem \"God Save the King\". \"Jerusalem\" is considered to be England's most popular patriotic song; ''The New York Times'' said it was \"fast becoming an alternative national anthem,\" and there have even been calls to give it official status. England has no official anthem and uses the British national anthem \"God Save the Queen\", also unofficial, for some national occasions, such as before English international football matches. However, some sports, including rugby league, use \"Jerusalem\" as the English anthem. \"Jerusalem\" is the official hymn of the England and Wales Cricket Board, although \"God Save the Queen\" was the anthem sung before England's games in 2010 ICC World Twenty20 and 2010–11 Ashes series. Questions in Parliament have not clarified the situation, as answers from the relevant minister say that since there is no official national anthem, each sport must make its own decision.\n\nAs Parliament has not clarified the situation, Team England, the English Commonwealth team, held a public poll in 2010 to decide which anthem should be played at medal ceremonies to celebrate an English win at the Commonwealth Games. \"Jerusalem\" was selected by 52% of voters over \"Land of Hope and Glory\" (used since 1930) and \"God Save the Queen\". The lyrics' explicit focus on England, without mention of other parts of the United Kingdom, renders the song unfitting as a national anthem for the entire UK.\n\nIn 2005 BBC Four produced ''Jerusalem: An Anthem For England'' highlighting the usages of the song/poem and a case was made for its adoption as the national anthem of England. Varied contributions come from Howard Goodall, Billy Bragg, Gary Bushell, Lord Hattersley, Ann Widdecombe and David Mellor, war proponents, war opponents, suffragettes, trade unionists, public schoolboys, the Conservatives, the Labour Party, football supporters, the British National Party, the Women's Institute, a gay choir, a gospel choir, Fat Les and naturists.\n\n===Emerson, Lake and Palmer version===\n\nIn 1973, for their ''Brain Salad Surgery'' album, British progressive rock band Emerson, Lake & Palmer recorded a version of the song titled \"Jerusalem\". The track features the debut of the prototype Moog Apollo, the first-ever polyphonic music synthesizer. The subject matter of this song indicates a nod to ELP's unabashed Englishness and simultaneously lent an air of timeless tradition and ceremony to the music. Though a single was released of the song, it failed to chart, and it was banned from radio play in England. The BBC would not accept it as a serious piece of music, the band claims. Drummer Carl Palmer later expressed disappointment over this decision.\n\n\nA live rendition was recorded during their subsequent ''Someone Get Me a Ladder'' tour, and was included on ''Welcome Back, My Friends, to the Show That Never Ends ~ Ladies and Gentlemen... Emerson, Lake & Palmer!''\n\n===Performances===\n\nThe popularity of Parry's setting has resulted in many hundreds of recordings being made, too numerous to list, of both traditional choral performances and new interpretations by popular music artists. Consequently, only its most notable performances are listed below.\n\nIt is sung every year by an audience of thousands at the end of the Last Night of the Proms in the Royal Albert Hall and simultaneously in the ''Proms in the Park'' venues throughout the country.\nAlong with \"The Red Flag\", it is sung each year at the closing of the annual Labour Party conference.\nThe song was used by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (indeed it was their property until 1928, when they were wound up after women won the right to vote – see above in relation to Millicent Garret Fawcett). During the 1920s, many Women's Institutes (WI) started closing meetings by singing it, and this caught on nationally. Although it has never actually been adopted as the WI's official anthem, in practice it holds that position, and is an enduring element of the public image of the WI.\n The extended version of dance group the KLF's hit single \"It's Grim Up North\" incorporates Parry's setting of the poem.\nIt is traditionally sung before rugby league's Challenge Cup Final, along with \"Abide with Me\", and before the Super League Grand Final, where it is introduced as \"the rugby league anthem\". Before 2008, it was the anthem used by the national side, as \"God Save the Queen\" was used by the Great Britain team: since the Lions were superseded by England, \"God Save the Queen\" has replaced \"Jerusalem\".\nThe Waterboys have incorporated verses into live performances of \"Savage Earth Heart\".\nSince 2004, it has been the anthem of the England cricket team, being played before each day of their home test matches.\nA recording by the Grimethorpe Colliery Band was played in medal ceremonies when an English competitor at the 2010 Commonwealth Games was awarded gold.\nIt was one of three \"hymns\" sung at the wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Catherine Middleton.\nAt a concert at the Royal Albert Hall on 4 July 2009, Jeff Beck performed a version featuring his touring band at the time (Vinnie Colaiuta, Tal Wilkenfeld and Jason Rebello) and a guest appearance by David Gilmour.\nWhile performing at Glastonbury in June 2011, U2's Bono incorporated one of the verses into their songs \"Where The Streets Have No Name\" and \"Bad\". Whilst being interviewed after the gig, he said it was a tribute to Glastonbury's historical significance.\nIt was used in the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London and inspired several of the opening show segments directed by Danny Boyle. It was included in the ceremony's soundtrack album, ''Isles of Wonder''.\nAn a cappella version by Jacob Collier was selected for Beats by Dre \"The Game Starts Here\" for the England Rugby World Cup campaign.\n\n===Use in film, television and theatre===\n\n\"Bring me my Chariot of fire\" inspired the title of the film ''Chariots of Fire''. A church congregation sings \"Jerusalem\" at the close of the film and a performance appears on the ''Chariots of Fire soundtrack'' performed by the Ambrosian Singers overlaid partly by a composition by Vangelis. One unexpected touch is that \"Jerusalem\" is sung in four-part harmony, as if it were truly a hymn. This is not authentic: Parry's composition was a unison song (that is, all voices sing the tune – perhaps one of the things that make it so \"singable\" by massed crowds) and he never provided any harmonisation other than the accompaniment for organ (or orchestra). Neither does it appear in any standard hymn book in a guise other than Parry's own, so it may have been harmonised specially for the film. The film's working title was \"Running\" until Colin Welland saw a television programme, ''Songs of Praise'', featuring the hymn and decided to change the title.\n\nThe hymn has featured in many other films and television programmes including ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'', ''How to Get Ahead in Advertising'', ''The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner'', ''Calendar Girls'', ''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine'', ''Goodnight Mr. Tom'', ''Women in Love'', ''The Man Who Fell to Earth'', ''Shameless'', Building Jerusalem and ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''. An extract was heard in the 2013 ''Doctor Who'' episode \"The Crimson Horror\" although that story was set in 1893, i.e., before Parry's arrangement. A punk version is heard in Derek Jarman's 1977 film ''Jubilee''. In an episode of ''Peep Show'', Jez (Robert Webb) records a track titled \"This Is Outrageous\" which uses the first and a version of the second line in a verse.\n\nIn the theatre it appears in ''Jerusalem'', ''Calendar Girls'' and in ''Time and the Conways''. Eddie Izzard discusses the hymn in his 2000 ''Circle'' stand-up tour. Punk band Bad Religion have borrowed the opening line of Blake's poem in their \"God Song\", from the 1990 album ''Against the Grain''.\n", "\nBlake's lyrics have also been set to music by other composers without reference to Parry's melody. Tim Blake (synthesiser player of Gong) produced a solo album in 1978 called ''Blake's New Jerusalem'', including a 20-minute track with lyrics from Blake's poem. Mark E. Smith of The Fall interpolated the verses with a deadpan rant against his native land, set to a bludgeoningly repetitive dirge, in the track \"Dog is life/Jerusalem\" from the 1988 ballet score \"I Am Kurious Oranj\". The words, with some variations, are used in the track \"Jerusalem\" on Bruce Dickinson's album ''The Chemical Wedding'', which also includes lines from book two of ''Milton''. Finn Coren also created a different musical setting for the poem on his album ''The Blake Project: Spring''. The Verve also referenced the song in their 2008 song ''Love Is Noise'' from the album Forth. Lead singer and writer Richard Ashcroft said that Blake had influenced the lyric '''Will those feet in modern times''' from the song. This is not the first Verve song influenced by Blake, as their previous single ''History'' also featured the lyrics \"I wandered lonely streets/Behind where the old Thames does flow/And in every face I meet\", referencing Blake's \"London\".\n", " Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion by William Blake\n* Civil religion\n* Merry England\n* Romantic Movement and the industrial revolution\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* Comparisons of the Hand Painted copies of the Preface on the William Blake Archive\n* \n* And did those feet in ancient time at Hymnary.org\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Text", "Popularisation", "Other composers", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	And did those feet in ancient time
[ "In Alaska, '''the bush''' typically refers to any region of the State not connected to the North American road network or ready access to the State's Ferry System. A large proportion of Alaska's native populations live in the bush, often substantially depending on subsistence hunting and fishing.\n\nGeographically, the bush comprises the Alaska North Slope; Northwest Arctic; West, including the Baldwin and Seward Peninsulas; the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta; Southwest Alaska; Bristol Bay; Alaska Peninsula; and remote areas of the Alaska Panhandle and Interior. \n\nSome of the larger, hub communities in the bush, which typically can be reached by larger, commercial airplanes, include Bethel, Dillingham, King Salmon, Nome, Barrow, Kodiak Island, Kotzebue, and Unalaska-Dutch Harbor.\n\nMost parts of Alaska that are off the road or ferry system can be reached by small bush airplanes. Travel between smaller communities, or to and from hub communities, is typically accomplished by snow machines, boats, or ATVs.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References" ]	The Bush (Alaska)
[ "\n\n\n'''''A Little Night Music''''' is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Hugh Wheeler. Inspired by the Ingmar Bergman film ''Smiles of a Summer Night'', it involves the romantic lives of several couples. Its title is a literal English translation of the German name for Mozart's Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major, ''Eine kleine Nachtmusik''. The musical includes the popular song \"Send in the Clowns\".\n\nSince its original 1973 Broadway production, the musical has enjoyed professional productions in the West End, by opera companies, in a 2009 Broadway revival, and elsewhere, and it is a popular choice for regional groups. It was adapted for film in 1977, with Harold Prince directing and Elizabeth Taylor, Len Cariou, Lesley-Anne Down and Diana Rigg starring.\n", "\n===Act One===\nThe setting is Sweden, around the year 1900. One by one, the Quintet – five singers who comment like a Greek chorus throughout the show – enter, tuning up. Gradually, their vocalizing becomes an overture blending fragments of \"Remember\", \"Soon\" and \"The Glamorous Life\", leading into the first \"Night Waltz\". The other characters enter waltzing, each uncomfortable with their particular partner. After they drift back off, the aging and severe Madame Armfeldt and her solemn granddaughter, Fredrika, enter. Madame Armfeldt tells the child that the summer night \"smiles\" three times: first on the young, second on fools, and third on the old. Fredrika vows to watch the smiles occur. Middle-aged Fredrik Egerman is a successful lawyer. He has recently married an 18-year-old trophy wife, Anne, a vain girl who is in love with Fredrik, but too immature to grasp the concept of marriage. The two have been married for eleven months, but Anne still protects her virginity. Fredrik laments his inability to make love to his wife (\"Now\"). Meanwhile, his son Henrik, a year older than his stepmother, is feeling extremely frustrated. He is a seminary student and everyone is always teasing him, never taking him seriously or letting him talk (\"Later\"). Anne is intrigued by him, but fails to understand his real meaning. Anne promises her husband that shortly she will consent to have sex (\"Soon\"). Anne's maidservant Petra, an experienced and forthright girl, slightly older than the teen herself, offers her worldly but crass advice.\n\nDesiree Armfeldt is a prominent and glamorous actress who is now reduced to touring in small towns. Madame Armfeldt, Desiree's mother, has taken over the care of Desiree's daughter Fredrika. Fredrika misses her mother, but Desiree continually delays going to see her, preferring, somewhat ironically, \"The Glamorous Life\". She is performing near Fredrik's home, and he brings Anne to see the play. While there, Desiree notices Fredrik; the two had been lovers years earlier. Anne, suspicious and annoyed because of Desiree's amorous glances, demands that Fredrik take her home immediately. Meanwhile, Petra has been trying to seduce Henrik.\n\nThat night, as Fredrik remembers his past with Desiree, he sneaks out to see her; the two share a happy but strained reunion, as they \"Remember\". They reflect on their new lives, and Fredrik tries to explain how much he loves Anne (\"You Must Meet My Wife\"). Desiree responds sarcastically, boasting of her own adultery, as she has been seeing the married dragoon, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm. Upon learning that Fredrik has gone for eleven months without sex, she agrees to accommodate him as a favor for an old friend.\n\nMadame Armfeldt offers advice to young Fredrika. The elderly woman reflects poignantly on her own checkered past, and wonders what happened to her refined \"Liaisons\". Back in Desiree's apartment, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm proclaims his unannounced arrival in his typical booming voice. Fredrik and Desiree fool the gullible Count into believing that their disheveled appearance was entirely innocent, but he is still suspicious. He instantly dislikes Fredrik and returns to his wife, Countess Charlotte. Charlotte is quite aware of her husband's infidelity, but Carl-Magnus is too absorbed in his suspicions of Desiree to talk to her (\"In Praise of Women\"). When she persuades him to blurt out the whole story, a twist is revealed—Charlotte's little sister is a schoolfriend of Anne's.\n\nCharlotte visits Anne, who is talking with Petra. Charlotte describes Fredrik's meeting with Desiree; Anne reacts with shock and horror. The older woman explains to Anne that such is the lot of a wife, and that marriage brings pain (\"Every Day A Little Death\"). Meanwhile, Desiree asks Madame Armfeldt to host a party for Fredrik, Anne and Henrik. Though reluctant, Madame Armfeldt agrees. She sends out a personal invitation; its receipt sends the women into a frenzy, imagining \"A Weekend in the Country\". Anne does not want to accept the invitation, but Charlotte convinces her to do so to heighten the contrast between the older woman and the young teenager. Meanwhile, the Count has plans of his own—as a birthday present to his wife, the pair will attend the party uninvited. Carl-Magnus plans to challenge Fredrik to a duel, while Charlotte hopes to seduce the lawyer to make her husband jealous and end his philandering. The day of the party dawns.\n\n===Act Two===\nArmfeldt's country estate is bathed in the golden glow of perpetual summer sunset at this high latitude (\"Night Waltz One and Two\"). Everyone arrives, each carrying their own amorous purposes and desires—even Petra, who catches the eye of Armfeldt's fetching manservant, Frid. The women begin to act against each other. Fredrik is astonished to learn the name of Desiree's daughter. Henrik meets Fredrika, and confesses his deep love for Anne to her. Meanwhile, in the garden, Fredrik and Carl-Magnus reflect on how difficult it is to be annoyed with Desiree, agreeing \"It Would Have Been Wonderful\" had she not been quite so wonderful. Dinner is served, and the characters' \"Perpetual Anticipation\" enlivens that meal.\n\nAt dinner, Charlotte attempts to flirt with Fredrik, while Anne and Desiree trade insults. Soon, everyone is shouting and scolding everyone else, except for Henrik, who finally stands up for himself. He shrieks at them for being completely amoral, and flees the scene. Stunned, everyone reflects on the situation and wanders away. Fredrika tells Anne of Henrik's secret love, and the two dash off searching for him. Meanwhile, Desiree meets Fredrik and asks if he still wants to be \"rescued\" from his life. Fredrik answers honestly that he loves Desiree, but only as a dream. Hurt and bitter, Desiree can only reflect on the nature of her life (\"Send in the Clowns\"). Anne finds Henrik, who is attempting to commit suicide. The clumsy boy cannot complete the task, and Anne tells him that she has feelings for him, too. The pair begins to kiss, which leads to Anne's first sexual encounter. Meanwhile, not far away, Frid sleeps in Petra's lap. The maid thinks of the joy and freedom that she longs for before becoming trapped in marriage (\"The Miller's Son\"). Henrik and Anne, happy together, run away to start their new life. However, Carl-Magnus is enraged by this and attempts to shoot the lovers, but Desiree and Charlotte prevent him, while lamenting both the pains of marriage and the strange behavior of married people (\"The World Won't End/Every Day a Little Death (reprise)\"). With Carl-Magnus calmed, Charlotte confesses her plan to Fredrik, and the two commiserate on a bench. Carl-Magnus, preparing to romance Desiree, sees this and challenges Fredrik to Russian Roulette, at which a nervous Fredrik misfires and simply grazes his own ear. Victorious, Carl-Magnus begins to romance Charlotte, granting her wish at last.\n\nAfter the Count and Countess leave, Fredrika and Madame Armfeldt discuss the chaos of the recent turns-of-events. The elderly woman then asks Fredrika a surprising question: \"What is it all for?\" Fredrika thinks about this, and decides that it \"must be worth it\". Madame Armfeldt is surprised, ruefully noting that she rejected love for material wealth at Fredrika's age. She praises her granddaughter and remembers true love's fleeting nature.\n\nFredrik finally confesses his love for Desiree, acknowledges that Fredrika is his daughter, and the two promise to start a new life together (\"Finale\"). Armfeldt sits alone with Fredrika. Fredrika tells her grandmother that she has watched carefully, but still has not seen the night smile. Armfeldt laughs and points out that the night has indeed smiled twice: first on Henrik and Anne, the young, and second on Desiree and Fredrik, the fools. As the two wait for the \"third smile... on the old\", it happens: Madame Armfeldt closes her eyes, and dies peacefully with Fredrika beside her.\n", "\n\n; Act I\n* Overture – Mr. Lindquist, Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Anderssen, Mr. Erlanson and Mrs. Segstrom (the \"Quintet\")\n* \"Night Waltz\" – Company\n* \"Now\" – Fredrik Egerman\n* \"Later\" – Henrik Egerman\n* \"Soon\" – Anne Egerman\n* \"Soon/Later/Now\" – Anne, Henrik and Fredrik\n* \"The Glamorous Life\" – Fredrika Armfeldt, Desiree Armfeldt, Madame Armfeldt and Quintet\n* \"Remember?\" – Quintet\n* \"You Must Meet My Wife\" – Desiree and Fredrik\n* \"Liaisons\" – Madame Armfeldt\n* \"In Praise of Women\" – Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm\n* \"Every Day a Little Death\" – Countess Charlotte Malcolm and Anne\n* \"Weekend in the Country\" – Company\n\n\n; Act II\n* Entr'acte – Orchestra\n* \"Night Waltz I (The Sun Won't Set)\" – Quintet\n* \"Night Waltz II (The Sun Sits Low)\" – Quintet\n* \"It Would Have Been Wonderful\" – Fredrik and Carl-Magnus\n* \"Perpetual Anticipation\" – Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Segstrom and Mrs. Anderssen\n* \"Dinner Table Scene\" – Orchestra\n* \"Send in the Clowns\" – Desiree\n* \"The Miller's Son\" – Petra\n* \"The World Won't End/Every Day a Little Death (reprise)\" – Desiree and Charlotte \n* Reprises (\"Soon\", \"You Must Meet My Wife\", \"A Weekend in the Country\" and \"Every Day a Little Death\") – Quintet\n* \"Send in the Clowns\" (Reprise) – Desiree and Fredrik\n* \"Last Waltz\" – Orchestra\n\n\n; Additional musical numbers\n'''Stage:'''\n* \"Two Fairy Tales\" – Henrik and Anne (cut for time)\n* \"Silly People\" – Frid (cut for time)\n* \"Bang!\" – Carl-Magnus (replaced by \"In Praise of Women\")\n* \"My Husband the Pig\" – Charlotte (replaced by the second half of \"In Praise of Women\")\n\n'''Screen:'''\n* \"Love Takes Time\" – Company (lyrics added to Night Waltz)\n* \"The Glamorous Life\" – Fredrika (solo version)\n", "* '''Fredrik Egerman''': A successful widowed middle-aged lawyer. He is married to the 18-year-old Anne and has one son from his previous marriage, Henrik. In the past, he and Desiree were lovers. Baritone A2-E4\n'''Anne Egerman''': Fredrik's new, naive wife, who is still a virgin after 11 months of marriage. Soprano G#3-A5\n'''Henrik Egerman''': Fredrik's son, 20 years old and Anne's stepson. He is serious but confused; he reads the works of philosophers and theologians whilst studying for the Lutheran priesthood. His sexual repression is a great cause of his turmoil, as he lusts after Anne and attempts to have a sexual encounter with Petra. Tenor G3-B4\n'''Petra''': Anne's maid and closest confidante, brash, bold and flirtatious. Mezzo F#3-F5\n'''Desiree Armfeldt''': Self-absorbed, once-successful actress, now touring the country-side in what is clearly not the \"glamorous life\". Harboured love for Fredrik for years since their affair. Mezzo F#3-Ab5\n'''Fredrika Armfeldt''': Desiree's thirteen-year-old daughter, who may or may not be the product (unbeknownst to Fredrik) of the actress's and Fredrik's affair. Soprano C4-Eb5\n'''Madame Leonora Armfeldt''': Desiree's mother, a former courtesan who has had \"liaisons\" with royalty. Alto C3-F#4\n'''Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm''': A military dragoon who is Desiree's latest lover. Hypocritically places value on fidelity, being hugely possessive when it comes to both his wife and mistress. Baritenor G2-F#4\n'''Countess Charlotte Malcolm''': Carl-Magnus' wife, to whom he flaunts his infidelities. She despises her husband for his behaviour, but obeys his orders due to her hopeless love for him. Self-loathing and borderline alcoholic, yet the more intelligent half of the Malcolm couple. Mezzo G3-F5\n'''Frid''': Madame Armfeldt's manservant. Has a tryst with Petra. \n'''The Quintet''': Mr. Lindquist, Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Anderssen, Mr. Erlanson and Mrs. Segstrom. A group of five singers that act as a Greek chorus. Sometimes referred to as the Liebeslieder Singers although Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler did not script them to have that title, using Quintet instead. The first usage of Liebeslieders for the Quintet came during the 1990 New York Opera production. Prince said that these characters represent \"people in the show who aren't wasting time ... the play is about wasting time.\"\n'''Malla''': Desiree's maid, who is with her constantly. (silent part)\n'''Osa''': Maid at Madame Armfeldt's manse. (silent part)\n'''Bertrand''': Page at Madame Armfeldt's manse. (silent part)\n", "\n===Original Broadway production===\n''A Little Night Music'' opened on Broadway at the Shubert Theatre on February 25, 1973. It played there until September 15, 1973, then moved to the Majestic Theatre, on September 17, and closed there on August 3, 1974, after 601 performances and 12 previews. It was directed by Harold Prince with choreography by Patricia Birch and design by Boris Aronson. The cast included Glynis Johns (Desiree Armfeldt), Len Cariou (Fredrik Egerman), Hermione Gingold (Madame Armfeldt), Victoria Mallory (Anne Egerman), Judith Kahan (Fredrika Armfeldt), Mark Lambert (Henrik Egerman), Laurence Guittard (Carl-Magnus Malcolm), Patricia Elliott (Charlotte Malcolm), George Lee Andrews (Frid), and D. Jamin Bartlett (Petra). It won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award and the Tony Award for Best Musical.\n\n=== Australian premiere ===\nThe first international production opened at Her Majesty's Theatre in Sydney, Australia in November 1973, with a cast including Taina Elg, Bruce Barry, Jill Perryman, Doris Fitton, Anna Russell and Geraldine Turner. Australian revivals have been presented by the Sydney Theatre Company (featuring Geraldine Turner and a young Toni Collette) in 1990, Melbourne Theatre Company (featuring Helen Morse and John O'May) in 1997 and Opera Australia (featuring Sigrid Thornton and Anthony Warlow) in 2009.\n\n===United States tour===\nA US national tour began on February 26, 1974, at the Forrest Theatre, Philadelphia, and ended on February 13, 1975, at the Shubert Theatre, Boston. Jean Simmons as Desiree Armfeldt, George Lee Andrews as Fredrik Egerman and Margaret Hamilton as Madame Armfeldt headed the cast.\n\n===West End premiere===\nThe musical premiered in the West End at the Adelphi Theatre on April 15, 1975, and starred Jean Simmons, Joss Ackland, David Kernan, Liz Robertson, and Diane Langton, with Hermione Gingold reprising her role as Madame Armfeldt. It ran for 406 performances. During the run, Angela Baddeley replaced Gingold, and Virginia McKenna replaced Simmons.\n\n===1989 West End revival===\nA revival opened in the West End on October 6, 1989, at the Piccadilly Theatre, directed by Ian Judge, designed by Mark Thompson, and choreographed by Anthony Van Laast. It starred Lila Kedrova as Madame Armfeldt, Dorothy Tutin as Desiree Armfeldt, Peter McEnery as Fredrick, and Susan Hampshire. The production ran for 144 performances, closing on February 17, 1990.\n\n===1995 London revival===\nA revival by the Royal National Theatre opened at the Olivier Theatre on September 26, 1995. It was directed by Sean Mathias, with set design by Stephen Brimson Lewis, costumes by Nicky Gillibrand, lighting by Mark Henderson and choreography by Wayne McGregor. It starred Judi Dench (Desiree), Siân Phillips (Madame Armfeldt), Joanna Riding (Anne Egerman), Laurence Guittard (Fredrik Egerman), Patricia Hodge (Countess Charlotte) and Issy van Randwyck (Petra). The production closed on August 31, 1996. Dench received the Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical.\n\n===2008 London revival===\nThe third London revival ran at the Menier Chocolate Factory from November 22, 2008 until March 8, 2009. The production was directed by Trevor Nunn, with choreography by Lynne Page, sets and costumes by David Farley and new orchestrations by Jason Carr. The cast included Hannah Waddingham as Desiree, Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Jessie Buckley (Anne), Maureen Lipman (Mme. Armfeldt), Alistair Robins (the Count), Gabriel Vick (Henrik), Grace Link and Holly Hallam (shared role Fredrika) and Kasia Hammarlund (Petra). This critically acclaimed production transferred to the Garrick Theatre in the West End for a limited season, opening on March 28, 2009 and running until July 25, 2009. The production then transferred to Broadway with a new cast.\n\n===2009 Broadway revival===\nThe 2008 Menier Chocolate Factory production opened on Broadway at the Walter Kerr Theatre in previews on November 24, 2009 and officially on December 13, 2009, with the same creative team. The cast starred Angela Lansbury as Madame Armfeldt and, in her Broadway debut, Catherine Zeta-Jones as Desiree. Also featured were Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Ramona Mallory (the daughter of original Broadway cast members Victoria Mallory and Mark Lambert) as Anne, Hunter Ryan Herdlicka as Henrik, Leigh Ann Larkin as Petra, Erin Davie as the Countess, Aaron Lazar as the Count, and Bradley Dean as Frid. Zeta-Jones was recognized as Best Leading Actress in a Musical at the 64th Tony Awards.\n\nWhen the contracts of Zeta-Jones and Lansbury ended, the production temporarily closed on June 20, 2010 and resumed on July 13, with new stars Bernadette Peters as Desiree Armfeldt and Elaine Stritch as Madame Armfeldt. In an interview, Peters said that Sondheim had \"proposed the idea to her this spring and urged the producers of the revival to cast her.\" Trevor Nunn directed rehearsals with the two new stars, and the rest of the original cast remained. Peters and Stritch extended their contracts until January 9, 2011, when the production closed with 20 previews and 425 regular performances. Before the production closed, it recouped its initial investment.\n\n===Europe===\nZarah Leander played Madame Armfeldt in the original Austrian staging (in 1975) as well as in the original Swedish staging in Stockholm in 1978 (here with Jan Malmsjö as Fredrik Egerman), performing \"Send In The Clowns\" and \"Liaisons\" in both stagings. The successful Stockholm staging was directed by Stig Olin. In 2010 the musical was scheduled to return to Stockholm and the Stockholm Stadsteater. The cast included Pia Johansson, Dan Ekborg, Yvonne Lombard and Thérese Andersson.\n\nThe Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris production ran from February 15, 2010 through February 20, 2010. Lee Blakeley directed and Andrew George was the choreographer. Italian-born actress Greta Scacchi played Désirée, and Leslie Caron played Madame Armfeldt.\n\n\nThe Turku City Theatre staged the musical in 2011 with Kirsi Tarvainen in the role as Désirée. Tuomas Parkkinen directed and Jussi Vahvaselkä was musical director.\n\n===Opera companies===\nThe musical has also become part of the repertoire of a few opera companies. Michigan Opera Theatre was the first major American opera company to present the work in 1983, and again in November 2009. Light Opera Works (Evanston, IL) produced the work in August 1983. New York City Opera staged it in 1990, 1991 and 2003, the Houston Grand Opera in 1999, the Los Angeles Opera in 2004, and Hartford Opera Theater in 2014. New York City Opera's production in August 1990 and July 1991 (a total of 18 performances) won the 1990 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival and was telecast on the PBS show \"Live at Lincoln Center\" on November 7, 1990. The cast included both stage performers: Sally Ann Howes and George Lee Andrews as Desiree and Frederick and opera regular Regina Resnik as Madame Armfeldt (in 1991). The 2003 production featured a young Anna Kendrick as Fredrika Armfeldt, alongside Jeremy Irons as Frederick, Juliet Stevenson as Desiree, Claire Bloom as Madame Armfeldt, Danny Gurwin as Henrik, Michelle Pawk as Charlotte, and Marc Kudisch as Carl-Magnus.\n\nOpera Australia presented the piece in Melbourne in May 2009, starring Sigrid Thornton as Desiree Armfeldt and Nacye Hayes as Madame Armfeldt. The production returned in 2010 at the Sydney Opera House with Anthony Warlow taking on the role of Fredrik Egerman. The production was directed by Stuart Maunder, designed by Roger Kirk, and conducted by Andrew Greene. Opera Theatre of Saint Louis performed the musical in June 2010. Designer Isaac Mizrahi directed and designed the production, with a cast that starred Amy Irving, Siân Phillips and Ron Raines.\n\nThe piece has also become a popular choice for amateur musical theatre and light opera companies. In 2017, the musical was performed by students at The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.\n", "\nA film version of ''A Little Night Music'' was released in 1977, starring Elizabeth Taylor, Lesley-Anne Down and Diana Rigg, with Len Cariou, Hermione Gingold and Laurence Guittard reprising their Broadway roles. The setting for the film was moved from Sweden to Austria. Stephen Sondheim wrote lyrics for the \"Night Waltz\" theme (\"Love Takes Time\") and wrote an entirely new version of \"The Glamorous Life\", which has been incorporated into several subsequent productions of the stage musical. However, other songs, including \"In Praise of Women\", \"The Miller's Son\" and \"Liaisons\", were cut and remain heard only as background orchestrations. The film marked Broadway director Hal Prince's second time as a motion picture director. Critical reaction to the film was mostly negative, with much being made of Taylor's wildly fluctuating weight from scene to scene. Some critics talked more positively of the film, with ''Variety'' calling it \"an elegant looking, period romantic charade\". There was praise for Diana Rigg's performance, and orchestrator Jonathan Tunick received an Oscar for his work on the score. A soundtrack recording was released on LP, and a DVD release was issued in June 2007.\n", "The score for ''A Little Night Music'' has elements not often found in musical theater, presenting challenges for performers, with complex meters, pitch changes, polyphony, and high notes for both males and females. The difficulty is heightened when songs merge, as in \"Now\"/\"Later\"/\"Soon\", because all three have to be performed in the same key, limiting the ability to pick a comfortable key for each singer. Critic Rex Reed noted that \"The score of 'Night Music' ...contains patter songs, contrapuntal duets and trios, a quartet, and even a dramatic double quintet to puzzle through. All this has been gorgeously orchestrated by Jonathan Tunick; there is no rhythm section, only strings and woodwinds to carry the melodies and harmonies aloft.\"\n\nSondheim's engagement with threes extends to his lyrics. He organizes trios with the singers separated, while his duets are sung together, about a third person.\n\nThe work is performed as an operetta in many professional opera companies. For example, it was added to the New York City Opera Company repertoire in 1990.\n\n===3/4 time===\nVirtually all of the music in the show is written in waltz time (3/4). Some parts adopt compound meter, with a time signature such as 12/8. Passages in \"Overture\", \"Glamorous Life\", \"Liaisons\", and \"The Miller's Son\" are in duple meter.\n\n===Counterpoint and polyphony===\nAt several points, Sondheim has multiple performers each sing a different song simultaneously. This use of counterpoint maintains coherence even as it extends the notion of a round, familiar in songs such as the traditional \"Frère Jacques\", into something more complex. Sondheim said: \"As for the three songs... going together well, I might as well confess. In those days I was just getting into contrapuntal and choral writing...and I wanted to develop my technique by writing a trio. What I didn't want to do is the quodlibet method...wouldn't it be nice to have three songs you don't think are going to go together, and they do go together... The trick was the little vamp on \"Soon\" which has five-and six-note chords.\" Steve Swayne comments that the \"contrapuntal episodes in the extended ensembles... stand as testament to his interest in Counterpoint.\"\n\n===\"Send In The Clowns\"===\nThe show's best-known and Sondheim's biggest hit song was almost an afterthought, written several days before the start of out-of-town tryouts. Sondheim initially conceived Desiree as a role for a more-or-less non-singing actress. When he discovered that the original Desiree, Glynis Johns, was able to sing (she had a \"small, silvery voice\") but could not \"sustain a phrase\", he devised the song \"Send in the Clowns\" for her in a way that would work around her vocal weakness, e.g., by ending lines with consonants that made for a short cut-off. \"It is written in short phrases in order to be acted rather than sung...tailor-made for Glynis Johns, who lacks the vocal power to sustain long phrases.\"\n\nIn analyzing the text of the song, Max Cryer wrote that it \"is not intended to be sung by the young in love, but by a mature performer who has seen it all before. The song remains an anthem to regret for unwise decisions in the past and recognition that there's no need to send in the clowns-they're already here.\"\n\nGraham Wolfe has argued, \"What Desirée is referring to in the famous song is a conventional device to cover over a moment when something has gone wrong on stage. Midway through the second Act she has deviated from her usual script by suggesting to Fredrik the possibility of being together seriously and permanently, and, having been rejected, she falters ''as'' a show-person, finds herself bereft of the capacity to improvise and wittily cover. If Desirée could perform at this moment – revert to the innuendos, one-liners and blithe self-referential humour that constitutes her normal character – all would be well. She cannot, and what follows is an exemplary manifestation of Sondheim’s musico-dramatic complexity, his inclination to write music that performs drama. That is, what needs to be covered over (by the clowns sung about in the song) is the very intensity, ragged emotion and utter vulnerability that comes forward through the music and singing itself, a display protracted to six minutes, wrought with exposed silences, a shocked Fredrik sitting so uncomfortably before Desirée while something much too real emerges in a realm where he – and his audience – felt assured of performance.\"\n\n===Influences===\nThere is a Mozart reference in the title—''A Little Night Music'' is an occasionally used translation of ''Eine kleine Nachtmusik'', the nickname of Mozart's Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major, K. 525. The elegant, harmonically-advanced music in this musical pays indirect homage to the compositions of Maurice Ravel, especially his ''Valses nobles et sentimentales'' (whose opening chord is borrowed for the opening chord of the song \"Liaisons\"); part of this effect stems from the style of orchestration that Jonathan Tunick used.\n", "Cast recording of 1995 National Theatre revival starring Judi Dench\nIn addition to the original Broadway and London cast recordings, and the motion picture soundtrack (no longer available), there are recordings of the 1990 studio cast, the 1995 Royal National Theatre revival (starring Judi Dench), and the 2001 Barcelona cast recording sung in Catalan. In 1997 an all-jazz version of the score was recorded by Terry Trotter.\n\nThe 2009 Broadway revival with Catherine Zeta-Jones and Angela Lansbury recorded a cast album on January 4, 2010, which was released on April 6.\n", "In his review of the original 1973 Broadway production, Clive Barnes in the ''New York Times'' called the musical \"heady, civilized, sophisticated and enchanting.\" He noted that \"the real triumph belongs to Stephen Sondheim...the music is a celebration of 3/4 time, an orgy of plaintively memorable waltzes, all talking of past loves and lost worlds...There is a peasant touch here.\" He commented that the lyrics are \"breathtaking\".\n\nIn its review of the 1989 London revival, the reviewer for ''The Guardian'' wrote that the \"production also strikes me as infinitely superior to Harold Prince's 1975 version at the Adelphi. Mr Judge's great innovation is to transform the Liebeslieder Singers from the evening-dressed, after-dinner line-up into 18th century ghosts weaving in and out of the action...But Mr Judge's other great realisation is that, in Sondheim, the lyrics are not an adornment to a song but their very essence: understand them and the show will flow. Thus Dorothy Tutin as Desiree, the touring thesp eventually reunited with her quondam lover, is not the melting romantic of previous productions but a working mother with the sharpness of a hat-pin.\"\n\nThe ''Independent'' review of the 1995 National Theatre revival praised the production, writing \"For three hours of gloriously barbed bliss and bewitchment, Sean Mathias's production establishes the show as a minor miracle of astringent worldly wisdom and one that is haunted by less earthy intimations.\" The review went on to state that \"The heart of the production, in both senses, is Judi Dench's superb Desiree Armfeldt...Her husky-voiced rendering of \"Send in the Clowns\" is the most moving I've ever heard.\"\n\nIn reviewing the 2008 Menier Chocolate Factory production, the ''Telegraph'' reviewer wrote that \"Sondheim's lyrics are often superbly witty, his music here, mostly in haunting waltz-time, far more accessible than is sometimes the case. The score positively throbs with love, regret and desire.\" But of the specific production, the reviewer went on to note: \"But Nunn's production, on one of those hermetic sets largely consisting of doors and tarnished mirrors that have become such a cliché in recent years, never penetrates the work's subtly erotic heart. And as is often the case with this director's work, the pace is so slow and the mood so reverent, that initial enchantment gives way to bored fidgeting.\"\n\nIn his ''New York Times'' review of the 2009 Broadway production, Ben Brantley noted that \"the expression that hovers over Trevor Nunn's revival...feels dangerously close to a smirk...It is a smirk shrouded in shadows. An elegiac darkness infuses this production.\" The production is \"sparing on furniture and heavy on shadows\", with \"a scaled-down orchestra at lugubriously slowed-down tempos...\" He goes on to write that \"this somber, less-is-more approach could be effective were the ensemble plugged into the same rueful sensibility. But there is only one moment in this production when all its elements cohere perfectly. That moment, halfway through the first act, belongs to Ms. Lansbury, who has hitherto been perfectly entertaining, playing Madame Armfeldt with the overripe aristocratic condescension of a Lady Bracknell. Then comes her one solo, \"Liaisons\", in which her character thinks back on the art of love as a profession in a gilded age, when sex 'was but a pleasurable means to a measurable end.' Her face, with its glamour-gorgon makeup, softens, as Madame Armfeldt seems to melt into memory itself, and the wan stage light briefly appears to borrow radiance from her. It's a lovely example of the past reaching out to the present...\"\n\nSteven Suskin, reviewing the new Broadway cast for ''Variety'', wrote \"What a difference a diva makes. Bernadette Peters steps into the six-month-old revival of 'A Little Night Music' with a transfixing performance, playing it as if she realizes her character's onstage billing -- \"the one and only Desiree Armfeldt\"—is cliched hyperbole. By figuratively rolling her eyes at the hype, Peters gives us a rich, warm and comedically human Desiree, which reaches full impact when she pierces the facade with a nakedly honest, tears-on-cheek 'Send in the Clowns.'\"\n", "\n===Original Broadway production===\n\n\n Year\n Award Ceremony\n Category\n Nominee\n Result\n\n 1973\n Drama Desk Award\n Outstanding Book of a Musical\n Hugh Wheeler\n \n\n Outstanding Music\n Stephen Sondheim\n \n\n Outstanding Lyrics\n \n\n Outstanding Actress in a Musical\n Glynis Johns\n \n\n Patricia Elliott\n \n\n Outstanding Director\n Harold Prince\n \n\n Most Promising Performer\n D'Jamin Bartlett\n \n\n Grammy Award\n Best Musical Show Album\n \n\n Theatre World Award\n Laurence Guittard\n \n\n Patricia Elliott\n \n\n D'Jamin Bartlett\n \n\n Tony Award\n Best Musical\n \n\n Best Book of a Musical\n Hugh Wheeler\n \n\n Best Original Score\n Stephen Sondheim\n \n\n Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical\n Len Cariou\n \n\n Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical\n Glynis Johns\n \n\n Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical\n Laurence Guittard\n \n\n Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical\n Patricia Elliott\n \n\n Hermione Gingold\n \n\n Best Costume Design\n Florence Klotz\n \n\n Best Scenic Design\n Boris Aronson\n \n\n Best Lighting Design\n Tharon Musser\n \n\n Best Direction of a Musical\n Harold Prince\n \n\n\n===1995 London revival===\n\n\n Year\n Award Ceremony\n Category\n Nominee\n Result\n\n 1995\n Laurence Olivier Award\n Best Actress in a Musical\n Judi Dench\n \n\n Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical\n Siân Phillips\n \n\n Best Theatre Choreographer\n Wayne McGregor\n \n\n Best Costume Design\n Nicky Gillibrand\n \n\n\n=== 2009 London Revival ===\n\n Year\n Award Ceremony\n Category\n Nominee\n Result\n\n2010\nLaurence Olivier Award\nBest Revival of a Musical\n\n\nBest Actress in a Musical\nHannah Waddingham\n\n\nBest Actor in a Musical\nAlexander Hanson\n\n\nBest Performance in a Supporting role in a Musical\nMaureen Lipman\n\n\nBest Performance in a Supporting role in a Musical\nKelly Price\n\n\n\n===2009 Broadway revival===\n\n\n Year\n Award Ceremony\n Category\n Nominee\n Result\n\n 2010\n Drama Desk Award\n Outstanding Revival of a Musical\n \n\n Outstanding Actress in a Musical\n Catherine Zeta-Jones\n \n\n Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical\n Angela Lansbury\n \n\n Outer Critics Circle Award\n Outstanding Revival of a Musical\n \n\n Outstanding Actress in a Musical\n Catherine Zeta-Jones\n \n\n Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical\n Angela Lansbury\n \n\n Tony Award\n Best Revival of a Musical\n \n\n Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical\n Catherine Zeta-Jones\n \n\n Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical\n Angela Lansbury\n \n\n Best Sound Design\n Dan Moses Schreier and Gareth Owen\n \n\n 2011\n Grammy Award\n Best Musical Show Album\n \n\n", "\n", "Citron, Stephen. \"Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber: The New Musical\" (2001). Oxford University Press US. \n", "* \n* ''A Little Night Music'' on The Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide\n* ''A Little Night Music'' at the Music Theatre International website\n* A Little Night Music info page on StageAgent.com - A Little Night Music plot summary & character descriptions\n* ''A Little Night Music'' - A Little Night Music Broadway Revival\n* \"Sondheim's ''A Little Night Music'': Reconciling the Comic and the Sublime\" by Graham Wolfe\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Synopsis", " Musical numbers ", "Characters", "Productions", "Film adaptation", "Music analysis", "Cast recordings", "Critical response", " Awards and nominations ", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	A Little Night Music
[ "Mongolian soldiers dual-wielding knives during skills display\n'''Dual wielding''' is using two weapons, one in each hand, during combat. It is not a common combat practice. Although historical records of dual wielding in war are limited, there are numerous weapon-based martial arts that involve the use of a pair of weapons. The use of a companion weapon is sometimes employed in European martial arts and fencing, such as a parrying dagger. Miyamoto Musashi, a Japanese swordsman and ''ronin'', was said to have conceived of the idea of a particular style of swordsmanship involving the use of two swords.\n\nIn terms of firearms and handguns, this style has been popularized by television, but is generally denounced by firearm enthusiasts due to its impracticality. Though using two hand guns at a time confers an advantage by allowing more ready ammunition, it is rarely done due to other aspects of weapons handling. Dual wielding is present in many films and video games, which have the freedom of ignoring the impracticality of the style. The term itself is often invoked in the context of games.\n", "Dual wielding has not been used or mentioned much in military history, though it appears in weapon based martial arts and fencing practices. This style of combat requires special training, since an untrained user is unable to swing both weapons at the same time. To perform an attack by the defensive weapon after the first, the user needs to perform a separate and distinct action. \n\nThe use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat in western Europe during the Byzantine, Medieval, and Renaissance era. The use of a parrying dagger such as a main gauche along with a rapier is common in historical European martial arts. \nTraditional schools of Japanese martial arts include dual wield techniques, particularly a style conceived by Miyamoto Musashi involving the katana and wakizashi, two-sword kenjutsu techniques he called ''Niten Ichi-ryū''. Eskrima, the traditional martial arts of the Philippines teaches ''Doble Baston'' techniques involving the basic use of a pair of rattan sticks and also Espada y daga or Sword/Stick and Dagger. Okinawan martial arts have a method that uses a pair of ''sai''. Chinese martial arts involve the use of a pair of Butterfly swords and Hook swords. Gatka, a weapon-based martial art from the Punjab region, is known to use two sticks at a time. The Thailand weapon-based martial art Krabi Krabong involves the use of a separate ''Krabi'' in each hand. Kalaripayattu teaches advanced students to use either two sticks (of various sizes) or two daggers or two swords, simultaneously. \n\nIt should be noted that all the above-mentioned examples, involve either one long and one short weapon, or two short weapons. An example of a dual wield of two sabres is the Ukrainian cossack dance hopak.\n", "Model dressed as Lara Croft dual wielding pistols\nIn modern terms, the use of a gun in each hand is most associated with the American Old West, mainly due to media portrayals. Some people of the era preferred to carry two guns, but not to use them at the same time, as shown in movies, but rather to use the second one, instead of having to take the time to reload the first. The second handgun was rarely used in the manner portrayed especially in movies and video games. Wild Bill Hickok, a folk hero of that time, was said to not use a second gun in his off hand. Dual wielding two handguns was popularized by the passion of gun enthusiasts and television.\n\nIn ''MythBusters'', there is an episode in which they compared many firing stances, including having a gun in each hand and found that, compared to the two-handed single gun stance as a benchmark, only the one handed shoulder level stance with a single gun was comparable in terms of accuracy and speed. The ability to look down the sights of the gun was given as the main reason for this. In an episode the following year, they compared holding two guns and firing simultaneously—rather than alternating left and right shots— with holding one gun in the two-handed stance, and found that the results were in favor of using two guns and firing simultaneously.\n", "* Dimachaerus\n* Gun fu\n* Swordsmanship\n", "\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Modern times", "See also", "References" ]	Dual wield
[ "\n'''Romantic orientation''', also called '''affectional orientation''', indicates the sex or gender with which a person is most likely to have a romantic relationship or fall in love. It is used both alternatively and side-by-side with the term ''sexual orientation'', and is based on the perspective that sexual attraction is but a single component of a larger dynamic. For example, although a pansexual person may feel sexually attracted to people regardless of gender, they may be predisposed to romantic intimacy with females. For asexual people, romantic orientation is often considered a more useful measure of attraction than sexual orientation.\n", "People may or may not engage in purely emotional romantic relationships. The main identities relating to this are:\n* '''Aromantic''': Lack of romantic attraction towards anyone (aromanticism). Aromantic flag\n* '''Heteroromantic''': Romantic attraction towards person(s) of the opposite gender (heteroromanticism).\n* '''Homoromantic''': Romantic attraction towards person(s) of the same gender (homoromanticism).\n* '''Biromantic''': Romantic attraction towards person(s) of either gender (biromanticism).\n* '''Panromantic''': Romantic attraction towards person(s) of any and all genders (panromanticism).\n* '''Demiromantic''': Romantic attraction towards any of the above but only after forming a deep emotional bond with the person(s) (demiromanticism).\n", "The implications of the distinction between romantic and sexual orientations has not been fully recognized, nor has it been studied extensively. It is common for sources to describe sexual orientation as including components of both sexual and romantic (or romantic equivalent) attractions. Similarly, ''romantic love'' has been noted as \"love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation,\" although some sources contradict this notion, stating that sexual and romantic attraction are not necessarily linked. With regard to asexuality, while asexuals usually do not experience sexual attraction (see gray asexuality), they may still experience romantic attraction.\n", "\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Romantic identities", "Relationship with sexuality and asexuality", "References", "Further reading" ]	Romantic orientation
[ "\n:''This article refers to the animal. For the Indonesian-made military vehicle, see Anoa (armoured personnel carrier).\n\n\n'''Anoa''', also known as '''midget buffalo''' and '''sapiutan''', are a subgenus of ''Bubalus'' comprising two species native to Indonesia: the '''mountain anoa''' (''Bubalus quarlesi'') and the '''lowland anoa''' (''Bubalus depressicornis''). Both live in undisturbed rainforest, and are essentially miniature water buffalo. They are similar in appearance to a deer, weighing .\n\nBoth are found on the island of Sulawesi and the nearby island of Buton in Indonesia. They apparently live singly or in pairs, rather than in herds like most cattle, except when the cows are about to give birth. One young is born per year.\n\nBoth species of anoa have been classified as endangered since the 1960s, and the population continues to decrease. Fewer than 5000 animals of each species likely remain. Reasons for their decline include hunting for hide, horns, and meat by the local peoples and loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement. Currently, hunting is the more serious factor in most areas.\n", "Lowland anoa\nThe '''lowland anoa''' (''Bubalus depressicornis'') is a small bovid, standing barely over at the shoulder. They are also known as ''anoa de Ilanura'' or ''anoa des plaines''. It is most closely allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on their backs. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes, and there may be white markings on the legs and back; the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct buffaloes, the remains of which are found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. In habits, the animal appears to resemble the Indian buffalo. It is usually solitary, living in lowland forests and wetlands, browsing on plants and understory.\n", "Mountain anoa\n'''Mountain anoa''' (''Bubalus quarlesi'') are also known as ''anoa de montana'', ''anoa de Quarle, anoa des montagnes, anoa pegunungan,'' and Quarle's anoa. Standing at at the shoulder, it is even smaller than the lowland anoa and the smallest of all wild cattle. They also have longer, woolier hair that moults every February to April, showing faint spots on the head, neck, and limbs.\n\n", "\n", "\n\n* Lowland Anoa ''bubalus depressicornis'' Smith from wildcattleconservation.org\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Lowland anoa ", " Mountain anoa ", " References ", " External links " ]	Anoa
[ "\n\n'''Agner Krarup Erlang''' (1 January 1878 – 3 February 1929) was a Danish mathematician, statistician and engineer, who invented the fields of traffic engineering and queueing theory.\n\nBy the time of his relatively early death at the age of 51, Erlang had created the field of telephone networks analysis. His early work in scrutinizing the use of local, exchange and trunk telephone line usage in a small community to understand the theoretical requirements of an efficient network led to the creation of the Erlang formula, which became a foundational element of modern telecommunication network studies.\n", "\nErlang was born at Lønborg, near Tarm, in Jutland. He was the son of a schoolmaster, and a descendant of Thomas Fincke on his mother's side. At age 14, he passed the Preliminary Examination of the University of Copenhagen with distinction, after receiving dispensation to take it because he was younger than the usual minimum age. For the next two years he taught alongside his father.\n\nA distant relative provided free board and lodging, and Erlang prepared for and took the University of Copenhagen entrance examination in 1896, and passed with distinction. He won a scholarship to the University and majored in mathematics, and also studied astronomy, physics and chemistry. He graduated in 1901 with an MA and over the next 7 years taught at several schools. He maintained his interest in mathematics, and received an award for a paper that he submitted to the University of Copenhagen.\n\nHe was a member of the Danish Mathematicians' Association (TBMI) and through this met amateur mathematician Johan Jensen, the Chief Engineer of the Copenhagen Telephone Company (KTAS in Danish), an offshoot of the International Bell Telephone Company. Erlang worked for the CTC (KTAS) from 1908 for almost 20 years, until his death in Copenhagen after an abdominal operation.\n\nHe was an associate of the British Institution of Electrical Engineers.\n", "\nWhile working for the CTC, Erlang was presented with the classic problem of determining how many circuits were needed to provide an acceptable telephone service. His thinking went further by finding how many telephone operators were needed to handle a given volume of calls. Most telephone exchanges then used human operators and cord boards to switch telephone calls by means of jack plugs.\n\nOut of necessity, Erlang was a hands-on researcher. He would conduct measurements and was prepared to climb into street manholes to do so. He was also an expert in the history and calculation of the numerical tables of mathematical functions, particularly logarithms. He devised new calculation methods for certain forms of tables.\n\nHe developed his theory of telephone traffic over several years. His significant publications include:\n* 1909 – \"The Theory of Probabilities and Telephone Conversations\", which proves that the Poisson distribution applies to random telephone traffic.\n* 1917 – \"Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges\", which contains his classic formulae for call loss and waiting time.\n\nThese and other notable papers were translated into English, French and German. His papers were prepared in a very brief style and can be difficult to understand without a background in the field. One researcher from Bell Telephone Laboratories is said to have learned Danish to study them.\n\nThe British Post Office accepted his formula as the basis for calculating circuit facilities.\n\nIn 1946, the CCITT named the international unit of telephone traffic \"the Erlang\". A statistical distribution and programming language listed below have also been named in his honour.\n", "\n* Erlang – a unit of communication activity\n* Erlang distribution – a statistical probability distribution\n* Erlang programming language – developed by Ericsson for large industrial real-time systems\n* Queueing theory\n* Teletraffic engineering\n", "\n;Notes\n\n\n\n\n;Bibliography\n\n* Angus, Ian. An Introduction to Erlang B and Erlang C (PDF Document – Has terms and formulae plus biography)\n* Brockmeyer, E., Halstrøm, H.L. & Jensen, Arne. \"The Life and Works of A.K. Erlang\", (Collected works of A. K. Erlang)\n* \n* Plus Magazine. Agner Krarup Erlang (1878–1929), Plus Magazine online, University of Cambridge, U.K., May 1997. Retrieved 22 November 2009\n", "* Erlang Distribution\n* \"Telefon-Ventetider. Et Stykke Sandsynlighedsregning\", in ''Matematisk Tidsskrift'', B, 1920 (a paper on telephone waiting times, in Danish, digitized by Project Runeberg)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Life ", " Contributions ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Agner Krarup Erlang
[ "\n\n'''''Anyone Can Whistle''''' is a musical with a book by Arthur Laurents and music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim. The story concerns a corrupt mayoress, an idealistic nurse, a man who may be a doctor, and various officials, patients and townspeople, all fighting to save a bankrupt town. This musical was Angela Lansbury's first stage musical role.\n", "The show was first announced in ''The New York Times'' on October 5, 1961: \"For the winter of 1962, Arthur Laurents is nurturing another musical project, ''The Natives Are Restless''. The narrative and staging will be Mr. Laurent's handiwork; music and lyrics that of Stephen Sondheim. A meager description was furnished by Mr. Laurents, who refused to elaborate. Although the title might indicate otherwise, it is indigenous in content and contemporary in scope. No producer yet.\" No news of the show appeared until July 14, 1963, in an article in ''The New York Times'' about Kermit Bloomgarden, where it discussed the four shows he was producing for the coming season; two were maybes, two were definite. One of the latter was a Sondheim-Laurents musical (now named ''Side Show''). In a letter to Bloomgarden, Laurents wrote, \"I beg you not to mention the money problems or any difficulties to Steve anymore. It depresses him terribly and makes it terribly difficult for him to work... It is damn hard to concentrate ... when all the atmosphere is filled with gloom and forebodings about will the show get the money to go on? ... Spare him the gory details.\" This behavior is considered unusual for Laurents, which runs contrary to his current reputation. Sondheim discovered that Laurents hated doing backers' auditions and he took over that responsibility, playing and singing more than 30. They found 115 investors to back the $350,000 production, including Richard Rodgers and Sondheim's father.\n\nEager to work with both Laurents and Sondheim, Angela Lansbury accepted the lead role as Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper, despite her strong misgivings about the script and her ability to handle the score. Also signed were Lee Remick as Nurse Fay Apple and Harry Guardino as Hapgood. Laurents had wanted Barbra Streisand for the role of Fay, but she turned it down to star in ''Funny Girl''. Following rehearsals in New York City, the company started pre-Broadway tryouts in Philadelphia from March 2 to 21, 1964. Laurents, ignoring criticism about the show's message being trite and its absurdist style difficult to comprehend, poured his energies into restaging rather than dealing with the crux of the problem.\n\nThe show suffered further setbacks when supporting actor Henry Lascoe, who played Comptroller Schubb, suffered a heart attack during the show's out-of-town tryout, and was replaced by Gabriel Dell. According to Sondheim, \"Lansbury was so insecure onstage, and unhappy with her performance, that we considered replacing her. Ironically, it soon became apparent that it had been Lascoe, an old pro...who had made her feel like an amateur. The minute his much less confident understudy took over, she felt free to blossom, which she spectacularly did.\" Sondheim called the reviews \"humiliating\" and the audiences \"hostile.\" \n", "After multiple revisions, the show opened on Broadway on April 4, 1964, at the Majestic Theatre, where it closed after 9 performances and 12 previews, unable to overcome the generally negative reviews it had received. Scenic design was by William and Jean Eckart, costume design by Theoni V. Aldredge, and lighting design by Jules Fisher. Choreographer Herbert Ross received the show's sole Tony Award nomination.\n\nThe show became a cult favorite, and a truncated original cast recording released by Columbia Records sold well among Sondheim fans and musical theatre buffs. \"There Won't Be Trumpets,\" a song cut during previews, has become a favorite of cabaret performers.\n\nOn April 8, 1995, a staged concert was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City as a benefit for the Gay Men's Health Crisis. The concert was recorded by Columbia Records, preserving for the first time musical passages and numbers not included on the original Broadway cast recording. For example, the cut song \"There's Always A Woman\" was included at this concert. Lansbury served as narrator, with Madeline Kahn as Cora, Bernadette Peters as Fay, and Scott Bakula as Hapgood. Additional cast included Chip Zien, Ken Page, and Harvey Evans, the only original cast member to reprise his role.\n\nIn 2003, Sony reissued the original Broadway cast recording on compact disc. Two revivals were staged that year, one in London, at the Bridewell Theatre, and one in Los Angeles, at the Matrix Theatre.\n\nThe Ravinia Festival, Highland Park, Illinois, presented a staged concert on August 26 and 27, 2005, with Audra McDonald (Fay), Michael Cerveris (Hapgood) and Patti LuPone (Cora).\n\nOn January 11, 2008, Talk Is Free Theatre presented the Canadian professional premiere (in concert) at the Gryphon Theatre in Barrie, Ontario, with a fundraiser performance on January 13 at the Diesel Playhouse in Toronto, Ontario. It starred Adam Brazier as Hapgood, Kate Hennig as Cora, Blythe Wilson as Fay, and Richard Ouzounian as Narrator, who also served as director. Choreography was by Sam Strasfeld. Additional cast included Juan Chioran as Comptroller Shub, Jonathan Monro as Treasurer Cooley, and Mark Harapiak as Chief Magruder. Musical direction was provided by Wayne Gwillim.\n\nNew York City Center Encores! presented a staged concert from April 8 through April 11, 2010, with Sutton Foster as Nurse Fay Apple, Donna Murphy as Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper, and Raul Esparza as Hapgood, with direction and choreography by Casey Nicholaw. The production was the second most attended in ''Encores!'' history, and Stephen Sondheim was present at the post-matinee talkback on April 10.\n\nA London production of ''Anyone can Whistle'' opened at the Jermyn Street Studio Theatre, London, in association with Primavera Productions, running from March 10, 2010, to April 17, 2010. The director is Tom Littler, with Musical Director Tom Attwood, and a cast that includes Issy van Randwyck (Mayoress), Rosalie Craig (Nurse Fay Apple) and David Ricardo-Pearce (Hapgood).\n\nA new production directed by Phil Willmott opened at the Union Theatre in London, running from February 8 through March 11, 2017.\n", "\n===Act 1===\nThe story is set in an imaginary American town that has gone bankrupt. (Its former major industry was the production of an unidentified product that never wore out. Everyone has one now, and no one needs a replacement.) The only place in town doing good business is the local sanitarium, known as “The Cookie Jar,” whose inmates look much healthier than the disgruntled townspeople. (\"I'm Like the Bluebird\") All the money is in the hands of Cora Hoover Hooper, the stylish, ruthless mayoress and her cronies - Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, and Police Chief Magruder. Cora appears carried in a litter by her backup singers, and admits that she can accept anything except unpopularity (“Me and My Town”). The scheming Comptroller Schub tells her that he has a plan to save her administration, and the town, promising “It's highly unethical.” He tells her to meet him at the rock on the edge of town. At the rock, a local mother, Mrs. Schroeder, tries to tell her child, Baby Joan, to come down from the rock, when Baby Joan licks it - and a spring of water begins flowing from it. The town instantly proclaims a miracle, and Cora and her council eagerly anticipate tourist dollars as they boast of the water's curative powers. (\"Miracle Song\") It is soon revealed to Cora that the miracle is a fake, controlled by a pump inside the rock. The only person in town who doubts the miracle is Fay Apple, an eternally skeptical young nurse from the Cookie Jar who refuses to believe in miracles. She appears at the rock with all forty-nine of the inmates, or “Cookies” in tow, intending to let them take some of the water. Schub realizes that if they drink the water and do not change, people will discover the fake. As he tries to stop Fay, the inmates mingle with the townspeople, until no one can guess who is who. Fay disappears, and hiding from the police, admits that she hopes for one miracle - for a hero who can come and deliver the town from the madness (“There Won't Be Trumpets”). Cora arrives on the scene with the Cookie Jar's manager, Dr. Detmold, but he says that Fay has taken the records to identify the inmates. He tells Cora that he is expecting a new assistant who might help them. At that moment a mysterious stranger, J. Bowden Hapgood, arrives asking for directions to the Cookie Jar. He is instantly taken for the new assistant. Asked to identify the missing Cookies, Hapgood begins questioning random people and sorting them into two groups, group A, and group one, but refuses to divulge which group is which. The town council becomes suspicious of this and try to force the truth out, but Hapgood questions them until they begin to doubt their own sanity. Cora is too caught up with his logic to care. (“Simple”) As the extended musical sequence ends, the lights black out except for a spotlight on Hapgood, who announces to the audience, “You are all mad!” Seconds later, the stage lights are restored. The stage set has vanished, and the cast is revealed in theater seats, holding programs, applauding the audience, as the act ends.\n\n===Act 2===\nAs act two opens, the two groups are now in bitter rivalry over who is the normal group (“A-1 March”) Another stranger, a French woman in a feathered coat appears. It is really Fay Apple in disguise. She introduces herself as the Lady from Lourdes, a professional Miracle Inspector, come to investigate the miracle. As Schub runs off to warn Cora, Fay seeks out Hapgood in his hotel, and the two seduce each other in the style of a French romantic film. (“Come Play Wiz Me”) Fay tries to get Hapgood's help in exposing the miracle. Hapgood, however, sees through her disguise and wants to question her first. Fay refuses to take her wig off, and confesses to him that this disguise, left over from a college play, is the only way she can break out of her rigid and cynical persona. She begins to hope, however, that Hapgood may be the one who can help her learn to be free. (“Anyone Can Whistle”) Meanwhile, the two groups continue to march, and Cora, trying to give a speech, realizes that Hapgood has stolen her limelight. (“A Parade in Town”) She and Schub plan an emergency meeting at her house. Back at the hotel, Hapgood comes up with an idea, telling Fay to destroy the inmates' records. That way Fay can be free of them and they can stop pretending. When Fay is reluctant, Hapgood produces a record of his own - he is her fiftieth Cookie. He is a practicing idealist who, after years of attempted heroism, is tired of crusading and has come to the Cookie Jar to retire. Inspired by his record, Fay begins to tear the records up. As she does, the Cookies appear and begin to dance (“Everybody Says Don't”).\n\n===Act 3===\nAct three begins with Cora at her house with her council. Schub has put the miracle on hiatus, but announces that they can easily turn the town against Hapgood by blaming him for it. The group celebrates their alliance. (“I've Got You to Lean On”) A mob quickly forms outside the hotel, and Hapgood and Fay, still disguised, take refuge under the rock. Discovering the fraud, Cora and the council confront them. At that moment, Cora receives a telegram from the governor warning that if the quota of forty-nine cookies is not filled, she will be impeached. Schub tells her that since Hapgood never said who is normal or not, they can arrest anyone at random until the quota is filled. Fay tries to get Hapgood to expose the miracle, but he warns her no one will believe it is a fake, because it works as a miracle should. Fay wants his help stopping the Mayoress, but he refuses, since he is through with crusading. Although she knows she still isn't out of her shell, Fay angrily swears to go it alone. (“See What it Gets You”) As Cora and the police force begin rounding up Cookies, Fay tries to get the key away from the guards in an extended ballet sequence. (“The Cookie Chase”) As it ends, Fay is captured, and Dr. Detmold suddenly recognizes her. Fay tells the townspeople about the fake miracle, but the town refuses to believe her. Detmold tells Cora that even without the records, Fay can identify the inmates from memory. Cora warns that she will arrest forty-nine people, normal or not, and Fay, helplessly, identifies all the Cookies, except Hapgood. She tells him the world needs people like him, and Hapgood can't turn himself in. He asks Fay to come with him, but she still can't bring herself to break free. Parting ways, they reflect on what they briefly shared. (“With So Little to be Sure Of”) Word comes of a new miracle, two towns over, of a statue with a warm heart. Soon the town is all but deserted, and Cora is again upstaged. Again, Schub has the answer - since the Cookie Jar is still successful, they can turn the entire town into one big Cookie Jar! Cora realizes she and Schub are meant for each other, and they dance off together. As Fay resumes work, Detmold's real new assistant arrives, and Fay is horrified to realize that she is even more practical, rigid and disbelieving than Fay herself, and the new nurse marches the Cookies off to the next town to disprove the new miracle. Horrified at seeing what she might become, Fay returns to the rock calling for Hapgood. When he doesn't answer, she tries to whistle - and succeeds in blowing a shrill, ugly whistle. Hapgood appears again, saying 'That's good enough for me.' As they embrace, the water begins flowing from the rock - a true miracle this time. (Finale)\n", "''(From the Broadway production'')\n\n\n;Act I\nPrelude Act I ''(Instrumental)'' - Orchestra\nI'm Like the Bluebird — Company\nMe and My Town — Cora Hoover Hooper and Boys\nMiracle Song — Cora Hoover Hooper, Treasurer Cooley, Townspeople, Tourists and Pilgrims\nThere Won't Be Trumpets - Fay Apple''''\nSimple — J. Bowden Hapgood and Company\n\n;Act II\nPrelude Act II ''(Instrumental)'' - Orchestra\nA-1 March — Company\nCome Play Wiz Me — Fay Apple, J. Bowden Hapgood and Boys\nAnyone Can Whistle — Fay Apple\nA Parade In Town — Cora Hoover Hooper\nEverybody Says Don't — J. Bowden Hapgood\nDon't Ballet ''(Instrumental)'' - Orchestra\n\n;Act III\nPrelude Act III ''(Instrumental)'' - Orchestra\nI've Got You to Lean On — Cora Hoover Hooper, Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, Chief Magruder and Boys\nSee What It Gets You — Fay Apple\nAnyone Can Whistle (Reprise) - Fay Apple\nCora's Chase (The Cookie Chase) - Company\nI'm Like the Bluebird (Reprise 1) - Cookies\nWith So Little to Be Sure Of — Fay Apple and J. Bowden Hapgood\nI've Got You to Lean On (Reprise) - Cora and Hoover Hooper and Comptroller Schub''''\nI'm Like the Bluebird (Reprise 2) - Cookies\nFinale Ultimo ''(Instrumental)'' — Orchestra\n\n\n'''Notes''' \n '''' Denotes song being cut during Previews.\n\"There Won't Be Trumpets\" was cut from the original production. It was recorded for the original Broadway cast recording but not included on the LP release; it was reinstated on a later CD release. The song is still included in the officially licensed scripts and scores for performance.\nAdded in the 1995 concert: \"There Won't Be Trumpets\"—Fay Apple; \"There's Always A Woman\"—Fay Apple and Cora\n\"Finale Ultimo\" is attached to the end of \"With So Little to Be Sure Of\" on the Original Cast Recording.\n", "Howard Taubman in his ''New York Times'' review wrote that Laurents's \"book lacks the fantasy that would make the idea work, and his staging has not improved matters. Mr. Sondheim has written several pleasing songs but not enough of them to give the musical wings. The performers yell rather than talk and run rather than walk. The dancing is the cream.\"\n\nSteven Suskin wrote in his 2000 book about Broadway composers: The \"fascinating extended musical scenes, with extended choral work, ... immediately marked Sondheim as the most distinctive theatre composer of his time. The first act sanity sequence ... and the third act chase ... are unlike anything that came before.\"\n", "\n===Original Broadway production===\n\n\n Year\n Award ceremony\n Category\n Nominee\n Result\n\n 2001\n Tony Award\n Best Choreography\n Herbert Ross\n \n\n", "* ''Balancing Act, The Authorized Biography of Angela Lansbury'' by Martin Gottfried, published by Little, Brown and Company, 1999\n", "\n", "* \n* sondheim.com\n* MTI shows listing\n* Live, Laugh, Love: Anyone Can Whistle\n* ''Anyone Can Whistle'' on the Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide\n* The story of ''Anyone Can Whistle'' by Mark Eden Horowitz in ''The Sondheim Review''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Background", "Productions", "Plot", "Musical numbers", "Critical response", "Awards and nominations", "References", "Notes", "External links" ]	Anyone Can Whistle
[ "\nRev, a malt cooler from Canada\nAn '''alcopop''' (or '''cooler''', '''spirit cooler''' in South African English, or '''malternative''' in American slang) is a term describing certain flavored alcoholic beverages with relatively low alcohol content (e.g., 3–7% alcohol by volume), including:\n# Malt beverages to which various fruit juices or other flavorings have been added\n# Beverages containing wine to which ingredients such as fruit juice or other flavorings have been added (wine coolers)\n# Beverages containing distilled alcohol and sweet liquids such as fruit juices or other flavourings\n\nThe term '''alcopop''' (a portmanteau of the words ''alcohol'' and ''pop'') is used commonly in the United Kingdom to describe these drinks and in some countries by neoprohibitionists. Other terms include '''FAB''' (flavored alcoholic beverage), '''FMB''' (flavored malt beverage), '''PPS''' (pre-packaged spirit or premium packaged spirits), and '''RTD''' (ready-to-drink – Australia and New Zealand).\n", "There is a variety of beverages produced and marketed around the world as well as within each market which are described as coolers or alcopops. They tend to be sweet and served in small bottles (typically 355 ml (the normal size of a soda pop can) in the USA, 275 ml in South Africa and Germany, 330 ml in Canada and Europe), and between 4% and 7% ABV. In Europe, Canada, and South Africa coolers tend to be pre-mixed spirits, including vodka (e.g. Smirnoff Ice) or rum (e.g. Bacardi Breezer). In the United States, on the other hand, alcopops often start out as un-hopped beers, depending on the state in which they are sold. Much of the malt (and alcohol) is removed (leaving mostly water), with subsequent addition of alcohol (usually vodka or grain alcohol), sugar, coloring and flavoring. Such drinks are legally classified as beers in virtually all states and can therefore be sold in outlets that do not or cannot carry spirit-based drinks. There are, however, stronger ones that ''are'' simply pre-mixed spirits (e.g. Bacardi Rum Island Iced Tea), often containing about 12.5% alcohol by volume, that can be sold only where hard liquor is available.\n\nIn the United States there is a proportionally limited tax on alcopops relative to those sold in Europe, although some states are considering legislation to bring their tax levels closer to the European model, which is credited with limiting consumption by youth.\n\nAccording to the US Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB):\n\nFlavored malt beverages are brewery products that differ from traditional malt beverages such as beer, ale, lager, porter, stout, or malt liquor in several respects. Flavored malt beverages exhibit little or no traditional beer or malt beverage character. Their flavor is derived primarily from added flavors rather than from malt and other materials used in fermentation. At the same time, flavored malt beverages are marketed in traditional beer-type bottles and cans and distributed to the alcohol beverage market through beer and malt beverage wholesalers, and their alcohol content is similar to other malt beverages in the 4-6% alcohol by volume range.\n\nAlthough flavored malt beverages are produced at breweries, their method of production differs significantly from the production of other malt beverages and beer. In producing flavored malt beverages, brewers brew a fermented base of beer from malt and other brewing materials. Brewers then treat this base using a variety of processes in order to remove malt beverage character from the base. For example, they remove the color, bitterness, and taste generally associated with beer, ale, porter, stout, and other malt beverages. This leaves a base product to which brewers add various flavors, which typically contain distilled spirits, to achieve the desired taste profile and alcohol level.\n\nWhile the alcohol content of flavored malt beverages is similar to that of most traditional malt beverages, the alcohol in many of them is derived primarily from the distilled spirits component of the added flavors rather than from fermentation.\n:—70 Fed. Reg. 194 et seq. (January 3, 2005)\n\nIn some Continental European countries, such as Austria and Germany, bottled beer cocktails and shandies are available, which are being marketed the same way like alcopops. However, these beverages are based on traditional hopped beers and therefore not considered to be alcopops.\n", "Two Bacardi Breezers\nWine coolers gained popularity in the US market in the 1980s when Bartles and Jaymes began advertising their brand of wine coolers, which were followed by other brands, including when Bacardi introduced the Breezer. A growth in popularity occurred around 1993 with Two Dogs, DNA Alcoholic Spring Water, Hooper's Hooch and Zima, which was marketed under the title of \"malternative beverage\". Wine coolers were on the decline due to the increase in the US federal wine tax, and using a malt-beverage base became the new industry standard. Later, Mike's Hard Lemonade was released in the United States, with humorous commercials depicting what they called \"violence against lemons\". Smirnoff also came out with another citrus-flavored malt beverage in the United States in the late 1990s called Smirnoff Ice, which promoted itself with flashy commercials, usually involving trendy young people dancing in unlikely situations and places. (In the UK, Smirnoff Ice is marketed by Diageo as a PPS.)\n\nSome have expressed concern that such drinks might appeal to children as they tend to be sweet and brightly colored. Many cooler advertising campaigns have been criticized as trying to make 'alcopops' appeal to young drinkers. In the United Kingdom, that led to a media outcry during the mid-1990s as the tabloid press associated alcopops with under-age drinking which damaged sales and would lead to off-licences withdrawing them from their stores.\n\nIn response to a complaint from the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) conducted an extensive investigation in 2001. The agency \"found no evidence of intent to target minors with the FMB products, packaging, or advertising. Furthermore, after reviewing the consumer survey evidence submitted by CSPI in support of the proposition that FMBs were predominantly popular with minors, the FTC concluded that flaws in the survey's methodology limited the ability to draw conclusions from the survey data.\"\n\nThe Federal Trade Commission again in 2003 investigated FMB ads, product placement, and internal company marketing documents after a directive from the conferees of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees. \"The Commission's investigation found no evidence of targeting underage consumers in the marketing of FMBs. Adults 21 to 29 appear to be the intended target of FMB marketing\" and found that \"the majority of FMB drinkers are over the age of 27.\"\n\nIn December 2003, Ireland raised the tax on flavored malt beverages to equal that of spirits, the second highest in Europe. Germany has imposed an extra duty of 0.80 to 0.90 euro per bottle effective August 1, 2004. To circumvent higher taxation, some German producers have switched to wine coolers, which are being marketed the same way. Some bottles now carry a warning stating that they are not for consumption by people under the legal drinking age (under 18 in the UK and 21 in the United States). On May 11, 2008, the Australian Government increased the excise tax on alcopops by 70%, to bring it inline with the tax on spirits. There is the concern this tax will encourage consumers to buy straight spirits and mix the drinks themselves, possibly resulting in drinks with a higher alcohol concentration than the premixed alternatives. This tax was revoked during March 2009 meaning the government had to pay back the 290 million collected on the tax.\n\nThe Federal Trade Commission report states, \"Further, industry-conducted research on consumers over the age of 21 who use FMBs shows that these consumers generally view the FMBs as substitutes for beer, ... This research also concludes that consumers are not likely to consume more than two or three FMBs on any occasion because of the products'\nsweetness.\n", "A can of Garage Hard Lemonade, a lemon-flavoured alcopop whose alcohol content matches that of common beer.\nBrands of coolers are numerous and their alcoholic base vary greatly. Some notable brands include: VK Vodkakick, Smirnoff Ice, Mike's Hard Lemonade, Bacardi Breezer, Skyy Blue, Jack Daniel's Hard Cola and in the UK WKD Original Vodka.\n", "=== Australia ===\nThe Australian government increased the tax on these drinks under the 2008 budget to the same rate as spirits, volumetrically, in an effort to stop binge drinking. The tax was criticized by the opposition as a tax grab, and voted down in the Senate on March 18, 2009. Before its rejection, the tax had already raised at least A$290 million after April 2008. In April 2009, some Labor party MPs planned to resubmit the tax to the Senate, and it was finally approved in August 2009, increasing the cost of the drinks from $39 to $66 a litre. A 2013 study concluded that the tax had no impact on binge drinking of the drinks by teenagers.\n\n=== Germany ===\nOn 1 July 2004 the German government increased the tax on mixed drinks based on spirits (e.g. vodka, rum) by roughly one Euro per 275-ml-bottle in order to discourage teenagers drinking excessively, although those drinks were already prohibited for those under the age of 18. This had two implications: The most common alcopops, such as Smirnoff Ice or Bacardi Breezer, were nearly taken off the market, while other manufacturers changed the recipes of their drinks to replace spirit alcohols with wine or beer, but with the same ABV, enabling these mixed drinks (which are not \"alcopops\" under German law) to be sold legally to minors 16 and 17 years of age.\n\n=== South Africa ===\nIn South Africa, \"spirit coolers\" cannot be sold to persons under the age of 18. They are only sold at liquor stores.\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\nIn June 1997, Co-op Food became the first major retailer to place an outright ban on the sale of alcopops in its shops. This has since been rescinded. \n\nIn the UK Secretary of State for Health, Patricia Hewitt called for a tax increase on such products, although this had not yet happened as of October 2013.\n", "* Comparison of alcopops\n* Hard soda\n* Chuhai\n", "\n\n; Sources\n* Bloomberg News, FTC Says Alcohol Type Not Aimed at Minors, ''Los Angeles Times'', June 5, 2002.\n* Melillo, W. FTC: Ads for 'Alcopops' Not Aimed at Teens, ''Adweek'', June 6, 2002.\n* American Medical Association, AMA Says Alcohol Industry Targets Teen Girls, December 16, 2004.\n* California boosts tax on 'alcopops', Associated Press, August 15, 2007.\n", "* Portman Group (a UK alcoholic beverage industry trade advocacy group with a code of marketing practices)\n* New wave of 'sophisticated' alcopops fuels teenage binge drinking The Guardian, 14 December 2002\n* The demonised drink: How has youth drinking evolved 20 years since the launch of alcopops? The Independent, 29 June 2013\n* The quiet death of the alcopop BBC News Magazine, 31 July 2013\n* \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Description ", " History ", " Brands ", " Attempts to discourage \"alcopops\" ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Alcopop
[ "\n\n\n\nIn chemistry, an '''alkali''' (; from Arabic: ''al-qaly'' القلي, القالي, “ashes of the saltwort”) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal chemical element. An alkali also can be defined as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7.0. The adjective '''alkaline''' is commonly, and '''alkalescent''' less often, used in English as a synonym for basic, especially for bases soluble in water. This broad use of the term is likely to have come about because alkalis were the first bases known to obey the Arrhenius definition of a base, and they are still among the most common bases.\n", "The word \"alkali\" is derived from Arabic ''al qalīy'' (or ''alkali''), meaning ''the calcined ashes'' (see calcination), referring to the original source of alkaline substances. A water-extract of burned plant ashes, called potash and composed mostly of potassium carbonate, was mildly basic. After heating this substance with calcium hydroxide (''slaked lime''), a far more strongly basic substance known as ''caustic potash'' (potassium hydroxide) was produced. Caustic potash was traditionally used in conjunction with animal fats to produce soft soaps, one of the caustic processes that rendered soaps from fats in the process of saponification, one known since antiquity. Plant potash lent the name to the element potassium, which was first derived from caustic potash, and also gave potassium its chemical symbol '''K''' (from the German name Kalium), which ultimately derived from al'''k'''ali.\n", "Alkalis are all Arrhenius bases, ones which form hydroxide ions (OH−) when dissolved in water. Common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include:\n* Moderately concentrated solutions (over 10−3 M) have a pH of 7.1 or greater. This means that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink.\n* Concentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns).\n* Alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty substances on the surface of the skin.\n* Alkalis are normally water-soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution.\n", "The terms \"base\" and \"alkali\" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside of the context of chemistry and chemical engineering.\n\nThere are various more specific definitions for the concept of an alkali. Alkalis are usually defined as a subset of the bases. One of two subsets is commonly chosen.\n* A basic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal (This includes Mg(OH)2 but excludes NH3.)\n* Any base that is soluble in water and forms hydroxide ions or the solution of a base in water. (This includes Mg(OH)2 and NH3.)\n\nThe second subset of bases is also called an \"Arrhenius base\".\n", "\nAlkali salts are soluble hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, of which common examples are:\n\n* Sodium hydroxide – often called \"caustic soda\"\n* Potassium hydroxide – commonly called \"caustic potash\"\n* Lye – generic term for either of the previous two or even for a mixture\n* Calcium hydroxide – saturated solution known as \"limewater\"\n* Magnesium hydroxide – an atypical alkali since it has low solubility in water (although the dissolved portion is considered a strong base due to complete dissociation of its ions)\n", "Soils with pH values that are higher than 7.3 are usually defined as being alkaline. These soils can occur naturally, due to the presence of alkali salts. Although many plants do prefer slightly basic soil (including vegetables like cabbage and fodder like buffalograss), most plants prefer a mildly acidic soil (with pHs between 6.0 and 6.8), and alkaline soils can cause problems.\n", "\nIn alkali lakes (also called ''soda lakes''), evaporation concentrates the naturally occurring carbonate salts, giving rise to an alkalic and often saline lake.\n\nExamples of alkali lakes:\nAlkali Lake, Lake County, Oregon \nBaldwin Lake, San Bernardino County, California\nMono Lake, near Owens Valley in California\nRedberry Lake, Saskatchewan \nSummer Lake, Lake County, Oregon\nTramping Lake, Saskatchewan\nLake Magadi in Kenya\nLake Turkana in Kenya (the largest alkali lake in the world)\n* There are also alkali lakes in the outback of Australia.\n* Bear Lake on the Utah–Idaho border\n", "* Base (chemistry)\n* Alkali metals\n* Alkaline earth metals\n", "\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Common properties of alkalis and acids", "Difference between alkali and base", "Alkali salts", "Alkaline soil", "Alkali lakes", "See also", "References" ]	Alkali
[ "\n\n\n\n'''''Ain't I a Woman?: Black women and feminism''''' is a 1981 book by bell hooks titled after Sojourner Truth's \"Ain't I a Woman?\" speech. hooks examines the effect of racism and sexism on black women, the civil rights movement, and feminist movements from suffrage to the 1970s. She argues that the convergence of sexism and racism during slavery contributed to black women having the lowest status and worst conditions of any group in American society. White female abolitionists and suffragists were often more comfortable with black male abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass, while southern segregationalists and stereotypes of black female promiscuity and immorality caused protests whenever black women spoke. hooks points out that these white female reformers were more concerned with white morality than the conditions these morals caused black Americans.\n\nFurther, she argues that the stereotypes that were set during slavery still affect black women today. She argued that slavery allowed white society to stereotype white women as the pure goddess virgin and move black women to the seductive whore stereotype formerly placed on all women, thus justifying the devaluation of black femininity and rape of black women. The work which black women have been forced to perform, either in slavery or in a discriminatory workplace, that would be non-gender conforming for white women has been used against black women as a proof of their emasculating behaviour. bell hooks argues that black nationalism was largely a patriarchal and misogynist movement, seeking to overcome racial divisions by strengthening sexist ones, and that it readily latched onto the idea of the emasculating black ''matriarch'' proposed by Daniel Patrick Moynihan, whose theories bell hooks often criticizes.\n\nMeanwhile, she says, the \"feminist movement\", a largely white middle and upper class affair, did not articulate the needs of poor and non-white women, thus reinforcing sexism, racism, and classism. She suggests this explains the low numbers of black women who participated in the feminist movement in the 1970s, pointing to Louis Harris' Virginia Slims poll done in 1972 for Philip Morris that she says showed 62 percent of black women supported \"efforts to change women's status\" and 67 percent \"sympathized with the women's rights movement\", compared with 45 and 35 percent of white women (also Steinem, 1972). \n\nThe book is commonly used in gender studies, Black studies, and philosophy courses.\n", "* Black feminism\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSojourner's Speech, Transcribed by Marius Robinson; Anti-slavery bugle. volume (New-Lisbon, Ohio), 21 June 1851. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References" ]	Ain't I a Woman? (book)
[ "\n\n\nScreenshot of the AMOS Professional user interface and code editor, displaying the start of a program included with the language\n'''AMOS BASIC''' is a dialect of the BASIC programming language implemented on the Amiga computer. AMOS BASIC was published by Europress Software and originally written by François Lionet with Constantin Sotiropoulos.\n", "AMOS is a descendant of STOS BASIC for the Atari ST. AMOS BASIC was first produced in 1990.\n\nAMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software's Blitz BASIC. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high-level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways.\n\nThe original AMOS version was interpreted which, whilst working fine, suffered the same disadvantage of any language being run interpretively. By all accounts, AMOS was extremely fast among interpreted languages. The language was fast enough that an extension called AMOS 3D could produce playable 3D games even on plain 7 MHz Amigas. Later, an AMOS compiler was developed that further increased speed.\n\nAMOS could also include inline Assembly Language.\n\nTo simplify animation of sprites, AMOS included the AMOS Animation Language (AMAL), a compiled sprite scripting language which runs independently of the main AMOS BASIC program. It was also possible to control screen and \"rainbow\" effects using AMAL scripts. AMAL scripts in effect created CopperLists, small routines executed by the Amiga's Agnus chip.\n\nAfter the original version of AMOS, Europress released a compiler ('''AMOS Compiler'''), and two other versions of the language: '''Easy AMOS''', a simpler version for beginners, and '''AMOS Professional''', a more advanced version with added features, such as a better IDE, ARexx support, a new UI API and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS.\n\nAMOS was mostly used to make multimedia software, video games (platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software.\n\nThe language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners.\n\nPerhaps AMOS BASIC's biggest disadvantage, stemming from its Atari ST lineage, was its incompatibility with the Amiga's operating system functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non-standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of the operating system.\n\nToday the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS has been around 2001 released under a BSD style license by Clickteam - a company that includes the original programmer.\n", "Software written using AMOS BASIC includes:\n\n* ''Miggybyte''\n* ''Scorched Tanks''\n* Games by Vulcan Software, amongst which was the ''Valhalla'' trilogy\n* Amiga version of ''Ultimate Domain'' (called ''Genesia'') by Microïds\n* ''Flight of the Amazon Queen'', by Interactive Binary Illusions\n* ''Extreme Violence'', included on an Amiga Power cover disk\n", "\n", "* Source code for AMOS Professional 68000 ASM from pianetaamiga.it (archived, ZIP)\n* Source code for AMOS and STOS 68000 ASM from clickteam.com (archived, ZIP)\n* The AMOS Factory (an AMOS support/community site)\n* Amigacoding website (contains in-depth info and references for AMOS)\n* History of STOS and AMOS: how they came to be published in the UK\n* Amos Professional group on Facebook (one of the members is AMOS' original developer François Lionet)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Software ", " References ", " External links " ]	AMOS (programming language)
[ "\n'''Arcadia 2001''' is a second-generation 8-bit console released by Emerson Radio in 1982 following the release of ColecoVision. It was discontinued only 18 months later, with a total of 35 games having been released. Emerson licensed the Arcadia 2001 to Bandai, which released it in Japan. Over 30 Arcadia 2001 clones exist.\n\nThe unrelated Arcadia Corporation, manufacturer of the Atari 2600 Supercharger add-on, was sued by Emerson for trademark infringement. Arcadia Corporation then changed its name to Starpath.\n", "Hanimex HMG-2650\nThe Arcadia is much smaller than its contemporary competitors and is powered by a standard 12-volt power supply so it can be used in a boat or a vehicle. It also has two outputs (or inputs) headphone jacks on the back of the unit, on the far left and far right sides.\n\nThe system came with two Intellivision-style controllers with a 12 button keypad and 'fire' buttons on the sides. The direction pads have a removable joystick attachment. Most games came with BoPET overlays that could be applied to the controller's keypads. The console itself had five buttons: power, start, reset, option, and select.\n\nThere are at least three different types of cartridge case styles and artwork, with variations on each. Emerson-family cartridges come in two different lengths (short and long) of black plastic cases.\n", "Main Processor: Signetics 2650 CPU \nSome variants run a Signetics 2650A\nRAM: 1 KB\nROM: None\nVideo display: 128 × 208 / 128 × 104, 8 Colours\nVideo display controller: Signetics 2637 UVI @ 3.58 MHz (NTSC), 3.55 MHz (PAL)\nSound: Single Channel \"Beeper\" + Single Channel \"Noise\"\nHardware Sprites: 4 independent, single color\nControllers: 2 × 2 way\nKeypads: 2 × 12 button (more buttons on some variants)\n", "Intervision 2001\nEmerson actually created many popular arcade titles including ''Pac-Man'', ''Galaxian'' and ''Defender'' for the Arcadia, but never had them manufactured as Atari started to sue its competitor companies for releasing games to which it had exclusive-rights agreements. Early marketing showed popular arcade games, but they were later released as clones. For instance, the Arcadia 2001 game ''Space Raiders'' is a clone of ''Defender'', and ''Breakaway'' is a clone of ''Breakout''.\n\n\n\n Name\n Manufacturer\n Country\n Compatibility family\n\nAdvision Home Arcade\nAdvision\n\nEmerson console\n\nArcadia\nBandai\n\nEmerson console\n\nArcadia 2001\nEmerson\n\nEmerson console\n\nCosmos\nTele-Computer\n\nEmerson console\n\nDynavision\nMorning-Sun Commerce\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nEkusera\nP.I.C.\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nHanimex MPT-03\nHanimex\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nHMG-2650\nHanimex\n\nEmerson console\n\nHome Arcade Centre\nHanimex\n\nEmerson console\n\nIntelligent Game MPT-03\nIntelligent Game\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nIntercord XL 2000 System\nIntercord\n\nEmerson console\n\nIntervision 2001\nIntervision\n\nOrmatu console\n\nITMC MPT-03\nITMC\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nLeisure-Vision\nLeisure-Dynamics\n\nEmerson console\n\nLeonardo\nGiG Electronics\n\nEmerson console\n\nOrmatu 2001\nOrmatu Electronics BV\n\nOrmatu console\n\nPalladium Video-Computer-Game \n Neckermann \n \n Palladium console\n\nPolybrain Video Computer Game\nPolybrain\n\nPalladium console\n\nPoppy MPT-03 Tele Computer Spiel\nPoppy\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nPrestige Video Computer Game MPT-03\nPrestige\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nRobdajet MPT-03\n \n\nMPT-03 console\n\nRowtron 2000\nRowtron\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nSchmid TVG-2000\nSchmid\n\nEmerson console\n\nSheen Home Video Centre 2001\nSheen\n\nOrmatu console\n\nSoundic MPT-03\nSoundic\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nTele Brain\nMr. Altus\n\nPalladium console\n\nTele-Fever\nTchibo\n\nEmerson console\n\nTempest MPT-03\nTempest\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nTobby MPT-03\nTobby\n?\nMPT-03 console\n\nTrakton Computer Video Game\nTrakton\n\nPalladium console\n\nTryom Video Game Center\nTryom\n\nMPT-03 console\n\nTunix Home Arcade\nMonaco Leisure\n\nEmerson console\n\nUVI Compu-Game\nOrbit Electronics\n\nOrbit console\n\nVideo Master\nGrandstand\n\nOrbit console\n\n\n===Bandai Arcadia===\n\n\nIn 1982 the Bandai Arcadia, a variant of the Emerson Arcadia 2001, was released in Japan by Bandai. There were four Japan-exclusive game releases developed by Bandai which were the only known Arcadia titles written by other companies than UA Ltd.\n\nDoraemon\nDr. Slump\nMobile Soldier Gundam\nSuper Dimension Fortress Macross\n", "Some games for the '''Arcadia 2001''' are ports of lesser-known arcade games such as ''Route 16'', ''Jungler'', and ''Jump Bug'', which were not available on other home systems.\n\n\n\n3-D Bowling - a Bowling game released for the Arcadia by Emerson Radio Corp. in 1982.\n3-D Raceway - 3D Raceway\n3-D Soccer - a Soccer game released by Emerson Radio Corp. for the Arcadia in 1982.\nAlien Invaders - is a Shoot-'Em-Up game released by Emerson Radio Corp. for the Arcadia in 1982.\nAstro Invader\nAmerican Football - is a Football game released by Emerson Radio Corp. for the Arcadia in 1982.\nBaseball\nBrain Quiz\nBreakaway\nCapture\nCat Trax\nCrazy Gobbler\nCrazy Climber (unreleased)\nEscape\nFunky Fish\nGalaxian\nGrand Prix 3-D\nGrand Slam Tennis\nHobo\nHome Squadron\nHorse Racing (plays similar to the Intellivision version)\nJump Bug\n\nJungler\nKidou Senshi Gundamu (only in Japan)\nMath Logic\nMissile War\nOcean Battle\nPleiades\nRD2 Tank\nRed Clash\nRobot Killer (clone of Berzerk)\nRoute 16\nSoccer\nSpace Attack\nSpace Chess\nSpace Mission\nSpace Raiders\nSpace Squadron\nSpace Vultures\nSpiders\nStar Chess\nSuper Bug\nSuper Gobbler\nTanks A Lot\nThe End\nTurtles/Turpin\n\n", "\n\n", "\n The Dot Eaters entry on the Arcadia 2001.\n* www.old-computers.com Emerson Arcadia 2001 museum entry.\n* www.old-computers.com Article about Arcadia 2001 and \"clones\".\n* MESS wiki Arcadia 2001 documentation and games snapshots.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Description", "Technical specifications", "Releases", "Games", "References", "External links" ]	Arcadia 2001
[ "tetrahedra and red octahedra.\nIn geometry, a '''convex uniform honeycomb''' is a uniform tessellation which fills three-dimensional Euclidean space with non-overlapping convex uniform polyhedral cells.\n\nTwenty-eight such honeycombs exist:\n* the familiar cubic honeycomb and 7 truncations thereof;\n* the alternated cubic honeycomb and 4 truncations thereof;\n* 10 prismatic forms based on the uniform plane tilings (11 if including the cubic honeycomb);\n* 5 modifications of some of the above by elongation and/or gyration.\n\nThey can be considered the three-dimensional analogue to the uniform tilings of the plane.\n\nThe Voronoi diagram of any lattice forms a convex uniform honeycomb in which the cells are zonohedra.\n", "* '''1900''': Thorold Gosset enumerated the list of semiregular convex polytopes with regular cells (Platonic solids) in his publication ''On the Regular and Semi-Regular Figures in Space of n Dimensions'', including one regular cubic honeycomb, and two semiregular forms with tetrahedra and octahedra.\n* '''1905''': Alfredo Andreini enumerated 25 of these tessellations.\n* '''1991''': Norman Johnson's manuscript ''Uniform Polytopes'' identified the complete list of 28.\n* '''1994''': Branko Grünbaum, in his paper ''Uniform tilings of 3-space'', also independently enumerated all 28, after discovering errors in Andreini's publication. He found the 1905 paper, which listed 25, had 1 wrong, and 4 being missing. Grünbaum states in this paper that Norman Johnson deserves priority for achieving the same enumeration in 1991. He also mentions that I. Alexeyev of Russia had contacted him regarding a putative enumeration of these forms, but that Grünbaum was unable to verify this at the time.\n* '''2006''': George Olshevsky, in his manuscript ''Uniform Panoploid Tetracombs'', along with repeating the derived list of 11 convex uniform tilings, and 28 convex uniform honeycombs, expands a further derived list of 143 convex uniform tetracombs (Honeycombs of uniform 4-polytopes in 4-space).\n\nOnly 14 of the convex uniform polyhedra appear in these patterns:\n* three of the five Platonic solids,\n* six of the thirteen Archimedean solids, and\n* five of the infinite family of prisms.\n\n=== Names ===\nThis set can be called the '''regular and semiregular honeycombs'''. It has been called the '''Archimedean honeycombs''' by analogy with the convex uniform (non-regular) polyhedra, commonly called Archimedean solids. Recently Conway has suggested naming the set as the '''Architectonic tessellations''' and the dual honeycombs as the '''Catoptric tessellations'''.\n\nThe individual honeycombs are listed with names given to them by Norman Johnson. (Some of the terms used below are defined in Uniform 4-polytope#Geometric derivations for 46 nonprismatic Wythoffian uniform 4-polytopes)\n\nFor cross-referencing, they are given with list indices from '''A'''ndreini (1-22), '''W'''illiams(1-2,9-19), '''J'''ohnson (11-19, 21-25, 31-34, 41-49, 51-52, 61-65), and '''G'''rünbaum(1-28). Coxeter uses δ4 for a cubic honeycomb, hδ4 for an alternated cubic honeycomb, qδ4 for a quarter cubic honeycomb, with subscripts for other forms based on the ring patterns of the Coxeter diagram.\n", "Fundamental domains in a cubic element of three groups.\nFamily correspondences\nThe fundamental infinite Coxeter groups for 3-space are:\n# The , 4,3,4, cubic, (8 unique forms plus one alternation)\n# The , 4,31,1, alternated cubic, (11 forms, 3 new)\n# The cyclic group, (3,3,3,3) or 34, (5 forms, one new)\n\nThere is a correspondence between all three families. Removing one mirror from produces , and removing one mirror from produces . This allows multiple constructions of the same honeycombs. If cells are colored based on unique positions within each Wythoff construction, these different symmetries can be shown.\n\nIn addition there are 5 special honeycombs which don't have pure reflectional symmetry and are constructed from reflectional forms with ''elongation'' and ''gyration'' operations.\n\nThe total unique honeycombs above are 18.\n\nThe prismatic stacks from infinite Coxeter groups for 3-space are:\n# The ×, 4,4,2,∞ prismatic group, (2 new forms)\n# The ×, 6,3,2,∞ prismatic group, (7 unique forms)\n# The ×, (3,3,3),2,∞ prismatic group, (No new forms)\n# The ××, ∞,2,∞,2,∞ prismatic group, (These all become a ''cubic honeycomb'')\n\nIn addition there is one special ''elongated'' form of the triangular prismatic honeycomb.\n\nThe total unique prismatic honeycombs above (excluding the cubic counted previously) are 10.\n\nCombining these counts, 18 and 10 gives us the total 28 uniform honeycombs.\n\n=== The C~3, 4,3,4 group (cubic) ===\nThe regular cubic honeycomb, represented by Schläfli symbol {4,3,4}, offers seven unique derived uniform honeycombs via truncation operations. (One redundant form, the ''runcinated cubic honeycomb'', is included for completeness though identical to the cubic honeycomb.) The reflectional symmetry is the affine Coxeter group 4,3,4. There are four index 2 subgroups that generate alternations: 1+,4,3,4, (4,3,4,2+), 4,3+,4, and 4,3,4+, with the first two generated repeated forms, and the last two are nonuniform.\n\n\n\n\n\n+ 4,3,4, space group Pmm (221)\nReferenceIndices\nHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramand Schläfli symbol\nCell counts/vertexand positions in cubic honeycomb\nFrames(Perspective)\nVertex figure\nDual cell\n\n(0) \n(1) \n(2) \n(3)\nAlt\nSolids(Partial)\n\nJ11,15A1W1G22δ4\ncubic (chon) t0{4,3,4}{4,3,4}\n \n \n \n(8)30px(4.4.4)\n \n 75px\n75px\n75pxoctahedron\n 80pxCube, \n\nJ12,32A15W14G7O1\nrectified cubic (rich) t1{4,3,4}r{4,3,4}\n(2)30px(3.3.3.3)\n \n \n(4)30px(3.4.3.4)\n \n75px\n75px\n75pxcuboid\n80pxSquare bipyramid\n\nJ13A14W15G8t1δ4O15\ntruncated cubic (tich) t0,1{4,3,4}t{4,3,4}\n(1)30px(3.3.3.3)\n \n \n(4)30px(3.8.8)\n \n75px\n75px\n75pxsquare pyramid\n80pxIsosceles square pyramid\n\nJ14A17W12G9t0,2δ4O14\ncantellated cubic (srich) t0,2{4,3,4}rr{4,3,4}\n(1)30px(3.4.3.4)\n(2)30px(4.4.4)\n \n(2)30px(3.4.4.4)\n \n75px\n75px\n75pxoblique triangular prism\n80pxTriangular bipyramid\n\nJ17A18W13G25t0,1,2δ4O17\ncantitruncated cubic (grich) t0,1,2{4,3,4}tr{4,3,4}\n(1)30px(4.6.6)\n(1)30px(4.4.4)\n \n(2)30px(4.6.8)\n \n75px\n75px\n75pxirregular tetrahedron\n80pxTriangular pyramidille\n\nJ18A19W19G20t0,1,3δ4O19\nruncitruncated cubic (prich)t0,1,3{4,3,4}\n(1)30px(3.4.4.4)\n(1)30px(4.4.4)\n(2)30px(4.4.8)\n(1)30px(3.8.8)\n \n75px\n75px\n75pxoblique trapezoidal pyramid\n80px Square quarter pyramidille \n\nJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21\nalternated cubic (octet)h{4,3,4}\n \n \n \n(8)30px(3.3.3)\n(6)30px(3.3.3.3)\n76px\n75px\n75pxcuboctahedron\n80pxDodecahedrille\n\nJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25\nCantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ \n30px (1)(3.4.3.4)\n \n30px (2)(4.6.6)\n30px (2)(3.6.6)\n\n75px\n75px\n60pxrectangular pyramid\n80pxHalf oblate octahedrille\n\nJ23A16W11G5h3δ4O26\nRuncic cubic (ratoh) ↔ \n30px (1)cube\n \n30px (3)(3.4.4.4)\n30px (1)(3.3.3)\n\n75px\n75px\n60pxtapered triangular prism\n80pxQuarter cubille\n\nJ24A20W16G21h2,3δ4O28\nRuncicantic cubic (gratoh) ↔ \n30px (1)(3.8.8)\n \n30px(2)(4.6.8)\n30px (1)(3.6.6)\n\n75px\n75px\n60pxIrregular tetrahedron\n80pxHalf pyramidille\n\nNonuniformb\nsnub rectified cubicsr{4,3,4}\n30px(1)(3.3.3.3.3)\n30px(1)(3.3.3)\n \n30px(2)(3.3.3.3.4)\n30px(4)(3.3.3)\n75px\n\n\n75pxIrr. tridiminished icosahedron\n\n\nNonuniform\nTrirectified bisnub cubic2s0{4,3,4}\n30px(3.3.3.3.3)\n30px(4.4.4)\n30px(4.4.4)\n30px(3.4.4.4)\n\n\n\n\n\nNonuniform\nRuncic cantitruncated cubic sr3{4,3,4}\n30px(3.4.4.4)\n30px(4.4.4)\n30px(4.4.4)\n30px(3.3.3.3.4)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n+ honeycombs, space group Imm (229)\n\nReferenceIndices\nHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagramand Schläfli symbol\nCell counts/vertexand positions in cubic honeycomb\nSolids(Partial)\nFrames(Perspective)\nVertex figure\nDual cell\n\n(0,3)\n(1,2)\nAlt\n\nJ11,15A1W1G22δ4O1\n'''runcinated cubic'''(same as regular cubic) (chon)t0,3{4,3,4}\n(2)30px(4.4.4)\n(6)30px(4.4.4)\n \n 75px\n75px\n75pxoctahedron\n 80pxCube\n\nJ16A3W2G28t1,2δ4O16\nbitruncated cubic (batch) t1,2{4,3,4}2t{4,3,4}\n(4)30px(4.6.6)\n \n \n75px\n75px\n75px(disphenoid)\n80pxOblate tetrahedrille\n\nJ19A22W18G27t0,1,2,3δ4O20\nomnitruncated cubic (otch)t0,1,2,3{4,3,4}\n(2)30px(4.6.8)\n(2)30px(4.4.8)\n \n75px\n75px\n75pxirregular tetrahedron\n80pxEighth pyramidille\n\nJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O27\nQuarter cubic honeycombht0ht3{4,3,4}\n(2)30px(3.3.3)\n(6)30px(3.6.6)\n\n76px\n75px\n75pxelongated triangular antiprism\n\n80pxOblate cubille\n\nJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21\nAlternated runcinated cubic(same as alternated cubic)ht0,3{4,3,4}\n(4)30px(3.3.3)\n(4)30px(3.3.3)\n(6)30px(3.3.3.3)\n76px\n75px\n75pxcuboctahedron\n\n\nNonuniform\n2s0,3{(4,2,4,3)}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNonuniforma\nAlternated bitruncated cubich2t{4,3,4}\n30px (4)(3.3.3.3.3)\n \n30px (4)(3.3.3)\n75px\n\n\n75px\n80px\n\nNonuniform\n2s0,3{4,3,4}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNonuniformc\nAlternated omnitruncated cubicht0,1,2,3{4,3,4}\n30px (2)(3.3.3.3.4)\n30px (2)(3.3.3.4)\n30px (4)(3.3.3)\n \n\n\n75px\n\n\n=== B~3, 4,31,1 group ===\n\nThe , 4,3 group offers 11 derived forms via truncation operations, four being unique uniform honeycombs. There are 3 index 2 subgroups that generate alternations: 1+,4,31,1, 4,(31,1)+, and 4,31,1+. The first generates repeated honeycomb, and the last two are nonuniform but included for completeness.\n\nThe honeycombs from this group are called ''alternated cubic'' because the first form can be seen as a ''cubic honeycomb'' with alternate vertices removed, reducing cubic cells to tetrahedra and creating octahedron cells in the gaps.\n\nNodes are indexed left to right as ''0,1,0',3'' with 0' being below and interchangeable with ''0''. The ''alternate cubic'' names given are based on this ordering.\n\n\n\n\n+ 4,31,1 uniform honeycombs, space group Fmm (225)\n\nReferencedindices\nHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams\nCells by location(and count around each vertex)\nSolids(Partial)\nFrames(Perspective)\nvertex figure\n\n(0) \n(1) \n(0') \n(3)\n\nJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21\nAlternated cubic (octet) ↔ \n \n \n30px (6)(3.3.3.3)\n30px(8)(3.3.3)\n76px\n75px\n60pxcuboctahedron\n\nJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25\nCantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ \n30px (1)(3.4.3.4)\n \n30px (2)(4.6.6)\n30px (2)(3.6.6)\n\n75px\n75px\n60pxrectangular pyramid\n\nJ23A16W11G5h3δ4O26\nRuncic cubic (ratoh) ↔ \n30px (1)cube\n \n30px (3)(3.4.4.4)\n30px (1)(3.3.3)\n75px\n75px\n60pxtapered triangular prism\n\nJ24A20W16G21h2,3δ4O28\nRuncicantic cubic (gratoh) ↔ \n30px (1)(3.8.8)\n \n30px(2)(4.6.8)\n30px (1)(3.6.6)\n75px\n75px\n60pxIrregular tetrahedron\n\n\n\n+ 1,1> uniform honeycombs, space group Pmm (221)\n\nReferencedindices\nHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ \nCells by location(and count around each vertex)\nSolids(Partial)\nFrames(Perspective)\nvertex figure\n\n(0,0') \n(1) \n(3)\nAlt\n\nJ11,15A1W1G22δ4O1\nCubic (chon) ↔ \n30px (8)(4.4.4)\n \n \n \n75px\n75px\n60pxoctahedron\n\n\nJ12,32A15W14G7t1δ4O15\nRectified cubic (rich) ↔ \n30px (4)(3.4.3.4)\n \n30px (2)(3.3.3.3)\n \n75px\n75px\n60pxcuboid\n\nRectified cubic (rich) ↔ \n30px (2)(3.3.3.3)\n \n30px (4)(3.4.3.4)\n \n75px\n60pxcuboid\n\nJ13A14W15G8t0,1δ4O14\nTruncated cubic (tich) ↔ \n30px (4)(3.8.8)\n \n30px (1)(3.3.3.3)\n \n75px\n75px\n60pxsquare pyramid\n\nJ14A17W12G9t0,2δ4O17\nCantellated cubic (srich) ↔ \n30px (2)(3.4.4.4)\n30px (2)(4.4.4)\n30px (1)(3.4.3.4)\n \n75px\n75px\n60pxobilique triangular prism\n\nJ16A3W2G28t0,2δ4O16\nBitruncated cubic (batch) ↔ \n30px (2)(4.6.6)\n \n30px (2)(4.6.6)\n \n75px\n75px\n60pxisosceles tetrahedron\n\nJ17A18W13G25t0,1,2δ4O18\nCantitruncated cubic (grich) ↔ \n30px (2)(4.6.8)\n30px (1)(4.4.4)\n30px(1)(4.6.6)\n \n75px\n75px\n60pxirregular tetrahedron\n\nJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21\nAlternated cubic (octet) ↔ \n30px (8)(3.3.3)\n \n \n30px (6)(3.3.3.3)\n75px\n75px\n60pxcuboctahedron\n\n\nJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25\nCantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ \n30px (2)(3.6.6)\n \n30px (1)(3.4.3.4)\n30px (2)(4.6.6)\n\n75px\n75px\n60pxrectangular pyramid\n\n\nNonuniforma\nAlternated bitruncated cubic ↔ \n30px (2)(3.3.3.3.3)\n \n30px (2)(3.3.3.3.3)\n30px (4)(3.3.3)\n\n\n60px\n\nNonuniformb\nAlternated cantitruncated cubic ↔ \n30px (2)(3.3.3.3.4)\n30px (1)(3.3.3)\n30px (1)(3.3.3.3.3)\n30px (4)(3.3.3)\n75px\n\n60pxIrr. tridiminished icosahedron\n\n\n=== A~3, 34) group ===\n\nThere are 5 forms constructed from the , 34 Coxeter group, of which only the ''quarter cubic honeycomb'' is unique. There is one index 2 subgroup 34+ which generates the snub form, which is not uniform, but included for completeness.\n\n\n\n\n+ 34 uniform honeycombs, space group Fdm (227)\n\nReferencedindices\nHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams\nCells by location(and count around each vertex)\nSolids(Partial)\nFrames(Perspective)\nvertex figure\n\n(0,1)\n(2,3)\n\nJ25,33A13W10G6qδ4O27\nquarter cubic (batatoh) ↔ q{4,3,4}\n30px (2)(3.3.3)\n30px (6)(3.6.6) \n75px\n75px\n75pxtriangular antiprism\n\n\n\n+ 4> ↔ 4,31,1 uniform honeycombs, space group Fmm (225)\n\nReferencedindices\nHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ \nCells by location(and count around each vertex)\nSolids(Partial)\nFrames(Perspective)\nvertex figure\n\n0\n(1,3)\n2\n\nJ21,31,51A2W9G1hδ4O21\nalternated cubic (octet) ↔ ↔ h{4,3,4}\n\n30px (8)(3.3.3)\n30px (6)(3.3.3.3)\n75px\n75px\n75pxcuboctahedron\n\nJ22,34A21W17G10h2δ4O25\ncantic cubic (tatoh) ↔ ↔ h2{4,3,4}\n30px (2)(3.6.6)\n30px (1)(3.4.3.4)\n30px (2)(4.6.6)\n75px\n75px\n75pxRectangular pyramid\n\n\n\n+ 234 ↔ 4,3,4 uniform honeycombs, space group Pmm (221)\n\nReferencedindices\nHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ \nCells by location(and count around each vertex)\nSolids(Partial)\nFrames(Perspective)\nvertex figure\n\n(0,2)\n(1,3)\n\nJ12,32A15W14G7t1δ4O1\nrectified cubic (rich) ↔ ↔ ↔ r{4,3,4}\n30px (2)(3.4.3.4)\n30px (1)(3.3.3.3)\n75px\n75px\n75pxcuboid\n\n\n\n\n+ 434 ↔ uniform honeycombs, space group Imm (229)\n\nReferencedindices\nHoneycomb nameCoxeter diagrams ↔ ↔ \nCells by location(and count around each vertex)\nSolids(Partial)\nFrames(Perspective)\nvertex figure\n\n(0,1,2,3)\nAlt\n\nJ16A3W2G28t1,2δ4O16\nbitruncated cubic (batch) ↔ ↔ 2t{4,3,4}\n30px (4)(4.6.6)\n\n75px\n75px\n75pxisosceles tetrahedron\n\nNonuniforma\nAlternated cantitruncated cubic ↔ ↔ h2t{4,3,4}\n30px (4)(3.3.3.3.3)\n30px (4)(3.3.3)\n \n\n75px\n\n\n\n=== Nonwythoffian forms (gyrated and elongated) ===\nThree more uniform honeycombs are generated by breaking one or another of the above honeycombs where its faces form a continuous plane, then rotating alternate layers by 60 or 90 degrees (''gyration'') and/or inserting a layer of prisms (''elongation'').\n\nThe elongated and gyroelongated alternated cubic tilings have the same vertex figure, but are not alike. In the ''elongated'' form, each prism meets a tetrahedron at one triangular end and an octahedron at the other. In the ''gyroelongated'' form, prisms that meet tetrahedra at both ends alternate with prisms that meet octahedra at both ends.\n\nThe gyroelongated triangular prismatic tiling has the same vertex figure as one of the plain prismatic tilings; the two may be derived from the gyrated and plain triangular prismatic tilings, respectively, by inserting layers of cubes.\n\n\nReferencedindices\nsymbol\nHoneycomb name\ncell types (# at each vertex)\nSolids(Partial)\nFrames(Perspective)\nvertex figure\n\nJ52A2'G2O22\nh{4,3,4}:g\ngyrated alternated cubic (gytoh)\ntetrahedron (8)octahedron (6)\n70px\n100px\n80px triangular orthobicupola\n\nJ61A?G3O24\nh{4,3,4}:ge\ngyroelongated alternated cubic (gyetoh)\ntriangular prism (6)tetrahedron (4)octahedron (3)\n70px\n100px\n80px\n\nJ62A?G4O23\nh{4,3,4}:e\nelongated alternated cubic (etoh)\ntriangular prism (6)tetrahedron (4)octahedron (3)\n70px\n80px\n\nJ63A?G12O12\n{3,6}:g × {∞}\ngyrated triangular prismatic (gytoph)\ntriangular prism (12)\n70px\n100px\n80px\n\nJ64A?G15O13\n{3,6}:ge × {∞}\ngyroelongated triangular prismatic (gyetaph)\ntriangular prism (6)cube (4)\n70px\n100px\n80px\n\n\n=== Prismatic stacks ===\nEleven '''prismatic''' tilings are obtained by stacking the eleven uniform plane tilings, shown below, in parallel layers. (One of these honeycombs is the cubic, shown above.) The vertex figure of each is an irregular bipyramid whose faces are isosceles triangles.\n\n==== The C~2×I~1(∞), 4,4,2,∞, prismatic group ====\n\nThere are only 3 unique honeycombs from the square tiling, but all 6 tiling truncations are listed below for completeness, and tiling images are shown by colors corresponding to each form.\n\n\nIndices\nCoxeter-Dynkinand Schläflisymbols\nHoneycomb name\nPlanetiling\nSolids(Partial)\nTiling\n\nJ11,15A1G22\n {4,4}×{∞}\nCubic(Square prismatic) (chon)\n(4.4.4.4)\n80px\n50px\n\n r{4,4}×{∞}\n50px\n\n rr{4,4}×{∞}\n50px\n\nJ45A6G24\n t{4,4}×{∞} \nTruncated/Bitruncated square prismatic (tassiph)\n(4.8.8)\n80px\n50px\n\n tr{4,4}×{∞} \n50px\n\nJ44A11G14\n sr{4,4}×{∞}\nSnub square prismatic (sassiph)\n(3.3.4.3.4)\n80px\n50px\n\nNonuniform\nht0,1,2,3{4,4,2,∞}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n==== The G~2xI~1(∞), 6,3,2,∞ prismatic group ====\n\nIndices\nCoxeter-Dynkinand Schläflisymbols\nHoneycomb name\nPlanetiling\nSolids(Partial)\nTiling\n\nJ41A4G11\n {3,6} × {∞}\nTriangular prismatic (tiph)\n(36)\n60px\n60px\n\nJ42A5G26\n {6,3} × {∞}\nHexagonal prismatic (hiph)\n(63)\n60px\n60px\n\n t{3,6} × {∞}\n\n60px\n60px\n\nJ43A8G18\n r{6,3} × {∞}\nTrihexagonal prismatic (thiph)\n(3.6.3.6)\n60px\n60px\n\nJ46A7G19\n t{6,3} × {∞}\nTruncated hexagonal prismatic (thaph)\n(3.12.12)\n60px\n60px\n\nJ47A9G16\n rr{6,3} × {∞}\nRhombi-trihexagonal prismatic (rothaph)\n(3.4.6.4)\n60px\n60px\n\nJ48A12G17\n sr{6,3} × {∞}\nSnub hexagonal prismatic (snathaph)\n(3.3.3.3.6)\n60px\n60px\n\nJ49A10G23\n tr{6,3} × {∞}\ntruncated trihexagonal prismatic (otathaph)\n(4.6.12)\n60px\n60px\n\nJ65A11'G13\n {3,6}:e × {∞}\nelongated triangular prismatic (etoph)\n(3.3.3.4.4)\n60px\n60px\n\nJ52A2'G2\nh3t{3,6,2,∞}\ngyrated tetrahedral-octahedral (gytoh)\n(36)\n60px\n60px\n\ns2r{3,6,2,∞}\n\nNonuniform\nht0,1,2,3{3,6,2,∞}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n=== Enumeration of Wythoff forms ===\n\nAll nonprismatic Wythoff constructions by Coxeter groups are given below, along with their alternations. Uniform solutions are indexed with Branko Grünbaum's listing. Green backgrounds are shown on repeated honeycombs, with the relations are expressed in the extended symmetry diagrams.\n\nCoxeter group\nExtendedsymmetry\nHoneycombs\nChiralextendedsymmetry\nAlternation honeycombs\n\n\n4,3,4\n4,3,4\n6\n 20\n1+,4,3+,4,1+\n(2)\n b\n\n2+4,3,4 = \n(1)\n 22\n2+(4,3+,4,2+)\n(1)\n 6\n\n\n2+4,3,4\n1\n28\n2+(4,3+,4,2+)\n(1)\na\n\n\n2+4,3,4\n2\n27\n\n2+4,3,4+\n(1)\nc\n\n\n4,31,1 \n4,31,1\n4\n 28\n\n\n14,31,1=4,3,4 = \n(7)\n 25 \n11+,4,31,1+\n(2)\n a\n\n14,31,1+=4,3,4+\n(1)\nb\n\n\n34\n34\n(none)\n\n\n2+34 \n 1\n 6\n\n\n\n134=4,31,1 = \n (2)\n 10\n\n\n\n234=4,3,4 = \n (1)\n 7\n\n\n(2+,4)34=2+4,3,4 = \n(1)\n 28\n(2+,4)34+= 2+4,3,4+\n(1)\n a\n\n\n\n===Examples===\nAll 28 of these tessellations are found in crystal arrangements.\n\nThe alternated cubic honeycomb is of special importance since its vertices form a cubic close-packing of spheres. The space-filling truss of packed octahedra and tetrahedra was apparently first discovered by Alexander Graham Bell and independently re-discovered by Buckminster Fuller (who called it the octet truss and patented it in the 1940s).\n\n\n\n. Octet trusses are now among the most common types of truss used in construction.\n\n", "If cells are allowed to be uniform tilings, more uniform honeycombs can be defined:\n\nFamilies:\nx: 4,4,2 ''Cubic slab honeycombs'' (3 forms)\nx: 6,3,2 ''Tri-hexagonal slab honeycombs'' (8 forms)\n* x: (3,3,3),2 ''Triangular slab honeycombs'' (No new forms)\nxx: ∞,2,2 = ''Cubic column honeycombs'' (1 form)\nx: p,2,∞ ''Polygonal column honeycombs''\n* xx: ∞,2,∞,2 = 4,4,2 - = (Same as cubic slab honeycomb family)\n\n\n+ Examples (partially drawn)\n\nCubic slab honeycomb\nAlternated hexagonal slab honeycomb\nTrihexagonal slab honeycomb\n\n180px\n180px\n180px\n\n180px(4) 43: cube(1) 44: square tiling\n180px(4) 33: tetrahedron(3) 34: octahedron(1) 36: hexagonal tiling\n180px(2) 3.4.4: triangular prism(2) 4.4.6: hexagonal prism(1) (3.6)2: trihexagonal tiling\n\n", "A '''scaliform honeycomb''' is vertex-transitive, like a ''uniform honeycomb'', with regular polygon faces while cells and higher elements are only required to be ''orbiforms'', equilateral, with their vertices lying on hyperspheres. For 3D honeycombs, this allows a subset of Johnson solids along with the uniform polyhedra. Some scaliforms can be generated by an alternation process, leaving, for example, pyramid and cupola gaps.\n\n\n+ Euclidean honeycomb scaliforms\nFrieze slabs\nPrismatic stacks\n\ns3{2,6,3}, \ns3{2,4,4}, \ns{2,4,4}, \n3s4{4,4,2,∞}, \n\n200px\n200px\n200px\n200px\n\n 40px 40px 40px\n 40px 40px 40px\n 40px 40px 40px\n 40px 40px 40px\n\n200px(1) 3.4.3.4: triangular cupola(2) 3.4.6: triangular cupola(1) 3.3.3.3: octahedron(1) 3.6.3.6: trihexagonal tiling\n200px(1) 3.4.4.4: square cupola(2) 3.4.8: square cupola(1) 3.3.3: tetrahedron(1) 4.8.8: truncated square tiling\n200px(1) 3.3.3.3: square pyramid(4) 3.3.4: square pyramid(4) 3.3.3: tetrahedron(1) 4.4.4.4: square tiling\n200px(1) 3.3.3.3: square pyramid(4) 3.3.4: square pyramid(4) 3.3.3: tetrahedron(4) 4.4.4: cube\n\n", "The order-4 dodecahedral honeycomb, {5,3,4} in perspective\nThe paracompact hexagonal tiling honeycomb, {6,3,3}, in perspective\n\n\nThere are 9 Coxeter group families of compact uniform honeycombs in hyperbolic 3-space, generated as Wythoff constructions, and represented by ring permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams for each family.\n\nFrom these 9 families, there are a total of 76 unique honeycombs generated:\n* 3,5,3 : - 9 forms\n* 5,3,4 : - 15 forms\n* 5,3,5 : - 9 forms\n* 5,31,1 : - 11 forms (7 overlap with 5,3,4 family, 4 are unique)\n* (4,3,3,3) : - 9 forms\n* (4,3,4,3) : - 6 forms\n* (5,3,3,3) : - 9 forms\n* (5,3,4,3) : - 9 forms\n* (5,3,5,3) : - 6 forms\n\nThe full list of hyperbolic uniform honeycombs has not been proven and an unknown number of non-Wythoffian forms exist. One known example is in the {3,5,3} family.\n\n=== Paracompact hyperbolic forms ===\n\nThere are also 23 paracompact Coxeter groups of rank 4. These families can produce uniform honeycombs with unbounded facets or vertex figure, including ideal vertices at infinity:\n\n+ Simplectic hyperbolic paracompact group summary\nType\nCoxeter groups\nUnique honeycomb count\n\nLinear graphs\n \n4×15+6+8+8 = 82\n\nTridental graphs\n \n4+4+0 = 8\n\nCyclic graphs\n \n4×9+5+1+4+1+0 = 47\n\nLoop-n-tail graphs\n \n4+4+4+2 = 14\n\n", "\n\n* John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strauss, (2008) ''The Symmetries of Things'', (Chapter 21, Naming the Archimedean and Catalan polyhedra and tilings, Architectonic and Catoptric tessellations, p 292-298, includes all the nonprismatic forms)\n* George Olshevsky, (2006, ''Uniform Panoploid Tetracombs'', Manuscript ''(Complete list of 11 convex uniform tilings, 28 convex uniform honeycombs, and 143 convex uniform tetracombs)'' \n* Branko Grünbaum, (1994) Uniform tilings of 3-space. Geombinatorics 4, 49 - 56.\n* Norman Johnson (1991) ''Uniform Polytopes'', Manuscript\n* (Chapter 5: Polyhedra packing and space filling)\n* \n* '''Kaleidoscopes: Selected Writings of H.S.M. Coxeter''', edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication, 1995, \n** (Paper 22) H.S.M. Coxeter, ''Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I'', Math. Zeit. 46 (1940) 380-407, MR 2,10 (1.9 Uniform space-fillings)\n* A. Andreini, (1905) ''Sulle reti di poliedri regolari e semiregolari e sulle corrispondenti reti correlative'' (On the regular and semiregular nets of polyhedra and on the corresponding correlative nets), Mem. Società Italiana della Scienze, Ser.3, 14 75–129. PDF \n* D. M. Y. Sommerville, (1930) ''An Introduction to the Geometry of '''n''' Dimensions.'' New York, E. P. Dutton, . 196 pp. (Dover Publications edition, 1958) Chapter X: The Regular Polytopes\n* Chapter 5. Joining polyhedra\n* Crystallography of Quasicrystals: Concepts, Methods and Structures by Walter Steurer, Sofia Deloudi (2009), p.54-55. 12 packings of 2 or more uniform polyhedra with cubic symmetry\n", "\n* \n* Uniform Honeycombs in 3-Space VRML models\n* Elementary Honeycombs Vertex transitive space filling honeycombs with non-uniform cells.\n* Uniform partitions of 3-space, their relatives and embedding, 1999\n* The Uniform Polyhedra\n* Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra\n* octet truss animation\n* Review: A. F. Wells, Three-dimensional nets and polyhedra, H. S. M. Coxeter (Source: Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. Volume 84, Number 3 (1978), 466-470.)\n* \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Compact Euclidean uniform tessellations (by their infinite Coxeter group families) ", " Frieze forms ", " Scaliform honeycomb", " Hyperbolic forms ", " References ", "External links" ]	Convex uniform honeycomb
[ "An '''Audio optical disc''' is an optical disc that stores sound information such as music or speech.\n\nIt may specifically refer to:\n\n", "\nCompact disc (CD), an optical disc used to store digital data (700 MB storage)\n* Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA), a CD that contains PCM encoded digital audio in the original \"Red Book\" CD-DA format\n 5.1 Music Disc, an extension to the red book standard that uses DTS Coherent Acoustics 5.1 surround sound\n Compressed audio optical disc, an optical disc storing MP3s and other compressed audio files as data, rather than in the Red Book format\n", "\nDVD, 4 GB single layer, 8 GB double layer storage\n* DVD-Audio, a DVD that plays audio\n** Super Audio CD (SACD), a format which competes with DVD-Audio\n", "\nBlu-Ray, 25 GB single layer, 50 GB double layer\n* BD-Audio, a Blu-ray disc that is capable of audio-only playback\n", "*CD-4 or Compatible discrete four-channel sound, a variety of quadrophonic audio for vinyl records\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Audio CDs", "Audio DVDs", "Audio Blu-rays", "See also" ]	Optical audio disc
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Alcoholism''', also known as '''alcohol use disorder''' ('''AUD'''), is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in mental or physical health problems. It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Risky situations include drinking and driving or having unsafe sex among others. Alcohol use can affect all parts of the body but particularly affects the brain, heart, liver, pancreas, and immune system. This can result in mental illness, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, an irregular heart beat, liver failure, and an increase in the risk of cancer, among other diseases. Drinking during pregnancy can cause damage to the baby resulting in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Generally women are more sensitive to alcohol's harmful physical and mental effects than men.\n\n\nBoth environmental factors and genetics are associated with alcoholism with about half the risk attributed to each. A person with a parent or sibling with alcoholism is three to four times more likely to be alcoholic themselves. Environmental factors include social, cultural, and behavioral influences. High stress levels, anxiety, as well as inexpensive easily accessible alcohol increases risk. People may continue to drink partly to prevent or improve symptoms of withdrawal. A low level of withdrawal may last for months following stopping. Medically, alcoholism is considered both a physical and mental illness. Both questionnaires and certain blood tests may detect people with possible alcoholism. Further information is then collected to confirm the diagnosis.\n\n\nPrevention of alcoholism may be attempted by regulating and limiting the sale of alcohol, taxing alcohol to increase its cost, and providing inexpensive treatment. Treatment may take several steps. Because of the medical problems that can occur during withdrawal, alcohol detoxification should be carefully controlled. One common method involves the use of benzodiazepine medications, such as diazepam. This can be either given while admitted to a health care institution or occasionally while a person remains in the community with close supervision. Other addictions or mental illness may complicate treatment. After detoxification support such as group therapy or support groups are used to help keep a person from returning to drinking. One commonly used form of support is the group Alcoholics Anonymous. The medications acamprosate, disulfiram, or naltrexone may also be used to help prevent further drinking.\n\n\nThe World Health Organization estimates that as of 2010 there were 208 million people with alcoholism worldwide (4.1% of the population over 15 years of age). In the United States about 17 million (7%) of adults and 0.7 million (2.8%) of those age 12 to 17 years of age are affected. It is more common among males and young adults, becoming less common in middle and old age. It is the least common in Africa at 1.1% and has the highest rates in Eastern Europe at 11%. Alcoholism directly resulted in 139,000 deaths in 2013 up from 112,000 deaths in 1990. A total of 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol. It often reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years. In the United States it resulted in economic costs of $224 billion USD in 2006. Many terms, some insulting and others informal, have been used to refer to people affected by alcoholism including: tippler, drunkard, dipsomaniac, and souse. In 1979, the World Health Organization discouraged the use of \"alcoholism\" due to its inexact meaning, preferring \"alcohol dependence syndrome\".Video explanation\n\n", "Effects of alcohol on the body\n\n===Early signs===\nThe risk of alcohol dependence begins at low levels of drinking and increases directly with both the volume of alcohol consumed and a pattern of drinking larger amounts on an occasion, to the point of intoxication, which is sometimes called \"binge drinking\". Young adults are particularly at risk of engaging in binge drinking.\n\n===Long-term misuse===\nSome of the possible long-term effects of ethanol an individual may develop. Additionally, in pregnant women, alcohol can cause fetal alcohol syndrome.\nAlcoholism is characterised by an increased tolerance to alcohol–which means that an individual can consume more alcohol–and physical dependence on alcohol, which makes it hard for an individual to control their consumption. The physical dependency caused by alcohol can lead to an affected individual having a very strong urge to drink alcohol. These characteristics play a role decreasing an alcoholic's ability to stop drinking. Alcoholism can have adverse effects on mental health, causing psychiatric disorders and increasing the risk of suicide. A depressed mood is a common symptom of heavy alcohol drinkers.\n\n=== Warning signs ===\nWarning signs of alcoholism include the consumption of increasing amounts of alcohol and frequent intoxication, preoccupation with drinking to the exclusion of other activities, promises to quit drinking and failure to keep them, the inability to remember what was said or done while drinking (colloquially known as \"blackouts\"), personality changes associated with drinking, denial or the making of excuses for drinking, the refusal to admit excessive drinking, dysfunction or other problems at work or school, the loss of interest in personal appearance or hygiene, marital and economic problems, and the complaint of poor health, with loss of appetite, respiratory infections, or increased anxiety.\n\n====Physical====\n\n=====Short-term effects=====\n\n\nDrinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03–0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria (a \"happy\" feeling), increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC of 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting (death may occur due to inhalation of vomit (pulmonary aspiration) while unconscious and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. With all alcoholic beverages, drinking while driving, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; many countries have penalties for drunk driving.\n\n=====Long-term effects=====\n\n\nDrinking more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine. Long-term alcohol abuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including cirrhosis of the liver, pancreatitis, epilepsy, polyneuropathy, alcoholic dementia, heart disease, nutritional deficiencies, peptic ulcers and sexual dysfunction, and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, alcoholic liver disease, and cancer. Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting a propensity to bone fractures.\n\nWomen develop long-term complications of alcohol dependence more rapidly than do men. Additionally, women have a higher mortality rate from alcoholism than men. Examples of long-term complications include brain, heart, and liver damage and an increased risk of breast cancer. Additionally, heavy drinking over time has been found to have a negative effect on reproductive functioning in women. This results in reproductive dysfunction such as anovulation, decreased ovarian mass, problems or irregularity of the menstrual cycle, and early menopause. Alcoholic ketoacidosis can occur in individuals who chronically abuse alcohol and have a recent history of binge drinking. The amount of alcohol that can be biologically processed and its effects differ between sexes. Equal dosages of alcohol consumed by men and women generally result in women having higher blood alcohol concentrations (BACs), since women generally have a higher percentage of body fat and therefore a lower volume of distribution for alcohol than men, and because the stomachs of men tend to metabolize alcohol more quickly.\n\n====Psychiatric====\nLong-term misuse of alcohol can cause a wide range of mental health problems. Severe cognitive problems are common; approximately 10 percent of all dementia cases are related to alcohol consumption, making it the second leading cause of dementia. Excessive alcohol use causes damage to brain function, and psychological health can be increasingly affected over time. Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol abuse include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody perception problems and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humour is also impaired in alcohol abusers. Psychiatric disorders are common in alcoholics, with as many as 25 percent suffering severe psychiatric disturbances. The most prevalent psychiatric symptoms are anxiety and depression disorders. Psychiatric symptoms usually initially worsen during alcohol withdrawal, but typically improve or disappear with continued abstinence. Psychosis, confusion, and organic brain syndrome may be caused by alcohol misuse, which can lead to a misdiagnosis such as schizophrenia. Panic disorder can develop or worsen as a direct result of long-term alcohol misuse.\n\nThe co-occurrence of major depressive disorder and alcoholism is well documented. Among those with comorbid occurrences, a distinction is commonly made between depressive episodes that remit with alcohol abstinence (\"substance-induced\"), and depressive episodes that are primary and do not remit with abstinence (\"independent\" episodes). Additional use of other drugs may increase the risk of depression. Psychiatric disorders differ depending on gender. Women who have alcohol-use disorders often have a co-occurring psychiatric diagnosis such as major depression, anxiety, panic disorder, bulimia, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or borderline personality disorder. Men with alcohol-use disorders more often have a co-occurring diagnosis of narcissistic or antisocial personality disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, impulse disorders or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Women with alcoholism are more likely to experience physical or sexual assault, abuse and domestic violence than women in the general population, which can lead to higher instances of psychiatric disorders and greater dependence on alcohol.\n\n====Social effects====\n\n\nThe social problems arising from alcoholism are serious, caused by the pathological changes in the brain and the intoxicating effects of alcohol. Alcohol abuse is associated with an increased risk of committing criminal offences, including child abuse, domestic violence, rape, burglary and assault. Alcoholism is associated with loss of employment, which can lead to financial problems. Drinking at inappropriate times, and behavior caused by reduced judgment, can lead to legal consequences, such as criminal charges for drunk driving or public disorder, or civil penalties for tortious behavior, and may lead to a criminal sentence. An alcoholic's behavior and mental impairment, while drunk, can profoundly affect those surrounding them and lead to isolation from family and friends. This isolation can lead to marital conflict and divorce, or contribute to domestic violence. Alcoholism can also lead to child neglect, with subsequent lasting damage to the emotional development of the alcoholic's children. For this reason, children of alcoholic parents can develop a number of emotional problems. For example, they can become afraid of their parents, because of their unstable mood behaviors. In addition, they can develop considerable amount of shame over their inadequacy to liberate their parents from alcoholism. As a result of this failure, they develop wretched self-images, which can lead to depression.\n\n===Alcohol withdrawal===\n\n\ntemperance poster from the Union des Françaises contre l'Alcool (this translates as \"Union of French Women Against Alcohol\"). The poster states \"Ah! Quand supprimera-t'on l'alcool?\", which translates as \"Ah! When will we the nation abolish alcohol?\"\n\nAs with similar substances with a sedative-hypnotic mechanism, such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines, withdrawal from alcohol dependence can be fatal if it is not properly managed. Alcohol's primary effect is the increase in stimulation of the GABAA receptor, promoting central nervous system depression. With repeated heavy consumption of alcohol, these receptors are desensitized and reduced in number, resulting in tolerance and physical dependence. When alcohol consumption is stopped too abruptly, the person's nervous system suffers from uncontrolled synapse firing. This can result in symptoms that include anxiety, life-threatening seizures, delirium tremens, hallucinations, shakes and possible heart failure. Other neurotransmitter systems are also involved, especially dopamine, NMDA and glutamate.\n\nSevere acute withdrawal symptoms such as delirium tremens and seizures rarely occur after 1-week post cessation of alcohol. The acute withdrawal phase can be defined as lasting between one and three weeks. In the period of 3–6 weeks following cessation increased anxiety, depression, as well as sleep disturbance, is common; fatigue and tension can persist for up to 5 weeks as part of the post-acute withdrawal syndrome; about a quarter of alcoholics experience anxiety and depression for up to 2 years. These post-acute withdrawal symptoms have also been demonstrated in animal models of alcohol dependence and withdrawal. A kindling effect also occurs in alcoholics whereby each subsequent withdrawal syndrome is more severe than the previous withdrawal episode; this is due to neuroadaptations which occur as a result of periods of abstinence followed by re-exposure to alcohol. Individuals who have had multiple withdrawal episodes are more likely to develop seizures and experience more severe anxiety during withdrawal from alcohol than alcohol-dependent individuals without a history of past alcohol withdrawal episodes. The kindling effect leads to persistent functional changes in brain neural circuits as well as to gene expression. Kindling also results in the intensification of psychological symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. There are decision tools and questionnaires which help guide physicians in evaluating alcohol withdrawal. For example, the CIWA-Ar objectifies alcohol withdrawal symptoms in order to guide therapy decisions which allows for an efficient interview while at the same time retaining clinical usefulness, validity, and reliability, ensuring proper care for withdrawal patients, who can be in danger of death.\n", "William Hogarth's ''Gin Lane'', 1751\nA complex mixture of genetic and environmental factors influences the risk of the development of alcoholism. Genes that influence the metabolism of alcohol also influence the risk of alcoholism, and may be indicated by a family history of alcoholism. One paper has found that alcohol use at an early age may influence the expression of genes which increase the risk of alcohol dependence. Individuals who have a genetic disposition to alcoholism are also more likely to begin drinking at an earlier age than average. Also, a younger age of onset of drinking is associated with an increased risk of the development of alcoholism, and about 40 percent of alcoholics will drink excessively by their late adolescence. It is not entirely clear whether this association is causal, and some researchers have been known to disagree with this view.\n\nSevere childhood trauma is also associated with a general increase in the risk of drug dependency. Lack of peer and family support is associated with an increased risk of alcoholism developing. Genetics and adolescence are associated with an increased sensitivity to the neurotoxic effects of chronic alcohol abuse. Cortical degeneration due to the neurotoxic effects increases impulsive behaviour, which may contribute to the development, persistence and severity of alcohol use disorders. There is evidence that with abstinence, there is a reversal of at least some of the alcohol induced central nervous system damage. The use of cannabis was associated with later problems with alcohol use. Alcohol use was associated with an increased probability of later use of tobacco, cannabis, and other illegal drugs.\n\n===Availability===\nAlcohol is the most available, widely consumed, and widely abused recreational drug. Beer alone is the world's most widely consumed alcoholic beverage; it is the third-most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented beverage.\n\n===Gender difference===\nBased on combined data from SAMHSA's 2004–2005 National Surveys on Drug Use & Health, the rate of past-year alcohol dependence or abuse among persons aged 12 or older varied by level of alcohol use: 44.7% of past month heavy drinkers, 18.5% binge drinkers, 3.8% past month non-binge drinkers, and 1.3% of those who did not drink alcohol in the past month met the criteria for alcohol dependence or abuse in the past year. Males had higher rates than females for all measures of drinking in the past month: any alcohol use (57.5% vs. 45%), binge drinking (30.8% vs. 15.1%), and heavy alcohol use (10.5% vs. 3.3%), and males were twice as likely as females to have met the criteria for alcohol dependence or abuse in the past year (10.5% vs. 5.1%).\n\n===Genetic variation===\n\n\nGenetic differences exist between different racial groups which affect the risk of developing alcohol dependence. For example, there are differences between African, East Asian and Indo-racial groups in how they metabolize alcohol. These genetic factors are believed to, in part, explain the differing rates of alcohol dependence among racial groups. The alcohol dehydrogenase allele ADH1 B3 causes a more rapid metabolism of alcohol. The allele ADH1 B3 is only found in those of African descent and certain Native American tribes. African Americans and Native Americans with this allele have a reduced risk of developing alcoholism. Native Americans however, have a significantly higher rate of alcoholism than average; it is unclear why this is the case. Other risk factors such as cultural environmental effects e.g. trauma have been proposed to explain the higher rates of alcoholism among Native Americans compared to alcoholism levels in caucasians.\n\nA genome-wide association study of more than 100,000 human individuals identified variants of the gene ''KLB'', which encodes the transmembrane protein β-Klotho, as highly associated with alcohol consumption. The protein β-Klotho is an essential element in cell surface receptors for hormones involved in modulation of appetites for simple sugars and alcohol.\n", "\n\n===Definition===\nA picture of a man drinking from a bottle of alcohol while sitting on a boardwalk, ca. 1905–1914. Picture by Austrian photographer Emil Mayer.\nMisuse, problem use, abuse, and heavy use of alcohol refer to improper use of alcohol which may cause physical, social, or moral harm to the drinker. Moderate use is defined by ''The Dietary Guidelines for Americans'' as no more than two alcoholic beverages a day for men and no more than one alcoholic beverage a day for women. Some drinkers may drink more than 600 ml of alcohol per day during a heavy drinking period. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines binge drinking as the amount of alcohol leading to a blood alcohol content (BAC) of 0.08, which, for most adults, would be reached by consuming five drinks for men or four for women over a two-hour period. According to the NIAAA, men may be at risk for alcohol-related problems if their alcohol consumption exceeds 14 standard drinks per week or 4 drinks per day, and women may be at risk if they have more than 7 standard drinks per week or 3 drinks per day. It defines a standard drink as one 12-ounce bottle of beer, one 5-ounce glass of wine, or 1.5 ounces of distilled spirits. Despite this risk, a 2014 report in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that only 10% of either \"heavy drinkers\" or \"binge drinkers\" defined according to the above criteria also met the criteria for alcohol dependence, while only 1.3% of non-binge drinkers met the criteria. An inference drawn from this study is that evidence-based policy strategies and clinical preventive services may effectively reduce binge drinking without requiring addiction treatment in most cases.\n\n====Alcoholism====\nThe term ''alcoholism'' is commonly used amongst laypeople, but it is poorly defined. The WHO calls ''alcoholism'' \"a term of long-standing use and variable meaning\", and use of the term was disfavored by a 1979 WHO expert committee. ''The Big Book'' (from Alcoholics Anonymous) states that once a person is an alcoholic, they are always an alcoholic, but does not define what is meant by the term ''alcoholic'' in this context. In 1960, Bill W., co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), said:\n:We have never called alcoholism a disease because, technically speaking, it is not a disease entity. For example, there is no such thing as heart disease. Instead there are many separate heart ailments, or combinations of them. It is something like that with alcoholism. We did not wish to get in wrong with the medical profession by pronouncing alcoholism a disease entity. We always called it an illness, or a malady—a far safer term for us to use. In professional and research contexts, the term \"alcoholism\" sometimes encompasses both alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence, and sometimes is considered equivalent to alcohol dependence. Talbot (1989) observes that alcoholism in the classical disease model follows a progressive course: if a person continues to drink, their condition will worsen. This will lead to harmful consequences in their life, physically, mentally, emotionally and socially.\n\n====Johnson's typologies====\nJohnson (1980) explores the emotional progression of the addict’s response to alcohol. He looks at this in four phases. The first two are considered \"normal\" drinking and the last two are viewed as \"typical\" alcoholic drinking. Johnson's four phases consist of:\n# Learning the mood swing. A person is introduced to alcohol (in some cultures this can happen at a relatively young age), and the person enjoys the happy feeling it produces. At this stage, there is no emotional cost.\n# Seeking the mood swing. A person will drink to regain that feeling of euphoria experienced in phase 1; the drinking will increase as more intoxication is required to achieve the same effect. Again at this stage, there are no significant consequences.\n# At the third stage there are physical and social consequences, i.e., hangovers, family problems, work problems, etc. A person will continue to drink excessively, disregarding the problems.\n# The fourth stage can be detrimental, as Johnson cites it as a risk for premature death. As a person now drinks to feel normal, they block out the feelings of overwhelming guilt, remorse, anxiety, and shame they experience when sober.\n\n====Milam & Ketcham's physical deterioration stages====\nOther theorists such as Milam & Ketcham (1983) focus on the physical deterioration that alcohol consumption causes. They describe the process in three stages:\n# Adaptive stage – The person will not experience any negative symptoms, and they believe they have the capacity for drinking alcohol without problems. Physiological changes are happening with the increase in tolerance, but this will not be noticeable to the drinker or others.\n# Dependent stage – At this stage, symptoms build up gradually. Hangover symptoms from excessive drinking may be confused with withdrawal symptoms. Many addicts will maintain their drinking to avoid withdrawal sickness, drinking small amounts frequently. They will try to hide their drinking problem from others and will avoid gross intoxication.\n# Deterioration stage – Various organs are damaged due to long-term drinking. Medical treatment in a rehabilitation center will be required; otherwise, the pathological changes will cause death.\n\n====DSM and ICD====\nIn psychology and psychiatry, the DSM is the most common global standard, while in medicine, the standard is ICD. The terms they recommend are similar but not identical.\n\n\n\n Organization\n Preferred term(s)\n Definition\n\n APA's DSM-IV\n \"alcohol abuse\" and \"alcohol dependence\"\n\n* alcohol abuse = repeated use despite recurrent adverse consequences.\n* alcohol dependence = ''alcohol abuse'' combined with tolerance, withdrawal, and an uncontrollable drive to drink. The term \"alcoholism\" was split into \"alcohol abuse\" and \"alcohol dependence\" in 1980's DSM-III, and in 1987's DSM-III-R behavioral symptoms were moved from \"abuse\" to \"dependence\". It has been suggested that DSM-V merge alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single new entry, named \"alcohol-use disorder\".\n\n WHO's ICD-10\n \"alcohol harmful use\" and \"alcohol dependence syndrome\"\n Definitions are similar to that of the DSM-IV. The World Health Organisation uses the term \"alcohol dependence syndrome\" rather than alcoholism. The concept of \"harmful use\" (as opposed to \"abuse\") was introduced in 1992's ICD-10 to minimize underreporting of damage in the absence of dependence. The term \"alcoholism\" was removed from ICD between ICD-8/ICDA-8 and ICD-9.\n\n\nThe DSM-IV diagnosis of alcohol dependence represents one approach to the definition of alcoholism. In part, this is to assist in the development of research protocols in which findings can be compared to one another. According to the DSM-IV, an alcohol dependence diagnosis is: \"maladaptive alcohol use with clinically significant impairment as manifested by at least three of the following within any one-year period: tolerance; withdrawal; taken in greater amounts or over longer time course than intended; desire or unsuccessful attempts to cut down or control use; great deal of time spent obtaining, using, or recovering from use; social, occupational, or recreational activities given up or reduced; continued use despite knowledge of physical or psychological sequelae.\" Despite the imprecision inherent in the term, there have been attempts to define how the word ''alcoholism'' should be interpreted when encountered. In 1992, it was defined by the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (NCADD) and ASAM as \"a primary, chronic disease characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking.\" MeSH has had an entry for \"alcoholism\" since 1999, and references the 1992 definition.\n\nAA describes alcoholism as an illness that involves a physical allergy (where \"allergy\" has a different meaning than that used in modern medicine.) and a mental obsession. The doctor and addiction specialist Dr. William D. Silkworth M.D. writes on behalf of AA that \"Alcoholics suffer from a \"(physical) craving beyond mental control\". A 1960 study by E. Morton Jellinek is considered the foundation of the modern disease theory of alcoholism. Jellinek's definition restricted the use of the word ''alcoholism'' to those showing a particular natural history. The modern medical definition of ''alcoholism'' has been revised numerous times since then. The American Medical Association uses the word alcoholism to refer to a particular chronic primary disease.\n\n===Social barriers===\nAttitudes and social stereotypes can create barriers to the detection and treatment of alcohol abuse. This is more of a barrier for women than men. Fear of stigmatization may lead women to deny that they are suffering from a medical condition, to hide their drinking, and to drink alone. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be less likely to suspect that a woman they know is an alcoholic. In contrast, reduced fear of stigma may lead men to admit that they are suffering from a medical condition, to display their drinking publicly, and to drink in groups. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be more likely to suspect that a man they know is an alcoholic.\n\n===Screening===\nSeveral tools may be used to detect a loss of control of alcohol use. These tools are mostly self-reports in questionnaire form. Another common theme is a score or tally that sums up the general severity of alcohol use.\n\nThe CAGE questionnaire, named for its four questions, is one such example that may be used to screen patients quickly in a doctor's office.\n\n\n\n:The CAGE questionnaire has demonstrated a high effectiveness in detecting alcohol-related problems; however, it has limitations in people with less severe alcohol-related problems, white women and college students.\n\nOther tests are sometimes used for the detection of alcohol dependence, such as the Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire, which is a more sensitive diagnostic test than the CAGE questionnaire. It helps distinguish a diagnosis of alcohol dependence from one of heavy alcohol use. The Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) is a screening tool for alcoholism widely used by courts to determine the appropriate sentencing for people convicted of alcohol-related offenses, driving under the influence being the most common. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), a screening questionnaire developed by the World Health Organization, is unique in that it has been validated in six countries and is used internationally. Like the CAGE questionnaire, it uses a simple set of questions – a high score earning a deeper investigation. The Paddington Alcohol Test (PAT) was designed to screen for alcohol-related problems amongst those attending Accident and Emergency departments. It concords well with the AUDIT questionnaire but is administered in a fifth of the time. Certain blood tests may also indicate possible alcoholism.\n\n===Genetic predisposition testing===\nPsychiatric geneticists John I. Nurnberger, Jr., and Laura Jean Bierut suggest that alcoholism does not have a single cause—including genetic—but that genes do play an important role \"by affecting processes in the body and brain that interact with one another and with an individual's life experiences to produce protection or susceptibility\". They also report that fewer than a dozen alcoholism-related genes have been identified, but that more likely await discovery. At least one genetic test exists for an allele that is correlated to alcoholism and opiate addiction. Human dopamine receptor genes have a detectable variation referred to as the DRD2 TaqI polymorphism. Those who possess the A1 allele (variation) of this polymorphism have a small but significant tendency towards addiction to opiates and endorphin-releasing drugs like alcohol. Although this allele is slightly more common in alcoholics and opiate addicts, it is not by itself an adequate predictor of alcoholism, and some researchers argue that evidence for DRD2 is contradictory.\n\n===Urine and blood tests===\nThere are reliable tests for the actual use of alcohol, one common test being that of blood alcohol content (BAC). These tests do not differentiate alcoholics from non-alcoholics; however, long-term heavy drinking does have a few recognizable effects on the body, including:\n\n* Macrocytosis (enlarged MCV)\n* Elevated GGT\n* Moderate elevation of AST and ALT and an AST: ALT ratio of 2:1\n* High carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT)\n\nWith regard to alcoholism, BAC is useful to judge alcohol tolerance, which in turn is a sign of alcoholism.\n\nHowever, none of these blood tests for biological markers is as sensitive as screening questionnaires.\n", "The World Health Organization, the European Union and other regional bodies, national governments and parliaments have formed alcohol policies in order to reduce the harm of alcoholism. Targeting adolescents and young adults is regarded as an important step to reduce the harm of alcohol abuse. Increasing the age at which licit drugs of abuse such as alcohol can be purchased, the banning or restricting advertising of alcohol has been recommended as additional ways of reducing the harm of alcohol dependence and abuse. Credible, evidence based educational campaigns in the mass media about the consequences of alcohol abuse have been recommended. Guidelines for parents to prevent alcohol abuse amongst adolescents, and for helping young people with mental health problems have also been suggested.\n", "Treatments are varied because there are multiple perspectives of alcoholism. Those who approach alcoholism as a medical condition or disease recommend differing treatments from, for instance, those who approach the condition as one of social choice. Most treatments focus on helping people discontinue their alcohol intake, followed up with life training and/or social support to help them resist a return to alcohol use. Since alcoholism involves multiple factors which encourage a person to continue drinking, they must all be addressed to successfully prevent a relapse. An example of this kind of treatment is detoxification followed by a combination of supportive therapy, attendance at self-help groups, and ongoing development of coping mechanisms. The treatment community for alcoholism typically supports an abstinence-based zero tolerance approach; however, some prefer a harm-reduction approach.\n\n===Detoxification===\n\nAlcohol detoxification or 'detox' for alcoholics is an abrupt stop of alcohol drinking coupled with the substitution of drugs, such as benzodiazepines, that have similar effects to prevent alcohol withdrawal. Individuals who are only at risk of mild to moderate withdrawal symptoms can be detoxified as outpatients. Individuals at risk of a severe withdrawal syndrome as well as those who have significant or acute comorbid conditions are generally treated as inpatients. Detoxification does not actually treat alcoholism, and it is necessary to follow up detoxification with an appropriate treatment program for alcohol dependence or abuse to reduce the risk of relapse. Some symptoms of alcohol withdrawal such as depressed mood and anxiety typically take weeks or months to abate while other symptoms persist longer due to persisting neuroadaptations. Alcoholism has serious adverse effects on brain function; on average it takes one year of abstinence to recover from the cognitive deficits incurred by chronic alcohol abuse.\n\n===Psychological===\nA regional service center for Alcoholics Anonymous.\n\nVarious forms of group therapy or psychotherapy can be used to deal with underlying psychological issues that are related to alcohol addiction, as well as provide relapse prevention skills. The mutual-help group-counseling approach is one of the most common ways of helping alcoholics maintain sobriety. Alcoholics Anonymous was one of the first organizations formed to provide mutual, nonprofessional counseling, and it is still the largest. Others include LifeRing Secular Recovery, SMART Recovery, Women For Sobriety, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety. Rationing and moderation programs such as Moderation Management and DrinkWise do not mandate complete abstinence. While most alcoholics are unable to limit their drinking in this way, some return to moderate drinking. A 2002 US study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) showed that 17.7 percent of individuals diagnosed as alcohol dependent more than one year prior returned to low-risk drinking. This group, however, showed fewer initial symptoms of dependency. A follow-up study, using the same subjects that were judged to be in remission in 2001–2002, examined the rates of return to problem drinking in 2004–2005. The study found abstinence from alcohol was the most stable form of remission for recovering alcoholics. A long-term (60 year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men concluded that \"return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence.\"\n\n===Medications===\nIn the United States there are four approved medications for alcoholism: disulfiram, two forms of naltrexone, and acamprosate. Several other drugs are also used and many are under investigation.\n\nBenzodiazepines, while useful in the management of acute alcohol withdrawal, if used long-term can cause a worse outcome in alcoholism. Alcoholics on chronic benzodiazepines have a lower rate of achieving abstinence from alcohol than those not taking benzodiazepines. This class of drugs is commonly prescribed to alcoholics for insomnia or anxiety management. Initiating prescriptions of benzodiazepines or sedative-hypnotics in individuals in recovery has a high rate of relapse with one author reporting more than a quarter of people relapsed after being prescribed sedative-hypnotics. Those who are long-term users of benzodiazepines should not be withdrawn rapidly, as severe anxiety and panic may develop, which are known risk factors for relapse into alcohol abuse. Taper regimes of 6–12 months have been found to be the most successful, with reduced intensity of withdrawal.\nAcamprosate may stabilise the brain chemistry that is altered due to alcohol dependence via antagonising the actions of glutamate, a neurotransmitter which is hyperactive in the post-withdrawal phase. By reducing excessive NMDA activity which occurs at the onset of alcohol withdrawal, acamprosate can reduce or prevent alcohol withdrawal related neurotoxicity. Acamprosate reduces the risk of relapse amongst alcohol dependent persons.\nDisulfiram (Antabuse) prevents the elimination of acetaldehyde, a chemical the body produces when breaking down ethanol. Acetaldehyde itself is the cause of many hangover symptoms from alcohol use. The overall effect is severe discomfort when alcohol is ingested: an extremely fast-acting and long-lasting uncomfortable hangover. This discourages an alcoholic from drinking in significant amounts while they take the medicine.\nNaltrexone is a competitive antagonist for opioid receptors, effectively blocking the effects of endorphins and opioids. Naltrexone is used to decrease cravings for alcohol and encourage abstinence. Alcohol causes the body to release endorphins, which in turn release dopamine and activate the reward pathways; hence when naltrexone is in the body there is a reduction in the pleasurable effects from consuming alcohol. Evidence supports a reduced risk of relapse among alcohol dependent persons and a decrease in excessive drinking. Nalmefene also appears effective and works by a similar manner.\nCalcium carbimide works in the same way as disulfiram; it has an advantage in that the occasional adverse effects of disulfiram, hepatotoxicity and drowsiness, do not occur with calcium carbimide.\n\n\nThe Sinclair method is a method of using naltrexone or another opioid antagonists to treat alcoholism by having the person take the medication about an hour before they drink alcohol, and only then. The medication blocks the positive reinforcement effects of ethanol and hopefully allows the person to stop drinking or drink less.\n\nEvidence does not support the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), antipsychotics, or gabapentin.\n\n===Dual addictions and dependences===\nAlcoholics may also require treatment for other psychotropic drug addictions and drug dependences. The most common dual dependence syndrome with alcohol dependence is benzodiazepine dependence, with studies showing 10–20 percent of alcohol-dependent individuals had problems of dependence and/or misuse problems of benzodiazepine drugs such as valium or clonazopam. These drugs are, like alcohol, depressants. Benzodiazepines may be used legally, if they are prescribed by doctors for anxiety problems or other mood disorders, or they may be purchased as illegal drugs \"on the street\" through illicit channels. Benzodiazepine use increases cravings for alcohol and the volume of alcohol consumed by problem drinkers. Benzodiazepine dependency requires careful reduction in dosage to avoid benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome and other health consequences. Dependence on other sedative-hypnotics such as zolpidem and zopiclone as well as opiates and illegal drugs is common in alcoholics. Alcohol itself is a sedative-hypnotic and is cross-tolerant with other sedative-hypnotics such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines. Dependence upon and withdrawal from sedative-hypnotics can be medically severe and, as with alcohol withdrawal, there is a risk of psychosis or seizures if not managed properly.\n", "Disability-adjusted life year for alcohol use disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nalcohol per capita consumption (15+), in litres of pure alcohol\n\nThe World Health Organization estimates that as of 2010 there are 208 million people with alcoholism worldwide (4.1% of the population over 15 years of age). Substance use disorders are a major public health problem facing many countries. \"The most common substance of abuse/dependence in patients presenting for treatment is alcohol.\" In the United Kingdom, the number of 'dependent drinkers' was calculated as over 2.8 million in 2001. About 12% of American adults have had an alcohol dependence problem at some time in their life. In the United States and Western Europe, 10 to 20 percent of men and 5 to 10 percent of women at some point in their lives will meet criteria for alcoholism. Estonia had the highest death rate from alcohol in Europe in 2015 at 8.8 per 100,000 population.\n\nWithin the medical and scientific communities, there is a broad consensus regarding alcoholism as a disease state. For example, the American Medical Association considers alcohol a drug and states that \"drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite often devastating consequences. It results from a complex interplay of biological vulnerability, environmental exposure, and developmental factors (e.g., stage of brain maturity).\" Alcoholism has a higher prevalence among men, though, in recent decades, the proportion of female alcoholics has increased. Current evidence indicates that in both men and women, alcoholism is 50–60 percent genetically determined, leaving 40–50 percent for environmental influences. Most alcoholics develop alcoholism during adolescence or young adulthood. 31 percent of college students show signs of alcohol abuse, while six percent are dependent on alcohol. Under the DSM's new definition of alcoholics, that means about 37 percent of college students may meet the criteria.\n", "Alcohol use disorders deaths per million persons in 2012\n\n\nAlcoholism often reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years. The most common cause of death in alcoholics is from cardiovascular complications. There is a high rate of suicide in chronic alcoholics, which increases the longer a person drinks. Approximately 3–15 percent of alcoholics commit suicide, and research has found that over 50 percent of all suicides are associated with alcohol or drug dependence. This is believed to be due to alcohol causing physiological distortion of brain chemistry, as well as social isolation. Suicide is also very common in adolescent alcohol abusers, with 25 percent of suicides in adolescents being related to alcohol abuse. Among those with alcohol dependence after one year, some met the criteria for low-risk drinking, even though only 25.5 percent of the group received any treatment, with the breakdown as follows: 25 percent were found to be still dependent, 27.3 percent were in partial remission (some symptoms persist), 11.8 percent asymptomatic drinkers (consumption increases chances of relapse) and 35.9 percent were fully recovered—made up of 17.7 percent low-risk drinkers plus 18.2 percent abstainers. In contrast, however, the results of a long-term (60-year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men indicated that \"return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence.\" There was also \"return-to-controlled drinking, as reported in short-term studies, is often a mirage.\"\n", "Adriaen Brouwer, ''Inn with Drunken Peasants'', 1620s\n1904 advertisement describing alcoholism as a disease.\nHistorically the name \"dipsomania\" was coined by German physician C. W. Hufeland in 1819 before it was superseded by \"alcoholism\". That term now has a more specific meaning. The term \"alcoholism\" was first used in 1849 by the Swedish physician Magnus Huss to describe the systematic adverse effects of alcohol.\nAlcohol has a long history of use and misuse throughout recorded history. Biblical, Egyptian and Babylonian sources record the history of abuse and dependence on alcohol. In some ancient cultures alcohol was worshiped and in others, its abuse was condemned. Excessive alcohol misuse and drunkenness were recognized as causing social problems even thousands of years ago. However, the defining of habitual drunkenness as it was then known as and its adverse consequences were not well established medically until the 18th century. In 1647 a Greek monk named Agapios was the first to document that chronic alcohol misuse was associated with toxicity to the nervous system and body which resulted in a range of medical disorders such as seizures, paralysis, and internal bleeding. In 1920 the effects of alcohol abuse and chronic drunkenness led to the failed prohibition of alcohol being considered and eventually enforced briefly in America. In 2005 alcohol dependence and abuse was estimated to cost the US economy approximately 220 billion dollars per year, more than cancer and obesity.\n", "\nThe various health problems associated with long-term alcohol consumption are generally perceived as detrimental to society, for example, money due to lost labor-hours, medical costs due to injuries due to drunkenness and organ damage from long-term use, and secondary treatment costs, such as the costs of rehabilitation facilities and detoxification centers. Alcohol use is a major contributing factor for head injuries, motor vehicle accidents (due to drunk driving), domestic violence, and assaults. Beyond the financial costs that alcohol consumption imposes, there are also significant social costs to both the alcoholic and their family and friends. For instance, alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, an incurable and damaging condition. Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol abuse, collected by the World Health Organization, vary from one to six percent of a country's GDP. One Australian estimate pegged alcohol's social costs at 24% of all drug abuse costs; a similar Canadian study concluded alcohol's share was 41%. One study quantified the cost to the UK of ''all'' forms of alcohol misuse in 2001 as £18.5–20 billion. All economic costs in the United States in 2006 have been estimated at $223.5 billion.\n\nStereotypes of alcoholics are often found in fiction and popular culture. The \"town drunk\" is a stock character in Western popular culture. Stereotypes of drunkenness may be based on racism or xenophobia, as in the fictional depiction of the Irish as heavy drinkers. Studies by social psychologists Stivers and Greeley attempt to document the perceived prevalence of high alcohol consumption amongst the Irish in America. Alcohol consumption is relatively similar between many European cultures, the United States, and Australia. In Asian countries that have a high gross domestic product, there is heightened drinking compared to other Asian countries, but it is nowhere near as high as it is in other countries like the United States. It is also inversely seen, with countries that have very low gross domestic product showing high alcohol consumption. In a study done on Korean immigrants in Canada, they reported alcohol was even an integral part of their meal, and is the only time solo drinking should occur. They also believe alcohol is necessary at any social event as it helps conversations start.\n\nCaucasians have a much lower abstinence rate (11.8%) and much higher tolerance to symptoms (3.4±2.45 drinks) of alcohol than Chinese (33.4% and 2.2±1.78 drinks respectively). Also, the more acculturation there is between cultures, the more influenced the culture is to adopt Caucasians drinking practices. Peyote, a psychoactive agent, has even shown promise in treating alcoholism. Alcohol had actually replaced peyote as Native Americans’ psychoactive agent of choice in rituals when peyote was outlawed.\n", "===Topiramate===\nTopiramate, a derivative of the naturally occurring sugar monosaccharide D-fructose, has been found effective in helping alcoholics quit or cut back on the amount they drink. Evidence suggests that topiramate antagonizes excitatory glutamate receptors, inhibits dopamine release, and enhances inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid function. A 2008 review of the effectiveness of topiramate concluded that the results of published trials are promising, however, as of 2008, data was insufficient to support using topiramate in conjunction with brief weekly compliance counseling as a first-line agent for alcohol dependence. A 2010 review found that topiramate may be superior to existing alcohol pharmacotherapeutic options. Topiramate effectively reduces craving and alcohol withdrawal severity as well as improving quality-of-life-ratings.\n\n===Baclofen===\nBaclofen, a GABAB receptor agonist, is under study for the treatment of alcoholism. A 2015 systematic review concluded that there is insufficient evidence for the use of baclofen for withdrawal symptoms in alcoholism. There is tentative data supporting baclofen in alcohol dependence however further trials are needed as of 2013.\n\n===Ondansetron===\nOndansetron, a 5HT3 antagonist, appears to have promise as a treatment.\n", "Addictive personality\nAlcohol-related traffic crashes in the United States\nAlcohol Use Disorders Identification Test\nAlcoholism in family systems\nCollaborative Study On The Genetics of Alcoholism\nCRAFFT Screening Test\nDisulfiram-like drug\nHigh-functioning alcoholic\nList of countries by alcohol consumption\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n CAGE Questionnaire on NIH\n* CIWA-Ar Score for Alcohol Withdrawal\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Signs and symptoms", "Causes", "Diagnosis", "Prevention", "Management", "Epidemiology", "Prognosis", "History", "Society and culture", "Research", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alcoholism
[ "\n\n'''Abstraction''' in its main sense is a conceptual process where general rules and concepts are derived from the usage and classification of specific examples, literal (\"real\" or \"concrete\") signifiers, first principles, or other methods. \n\n\"An abstraction\" is the outcome of this process—a concept that acts as a super-categorical noun for all subordinate concepts, and connects any related concepts as a ''group'', ''field'', or ''category''.\n\nConceptual abstractions may be formed by filtering the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, selecting only the aspects which are relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball selects only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, eliminating the other characteristics of that particular ball. In a type–token distinction, a type (e.g., a 'ball') is more abstract than its tokens (e.g., 'that leather soccer ball').\n\nAbstraction in its secondary use is a material process, discussed in the themes below.\n", "Thinking in abstractions is considered by anthropologists, archaeologists, and sociologists to be one of the key traits in modern human behaviour, which is believed to have developed between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. Its development is likely to have been closely connected with the development of human language, which (whether spoken or written) appears to both involve and facilitate abstract thinking.\n\n===History===\n''Abstraction'' involves induction of ideas or the synthesis of particular facts into one general theory about something. It is the opposite of ''specification'', which is the analysis or breaking-down of a general idea or abstraction into concrete facts. Abstraction can be illustrated with Francis Bacon's ''Novum Organum'' (1620), a book of modern scientific philosophy written in the late Elizabethan era of England to encourage modern thinkers to collect specific facts before making any generalizations.\n\nBacon used and promoted induction as an abstraction tool, and it countered the ancient deductive-thinking approach that had dominated the intellectual world since the times of Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Aristotle. Thales (c. 624–546 BCE) believed that everything in the universe comes from one main substance, water. He deduced or specified from a general idea, \"everything is water\", to the specific forms of water such as ice, snow, fog, and rivers.\n\nModern scientists can also use the opposite approach of abstraction, or going from particular facts collected into one general idea, such as the motion of the planets (Newton (1642–1727)). When determining that the sun is the center of our solar system (Copernicus (1473–1543)), scientists had to utilize thousands of measurements to finally conclude that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit about the sun (Kepler (1571–1630)), or to assemble multiple specific facts into the law of falling bodies (Galileo (1564–1642)).\n", "\n===Compression===\n\nAn abstraction can be seen as a compression process, mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data; based on similarities in the constituent data, for example, many different physical cats map to the abstraction \"CAT\". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between \"abstract\" and \"concrete\". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects, and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object).\n:For example, ''picture 1 below'' illustrates the concrete relationship \"Cat sits on Mat\".\nChains of abstractions can be construed, moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape, to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat, to semantic abstractions such as the \"idea\" of a CAT, to classes of objects such as \"mammals\" and even categories such as \"object\" as opposed to \"action\".\n:For example, ''graph 1 below'' expresses the abstraction \"agent sits on location\". This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail.\n\n===Instantiation===\n\nNon-existent things in any particular place and time are often seen as abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. \n\nThose abstract things are then said to be ''multiply instantiated'', in the sense of ''picture 1'', ''picture 2'', etc., shown below. It is not sufficient, however, to define ''abstract'' ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define ''abstraction'' as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts \"cat\" and \"telephone\" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept \"cat\" or the concept \"telephone\". Although the concepts \"cat\" and \"telephone\" are ''abstractions'', they are not ''abstract'' in the sense of the objects in ''graph 1'' below. We might look at other graphs, in a progression from ''cat'' to ''mammal'' to ''animal'', and see that ''animal'' is more abstract than ''mammal''; but on the other hand ''mammal'' is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to ''marsupial'' or ''monotreme''.\n\nPerhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to ''tropes'' (instances of properties) as ''abstract particulars''—e.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an ''abstract particular''. This is similar to qualia and sumbebekos.\n\n===Material process===\nStill retaining the primary meaning of 'abstrere' or 'to draw away from', the abstraction of money, for example, works by drawing away from the particular value of things allowing completely incommensurate objects to be compared (see the section on 'Physicality' below). Karl Marx's writing on the commodity abstraction recognizes a parallel process.\n\nThe state (polity) as both concept and material practice exemplifies the two sides of this process of abstraction. Conceptually, 'the current concept of the state is an abstraction from the much more concrete early-modern use as the standing or status of the prince, his visible estates'. At the same time, materially, the 'practice of statehood is now constitutively and materially more abstract than at the time when princes ruled as the embodiment of extended power'. \n\n===Ontological status===\nThe way that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being, for example the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in ''picture 1'' exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in ''graph 1'' exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word \"abstract\". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.\n\n===Physicality===\n\nA physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered ''concrete'' (not abstract) if it is a ''particular individual'' that occupies a particular place and time. However, in the secondary sense of the term 'abstraction', this physical object can carry materially abstracting processes. For example, record-keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in containers. According to , these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers for the count, marks were placed on the outside of the containers. These physical marks, in other words, acted as material abstractions of a materially abstract process of accounting, using conceptual abstractions (numbers) to communicate its meaning.\n\nAbstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like ''God'', ''the number three'', and ''goodness'' are real, abstract, or both.\n\nAn approach to resolving such difficulty is to use ''predicates'' as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g., ''good''). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the ''graph 1'' below, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates.\n\n===Referencing and referring===\nAbstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example, \"happiness\" (when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise, \"architecture\" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.\n\n===Simplification and ordering===\nAbstraction uses a strategy of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient. This is true for all verbal/abstract communication.\n\nConceptual graph for A Cat sitting on the Mat ''(graph 1)''\nCat on Mat ''(picture 1)''\nFor example, many different things can be red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in ''picture 1'', to the right). The property of ''redness'' and the relation ''sitting-on'' are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram ''graph 1'' identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their five labels), whereas the ''picture 1'' shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.\n\n''Graph 1'' details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example, the arrow between the ''agent'' and ''CAT:Elsie'' depicts an example of an ''is-a'' relationship, as does the arrow between the ''location'' and the ''MAT''. The arrows between the gerund/present participle ''SITTING'' and the nouns ''agent'' and ''location'' express the diagram's basic relationship; ''\"agent is SITTING on location\"''; ''Elsie'' is an instance of ''CAT''.\n\nAlthough the description ''sitting-on'' (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in ''Gödel, Escher, Bach'' (1979):\n\n:(1) a publication\n::(2) a newspaper\n:::(3) ''The San Francisco Chronicle''\n::::(4) the May 18 edition of ''The San Francisco Chronicle''\n:::::(5) my copy of the May 18 edition of ''The San Francisco Chronicle''\n::::::(6) my copy of the May 18 edition of ''The San Francisco Chronicle'' as it was when I first picked it up (as contrasted with my copy as it was a few days later: in my fireplace, burning)\n\n\nAn abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about something, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.\n\n===Thought processes===\nIn philosophical terminology, ''abstraction'' is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects.\n", "\n===In art===\n\nTypically, ''abstraction'' is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freedom from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs.\n\n===In computer science===\n\nComputer scientists use abstraction to make models that can be used and re-used without having to re-write all the program code for each new application on every different type of computer. They communicate their solutions with the computer by writing source code in some particular computer language which can be translated into machine code for different types of computers to execute. Abstraction allows program designers to separate categories and concepts related to computing problems from specific instances of implementation. This means that the program code can be written so that it does not depend on the specific details of supporting applications, operating system software or hardware, but on an abstract concept of the solution to the problem that can then be integrated with the system with minimal additional work.\n\n===In linguistics===\n\nAbstraction is frequently applied in linguistics so as to allow phenomena of language to be analyzed at the desired level of detail. A commonly considered abstraction is the ''phoneme'', which abstracts speech sounds in such a way as to neglect details that cannot serve to differentiate meaning. Other analogous kinds of abstractions (sometimes called \"emic units\") considered by linguists include morphemes, graphemes, and lexemes. Abstraction also arises in the relation between syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Pragmatics involves considerations that make reference to the user of the language; semantics considers expressions and what they denote (the designata) abstracted from the language user; and syntax considers only the expressions themselves, abstracted from the designata.\n\n===In mathematics===\n\nAbstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept, removing any dependence on real world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.\n\nThe advantages of abstraction in mathematics are:\n* It reveals deep connections between different areas of mathematics\n* Known results in one area can suggest conjectures in a related area\n* Techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in a related area\n\nThe main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated.\n\n===In music===\nIn music, the term ''abstraction'' can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized by the exploration of internal numeric relationships.\n\n===In neurology===\n\nA recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts elicit greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus compared to concrete concepts which elicit greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage.\n\n===In philosophy===\nAbstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for discussion of abstraction is thought space.\n\n===In psychology===\nCarl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, different complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism. ''Abstraction'' is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of ''Psychological Types''.\n\nThere is an abstract ''thinking'', just as there is abstract ''feeling'', ''sensation'' and ''intuition''. Abstract thinking singles out the rational, logical qualities ... Abstract feeling does the same with ... its feeling-values. ... I put abstract feelings on the same level as abstract thoughts. ... Abstract sensation would be aesthetic as opposed to sensuous ''sensation'' and abstract intuition would be symbolic as opposed to fantastic ''intuition''. (Jung, 1921 (1971): par. 678).\n\n\n===In social theory===\nIn social theory, abstraction is used as both an ideational and material process. Alfred Sohn-Rethel, asked \"Can there be abstraction other than by thought?\" He used the example of commodity abstraction to show that abstraction occurs in practice as people create systems of abstract exchange that extend beyond the immediate physicality of the object and yet have real and immediate consequences. This work was extended through the 'Constitutive Abstraction' approach of writers associated with the Journal ''Arena''. Two books that have taken this theme of the abstraction of social relations as an organizing process in human history are (1996) and the second volume of Towards a Theory of Abstract Community, published in 2006: These books argue that the nation is an abstract community bringing together strangers who will never meet as such; thus constituting materially real and substantial, but abstracted and mediated relations. The books suggest that contemporary processes of globalization and mediatization have contributed to materially abstracting relations between people, with major consequences for how we live our lives.\n\nIt can be easily argued that abstraction is an elementary methodological tool in several disciplines of social science. These disciplines have definite and different man concepts that highlight those aspects of man and his behaviour by idealization that are relevant for the given human science. For example, homo sociologicus is the man as sociology abstracts and idealizes it, depicting man as a social being. Moreover, we could talk about homo cyber sapiens (the man who can extend his biologically determined intelligence thanks to new technologies), or homo creativus (who is simply creative).\n\nAbstraction (combined with Weberian idealization) plays a crucial role in economics. Breaking away from directly experienced reality was a common trend in 19th century sciences (especially physics), and this was the effort which was fundamentally determined the way economics tried and still tries to approach the economic aspects of social life. It is abstraction we meet in the case of both Newton’s physics and the neoclassical theory, since the goal was to grasp the unchangeable and timeless essence of phenomena. For example, Newton created the concept of the material point by following the abstraction method so that he abstracted from the dimension and shape of any perceptible object, preserving only inertial and translational motion. Material point is the ultimate and common feature of all bodies. Neoclassical economists created the indefinitely abstract notion of homo economicus by following the same procedure. Economists abstract from all individual and personal qualities in order to get to those characteristics that embody the essence of economic activity. Eventually, it is the substance of the economic man that they try to grasp. Any characteristic beyond it only disturbs the functioning of this essential core.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n", "* ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd edition'', Houghton Mifflin (1992), hardcover, 2140 pages, \n* \n* \n* Jung, C.G. 1921 (1971). ''Psychological Types'', Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. .\n* Sohn-Rethel, Alfred (1977) ''Intellectual and manual labour: A critique of epistemology'', Humanities Press.\n* .\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gottlob Frege\n* Discussion at The Well concerning Abstraction hierarchy\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origins", "Themes", "As used in different disciplines", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Abstraction
[ "\n\n\n\nIn abstract algebra, an '''abelian group''', also called a '''commutative group''', is a group in which the result of applying the group operation to two group elements does not depend on the order in which they are written. That is, these are the groups that obey the axiom of commutativity. Abelian groups generalize the arithmetic of addition of integers. They are named after Niels Henrik Abel.\n\nThe concept of an abelian group is one of the first concepts encountered in undergraduate abstract algebra, from which many other basic concepts, such as modules and vector spaces are developed. The theory of abelian groups is generally simpler than that of their non-abelian counterparts, and finite abelian groups are very well understood. On the other hand, the theory of infinite abelian groups is an area of current research.\n\n\n", "\nAn abelian group is a set, ''A'', together with an operation • that combines any two elements ''a'' and ''b'' to form another element denoted . The symbol • is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation. To qualify as an abelian group, the set and operation, , must satisfy five requirements known as the ''abelian group axioms'':\n\n;Closure: For all ''a'', ''b'' in ''A'', the result of the operation is also in ''A''.\n;Associativity: For all ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'' in ''A'', the equation holds.\n;Identity element: There exists an element ''e'' in ''A'', such that for all elements ''a'' in ''A'', the equation holds.\n;Inverse element: For each ''a'' in ''A'', there exists an element ''b'' in ''A'' such that , where ''e'' is the identity element.\n;Commutativity: For all ''a'', ''b'' in ''A'', ''a'' • ''b'' = ''b'' • ''a''.\n\nA group in which the group operation is not commutative is called a \"non-abelian group\" or \"non-commutative group\".\n", "\n=== Notation ===\n\nThere are two main notational conventions for abelian groups – additive and multiplicative.\n\n\n\n Convention\n Operation\n Identity\n Powers\n Inverse\n\n Addition\n ''x'' + ''y'' \n 0 \n ''nx'' \n −''x''\n\n Multiplication\n ''x'' ⋅ ''y'' or ''xy'' \n ''e'' or 1\n ''x''''n''\n ''x''−1\n\n\nGenerally, the multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual notation for modules and rings. The additive notation may also be used to emphasize that a particular group is abelian, whenever both abelian and non-abelian groups are considered, some notable exceptions being near-rings and partially ordered groups, where an operation is written additively even when non-abelian.\n\n=== Multiplication table ===\nTo verify that a finite group is abelian, a table (matrix) – known as a Cayley table – can be constructed in a similar fashion to a multiplication table. If the group is under the operation ⋅, the entry of this table contains the product . The group is abelian if and only if this table is symmetric about the main diagonal.\n\nThis is true since if the group is abelian, then . This implies that the entry of the table equals the entry, thus the table is symmetric about the main diagonal.\n", "* For the integers and the operation addition \"+\", denoted , the operation + combines any two integers to form a third integer, addition is associative, zero is the additive identity, every integer ''n'' has an additive inverse, −''n'', and the addition operation is commutative since for any two integers ''m'' and ''n''.\n* Every cyclic group ''G'' is abelian, because if ''x'', ''y'' are in ''G'', then . Thus the integers, '''Z''', form an abelian group under addition, as do the integers modulo ''n'', '''Z'''/''n'''''Z'''.\n* Every ring is an abelian group with respect to its addition operation. In a commutative ring the invertible elements, or units, form an abelian multiplicative group. In particular, the real numbers are an abelian group under addition, and the nonzero real numbers are an abelian group under multiplication.\n* Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal, so each subgroup gives rise to a quotient group. Subgroups, quotients, and direct sums of abelian groups are again abelian. The finite simple abelian groups are exactly the cyclic groups of prime order.\n* The concepts of abelian group and '''Z'''-module agree. More specifically, every ''Z''-module is an abelian group with its operation of addition, and every abelian group is a module over the ring of integers '''Z''' in a unique way.\n\nIn general, matrices, even invertible matrices, do not form an abelian group under multiplication because matrix multiplication is generally not commutative. However, some groups of matrices are abelian groups under matrix multiplication – one example is the group of 2×2 rotation matrices.\n", "\nAbelian groups were named after Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel by Camille Jordan because Abel found that the commutativity of the group of a polynomial implies that the roots of the polynomial can be calculated by using radicals. See Section 6.5 of Cox (2004) for more information on the historical background.\n", "If ''n'' is a natural number and ''x'' is an element of an abelian group ''G'' written additively, then ''nx'' can be defined as (''n'' summands) and . In this way, ''G'' becomes a module over the ring '''Z''' of integers. In fact, the modules over '''Z''' can be identified with the abelian groups.\n\nTheorems about abelian groups (i.e. modules over the principal ideal domain '''Z''') can often be generalized to theorems about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is the classification of finitely generated abelian groups which is a specialization of the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain. In the case of finitely generated abelian groups, this theorem guarantees that an abelian group splits as a direct sum of a torsion group and a free abelian group. The former may be written as a direct sum of finitely many groups of the form '''Z'''/''p''k'''Z''' for ''p'' prime, and the latter is a direct sum of finitely many copies of '''Z'''.\n\nIf are two group homomorphisms between abelian groups, then their sum , defined by , is again a homomorphism. (This is not true if ''H'' is a non-abelian group.) The set of all group homomorphisms from ''G'' to ''H'' thus turns into an abelian group in its own right.\n\nSomewhat akin to the dimension of vector spaces, every abelian group has a ''rank''. It is defined as the maximal cardinality of a set of linearly independent elements of the group. The integers and the rational numbers have rank one, as well as every subgroup of the rationals.\n\nThe center ''Z''(''G'') of a group ''G'' is the set of elements that commute with every element of ''G''. A group ''G'' is abelian if and only if it is equal to its center ''Z''(''G''). The center of a group ''G'' is always a characteristic abelian subgroup of ''G''. If the quotient group ''G''/''Z''(''G'') of a group by its center is cyclic then ''G'' is abelian.\n", "Cyclic groups of integers modulo ''n'', '''Z'''/''n'''''Z''', were among the first examples of groups. It turns out that an arbitrary finite abelian group is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups of prime power order, and these orders are uniquely determined, forming a complete system of invariants. The automorphism group of a finite abelian group can be described directly in terms of these invariants. The theory had been first developed in the 1879 paper of Georg Frobenius and Ludwig Stickelberger and later was both simplified and generalized to finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain, forming an important chapter of linear algebra.\n\nAny group of prime order is isomorphic to a cyclic group and therefore abelian. Any group whose order is a square of a prime number is abelian. In fact, for every prime number ''p'' there are (up to isomorphism) exactly two groups of order ''p''2, namely '''Z'''''p''2 and '''Z'''''p''×'''Z'''''p''.\n\n=== Classification ===\nThe '''fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups''' states that every finite abelian group ''G'' can be expressed as the direct sum of cyclic subgroups of prime-power order; it is also known as the '''basis theorem for finite abelian groups'''. This is generalized by the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups, with finite groups being the special case when ''G'' has zero rank; this in turn admits numerous further generalizations.\n\nThe classification was proven by Leopold Kronecker in 1870, though it wasn't stated in modern group-theoretic terms until later, and was preceded by a similar classification of quadratic forms by Gauss in 1801; see history for details.\n\nThe cyclic group '''Z'''''mn'' of order ''mn'' is isomorphic to the direct sum of '''Z'''''m'' and '''Z'''''n'' if and only if ''m'' and ''n'' are coprime. It follows that any finite abelian group ''G'' is isomorphic to a direct sum of the form\n\n:\n\nin either of the following canonical ways:\n* the numbers ''k''1, ..., ''k''''u'' are powers of primes\n* ''k''1 divides ''k''2, which divides ''k''3, and so on up to ''k''''u''.\n\nFor example, '''Z'''15 can be expressed as the direct sum of two cyclic subgroups of order 3 and 5: The same can be said for any abelian group of order 15, leading to the remarkable conclusion that all abelian groups of order 15 are isomorphic.\n\nFor another example, every abelian group of order 8 is isomorphic to either '''Z'''8 (the integers 0 to 7 under addition modulo 8), (the odd integers 1 to 15 under multiplication modulo 16), or .\n\nSee also list of small groups for finite abelian groups of order 30 or less.\n\n=== Automorphisms ===\nOne can apply the fundamental theorem to count (and sometimes determine) the automorphisms of a given finite abelian group ''G''. To do this, one uses the fact that if ''G'' splits as a direct sum of subgroups of coprime order, then .\n\nGiven this, the fundamental theorem shows that to compute the automorphism group of ''G'' it suffices to compute the automorphism groups of the Sylow ''p''-subgroups separately (that is, all direct sums of cyclic subgroups, each with order a power of ''p''). Fix a prime ''p'' and suppose the exponents ''e''''i'' of the cyclic factors of the Sylow ''p''-subgroup are arranged in increasing order:\n\n:\n\nfor some . One needs to find the automorphisms of\n\n:\n\nOne special case is when ''n'' = 1, so that there is only one cyclic prime-power factor in the Sylow ''p''-subgroup ''P''. In this case the theory of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group can be used. Another special case is when ''n'' is arbitrary but . Here, one is considering ''P'' to be of the form\n\n:\n\nso elements of this subgroup can be viewed as comprising a vector space of dimension ''n'' over the finite field of ''p'' elements '''F'''''p''. The automorphisms of this subgroup are therefore given by the invertible linear transformations, so\n\n:\n\nwhere GL is the appropriate general linear group. This is easily shown to have order\n\n:\n\nIn the most general case, where the ''e''''i'' and ''n'' are arbitrary, the automorphism group is more difficult to determine. It is known, however, that if one defines\n\n:\n\nand\n\n:\n\nthen one has in particular , , and\n\n:\n\nOne can check that this yields the orders in the previous examples as special cases (see Hillar, C., & Rhea, D.).\n", "The simplest infinite abelian group is the infinite cyclic group '''Z'''. Any finitely generated abelian group ''A'' is isomorphic to the direct sum of ''r'' copies of '''Z''' and a finite abelian group, which in turn is decomposable into a direct sum of finitely many cyclic groups of primary orders. Even though the decomposition is not unique, the number ''r'', called the '''rank''' of ''A'', and the prime powers giving the orders of finite cyclic summands are uniquely determined.\n\nBy contrast, classification of general infinitely generated abelian groups is far from complete. Divisible groups, i.e. abelian groups ''A'' in which the equation admits a solution for any natural number ''n'' and element ''a'' of ''A'', constitute one important class of infinite abelian groups that can be completely characterized. Every divisible group is isomorphic to a direct sum, with summands isomorphic to '''Q''' and Prüfer groups '''Q'''''p''/'''Z'''''p'' for various prime numbers ''p'', and the cardinality of the set of summands of each type is uniquely determined. Moreover, if a divisible group ''A'' is a subgroup of an abelian group ''G'' then ''A'' admits a direct complement: a subgroup ''C'' of ''G'' such that . Thus divisible groups are injective modules in the category of abelian groups, and conversely, every injective abelian group is divisible (Baer's criterion). An abelian group without non-zero divisible subgroups is called '''reduced'''.\n\nTwo important special classes of infinite abelian groups with diametrically opposite properties are ''torsion groups'' and ''torsion-free groups'', exemplified by the groups '''Q'''/'''Z''' (periodic) and '''Q''' (torsion-free).\n\n=== Torsion groups ===\n\nAn abelian group is called '''periodic''' or '''torsion''', if every element has finite order. A direct sum of finite cyclic groups is periodic. Although the converse statement is not true in general, some special cases are known. The first and second Prüfer theorems state that if ''A'' is a periodic group, and it either has a '''bounded exponent''', i.e., for some natural number ''n'', or is countable and the ''p''-heights of the elements of ''A'' are finite for each ''p'', then ''A'' is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups. The cardinality of the set of direct summands isomorphic to '''Z'''/''p''''m'''''Z''' in such a decomposition is an invariant of ''A''. These theorems were later subsumed in the '''Kulikov criterion'''. In a different direction, Helmut Ulm found an extension of the second Prüfer theorem to countable abelian ''p''-groups with elements of infinite height: those groups are completely classified by means of their Ulm invariants.\n\n=== Torsion-free and mixed groups ===\n\nAn abelian group is called '''torsion-free''' if every non-zero element has infinite order. Several classes of torsion-free abelian groups have been studied extensively:\n\n* Free abelian groups, i.e. arbitrary direct sums of '''Z'''\n* Cotorsion and algebraically compact torsion-free groups such as the ''p''-adic integers\n* Slender groups\n\nAn abelian group that is neither periodic nor torsion-free is called '''mixed'''. If ''A'' is an abelian group and ''T''(''A'') is its torsion subgroup then the factor group ''A''/''T''(''A'') is torsion-free. However, in general the torsion subgroup is not a direct summand of ''A'', so ''A'' is ''not'' isomorphic to . Thus the theory of mixed groups involves more than simply combining the results about periodic and torsion-free groups.\n\n=== Invariants and classification ===\nOne of the most basic invariants of an infinite abelian group ''A'' is its rank: the cardinality of the maximal linearly independent subset of ''A''. Abelian groups of rank 0 are precisely the periodic groups, while torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1 are necessarily subgroups of '''Q''' and can be completely described. More generally, a torsion-free abelian group of finite rank ''r'' is a subgroup of '''Q'''''r''. On the other hand, the group of ''p''-adic integers '''Z'''''p'' is a torsion-free abelian group of infinite '''Z'''-rank and the groups '''Z''' with different ''n'' are non-isomorphic, so this invariant does not even fully capture properties of some familiar groups.\n\nThe classification theorems for finitely generated, divisible, countable periodic, and rank 1 torsion-free abelian groups explained above were all obtained before 1950 and form a foundation of the classification of more general infinite abelian groups. Important technical tools used in classification of infinite abelian groups are pure and basic subgroups. Introduction of various invariants of torsion-free abelian groups has been one avenue of further progress. See the books by Irving Kaplansky, László Fuchs, Phillip Griffith, and David Arnold, as well as the proceedings of the conferences on Abelian Group Theory published in ''Lecture Notes in Mathematics'' for more recent findings.\n\n=== Additive groups of rings ===\nThe additive group of a ring is an abelian group, but not all abelian groups are additive groups of rings (with nontrivial multiplication). Some important topics in this area of study are:\n\n* Tensor product\n* Corner's results on countable torsion-free groups\n* Shelah's work to remove cardinality restrictions.\n", "Many large abelian groups possess a natural topology, which turns them into topological groups.\n\nThe collection of all abelian groups, together with the homomorphisms between them, forms the category '''Ab''', the prototype of an abelian category.\n\nNearly all well-known algebraic structures other than Boolean algebras are undecidable. Hence it is surprising that Tarski's student proved that the first order theory of abelian groups, unlike its nonabelian counterpart, is decidable. This decidability, plus the fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups described above, highlight some of the successes in abelian group theory, but there are still many areas of current research:\nAmongst torsion-free abelian groups of finite rank, only the finitely generated case and the rank 1 case are well understood;\nThere are many unsolved problems in the theory of infinite-rank torsion-free abelian groups;\nWhile countable torsion abelian groups are well understood through simple presentations and Ulm invariants, the case of countable mixed groups is much less mature.\nMany mild extensions of the first order theory of abelian groups are known to be undecidable.\nFinite abelian groups remain a topic of research in computational group theory.\n\nMoreover, abelian groups of infinite order lead, quite surprisingly, to deep questions about the set theory commonly assumed to underlie all of mathematics. Take the Whitehead problem: are all Whitehead groups of infinite order also free abelian groups? In the 1970s, Saharon Shelah proved that the Whitehead problem is:\n Undecidable in ZFC (Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms), the conventional axiomatic set theory from which nearly all of present-day mathematics can be derived. The Whitehead problem is also the first question in ordinary mathematics proved undecidable in ZFC;\n* Undecidable even if ZFC is augmented by taking the generalized continuum hypothesis as an axiom;\n* Positively answered if ZFC is augmented with the axiom of constructibility (see statements true in L).\n", "Among mathematical adjectives derived from the proper name of a mathematician, the word \"abelian\" is rare in that it is often spelled with a lowercase '''a''', rather than an uppercase '''A''', indicating how ubiquitous the concept is in modern mathematics.\n", "\nAbelianization\nClass field theory\nCommutator subgroup\nDihedral group of order 6, the smallest non-Abelian group\nElementary abelian group\nPontryagin duality\nPure injective module\nPure projective module\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* Unabridged and unaltered republication of a work first published by the Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, in 1978.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Definition ", " Facts ", " Examples ", " Historical remarks ", " Properties ", " Finite abelian groups ", " Infinite abelian groups ", " Relation to other mathematical topics ", " A note on the typography ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", "External links" ]	Abelian group
[ "\n\nThe '''Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty''' ('''ABM Treaty''' or '''ABMT''') was an arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against ballistic missile-delivered nuclear weapons. Under the terms of the treaty, each party was limited to two ABM complexes, each of which was to be limited to 100 anti-ballistic missiles.\n\nSigned in 1972, it was in force for the next 30 years. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, in 1997 four former Soviet republics agreed with the United States to succeed the USSR's role in the treaty. In June 2002 the United States withdrew from the treaty, leading to its termination.\n", "Deployment history of land based ICBM 1959–2014\nThroughout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union had been developing missile systems with the ability to shoot down incoming ICBM warheads. During this period, the US considered the defense of the US as part of reducing the overall damage inflicted in a full nuclear exchange. As part of this defense, Canada and the US established the North American Air Defense Command (now called North American Aerospace Defense Command).\n\nBy the early 1950s, US research on the Nike Zeus missile system had developed to the point where small improvements would allow it to be used as the basis of an operational ABM system. Work started on a short-range, high-speed counterpart known as Sprint to provide defense for the ABM sites themselves. By the mid-1960s, both systems showed enough promise to start development of base selection for a limited ABM system dubbed Sentinel. In 1967, the US announced that Sentinel itself would be scaled down to the smaller and less expensive Safeguard. Soviet doctrine called for development of its own ABM system and return to strategic parity with the US. This was achieved with the operational deployment of the A-35 ABM system and its successors, which remain operational to this day.\n\nThe development of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) systems allowed a single ICBM to deliver as many as ten separate warheads at a time. An ABM defense system could be overwhelmed with the sheer number of warheads. Upgrading it to counter the additional warheads would be economically unfeasible: The defenders required one rocket per incoming warhead, whereas the attackers could place 10 warheads on a single missile at a reasonable cost. To further protect against ABM systems, the Soviet MIRV missiles were equipped with decoys; R-36M heavy missiles carried as many as 40. These decoys would appear as warheads to an ABM, effectively requiring engagement of five times as many targets and rendering defense even less effective.\n", "Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev signing SALT II treaty, June 18, 1979, in Vienna.\nThe United States first proposed an anti-ballistic missile treaty at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference during discussions between U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union Alexei Kosygin. McNamara argued both that ballistic missile defense could provoke an arms race, and that it might provoke a first-strike against the nation fielding the defense. Kosygin rejected this reasoning. Following the proposal of the Sentinel and Safeguard decisions on American ABM systems, the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1969 (SALT I). By 1972 an agreement had been reached to limit strategic defensive systems. Each country was allowed two sites at which it could base a defensive system, one for the capital and one for ICBM silos.\n\nThe treaty was signed during the 1972 Moscow Summit on May 26 by the President of the United States, Richard Nixon and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev; and ratified by the US Senate on August 3, 1972.\n\nThe 1974 Protocol reduced the number of sites to one per party, largely because neither country had developed a second site. The sites were Moscow for the USSR and the North Dakota Safeguard Complex for the US, which was already under construction.\n\n===Missiles limited by the treaty===\nThe Treaty limited only ABMs capable of defending against \"strategic ballistic missiles\", without attempting to define \"strategic\". It was understood that both ICBMs and SLBMs are obviously \"strategic\". Both countries did not intend to stop the development of counter-tactical ABMs. The topic became disputable as soon as most potent counter-tactical ABMs started to be capable of shooting down SLBMs (SLBMs naturally tend to be much slower than ICBMs), nevertheless both sides continued counter-tactical ABM development.\n", "President Reagan delivering the March 23, 1983 speech initiating SDI\nOn March 23, 1983 Ronald Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative, a research program into ballistic missile defense which would be, \"consistent with our obligations under the ABM Treaty\". The project was a blow to Yuri Andropov's so-called \"peace offensive\". Andropov said that \"It is time Washington stopped thinking up one option another in search of the best way of unleashing nuclear war in the hope of winning it. To do this is not just irresponsible. It is madness\".\n\nRegardless of the opposition, Reagan gave every indication that SDI would not be used as a bargaining chip and that the United States would do all in its power to build the system. The Soviets were threatened because the Americans might have been able to make a nuclear first strike possible. In ''The Nuclear Predicament,'' Beckman claims that one of the central goals of Soviet diplomacy was to terminate SDI. A surprise attack from the Americans would destroy much of the Soviet ICBM fleet, allowing SDI to defeat a \"ragged\" Soviet retaliatory response. Furthermore, if the Soviets chose to enter this new arms race, they would further cripple their economy. The Soviets could not afford to ignore Reagan's new endeavor, therefore their policy at the time was to enter negotiations with the Americans. By 1987, however, the USSR withdrew its opposition, concluding the SDI posed no threat and scientifically \"would never work.\"\n\nSDI research went ahead, although it did not achieve the hoped-for result. SDI research was cut back following the end of Reagan's presidency, and in 1995 it was reiterated in a presidential joint statement that \"missile defense systems may be deployed... that will not pose a realistic threat to the strategic nuclear force of the other side and will not be tested to... create that capability.\" This was reaffirmed in 1997.\n", "Presidents Vladimir Putin and George W. Bush sign SORT on 24 May 2002 in Moscow\nAlthough the Soviet Union ceased to exist in December 1991, in the view of the U.S. Department of State, the treaty continued in force. An additional memorandum of understanding was prepared in 1997, establishing Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine as successor states to the Soviet Union, for the purposes of the treaty.\n\nOn December 13, 2001, George W. Bush gave Russia notice of the United States' withdrawal from the treaty, in accordance with the clause that required six months' notice before terminating the pact—the first time in recent history that the United States has withdrawn from a major international arms treaty. This led to the eventual creation of the American Missile Defense Agency.\n\nSupporters of the withdrawal argued that it was a necessity in order to test and build a limited National Missile Defense to protect the United States from nuclear blackmail by a rogue state. The withdrawal had many critics as well as supporters. John Rhinelander, a negotiator of the ABM treaty, predicted that the withdrawal would be a \"fatal blow\" to the Non-Proliferation Treaty and would lead to a \"world without effective legal constraints on nuclear proliferation.\" The construction of a missile defense system was also feared to enable the US to attack with a nuclear first strike.\n\nRussia and the United States signed the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty in Moscow on May 24, 2002. This treaty mandates cuts in deployed strategic nuclear warheads, but without actually mandating cuts to total stockpiled warheads, and without any mechanism for enforcement.\n", "\n", "\n* Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, official State Department site, includes the text of the treaty and the 1974 Protocol.\n* US Announcement of withdrawal (2001)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Background", "ABM Treaty", "After the SDI announcement", "US withdrawal", "References", "External links" ]	Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
[ "\n'''''Abracadabra''''' is an incantation used as a magic word in stage magic tricks, and historically was believed to have healing powers when inscribed on an amulet.\n", "\n''Abracadabra'' is of unknown origin, and its first occurrence is in the second century works of Serenus Sammonicus, according to the ''Oxford English Dictionary''. Several folk etymologies are associated with the word: from phrases in Hebrew that mean \"I will create as I speak\", or Aramaic \"I create like the word\", to folk etymologies that point to similar words in Latin and Greek such as abraxas. According to the ''OED Online'', \"no documentation has been found to support any of the various conjectures.\"\n", "Abracadabra written in a triangular form as represented in ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' \nThe first known mention of the word was in the third century AD in a book called ''Liber Medicinalis'' (sometimes known as ''De Medicina Praecepta Saluberrima'') by Quintus Serenus Sammonicus, physician to the Roman emperor Caracalla, who in chapter 51 prescribed that malaria sufferers wear an amulet containing the word written in the form of a triangle, or \"abracadabrangle\":\n\nThe power of the amulet, he explained, makes lethal diseases go away. Other Roman emperors, including Geta and Alexander Severus, were followers of the medical teachings of Serenus Sammonicus and may have used the incantation as well.\n\nIt was used as a magical formula by the Gnostics of the sect of Basilides in invoking the aid of beneficent spirits against disease and misfortune. It is found on Abraxas stones, which were worn as amulets. Subsequently, its use spread beyond the Gnostics.\n\nThe Puritan minister Increase Mather dismissed the word as bereft of power. Daniel Defoe also wrote dismissively about Londoners who posted the word on their doorways to ward off sickness during the Great Plague of London. But Aleister Crowley regarded it as possessing great power; he said its true form is abrahadabra.\n\nThe word is now commonly used as an incantation by stage magicians when performing a magic trick. It is also applied contemptuously to a conception or hypothesis purporting to be a simple solution of apparently insoluble phenomena.\n", "\nAbrahadabra\nBarbarous names\nHocus pocus\nOpen Sesame\nSator Square\n\n", "\n", "\n\n ''Abracadabra'' Robert Todd Carroll, ''Skeptic's Dictionary''\n*\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Etymology ", "History", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Abracadabra
[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Acts of Union''' were two Acts of Parliament: the '''Union with Scotland Act 1706''' passed by the Parliament of England, and the '''Union with England Act''' passed in 1707 by the Parliament of Scotland. They put into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706, following negotiation between commissioners representing the parliaments of the two countries. By the two Acts, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotlandwhich at the time were separate states with separate legislatures, but with the same monarchwere, in the words of the Treaty, \"United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain\".\n\nThe two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two separate Crowns resting on the same head (as opposed to the implied creation of a single Crown and a single Kingdom, exemplified by the later Kingdom of Great Britain). There had been three attempts in 1606, 1667, and 1689 to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that both political establishments came to support the idea, albeit for different reasons.\n\nThe Acts took effect on 1 May 1707. On this date, the Scottish Parliament and the English Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in the Palace of Westminster in London, the home of the English Parliament. Hence, the Acts are referred to as the '''Union of the Parliaments'''. On the Union, the historian Simon Schama said \"What began as a hostile merger, would end in a full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world ... it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history.\"\n", "\n=== Previous attempts at union ===\nEngland and Scotland were separate states for several centuries before eventual union, and English attempts to take over Scotland by military force in the late 13th and early 14th centuries were ultimately unsuccessful (see the Wars of Scottish Independence). The first attempts at Union surrounded the foreseen unification of the Royal lines of Scotland and England. In pursuing the English throne in the 1560s, Mary, Queen of Scots pledged herself to a peaceful union between the two kingdoms.\n\nEngland and Scotland were ruled by the same king for the first time in 1603 when James VI of Scotland also became the king of England. However they remained two separate states until 1 May 1707.\n\n==== Early Stuart union ====\nThe first Union flag, created by James VI and I, symbolising the uniting of England and Scotland under one Crown (A separate version was used in Scotland during the 17th Century)\nThe first attempt to unite the parliaments of England and Scotland was by Mary's son, King James VI and I. On his accession to the English throne in 1603 King James announced his intention to unite his two realms so that he would not be \"guilty of bigamy\". James used his royal prerogative powers to take the style of \"King of Great Britain\" and to give an explicitly British character to his court and person. Whilst James assumed the creation of a full union was a foregone conclusion, the Parliament of England was concerned that the formation of a new state would deprive England of its ancient liberties, taking on the more absolutist monarchical structure James had previously enjoyed in Scotland. In the meantime, James declared that Great Britain be viewed \"as presently united, and as one realm and kingdom, and the subjects of both realms as one people\".\n\nThe Scottish and English parliaments established a commission to negotiate a union, formulating an instrument of union between the two countries. However, the idea of political union was unpopular, and when James dropped his policy of a speedy union, the topic quietly disappeared from the legislative agenda. When the House of Commons attempted to revive the proposal in 1610, it was met with a more open hostility.\n\n==== Union during the interregnum ====\n\nCommonwealth-era flag depicting the union between England and Scotland\nThe Solemn League and Covenant 1643 sought a forced union of the Church of England into the Church of Scotland, and although the covenant referred repeatedly to union between the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland, a political union was not spelled out.\n\nIn the aftermath of the Civil War, in which the Covenanters had fought for the King, Oliver Cromwell occupied Scotland and began a process of creating a \"Godly Britannic\" Union between the former Kingdoms. In 1651, the Parliament of England issued the Tender of Union declaration supporting Scotland's incorporation into the Commonwealth and sent Commissioners to Scotland with the express purpose of securing support for Union, which was assented to by the Commissioners (Members of Parliament) in Scotland. On 12 April 1654, Cromwell – styling himself Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland – enacted ''An Ordinance by the Protector for the Union of England and Scotland,'' which created \"one Commonwealth and under one Government\" to be known as the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. The ordinance was ratified by the Second Protectorate Parliament, as an Act of Union, on 26 June 1657. One united Parliament sat in Westminster, with 30 representatives from Scotland and 30 from Ireland joining the existing members from England. Whilst free trade was brought about amongst the new Commonwealth, the economic benefits were generally not felt as a result of heavy taxation used to fund Cromwell's New Model Army.\n\nThis republican union was dissolved automatically with the restoration of King Charles II to the thrones of England and Scotland. Scottish members expelled from the Commonwealth Parliament petitioned unsuccessfully for a continuance of the union. Cromwell's union had simultaneously raised interest in and suspicion of the concept of union and when Charles II attempted to recreate the union and fulfil the work of his grandfather in 1669, negotiations between Commissioners ground to a halt.\n\n==== Later attempts ====\n\nAn abortive scheme for union occurred in Scotland in 1670.\n\nFollowing the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the records of the Parliament of Scotland show much discussion of possible union. William III and Mary II, whilst supportive of the idea, had no interest in allowing it to delay their enthronement. Impetus for this incorporating union came almost entirely from King William, who feared leaving Scotland open to a French invasion. In the 1690s, the economic position of Scotland worsened, and relations between Scotland and England became strained. In the following decade, however, union again became a significant topic of political debate.\n\n=== Treaty and passage of the Acts of 1707 ===\n\"Articles of Union otherwise known as Treaty of Union\", 1707\nDeeper political integration had been a key policy of Queen Anne from the time she acceded to the throne in 1702. Under the aegis of the Queen and her ministers in both kingdoms, the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed to participate in fresh negotiations for a union treaty in 1705.\n\nBoth countries appointed 31 commissioners to conduct the negotiations. Most of the Scottish commissioners favoured union, and about half were government ministers and other officials. At the head of the list was Queensberry, and the Lord Chancellor of Scotland, the Earl of Seafield. The English commissioners included the Lord High Treasurer, the Earl of Godolphin, the Lord Keeper, Baron Cowper, and a large number of Whigs who supported union. Tories were not in favour of union and only one was represented among the commissioners.\n\nNegotiations between the English and Scottish commissioners took place between 16 April and 22 July 1706 at the Cockpit in London. Each side had its own particular concerns. Within a few days, England gained a guarantee that the Hanoverian dynasty would succeed Queen Anne to the Scottish crown, and Scotland received a guarantee of access to colonial markets, in the hope that they would be placed on an equal footing in terms of trade.\n\nAfter negotiations ended in July 1706, the acts had to be ratified by both Parliaments. In Scotland, about 100 of the 227 members of the Parliament of Scotland were supportive of the Court Party. For extra votes the pro-court side could rely on about 25 members of the Squadrone Volante, led by the Marquess of Montrose and the Duke of Roxburghe. Opponents of the court were generally known as the Country party, and included various factions and individuals such as the Duke of Hamilton, Lord Belhaven and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, who spoke forcefully and passionately against the union. The Court party enjoyed significant funding from England and the Treasury and included many who had accumulated debts following the Darien Disaster.\n\nIn Scotland, the Duke of Queensberry was largely responsible for the successful passage of the Union act by the Scottish Parliament. In Scotland, he received much criticism from local residents, but in England he was cheered for his action. He had received around half of the funding awarded by the Westminster treasury for himself. In April 1707, he travelled to London to attend celebrations at the royal court, and was greeted by groups of noblemen and gentry lined along the road. From Barnet, the route was lined with crowds of cheering people, and once he reached London a huge crowd had formed. On 17 April, the Duke was gratefully received by the Queen at Kensington Palace.\n", "Portrait of Queen Anne in 1702, the year she became queen, from the school of John Closterman\n\n=== English perspective ===\nThe English purpose was to ensure that Scotland would not choose a monarch different from the one on the English throne. The two countries had shared a king for much of the previous century, but the English were concerned that an independent Scotland with a different king, even if he were a Protestant, might make alliances against England. The English succession was provided for by the English Act of Settlement 1701, which ensured that the monarch of England would be a Protestant member of the House of Hanover. Until the Union of Parliaments, the Scottish throne might be inherited by a different successor after Queen Anne: the Scottish Act of Security 1704 granted parliament the right to choose a successor and explicitly required a choice different from the English monarch unless the English were to grant free trade and navigation. Many people in England were unhappy about the prospect, however. English overseas possessions made England very wealthy in comparison to Scotland, a poor country with few roads, very little industry and almost no Navy. This made some view unification as a markedly unequal relationship.\n\n=== Scottish perspective ===\n\nIn Scotland, some claimed that union would enable Scotland to recover from the financial disaster wrought by the Darien scheme through English assistance and the lifting of measures put in place through the Alien Act to force the Scottish Parliament into compliance with the Act of Settlement.\n\nThe combined votes of the Court party with a majority of the Squadrone Volante were sufficient to ensure the final passage of the treaty through the House.\n\nPersonal financial interests were also allegedly involved. Many Commissioners had invested heavily in the Darien scheme and they believed that they would receive compensation for their losses; Article 15 granted £398,085 10s sterling to Scotland, a sum known as The Equivalent, to offset future liability towards the English national debt. In essence it was also used as a means of compensation for investors in the Company of Scotland's Darien scheme, as 58.6% was allocated to its shareholders and creditors.\n\n18thC French illustration of an opening of the Scottish Parliament\nEven more direct bribery was also said to be a factor. £20,000 (£240,000 Scots) was dispatched to Scotland for distribution by the Earl of Glasgow. James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, the Queen's Commissioner in Parliament, received £12,325, more than 60% of the funding. (Some contend that all of this money was properly accounted for as compensation for loss of office, pensions and so forth not outwith the usual run of government. It is perhaps a debate that will never be set to rest. However, modern research has shown that payments were made to supporters of union that appear not to have been overdue salaries. At least four payments were made to people who were not even members of the Scottish Parliament.) Robert Burns referred to this:\n\nWe're bought and sold for English Gold,\nSuch a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation.\n\nSome of the money was used to hire spies, such as Daniel Defoe; his first reports were of vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. \"A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind,\" he reported, \"for every Scot in favour there is 99 against\". Years later, Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, originally a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that Defoe \"was a spy among us, but not known as such, otherwise the Mob of Edinburgh would pull him to pieces.\"\n\nThe Treaty could be considered very unpopular at the time. Popular unrest occurred in Edinburgh, as mentioned above, with some lesser but still substantial riots in Glasgow. The people of Edinburgh demonstrated against the treaty, and their apparent leader in opposition to the Unionists, was James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton. However, Hamilton was actually on the side of the English Government. Demonstrators in Edinburgh were opposed to the Union, for many reasons: they feared the Kirk would be Anglicised; that Anglicisation would remove democracy from the only really elementally democratic part of the Kingdom and they feared that tax rises would come.\n\nSir George Lockhart of Carnwath, the only member of the Scottish negotiating team against union, noted that \"The whole nation appears against the Union\" and even Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, an ardent pro-unionist and Union negotiator, observed that the treaty was \"contrary to the inclinations of at least three-fourths of the Kingdom\". Public opinion against the Treaty as it passed through the Scottish Parliament was voiced through petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs also petitioned against the Union as proposed:\n\nNot one petition in favour of an incorporating union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the carilloner in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, rang the bells in the tune ''Why should I be so sad on my wedding day?'' Threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing martial law.\n", "Royal heraldic badge of Queen Anne, depicting the Tudor rose and the Scottish thistle growing out of the same stem.\n\nThe Treaty of Union, agreed between representatives of the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland in 1706, consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in nature. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 116 votes to 83 on 4 November 1706. To minimise the opposition of the Church of Scotland, an Act was also passed to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church, after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on 16 January 1707 by a majority of 110 votes to 69.\n\nThe two Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send representative peers from the Peerage of Scotland to sit in the House of Lords. It guaranteed that the Church of Scotland would remain the established church in Scotland, that the Court of Session would \"remain in all time coming within Scotland\", and that Scots law would \"remain in the same force as before\". Other provisions included the restatement of the Act of Settlement 1701 and the ban on Roman Catholics from taking the throne. It also created a customs union and monetary union.\n\nThe Act provided that any \"laws and statutes\" that were \"contrary to or inconsistent with the terms\" of the Act would \"cease and become void.\"\n\nSoon after the Union, the Act 6 Anne c.40later infelicitously named the Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707united the English and Scottish Privy Councils and decentralised Scottish administration by appointing justices of the peace in each shire to carry out administration. In effect it took the day-to-day government of Scotland out of the hands of politicians and into those of the College of Justice.\n", "Scotland benefited, says historian G.N. Clark, gaining \"freedom of trade with England and the colonies\" as well as \"a great expansion of markets.\" The agreement guaranteed the permanent status of the Presbyterian church in Scotland, and the separate system of laws and courts in Scotland. Clark argued that in exchange for the financial benefits and bribes that England bestowed, what it gained was:of inestimable value. Scotland accepted the Hanoverian succession and gave up her power of threatening England's military security and complicating her commercial relations....The sweeping successes of the eighteenth-century wars owed much to the new unity of the two nations.By the time Samuel Johnson and James Boswell made their tour in 1773, recorded in ''A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland'', Johnson noted that Scotland was \"a nation of which the commerce is hourly extending, and the wealth increasing\" and in particular that Glasgow had become one of the greatest cities of Britain.\n", "\nThe £2 coin issued in the United Kingdom in 2007 to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the Acts of Union\n\nA commemorative two-pound coin was issued to mark the tercentennial—300th anniversary—of the Union, which occurred two days before the Scottish Parliament general election on 3 May 2007.\n\nThe Scottish Executive held a number of commemorative events through the year including an education project led by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, an exhibition of Union-related objects and documents at the National Museums of Scotland and an exhibition of portraits of people associated with the Union at the National Galleries of Scotland.\n", "Map of commissioner voting on the ratification of the Treaty of Union.\n\n\nCommissioner\nConstituency/Position\nParty\nVote\n\n\nJames Graham, 1st Duke of Montrose\nLord President of the Council of Scotland/Stirlingshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nJohn Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll\n\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nJohn Hay, 2nd Marquess of Tweeddale\n\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Kerr, 2nd Marquess of Lothian\n\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nJohn Erskine, 22nd Earl of Mar\n\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nJohn Gordon, 16th Earl of Sutherland\n\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nJohn Hamilton-Leslie, 9th Earl of Rothes\n\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nJames Douglas, 11th Earl of Morton\n\n\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Cunningham, 12th Earl of Glencairn\n\n\nYes\n\n\nJames Hamilton, 6th Earl of Abercorn\n\n\nYes\n\n\nJohn Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe\n\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nThomas Hamilton, 6th Earl of Haddington\n\n\nYes\n\n\nJohn Maitland, 5th Earl of Lauderdale\n\n\nYes\n\n\nDavid Wemyss, 4th Earl of Wemyss\n\n\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Ramsay, 5th Earl of Dalhousie\n\n\nYes\n\n\nJames Ogilvy, 4th Earl of Findlater\nBanffshire\n\nYes\n\n\nDavid Leslie, 3rd Earl of Leven\n\n\nYes\n\n\nDavid Carnegie, 4th Earl of Northesk\n\n\nYes\n\n\nEarl of Belcarras\n\n\nYes\n\n\nArchibald Douglas, 1st Earl of Forfar\n\n\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Boyd, 3rd Earl of Kilmarnock\n\n\nYes\n\n\nJohn Keith, 1st Earl of Kintore\n\n\nYes\n\n\nPatrick Hume, 1st Earl of Marchmont\n\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nGeorge Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Cromartie\n\n\nYes\n\n\nArchibald Primrose, 1st Earl of Rosebery\n\n\nYes\n\n\nDavid Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow\n\n\nYes\n\n\nCharles Hope, 1st Earl of Hopetoun\nLIKELY Linlithgowshire\n\nYes\n\n\nHenry Scott, 1st Earl of Deloraine\n\n\nYes\n\n\nArchibald Campbell, Earl of Illay\n\n\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Hay, Viscount Dupplin\n\n\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Forbes, 12th Lord Forbes\n\n\nYes\n\n\nJohn Elphinstone, 8th Lord Elphinstone\n\n\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Ross, 12th Lord Ross\n\n\nYes\n\n\nJames Sandilands, 7th Lord Torphichen\n\n\nYes\n\n\nLord Fraser\n\n\nYes\n\n\nGeorge Ogilvy, 3rd Lord Banff\n\n\nYes\n\n\nAlexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank\n\n\nYes\n\n\nKenneth Sutherland, 3rd Lord Duffus\n\n\nYes\n\n\nRobert Rollo, 4th Lord Rollo\nStirlingshire\n\nYes\n\n\nJames Murray, Lord Philiphaugh\nLord Clerk Register/Selkirkshire\n\nYes\n\n\nAdam Cockburn, Lord Ormiston\nLord Justice Clerk\n\nYes\n\n\n\nSir Robert Dickson of Inverask\nEdinburghshire\n\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Nisbet of Dirletoun\nHaddingtonshire\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nJohn Cockburn, younger, of Ormestoun\nHaddingtonshire\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nSir John Swintoun of that ilk\nBerwickshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nSir Alexander Campbell of Cessnock\nBerwickshire\n\nYes\n\n\nSir William Kerr of Greenhead\nRoxburghshire\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nArchibald Douglas of Cavers\nRoxburghshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Bennet of Grubbet\nRoxburghshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nMr John Murray of Bowhill\nSelkirkshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nMr John Pringle of Haining\nSelkirkshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Morison of Prestongrange\nPeeblesshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nAlexander Horseburgh of that ilk\nPeeblesshire\n\nYes\n\n\nGeorge Baylie of Jerviswood\nLanarkshire\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nSir John Johnstoun of Westerhall\nDumfriesshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Dowglass of Dornock\nDumfriesshire\n\nYes\n\n\nMr William Stewart of Castlestewart\nWigtownshire\n\nYes\n\n\nMr John Stewart of Sorbie\nWigtownshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nMr Francis Montgomery of Giffan\nAyrshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nMr William Dalrymple of Glenmuir\nAyrshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nMr Robert Stewart of Tillicultrie\nButeshire\n\nYes\n\n\nSir Robert Pollock of that ilk\nRenfrewshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nMr John Montgomery of Wrae\nLinlithgowshire\n\nYes\n\n\nJohn Halden of Glenagies\nPerthshire\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nMongo Graham of Gorthie\nPerthshire\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nSir Thomas Burnet of Leyes\nKincardineshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Seton, younger, of Pitmedden\nAberdeenshire\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nAlexander Grant, younger, of that ilk\nInverness-shire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nSir William Mackenzie\n\n\nYes\n\n\nMr Aeneas McLeod of Cadboll\nCromartyshire\n\nYes\n\n\nMr John Campbell of Mammore\nArgyllshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nSir James Campbell of Auchinbreck\nArgyllshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nJames Campbell, younger, of Ardkinglass\nArgyllshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nSir William Anstruther of that ilk\nFife\n\nYes\n\n\nJames Halyburton of Pitcurr\nForfarshire\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nAlexander Abercrombie of Glassoch\nBanffshire\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nMr James Dunbarr, younger, of Hemprigs\nCaithness\n\nYes\n\n\nAlexander Douglas of Eagleshay\nOrkney and Shetland\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nSir John Bruce, 2nd Baronet\nKinross-shire\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\n\nJohn Scrimsour\nDundee\n\nYes\n\n\nLieutenant Colonel John Areskine\n\n\nYes\n\n\nJohn Mure\nLikely Ayr\n\nYes\n\n\nJames Scott\nMontrose\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nSir John Anstruther, 1st Baronet, of Anstruther\nAnstruther Easter\n\nYes\n\n\nJames Spittle\nInverkeithing\n\nYes\n\n\nMr Patrick Moncrieff\nKinghorn\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nSir Andrew Home\nKirkcudbright\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nSir Peter Halket\nDunfermline\nSquadrone Volante\nYes\n\n\nSir James Smollet\nDumbarton\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nMr William Carmichell\nLanark\n\nYes\n\n\nMr William Sutherland\nElgin\n\nYes\n\n\nCaptain Daniel McLeod\nTain\n\nYes\n\n\nSir David Dalrymple, 1st Baronet\nCulross\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nSir Alexander Ogilvie\nBanff\n\nYes\n\n\nMr John Clerk\nWhithorn\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nJohn Ross\n\n\nYes\n\n\nHew Dalrymple, Lord North Berwick\nNorth Berwick\n\nYes\n\n\nMr Patrick Ogilvie\nCullen\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nGeorge Allardyce\nKintore\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nWilliam Avis\n\n\nYes\n\n\nMr James Bethun\nKilrenny\n\nYes\n\n\nMr Roderick McKenzie\nFortrose\n\nYes\n\n\nJohn Urquhart\nDornoch\n\nYes\n\n\nDaniel Campbell\nInveraray\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nSir Robert Forbes\nInverurie\n\nYes\n\n\nMr Robert Dowglass\nKirkwall\n\nYes\n\n\nMr Alexander Maitland\nInverbervie\nCourt Party\nYes\n\n\nMr George Dalrymple\nStranraer\n\nYes\n\n\nMr Charles Campbell\nCampbeltown\n\nYes\n\nTotal Ayes\n106\n\n\n\nJames Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton\n\n\nNo\n\n\nWilliam Johnstone, 1st Marquess of Annandale\nAnnan\n\nNo\n\n\nCharles Hay, 13th Earl of Erroll\n\n\nNo\n\n\nWilliam Keith, 9th Earl Marischal\n\n\nNo\n\n\nDavid Erskine, 9th Earl of Buchan\n\n\nNo\n\n\nAlexander Sinclair, 9th Earl of Caithness\n\n\nNo\n\n\nJohn Fleming, 6th Earl of Wigtown\n\n\nNo\n\n\nJames Stewart, 5th Earl of Galloway\n\n\nNo\n\n\nDavid Murray, 5th Viscount of Stormont\n\n\nNo\n\n\nWilliam Livingston, 3rd Viscount of Kilsyth\n\n\nNo\n\n\nWilliam Fraser, 12th Lord Saltoun\n\n\nNo\n\n\nFrancis Sempill, 10th Lord Sempill\n\n\nNo\n\n\nCharles Oliphant, 7th Lord Oliphant\n\n\nNo\n\n\nJohn Elphinstone, 4th Lord Balmerino\n\n\nNo\n\n\nWalter Stuart, 6th Lord Blantyre\nLinlithgow\n\nNo\n\n\nWilliam Hamilton, 3rd Lord Bargany\nQueensferry\n\nNo\n\n\nJohn Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven and Stenton\n\n\nNo\n\n\nLord Colvill\n\n\nNo\n\n\nPatrick Kinnaird, 3rd Lord Kinnaird\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\nSir John Lawder of Fountainhall\nHaddingtonshire\n\nNo\n\n\nAndrew Fletcher of Saltoun\nHaddingtonshire\n\nNo\n\n\nSir Robert Sinclair, 3rd Baronet\nBerwickshire\n\nNo\n\n\nSir Patrick Home of Rentoun\nBerwickshire\n\nNo\n\n\nSir Gilbert Elliot of Minto\nRoxburghshire\n\nNo\n\n\nWilliam Bayllie of Lamingtoun\nLanarkshire\n\nNo\n\n\nJohn Sinclair, younger, of Stevensone\nLanarkshire\n\nNo\n\n\nJames Hamilton of Aikenhead\nLanarkshire\n\nNo\n\n\nMr Alexander Fergusson of Isle\nDumfriesshire\n\nNo\n\n\nSir Hugh Cathcart of Carletoun\nAyrshire\n\nNo\n\n\nJohn Brisbane, younger, of Bishoptoun\nAyrshire\n\nNo\n\n\nMr William Cochrane of Kilmaronock\nDumbartonshire\n\nNo\n\n\nSir Humphray Colquhoun of Luss\nDumbartonshire\n\nNo\n\n\nSir John Houstoun of that ilk\nRenfrewshire\n\nNo\n\n\nRobert Rollo of Powhouse\n\n\nNo\n\n\nThomas Sharp of Houstoun\nLinlithgowshire\n\nNo\n\n\nJohn Murray of Strowan\n\n\nNo\n\n\nAlexander Gordon of Pitlurg\nAberdeenshire\n\nNo\n\n\nJohn Forbes of Colloden\nNairnshire\n\nNo\n\n\nDavid Bethun of Balfour\nFife\n\nNo\n\n\nMajor Henry Balfour of Dunboog\nFife\n\nNo\n\n\nMr Thomas Hope of Rankeillor\n\n\nNo\n\n\nMr Patrick Lyon of Auchterhouse\nForfarshire\n\nNo\n\n\nMr James Carnagie of Phinhaven\nForfarshire\n\nNo\n\n\nDavid Graham, younger, of Fintrie\nForfarshire\n\nNo\n\n\nWilliam Maxwell of Cardines\nKirkcudbrightshire\n\nNo\n\n\nAlexander McKye of Palgown\nKirkcudbrightshire\n\nNo\n\n\nJames Sinclair of Stempster\nCaithness\n\nNo\n\n\nSir Henry Innes, younger, of that ilk\nElginshire\n\nNo\n\n\nMr George McKenzie of Inchcoulter\nRoss-shire\n\nNo\n\n\n\nRobert Inglis\nEdinburgh\n\nNo\n\n\nAlexander Robertson\nPerth\n\nNo\n\n\nWalter Stewart\n\n\nNo\n\n\nHugh Montgomery\nGlasgow\nCourt Party\nNo\n\n\nAlexander Edgar\nHaddington\n\nNo\n\n\nAlexander Duff\nBanffshire\n\nNo\n\n\nFrancis Molison\nBrechin\n\nNo\n\n\nWalter Scott\nJedburgh\n\nNo\n\n\nRobert Scott\nSelkirk\n\nNo\n\n\nRobert Kellie\nDunbar\n\nNo\n\n\nJohn Hutchesone\nArbroath\n\nNo\n\n\nArchibald Scheills\nPeebles\n\nNo\n\n\nMr John Lyon\nForfar\n\nNo\n\n\nGeorge Brodie\nForres\n\nNo\n\n\nGeorge Spens\nRutherglen\n\nNo\n\n\nSir David Cuningham\nLauder\n\nNo\n\n\nMr John Carruthers\nLochmaben\n\nNo\n\n\nGeorge Home\nNew Galloway\n\nNo\n\n\nJohn Bayne\nDingwall\n\nNo\n\n\nMr Robert Fraser\nWick\n\nNo\n\nTotal Noes\n69\n\nTotal Votes\n175\n\nSources: Records of the Parliament of Scotland, Parliamentary Register, p.598\n\n", "* Acts of Union 1800\n* History of democracy\n* List of treaties\n* ''MacCormick v Lord Advocate''\n* Parliament of the United Kingdom\n* Political union\n* Real union\n* English independence\n* Scottish independence\n* Unionism in Scotland\n* Welsh independence\n", "\n", "* Bowie, Karin. ''Scottish Public Opinion and the Anglo-Scottish Union, 1699-1707'' (Boydell Press, 2007).\n* Brown, Stewart J. and Christopher A. Whatley, eds. ''The Union of 1707: New Dimensions'' (Edinburgh UP, 2008).\n* Deschamps, Yannick. \"Résistances écossaises à l’union de 1707: essai historiographique,\" ''Dix-huitième siècle'' (2012) #44 pp 601-20 DOI : 10.3917/dhs.044.0601; online--use built in translator in Chrome for English\n* Ferguson, William. \"The Making of the Treaty of Union of 1707\" ''Scottish Historical Review'' 43, (1964), p. 89-110. \n* Ferguson, William. ''Scotland’s Relations with England: A Survey to 1707'' (Edinburgh John Donald, 1977), pp. 180-277.\n* Herman, Arthur. ''How the Scots Invented the Modern World''. Three Rivers Press, 2001. \n* Riley, P. W. J. ''The Union of England and Scotland: A Study in Anglo-Scottish Politics of the Eighteenth Century'' (Manchester UP, 1978).\n* Smout, T. C. \"Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707. I. The Economic Background\" ''Economic History Review'' (1964) 16:3, pp. 455-467.\n* Stephen, Jeffrey. ''Scottish Presbyterians and the Act of Union 1707'' (Edinburgh UP, 2007).\n", "* Defoe, Daniel. ''A tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain, 1724–27''\n* Defoe, Daniel. ''The Letters of Daniel Defoe'', GH Healey editor. Oxford: 1955.\n* Fletcher, Andrew (Saltoun). ''An Account of a Conversation''\n* Lockhart, George, \"The Lockhart Papers\", 1702–1728\n", "\n* Union with England Act and Union with Scotland Act – Full original text\n* Treaty of Union and the Darien Experiment, University of Guelph, McLaughlin Library, Library and Archives Canada\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Historical background ", " Political motivations ", " Provisions of the Acts ", " Evaluations ", " 300th anniversary ", " Scottish voting records ", " See also ", " Notes ", "Further reading", " Other books ", " External links " ]	Acts of Union 1707
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Admiralty''' formerly known as the '''Office of the Admiralty and Marine Affairs''', was the government department responsible for the command of the Royal Navy first in the Kingdom of England, second in the Kingdom of Great Britain, and from 1801-1964, the United Kingdom and former British Empire. Originally exercised by a single person, the Lord High Admiral, the Admiralty was, from the early 18th century onwards, almost invariably put \"in commission\" and exercised by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, who sat on the Board of Admiralty.\n\nIn 1964, the functions of the Admiralty were transferred to a new Admiralty Board, which is a committee of the tri-service Defence Council of the United Kingdom and part of the Navy Department of the Ministry of Defence. The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board (not to be confused with the historic Navy Board described later in this article). It is common for the various authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply ''The Admiralty''.\n\nThe title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011. The title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom and a Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom, both of which are honorary offices.\n", "\n===History===\nFlag of the Lord High Admiral\nThe office of ''Admiral of England'' (or ''Lord Admiral'' and later ''Lord High Admiral'') was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, to oversee administrative affairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State.\n\nIn 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission and control of the Royal Navy passed to a committee in the form of the Board of Admiralty. The office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission (the last Lord High Admiral being the future King William IV in the early 19th century).\n\nIn 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, and its duties and responsibilities were given over to the Admiralty.\n\nIn 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new ''Admiralty Board'' which has a separate (second) Navy Board responsible for the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy., the ''Army Board'' and the ''Air Force Board'', each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence.\n\n===Board of Admiralty===\nBoard of admiralty about 1810.\n\nWhen the office of Lord High Admiral was in commission, as it was for most of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, until it reverted to the Crown, it was exercised by a Board of Admiralty, officially known as the ''Commissioners for Exercising the Office of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, &c.'' (alternatively of England, Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland depending on the period).\n\nThe Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, normally politicians. The quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary.\n\nThe president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, who was a member of the Cabinet. After 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be (and is still today) known as the First Sea Lord.\n\n===Organization===\nThe first real concerted effort to professionally organize the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII, this management approach would continue in force in the Royal navy until to 1832. In this organization a dual system operated the Lord High Admiral (from 1546) then Commissioners of the Admiralty (from 1628) exercised the function of general control (military administration) of the Navy and they were usually responsible for the conduct of any war, while the actual supply lines, support and services were managed by four principal officers, namely, the Treasurer, Comptroller, Surveyor and Clerk of the Acts, responsible individually for finance, supervision of accounts, Shipbuilding and maintenance of ships, and record of business. These principle officers came to be known as the Navy Board responsible for (civil administration) of the navy, from 1546 to 1832.\n\nThis structure of administering the navy lasted for 285 years, however the supply system was often inefficient and corrupt its deficiencies were due as much to its limitations of the times they operated in. The various functions within the Admiralty were not coordinated effectively and lacked inter-dependency with each other, with the result that in 1832 Sir James Graham abolished the Navy Board and merged its functions within the Board of Admiralty's that at the time also had distinct advantages, however it failed to retain the principle of distinctions between the Admiralty and supply and a lot of bureaucracy followed with the merger.\n\nIn 1860 saw big growth in the development of technical crafts, the expansion of more admiralty branches that really began with age of steam that would have an enormous influence on the navy and naval thought.\n\nBetween 1860 and 1908 there was no real study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service; it was practically ignored. All the Navy's talent flowed to the great technical universities. This school of thought for the next 50 years was exclusively technically based. The first serious attempt to introduce a sole management body to administer the naval service manifested itself in the creation of the Admiralty Navy War Council in 1909. It was believed by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. However this mentality would be severely questioned with the advent of the Agadir crisis, when the Admiralty's war plans were heavily criticized. Following this, a new advisory body called the Admiralty War Staff was then instituted in 1912, headed by the Chief of the War Staff who was responsible for administering three new sub-divisions. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it continually struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign. There were no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions. In 1914 a Trade Division was created.\n\nIn 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he re-organized the war staff as following: Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade.\n\nIt was not until 1917 that the admiralty department was again thoroughly reorganized and really began to function as a military staff role. In May that year, the term \"Admiralty War Staff\" was changed and that department and its functional role were replaced by a new \"Admiralty Naval Staff\" and the new office of Chief of the Naval Staff was merged in the office of the First Sea Lord. There was also appointed a new Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff and an Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff who were all given seats on the Board of Admiralty. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, and the presence of three naval senior members ensured the necessary authority to carry through any operation of war. The D.C.N.S. would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the A.C.N.S. would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations.\n\nThe office of Controller would be re-established to deal with all questions relating to supply on September 6 a Deputy First Sea Lord, was added to the Board who would administer operations abroad and questions of foreign policy.\n\nIn October 1917 the development of the staff was carried one step further by the creation of two sub-committees of the Board - the Operations Committee and the Maintenance Committee. The First Lord was chairman of both, and the former consisted of the First Sea Lord and C.N.S., the Deputy 1 st S.L., D.C.N.S., A.C.N.S., and 5th Sea Lord. The latter consisted of the Deputy 1st S.L. (representing the operations committee), 2nd S.L. (personnel), 3rd S.L. (material), 4th S.L. (transport and stores), Civil Lord, Controller and Financial Secretary.\n\nThe direction of fully operational control of the Royal Navy was finally handed over to the C.N.S. by an order in Council, effective October 1917, under which they became responsible for the issuing of orders affecting all war operations to the fleet. It also empowered the C.N.S to issue orders in their own name as opposed to previously by the Secretary in the name of the Board. This would remain in place until the department was abolished in 1964; however the operational control and this system still remains in place with the Navy today. For the organisational structure of the admiralty department and how it developed through the centuries see the following articles below.\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n===Senior military and civil command===\n''Included:''\nOffice of the First Lord of the Admiralty\nBoard of Admiralty\nNavy Board, (1546-1832)\nOffice of the First Sea Lord\n*Office of the Second Sea Lord\nOffice of the Third Sea Lord\nOffice of the Fourth Sea Lord\nOffice of Fifth Sea Lord\nOffice of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff\nOffice of Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff\nOffice of the Vice Chief of the Naval Staff\n*Admiralty Naval Staff\nAdmiralty Navy War Council\nAdmiralty War Staff\nOffice of the Deputy First Sea Lord\nOffice of the Additional Civil Lord of the Admiralty\nOffice of the Civil Lord of the Admiralty\nOffice of the Naval Secretary\nOffice of the Permanent Secretary to the Admiralty\nOffice of the Secretary to the Admiralty\n", "The Admiralty complex in 1794. The colours indicate departments or residences for the several Lords of the Admiralty. The pale coloured extension behind the small courtyard, on the left is Admiralty House.\nThe Admiralty complex lies between Whitehall, Horse Guards Parade and The Mall and includes five inter-connected buildings. Since the Admiralty no longer exists as a department, these buildings are now used by separate government departments:\n\n===The Admiralty===\n\n\nThe oldest building was long known simply as ''The Admiralty''; it is now known officially as the Ripley Building, a three storey U-shaped brick building designed by Thomas Ripley and completed in 1726. Alexander Pope implied the architecture is rather dull, lacking either the vigour of the baroque style, fading from fashion at the time, or the austere grandeur of the Palladian style just coming into vogue. It is mainly notable for being perhaps the first purpose-built office building in Great Britain. It contained the Admiralty board room, which is still used by the Admiralty, other state rooms, offices and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. Robert Adam designed the screen, which was added to the entrance front in 1788. The Ripley Building is currently occupied by the Department for International Development.\n\n\nFile:Admiralty office Whitehall 1760 D Cunego.jpg\|Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) in 1760 before addition of the Adam screen\nFile:Admiralty_building_Whitehall_1790.jpg\|Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) c. 1790 after addition of the Adam screen\nFile:Admiraliteit london 1830.jpg\|Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) c. 1830\n\n\n===Admiralty House===\nAdmiralty House is a moderately proportioned mansion to the south of the Ripley Building, built in the late 18th century as the residence of the First Lord of the Admiralty. It served that purpose until 1964. Winston Churchill was one of its occupants. It lacks its own entrance from Whitehall and is entered through the Ripley Building. It is a three-storey building in yellow brick with neoclassical interiors. Its rear facade faces directly onto Horse Guards Parade. The architect was Samuel Pepys Cockerell. There are now three ministerial flats in the building, which were unoccupied in 2012.\n\n===Admiralty Extension===\n\nThe Admiralty Extension (which is also one of the two buildings which are sometimes referred to as the \"Old Admiralty\") dates from the turn of the 20th century.\nThis is the largest of the Admiralty Buildings. It was begun in the late 19th century and redesigned while the construction was in progress to accommodate the extra offices needed by the naval arms race with the German Empire. It is a red brick building with white stone, detailing in the Queen Anne style with French influences. It has been used by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office from the 1960s to 2016. The Department for Education planned to move into the building in September 2017 following the Foreign and Commonwealth Office's decision to leave the building and consolidate its London staff into one building on King Charles Street.\n\n===Admiralty Arch===\nAdmiralty Arch\nAdmiralty Arch is linked to the Old Admiralty Building by a bridge and is part of the ceremonial route from Trafalgar Square to Buckingham Palace.\n\n===The Admiralty Citadel===\nThis is a squat, windowless World War II fortress north west of Horse Guards Parade, now covered in ivy. See Military citadels under London for further details.\n", "Bomb proof citadel constructed 1940 for Admiralty headquarters\nIn some cases, the term ''admiralty'' is used in a wider sense, as meaning ''sea power'' or ''rule over the seas'', rather than in strict reference to the institution exercising such power. For example, the well-known lines from Kipling's ''Song of the Dead'':\n\n\n", " Admiralty administration\n* Admiralty chart\n* Admiralty Peak\n* List of Lords High Admiral\n* List of the First Lords of the Admiralty\n* List of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty\n* Lord High Admiral of Scotland\n* St Boniface's Catholic College\n", "\n", "'''The Building'''\n* Bradley, Simon, and Nikolaus Pevsner. ''London 6: Westminster'' (from the Buildings of England series). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2003. .\n* C. Hussey, \"Admiralty Building, Whitehall\", ''Country Life'', 17 and 24 November 1923, pp. 684–692, 718–726.\n\n'''The Office'''\n* Daniel A. Baugh, ''Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole'' (Princeton, 1965).\n* Sir John Barrow, ''An Autobiographical Memoir of Sir John Barrow, Bart., Late of the Admiralty'' (London, 1847).\n* John Ehrman, ''The Navy in the War of William III: Its State and Direction'' (Cambridge, 1953).\n* C. I. Hamilton, ''The Making of the Modern Admiralty: British Naval Policy-Making 1805–1927'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).\n* C. I. Hamilton, \"Selections from the Phinn Committee of Inquiry of October–November 1853 into the State of the Office of Secretary to the Admiralty, in ''The Naval Miscellany'', volume V, edited by N. A. M. Rodger, (London: Navy Records Society, London, 1984).\n* C. S. Knighton, ''Pepys and the Navy'' (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2003).\n* Christopher Lloyd, ''Mr Barrow of the Admiralty'' (London, 1970).\n* Malcolm H. Murfett, ''The First Sea Lords: From Fisher to Mountbatten'' (Westport: Praeger, 1995).\n* Lady Murray, ''The Making of a Civil Servant: Sir Oswyn Murray, Secretary of the Admiralty 1917–1936'' (London, 1940).\n* N.A.M. Rodger, ''The Admiralty'' (Lavenham, 1979)\n* J.C. Sainty, ''Admiralty Officials, 1660–1870'' (London, 1975)\n* Sir Charles Walker, ''Thirty-Six Years at the Admiralty'' (London, 1933)\n", "\n* The Admiralty at the ''Survey of London'' online\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Function and organization", "Admiralty buildings", "\"Admiralty\" as a metonym for \"sea power\"", "See also", "Footnotes", "Further reading", " External links " ]	Admiralty
[ "\nAn '''amphibian''' is an ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrate.\n\n'''Amphibian''' may also refer to:\nAmphibian (comics), a superhero\nAmphibious vehicle\nAmphibious aircraft\nHovercraft\nVostok Amphibia, one of the Vostok watches\nAmphibian (song), a song by Björk\nMark I Amphibian Mark II Amphibian, Mark III Amphibian, Mark IV Amphibian: 4 types of World War II period British frogman's rebreather\n", " Amphibious (disambiguation)\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Amphibian (disambiguation)
[ "\n\n'''Amputation''' is the removal of a limb by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventative surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, amputation of the hands, feet or other body parts is or was used as a form of punishment for people who committed crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment.\n\nIn the US, the majority of new amputations occur due to complications of the vascular system (the blood vessels), especially from diabetes. Between 1988 and 1996, there were an average of 133,735 hospital discharges for amputation per year in the US.\n", "The word amputation is derived from the Latin ''amputare'', \"to cut away\", from ''ambi-'' (\"about\", \"around\") and ''putare'' (\"to prune\"). The English word \"amputation\" was first applied to surgery in the 17th century, possibly first in Peter Lowe's ''A discourse of the Whole Art of Chirurgerie'' (published in either 1597 or 1612); his work was derived from 16th-century French texts and early English writers also used the words \"extirpation\" (16th-century French texts tended to use ''extirper''), \"disarticulation\", and \"dismemberment\" (from the Old French ''desmembrer'' and a more common term before the 17th century for limb loss or removal), or simply \"cutting\", but by the end of the 17th century \"amputation\" had come to dominate as the accepted medical term.\n", "\n===Leg amputations===\nA diagram showing an above the knee amputation\nLeg amputations can be divided into 2 broad categories:\n* Minor amputations:\n amputation of digits\n partial foot amputation (Chopart, Lisfranc, Ray)\n** ankle disarticulation (Syme, Pyrogoff)\n* Major amputations:\n Below-knee amputation, abbreviated as . Intentionally performed surgical below-knee amputation can be performed by transtibial techniques such as Burgess and Kingsley Robinson.\n knee disarticulation (Gritti or Gritti-Stokes)\n above-knee amputation (transfemoral)\n Van-ness rotation/rotationplasty (foot being turned around and reattached to allow the ankle joint to be used as a knee)\n hip disarticulation\n hemipelvectomy/hindquarter amputation\n\n===Arm amputations===\nThe 18th century guide to amputations\n* amputation of digits\n* metacarpal amputation\n* wrist disarticulation\n* forearm amputation (transradial)\n* elbow disarticulation\n* above-elbow amputation (transhumeral)\n* shoulder disarticulation and forequarter amputation\n* Krukenberg procedure\n\n===Other amputations===\n\n* Face:\n amputation of the ears\n amputation of the nose (rhinotomy)\n amputation of the tongue (glossectomy).\n amputation of the eyes (enucleation). Many of these facial disfigurings were and still are done in some parts of the world as punishment for some crimes, and as individual shame and population terror practices.\n** amputation of the teeth. Removal of teeth, mainly incisors, is or was practiced by some cultures for ritual purposes (for instance in the Iberomaurusian culture of Neolithic North Africa).\n* Breasts:\n** amputation of the breasts (mastectomy).\n* Genitals:\n amputation of the testicles (castration).\n amputation of the penis (penectomy).\n amputation of the foreskin (circumcision).\n amputation of the clitoris (clitoridectomy).\n\nHemicorporectomy, or amputation at the waist, and decapitation, or amputation at the neck, are the most radical amputations.\n\nGenital modification and mutilation may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease.\n\n===Self-amputation===\n\n\nIn some rare cases when a person has become trapped in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated his or her own limb.\n\nBody integrity identity disorder is a psychological condition in which an individual feels compelled to remove one or more of their body parts, usually a limb. In some cases, that individual may take drastic measures to remove the offending appendages, either by causing irreparable damage to the limb so that medical intervention cannot save the limb, or by causing the limb to be severed.\n", "\n===Circulatory disorders===\n* Diabetic foot infection or gangrene (the most frequent reason for infection-related amputations)\n* Sepsis with peripheral necrosis\n\n===Neoplasm===\nTransfemoral amputation due to liposarcoma\n* Cancerous bone or soft tissue tumors (e.g. osteosarcoma, chondrosaroma, fibrosarcoma, epithelioid sarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, synovial sarcoma, sacrococcygeal teratoma, liposarcoma)\n* Melanoma\n\n===Trauma===\nThree fingers from a soldier's right hand were traumatically amputated during World War I.\n\n* Severe limb injuries in which the limb cannot be saved or efforts to save the limb fail.\n* Traumatic amputation (an unexpected amputation that occurs at the scene of an accident, where the limb is partially or entirely severed as a direct result of the accident, for example a finger that is severed from the blade of a table saw)\n* Amputation in utero (Amniotic band)\n\n===Deformities===\n* Deformities of digits and/or limbs (e.g., proximal femoral focal deficiency)\n* Extra digits and/or limbs (e.g., polydactyly)\n\n===Infection===\n* Bone infection (osteomyelitis)\n* Diabetes\n* Frostbite\n\n===Athletic performance===\n* Sometimes professional athletes may choose to have a non-essential digit amputated to relieve chronic pain and impaired performance. Australian Rules footballer Daniel Chick elected to have his left ring finger amputated as chronic pain and injury was limiting his performance. Rugby union player Jone Tawake also had a finger removed. National Football League safety Ronnie Lott had the tip of his little finger removed after it was damaged in the 1985 NFL season.\n\n===Legal punishment ===\n* Amputation is used as a legal punishment in a number of countries, among them Saudi Arabia, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Sudan, and Islamic regions of Nigeria.\n", "\n===Method===\nCurved knives such as this one were used, in the past, for some kinds of amputations.\nThe first step is ligating the supplying artery and vein, to prevent hemorrhage (bleeding). The muscles are transected, and finally the bone is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Sharp and rough edges of the bone(s) are filed down, skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the stump, occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a prosthesis.\n", "Traumatic amputation is the partial or total avulsion of a part of a body during a serious accident, like traffic, labor, or combat.\n\nTraumatic amputation of a human limb, either partial or total, creates the immediate danger of death from blood loss.\n\nOrthopedic surgeons often assess the severity of different injuries using the Mangled Extremity Severity Score. Given different clinical and situational factors, they can predict the likelihood of amputation. This is especially useful for emergency physicians to quickly evaluate patients and decide on consultations.\n\n===Causes===\nPrivate Lewis Francis was wounded July 21, 1861, at the First Battle of Bull Run by a bayonet to the knee.\nTraumatic amputation is uncommon in humans (1 per 20,804 population per year). Loss of limb usually happens immediately during the accident, but sometimes a few days later after medical complications. Statistically the most common causes of traumatic amputations are:\n* Traffic accidents (cars, motorcycles, bicycles, trains, etc.)\n* Labor accidents (equipment, instruments, cylinders, chainsaws, press machines, meat machines, wood machines, etc.)\n* Agricultural accidents, with machines and mower equipment\n* Electric shock hazards\n* Firearms, bladed weapons, explosives\n* Violent rupture of ship rope or industry wire rope\n* Ring traction (ring amputation, de-gloving injuries)\n* Building doors and car doors\n* Gas cylinder explosions\n* Other rare accidents\n\n===Treatment===\nThe development of the science of microsurgery over last 40 years has provided several treatment options for a traumatic amputation, depending on the patient's specific trauma and clinical situation:\n* 1st choice: Surgical amputation - break - prosthesis\n* 2nd choice: Surgical amputation - transplantation of other tissue - plastic reconstruction.\n* 3rd choice: Replantation - reconnection - revascularisation of amputated limb, by microscope (after 1969)\n* 4th choice: Transplantation of cadaveric hand (after 2000),\n\n===Epidemiology===\n* In the United States in 1999, there were 14,420 non-fatal traumatic amputations according to the American Statistical Association. Of these, 4,435 occurred as a result of traffic and transportation accidents and 9,985 were due to labor accidents. Of all traumatic amputations, the distribution percentage is 30.75% for traffic accidents and 69.24% for labor accidents.\n* The population of the United States in 1999 was about 300,000,000, so the conclusion is that there is one amputation per 20,804 persons per year. In the group of labor amputations, 53% occurred in laborers and technicians, 30% in production and service workers, 16% in silviculture and fishery workers.\n* A study found that in 2010, 22.8% of patients undergoing amputation of a lower extremity in the United States were readmitted to the hospital within 30 days.\n", "Amputations are usually traumatic experiences. They can reduce the quality of life for patients in addition to being expensive. In the USA, a typical prosthetic limb costs in the range of $10,000–15,000 according to the American Diabetic Association. In some populations, preventing amputations is a critical task.\n\nMethods in preventing amputation, limb-sparing techniques, depend on the problems that might cause amputations to be necessary. Chronic infections, often caused by diabetes or decubitus ulcers in bedridden patients, are common causes of infections that lead to gangrene, which would then necessitate amputation.\n\nThere are two key challenges: first, many patients have impaired circulation in their extremities, and second, they have difficulty curing infections in limbs with poor vasculation (blood circulation).\n \nCrush injuries where there is extensive tissue damage and poor circulation also benefit from hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT). The high level of oxygenation and revascularization speed up recovery times and prevent infections.\n\nA study found that the patented method called Circulator Boot achieved significant results in prevention of amputation in patients with diabetes and arterioscleorosis. Another study found it also effective for healing limb ulcers caused by peripheral vascular disease. The boot checks the heart rhythm and compresses the limb between heartbeats; the compression helps cure the wounds in the walls of veins and arteries, and helps to push the blood back to the heart.\n\nFor victims of trauma, advances in microsurgery in the 1970s have made replantations of severed body parts possible.\n\nThe establishment of laws, rules and guidelines, and employment of modern equipment help protect people from traumatic amputations.\n", "The individual may experience psychological trauma and emotional discomfort. The stump will remain an area of reduced mechanical stability. Limb loss can present significant or even drastic practical limitations.\n\nA large proportion of amputees (50–80%) experience the phenomenon of phantom limbs; they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, burn, feel tense, dry or wet, locked in or trapped or they can feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e.g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).\n\nA similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, (''Phantoms in the Brain'': V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head.\n\nIn many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience proprioception of the prosthetic limb. To support improved resistance or usability, comfort or healing, some type of stump socks may be worn instead of or as part of wearing a prosthesis.\n\nAnother side effect can be heterotopic ossification, especially when a bone injury is combined with a head injury. The brain signals the bone to grow instead of scar tissue to form, and nodules and other growth can interfere with prosthetics and sometimes require further operations. This type of injury has been especially common among soldiers wounded by improvised explosive devices in the Iraq war.\n\nDue to technologic advances in prosthetics, many amputees live active lives with little restriction. Organizations such as the Challenged Athletes Foundation have been developed to give amputees the opportunity to be involved in athletics and adaptive sports such as Amputee Soccer.\n", "\n\nFile:Hans von Gersdorff - amputation.jpg\|A woodcut engraving in ''Feldbuch der Wundarzney'' (1517) by Hans von Gersdorff, showing how to remove a leg.\nFile:Jacques Callot Beggar.jpg\|An amputee beggar, by Jacques Callot, 1622\nFile:National-Debt-Gillray.jpeg\|In a 1786 James Gillray caricature, the plentiful money bags handed to King George III are contrasted with the beggar whose legs and arms were amputated, in the left corner\nFile:Alfred A. Stratton.jpg\|Alfred A. Stratton, an American Civil War veteran and double amputee\nFile:Fotothek df ps 0000020 002 Versehrte des 2. Weltkrieges.jpg\|Amputee veterans of World War II in Germany, 1946\nFile:JohnMcFall-Manchester-20070513.jpg\|John McFall, who has an above-knee leg amputation, and uses a prosthetic leg, is a sprinter and winner of a gold medal at the 2007 Paralympic World Cup\nFile:RPG wounded Iraq veteran exercising Army-dot-mil-2007-02-07-103140.jpg\|An American soldier who was wounded by a rocket-propelled grenade in Iraq\nFile:Aron Ralston.png\|Aron Ralston, an outdoorsman who was forced to amputate his own right arm with a multi-tool after having it trapped between a boulder and a canyon wall.\nFile:Team Zaryen, Haitian Amputee soccer team posing for camera.jpg\|Team Zaryen amputee soccer\nFile:Oscar Pistorius-2.jpg\|South African sprint runner and convicted murderer Oscar Pistorius\nFile:Historic Center of Quito - World Heritage Site by UNESCO - Photo 461.JPG\|An amputee of the right leg photographed in the Historic Center of Quito in 2013.\nFile:LisaBufanoOrangeQueenAnneTableLegProstheses.jpg\| Lisa Bufano, dancer and performance artist\nFile:Harvey Stanley Blackburn.jpg\|Harvey Stanley Hyde Blackburn, claimed to be the only amputee accepted for military service in WWI, by fooling his way through a medical examination\n\n", "* Adapted automobile\n* Prosthesis\n* Acrotomophilia\n* Robotic prosthesis control\n", "\n", "* Miller, Brian Craig. ''Empty Sleeves: Amputation in the Civil War South'' (University of Georgia Press, 2015). xviii, 257 pp.\n", "\n* Amputation from Cooper's 1835 \"Practice of Surgery\"\n* Imaging of Lower Extremities Amputations\n* An amputation and regeneration blog\n* Diving In, NC Well Magazine\n* Limb Loss Education, University of Washington\n* Mangled Extremity Severity Score\n* Afghan amputees tell their stories at Texas gathering, Fayetteville Observer\n* Can modern prosthetics actually help reclaim the sense of touch?, PBS Newshour\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Types", "Causes", " Surgical amputation ", " Traumatic amputation ", "Prevention", "Prognosis", "Gallery", " See also ", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Amputation
[ "A hemispherical cup anemometer of the type invented in 1846 by John Thomas Romney Robinson\nAn '''anemometer''' is a device used for measuring the speed of wind, and is also a common weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word ''anemos'', which means wind, and is used to describe any wind speed measurement instrument used in meteorology. The first known description of an anemometer was given by Leon Battista Alberti in 1450.\n", "The anemometer has changed little since its development in the 15th century. Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) is said to have invented the first mechanical anemometer around 1450. In following centuries, numerous others, including Robert Hooke\n(1635–1703), developed their own versions, with some being mistakenly credited as the inventor. In 1846, John Thomas Romney Robinson (1792–1882) improved upon the design by using four hemispherical cups and mechanical wheels. In 1926, Canadian meteorologist John Patterson (January 3, 1872 – February 22, 1956) developed a three-cup anemometer, which was improved by Brevoort and Joiner in 1935. In 1991, Derek Weston added the ability to measure wind direction. In 1994, Andrews Pflitsch developed the sonic anemometer.\n", "\n===Cup anemometers===\nCup anemometer animation\nA simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson, of Armagh Observatory. It consisted of four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms, which were mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft at a rate that was proportional to the wind speed. Therefore, counting the turns of the shaft over a set time period produced a value proportional to the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. On an anemometer with four cups, it is easy to see that since the cups are arranged symmetrically on the end of the arms, the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it and is blowing on the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross.\n\nWhen Robinson first designed his anemometer, he asserted that the cups moved one-third of the speed of the wind, unaffected by the cup size or arm length. This was apparently confirmed by some early independent experiments, but it was incorrect. Instead, the ratio of the speed of the wind and that of the cups, the anemometer factor, depends on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have a value between two and a little over three. Every previous experiment involving an anemometer had to be repeated.\n\nThe three-cup anemometer developed by the Canadian John Patterson in 1926 and subsequent cup improvements by Brevoort & Joiner of the USA in 1935 led to a cupwheel design which was linear and had an error of less than 3% up to . Patterson found that each cup produced maximum torque when it was at 45° to the wind flow. The three-cup anemometer also had a more constant torque and responded more quickly to gusts than the four-cup anemometer.\n\nThe three-cup anemometer was further modified by the Australian Dr Derek Weston in 1991 to measure both wind direction and wind speed. Weston added a tag to one cup, which causes the cupwheel speed to increase and decrease as the tag moves alternately with and against the wind. Wind direction is calculated from these cyclical changes in cupwheel speed, while wind speed is determined from the average cupwheel speed.\n\nThree-cup anemometers are currently used as the industry standard for wind resource assessment studies & practice.\n\n===Vane anemometers===\nOne of the other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer is the ''vane anemometer''. It may be described as a windmill or a propeller anemometer. Unlike the Robinson anemometer, whose axis of rotation is vertical, the vane anemometer must have its axis parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed.\n\nA ''vane anemometer'' thus combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. The speed of the fan is measured by a rev counter and converted to a windspeed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric flowrate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area is known.\n\nIn cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in ventilating shafts of mines and buildings, wind vanes known as air meters are employed, and give satisfactory results.\n\n\n\nFile:Wind speed and direction instrument - NOAA.jpg\|Vane style of anemometer\nFile:Prop vane anemometer.jpg\|Helicoid propeller anemometer incorporating a wind vane for orientation\nFile:Anemometer-IMG 4734-white.jpg\|Hand-held low-speed vane anemometer\nFile:Digital_Handheld_Anemometer.jpg\|Hand-held digital anemometer\n\n\n===Hot-wire anemometers===\nHot-wire sensor\nHot wire anemometers use a very fine wire (on the order of several micrometres) electrically heated to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the metal (tungsten is a popular choice for hot-wires), a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the flow speed.\n\nSeveral ways of implementing this exist, and hot-wire devices can be further classified as CCA (constant current anemometer), CVA (constant voltage anemometer) and CTA (constant-temperature anemometer). The voltage output from these anemometers is thus the result of some sort of circuit within the device trying to maintain the specific variable (current, voltage or temperature) constant, following Ohm's law.\n\nAdditionally, PWM (pulse-width modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the velocity is inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to a specified resistance and then stops until a threshold \"floor\" is reached, at which time the pulse is sent again.\n\nHot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency-response and fine spatial resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of interest.\n\nAn industrial version of the fine-wire anemometer is the thermal flow meter, which follows the same concept but uses two pins or strings to monitor the variation in temperature. The strings contain fine wires, but encasing the wires makes them much more durable and capable of accurately measuring air, gas, and emissions flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks. Industrial applications often contain dirt that will damage the classic hot-wire anemometer.\n\nDrawing of a laser anemometer. The laser light is emitted (1) through the front lens (6) of the anemometer and is backscattered off the air molecules (7). The backscattered radiation (dots) re-enters the device and is reflected and directed into a detector (12).\n\n===Laser Doppler anemometers===\nIn laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light from a laser that is divided into two beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates (or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is measured relative to the original laser beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer.\n2D ultrasonic anemometer with 3 paths\n\n===Ultrasonic anemometers===\n3D ultrasonic anemometer\n\nUltrasonic anemometers, first developed in the 1950s, use ultrasonic sound waves to measure wind velocity. They measure wind speed based on the time of flight of sonic pulses between pairs of transducers. Measurements from pairs of transducers can be combined to yield a measurement of velocity in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional flow. The spatial resolution is given by the path length between transducers, which is typically 10 to 20 cm. Ultrasonic anemometers can take measurements with very fine temporal resolution, 20 Hz or better, which makes them well suited for turbulence measurements. The lack of moving parts makes them appropriate for long-term use in exposed automated weather stations and weather buoys where the accuracy and reliability of traditional cup-and-vane anemometers are adversely affected by salty air or dust. Their main disadvantage is the distortion of the flow itself by the structure supporting the transducers, which requires a correction based upon wind tunnel measurements to minimize the effect. An international standard for this process, ISO 16622 ''Meteorology—Ultrasonic anemometers/thermometers—Acceptance test methods for mean wind measurements'' is in general circulation. Another disadvantage is lower accuracy due to precipitation, where rain drops may vary the speed of sound.\n\nSince the speed of sound varies with temperature, and is virtually stable with pressure change, ultrasonic anemometers are also used as thermometers.\nTwo-dimensional (wind speed and wind direction) sonic anemometers are used in applications such as weather stations, ship navigation, aviation, weather buoys and wind turbines. Monitoring wind turbines usually requires a refresh rate of wind speed measurements of 3 Hz, easily achieved by sonic anemometers. Three-dimensional sonic anemometers are widely used to measure gas emissions and ecosystem fluxes using the eddy covariance method when used with fast-response infrared gas analyzers or laser-based analyzers.\n\nTwo-dimensional wind sensors are of two types:\n* '''Two ultrasounds paths''': These sensors have 4 arms. The disadvantage of this type of sensor is that when the wind comes in the direction of an ultrasound path, the arms disturb the airflow, reducing the accuracy of the resulting measurement.\n* '''Three ultrasounds paths''': These sensors have 3 arms. They give one path redundancy of the measurement which improves the sensor accuracy and reduces aerodynamic turbulence.\n\n====Acoustic resonance anemometers====\nAcoustic resonance anemometer\n\nAcoustic resonance anemometers are a more recent variant of sonic anemometer. The technology was invented by Dr Savvas Kapartis and patented (Acu-Res®) by FT Technologies in 2000. Whereas conventional sonic anemometers rely on time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic (ultrasonic) waves within a small purpose-built cavity in order to perform their measurement.\n\nAcoustic resonance principle\nBuilt into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave’s property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction.\n\nAcoustic resonance technology enables measurement within a small cavity, the sensors therefore tend to be typically smaller in size than other ultrasonic sensors. The small size of acoustic resonance anemometers makes them physically strong and easy to heat and therefore resistant to icing. This combination of features means that they achieve high levels of data availability and are well suited to wind turbine control and to other uses that require small robust sensors such as battlefield meteorology. One issue with this sensor type is measurement accuracy when compared to a calibrated mechanical sensor. For many end uses, this weakness is compensated for by the sensor's longevity and the fact that it does not require re-calibrating once installed.\n\n===Ping-pong ball anemometers===\nA common anemometer for basic use is constructed from a ping-pong ball attached to a string. When the wind blows horizontally, it presses on and moves the ball; because ping-pong balls are very lightweight, they move easily in light winds. Measuring the angle between the string-ball apparatus and the vertical gives an estimate of the wind speed.\n\nThis type of anemometer is mostly used for middle-school level instruction which most students make themselves, but a similar device was also flown on Phoenix Mars Lander.\n", "Britannia Yacht Club clubhouse tour, burgee, and wind gauge on roof\nThe first designs of anemometers which measure the pressure were divided into plate and tube classes.\n\n===Plate anemometers===\nThese are the first modern anemometers. They consist of a flat plate suspended from the top so that the wind deflects the plate. In 1450, the Italian art architect Leon Battista Alberti invented the first mechanical anemometer; in 1664 it was re-invented by Robert Hooke (who is often mistakenly considered the inventor of the first anemometer). Later versions of this form consisted of a flat plate, either square or circular, which is kept normal to the wind by a wind vane. The pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The compression of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not respond to light winds, are inaccurate for high wind readings, and are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate anemometers have been used to trigger high wind alarms on bridges.\n\n===Tube anemometers===\nTube anemometer invented by William Henry Dines. The movable part (right) is mounted on the fixed part (left).\nInstruments at Mount Washington Observatory. The pitot tube static anemometer is on the right.\nThe pointed head is the pitot port. The small holes are connected to the static port.\n\nJames Lind's anemometer of 1775 consisted of a glass U tube containing a liquid manometer (pressure gauge), with one end bent in a horizontal direction to face the wind and the other vertical end remains parallel to the wind flow. Though the Lind was not the first it was the most practical and best known anemometer of this type. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an increase of pressure on one side of the manometer. The wind over the open end of a vertical tube causes little change in pressure on the other side of the manometer. The resulting elevation difference in the two legs of the U tube is an indication of the wind speed. However, an accurate measurement requires that the wind speed be directly into the open end of the tube; small departures from the true direction of the wind causes large variations in the reading.\n\nThe successful metal pressure tube anemometer of William Henry Dines in 1892 utilized the same pressure difference between the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind and a ring of small holes in a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. Both are mounted at the same height. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them. The recorder consists of a float in a sealed chamber partially filled with water. The pipe from the straight tube is connected to the top of the sealed chamber and the pipe from the small tubes is directed into the bottom inside the float. Since the pressure difference determines the vertical position of the float this is a measure of the wind speed.\n\nThe great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 mi/h (16 km/h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration.\n\nWhile the Dines anemometer had an error of only 1% at it did not respond very well to low winds due to the poor response of the flat plate vane required to turn the head into the wind. In 1918 an aerodynamic vane with eight times the torque of the flat plate overcame this problem.\n\n====Pitot tube static anemometers====\nModern tube anemometers use the same principle as in the Dines anemometer but using a different design. The implementation uses a pitot-static tube which is a pitot tube with two ports, pitot and static, that is normally used in measuring the airspeed of aircraft. The pitot port measures the dynamic pressure of the open mouth of a tube with pointed head facing wind, and the static port measures the static pressure from small holes along the side on that tube. The pitot tube is connected to a tail so that it always makes the tube's head to face the wind. Additionally, the tube is heated to prevent rime ice formation on the tube. There are two lines from the tube down to the devices to measure the difference in pressure of the two lines. The measurement devices can be manometers, pressure transducers, or analog chart recorders.\n\n===Effect of density on measurements===\nIn the tube anemometer the dynamic pressure is actually being measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. If the actual air density differs from the calibration value, due to differing temperature, elevation or barometric pressure, a correction is required to obtain the actual wind speed. Approximately 1.5% (1.6% above 6,000 feet) should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft (5% for each kilometer) above sea-level.\n", "At airports, it is essential to have accurate wind data under all conditions, including freezing precipitation. Anemometry is also required in monitoring and controlling the operation of wind turbines, which in cold environments are prone to in-cloud icing. Icing alters the aerodynamics of an anemometer and may entirely block it from operating. Therefore, anemometers used in these applications must be internally heated. Both cup anemometers and sonic anemometers are presently available with heated versions.\n", "In order for wind speeds to be comparable from location to location, the effect of the terrain needs to be considered, especially in regard to height. Other considerations are the presence of trees, and both natural canyons and artificial canyons (urban buildings). The standard anemometer height in open rural terrain is 10 meters.\n", "\n* Air flow meter\n* Anemoi, for the ancient origin of the name of this technology\n* Anemoscope, ancient device for measuring or predicting wind direction or weather\n* Automated airport weather station\n* Night of the Big Wind\n* Particle image velocimetry\n* Wind power forecasting\n* Wind run\n", "\n", "\nMeteorological Instruments, W.E. Knowles Middleton and Athelstan F. Spilhaus, Third Edition revised, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1953\nInvention of the Meteorological Instruments, W. E. Knowles Middleton, The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1969\n\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* Description of the development and the construction of an ultrasonic anemometer\n* Robinson Cup Anemometer - Armagh Observatory\n* Animation Showing Sonic Principle of Operation (Time of Flight Theory) - Gill Instruments\n* Collection of historical anemometer\n* Principle of Operation: Acoustic Resonance measurement - FT Technologies\n* Thermopedia, \"Anemometers (laser doppler)\"\n* Thermopedia, \"Anemometers (pulsed thermal)\"\n* Thermopedia, \"Anemometers (vane)\"\n* The Rotorvane Anemometer. Measuring both wind speed and direction using a tagged three-cup sensor\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Velocity anemometers", "Pressure anemometers", "Effect of icing", "Instrument location", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Anemometer
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''''Archaeopteryx ()''''', meaning \"first wing\" (sometimes referred to by its German name '''''''''' (\"original bird\" or \"first bird\")), is a genus of bird-like dinosaurs that is transitional between non-avian feathered dinosaurs and modern birds. The name derives from the ancient Greek (''archaīos'') meaning \"ancient\", and (''ptéryx''), meaning \"feather\" or \"wing\". Between the late nineteenth century and the early twenty-first century, ''Archaeopteryx'' had been generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest known bird (member of the group Avialae). Older potential avialans have since been identified, including ''Anchiornis'', ''Xiaotingia'', and ''Aurornis''.\n\n''Archaeopteryx'' lived in the Late Jurassic around 150 million years ago, in what is now southern Germany during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now. Similar in size to a Eurasian magpie, with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven, the largest species of ''Archaeopteryx'' could grow to about in length. Despite their small size, broad wings, and inferred ability to fly or glide, ''Archaeopteryx'' had more in common with other small Mesozoic dinosaurs than with modern birds. In particular, they shared the following features with the dromaeosaurids and troodontids: jaws with sharp teeth, three fingers with claws, a long bony tail, hyperextensible second toes (\"killing claw\"), feathers (which also suggest warm-bloodedness), and various features of the skeleton.\n\nThese features make ''Archaeopteryx'' a clear candidate for a transitional fossil between non-avian dinosaurs and birds. Thus, ''Archaeopteryx'' plays an important role, not only in the study of the origin of birds, but in the study of dinosaurs. It was named from a single feather in 1861. That same year, the first complete specimen of ''Archaeopteryx'' was announced. Over the years, ten more fossils of ''Archaeopteryx'' have surfaced. Despite variation among these fossils, most experts regard all the remains that have been discovered as belonging to a single species, although this is still debated.\n\nMost of these eleven fossils include impressions of feathers. Because these feathers are of an advanced form (flight feathers), these fossils are evidence that the evolution of feathers began before the Late Jurassic. The type specimen of ''Archaeopteryx'' was discovered just two years after Charles Darwin published ''On the Origin of Species''. ''Archaeopteryx'' seemed to confirm Darwin's theories and has since become a key piece of evidence for the origin of birds, the transitional fossils debate, and confirmation of evolution.\n", "Eight specimens compared to a human in scale\n\nMost of the specimens of ''Archaeopteryx'' that have been discovered come from the Solnhofen limestone in Bavaria, southern Germany, which is a lagerstätte, a rare and remarkable geological formation known for its superbly detailed fossils laid down during the early Tithonian stage of the Jurassic period, approximately 150.8–148.5 million years ago.\n\n''Archaeopteryx'' was roughly the size of a raven, with broad wings that were rounded at the ends and a long tail compared to its body length. It could reach up to in body length, with an estimated mass of . ''Archaeopteryx'' feathers, although less documented than its other features, were very similar in structure to modern-day bird feathers. Despite the presence of numerous avian features, ''Archaeopteryx'' had many non-avian theropod dinosaur characteristics. Unlike modern birds, ''Archaeopteryx'' had small teeth, as well as a long bony tail, features which ''Archaeopteryx'' shared with other dinosaurs of the time.\n\nBecause it displays features common to both birds and non-avian dinosaurs, ''Archaeopteryx'' has often been considered a link between them. In the 1970s, John Ostrom, following Thomas Henry Huxley's lead in 1868, argued that birds evolved within theropod dinosaurs and ''Archaeopteryx'' was a critical piece of evidence for this argument; it had several avian features, such as a wishbone, flight feathers, wings, and a partially reversed first toe along with dinosaur and theropod features. For instance, it has a long ascending process of the ankle bone, interdental plates, an obturator process of the ischium, and long chevrons in the tail. In particular, Ostrom found that ''Archaeopteryx'' was remarkably similar to the theropod family Dromaeosauridae.\n\n=== Plumage ===\nAnatomical illustration comparing the \"frond-tail\" of ''Archaeopteryx'' with the \"fan-tail\" of a modern bird\nSpecimens of ''Archaeopteryx'' were most notable for their well-developed flight feathers. They were markedly asymmetrical and showed the structure of flight feathers in modern birds, with vanes given stability by a barb-barbule-barbicel arrangement. The tail feathers were less asymmetrical, again in line with the situation in modern birds and also had firm vanes. The thumb did not yet bear a separately movable tuft of stiff feathers.\n\nThe body plumage of ''Archaeopteryx'' is less well documented and has only been properly researched in the well-preserved Berlin specimen. Thus, as more than one species seems to be involved, the research into the Berlin specimen's feathers does not necessarily hold true for the rest of the species of ''Archaeopteryx''. In the Berlin specimen, there are \"trousers\" of well-developed feathers on the legs; some of these feathers seem to have a basic contour feather structure, but are somewhat decomposed (they lack barbicels as in ratites). In part they are firm and thus capable of supporting flight.\n\nA patch of pennaceous feathers is found running along its back, which was quite similar to the contour feathers of the body plumage of modern birds in being symmetrical and firm, although not as stiff as the flight-related feathers. Apart from that, the feather traces in the Berlin specimen are limited to a sort of \"proto-down\" not dissimilar to that found in the dinosaur ''Sinosauropteryx'': decomposed and fluffy, and possibly even appearing more like fur than feathers in life (although not in their microscopic structure). These occur on the remainder of the body—although some feathers did not fossilize and others were obliterated during preparation, leaving bare patches on specimens—and the lower neck.\n\nThere is no indication of feathering on the upper neck and head. While these conceivably may have been nude, this may still be an artefact of preservation. It appears that most ''Archaeopteryx'' specimens became embedded in anoxic sediment after drifting some time on their backs in the sea—the head, neck and the tail are generally bent downward, which suggests that the specimens had just started to rot when they were embedded, with tendons and muscle relaxing so that the characteristic shape (death pose) of the fossil specimens was achieved. This would mean that the skin already was softened and loose, which is bolstered by the fact that in some specimens the flight feathers were starting to detach at the point of embedding in the sediment. So it is hypothesized that the pertinent specimens moved along the sea bed in shallow water for some time before burial, the head and upper neck feathers sloughing off, while the more firmly attached tail feathers remained.\n\n==== Colouration ====\nArtist's restoration illustrating one interpretation of Carney's study\n\nIn 2011, graduate student Ryan Carney and colleagues performed the first colour study on an ''Archaeopteryx'' specimen. Using scanning electron microscopy technology and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, the team was able to detect the structure of melanosomes in the single-feather specimen described in 1861. The resultant structure was then compared to that of 87 modern bird species and was determined with a highest likelihood to be black. The feather studied was most probably a single covert, which would have partly covered the primary feathers on the wings. The study does not mean that ''Archaeopteryx'' was entirely black, but suggests that it had some black colouration which included the coverts. Carney pointed out that this is consistent with what we know of modern flight characteristics, in that black melanosomes have structural properties that strengthen feathers for flight. In a 2013 study published in the ''Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry'', new analyses of ''Archaeopteryx'''s feathers revealed that the animal may have had complex light- and dark-coloured plumage, with heavier pigmentation in the distal tips and outer vanes. In a press release, Carney argued against this interpretation and one of his colleagues also brought up the subject in a review paper however, no new evidence was published.\n", "\n=== Flight ===\n1880 photo of the Berlin specimen, showing leg feathers that were removed subsequently, during preparation\nAs in the wings of modern birds, the flight feathers of ''Archaeopteryx'' were somewhat asymmetrical and the tail feathers were rather broad. This implies that the wings and tail were used for lift generation, but it is unclear whether ''Archaeopteryx'' was capable of flapping flight or simply a glider. The lack of a bony breastbone suggests that ''Archaeopteryx'' was not a very strong flier, but flight muscles might have attached to the thick, boomerang-shaped wishbone, the platelike coracoids, or perhaps, to a cartilaginous sternum. The sideways orientation of the glenoid (shoulder) joint between scapula, coracoid, and humerus—instead of the dorsally angled arrangement found in modern birds—may indicate that ''Archaeopteryx'' was unable to lift its wings above its back, a requirement for the upstroke found in modern flapping flight. According to a study by Philip Senter in 2006, ''Archaeopteryx'' was indeed unable to use flapping flight as modern birds do, but it may well have used a downstroke-only flap-assisted gliding technique.\n\n''Archaeopteryx'' wings were relatively large, which would have resulted in a low stall speed and reduced turning radius. The short and rounded shape of the wings would have increased drag, but also could have improved its ability to fly through cluttered environments such as trees and brush (similar wing shapes are seen in birds that fly through trees and brush, such as crows and pheasants). The presence of \"hind wings\", asymmetrical flight feathers stemming from the legs similar to those seen in dromaeosaurids such as ''Microraptor'', also would have added to the aerial mobility of ''Archaeopteryx''. The first detailed study of the hind wings by Longrich in 2006, suggested that the structures formed up to 12% of the total airfoil. This would have reduced stall speed by up to 6% and turning radius by up to 12%.\n\nThe feathers of ''Archaeopteryx'' were asymmetrical. This has been interpreted as evidence that it was a flyer, because flightless birds tend to have symmetrical feathers. Some scientists, including Thomson and Speakman, have questioned this. They studied more than 70 families of living birds, and found that some flightless types do have a range of asymmetry in their feathers, and that the feathers of ''Archaeopteryx'' fall into this range. The degree of asymmetry seen in ''Archaeopteryx'' is more typical for slow flyers than for flightless birds.\n\nThe Munich Specimen\n\nIn 2010, Robert L. Nudds and Gareth J. Dyke in the journal ''Science'' published a paper in which they analysed the rachises of the primary feathers of ''Confuciusornis'' and ''Archaeopteryx''. The analysis suggested that the rachises on these two genera were thinner and weaker than those of modern birds relative to body mass. The authors determined that ''Archaeopteryx'' and ''Confuciusornis'', were unable to use flapping flight. This study was criticized by Philip J. Currie and Luis Chiappe. Chiappe suggested that it is difficult to measure the rachises of fossilized feathers, and Currie speculated that ''Archaeopteryx'' and ''Confuciusornis'' must have been able to fly to some degree, as their fossils are preserved in what is believed to have been marine or lake sediments, suggesting that they must have been able to fly over deep water. Gregory Paul also disagreed with the study, arguing in a 2010 response that Nudds and Dyke had overestimated the masses of these early birds, and that more accurate mass estimates allowed powered flight even with relatively narrow rachises. Nudds and Dyke had assumed a mass of for the Munich specimen ''Archaeopteryx'', a young juvenile, based on published mass estimates of larger specimens. Paul argued that a more reasonable body mass estimate for the Munich specimen is about . Paul also criticized the measurements of the rachises themselves, noting that the feathers in the Munich specimen are poorly preserved. Nudds and Dyke reported a diameter of for the longest primary feather, which Paul could not confirm using photographs. Paul measured some of the inner primary feathers, finding rachises across. Despite these criticisms, Nudds and Dyke stood by their original conclusions. They claimed that Paul's statement, that an adult ''Archaeopteryx'' would have been a better flyer than the juvenile Munich specimen, was dubious. This, they reasoned, would require an even thicker rachis, evidence for which has not yet been presented. Another possibility is that they had not achieved true flight, but instead used their wings as aids for extra lift while running over water after the fashion of the basilisk lizard, which could explain their presence in lake and marine deposits (see Evolution of bird flight).\n\nReplica of the London Specimen\n\nIn 2004, scientists analysing a detailed CT scan of the braincase of the London ''Archaeopteryx'' concluded that its brain was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs, indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying. The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan. The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one-third of the brain. Other well-developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination. The skull scan also revealed the structure of its inner ear. The structure more closely resembles that of modern birds than the inner ear of non-avian reptiles. These characteristics taken together suggest that ''Archaeopteryx'' had the keen sense of hearing, balance, spatial perception, and coordination needed to fly. ''Archaeopteryx'' had a cerebrum-to-brain-volume ratio 78% of the way to modern birds from the condition of non-coelurosaurian dinosaurs such as ''Carcharodontosaurus'' or ''Allosaurus'', which had a crocodile-like anatomy of the brain and inner ear. Newer research shows that while the ''Archaeopteryx'' brain was more complex than that of more primitive theropods, it had a more generalized brain volume among maniraptoran dinosaurs, even smaller than that of other non-avian dinosaurs in several instances, which indicates the neurological development required for flight was already a common trait in the maniraptoran clade.\n\nRecent studies of flight feather barb geometry reveal that modern birds possess a larger barb angle in the trailing vane of the feather, whereas ''Archaeopteryx'' lacks this large barb angle, indicating potentially weak flight abilities.\n\n''Archaeopteryx'' continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and evolution of birds. Some scientists see it as a semi-arboreal climbing animal, following the idea that birds evolved from tree-dwelling gliders (the \"trees down\" hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by O. C. Marsh). Other scientists see ''Archaeopteryx'' as running quickly along the ground, supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running (the \"ground up\" hypothesis proposed by Samuel Wendell Williston). Still others suggest that ''Archaeopteryx'' might have been at home both in the trees and on the ground, like modern crows, and this latter view is what currently is considered best-supported by morphological characters. Altogether, it appears that the species was not particularly specialized for running on the ground or for perching. A scenario outlined by Elżanowski in 2002 suggested that ''Archaeopteryx'' used its wings mainly to escape predators by glides punctuated with shallow downstrokes to reach successively higher perches, and alternatively, to cover longer distances (mainly) by gliding down from cliffs or treetops.\n\n=== Growth ===\nGrowth trends compared with other dinosaurs and birds\n\nA histological study by Erickson, Norell, Zhongue, and others in 2009 estimated that ''Archaeopteryx'' grew relatively slowly compared to modern birds, presumably because the outermost portions of ''Archaeopteryx'' bones appear poorly vascularized; in living vertebrates poorly vascularized bone is correlated with slow growth rate. They also assume that all known skeletons of ''Archaeopteryx'' come from juvenile specimens. Because the bones of ''Archaeopteryx'' could not be histologically sectioned in a formal skeletochronological (growth ring) analysis, Erickson and colleagues used bone vascularity (porosity) to estimate bone growth rate. They assumed that poorly vascularized bone grows at similar rates in all birds and in ''Archaeopteryx''. The poorly vascularized bone of ''Archaeopteryx'' might have grown as slowly as that in a mallard (2.5 micrometres per day) or as fast as that in an ostrich (4.2 micrometres per day). Using this range of bone growth rates, they calculated how long it would take to \"grow\" each specimen of ''Archaeopteryx'' to the observed size; it may have taken at least 970 days (there were 375 days in a Late Jurassic year) to reach an adult size of . The study also found that the avialans ''Jeholornis'' and ''Sapeornis'' grew relatively slowly, as did the dromaeosaurid ''Mahakala''. The avialans ''Confuciusornis'' and ''Ichthyornis'' grew relatively quickly, following a growth trend similar to that of modern birds. One of the few modern birds that exhibit slow growth is the flightless kiwi, and the authors speculated that ''Archaeopteryx'' and the kiwi had similar basal metabolic rate.\n\n=== Daily activity patterns ===\nComparisons between the scleral rings of ''Archaeopteryx'' and modern birds and reptiles indicate that it may have been diurnal, similar to most modern birds.\n", "Restoration of ''Archaeopteryx'' chasing a juvenile ''Compsognathus''\nThe richness and diversity of the Solnhofen limestones in which all specimens of ''Archaeopteryx'' have been found have shed light on an ancient Jurassic Bavaria strikingly different from the present day. The latitude was similar to Florida, though the climate was likely to have been drier, as evidenced by fossils of plants with adaptations for arid conditions and a lack of terrestrial sediments characteristic of rivers. Evidence of plants, although scarce, include cycads and conifers while animals found include a large number of insects, small lizards, pterosaurs, and ''Compsognathus''.\n\nThe excellent preservation of ''Archaeopteryx'' fossils and other terrestrial fossils found at Solnhofen indicates that they did not travel far before becoming preserved. The ''Archaeopteryx'' specimens found were therefore likely to have lived on the low islands surrounding the Solnhofen lagoon rather than to have been corpses that drifted in from farther away. ''Archaeopteryx'' skeletons are considerably less numerous in the deposits of Solnhofen than those of pterosaurs, of which seven genera have been found. The pterosaurs included species such as ''Rhamphorhynchus'' belonging to the Rhamphorhynchidae, the group which dominated the niche currently occupied by seabirds, and which became extinct at the end of the Jurassic. The pterosaurs, which also included ''Pterodactylus'', were common enough that it is unlikely that the specimens found are vagrants from the larger islands to the north.\n\nThe islands that surrounded the Solnhofen lagoon were low lying, semi-arid, and sub-tropical with a long dry season and little rain. The closest modern analogue for the Solnhofen conditions is said to be Orca Basin in the northern Gulf of Mexico, although it is much deeper than the Solnhofen lagoons. The flora of these islands was adapted to these dry conditions and consisted mostly of low () shrubs. Contrary to reconstructions of ''Archaeopteryx'' climbing large trees, these seem to have been mostly absent from the islands; few trunks have been found in the sediments and fossilized tree pollen also is absent.\n\nThe lifestyle of ''Archaeopteryx'' is difficult to reconstruct and there are several theories regarding it. Some researchers suggest that it was primarily adapted to life on the ground, while other researchers suggest that it was principally arboreal. The absence of trees does not preclude ''Archaeopteryx'' from an arboreal lifestyle, as several species of bird live exclusively in low shrubs. Various aspects of the morphology of ''Archaeopteryx'' point to either an arboreal or ground existence, including the length of its legs and the elongation in its feet; some authorities consider it likely to have been a generalist capable of feeding in both shrubs and open ground, as well as along the shores of the lagoon. It most likely hunted small prey, seizing it with its jaws if it was small enough, or with its claws if it was larger.\n", "\nTimeline of ''Archaeopteryx'' discoveries until 2007\nOver the years, twelve body fossil specimens of ''Archaeopteryx'' and a feather that may belong to it have been found. All of the fossils come from the limestone deposits, quarried for centuries, near Solnhofen, Germany.\n\nThe single feather\nThe initial discovery, a single feather, was unearthed in 1860 or 1861 and described in 1861 by Hermann von Meyer. It is currently located at the Humboldt Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin. This is generally assigned to ''Archaeopteryx'' and was the initial holotype, but whether it is a feather of this species, or another, as yet undiscovered, proto-bird is unknown. There are some indications it is not from the same animal as most of the skeletons (the \"typical\" ''A. lithographica'').\n\nThe first skeleton, known as the '''London Specimen''' (BMNH 37001), was unearthed in 1861 near Langenaltheim, Germany, and perhaps given to local physician Karl Häberlein in return for medical services. He then sold it for £700 to the Natural History Museum in London, where it remains. Missing most of its head and neck, it was described in 1863 by Richard Owen as ''Archaeopteryx macrura'', allowing for the possibility it did not belong to the same species as the feather. In the subsequent fourth edition of his ''On the Origin of Species'', Charles Darwin described how some authors had maintained \"that the whole class of birds came suddenly into existence during the eocene period; but now we know, on the authority of professor Owen, that a bird certainly lived during the deposition of the upper greensand; and still more recently, that strange bird, the ''Archaeopteryx'', with a long lizard-like tail, bearing a pair of feathers on each joint, and with its wings furnished with two free claws, has been discovered in the oolitic slates of Solnhofen. Hardly any recent discovery shows more forcibly than this how little we as yet know of the former inhabitants of the world.\"\n\nThe Greek term \"pteryx\" () primarily means \"wing\", but can also designate merely \"feather\". Meyer suggested this in his description. At first he referred to a single feather which appeared to resemble a modern bird's remex (wing feather), but he had heard of and been shown a rough sketch of the London specimen, to which he referred as a \"''Skelett eines mit ähnlichen Federn bedeckten ''\" (\"skeleton of an animal covered in similar feathers\"). In German, this ambiguity is resolved by the term ''Schwinge'' which does not necessarily mean a wing used for flying. ''Urschwinge'' was the favoured translation of ''Archaeopteryx'' among German scholars in the late nineteenth century. In English, \"ancient pinion\" offers a rough approximation.\n\nSince then twelve specimens have been recovered:\n\nThe '''Berlin Specimen''' (HMN 1880/81) was discovered in 1874 or 1875 on the Blumenberg near Eichstätt, Germany, by farmer Jakob Niemeyer. He sold this precious fossil for the money to buy a cow in 1876, to innkeeper Johann Dörr, who again sold it to Ernst Otto Häberlein, the son of K. Häberlein. Placed on sale between 1877 and 1881, with potential buyers including O. C. Marsh of Yale University's Peabody Museum, it eventually was bought for 20,000 Goldmark by the Humboldt Museum für Naturkunde, where it now is displayed. The transaction was financed by Ernst Werner von Siemens, founder of the famous company that bears his name. Described in 1884 by Wilhelm Dames, it is the most complete specimen, and the first with a complete head. In 1897 it was named by Dames as a new species, ''A. siemensii''; though often considered a synonym of ''A. lithographica'', several 21st century studies have concluded that it is a distinct species which includes the Berlin, Munich, and Thermopolis specimens.\nCast of the Maxberg Specimen\nComposed of a torso, the '''Maxberg Specimen''' (S5) was discovered in 1956 near Langenaltheim; it was brought to the attention of professor Florian Heller in 1958 and described by him in 1959. The specimen is missing its head and tail, although the rest of the skeleton is mostly intact. Although it was once exhibited at the Maxberg Museum in Solnhofen, it is currently missing. It belonged to Eduard Opitsch, who loaned it to the museum until 1974. After his death in 1991, it was discovered that the specimen was missing and may have been stolen or sold.\nSlab of the Haarlem Specimen\nThe '''Haarlem Specimen''' (TM 6428/29, also known as the ''Teyler Specimen'') was discovered in 1855 near Riedenburg, Germany, and described as a ''Pterodactylus crassipes'' in 1857 by Meyer. It was reclassified in 1970 by John Ostrom and is currently located at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, Netherlands. It was the very first specimen found, but was incorrectly classified at the time. It is also one of the least complete specimens, consisting mostly of limb bones, isolated cervical vertebrae, and ribs.\n\nThe '''Eichstätt Specimen''' (JM 2257) was discovered in 1951 near Workerszell, Germany, and described by Peter Wellnhofer in 1974. Currently located at the Jura Museum in Eichstätt, Germany, it is the smallest known specimen and has the second best head. It is possibly a separate genus (''Jurapteryx recurva'') or species (''A. recurva'').\n\nThe '''Solnhofen Specimen''' (unnumbered specimen) was discovered in the 1970s near Eichstätt, Germany, and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum in Solnhofen, it originally was classified as ''Compsognathus'' by an amateur collector, the same mayor Friedrich Müller after which the museum is named. It is the largest specimen known and may belong to a separate genus and species, ''Wellnhoferia grandis''. It is missing only portions of the neck, tail, backbone, and head.\n\nThe '''Munich Specimen''' (BSP 1999 I 50, formerly known as the ''Solenhofer-Aktien-Verein Specimen'') was discovered on 3 August 1992 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer. It is currently located at the Paläontologisches Museum München in Munich, to which it was sold in 1999 for 1.9 million Deutschmark. What was initially believed to be a bony sternum turned out to be part of the coracoid, but a cartilaginous sternum may have been present. Only the front of its face is missing. It has been used as the basis for a distinct species, ''A. bavarica'', but more recent studies suggest it belongs to ''A. siemensii''.\nDaiting Specimen\nAn eighth, fragmentary specimen was discovered in 1990, not in Solnhofen limestone, but in somewhat younger sediments at Daiting, Suevia. Therefore, it is known as the '''Daiting Specimen''', and had been known since 1996 only from a cast, briefly shown at the Naturkundemuseum in Bamberg. The original was purchased by palaeontologist Raimund Albertsdörfer in 2009. It was on display for the first time with six other original fossils of ''Archaeopteryx'' at the Munich Mineral Show in October 2009. A first, quick look by scientists indicates that this specimen might represent a new species of ''Archaeopteryx''. It was found in a limestone bed that was a few hundred thousand years younger than the other finds.\nBürgermeister-Müller (\"chicken wing\") Specimen\nAnother fragmentary fossil was found in 2000. It is in private possession and, since 2004, on loan to the Bürgermeister-Müller Museum in Solnhofen, so it is called the '''Bürgermeister-Müller Specimen'''; the institute itself officially refers to it as the \"Exemplar of the families Ottman & Steil, Solnhofen\". As the fragment represents the remains of a single wing of ''Archaeopteryx'', the popular name of this fossil is \"chicken wing\".\n\nLong in a private collection in Switzerland, the '''Thermopolis Specimen''' (WDC CSG 100) was discovered in Bavaria and described in 2005 by Mayr, Pohl, and Peters. Donated to the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in Thermopolis, Wyoming, it has the best-preserved head and feet; most of the neck and the lower jaw have not been preserved. The \"Thermopolis\" specimen was described in 2 December 2005 ''Science'' journal article as \"A well-preserved ''Archaeopteryx'' specimen with theropod features\"; it shows that ''Archaeopteryx'' lacked a reversed toe—a universal feature of birds—limiting its ability to perch on branches and implying a terrestrial or trunk-climbing lifestyle. This has been interpreted as evidence of theropod ancestry. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul claimed to have found evidence of a hyperextensible second toe, but this was not verified and accepted by other scientists until the Thermopolis specimen was described. \"Until now, the feature was thought to belong only to the species' close relatives, the deinonychosaurs.\" The Thermopolis Specimen was assigned to ''Archaeopteryx siemensii'' in 2007. The specimen is considered to represent the most complete and best-preserved ''Archaeopteryx'' remains yet.\nThe eleventh specimen\nThe discovery of an eleventh specimen was announced in 2011, and it was described in 2014. It is one of the more complete specimens, but is missing much of the skull and one forelimb. It is privately owned and has yet to be given a name.\nPalaeontologists of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich studied the specimen, which revealed previously unknown features of the plumage, such as feathers on both the upper and lower legs and metatarsus, and the only preserved tail tip.\n\nA twelfth specimen had been discovered by amateur collectors in 2010 at the Schamhaupten quarry, but the finding was only announced in February 2014. It is as yet not scientifically described.\n", "The Thermopolis Specimen\nToday, fossils of the genus ''Archaeopteryx'' are usually assigned to one or two species, ''A. lithographica'' and ''A. siemensii'', but their taxonomic history is complicated. Dozens of names have been published for the handful of specimens, most of which are simply spelling errors (''lapsus''). As interpreted today, the name ''A. lithographica'' only referred to the single feather described by Meyer. In 1954 Gavin de Beer concluded that the London specimen was the holotype. In 1960, Swinton accordingly proposed that the name ''Archaeopteryx lithographica'' be placed on the official genera list making the alternative names ''Griphosaurus'' and ''Griphornis'' invalid. The ICZN, implicitly accepting de Beer's standpoint, did indeed suppress the plethora of alternative names initially proposed for the first skeleton specimens, which mainly resulted from the acrimonious dispute between Meyer and his opponent Johann Andreas Wagner (whose ''Griphosaurus problematicus'' – \"problematic riddle-lizard\" – was a vitriolic sneer at Meyer's ''Archaeopteryx''). In addition, in 1977 the first specific name of the Haarlem specimen, ''crassipes'', described by Meyer as a pterosaur before its true nature was realized, also was suppressed.\n\nIt has been noted that the feather, the first specimen of ''Archaeopteryx'' described, does not correspond well with the flight-related feathers of ''Archaeopteryx''. It certainly is a flight feather of a contemporary species, but its size and proportions indicate that it may belong to another, smaller species of feathered theropod, of which only this feather is known so far. As the feather had been designated the type specimen, the name ''Archaeopteryx'' should then no longer be applied to the skeletons, thus creating significant nomenclatorial confusion. In 2007, two sets of scientists therefore petitioned the ICZN requesting that the London specimen explicitly be made the type by designating it as the new holotype specimen, or neotype. This suggestion was upheld by the ICZN after four years of debate, and the London specimen was designated the neotype on 3 October 2011.\nThe twelfth specimen\nBelow is a cladogram published in 2013 by Godefroit ''et al.''\n\n\n\n=== Species ===\nSkeletal restorations of 8 specimens\nIt has been argued that all the specimens belong to the same species, ''A. lithographica''. Differences do exist among the specimens, and while some researchers regard these as due to the different ages of the specimens, some may be related to actual species diversity. In particular, the Munich, Eichstätt, Solnhofen, and Thermopolis specimens differ from the London, Berlin, and Haarlem specimens in being smaller or much larger, having different finger proportions, having more slender snouts lined with forward-pointing teeth, and possible presence of a sternum. Due to these differences, most individual specimens have been given their own species name at one point or another. The Berlin specimen has been designated as ''Archaeornis siemensii'', the Eichstätt specimen as ''Jurapteryx recurva'', the Munich specimen as ''Archaeopteryx bavarica'', and the Solnhofen specimen as ''Wellnhoferia grandis''.\n\nIn 2007, a review of all well-preserved specimens including the then-newly discovered Thermopolis specimen concluded that two distinct species of ''Archaeopteryx'' could be supported: ''A. lithographica'' (consisting of at least the London and Solnhofen specimens), and ''A. siemensii'' (consisting of at least the Berlin, Munich, and Thermopolis specimens). The two species are distinguished primarily by large flexor tubercles on the foot claws in ''A. lithographica'' (the claws of ''A. siemensii'' specimens being relatively simple and straight). ''A. lithographica'' also had a constricted portion of the crown in some teeth and a stouter metatarsus. A supposed additional species, ''Wellnhoferia grandis'' (based on the Solnhofen specimen), seems to be indistinguishable from ''A. lithographica'' except in its larger size.\n\n=== Synonyms ===\nEichstätt Specimen, once considered a distinct genus, ''Jurapteryx''\nThe Solnhofen Specimen, by some considered as belonging to the genus ''Wellnhoferia''\nIf two names are given, the first denotes the original describer of the \"species\", the second the author on whom the given name combination is based. As always in zoological nomenclature, putting an author's name in parentheses denotes that the taxon was originally described in a different genus.\n* '''''Archaeopteryx lithographica''''' Meyer, 1861 conserved name\n ''Pterodactylus crassipes'' Meyer, 1857 suppressed in favor of ''A. lithographica'' 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070\n ''Rhamphorhynchus crassipes'' (Meyer, 1857) (as ''Pterodactylus (Rhamphorhynchus) crassipes'') suppressed in favor of ''A. lithographica'' 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070\n ''Scaphognathus crassipes'' (Meyer, 1857) Wagner, 1861 rejected in favor of ''A. lithographica'' 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070\n ''Archaeopterix lithographica'' Anon., 1861 ''lapsus''\n ''Griphosaurus problematicus'' Wagner, 1862 rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607\n ''Griphornis longicaudatus'' Owen ''vide'' Woodward, 1862 rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607\n ''Archaeopteryx macrura'' Owen, 1862 rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607\n ''Archeopteryx macrurus'' Owen, 1863 unjustified emendation\n ''Archaeopteryx oweni'' Petronievics, 1917 rejected name 1961 per ICZN Opinion 607\n ''Archaeopteryx crassipes'' (Meyer, 1857) Ostrom, 1972 rejected in favor of ''A. lithographica'' 1977 per ICZN Opinion 1070\n ''Archaeopteryx recurva'' Howgate, 1984\n ''Jurapteryx recurva'' (Howgate, 1984) Howgate, 1985\n* '''''Archaeopteryx siemensii''''' Dames, 1897\n ''Archaeornis siemensii'' (Dames, 1897) Petronievics, 1917\n ''Archaeopteryx bavarica'' Wellnhofer, 1993\n** ''Wellnhoferia grandis'' Elżanowski, 2001\n\n''\"Archaeopteryx\" vicensensis'' (Anon. ''fide'' Lambrecht, 1933) is a ''nomen nudum'' for what appears to be an undescribed pterosaur.\n", "\n=== Authenticity ===\nBeginning in 1985, a group including astronomer Fred Hoyle and physicist Lee Spetner published a series of papers claiming that the feathers on the Berlin and London specimens of ''Archaeopteryx'' were forged. Their claims were repudiated by Alan J. Charig and others at the Natural History Museum in London. Most of their evidence for a forgery was based on unfamiliarity with the processes of lithification; for example, they proposed that, based on the difference in texture associated with the feathers, feather impressions were applied to a thin layer of cement, without realizing that feathers themselves would have caused a textural difference. They also misinterpreted the fossils, claiming that the tail was forged as one large feather, when visibly this is not the case. In addition, they claimed that the other specimens of ''Archaeopteryx'' known at the time did not have feathers, which is incorrect; the Maxberg and Eichstätt specimens have obvious feathers.\nReconstructed skeleton, Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University\nThey also expressed disbelief that slabs would split so smoothly, or that one half of a slab containing fossils would have good preservation, but not the counterslab. These are common properties of Solnhofen fossils, because the dead animals would fall onto hardened surfaces, which would form a natural plane for the future slabs to split along and would leave the bulk of the fossil on one side and little on the other.\n\nFinally, the motives they suggested for a forgery are not strong, and are contradictory; one is that Richard Owen wanted to forge evidence in support of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which is unlikely given Owen's views toward Darwin and his theory. The other is that Owen wanted to set a trap for Darwin, hoping the latter would support the fossils so Owen could discredit him with the forgery; this is unlikely because Owen wrote a detailed paper on the London specimen, so such an action would certainly backfire.\n\nCharig ''et al.'' pointed to the presence of hairline cracks in the slabs running through both rock and fossil impressions, and mineral growth over the slabs that had occurred before discovery and preparation, as evidence that the feathers were original. Spetner ''et al.'' then attempted to show that the cracks would have propagated naturally through their postulated cement layer, but neglected to account for the fact that the cracks were old and had been filled with calcite, and thus were not able to propagate. They also attempted to show the presence of cement on the London specimen through X-ray spectroscopy, and did find something that was not rock; it was not cement either, and is most probably a fragment of silicone rubber left behind when moulds were made of the specimen. Their suggestions have not been taken seriously by palaeontologists, as their evidence was largely based on misunderstandings of geology, and they never discussed the other feather-bearing specimens, which have increased in number since then. Charig ''et al.'' reported a discolouration: a dark band between two layers of limestone – they say it is the product of sedimentation. It is natural for limestone to take on the colour of its surroundings and most limestones are coloured (if not colour banded) to some degree, so the darkness was attributed to such impurities. They also mention that a complete absence of air bubbles in the rock slabs is further proof that the specimen is authentic.\n\n=== Phylogenetic position ===\nComparison of the forelimb of ''Archaeopteryx'' (right) with that of ''Deinonychus'' (left)\n\nModern paleontology has often classified ''Archaeopteryx'' as the most primitive bird. It is not thought to be a true ancestor of modern birds, but rather, a close relative of that ancestor. Nonetheless, ''Archaeopteryx'' was often used as a model of the true ancestral bird. Several authors have done so. Lowe (1935) and Thulborn (1984) questioned whether ''Archaeopteryx'' truly was the first bird. They suggested that ''Archaeopteryx'' was a dinosaur that was no more closely related to birds than were other dinosaur groups. Kurzanov (1987) suggested that ''Avimimus'' was more likely to be the ancestor of all birds than ''Archaeopteryx''. Barsbold (1983) and Zweers and Van den Berge (1997) noted that many maniraptoran lineages are extremely birdlike, and they suggested that different groups of birds may have descended from different dinosaur ancestors.\n\nThe discovery of the closely related ''Xiaotingia'' in 2011 led to new phylogenetic analyses that suggested that ''Archaeopteryx'' is a deinonychosaur rather than an avialan, and therefore, not a \"bird\" under most common uses of that term. A more thorough analysis was published soon after to test this hypothesis, and failed to arrive at the same result; it found ''Archaeopteryx'' in its traditional position at the base of Avialae, while ''Xiaotingia'' was recovered as a basal dromaeosaurid or troodontid. The authors of the follow-up study noted that uncertainties still exist, and that it may not be possible to state confidently whether or not ''Archaeopteryx'' is a member of Avialae or not, barring new and better specimens of relevant species.\n\nPhylogenetic studies conducted by Senter, ''et al.'' (2012) and Turner, Makovicky, and Norell (2012) confirmed that ''Archaeopteryx'' was more closely related to living birds than to dromaeosaurids and troodontids. On the other hand, Godefroit, ''et al.'' (2013) recovered ''Archaeopteryx'' as more closely related to dromaeosaurids and troodontids in the analysis included in their description of ''Eosinopteryx brevipenna''. The authors used a modified version of the matrix from the study describing ''Xiaotingia'', adding ''Jinfengopteryx elegans'' and ''Eosinopteryx brevipenna'' to it, as well as adding four additional characters related to the development of the plumage. Unlike the analysis from the description of ''Xiaotingia'', the analysis conducted by Godefroit, ''et al.'' did not find ''Archaeopteryx'' to be related particularly closely to ''Anchiornis'' and ''Xiaotingia'', which were recovered as basal troodontids instead.\n\nAgnolín and Novas (2013) found ''Archaeopteryx'' and (possibly synonymous) ''Wellnhoferia'' to be the basalmost avialans (Avialae being defined by the authors as including ''Archaeopteryx lithographica'' and ''Passer'', their most recent common ancestor and all of its descendants), with Microraptoria, Unenlagiinae, and the clade containing ''Anchiornis'' and ''Xiaotingia'' being successively closer outgroups to the Avialae. Another phylogenetic study by Godefroit, ''et al.'', using a more inclusive matrix than the one from the analysis in the description of ''Eosinopteryx brevipenna'', also found ''Archaeopteryx'' to be a member of Avialae (defined by the authors as the most inclusive clade containing ''Passer domesticus'', but not ''Dromaeosaurus albertensis'' or ''Troodon formosus''). ''Archaeopteryx'' was found to form a grade at the base of Avialae with ''Xiaotingia'', ''Anchiornis'', and ''Aurornis''. Compared to ''Archaeopteryx'', ''Xiaotingia'' was found to be more closely related to extant birds, while both ''Anchiornis'' and ''Aurornis'' were found to be more distantly so.\n", "\n* Evolution of birds\n* Feathered dinosaurs\n* Origin of birds\n* ''Rhamphorhynchus''\n* Temporal paradox (paleontology)\n* ''Xiaotingia''\n", "\n\n", "* G. R. de Beer (1954). ''Archaeopteryx lithographica: a study based upon the British Museum specimen''. Trustees of the British Museum, London.\n* P. Chambers (2002). ''Bones of Contention: The Fossil that Shook Science.'' John Murray, London. .\n* A. Feduccia (1996). ''The Origin and Evolution of Birds''. Yale University Press, New Haven. .\n* Heilmann, G. (1926). ''The Origin of Birds''. Witherby, London.\n* T. H. Huxley. (1871). ''Manual of the anatomy of vertebrate animals''. London.\n* H. von Meyer (1861). ''Archaeopterix lithographica (Vogel-Feder) und Pterodactylus von Solenhofen''. . ''1861'': 678–679, plate V. Article in German. Full text, Google Books.\n* P. Shipman (1998). ''Taking Wing: Archaeopteryx and the Evolution of Bird Flight''. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. .\n* P. Wellnhofer (2008). ''Archaeopteryx — Der Urvogel von Solnhofen'' (in German). Verlag Friedrich Pfeil, Munich. .\n", "\n* All About ''Archaeopteryx'', from Talk.Origins.\n* Use of SSRL X-ray takes 'transformative glimpse' — A look at chemicals linking birds and dinosaurs.\n* ''Archaeopteryx'': An Early Bird — University of California Museum of Paleontology.\n* Are Birds Really Dinosaurs? — University of California Museum of Paleontology.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Description ", " Palaeobiology ", " Paleoecology ", " History of discovery ", " Classification ", " Controversy ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Archaeopteryx
[ "\n\n'''Arthur Laurents''' (July 14, 1917 – May 5, 2011) was an American playwright, stage director and screenwriter.\n\nAfter writing scripts for radio shows after college and then training films for the U.S. Army during World War II, Laurents turned to writing for Broadway, producing a body of work that includes ''West Side Story'' (1957), ''Gypsy'' (1959), and ''Hallelujah, Baby!'' (1967), and directing some of his own shows and other Broadway productions.\n\nHis early film scripts include ''Rope'' (1948) for Alfred Hitchcock, followed by ''Anastasia'' (1956), ''Bonjour Tristesse'' (1958), ''The Way We Were'' (1973), and ''The Turning Point'' (1977).\n", "Born '''Arthur Levine''', Laurents was the son of middle-class Jewish parents, a lawyer and a schoolteacher who gave up her career when she married. He was born and raised in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn, a borough of New York City, New York, the elder of two children, and attended Erasmus Hall High School. His sister Edith suffered from chorea as a child.\n\nHis paternal grandparents were Orthodox Jews, and his mother's parents, although born Jewish, were atheists. His mother kept a kosher home for her husband's sake, but was lax about attending synagogue and observing the Jewish holidays. His Bar Mitzvah marked the end of Laurents's religious education and the beginning of his rejection of all fundamentalist religions, although he continued to identify himself as Jewish. However, late in life he admitted to having changed his last name from Levine to the less Jewish-sounding Laurents, \"to get a job.\"\n\nAfter graduating from Cornell University, Laurents took an evening class in radio writing at New York University. William N. Robson, his instructor, a CBS Radio director/producer, submitted his script ''Now Playing Tomorrow'', a comedic fantasy about clairvoyance, to the network, and it was produced in the Columbia Workshop series on January 30, 1939, with Shirley Booth in the lead role. It was Laurents' first professional credit. The show's success led to him being hired to write scripts for various radio shows, among them ''Lux Radio Theater''. Laurents' career was interrupted when he was drafted into the U.S. Army in the middle of World War II. Through a series of clerical errors, he never saw battle, but instead was assigned to the U.S. Army Pictorial Service located in a film studio in Astoria, Queens, where he wrote training films and met, among others, George Cukor and William Holden. He later was reassigned to write plays for ''Armed Service Force Presents'', a radio show that dramatized the contributions of all branches of the armed forces.\n", "According to John Clum, \"Laurents was always a mirror of his times. Through his best work, one sees a staged history of leftist, gender, and gay politics in the decades after World War II.\" After graduating from Cornell University in 1937, Laurents went to work as a writer for radio drama at CBS in New York. His military duties during World War II, which consisted of writing training films and radio scripts for ''Armed Service Force Presents'', brought him into contact with some of the best film directors—distinguished director George Cukor directed his first script. Laurents’s work in radio and film during World War II was an excellent apprenticeship for a budding playwright and screenwriter. He also had the good fortune to be based in New York City. His first stage play, ''Home of the Brave'', was produced in 1945. The sale of the play to a film studio gave Laurents the entrée he needed to become a Hollywood screenwriter though he continued, with mixed success, to write plays. The most important of his early screenplays is his adaptation of ''Rope'' for Alfred Hitchcock.\n\nSoon after being discharged from the Army, Laurents met ballerina Nora Kaye, and the two became involved in an on-again, off-again romantic relationship. While Kaye was on tour with ''Fancy Free'', Laurents continued to write for the radio but was becoming discontented with the medium. At the urging of Martin Gabel, he spent nine consecutive nights writing a play In 1962, Laurents directed ''I Can Get It for You Wholesale'', which helped to turn then-unknown Barbra Streisand into a star. His next project was the stage musical ''Anyone Can Whistle'', which he directed and for which he wrote the book, but it proved to be an infamous flop. He later had success with the musicals ''Hallelujah, Baby!'' (written for Lena Horne but ultimately starring Leslie Uggams) and ''La Cage Aux Folles'' (1983), which he directed, but ''Nick & Nora'' was another flop.\n\nIn 2008, Laurents directed a Broadway revival of ''Gypsy'' starring Patti LuPone, and in 2009, he tackled a bilingual revival of ''West Side Story'', with Spanish translations of some dialogue and lyrics by Lin-Manuel Miranda. While preparing ''West Side Story'', he noted, \"The musical theatre and cultural conventions of 1957 made it next to impossible for the characters to have authenticity.\" Following the production's March 19 opening at the Palace Theatre, Ben Brantley of ''The New York Times'' called the translations \"an only partly successful experiment\" and added, \"Mr. Laurents has exchanged insolence for innocence and, as with most such bargains, there are dividends and losses.\" The production is on a national tour (2011-2012) with direction by David Saint, who was Laurents' assistant director on the Broadway production. The Spanish lyrics and dialog have been reduced from about 18% of the total to about 10%.\n", "Laurents' first Hollywood experience proved to be a frustrating disappointment. Unhappy with the script for ''The Snake Pit'' (1948), submitted by Frank Partos and Millen Brand, director Anatole Litvak hired Laurents to rewrite it. Partos and Brand later insisted the bulk of the shooting script was theirs, and produced carbon copies of many of the pages Laurents actually had written to bolster their claim. Having destroyed the original script and all his notes and rewritten pages after completing the project, Laurents had no way to prove most of the work was his, and the Writers Guild of America denied him screen credit. Brand later confessed he and Partos had copied scenes written by Laurents and apologized for his role in the deception. Four decades later, Laurents learned he was ineligible for WGA health benefits because he had failed to accumulate enough credits to qualify. He was short by one, the one he failed to get for ''The Snake Pit''.\n\nUpon hearing 20th Century Fox executives were pleased with Laurents' work on ''The Snake Pit'', Alfred Hitchcock hired him for his next project, the film ''Rope'' starring James Stewart. Hitchcock wanted Laurents to Americanize the British play ''Rope'' (1929) by Patrick Hamilton for the screen. With his then-lover Farley Granger set to star, Laurents was happy to accept the assignment. His dilemma was how to make the audience aware of the fact the three main characters were homosexual without blatantly saying so. The Hays Office kept close tabs on his work, and the final script was so discreet that Laurents was unsure whether co-star James Stewart ever realized that his character was gay. In later years, Hitchcock asked him to script both ''Torn Curtain'' (1966) and ''Topaz'' (1969), However, Laurents, in both cases unenthused by the material, declined the offers.\n\nLaurents also scripted ''Anastasia'' (1956) and ''Bonjour Tristesse'' (1958). ''The Way We Were'' (1973), in which he incorporated many of his own experiences, particularly those with the HUAC, reunited him with Barbra Streisand, and ''The Turning Point'' (1977), inspired in part by his love for Nora Kaye, was directed by her husband Herbert Ross. The Fox animated feature film ''Anastasia'' (1997) was based in part from his screenplay of the live-action 1956 film of the same title.\n", "Because of a casual remark made by Russel Crouse, Laurents was called to Washington, D.C., to account for his political views. He explained himself to the House Un-American Activities Committee, and his appearance had no obvious impact on his career, which at the time was primarily in the theatre. When the McCarran Internal Security Act, which prohibited individuals suspected of engaging in subversive activities from obtaining a passport, was passed in 1950, Laurents and Granger immediately applied for and received passports and departed for Paris with Harold Clurman and his wife Stella Adler. Laurents and Granger remained abroad, traveling throughout Europe and northern Africa, for about 18 months.\n\nYears earlier, Laurents and Jerome Robbins had developed ''Look Ma, I'm Dancin'!'' (1948), a stage musical about the world of ballet that ran for 188 performances on Broadway, and starred Nancy Walker and Harold Lang. (Although the musical was ultimately produced with a book by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, as Laurents left the project.) Robbins approached Paramount Pictures about directing a screen version, and the studio agreed as long as Laurents was not part of the package.\n\nIt was not until then that Laurents learned he officially had been blacklisted, primarily because a review of ''Home of the Brave'' had been published in the ''Daily Worker''. He decided to return to Paris, but the State Department refused to renew his passport. Laurents spent three months trying to clear his name, and after submitting a lengthy letter explaining his political beliefs in detail, it was determined they were so idiosyncratic he couldn't have been a member of any subversive groups. Within a week his passport was renewed, and the following day he sailed for Europe on the ''Ile de France''. While on board, he received a cable from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer offering him a screenwriting assignment. The blacklist had ended.\n", "Laurents wrote ''Original Story By Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood'', published in 2000. In it, he discusses his lengthy career and his many gay affairs and long-term relationships, including those with Farley Granger and Tom Hatcher (August 24, 1929 - October 26, 2006). Hatcher was an aspiring actor whom Gore Vidal suggested Laurents seek out at the Beverly Hills men's clothing store Hatcher was managing at the time. The couple remained together for 52 years until Hatcher's death on October 26, 2006.\n\nLaurents wrote ''Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story and Other Musicals'', published in 2009, in which he discussed musicals he directed and the work of other directors he admired.\n\nHis latest memoir was published posthumously in September 2012, titled ''The Rest of the Story''.\n", "Laurents died at the age of 93 at his home in Manhattan on May 5, 2011 of pneumonia complications, as reported by ''The New York Times''. Following a long tradition, Broadway theatre lights were dimmed at 8 p.m. on May 6, 2011, for one minute in his memory. His ashes were buried alongside those of Tom Hatcher in a memorial bench in Quogue, Long Island, New York.\n", "\n===Writing===\n;Musicals\n''West Side Story'' – 1957 – Tony Nomination for Best Musical\n''Gypsy'' – 1959 – Tony Nomination for Best Musical\n''Anyone Can Whistle'' – 1964\n''Do I Hear a Waltz?'' – 1965\n''Hallelujah, Baby!'' – 1967 – Tony Award for Best Musical\n''The Madwoman of Central Park West'' – 1979\n''Nick & Nora'' – 1991\n''Untitled Musical (About a love affair)'' – 2011 - A production is planned for 2013 via continuing work by the composer, Joseph J. Simeone\n\n;Novel\n''The Turning Point'' – 1977; New American Library (New York City); \n\n;Plays\n''Home of the Brave'' – 1945\n''The Bird Cage'' – 1950\n''The Time of the Cuckoo'' – 1952\n''A Clearing in the Woods'' – 1957\n''Invitation to a March'' – 1960\n\n===Directing===\n\n\n===Additional credits===\n\n", "A new award was established in 2010, The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation Award. This is awarded annually \"for an un-produced, full-length play of social relevance by an emerging American playwright.\" The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation will give $50,000 to the writer with a grant of $100,000 towards production costs at a nonprofit theatre. The first award will be given in 2011.\n\n;Theatre\n\n1958 Tony Award for Best Musical (''West Side Story'', nominee)\n1960 Tony Award for Best Musical (''Gypsy'', nominee)\n1968 Tony Award for Best Musical (''Hallelujah, Baby!'', '''winner''')\n1975 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical (''Gypsy'', '''winner''')\n1975 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical (''Gypsy'', nominee)\n1984 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical (''La Cage aux Folles'', '''winner''')\n2008 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical (''Gypsy'', nominee)\n\n\n;Film\n\nAcademy Award for Best Picture (''The Turning Point, nominee)\nAcademy Award for Best Original Screenplay (''The Turning Point'', nominee)\nEdgar Allan Poe Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay (''Rope'', nominee)\nGolden Globe Award for Best Screenplay (''The Turning Point'', nominee)\nWriters Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay (''The Way We Were'', nominee; ''The Turning Point'', '''winner''')\nNational Board of Review Award for Career Achievement ('''winner''')\n\n", "\nList of Jewish American playwrights\nList of novelists from the United States\nList of pneumonia victims\nList of people from Brooklyn, New York\nList of playwrights from the United States\nList of theatre directors\n", "\n", "Laurents, Arthur (2000). ''Original Story by Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood''. New York: Knopf. .\nLaurents, Arthur (2009). ''Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story, and Other Musicals''. New York: Knopf. .\nClum, John (2014). ''The Works of Arthur Laurents: Politics, Love, and Betrayal''. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press. .\n", "\n Arthur Laurents at the Internet Off-Broadway Database\n\n American Theatre Wing biography\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Theatrical career", "Film career", "Blacklist", "Memoirs", "Death", "Work", "Awards, nominations and honors", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Arthur Laurents
[ "\n\n'''Adrian Lamo''' (born February 20, 1981) is a Colombian-American threat analyst and former hacker.\n\nLamo first gained media attention for breaking into several high-profile computer networks, including those of ''The New York Times'', Yahoo!, and Microsoft, culminating in his 2003 arrest. \n\nIn 2010, Lamo indirectly reported U.S. soldier Chelsea Manning to the Army's Criminal Investigation Command, claiming that Manning had leaked hundreds of thousands of sensitive U.S. government documents to WikiLeaks.\n", "Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Lamo did not graduate from high school, but received a GED and was court ordered to take courses at American River College, a community college in Sacramento County, California. Known as the \"Homeless Hacker\" for his reportedly transient lifestyle, Lamo has claimed that he has spent much of his travels couch-surfing, squatting in abandoned buildings, and traveling to Internet cafes, libraries, and universities to investigate networks, sometimes exploiting security holes. Despite performing authorized and unauthorized vulnerability assessments for several large, high-profile entities, Lamo claims to have refused to accept payment for his services.\n\nIn the mid-1990s, Lamo volunteered for the gay and lesbian media firm PlanetOut.com. In 1998, Lamo was appointed to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Questioning Youth Task Force by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. In 1999, Lamo was ordained a minister in the Universal Life Church.\n\nDuring this period, in 2001, he overdosed on prescription amphetamines.\n\nIn a 2004 interview with ''Wired'', an ex-girlfriend of Lamo's described him as \"very controlling,\" alleging, \"He carried a stun gun, which he used on me.\" According to the same article, a court allegedly issued a restraining order against Lamo. Lamo disputed the claim, writing, \"I have never been subject to a restraining order in my life\".\n\nLamo claimed in a ''Wired'' article that in May 2010, after he reported the theft of his backpack, an investigating officer noted unusual behavior and placed him under a 72-hour involuntary psychiatric hold, which was extended to a nine-day hold. Lamo says he was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome at the psych ward.\n\nFor a period of time circa March 2011, Lamo was allegedly \"in hiding,\" claiming that his \"life was under threat\" after turning in Manning. During this time he struggled with substance abuse, but claims he is now in recovery and his security situation has improved as well.\n", "Lamo first became known for operating AOL watchdog site ''Inside-AOL.com''.\n\n===Security compromise===\nIn December 2001, Lamo was praised by Worldcom for helping to fortify their corporate security. In February 2002, he broke into the internal computer network of ''The New York Times'', added his name to the internal database of expert sources, and used the paper's LexisNexis account to conduct research on high-profile subjects. The ''New York Times'' filed a complaint, and a warrant for Lamo's arrest was issued in August 2003 following a 15-month investigation by federal prosecutors in New York. At 10:15 AM on September 9, after spending a few days in hiding, he surrendered to the US Marshals in Sacramento, California. He re-surrendered to the FBI in New York City on September 11, and pleaded guilty to one felony count of computer crimes against Microsoft, LexisNexis, and ''The New York Times'' on January 8, 2004.\n\nLater in 2004, Lamo was sentenced to six months' detention at his parents' home, plus two years probation, and was ordered to pay roughly $65,000 in restitution. He was convicted of compromising security at ''The New York Times'', Microsoft, Yahoo!, and WorldCom.\n\nWhen challenged for a response to allegations that he was glamorizing crime for the sake of publicity, his response was: \"Anything I could say about my person or my actions would only cheapen what they have to say for themselves\". When approached for comment during his criminal case, Lamo frustrated reporters with non sequiturs, such as: \"Faith manages\". (likely a reference to science fiction television show ''Babylon 5''), and \"It's a beautiful day.\"\n\nAt his sentencing, Lamo expressed remorse for harm he had caused by his intrusions. The court record quotes him as adding: \"I want to answer for what I have done and do better with my life.\"\n\nHe subsequently declared on the question and answer site Quora, that: \"We all own our actions in fullness, not just the pleasant aspects of them.\" Lamo accepted that he had committed mistakes.\n\n===DNA controversy===\nOn May 9, 2006, while 18 months into a two-year probation sentence, Lamo refused to give the United States government a blood sample, which they had demanded in order to record his DNA in their CODIS system. According to his attorney, Lamo has a religious objection to giving blood but is willing to give his DNA in another form. On June 15, 2007, lawyers for Lamo filed a motion citing the Book of Genesis as one basis for Lamo's religious opposition to the giving of blood.\n\nOn June 21, 2007, it was reported that Lamo's legal counsel had reached a settlement agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice whereby Lamo would submit DNA via buccal swab. According to Kevin Poulsen's blog, \"the Justice Department formally settled the case, filing a joint stipulation along with Lamo's federal public defender dropping the demand for blood.\n\n===WikiLeaks and Manning===\n\nIn February 2009, a partial list of the anonymous donors to the WikiLeaks not-for-profit website was leaked and published on the WikiLeaks website. Some media sources indicated at the time that Lamo was among the donors on the list. Lamo commented on his Twitter page, \"Thanks WikiLeaks, for leaking your donor list... That's dedication.\"\n\nIn May 2010, Lamo indirectly reported to U.S. Army authorities that Manning had claimed to have leaked a large body of classified documents, including 260,000 classified United States diplomatic cables. Lamo stated that Manning also \"took credit for leaking\" the video footage of the July 12, 2007 Baghdad airstrike, which has since come to be known as the \"Collateral Murder\" video.\n\nLamo has stated that he would not have turned Manning in \"if lives weren't in danger... Manning was in a war zone and basically trying to vacuum up as much classified information as she could, and just throwing it up into the air.\" WikiLeaks responded by denouncing Lamo and ''Wired Magazine'' reporter Kevin Poulsen as \"notorious felons, informers & manipulators\", and said: \"journalists should take care.\"\n\nAccording to Andy Greenberg of ''Forbes'', Lamo may have worked as a \"security specialist\" with Project Vigilant, a private security institution that works with the FBI and the NSA. Chet Uber, the head of Project Vigilant, has claimed, \"I'm the one who called the U.S. government... All the people who say that Adrian is a narc, he did a patriotic thing. He sees all kinds of hacks, and he was seriously worried about people dying.\"\n\nLamo has been criticized by fellow hackers, such as those at the Hackers on Planet Earth conference in 2010, who called him a \"snitch\". Another commented to Lamo, following his speech during a panel discussion, saying: \"From my perspective, I see what you have done as treason.\"\n\nWikiLeaks founder Julian Assange calls Lamo \"a very disreputable character\", and says that Lamo's monetary support for WikiLeaks amounted to only 20 U.S. dollars on one occasion. Assange says that it is \"not right to call Lamo a contributor to WikiLeaks\", and questions the electronic record associated with the Manning–Lamo chats, because, according to Assange, Lamo has \"strange motivations\" and \"had been in a mental hospital three weeks beforehand\".\n\nLamo has characterized his decision to work with the government as morally ambiguous but objectively necessary, writing in ''The Guardian'': \"There were no right choices that day, only less wrong ones. It was cold, it was needful, and it was no one's to make except mine,\" adding to ''The Guardian'''s Ed Pilkington: \"There were hundreds of thousands of documents—let's drop the number to 250,000 to be conservative—and doing nothing meant gambling that each and every one would do no harm if no warning was given.\"\n\nThe Taliban insurgency later announced its intention to execute Afghan nationals named in the leaks as having cooperated with the U.S.-led coalition in Afghanistan. By that time, the United States had received months of advance warning that their names were among the leaks. Manning was arrested and incarcerated in the U.S. military justice system and later sentenced to 35 years in confinement, which President Barack Obama commuted to a total of seven years at the end of his term, including time served. Lamo responded to the commutation with a single post on Medium and an interview with U.S. News & World Report.\n\n====Greenwald, Lamo, and ''Wired'' magazine====\nLamo's role in the Manning case drew criticism from Glenn Greenwald of ''Salon Magazine''. Greenwald suggested that Lamo lied to Manning by turning Manning in, and then lied after the fact to cover up the circumstances of Manning's confessions. Greenwald places the incident in the context of what he calls \"the Obama administration's unprecedented war on whistle-blowers\". Greenwald's critique of ''Wired Magazine'' has drawn a response from that magazine which suggests that Greenwald is writing disingenuously: \"At his most reasonable, Greenwald impugns our motives, attacks the character of our staff and carefully selects his facts and sources to misrepresent the truth and generate outrage in his readership.\" In an article about the Manning case, Greenwald mentions ''Wired'' reporter Kevin Poulsen's 1994 felony conviction for computer hacking, suggesting that \"over the years, Poulsen has served more or less as Lamo's personal media voice.\" Greenwald is skeptical of an earlier story written by Poulsen about Lamo's institutionalization on psychiatric grounds, writing: \"Lamo claimed he was diagnosed with Asperger's Syndrome, a somewhat fashionable autism diagnosis which many stars in the computer world have also claimed.\" In an article entitled \"The Worsening Journalistic Disgrace at Wired\", Greenwald claimed that ''Wired'' was \"actively concealing from the public, for months on end, the key evidence in a political story that has generated headlines around the world.\"\n\nOn July 13, 2011, ''Wired'' published the logs in full, stating: \"The most significant of the unpublished details have now been publicly established with sufficient authority that we no longer believe any purpose is served by withholding the logs.\" Greenwald wrote of the newly released logs that in his opinion they validated his claim that ''Wired'' had concealed important evidence.\n\n====Criticism of media coverage of Anonymous====\nLamo has been critical of media coverage of the hacker collective Anonymous, claiming that media outlets have over-hyped and mythologized the group. He also said that Anonymous is not the \"invulnerable\" group it is claimed to be, and he can see \"no rational point in what they're doing.\"\n", "On August 22, 2002, Lamo was removed from a segment of ''NBC Nightly News'' when, after being asked to demonstrate his skills for the camera, he gained access to NBC's internal network. NBC was concerned that they broke the law by taping Lamo while he (possibly) broke the law. Lamo was a guest on ''The Screen Savers'' five times beginning in 2002.\n\n''Hackers Wanted'', a documentary film focusing on Lamo's life as a hacker, was produced by Trigger Street Productions, and narrated by Kevin Spacey. Focusing on the 2003 hacking scene, the film features interviews with Kevin Rose and Steve Wozniak. The film has not been conventionally released. In May 2009, a video purporting to be a trailer for ''Hackers Wanted'' was allegedly leaked to or by the Internet film site Eye Crave. In May 2010, an earlier cut of the film was leaked via BitTorrent. According to an insider, what was leaked on the Internet was a very different film from the newer version, which includes additional footage. On June 12, 2010, a director's cut version of the film was also leaked onto torrent sites.\n\nLamo has also appeared on Good Morning America, Fox News, Democracy Now!, Frontline (U.S. TV series), and repeatedly on KCRA-TV News as an expert on netcentric crime and incidents. He was interviewed for the documentaries We Steal Secrets: The Story of WikiLeaks and True Stories: Wikileaks - Secrets and Lies.\n\nLamo reconnected with Leo Laporte in 2015 as a result of a Quora article on the \"dark web\" for an episode of The New Screen Savers, bringing things full circle.\n\nLamo wrote his first book, \"Ask Adrian\" which is a collection of his best Q&A drawn from over 500 pages of Quora answers, which have received over 28,000,000 views. The book is currently available as an ebook from Buk.io, but will see additional and revised release in late 2017.\n", "\n", "\n\n Re-printed in ''The Best American Science and Nature Writing 2005''.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life and education ", "Activities and legal issues", "Film and television", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Adrian Lamo
[ "\n\n\n'''Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States''' are the members of the Supreme Court of the United States other than the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of Associate Justices is determined by the United States Congress and is currently set at eight by the Judiciary Act of 1869.\n\nLike the Chief Justice, Associate Justices are nominated by the President of the United States and are confirmed by the United States Senate by majority vote. This is provided for in Article II of the Constitution, which states that the President \"shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint... Judges of the supreme Court.\" Although the Constitution refers to them as \"Judges of the Supreme Court\", the title actually used is \"Associate Justice\", introduced in the Judiciary Act of 1789. Associate justices were traditionally styled \"Mr. Justice\" in court opinions, but the title was shortened to \"Justice\" in 1980, a year before the first female justice was appointed.\n\nArticle III of the Constitution specifies that Associate Justices, and all other United States federal judges \"shall hold their Offices during good Behavior\". This language means that the appointments are effectively for life, and that, once confirmed, a justice's tenure of office ends only when they die, retire, resign, or are removed from office through the impeachment process.\n\nEach of the Justices of the Supreme Court has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it; the Chief Justice's vote counts no more than that of any other Justice. However, in drafting opinions, the Chief Justice enjoys additional influence in case disposition if in the majority through his power to assign who writes the opinion. Otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision. Furthermore, the Chief Justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. The Chief Justice has certain administrative responsibilities that the other Justices do not and is paid slightly more ($255,500 per year for the Chief Justice and $244,400 per year for each Associate Justice).\n\nAssociate Justices have seniority by order of appointment, although the Chief Justice is always considered to be the most senior. If two justices are appointed on the same day, the older is designated the senior Justice of the two. Currently, the senior Associate Justice is Anthony Kennedy. By tradition, when the Justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Court, the justices state their views in order of seniority. The senior Associate Justice is also tasked with carrying out the Chief Justices's duties when he is unable to, or if that office is vacant.\n", "Currently, there are eight associate justices on the Court. The justices, ordered by seniority, are:\n\nFile:Anthony Kennedy official SCOTUS portrait.jpg\| '''Anthony Kennedy'''\nFile:Clarence Thomas official SCOTUS portrait.jpg\| '''Clarence Thomas'''\nFile:Ruth Bader Ginsburg official SCOTUS portrait.jpg\| '''Ruth Bader Ginsburg'''\nFile:Stephen Breyer, SCOTUS photo portrait.jpg\| '''Stephen Breyer'''\n\n\nFile:010 alito.jpg\| '''Samuel Alito'''\nFile:Sonia Sotomayor in SCOTUS robe.jpg\| '''Sonia Sotomayor'''\nFile:Elena Kagan Official SCOTUS Portrait (2013).jpg\| '''Elena Kagan'''\nFile:Associate Justice Neil Gorsuch Official Portrait.jpg\| '''Neil Gorsuch'''\n\n", "An associate justice who leaves the Court after attaining the age and meeting the service requirements prescribed by federal statute () may retire in senior status rather than resign. After retirement, they keep their title, and by custom may also keep a set of chambers in the Supreme Court building, and employ law clerks. The names of retired associate justices continue to appear alongside those of the active justices in the bound volumes of Supreme Court decisions. Federal statute () provides that retired Supreme Court justices may serve—if designated and assigned by the Chief Justice—on panels of the U.S. courts of appeals, or on the U.S. district courts. Retired justices are not, however, authorized to take part in the consideration or decision of any cases before the Supreme Court (unlike other retired federal judges who may be permitted do so in their former courts); neither are they known or designated as a \"senior judge\". When, after his retirement, William O. Douglas attempted to take a more active role than was customary, maintaining that it was his prerogative to do so because of his senior status, he was rebuffed by Chief Justice Warren Burger and admonished by the whole Court.\n\nCurrently, there are three living retired Associate Justices: Sandra Day O'Connor, retired January 31, 2006; David H. Souter, retired June 29, 2009; and John Paul Stevens, retired June 29, 2010. Both O'Connor and Souter occasionally serve on panels of the Courts of Appeals of various circuits. Stevens has not performed any judicial duties.\n", "\nSince the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 101 persons have served as Associate Justice:\n\n\n Associate Justice\n Replacing\n Date confirmed(Vote)\n Tenure\n Appointed by\n Prior position\n\n 1\n 100px\n '''John Rutledge'''\n ''(new seat)''\n September 26, 1789(Acclamation)\n –March 4, 1791\nGeorge Washington\n 1stGovernor of South Carolina(1779–1782)\n\n 2\n 100px\n '''William Cushing'''\n ''(new seat)''\n September 26, 1789(Acclamation)\n –September 13, 1810\n Chief Justice of theMassachusetts Superior Court(1777–1789)\n\n 3\n 100px\n '''James Wilson'''\n ''(new seat)''\n September 26, 1789(Acclamation)\n –August 21, 1798\n Delegate to theConstitutional Convention(1787)\n\n 4\n 100px\n '''John Blair'''\n ''(new seat)''\n September 26, 1789(Acclamation)\n –October 25, 1795\n Member of theVirginia House of Burgesses(1766–1770)\n\n 5\n 100px\n '''James Iredell'''\n ''(new seat)''\n February 10, 1790(Acclamation)\n –October 20, 1799\n 2ndAttorney General of North Carolina(1779–1782)\n\n 6\n 100px\n '''Thomas Johnson'''\n J. Rutledge\n November 7, 1791(Acclamation)\n –January 16, 1793\n 1stGovernor of Maryland(1777–1779)\n\n 7\n 100px\n '''William Paterson'''\n T. Johnson\n March 4, 1793(Acclamation)\n –September 8, 1806\n 2ndGovernor of New Jersey(1790–1793)\n\n 8\n 100px\n '''Samuel Chase'''\n Blair\n January 27, 1796(Acclamation)\n –June 19, 1811\n Chief Justice of theMaryland General Court(1791–1796)\n\n 9\n 100px\n '''Bushrod Washington'''\n Wilson\n December 20, 1798(Acclamation)\n –November 26, 1829\n John Adams\n Delegate to theVirginia Ratifying Convention(1788)\n\n 10\n 100px\n '''Alfred Moore'''\n Iredell\n December 9, 1799(Acclamation)\n –January 26, 1804\n 3rdAttorney General of North Carolina(1782–1791)\n\n 11\n 100px\n '''William Johnson'''\n Moore\n March 24, 1804(Acclamation)\n –August 4, 1834\n Thomas Jefferson\n Speaker of the South Carolina House of Representatives(1798–1800)\n\n 12\n 100px\n '''Henry Brockholst Livingston'''\n Paterson\n December 17, 1806(Acclamation)\n –March 18, 1823\n Justice of theNew York Supreme Court(1802–1807)\n\n 13\n 100px\n '''Thomas Todd'''\n ''(new seat)''\n March 2, 1807(Acclamation)\n –February 7, 1826\n Chief Justice of theKentucky Court of Appeals(1806–1807)\n\n 14\n 100px\n '''Gabriel Duvall'''\n Chase\n November 18, 1811(Acclamation)\n –January 12, 1835\n James Madison\n U.S. Representative forMaryland's 2nd district(1794–1796)\n\n 15\n 100px\n '''Joseph Story'''\n Cushing\n November 18, 1811(Acclamation)\n –September 10, 1845\n U.S. Representative forMassachusetts's 2nd district(1808–1809)\n\n 16\n 100px\n '''Smith Thompson'''\n Livingston\n December 9, 1823(Acclamation)\n –December 18, 1843\n James Monroe\n 6thUnited States Secretary of the Navy(1819–1823)\n\n 17\n 100px\n '''Robert Trimble'''\n Todd\n May 9, 1826(25–5)\n –August 25, 1828\n John Quincy Adams\n Judge of theUnited States District Courtfor the District of Kentucky(1817–1826)\n\n 18\n 100px\n '''John McLean'''\n Trimble\n March 7, 1829(Acclamation)\n –April 4, 1861\n Andrew Jackson\n 6thUnited States Postmaster General(1823–1829)\n\n 19\n 100px\n '''Henry Baldwin'''\n Washington\n January 6, 1830(41–2)\n –April 21, 1844\n U.S. Representative forPennsylvania's 14th district(1817–1822)\n\n 20\n 100px\n '''James Moore Wayne'''\n W. Johnson\n January 9, 1835(Acclamation)\n –July 5, 1867\n U.S. Representative forGeorgia's at-large district(1829–1835)\n\n 21\n 100px\n '''Philip Pendleton Barbour'''\n Duvall\n March 15, 1836(30–11)\n –February 25, 1841\n Judge of theUnited States District Courtfor the Eastern District of Virginia(1830–1836)\n\n 22\n 100px\n '''John Catron'''\n ''(new seat)''\n March 8, 1837(28–15)\n –May 30, 1865\n Judge of theTennessee Supreme Courtof Errors and Appeals(1824–1834)\n\n 23\n 100px\n '''John McKinley'''\n ''(new seat)''\n September 25, 1837 (Acclamation)\n –July 19, 1852\n Martin Van Buren\n United States Senatorfrom Alabama(1826–1831, 1837)\n\n 24\n 100px\n '''Peter Vivian Daniel'''\n Barbour\n March 2, 1841(25–5)\n –May 31, 1860\n Judge of theUnited States District Courtfor the Eastern District of Virginia(1836–1841)\n\n 25\n 100px\n '''Samuel Nelson'''\n Thompson\n February 14, 1845(Acclamation)\n –November 28, 1872\n John Tyler\n Chief Justice of the New York Supreme Court(1831–1845)\n\n 26\n 100px\n '''Levi Woodbury'''\n Story\n January 31, 1846(Acclamation)\n –September 4, 1851\n James K. Polk\n 13thUnited States Secretary of the Treasury(1834–1841)\n\n 27\n 100px\n '''Robert Cooper Grier'''\n Baldwin\n August 4, 1846(Acclamation)\n –January 31, 1870\n Judge for thePennsylvania state District Courtfor Allegheny County(1833–1846)\n\n 28\n 100px\n '''Benjamin Robbins Curtis'''\n Woodbury\n December 20, 1851(Acclamation)\n –September 30, 1857\n Millard Fillmore\n Massachusetts State Representative\n\n 29\n 100px\n '''John Archibald Campbell'''\n McKinley\n March 22, 1853(Acclamation)\n –April 30, 1861\n Franklin Pierce\n Alabama State Representative\n\n 30\n 100px\n '''Nathan Clifford'''\n Curtis\n January 12, 1858(26–23)\n –July 25, 1881\n James Buchanan\n 19thUnited States Attorney General(1846–1848)\n\n 31\n 100px\n '''Noah Haynes Swayne'''\n McLean\n January 24, 1862(38–1)\n –January 24, 1881\n Abraham Lincoln\n U.S. Attorney for theDistrict of Ohio(1830–1834)\n\n 32\n 100px\n '''Samuel Freeman Miller'''\n Daniel\n July 16, 1862(Acclamation)\n –October 13, 1890\n Lawyer,Private practice\n\n 33\n 100px\n '''David Davis'''\n Campbell\n December 8, 1862(Acclamation)\n –March 3, 1877\n Judge of theIllinois 3rd Circuit Court(1848–1862)\n\n 34\n 100px\n '''Stephen Johnson Field'''\n ''(new seat)''\n March 10, 1863(Acclamation)\n –December 1, 1897\n 5thChief Justice of California(1859–1863)\n\n 35\n 100px\n '''William Strong'''\n Grier\n February 18, 1870\n –December 14, 1880\n Ulysses S. Grant\n U.S. Representative forPennsylvania's 9th district(1847–1851)\n\n 36\n 100px\n '''Joseph Philo Bradley'''\n ''(new seat)''\n March 21, 1870(46–9)\n –January 22, 1892\n Lawyer,Private practice\n\n 37\n 100px\n '''Ward Hunt'''\n Nelson\n December 11, 1872(Acclamation)\n –January 27, 1882\n Chief Judge of theNew York Court of Appeals(1868–1872)\n\n 38\n 100px\n '''John Marshall Harlan'''\n Davis\n November 29, 1877(Acclamation)\n –October 14, 1911\n Rutherford B. Hayes\n 14thAttorney General of Kentucky(1863–1867)\n\n 39\n 100px\n '''William Burnham Woods'''\n Strong\n December 21, 1880(39–8)\n –May 14, 1887\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Fifth Circuit(1869–1880)\n\n 40\n 100px\n '''Stanley Matthews'''\n Swayne\n May 12, 1881(24–23)\n –March 22, 1889\n James Garfield\n United States Senatorfrom Ohio(1877–1879)\n\n 41\n 100px\n '''Horace Gray'''\n Clifford\n December 20, 1881(51–5)\n –September 15, 1902\n Chester A. Arthur\n Chief Justice of theMassachusetts Supreme Judicial Court(1873–1881)\n\n 42\n 100px\n '''Samuel Blatchford'''\n Hunt\n March 22, 1882(Acclamation)\n –July 7, 1893\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Second Circuit(1878–1882)\n\n 43\n100px\n '''Lucius QuintusCincinnatus Lamar II'''\n Woods\n January 16, 1888(32–28)\n –January 23, 1893\n Grover Cleveland\n 16thUnited States Secretary of the Interior(1885–1888)\n\n 44\n 100px\n '''David Josiah Brewer'''\n Matthews\n December 18, 1889(53–11)\n –March 28, 1910\n Benjamin Harrison\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Eighth Circuit(1884–1889)\n\n 45\n 100px\n '''Henry Billings Brown'''\n Miller\n December 29, 1890(Acclamation)\n –May 28, 1906\n Judge of theUnited States District Courtfor the Eastern District of Michigan(1875–1890)\n\n 46\n 100px\n '''George Shiras Jr.'''\n Bradley\n July 26, 1892(Acclamation)\n –February 23, 1903\n Lawyer,Private practice\n\n 47\n 100px\n '''Howell Edmunds Jackson'''\n L. Lamar\n February 18, 1893(Acclamation)\n –August 8, 1895\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Sixth Circuit(1891–1893)\n\n 48\n 100px\n '''Edward Douglass White'''\n Blatchford\n February 19, 1894(Acclamation)\n –December 18, 1910\n Grover Cleveland\n United States Senatorfrom Louisiana(1891–1894)\n\n 49\n 100px\n '''Rufus Wheeler Peckham'''\n H. Jackson\n December 9, 1895(Acclamation)\n –October 24, 1909\n Associate Judge of theNew York Court of Appeals\n\n 50\n 100px\n '''Joseph McKenna'''\n Field\n January 21, 1898(Acclamation)\n –January 5, 1925\n William McKinley\n 42ndUnited States Attorney General(1897–1898)\n\n 51\n 100px\n '''Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.'''\n Gray\n December 4, 1902(Acclamation)\n –January 12, 1932\n Theodore Roosevelt\n Chief Justice of theMassachusetts Supreme Judicial Court(1899–1902)\n\n 52\n 100px\n '''William R. Day'''\n Shiras\n February 23, 1903(Acclamation)\n –November 13, 1922\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Sixth Circuit(1899–1903)\n\n 53\n 100px\n '''William Henry Moody'''\n Brown\n December 12, 1906(Acclamation)\n –November 20, 1910\n 45thUnited States Attorney General(1904–1906)\n\n 54\n 100px\n '''Horace Harmon Lurton'''\n Peckham\n December 20, 1909(Acclamation)\n –July 12, 1914\n William Howard Taft\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Sixth Circuit(1893–1909)\n\n 55\n 100px\n '''Charles Evans Hughes'''\n Brewer\n May 2, 1910(Acclamation)\n –June 10, 1916\n 36thGovernor of New York(1907–1910)\n\n 56\n 100px\n '''Willis Van Devanter'''\n E. White\n December 15, 1910(Acclamation)\n –June 2, 1937\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Eighth Circuit(1903–`1910)\n\n 57\n 100px\n '''Joseph Rucker Lamar'''\n Moody\n December 15, 1910(Acclamation)\n –January 2, 1916\n Associate Justice of theSupreme Court of Georgia(1901–1905)\n\n 58\n 100px\n '''Mahlon Pitney'''\n J. Harlan\n March 13, 1912(50–26)\n –December 31, 1922\n U.S. Representative forNew Jersey's 4th district(1895–1899)\n\n 59\n 100px\n '''James Clark McReynolds'''\n Lurton\n August 29, 1914(44–6)\n –January 31, 1941\n Woodrow Wilson\n 48thUnited States Attorney General(1913–1914)\n\n 60\n 100px\n '''Louis Brandeis'''\n J. Lamar\n June 1, 1916(47–22)\n –February 13, 1939\n Lawyer,Private practice:Brandeis Dunbar & Nutter\n\n 61\n 100px\n '''John Hessin Clarke'''\n Hughes\n July 24, 1916(Acclamation)\n –September 5, 1922\n Judge of theUnited States District Courtfor the Northern District of Ohio(1914–1916)\n\n 62\n 100px\n '''George Sutherland'''\n Clarke\n September 5, 1922(Acclamation)\n –January 17, 1938\n Warren G. Harding\n United States Senatorfrom Utah(1905–1917)\n\n 63\n 100px\n '''Pierce Butler'''\n Day\n December 21, 1922(61–8)\n –November 16, 1939\n President of theMinnesota State Bar Association\n\n 64\n 100px\n '''Edward Terry Sanford'''\n Pitney\n January 29, 1923(Acclamation)\n –March 8, 1930\n Judge of theUnited States District Courtfor the Middle District of Tennessee(1908–1923)\n\n 65\n 100px\n '''Harlan F. Stone'''\n McKenna\n February 5, 1925(71–6)\n –July 3, 1941\n Calvin Coolidge\n 52ndUnited States Attorney General(1924–1925)\n\n 66\n 100px\n '''Owen Josephus Roberts'''\n Sanford\n May 20, 1930(Acclamation)\n –July 31, 1945\n Herbert Hoover\n Assistant District Attorney for Philadelphia\n\n 67\n 100px\n '''Benjamin N. Cardozo'''\n Holmes\n February 24, 1932(Acclamation)\n –July 9, 1938\n Chief Judge of theNew York Court of Appeals(1927–1932)\n\n 68\n 100px\n '''Hugo Black'''\n Van Devanter\n August 17, 1937(63–16)\n –September 17, 1971\n Franklin D. Roosevelt\n United States Senatorfrom Alabama(1927–1937)\n\n 69\n 100px\n '''Stanley Forman Reed'''\n Sutherland\n January 25, 1938(Acclamation)\n –February 25, 1957\n 22ndUnited States Solicitor General(1935–1938)\n\n 70\n 100px\n '''Felix Frankfurter'''\n Cardozo\n January 17, 1939(Acclamation)\n –August 28, 1962\n Chairman of Harvard Law School\n\n 71\n 100px\n '''William O. Douglas'''\n Brandeis\n April 4, 1939(62–4)\n –November 12, 1975\n 3rdChairman of theSecurities and Exchange Commission(1937–1939)\n\n 72\n 100px\n '''Frank Murphy'''\n Butler\n January 16, 1940(Acclamation)\n –July 19, 1949\n 56thUnited States Attorney General(1939–1940)\n\n 73\n 100px\n '''James F. Byrnes'''\n McReynolds\n June 12, 1941(Acclamation)\n –October 3, 1942\n United States Senatorfrom South Carolina(1931–1941)\n\n 74\n 100px\n '''Robert H. Jackson'''\n Stone\n July 7, 1941(Acclamation)\n –October 9, 1954\n 57thUnited States Attorney General(1940–1941)\n\n 75\n 100px\n '''Wiley Blount Rutledge'''\n Byrnes\n February 8, 1943(Acclamation)\n –September 10, 1949\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the District of Columbia Circuit(1939–1943)\n\n 76\n 100px\n '''Harold Hitz Burton'''\n Roberts\n September 19, 1945(Acclamation)\n –October 13, 1958\n Harry S. Truman\n United States Senatorfrom Ohio(1944–1945)\n\n 77\n 100px\n '''Tom C. Clark'''\n Murphy\n August 18, 1949(73–8)\n –June 12, 1967\n 59thAttorney General of the United States(1945–1949)\n\n 78\n 100px\n '''Sherman Minton'''\n W. Rutledge\n October 4, 1949(48–16)\n –October 15, 1956\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Seventh Circuit(1941–1949)\n\n 79\n 100px\n '''John Marshall Harlan II'''\n R. Jackson\n March 16, 1955(71–11)\n –September 23, 1971\n Dwight D. Eisenhower\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Second Circuit(1954–1955)\n\n 80\n 100px\n '''William J. Brennan'''\n Minton\n March 19, 1957(Acclamation)\n –July 20, 1990\n Associate Justice of theSupreme Court of New Jersey(1951–1956)\n\n 81\n 100px\n '''Charles Evans Whittaker'''\n Reed\n March 19, 1957(Acclamation)\n –March 31, 1962\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Eighth Circuit(1956–1957)\n\n 82\n 100px\n '''Potter Stewart'''\n Burton\n May 5, 1959(70–17)\n –July 3, 1981\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Sixth Circuit(1954–1958)\n\n 83\n 100px\n '''Byron White'''\n Whittaker\n April 11, 1962(Acclamation)\n –June 28, 1993\n John F. Kennedy\n 4thUnited States Deputy Attorney General(1961–1962)\n\n 84\n 100px\n '''Arthur Goldberg'''\n Frankfurter\n September 25, 1962(Acclamation)\n –July 26, 1965\n 9thUnited States Secretary of Labor(1961–1962)\n\n 85\n 100px\n '''Abe Fortas'''\n Goldberg\n August 11, 1965(Acclamation)\n –May 14, 1969\n Lyndon B. Johnson\n United States Under Secretary of the Interior\n\n 86\n 100px\n '''Thurgood Marshall'''\n Clark\n August 30, 1967(69–11)\n –October 1, 1991\n 32ndUnited States Solicitor General(1965–1967)\n\n 87\n 100px\n '''Harry Blackmun'''\n Fortas\n May 12, 1970(94–0)\n –August 3, 1994\n Richard Nixon\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Eighth Circuit(1959–1970)\n\n 88\n 100px\n '''Lewis Franklin Powell Jr.'''\n Black\n December 6, 1971(89–1)\n –June 26, 1987\n President of theAmerican Bar Association(1964–1965)\n\n 89\n 100px\n '''William Rehnquist'''\n J. Harlan II\n December 10, 1971(68–26)\n –September 26, 1986\n United States Assistant Attorney Generalfor the Office of Legal Counsel(1969–1971)\n\n 90\n 100px\n '''John Paul Stevens'''\n Douglas\n December 17, 1975(98–0)\n –June 29, 2010\n Gerald Ford\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Seventh Circuit(1970–1975)\n\n 91\n 100px\n '''Sandra Day O'Connor'''\n Stewart\n September 21, 1981(99–0)\n –January 31, 2006\n Ronald Reagan\n Judge of theArizona Court of Appeals(1979–1981)\n\n 92\n 100px\n '''Antonin Scalia'''\n Rehnquist\n September 17, 1986(98–0)\n –February 13, 2016\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the District of Columbia Circuit(1982–1986)\n\n 93\n 100px\n '''Anthony Kennedy'''\n Powell\n February 3, 1988(97–0)\n –Incumbent\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Ninth Circuit(1975–f1988)\n\n 94\n 100px\n '''David Souter'''\n Brennan\n October 2, 1990(90–9)\n –June 29, 2009\n George H. W. Bush\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the First Circuit(1990)\n\n 95\n 100px\n '''Clarence Thomas'''\n Marshall\n October 15, 1991(52–48)\n –Incumbent\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the District of Columbia Circuit(1990–1991)\n\n 96\n 100px\n '''Ruth Bader Ginsburg'''\n B. White\n August 3, 1993(96–3)\n –Incumbent\n Bill Clinton\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the District of Columbia Circuit(1980–1993)\n\n 97\n 100px\n '''Stephen Breyer'''\n Blackmun\n July 29, 1994(87–9)\n –Incumbent\n Chief Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the First Circuit(1990–1994)\n\n 98\n 100px\n '''Samuel Alito'''\n O'Connor\n January 31, 2006(58–42)\n –Incumbent\n George W. Bush\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Third Circuit(1990–2006)\n\n 99\n 100px\n '''Sonia Sotomayor'''\n Souter\n August 6, 2009(68–31)\n –Incumbent\n Barack Obama\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Second Circuit(1998–2009)\n\n 100\n 100px\n '''Elena Kagan'''\n Stevens\n August 5, 2010(63–37)\n –Incumbent\n 45thSolicitor General of the United States(2009–2010)\n\n 101\n 100px\n '''Neil Gorsuch'''\n Scalia\n April 7, 2017(54–45)\n –Incumbent\n Donald Trump\n Judge of theUnited States Court of Appealsfor the Tenth Circuit(2006–2017)\n\n\n\n===Notes===\n\n", "Associate Justice\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "* Historic collection of Supreme Court decisions and biographies indexed by judge name\n* Members of the Supreme Court of the United States from the Court's website.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Current associate justices", "Retired associate justices", "List of Associate Justices", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Alan Jay Lerner''' (August 31, 1918 – June 14, 1986) was an American lyricist and librettist. In collaboration with Frederick Loewe, and later Burton Lane, he created some of the world's most popular and enduring works of musical theatre for both the stage and on film. He won three Tony Awards and three Academy Awards, among other honors.\n", "Born in New York City, he was the son of Edith Adelson Lerner and Joseph Jay Lerner, whose brother, Samuel Alexander Lerner, was founder and owner of the Lerner Stores, a chain of dress shops. One of Lerner's cousins was the radio comedian and television game show panelist Henry Morgan. Lerner was educated at Bedales School in England, The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut, (where he wrote \"The Choate Marching Song\") and Harvard. He attended both Camp Androscoggin and Camp Greylock. At both Choate and Harvard, Lerner was a classmate of John F. Kennedy; at Choate they had worked together on the yearbook staff. Like Cole Porter at Yale and Richard Rodgers at Columbia, his career in musical theater began with his collegiate contributions, in Lerner's case to the annual Harvard Hasty Pudding musicals. During the summers of 1936 and 1937, Lerner studied music composition at Juilliard. While attending Harvard, he lost his sight in his left eye due to an accident in the boxing ring. In 1957, Lerner and Leonard Bernstein, another of Lerner's college classmates, collaborated on \"Lonely Men of Harvard,\" a tongue-in-cheek salute to their alma mater.\n", "Due to his injury, Lerner could not serve in World War II. Instead he wrote radio scripts, including ''Your Hit Parade'', until he was introduced to Austrian composer Frederick Loewe, who needed a partner, in 1942 at the Lamb's Club. While at the Lamb's, he also met Lorenz Hart, with whom he would also collaborate.\n\nLerner and Loewe's first collaboration was a musical adaptation of Barry Conners's farce ''The Patsy'' called ''Life of the Party'' for a Detroit stock company. The lyrics were mostly written by Earle Crooker, but he had left the project, with the score needing vast improvement. It enjoyed a nine-week run and encouraged the duo to join forces with Arthur Pierson for ''What's Up?'', which opened on Broadway in 1943. It ran for 63 performances and was followed two years later by ''The Day Before Spring''.\n\nTheir first hit was ''Brigadoon'' (1947), a romantic fantasy set in a mystical Scottish village, directed by Robert Lewis. It was followed in 1951 by the Gold Rush story ''Paint Your Wagon''. While the show ran for nearly a year and included songs that later became pop standards, it was less successful than Lerner's previous work. He later said of ''Paint Your Wagon'', it was \"a success but not a hit.\"\n\nLerner worked with Kurt Weill on the stage musical ''Love Life'' (1948) and Burton Lane on the movie musical ''Royal Wedding'' (1951). In that same year Lerner also wrote the Oscar-winning original screenplay for ''An American in Paris'', produced by Arthur Freed and directed by Vincente Minnelli. This was the same team who would later join with Lerner and Loewe to create ''Gigi''.\n\nIn 1956, Lerner and Loewe unveiled ''My Fair Lady''. Before finishing the musical, Lerner was eager to write while ''My Fair Lady'' was taking so long to complete. Burton Lane and Lerner were working on a musical about Li'l Abner. Gabriel Pascal owned the rights to ''Pygmalion'', which had been unsuccessful with other composers who tried to adapt it into a musical. Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz first tried, and then Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II attempted, but gave up and Hammerstein told Lerner, \"''Pygmalion'' had no subplot\". Lerner and Loewe's adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's ''Pygmalion'' retained his social commentary and added appropriate songs for the characters of Henry Higgins and Eliza Doolittle, played originally by Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews. It set box-office records in New York and London. When brought to the screen in 1964, the movie version won eight Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Rex Harrison.\n\nLerner and Loewe's run of success continued with their next project, a film adaptation of stories from Colette, the Academy Award-winning film musical ''Gigi'', starring Leslie Caron, Louis Jourdan and Maurice Chevalier. The film won all of its nine Oscar nominations, a record at that time, and a special Oscar for co-star Maurice Chevalier.\n\nThe Lerner-Loewe partnership cracked under the stress of producing the Arthurian ''Camelot'' in 1960, with Loewe resisting Lerner's desire to direct as well as write when original director Moss Hart suffered a heart attack in the last few months of rehearsals and died shortly after the show's premiere. Lerner was hospitalized with bleeding ulcers while Loewe continued to have heart troubles. ''Camelot'' was a hit nonetheless, and immediately following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, his widow told reporter Theodore H. White that JFK's administration reminded her of the \"one brief shining moment\" of Lerner and Loewe's ''Camelot''. As of the early 21st century, ''Camelot'' was still invoked to describe the idealism, romance, and tragedy of the Kennedy years.\n\nLoewe retired to Palm Springs, California, while Lerner went through a series of musicals—some successful, some not—with such composers as André Previn (''Coco''), John Barry (''Lolita, My Love''), Leonard Bernstein (''1600 Pennsylvania Avenue''), Burton Lane (''Carmelina'') and Charles Strouse (''Dance a Little Closer'', based on the film, ''Idiot's Delight'', nicknamed ''Close A Little Faster'' by Broadway humorists because it closed on opening night). Most biographers blame Lerner's professional decline on the lack of a strong director with whom Lerner could collaborate, as Neil Simon did with Mike Nichols or Stephen Sondheim with Harold Prince (Moss Hart, who had directed ''My Fair Lady,'' died shortly after ''Camelot'' opened). In 1965 Lerner collaborated again with Burton Lane on the musical ''On a Clear Day You Can See Forever'', which was adapted for film in 1970. At this time, Lerner was hired by film producer Arthur P. Jacobs to write a treatment for an upcoming film project, ''Doctor Dolittle'', but Lerner abrogated his contract after several non-productive months of non-communicative procrastination and was replaced with Leslie Bricusse. Lerner was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1971.\n\nIn 1973, Lerner coaxed Loewe out of retirement to augment the ''Gigi'' score for a musical stage adaptation. The following year they collaborated on a musical film version of ''The Little Prince'', based on the classic children's tale by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. This film was a critical and box office failure, but it has gained a modern following.\n\nLerner's autobiography, ''The Street Where I Live'' (1978), was an account of three of his and Loewe's successful collaborations, ''My Fair Lady'', ''Gigi'', and ''Camelot'', along with personal information. In the last year of his life he published ''The Musical Theatre: A Celebration'', a well-reviewed history of the theatre, with personal anecdotes and humor. A book of Lerner's lyrics entitled ''A Hymn To Him'', edited by British writer Benny Green, was published in 1987.\n\nAt the time of Lerner's death, he had been working with Gerard Kenny and Kristi Kane in London on a musical version of the film ''My Man Godfrey''. He had also received an urgent call from Andrew Lloyd Webber, asking him to write the lyrics to ''The Phantom of the Opera''. He wrote \"Masquerade\", but he then informed Webber that he wanted to leave the project because he was losing his memory (due to an undiagnosed brain tumor). He was replaced by Charles Hart. He had turned down an invitation to write the English-language lyrics for the musical version of ''Les Misérables''.\n\nAfter Lerner's death, Paul Blake made a musical revue based on Lerner's lyrics and life. ''Almost Like Being in Love'' featured music by Frederick Loewe, Burton Lane, André Previn, Charles Strouse, and Kurt Weill. The show ran for 10 days at the Herbst Theatre in San Francisco.\n", "Lerner often struggled with writing his lyrics. He was uncharacteristically able to complete \"I Could Have Danced All Night\" from ''My Fair Lady'' in one 24-hour period. He usually spent months on each song and was constantly rewriting them. Lerner was said to have insecurity about his talent. He would sometimes write songs with someone in mind, for instance, \"I've Grown Accustomed To Her Face\" from ''My Fair Lady'' was written with Rex Harrison in mind to complement his very limited vocal range.\n\nLerner said of writing:\nYou have to keep in mind that there is no such thing as realism or naturalism in the theater. That is a myth. If there was realism in the theater, there would never be a third act. Nothing ends that way. A man's life is made up of thousands and thousands of little pieces. In writing fiction, you select 20 or 30 of them. In a musical, you select even fewer than that. First, we decide where a song is needed in a play. Second, what is it going to be about? Third, we discuss the mood of the song. Fourth, I give (Loewe) a title. Then he writes the music to the title and the general feeling of the song is established. After he's written the melody, then I write the lyrics.\n\nIn a 1979 interview on NPR's ''All Things Considered'', Lerner went into some depth about his lyrics for ''My Fair Lady''. Professor Henry Higgins sings, \"Look at her, a prisoner of the gutters / Condemned by every syllable she utters / By right she should be taken out and hung / For the cold-blooded murder of the English tongue.\" Lerner said he knew the lyric used incorrect grammar for the sake of a rhyme. He was later approached about it by another lyricist:\nI thought, oh well, maybe nobody will notice it, but not at all. Two nights after it opened, I ran into Noël Coward in a restaurant, and he walked over and he said, \"Dear boy, it is ''hanged'', not ''hung''.\" I said, \"Oh, Noel, I know it, I know it! You know, shut up!\" So, and there's another, \"Than to ever let a woman in my life.\" It should be, \"as to ever let a woman in my life,\" but it just didn't sing well.\n\n", "For nearly twenty years, Lerner was addicted to amphetamine; during the 1960s he was a patient of Max Jacobson, known as \"Dr. Feelgood\", who administered injections of \"vitamins with enzymes\" that were in fact laced with amphetamine. Lerner's addiction is believed to have been the result of Jacobson's practice.\n\n===Marriages and children===\nLerner married eight times: Ruth Boyd (1940–1947), singer Marion Bell (1947–1949), Nancy Olson (1950–1957), lawyer Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (1957–1965), editor Karen Gundersen (1966–1974), Sandra Payne (1974–1976), Nina Bushkin (1977–1981) and Liz Robertson (1981–1986 his death). Four of his eight wives – Olson, Payne, Bushkin, and Robertson – were actresses.\nHis seventh wife, Nina Bushkin, whom he married on May 30, 1977, was the director of development at Mannes College of Music and the daughter of composer and musician Joey Bushkin. After their divorce in 1981, Lerner was ordered to pay her a settlement of $50,000. Lerner wrote in his autobiography (as quoted by ''The New York Times''): \"All I can say is that if I had no flair for marriage, I also had no flair for bachelorhood.\" One of his ex-wives reportedly said, \"Marriage is Alan's way of saying goodbye.\"\n\nLerner had four children: three daughters, Susan (by Boyd), Liza and Jennifer (by Olson); and one son, screenwriter and journalist Michael Alan Lerner (by di Borgo).\n\nSt Paul's Church in London\n\nLerner's multiple divorces cost him much of his wealth, but he was primarily responsible for his own financial ups and downs and was apparently less than truthful about his financial fecklessness. One persistent fiction, widely publicized, was that his divorce settlement from Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (his fourth wife) cost him an estimated $1 million in 1965. This was a gross distortion of the truth. Lerner's pattern of financial mismanagement continued until his death from cancer in 1986, when he reportedly owed the US Internal Revenue Service over US$1,000,000 in back taxes and was unable to pay for his final medical expenses.\n", "On June 14, 1986, Lerner died of lung cancer in Manhattan at the age of 67. At the time of his death he was married to actress Liz Robertson, who was 36 years his junior. He lived in Center Island, New York. He has a memorial plaque in St Paul's Church, the Actor's Church in Covent Garden in London.\n", "Kennedy Center Honors 1985\n\n;Academy Award\nBest Original Screenplay, 1951 ''An American in Paris''\nBest Adapted Screenplay, 1958 ''Gigi''\nBest Original Song, 1958 ''Gigi''\n;Golden Globe\nBest Original Song, 1968 ''Camelot''\nBest Original Score, 1975 ''The Little Prince''\n;Tony Award\nBest Book of a Musical, 1957 ''My Fair Lady''\nBest Original Score, 1957 ''My Fair Lady'' and 1974 ''Gigi''\n;New York Drama Critics\nBest Musical, 1947 ''Brigadoon''\nBest Musical, 1957 ''My Fair Lady''\n;Johnny Mercer Award\nLyric Writing, 1985, Lifetime\n", "\n===Stage===\n ''Life of the Party'' (1942), with Frederick Loewe\n* ''What's Up? (1943), with Frederick Loewe\n* ''The Day Before Spring'' (1945), with Frederick Loewe\n* ''Brigadoon'' (1947), with Frederick Loewe\n* ''Love Life'' (1948), with Kurt Weill\n* ''Paint Your Wagon'' (1951), Frederick Loewe\n* ''My Fair Lady'' (1956), with Frederick Loewe\n* ''Camelot'' (1960), with Frederick Loewe\n* ''On a Clear Day You Can See Forever'' (1965), with Burton Lane\n* ''Coco'' (1969), with André Previn\n* ''Lolita, My Love'' (1971), with John Barry\n* ''Gigi (1973), based on the 1958 film of the same name, with Frederick Loewe\n* ''1600 Pennsylvania Avenue'' (1976), with Leonard Bernstein\n* ''Carmelina'' (1979), with Burton Lane and Joseph Stein\n* ''Dance a Little Closer'' (1983), with Charles Strouse\n* ''My Man Godfrey'' (1984), unfinished, with Gerard Kenny\n\n===Films===\n''Royal Wedding'', 1951 (screenwriter/lyricist)\n''An American in Paris'' (1951) (writer)\n''Brigadoon'', 1954 (film) (screenwriter/lyricist)\n''Gigi'', 1958 (screenwriter/lyricist)\n''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', 1960 (lyricist)\n''My Fair Lady'', 1964 (screenwriter/lyricist)\n''Camelot'', 1967 (screenwriter/lyricist)\n''Paint Your Wagon'', 1969 (producer/screenwriter/lyricist)\n''On a Clear Day You Can See Forever'', 1970 (screenwriter/lyricist)\n''The Little Prince'', 1973 (screenwriter/lyricist)\n''Tribute'', 1980 (\"It's All for the Best,\" lyricist)\n''Secret Places'', 1984 (title song lyricist)\n", "Lerner and Loewe\n", "\n", "Green, Stanley. ''The world of musical comedy'' (Edition 4, 1984), Da Capo Press, \n", "* Lerner, Alan Jay (1985). ''The Street Where I Live''. Da Capo Press. \n* Shapiro, Doris (1989). ''We Danced All Night: My Life Behind the Scenes With Alan Jay Lerner''. Barricade Books. \n* Jablonski, Edward (1996). ''Alan Jay Lerner: A Biography''. Henry Holt & Co. \n* Citron, David (1995). ''The Wordsmiths: Oscar Hammerstein 2nd and Alan Jay Lerner''. Oxford University Press. \n* Green, Benny, Editor (1987). ''A Hymn to Him : The Lyrics of Alan Jay Lerner''. Hal Leonard Corporation. \n* Garebian, Keith (1998). ''The Making of My Fair Lady''. Publisher: Mosaic Press. \n\n\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life and education", "Career", "Songwriting", "Personal life", "Death", "Awards and honors", "Works", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Alan Jay Lerner
[ "\n\n'''Alfred Gerald Caplin''' (September 28, 1909 – November 5, 1979), better known as '''Al Capp''', was an American cartoonist and humorist best known for the satirical comic strip ''Li'l Abner'', which he created in 1934 and continued writing and (with help from assistants) drawing until 1977. He also wrote the comic strips ''Abbie an' Slats'' (in the years 1937–45) and ''Long Sam'' (1954). He won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year, and their 1979 Elzie Segar Award, posthumously for his \"unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning.\" Comic strips dealt with northern urban experiences until the year Capp introduced \"Li'l Abner,\" the first strip based in the South. Although Capp was from Connecticut, he spent 43 years teaching the world about Dogpatch, reaching an estimated 60 million readers in over 900 American newspapers and 100 foreign papers in 28 countries. M. Thomas Inge says Capp made a large personal fortune on the strip and \"had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South.\"\n", "Born in New Haven, Connecticut, of East European Jewish heritage, Capp was the eldest child of Otto Philip and Matilda (Davidson) Caplin. Capp's parents were both natives of Latvia whose families had migrated to New Haven in the 1880s. \"My mother and father had been brought to this country from Russia when they were infants,\" wrote Capp in 1978. \"Their fathers had found that the great promise of America was true — it was no crime to be a Jew.\" The Caplins were dirt poor, and Capp later recalled stories of his mother going out in the night to sift through ash barrels for reusable bits of coal.\n\nIn August 1919, at the age of nine, Capp was run down by a trolley car and had to have his left leg amputated, well above the knee. According to his father Otto's unpublished autobiography, young Capp was not prepared for the amputation beforehand; having been in a coma for days, he suddenly awoke to discover that his leg was removed. He was eventually given a prosthetic leg, but only learned to use it by adopting a slow way of walking which became increasingly painful as he grew older. The childhood tragedy of losing a leg likely helped shape Capp’s cynical worldview, which, funny as it was, was certainly darker and more sardonic than that of the average newspaper cartoonist. \"I was indignant as hell about that leg,\" he would reveal in a November 1950 interview in ''Time'' magazine.\n\n\"The secret of how to live without resentment or embarrassment in a world in which I was different from everyone else,\" Capp philosophically wrote (in ''Life magazine'' on May 23, 1960), \"was to be indifferent to that difference.\" It was the prevailing opinion among his friends that Capp's Swiftian satire was, to some degree, a creatively channeled, compensatory response to his disability.\n\"I do ''Li'l Abner!!'',\" a self-portrait by Al Capp, excerpted from theApril 16–17, 1951 ''Li'l Abner'' strips. Note the reference to Milton Caniff.\nCapp's father, a failed businessman and an amateur cartoonist, introduced him to drawing as a form of therapy. He became quite proficient, learning mostly on his own. Among his earliest influences were ''Punch'' cartoonist–illustrator Phil May, and American comic strip cartoonists Tad Dorgan, Cliff Sterrett, Rube Goldberg, Rudolph Dirks, Fred Opper, Billy DeBeck, George McManus and Milt Gross. At about this same time, Capp became a voracious reader. According to Capp's brother Elliot, Alfred had finished all of Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw by the time he turned 13. Among his childhood favorites were Dickens, Smollett, Mark Twain, Booth Tarkington, and later, Robert Benchley and S. J. Perelman.\n\nCapp spent five years at Bridgeport High School in Bridgeport, Connecticut, without receiving a diploma. The cartoonist liked to joke about how he failed geometry for nine straight terms. His formal training came from a series of art schools in the New England area. Attending three of them in rapid succession, the impoverished Capp was thrown out of each for nonpayment of tuition—the Boston Museum School of Fine Arts, the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and Designers Art School in Boston—the latter before launching his career. Capp had already decided to become a cartoonist. \"I heard that Bud Fisher (creator of ''Mutt and Jeff'') got $3,000 a week and was constantly marrying French countesses,\" Capp said. \"I decided that was for me.\"\n\nIn early 1932, Capp hitchhiked to New York City. He lived in \"airless rat holes\" in Greenwich Village and turned out advertising strips at $2 apiece while scouring the city hunting for jobs. He eventually found work at the Associated Press when he was 23 years old. By March 1932, Capp was drawing ''Colonel Gilfeather'', a single-panel, AP-owned property created in 1930 by Dick Dorgan. Capp changed the focus and title to ''Mister Gilfeather'', but soon grew to hate the feature. He left the Associated Press in September 1932. Before leaving, he met Milton Caniff, and the two became lifelong friends. Capp moved to Boston and married Catherine Wingate Cameron, whom he had met earlier in art class. She died in 2006 at the age of 96.\n\nLeaving his new wife with her parents in Amesbury, Massachusetts, he subsequently returned to New York in 1933, in the midst of the Great Depression. \"I was 23, I carried a mass of drawings, and I had nearly five dollars in my pocket. People were sleeping in alleys then, willing to work at anything.\" There he met Ham Fisher, who hired him to ghost on ''Joe Palooka''. During one of Fisher's extended vacations, Capp's ''Joe Palooka'' story arc introduced a stupid, coarse, oafish mountaineer named \"Big Leviticus,\" a crude prototype. (Leviticus was actually much closer to Capp's later villains Lem and Luke Scragg, than to the much more appealing and innocent Li'l Abner.)\n\nAlso during this period, Capp was working at night on samples for the strip that would eventually become ''Li'l Abner''. He based his cast of characters on the authentic mountain-dwellers he met while hitchhiking through rural West Virginia and the Cumberland Valley as a teenager. (This was years before the Tennessee Valley Authority Act brought basic utilities like electricity and running water to the region.) Leaving ''Joe Palooka'', Capp sold ''Li'l Abner'' to United Feature Syndicate (now known as United Media). The feature was launched on Monday, August 13, 1934, in eight North American newspapers—including the ''New York Mirror''—and was an immediate success. Alfred G. Caplin eventually became \"Al Capp\" because the syndicate felt the original would not fit in a cartoon frame. Capp had it changed legally in 1949.\n\nHis younger brother Elliot Caplin also became a comic strip writer, best known for co-creating the soap opera strip ''The Heart of Juliet Jones'' with artist Stan Drake and conceiving the comic strip character ''Broom-Hilda'' with cartoonist Russell Myers. Elliot also authored several off-Broadway plays, including ''A Nickel for Picasso'' (1981), which was based on and dedicated to his mother and his famous brother.\n", "\nWhat began as a hillbilly burlesque soon evolved into one of the most imaginative, popular and well-drawn strips of the 20th century. Featuring vividly outlandish characters, bizarre situations, and equal parts suspense, slapstick, irony, satire, black humor and biting social commentary, ''Li'l Abner'' is considered a classic of the genre. The comic strip stars Li'l Abner Yokum—the simple-minded, loutish but good-natured and eternally innocent hayseed who lives with his parents—scrawny but superhuman Mammy Yokum, and shiftless, childlike Pappy Yokum.\n\n\"Yokum\" was a combination of ''yokel'' and ''hokum'', although Capp established a deeper meaning for the name during a series of visits around 1965–1970 with comics historians George E. Turner and Michael H. Price. “It’s phonetic Hebrew—that’s what it is, all right—and that’s what I was getting at with the name Yokum, more so than any attempt to sound ''hickish,\"'' said Capp. \"That was a fortunate coincidence, of course, that the name should pack a backwoods connotation. But it’s a godly conceit, really, playing off a godly name—''Joachim'' means 'God’s determination', something like that—that also happens to have a rustic ring to it.\"\n\nThe Yokums live in the backwater hamlet of Dogpatch, Kentucky. Described by its creator as \"an average stone-age community,\" Dogpatch mostly consists of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins, pine trees, \"tarnip\" fields and \"hawg\" wallows. Whatever energy Abner had went into evading the marital goals of Daisy Mae Scragg, his sexy, well-endowed (but virtuous) girlfriend—until Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry. This newsworthy event made the cover of ''Life'' on March 31, 1952.\n\nCapp peopled his comic strip with an assortment of memorable characters, including Marryin' Sam, Hairless Joe, Lonesome Polecat, Evil-Eye Fleegle, General Bullmoose, Lena the Hyena, Senator Jack S. Phogbound (Capp's caricature of the anti-New Deal Dixiecrats), the ''(shudder!)'' Scraggs, Available Jones, Nightmare Alice, Earthquake McGoon, and a host of others. Most notably, certainly from a G.I. point of view, are the beautiful, full-figured women like Daisy Mae, Wolf Gal, Stupefyin' Jones and Moonbeam McSwine (a caricature of his wife Catherine, aside from the dirt)—all of whom found their way onto the painted noses of bomber planes during World War II and the Korean War. Perhaps Capp's most popular creations were the Shmoos, creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it. Another famous character was Joe Btfsplk, who wants to be a loving friend but is \"the world's worst jinx,\" bringing bad luck to all those nearby. Btfsplk (his name is \"pronounced\" by simply blowing a \"raspberry\" or Bronx cheer) always has an iconic dark cloud over his head.\n\nDogpatch residents regularly combat the likes of city slickers, business tycoons, government officials and intellectuals with their homespun simplicity. Situations often take the characters to other destinations, including New York City, Washington, D.C., Hollywood, tropical islands, the Moon, Mars, and some purely fanciful worlds of Capp's invention. The latter includes El Passionato, Kigmyland, The Republic of Crumbumbo, Skunk Hollow, The Valley of the Shmoon, Planets Pincus Number 2 and 7, and a miserable frozen wasteland known as Lower Slobbovia, a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy that remains a contemporary reference. \"Indeed, ''Li'l Abner'' incorporates such a panoply of characters and ideas that it defies summary,\" according to cultural historian Anthony Harkins. \"Yet though Capp's storylines often wandered far afield, his hillbilly setting remained a central touchstone, serving both as a microcosm and a distorting carnival mirror of broader American society.\"\n\nThe strip's popularity grew from an original eight papers, to ultimately more than 900. At its peak, ''Li'l Abner'' was estimated to have been read daily in the United States by 60 to 70 million people (the U.S. population at the time was only 180 million), with adult readers far outnumbering children. Many communities, high schools and colleges staged Sadie Hawkins dances, patterned after the similar annual event in the strip.\n\nLi'l Abner has one odd design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades: the part in his hair always faces the viewer, no matter which direction Abner is facing. In response to the question “Which side does Abner part his hair on?,\" Capp would answer, “Both.” Capp said he finally found the right \"look\" for Li'l Abner with Henry Fonda's character Dave Tolliver, in ''The Trail of the Lonesome Pine'' (1936). In later years, Capp always claimed to have effectively created the miniskirt, when he first put one on Daisy Mae in 1934.\n", "''Li'l Abner'' also features a comic strip-within-the-strip: ''Fearless Fosdick'' is a parody of Chester Gould's ''Dick Tracy''. It first appeared in 1942, and proved so popular that it ran intermittently over the next 35 years. Gould was personally parodied in the series as cartoonist \"Lester Gooch\"—the diminutive, much-harassed and occasionally deranged \"creator\" of Fosdick. The style of the ''Fosdick'' sequences closely mimicks ''Tracy'', including the urban setting, the outrageous villains, the galloping mortality rate, the crosshatched shadows, and even the lettering style. In 1952, Fosdick was the star of his own short-lived puppet show on NBC, featuring the Mary Chase marionettes.\n\nBesides ''Dick Tracy'', Capp parodied many other comic strips in ''Li'l Abner''—including ''Steve Canyon'', ''Superman'' (at least twice; first as \"Jack Jawbreaker\" in 1947, and again in 1966 as \"Chickensouperman\"), ''Mary Worth'' as \"Mary Worm\", ''Peanuts'' {with \"Peewee\" a parody of Charlie Brown with \"Croopy\" parody of Snoopy\" {1968} drawn by Bedley Damp a parody of Charles Schulz}, ''Rex Morgan, M.D.'', ''Little Annie Rooney'' and ''Little Orphan Annie'' (in which Punjab became \"Punjbag,\" an oleaginous slob). ''Fearless Fosdick''—and Capp's other spoofs like \"Little Fanny Gooney\" (1952) and \"Jack Jawbreaker\"—were almost certainly an early inspiration for Harvey Kurtzman's ''Mad Magazine'', which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same distinctive style and subversive manner.\n\nCapp also lampooned popular recording idols of the day, such as Elvis Presley (\"Hawg McCall,\" 1957), Liberace (\"Loverboynik,\" 1956), the Beatles (\"the Beasties,\" 1964)—and in 1944, Frank Sinatra. \"Sinatra was the first great public figure I ever wrote about,\" Capp once said. \"I called him 'Hal Fascinatra.' I remember my news syndicate was so worried about what his reaction might be, and we were all surprised when he telephoned and told me how thrilled he was with it. He always made it a point to send me champagne whenever he happened to see me in a restaurant...\" (from ''Frank Sinatra, My Father'' by Nancy Sinatra, 1985). On the other hand, Liberace was \"cut to the quick\" over Loverboynik, according to Capp, and even threatened legal action—as would Joan Baez later, over \"Joanie Phoanie\" in 1967.\n\nCapp was just as likely to parody himself; his self-caricature made frequent, tongue-in-cheek appearances in ''Li'l Abner''. The gag was often at his own expense, as in the above 1951 sequence showing Capp's interaction with \"fans\" (see excerpt), or in his 1955 Disneyland parody, \"Hal Yappland.\" Just about anything could be a target for Capp's satire—in one storyline Li'l Abner is revealed to be the missing link between ape and man. In another, the search is on in Dogpatch for a pair of missing socks knitted by the first President of the United States.\n \nIn addition to creating ''Li'l Abner'', Capp also co-created two other newspaper strips: ''Abbie an' Slats'' with magazine illustrator Raeburn van Buren in 1937, and ''Long Sam'' with cartoonist Bob Lubbers in 1954, as well as the Sunday \"topper\" strips ''Washable Jones,'' ''Small Fry'' (a.k.a. ''Small Change''), and ''Advice fo' Chillun.''\n", "According to comics historian Coulton Waugh, a 1947 poll of newspaper readers who claimed they ignored the comics page altogether revealed that many confessed to making a single exception: ''Li'l Abner''. \"When ''Li'l Abner'' made its debut in 1934, the vast majority of comic strips were designed chiefly to amuse or thrill their readers. Capp turned that world upside-down by routinely injecting politics and social commentary into ''Li'l Abner''. The strip was the first to regularly introduce characters and story lines having nothing to do with the nominal stars of the strip. The technique—as invigorating as it was unorthodox—was later adopted by cartoonists like Walt Kelly ''Pogo'' and Garry Trudeau ''Doonesbury'',\" wrote comic strip historian Rick Marschall. According to Marschall, ''Li'l Abner'' gradually evolved into a broad satire of human nature. In his book ''America's Great Comic Strip Artists'' (1989), Marschall's analysis revealed a decidedly misanthropic subtext.\n\nOver the years, ''Li'l Abner'' has been adapted to radio, animated cartoons, stage production, motion pictures and television. Capp has been compared, at various times, to Mark Twain, Dostoevski, Jonathan Swift, Lawrence Sterne and Rabelais. Fans of the strip ranged from novelist John Steinbeck, who called Capp \"possibly the best writer in the world today\" in 1953, and even earnestly recommended him for the Nobel Prize in literature—to media critic and theorist Marshall McLuhan, who considered Capp \"the only robust satirical force in American life.\" John Updike, comparing Abner to a “hillbilly Candide,” added that the strip’s “richness of social and philosophical commentary approached the Voltairean.” Charlie Chaplin, William F. Buckley, Al Hirschfeld, Harpo Marx, Russ Meyer, John Kenneth Galbraith, Ralph Bakshi, Shel Silverstein, Hugh Downs, Gene Shalit, Frank Cho, Daniel Clowes and (reportedly) even Queen Elizabeth have confessed to being fans of ''Li'l Abner''.\n\n''Li'l Abner'' was also the subject of the first book-length, scholarly assessment of an American comic strip ever published. ''Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire'' by Arthur Asa Berger (Twayne, 1969) contained serious analyses of Capp's narrative technique, his use of dialogue, self-caricature and grotesquerie, the place of ''Li'l Abner'' in American satire, and the significance of social criticism and the graphic image. \"One of the few strips ever taken seriously by students of American culture,\" wrote Professor Berger, \"''Li'l Abner'' is worth studying... because of Capp's imagination and artistry, and because of the strip's very obvious social relevance.\" It was reprinted by the University Press of Mississippi in 1994.\n", "Al Capp drew his own autobiography, the 34-page ''Al Capp by Li'l Abner'' (1946), distributed to returning World War II amputee veterans.\nDuring World War II and for many years afterward, Capp worked tirelessly going to hospitals to entertain patients, especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life. Making no secret of his own disability, Capp openly joked about his prosthetic leg his whole life. In 1946 Capp created a special full-color comic book, ''Al Capp by Li'l Abner'', to be distributed by the Red Cross to encourage the thousands of amputee veterans returning from the war. Capp was also involved with the Sister Kenny Foundation, which pioneered new treatments for polio in the 1940s. Serving in his capacity as honorary chairman, Capp made public appearances on its behalf for years, contributed free artwork for its annual fund-raising appeals, and entertained crippled and paraplegic children in children's hospitals with inspirational pep talks, humorous stories and sketches.\n\nIn 1940, an RKO movie adaptation starred Granville Owen (later known as Jeff York) as Li'l Abner, with Buster Keaton taking the role of Lonesome Polecat, and featuring a title song with lyrics by Milton Berle. A successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on Broadway at the St. James Theater on November 15, 1956, and had a long run of 693 performances, followed by a nationwide tour. The stage musical, with music and lyrics by Gene de Paul and Johnny Mercer, was adapted into a Technicolor motion picture at Paramount in 1959 by producer Norman Panama and director Melvin Frank, with a score by Nelson Riddle. Several performers repeated their Broadway roles in the film, most memorably Julie Newmar as Stupefyin' Jones and Stubby Kaye as Marryin' Sam.\n\nOther highlights of that decade included the 1942 debut of Fearless Fosdick as Abner's \"ideel\" (hero); the 1946 Lena the Hyena Contest, in which a hideous Lower Slobbovian gal was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry (as judged by Frank Sinatra, Boris Karloff and Salvador Dalí) drawn by noted cartoonist Basil Wolverton; and an ill-fated Sunday parody of ''Gone With the Wind'' that aroused anger and legal threats from author Margaret Mitchell, and led to a printed apology within the strip. In October 1947, Li'l Abner met Rockwell P. Squeezeblood, head of the abusive and corrupt Squeezeblood Comic Strip Syndicate. The resulting sequence, \"Jack Jawbreaker Fights Crime!,\" was a devastating satire of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's notorious exploitation by DC Comics over ''Superman''. It was later reprinted in ''The World of Li'l Abner'' (1953). (Siegel and Shuster had earlier poked fun at Capp in a ''Superman'' story in ''Action Comics #55'', December 1942, in which a cartoonist named \"Al Hatt\" invents a comic strip featuring the hillbilly \"Tiny Rufe.\")\n\nIn 1947, Capp earned a ''Newsweek'' cover story. That same year the ''New Yorker's'' profile on him was so long that it ran in consecutive issues. In 1948, Capp reached a creative peak with the introduction of the Shmoos, lovable and innocent fantasy creatures who reproduced at amazing speed and brought so many benefits that, ironically, the world economy was endangered. The much-copied storyline was a parable that was metaphorically interpreted in many different ways at the outset of the Cold War.\n\nFollowing his close friend Milton Caniff's lead (with ''Steve Canyon''), Capp had recently fought a successful battle with the syndicate to gain complete ownership of his feature when the Shmoos debuted. As a result, he reaped enormous financial rewards from the unexpected (and almost unprecedented) merchandising phenomenon that followed. As in the strip, Shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1949 and 1950—including a ''Time'' cover story. A paperback collection of the original sequence, ''The Life and Times of the Shmoo'', became a bestseller for Simon & Schuster. Shmoo dolls, clocks, watches, jewelry, earmuffs, wallpaper, fishing lures, air fresheners, soap, ice cream, balloons, ashtrays, comic books, records, sheet music, toys, games, Halloween masks, salt and pepper shakers, decals, pinbacks, tumblers, coin banks, greeting cards, planters, neckties, suspenders, belts, curtains, fountain pens, and other shmoo paraphernalia were produced. A garment factory in Baltimore turned out a whole line of shmoo apparel, including \"Shmooveralls.\" The original sequence and its 1959 sequel, ''The Return of the Shmoo'', have been collected in print many times since, most recently in 2011, always to high sales figures. The Shmoos would later have their own animated TV series.\n\nCapp followed this success with other allegorical fantasy critters, including the aboriginal and masochistic \"Kigmies\", who craved abuse (a story that began as a veiled comment on racial and religious oppression), the dreaded \"Nogoodniks\" (or ''bad'' shmoos), and the irresistible \"Bald Iggle\", a guileless creature whose sad-eyed countenance compelled involuntary truthfulness—with predictably disastrous results.\n\n''Li'l Abner'' was censored for the first, but not the last time in September 1947, and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in ''Time'', centered on Capp's portrayal of the United States Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps, \"We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks ... boobs and undesirables.\" He criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, calling him a \"poet.\" \"He uses poetic license to try to create the beautifully ordered world of good guys and bad guys that he wants,\" said Capp. \"He seems at his best when terrifying the helpless and naïve.\"\n\nCapp received the National Cartoonists Society's Billy DeBeck Memorial Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year. (When the award name was changed in 1954, Capp also retroactively received a Reuben statuette.) He was an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the NCS by admitting women cartoonists. Originally, the Society had disallowed female members. Capp briefly resigned his membership in 1949 to protest their refusal of admission to Hilda Terry, creator of the comic strip ''Teena''. According to Tom Roberts, author of ''Alex Raymond: His Life and Art'' (2007), Capp delivered a stirring speech that was instrumental in changing those rules. The NCS finally accepted female members the following year. In December 1952, Capp published an article in ''Real'' magazine titled “The REAL Powers in America” that further challenged the conventional attitudes of the day: \"The real powers in America are ''women''—the wives and sweethearts behind the masculine dummies ...\"\n\nHighlights of the 1950s included the much-heralded marriage of Abner and Daisy Mae in 1952, the birth of their son \"Honest Abe\" Yokum in 1953, and in 1954, the introduction of Abner's enormous, long lost kid brother Tiny Yokum, who filled Abner's place as a bachelor in the annual Sadie Hawkins Day race. In 1952, Capp and his characters graced the covers of both ''Life'' and ''TV Guide''. 1956 saw the debut of the Bald Iggle, considered by some ''Abner'' enthusiasts to be the creative high point of the strip, as well as Mammy's revelatory encounter with the \"Square Eyes\" Family—Capp’s thinly-veiled appeal for racial tolerance. (This fable-like story was collected into an educational comic book called ''Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!'', and distributed by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith later that year.) Two years later, Capp's studio issued ''Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story'', a biographical comic book distributed by the Fellowship of Reconciliation.\n\nCapp had often parodied corporate greed—pork tycoon J. Roaringham Fatback had figured prominently in wiping out the Shmoos. But in 1952, when General Motors president Charles E. Wilson, nominated for a cabinet post, told Congress \"... what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa,\" he inspired one of Capp's greatest satires—the introduction of General Bullmoose, the robust, ruthless, and ageless business tycoon. The blustering Bullmoose, who seemed to own and control nearly everything, justified his far-reaching and mercenary excesses by saying \"What's good for General Bullmoose is good for ''everybody!''\" Bullmoose's corrupt interests were often pitted against those of the pathetic Lower Slobbovians in a classic mismatch of \"haves\" versus \"have-nots\". This character, along with the Shmoos, helped cement Capp's favor with the Left, and would increase their outrage a decade later when Capp, a former Franklin D. Roosevelt liberal, switched targets. Nonetheless, General Bullmoose continued to appear, undaunted and unredeemed, during the strip's final right-wing phase and into the 1970s.\n", "After Capp quit his ghosting job on Ham Fisher's ''Joe Palooka'' in 1934 to launch his own strip, Fisher badmouthed him to colleagues and editors, claiming that Capp had \"stolen\" his idea. For years, Fisher would bring the characters back to his strip, billing them as \"The ORIGINAL Hillbilly Characters\" and advising readers not to be \"fooled by imitations.\" (In fact, Fisher's brutish hillbilly character—Big Leviticus, created by Capp in Fisher's absence—bore little resemblance to Li'l Abner.) According to a November 1950 ''Time'' article, \"Capp parted from Fisher with a definite impression, (to put it mildly) that he had been underpaid and unappreciated. Fisher, a man of Roman self esteem, considered Capp an ingrate and a whippersnapper, and watched his rise to fame with unfeigned horror.\"\n\n\"Fisher repeatedly brought Leviticus and his clan back, claiming their primacy as comics' first hillbilly family — but he was missing the point. It wasn't the setting that made Capp's strip such a huge success. It was Capp's finely tuned sense of the absurd, his ability to milk an outrageous situation for every laugh in it and then, impossibly, to squeeze even more laughs from it, that found such favor with the public,\" (from Don Markstein's ''Toonopedia'').\n\nThe Capp-Fisher feud was well known in cartooning circles, and it grew more personal as Capp's strip eclipsed ''Joe Palooka'' in popularity. Fisher hired away Capp's top assistant, Moe Leff. After Fisher underwent plastic surgery, Capp included a racehorse in ''Li'l Abner'' named \"Ham's Nose-Bob.\" In 1950, Capp introduced a cartoonist character named \"Happy Vermin\"—a caricature of Fisher—who hired Abner to draw his comic strip in a dimly lit closet, (after sacking his previous \"temporary\" assistant of 20 years, who had been cut off from all his friends in the process). Instead of using Vermin's tired characters, Abner inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies. A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant: \"I'm proud of having created these characters!! They'll make millions for me!! And if they do — I'll get ''you'' a new light bulb!!\"\n\nTraveling in the same social circles, the two men engaged in a 20-year mutual vendetta, as described by the ''New York Daily News'' in 1998: \"They crossed paths often, in the midtown watering holes and at National Cartoonists Society banquets, and the city's gossip columns were full of their snarling public donnybrooks.\" In 1950, Capp wrote a nasty article for ''The Atlantic'', titled \"I Remember Monster.\" The article recounted Capp's days working for an unnamed \"benefactor\" with a miserly, swinish personality, who Capp claimed was a never-ending source of inspiration when it came time to create a new unregenerate villain for his comic strip. The thinly-veiled boss was understood to be Ham Fisher.\n\nFisher retaliated clumsily, doctoring photostats of ''Li'l Abner'' and falsely accusing Capp of sneaking obscenities into his comic strip. Fisher submitted examples of ''Li'l Abner'' to Capp's syndicate and to the New York courts, in which Fisher had identified pornographic images that were hidden in the background art. However, the X-rated material had actually been drawn there by Fisher. Capp was able to refute the accusation by simply showing the original artwork.\n\nIn 1954, when Capp was applying for a Boston television license, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) received an anonymous packet of pornographic ''Li'l Abner'' drawings. The National Cartoonists Society (NCS) convened an ethics hearing, and Fisher was expelled for the forgery from the same organization that he had helped found; Fisher's scheme had backfired in spectacular fashion. Around the same time, his mansion in Wisconsin was destroyed by a storm. On December 27, 1955, Fisher committed suicide in his studio. The feud and Fisher's suicide were used as the basis for a lurid, highly fictionalized murder mystery, ''Strip for Murder'' by Max Allan Collins.\n\nAnother \"feud\" seemed to be looming when, in one run of Sunday strips in 1957, Capp lampooned the comic strip ''Mary Worth'' as \"Mary Worm.\" The title character was depicted as a nosy, interfering busybody. Allen Saunders, the creator of the ''Mary Worth'' strip, returned Capp's fire with the introduction of the character \"Hal Rapp,\" a foul-tempered, ill-mannered, and (ironically) inebriated cartoonist, (Capp was a teetotaler). Later, it was revealed to be a collaborative hoax that Capp and his longtime pal Saunders had cooked up together. The Capp-Saunders \"feud\" fooled both editors and readers, generated plenty of free publicity for both strips—and Capp and Saunders had a good laugh when all was revealed.\n", "Capp is often associated with two other giants of the medium: Milton Caniff (''Terry and the Pirates'', ''Steve Canyon'') and Walt Kelly (''Pogo''). The three cartoonists were close personal friends and professional associates throughout their adult lives, and occasionally referenced each other in their strips. According to one anecdote (from ''Al Capp Remembered'', 1994), Capp and his brother Elliot ducked out of a dull party at Capp's home—leaving Walt Kelly alone to fend for himself entertaining a group of Argentine envoys who didn't speak English. Kelly retaliated by giving away Capp's baby grand piano. According to Capp, who loved to relate the story, Kelly's two perfectly logical reasons for doing so were: a. to cement diplomatic relations between Argentina and the United States, and b. \"Because you can't play the piano, anyway!\" (''Beetle Bailey'' creator Mort Walker confirmed the story, relating a slightly expanded version in his autobiography, ''Mort Walker's Private Scrapbook'', 2001.)\n\nMilton Caniff offered another anecdote (from ''Phi Beta Pogo'', 1989) involving Capp and Walt Kelly, \"two boys from Bridgeport, Connecticut, nose to nose,\" onstage at a meeting of the Newspaper Comics Council in the sixties. \"Walt would say to Al, 'Of course, Al, this is really how you should draw Daisy Mae, I'm only showing you this for your own good.' Then Walt would do a sketch. Capp, of course, got ticked off by this, as you can imagine! So he retaliated by doing ''his'' version of Pogo. Unfortunately, the drawings are long gone; no recording was made. What a shame! Nobody anticipated there'd be this dueling back and forth between the two of them ...\"\n\nAlthough he was often considered a difficult person, some acquaintances of Capp have stressed that the cartoonist also had a sensitive side; in 1973, when learning that the son of his political rival Ted Kennedy had had his right leg amputated, Capp wrote the boy a letter of encouragement, giving candid advice as to how to deal with the loss of a limb, which he himself had experienced as a boy. One of Capp's grandchildren recalls that at one point, tears were streaming down the cartoonist's cheeks while he was watching a documentary about the Jonestown massacre. Capp is also reported to have given money anonymously to charities and \"people in need\" at various points in his life.\n", "In her autobiography, American actress Goldie Hawn stated that Capp sexually propositioned her on a casting couch and exposed himself to her when she was nineteen years old. When she refused his advances, Capp became angry and told her that she was \"never gonna make anything in your life\" and that she should \"go and marry a Jewish dentist. You'll never get anywhere in this business.\"\n", "Like many cartoonists, Capp made extensive use of assistants (notably Andy Amato, Harvey Curtis, Walter Johnson and Frank Frazetta). During the extended peak of the strip, the workload grew to include advertising, merchandising, promotional work, public service comics and other specialty work—in addition to the regular six dailies and one Sunday strip per week. From the early 1940s to the late 1950s, there were scores of Sunday strip-style magazine ads for Cream of Wheat using the ''Abner'' characters, and in the 1950s, Fearless Fosdick became a spokesman for Wildroot Cream-Oil hair tonic in a series of daily strip-style print ads. The characters also sold chainsaws, underwear, ties, detergent, candy, soft drinks—including a licensed version of Capp's moonshine creation, Kickapoo Joy Juice—and General Electric and Procter & Gamble products, all requiring special artwork.\n\nNo matter how much help he had, Capp insisted on drawing and inking the characters' faces and hands—especially of Abner and Daisy Mae—himself, and his distinctive touch is often discernible. \"He had ''the touch,''\" Frazetta said of Capp in 2008. \"He knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it ''pop''. I'll never knock his talent.\"\n\nAs is usual with collaborative efforts in comic strips, his name was the only one credited— although, sensitive to his own experience working on ''Joe Palooka'', Capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces. A 1950 cover story in ''Time'' even included photos of two of his employees, whose roles in the production were detailed by Capp. Ironically, this highly irregular policy (along with the subsequent fame of Frank Frazetta) has led to the misconception that his strip was \"ghosted\" by other hands. The production of ''Li'l Abner'' has been well documented, however. In point of fact, Capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip. Capp himself originated the stories, wrote the dialogue, designed the major characters, rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel, oversaw the finished pencils, and drew and inked the hands and faces of the characters. Frazetta authority David Winiewicz described the everyday working mode of operation in ''Li'l Abner Dailies: 1954 Volume 20'' (Kitchen Sink, 1994):\n\n\n\nThere was also a separate line of comic book titles published by the Caplin family-owned Toby Press, including ''Shmoo Comics'' featuring Washable Jones. Cartoonist Mell Lazarus, creator of ''Miss Peach'' and ''Momma'', wrote a comic novel in 1963 titled ''The Boss Is Crazy, Too'' which was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working with Capp and his brother Elliot at Toby. In a seminar at the Charles Schulz Museum on November 8, 2008, Lazarus called his experience at Toby \"the five funniest years of my life.\" Lazarus went on to cite Capp as one of the \"four essentials\" in the field of newspaper cartoonists, along with Walt Kelly, Charles Schulz and Milton Caniff.\n\nCapp detailed his approach to writing and drawing the stories in an instructional course book for the Famous Artists School, beginning in 1956. In 1959, Capp recorded and released an album for Folkways Records (now owned by the Smithsonian) on which he identified and described \"The Mechanics of the Comic Strip.\"\n\nFrazetta, later famous as a fantasy artist, assisted on the strip from 1954 to December, 1961. Fascinated by Frazetta's abilities, Capp initially gave him a free hand in an extended daily sequence (about a biker named \"Frankie,\" a caricature of Frazetta) to experiment with the basic look of the strip by adding a bit more realism and detail (particularly to the inking). After editors complained about the stylistic changes, the strip's previous look was restored. During most of his tenure with Capp, Frazetta's primary responsibility—along with various specialty art, such as a series of ''Li'l Abner'' greeting cards—was tight-penciling the Sunday pages from studio roughs. This work was collected by Dark Horse Comics in a four-volume hardcover series entitled ''Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years''. In 1961, Capp, complaining of declining revenue, wanted to have Frazetta continue with a 50% pay cut. \"Capp said he would cut the salary in half. Goodbye. That was that. ''I'' said goodbye,\" (from ''Frazetta: Painting with Fire''). However, Frazetta returned briefly a few years later to draw a public service comic book called ''Li'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space'', distributed by the Job Corps in 1965.\n", "Capp provided specialty artwork for civic groups, government agencies and charitable or non-profit organizations, spanning several decades. The following titles are all single-issue, educational comic books and pamphlets produced for various public services:\n\n''Al Capp by Li'l Abner''— Public service giveaway issued by the Red Cross (1946)\n''Yo' Bets Yo' Life!''— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Army (circa 1950)\n''Li'l Abner Joins the Navy''— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of the Navy (1950)\n''Fearless Fosdick and the Case of the Red Feather''— Public service giveaway issued by Red Feather Services, a forerunner of United Way (1951)\n''The Youth You Supervise''— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Department of Labor (1956)\n''Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!''— Public service giveaway issued by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith (1956)\n''Operation: Survival!''— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957)\n''Natural Disasters!''— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957)\n''Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story''— Public service giveaway issued by The Fellowship of Reconciliation (1958)\n''Li'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space''— Public service giveaway issued by the Job Corps (1965)\n\nIn addition, Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the U.S. Treasury, the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Sister Kenny Foundation, the Boy Scouts of America, Community Chest, the National Reading Council, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, Christmas Seals, the National Amputation Foundation and Disabled American Veterans, among others.\n", "In the Golden Age of the American comic strip, successful cartoonists received a great deal of attention; their professional and private lives were reported in the press, and their celebrity was often nearly sufficient to rival their creations. As ''Li'l Abner'' reached its peak years, and following the success of the Shmoos and other high moments in his work, Al Capp achieved a public profile that is still unparalleled in his profession, and arguably exceeded the fame of his strip. \"Capp was the best known, most influential and most controversial cartoonist of his era,\" writes publisher (and leading Shmoo collector) Denis Kitchen. \"His personal celebrity transcended comics, reaching the public and influencing the culture in a variety of media. For many years he simultaneously produced the daily strip, a weekly syndicated newspaper column, and a 500-station radio program....\" He ran the Boston Summer Theatre with ''The Phantom'' cartoonist Lee Falk, bringing in Hollywood actors such as Mae West, Melvyn Douglas and Claude Rains to star in their live productions. He even briefly considered running for a Massachusetts Senate seat. Vice President Spiro Agnew urged Capp to run in the Democratic Party Massachusetts primary in 1970 against Ted Kennedy, but Capp ultimately declined. (He did, however, donate his services as a speaker at a $100-a-plate fundraiser for Republican Congressman Jack Kemp.)\nAl Capp at 1966 Art Festival in Florida\nBesides his use of the comic strip to voice his opinions and display his humor, Capp was a popular guest speaker at universities, and on radio and television. He remains the only cartoonist to be embraced by TV; no other comic artist to date has come close to Capp's televised exposure. Capp appeared as a regular on ''The Author Meets the Critics'' (1948–'54) and made regular, weekly appearances on ''Today'' in 1953. He was also a periodic panelist on ABC and NBC's ''Who Said That?'' (1948–'55), and co-hosted DuMont's ''What's the Story?'' (1953). Between 1952 and 1972, he hosted at least ''five'' television shows–three different talk shows called ''The Al Capp Show'' (1952 and 1968) and ''Al Capp'' (1971–'72), ''Al Capp's America'' (a live \"chalk talk,\" with Capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons, 1954), and a CBS game show called ''Anyone Can Win'' (1953). He also hosted similar vehicles on the radio—and was a familiar celebrity guest on various other broadcast programs, including the long-running NBC Radio Monitor Beacon as a commentator dubbed \"An expert of nothing with opinions on everything\", ''Monitor''.\n\nHis frequent appearances on NBC's ''The Tonight Show'' spanned three emcees (Steve Allen, Jack Paar and Johnny Carson), from the 1950s to the 1970s. One memorable story, as recounted to Johnny Carson, was about his meeting with then-President Dwight D. Eisenhower. As Capp was ushered into the Oval Office, his prosthetic leg suddenly collapsed into a pile of disengaged parts and hinges on the floor. The President immediately turned to an aide and said, \"Call Walter Reed (Hospital), or maybe Bethesda,\" to which Capp replied, \"Hell no, just call a good local mechanic!\" (Capp also spoofed Carson in his strip, in a 1970 episode called \"The Tommy Wholesome Show.\")\n\nCapp portrayed himself in a cameo role in the Bob Hope film ''That Certain Feeling'', for which he also provided promotional art. He was interviewed live on ''Person to Person'' on November 27, 1959, by host Charles Collingwood. He also appeared as himself on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'', Sid Caesar's ''Your Show of Shows'', ''The Red Skelton Show'', ''The Merv Griffin Show'', ''The Mike Douglas Show'', and guested on Ralph Edwards' ''This Is Your Life'' on February 12, 1961, with honoree Peter Palmer. Capp also freelanced very successfully as a magazine writer and newspaper columnist, in a wide variety of publications including ''Life'', ''Show'', ''Pageant'', ''The Atlantic'', ''Esquire'', ''Coronet'', and ''The Saturday Evening Post''. Capp was impersonated by comedians Rich Little and David Frye. Although Capp's endorsement activities never rivaled Li'l Abner's or Fearless Fosdick's, he was a celebrity spokesman in print ads for Sheaffer Snorkel fountain pens (along with colleagues and close friends Milton Caniff and Walt Kelly), and—with an irony that would become apparent later—a brand of cigarettes, (Chesterfield).\n\nCapp would resume visiting war amputees during the Korean War and Vietnam War. He toured Vietnam with the USO, entertaining troops along with Art Buchwald and George Plimpton. He served as chairman of the Cartoonists' Committee in President Dwight D. Eisenhower's People-to-People program in 1954 (although Capp had actually supported Adlai Stevenson for president in 1952 and 1956), which was organized to promote Savings bonds for the U.S. Treasury. Capp had earlier provided the Shmoo for a special Children's Savings Bond in 1949, accompanying President Harry S. Truman at the bond's unveiling ceremony. During the Soviet Union's blockade of West Berlin in 1948, the commanders of the Berlin airlift had cabled Capp, requesting inflatable shmoos as part of \"Operation: Little Vittles.\" Candy-filled shmoos were air-dropped to hungry West Berliners by America's 17th Military Airport Squadron during the humanitarian effort. \"When the candy-chocked shmoos were dropped, a near-riot resulted,\" (reported in ''Newsweek''—October 11, 1948).\n\nIn addition to his public service work for charitable organizations for the handicapped, Capp also served on the National Reading Council, which was organized to combat illiteracy. He published a column (\"Wrong Turn Onto Sesame Street\") challenging federally funded Public Television endowments in favor of educational comics—which, according to Capp, \"didn't cost a dime in taxes and never had. I pointed out that a kid could enjoy ''Sesame Street'' ''without'' learning how to read, but he couldn't enjoy comic strips ''unless'' he could read; and that a smaller investment in getting kids to read by supplying them with educational matter in such ''reading'' form might make better sense.\"\n\nCapp's academic interests included being one of nineteen original \"Trustees and Advisors\" for \"Endicott, Junior College for Young Woman\", located in Pride's Crossing (Beverly), Massachusetts, which was founded in 1939. Al Capp is listed in the 1942 Mingotide Yearbook, representing the first graduating class from Endicott Junior College. The yearbook entry includes his credential as a \"Cartoonist for United Feature Syndicate\" and a resident of New York City.\n\n\"Comics,” wrote Capp in 1970, “can be a combination of the highest quality of art and text, and many of them are.” Capp would produce many giveaway educational comic books and public services pamphlets, spanning several decades, for the Red Cross, the Department of Civil Defense, the Department of the Navy, the U.S. Army, the Anti-Defamation League, the Department of Labor, Community Chest (a forerunner of United Way), and the Job Corps. Capp's studio provided special artwork for various civic groups and non-profit organizations as well. Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Boy Scouts of America, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, the National Amputation Foundation, and Disabled American Veterans, among others. They were also used to help sell Christmas Seals.\n \nCapp was the ''Playboy'' interview subject in December 1965, in a conversation conducted by Alvin Toffler. In August 1967 Capp was the narrator and host of an ABC network special called ''Do Blondes Have More Fun?'' In 1970, he was the subject of a provocative NBC documentary called ''This Is Al Capp.'' In the early 1960s, Capp regularly wrote a column entitled ''Al Capp's Column'' for the New York newspaper ''The Schenectady Gazette'' (currently The Daily Gazette).\n", "Capp and his family lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts, near Harvard during the entire Vietnam War protest era. The turmoil that Americans were watching on their TV sets was happening live—right in his own neighborhood. Campus radicals and “hippies” inevitably became one of Capp’s favorite targets in the sixties. Alongside his long-established caricatures of right-wing, big business types such as General Bullmoose and J. Roaringham Fatback, Capp began spoofing counterculture icons such as Joan Baez (in the character of Joanie Phoanie, a wealthy folksinger who offers an impoverished orphanage ten thousand dollars' worth of \"protest songs\"). The sequence implicitly labeled Baez a limousine liberal, a charge she took to heart, as detailed years later in her 1987 autobiography, ''And A Voice To Sing With: A Memoir''. Another target was Senator Ted Kennedy, parodied as \"Senator O. Noble McGesture,\" resident of \"Hyideelsport.\" The town name is a play on Hyannisport, Massachusetts, where a number of the Kennedy clan have lived.\n\nCapp became a popular public speaker on college campuses, where he reportedly relished hecklers. He attacked militant antiwar demonstrators, both in his personal appearances and in his strip. He also satirized student political groups. The Youth International Party (YIP) and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged in ''Li'l Abner'' as \"Students Wildly Indignant about Nearly Everything!\" (SWINE). In an April 1969 letter to ''Time'', Capp insisted, \"The students I blast are not the dissenters, but the destroyers—the less than 4% who lock up deans in washrooms, who burn manuscripts of unpublished books, who make combination pigpens and playpens of their universities. The remaining 96% detest them as heartily as I do.\"\n\nCapp's increasingly controversial remarks at his campus speeches and during TV appearances cost him his semi-regular spot on the ''Tonight Show''. His contentious public persona during this period was captured on a late sixties comedy LP called ''Al Capp On Campus''. The album features his interaction with students at Fresno State College (now California State University, Fresno) on such topics as \"sensitivity training,\" \"humanitarianism,\" \"abstract art\" (Capp hated it), and \"student protest.\" The cover features a cartoon drawing by Capp of wildly dressed, angry hippies carrying protest signs with slogans like \"End Capp Brutality,\" \"Abner and Daisy Mae Smoke Pot,\" \"Capp Is Over 30, 40, 50—all crossed out the Hill!!,\" and \"If You Like Crap, You'll Like Capp!\"\n\nHighlights of the strip's final decades include \"Boomchik\" (1961), in which America's international prestige is saved by Mammy Yokum, \"Daisy Mae Steps Out\" (1966), a female-empowering tale of Daisy's brazenly audacious “homewrecker gland,\" \"The Lips of Marcia Perkins\" (1967), a satirical, thinly-veiled commentary on venereal disease and public health warnings, \"Ignoble Savages\" (1968), in which the Mob takes over Harvard, and \"Corporal Crock\" (1973), in which Bullmoose reveals his reactionary cartoon role model, in a tale of obsession and the fanatical world of comic book collecting.\n\nThe cartoonist visited John Lennon and Yoko Ono at their 1969 Bed-In for Peace in Montreal, and their testy exchange later appeared in the documentary film ''Imagine: John Lennon'' (1988). Introducing himself with the words \"I'm a dreadful Neanderthal fascist. How do you do?,\" Capp sardonically congratulated Lennon and Ono on their ''Two Virgins'' nude album cover: \"I think that everybody owes it to the world to prove they have pubic hair. You've done it, and I tell you that I applaud you for it.\" Following this exchange, Capp insulted Ono (\"Good God, you've gotta live with that?\"), and is asked to \"get out\" by Derek Taylor. Lennon allowed him to stay however, but the conversation had soured considerably. On Capp's exit, Lennon sang an impromptu version of his ''Ballad of John and Yoko'' song with a slightly revised, but nonetheless prophetic lyric: \"Christ, you know it ain't easy / You know how hard it can be / The way things are goin' / They're gonna crucify ''Capp!'' \"\n\nDespite his political conservatism in the last decade of his life, Capp is reported to have been liberal in some particular causes; he supported Gay Rights, and did not tolerate any attempts at homophobic jokes. He is also said to have supported Martin Luther King, Jr. and the fight for racial equality in American society, although he was very sceptical of the tactics of Black Panthers and Malcolm X.\n\nIn 1968, a theme park called Dogpatch USA opened at Marble Falls, Arkansas, based on Capp's work and with his support. The park was a popular attraction during the 1970s but was abandoned in 1993 due to financial difficulties. By 2005, the area once devoted to a live-action facsimile of Dogpatch (including a lifesize statue in the town square of Dogpatch \"founder,\" General Jubilation T. Cornpone) had been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters, and was slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding Arkansas wilderness.\n\nOn April 22, 1971, syndicated columnist Jack Anderson reported allegations that Capp made indecent advances to four female students when he was invited to speak at the University of Alabama in February 1968. Anderson and his associate Brit Hume confirmed that Capp was shown out of town by university police, but that the incident had been hushed up by the university to avoid negative publicity.\n\nThe following month, Capp was charged in Eau Claire, Wisconsin, in connection with another alleged incident following his April 1 lecture at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Capp was accused of propositioning a married woman in his hotel room. Although no sexual act was alleged to have resulted, the original charge included \"sodomy.\" As part of a plea agreement, Capp pleaded guilty to the charge of \"attempted adultery\" (adultery was a felony in Wisconsin) and the other charges were dropped. Capp was fined $500 and court costs. In a December 1992 article for ''The New Yorker,'' Seymour Hersh reported that President Richard Nixon and Charles Colson had repeatedly discussed the Capp case in Oval Office recordings that had recently been made available by the National Archives. Nixon and Capp were on friendly terms, Hersh wrote, and Nixon and Colson had worked to find a way for Capp to run against Ted Kennedy for the U.S. Senate. \"Nixon was worried about the allegations, fearing that Capp's very close links to the White House would become embarrassingly public,\" Hersh wrote. \"The White House tapes and documents show that he and Colson discussed the issue repeatedly, and that Colson eventually reassured the President by saying that he had, in essence, fixed the case. Specifically, the President was told that one of Colson's people had gone to Wisconsin and tried to talk to the prosecutors.\" Colson's efforts failed, however. The Eau Claire district attorney, a Republican, refused to dismiss the attempted adultery charge. In passing sentence in February 1972, the judge rejected the D.A.'s motion that Capp agree to undergo psychiatric treatment.\n\nThe resulting publicity led to hundreds of papers dropping his comic strip, and Capp, already in failing health, withdrew from public speaking. Celebrity biographer James Spada has claimed that similar allegations were made by actress Grace Kelly. However, no firsthand allegation has ever surfaced.\n\n\"From beginning to end, Capp was acid-tongued toward the targets of his wit, intolerant of hypocrisy, and always wickedly funny. After about 40 years, however, Capp's interest in ''Abner'' waned, and this showed in the strip itself,\" according to Don Markstein's ''Toonopedia''. On November 13, 1977, Capp retired with an apology to his fans for the recently declining quality of the strip, which he said had been the best he could manage due to declining health. \"If you have any sense of humor about your strip—and I had a sense of humor about mine—you knew that for three or four years ''Abner'' was wrong. Oh hell, it's like a fighter retiring. I stayed on longer than I should have,\" he admitted, adding that he couldn't breathe anymore. \"When he retired ''Li'l Abner'', newspapers ran expansive articles and television commentators talked about the passing of an era. ''People magazine'' ran a substantial feature, and even the comics-free ''New York Times'' devoted nearly a full page to the event,\" wrote publisher Denis Kitchen.\n\nCapp's final years were marked by advancing illness and by family tragedy. In October 1977, one of his two daughters died; a few weeks later, a beloved granddaughter was killed in a car accident. A lifelong chain smoker, Capp died in 1979 from emphysema at his home in South Hampton, New Hampshire. Capp is buried in Mount Prospect Cemetery in Amesbury, Massachusetts. Engraved on his headstone is a stanza from Thomas Gray: ''The plowman homeward plods his weary way / And leaves the world to darkness and to me,'' (from \"Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard,\" 1751).\n", "\"Neither the strip's shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic; and in 1995, it was recognized as such by the U.S. Postal Service,\" according to ''Toonopedia''. ''Li'l Abner'' was one of 20 American comic strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of USPS commemorative stamps. Al Capp, an inductee into the National Cartoon Museum (formerly the International Museum of Cartoon Art), is one of only 31 artists selected to their Hall of Fame. Capp was also inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 2004.\n\nSadie Hawkins Day and double whammy are two terms attributed to Al Capp that have entered the English language. Other, less ubiquitous Cappisms include skunk works and Lower Slobbovia. The term shmoo has also entered the lexicon, defining highly technical concepts in no less than ''four'' separate fields of science, including the variations shmooing (a microbiological term for the \"budding\" process in yeast reproduction), and shmoo plot (a technical term in the field of electrical engineering). In socioeconomics, a \"shmoo\" refers to any generic kind of good that reproduces itself, (as opposed to \"widgets\" which require resources and active production.) In the field of particle physics, \"shmoo\" refers to a high energy survey instrument, as utilized at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus X-3 constellation. Capp also had a knack for popularizing certain uncommon terms, such as druthers, schmooze and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. In his book ''The American Language'', H.L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding \"-nik\" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning—not with beatnik or Sputnik—but earlier, in the pages of ''Li'l Abner''.\n\nAl Capp's life and career are the subjects of a new life-sized mural commemorating his 100th birthday. Created by resident artist Jon P. Mooers, the mural was unveiled in downtown Amesbury on May 15, 2010. According to the ''Boston Globe'' (as reported on May 18, 2010), the town has renamed its amphitheater in the artist's honor, and is looking to develop an Al Capp Museum. Capp is also the subject of an upcoming WNET-TV ''American Masters'' documentary, ''The Life and Times of Al Capp'', produced by his granddaughter, independent filmmaker Caitlin Manning.\n\nSince his death in 1979, Al Capp and his work have been the subject of more than 40 books, including three biographies. Underground cartoonist and ''Li'l Abner'' expert Denis Kitchen has published, co-published, edited, or otherwise served as consultant on nearly all of them. Kitchen is currently compiling a biographical monograph on Al Capp. Several unsuccessful attempts to resurrect the Li'l Abner comic strip by new hands never advanced past the initial planning stage. Paramount Studios retained it's option for a remake film or sequel until 1999.\n\nAt the San Diego Comic Con in July 2009, IDW announced the upcoming publication of ''Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays'' as part of their ongoing Library of American Comics project. The comprehensive series, a reprinting of the entire 43-year history of ''Li'l Abner'' spanning a projected 20 volumes, began on April 7, 2010.\n", "\n", "\n\nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner in New York'' (1936) Whitman Publishing\nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner Among the Millionaires'' (1939) Whitman Publishing\nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner and Sadie Hawkins Day'' (1940) Saalfield Publishing\nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner and the Ratfields'' (1940) Saalfield Publishing\nSheridan, Martin, ''Comics and Their Creators'' (1942) R.T. Hale & Co, (1977) Hyperion Press\nWaugh, Coulton, ''The Comics'' (1947) Macmillan Publishers\nCapp, Al, ''Newsweek Magazine'' (November 24, 1947) \"Li'l Abner's Mad Capp\"\nCapp, Al, ''Saturday Review of Literature'' (March 20, 1948) \"The Case for the Comics\"\nCapp, Al, ''The Life and Times of the Shmoo'' (1948) Simon & Schuster\nCapp, Al, ''The Nation'' (March 21, 1949) \"There Is a Real Shmoo\"\nCapp, Al, ''Cosmopolitan Magazine'' (June 1949) \"I Don't Like Shmoos\"\nCapp, Al, ''Atlantic Monthly'' (April 1950) \"I Remember Monster\"\nCapp, Al, ''Time Magazine'' (November 6, 1950) \"Die Monstersinger\"\nCapp, Al, ''Life Magazine'' (March 31, 1952) \"It's Hideously True!!...\"\nCapp, Al, ''Real Magazine'' (December 1952) \"The REAL Powers in America\"\nCapp, Al, ''The World of Li'l Abner'' (1953) Farrar, Straus & Young\nLeifer, Fred, ''The Li'l Abner Official Square Dance Handbook'' (1953) A.S. Barnes\nMikes, George, ''Eight Humorists'' (1954) Allen Wingate, (1977) Arden Library\nLehrer, Tom, ''The Tom Lehrer Song Book'', introduction by Al Capp (1954) Crown Publishers\nCapp, Al, ''Al Capp's Fearless Fosdick: His Life and Deaths'' (1956) Simon & Schuster\nCapp, Al, ''Al Capp's Bald Iggle: The Life it Ruins May Be Your Own'' (1956) Simon & Schuster\nCapp, Al, et al. ''Famous Artists Cartoon Course'' — 3 volumes (1956) Famous Artists School\nCapp, Al, ''Life Magazine'' (January 14, 1957) \"The Dogpatch Saga: Al Capp's Own Story\"\nBrodbeck, Arthur J, et al. \"How to Read Li'l Abner Intelligently\" from ''Mass Culture: Popular Arts in America,'' pp. 218–224 (1957) Free Press\nCapp, Al, ''The Return of the Shmoo'' (1959) Simon & Schuster\nHart, Johnny, ''Back to B.C.'', introduction by Al Capp (1961) Fawcett Publications\nLazarus, Mell, ''Miss Peach'', introduction by Al Capp (1962) Pyramid Books\nGross, Milt, ''He Done Her Wrong'', introduction by Al Capp (1963 Ed.) Dell Books\nWhite, David Manning, and Robert H. Abel, eds. ''The Funnies: An American Idiom'' (1963) Free Press\nWhite, David Manning, ed. ''From Dogpatch to Slobbovia: The (Gasp!) World of Li'l Abner'' (1964) Beacon Press\nCapp, Al, ''Life International Magazine'' (June 14, 1965) \"My Life as an Immortal Myth\"\nToffler, Alvin, ''Playboy Magazine'' (December 1965) interview with Al Capp, pp. 89–100\nMoger, Art, et al. ''Chutzpah Is'', introduction by Al Capp (1966) Colony Publishers\nBerger, Arthur Asa, ''Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire'' (1969) Twayne Publishers, (1994) Univ. Press of Mississippi \nSugar, Andy, ''Saga Magazine'' (December 1969) \"On the Campus Firing Line with Al Capp\"\nGray, Harold, ''Arf! The Life and Hard Times of Little Orphan Annie'', introduction by Al Capp (1970) Arlington House\nMoger, Art, ''Some of My Best Friends are People'', introduction by Al Capp (1970) Directors Press\nCapp, Al, ''The Hardhat's Bedtime Story Book'' (1971) Harper & Row \nRobinson, Jerry, ''The Comics: An Illustrated History of Comic Strip Art'' (1974) G.P. Putnam's Sons\nHorn, Maurice, ''The World Encyclopedia of Comics'' (1976) Chelsea House, (1982) Avon\nBlackbeard, Bill, ed. ''The Smithsonian Collection of Newspaper Comics'' (1977) Smithsonian Inst. Press/Harry Abrams\nMarschall, Rick, ''Cartoonist PROfiles'' #37 (March 1978) interview with Al Capp\nCapp, Al, ''The Best of Li'l Abner'' (1978) Holt, Rinehart & Winston \nLardner, Ring, ''You Know Me Al: The Comic Strip Adventures of Jack Keefe'', introduction by Al Capp (1979) Harcourt Brace Jovanovich\nVan Buren, Raeburn, ''Abbie an' Slats'' — 2 volumes (1983) Ken Pierce Books\nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner: Reuben Award Winner Series Book 1'' (1985) Blackthorne\nMarschall, Rick, ''Nemo, the Classic Comics Library'' #18, pp. 3–32 (April 1986)\nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner Dailies'' — 27 volumes (1988–1999) Kitchen Sink Press\nMarschall, Rick, ''America's Great Comic Strip Artists'' (1989) Abbeville Press\nCapp, Al, ''Fearless Fosdick'' (1990) Kitchen Sink \nCapp, Al, ''My Well-Balanced Life on a Wooden Leg'' (1991) John Daniel & Co. \nCapp, Al, ''Fearless Fosdick: The Hole Story'' (1992) Kitchen Sink \nGoldstein, Kalman, \"Al Capp and Walt Kelly: Pioneers of Political and Social Satire in the Comics\" from ''Journal of Popular Culture;'' Vol. 25, Issue 4 (Spring 1992)\nCaplin, Elliot, ''Al Capp Remembered'' (1994) Bowling Green State University \nTheroux, Alexander, ''The Enigma of Al Capp'' (1999) Fantagraphics Books \nLubbers, Bob, ''Glamour International #26: The Good Girl Art of Bob Lubbers'' (May 2001)\nCapp, Al, ''The Short Life and Happy Times of the Shmoo'' (2002) Overlook Press \nCapp, Al, ''Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years'' — 4 volumes (2003–2004) Dark Horse Comics\nAl Capp Studios, ''Al Capp's Complete Shmoo: The Comic Books'' (2008) Dark Horse \nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 1: 1934–1936'' (2010) IDW Publishing \nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 2: 1937–1938'' (2010) IDW \nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 3: 1939–1940'' (2011) IDW \nCapp, Al, ''Al Capp's Complete Shmoo Vol. 2: The Newspaper Strips'' (2011) Dark Horse \nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 4: 1941–1942'' (2012) IDW \nInge, M. Thomas, \"Li'l Abner, Snuffy and Friends\" from ''Comics and the U.S. South'', pp. 3–27 (2012) Univ. Press of Mississippi \nCapp, Al, ''Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 5: 1943–1944'' (2012) IDW \nKitchen, Denis, and Michael Schumacher, ''Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary'' (2013) Bloomsbury Publishing \n\n", " ''Li'l Abner'' official site\n* \n* \n* Denis Kitchen biography: Al Capp\n* Animation Resources: Al Capp part I\n* Animation Resources: Al Capp part II\n* Animation Resources: Al Capp part III\n* Animation Resources: Al Capp part IV\n* Animation Resources: Al Capp part V\n* Al Capp Deserves a Tribute (''Newburyport News'', 28 Sept. 2009)\n* Luminaries of the NCS: Al Capp\n* Dogpatch USA amusement park.\n* The Dogpatch Family Band Mechanical Toy\n* Dogpatch and ''Li'l Abner'' on Broadway in ''Life'', January 14, 1957, pp. 71–83\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "''Li'l Abner''", "Parodies, toppers and alternate strips", "Critical recognition", "The 1940s and '50s", "Feud with Ham Fisher", "Personality", "Sexual harassment of Goldie Hawn", "Production methods", "Public service works", "Public figure", "The 1960s and '70s", "Legacy", "Notes", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Al Capp
[ "\n\n\n'''Ann Druyan''' ( ; born June 13, 1949) is an American writer and producer specializing in the communication of science. She co-wrote the 1980 PBS documentary series ''Cosmos'', hosted by Carl Sagan, whom she married in 1981. She is the creator, producer, and writer of the 2014 sequel, ''Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey''.\n\nShe was the Creative Director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project, the golden discs affixed to both the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft.\n", "Druyan was born in Queens, New York, the daughter of Pearl A. (''née'' Goldsmith) and Harry Druyan, who co-owned a knitware firm.\n", "Druyan's first novel, ''A Famous Broken Heart'', was published in 1977.\n\nDruyan co-wrote six ''New York Times'' best-sellers with Carl Sagan, including: ''Comet'', ''Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors'', and ''The Demon-Haunted World''. She is co-author, along with Carl Sagan, F. D. Drake, Timothy Ferris, Jon Lomberg and Linda Salzman Sagan, of ''Murmurs Of Earth : The Voyager Interstellar Record''. She also wrote the updated introduction to Sagan's book ''The Cosmic Connection'', and the epilogue of ''Billions and Billions''. She edited and wrote the introduction to a book of Sagan's 1985 Gifford lectures, ''The Varieties of Scientific Experience''.\n", "As creative director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project, Druyan worked with a team to design a complex message, including music and images, for possible alien civilizations. These golden phonograph records affixed to the ''Voyager 1'' and ''Voyager 2'' spacecraft are now beyond the outermost planets of the solar system and ''Voyager 1'' has entered interstellar space. Both records have a projected shelf life of one billion years.\n\nDruyan is a fellow of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims for the Paranormal (CSICOP).\n\nDruyan served as program director of the first solar sail deep space mission, Cosmos 1, launched on a Russian ICBM in 2005.\n\nDruyan is involved in multiple Breakthrough Initiatives. With Frank Drake, Druyan is the co-chair of Breakthrough Message, and she is also a member of Breakthrough Starshot.\n\nShe is a member of the advisory board of The Carl Sagan Institute.\n", "Dr. Neil deGrasse Tyson and Ann Druyan in Sydney\n\nDruyan wrote and produced the 1987 PBS NOVA episode ''Confessions of a Weaponeer'' on the life of President Eisenhower's Science Advisor, George Kistiakowsky.\n\nIn 2000, Druyan co-founded Cosmos Studios, Inc, with Joseph Firmage. As CEO of Cosmos Studios, Druyan produces science-based entertainment for all media. In addition to ''Cosmos: A SpaceTime Odyssey,'' Cosmos Studios has produced ''Cosmic Africa'', ''Lost Dinosaurs of Egypt'', and the Emmy-nominated documentary ''Cosmic Journey: The Voyager Interstellar Mission and Message''.\n\nDruyan was one of the three writers of the TV series ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage'', along with Carl Sagan and Steven Soter, and a producer for the motion picture ''Contact''.\n\nDruyan is the chief executive officer and the co-founder of Cosmos Studios. In 2009, she distributed a series of podcasts called ''At Home in the Cosmos with Annie Druyan'' in which she described her works, the life of her husband, Carl Sagan, and their marriage.\n\nIn 2011, it was announced that Druyan would be part of the writing and production teams for a sequel to ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage'', to be called ''Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey'', which began airing in March 2014. Episodes premiered on Fox and also aired on National Geographic Channel on the same night.\n", "Druyan has served on the Board of Directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) for over 10 years and was president from 2006 to 2010.\n", "In November 2006, Druyan was a speaker at \"Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival\".\n\nIn January 2007, she was a juror at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival, responsible for selecting the winner of the Alfred P. Sloan Prize for films about science and technology.\n", "In an interview with Joel Achenbach of ''The Washington Post'', Druyan stated that her early interest in science stemmed from a fascination with Karl Marx. Achenbach commented that \"She had, at the time, rather vaporous standards of evidence,\" a reference to her belief in the ancient astronauts of Erich von Däniken and the theories of Immanuel Velikovsky pertaining to the Solar System. Druyan freely acknowledged her past views and also said that they after marrying Carl Sagan.\n", "* 2004 Richard Dawkins Award\n* 2015 The Award for Outstanding Producer of Non-Fiction Television from Producers Guild of America\n", "* Women in science\n", "\n", "\nAnn Druyan: The Observatory\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life ", "Career as an author", "Work in science", "Work in film and television", "Activism", "Honors", "Religious and philosophical views", "Awards", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Ann Druyan
[ "\n\n'''Analcime''' or '''analcite''' (from the Greek ''analkimos'' - \"weak\") is a white, gray, or colorless tectosilicate mineral. Analcime consists of hydrated sodium aluminium silicate in cubic crystalline form. Its chemical formula is NaAlSi2O6'''·'''H2O. Minor amounts of potassium and calcium substitute for sodium. A silver-bearing synthetic variety also exists (Ag-analcite).\n\nAnalcime is usually classified as a zeolite mineral, but structurally and chemically it is more similar to the feldspathoids. Analcime occurs as a primary mineral in analcime basalt and other alkaline igneous rocks. It also occurs as cavity and vesicle fillings associated with prehnite, calcite, and zeolites. \n", "\nWell known locations for sourcing analcime include Croft Quarry in Leicestershire, UK; the Cyclopean Islands east off Sicily and near Trentino in northern Italy; Victoria in Australia; Kerguelen Island in the Indian Ocean; in the Lake Superior copper district of Michigan, Bergen Hill, New Jersey, Golden, Colorado, and at Searles Lake, California in the United States; and at Cape Blomidon, Nova Scotia and Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec in Canada; and in Iceland.\n", "* List of minerals\n", "\n* Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., \n* Mineral Galleries\n* Mindat.org\n* Webmineral.com\n\n", "* structure type ANA\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Locations", "See also", " References ", "External links" ]	Analcime
[ "\n\n'''Alexey Leonidovich Pajitnov''' (, ; ; born 14 March 1956) is a Russian video game designer and computer engineer who developed ''Tetris'' while working for the Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, a Soviet government-founded R&D center.\n\nHe only started to get royalties from his creation in 1996 when he and Henk Rogers formed The Tetris Company.\n", "Pajitnov was born on 14 March 1956 in Moscow, Soviet Union. As a child, he was a fan of puzzles and played with pentomino toys. In creating ''Tetris,'' he drew inspiration from these toys.\n\nPajitnov (male) created ''Tetris'' with the help of Dmitry Pavlovsky and Vadim Gerasimov in 1984. The game, first available in the Soviet Union, appeared in the West in 1986.\n\nPajitnov also created a sequel to ''Tetris'', entitled ''Welltris'', which has the same principle but in a three dimensional environment where the player sees the playing area from above. ''Tetris'' was licensed and managed by Soviet company ELORG which had been founded especially for this purpose, and advertised with the slogan ''\"From Russia with Love\"'' (on NES: ''\"From Russia With Fun!\"''). Because he was employed by the Soviet government, Pajitnov did not receive royalties.\n\nPajitnov, together with Vladimir Pokhilko, moved to the United States in 1991 and later, in 1996, founded The Tetris Company with Henk Rogers. He helped design the puzzles in the Super NES versions of ''Yoshi's Cookie'' and designed the game ''Pandora's Box'', which incorporates more traditional jigsaw-style puzzles.\n\nHe was employed by Microsoft from October 1996 until 2005. While there he worked on the ''Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection'', MSN Mind Aerobics and MSN Games groups. Pajitnov's new, enhanced version of ''Hexic'', ''Hexic HD'', was included with every new Xbox 360 Premium package.\n\nOn 18 August 2005, WildSnake Software announced that Pajitnov would be collaborating with them to release a new line of puzzle games.\n", "{\|border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"4\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; text-align: center;\"\n\n Game name !! First released !! System name(s) !! Pajitnov's role(s)\n\n ''Tetris''\n\n 1984 \n Electronika 60, IBM-PC \n Original concept (with Vadim Gerasimov & Dmitry Pavlovsky)\n\n ''Welltris''\n\n 1989 \n Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, DOS, Macintosh & ZX Spectrum \n Designer (with Andrei Sgenov) \n\n ''Faces''\n\n 1990 \n Amiga, DOS, Macintosh \n Original concept (with Vladimir Pokhilko)\n\n ''Hatris''\n\n 1990 \n TurboGrafx-16, Arcade, Game Boy & NES \n Original concept\n\n ''Knight Move''\n\n 1990 \n Famicom Disk System (Japan) \n Idealist\n\n ''Wordtris''\n\n 1991 \n DOS, Game Boy, Classic Mac OS, SNES \n Designer\n\n ''El-Fish''\n\n 1993 \n DOS \n Original concept (with Vladimir Pokhilko)\n\n ''Wild Snake'' / ''Super Snakey''\n\n 1994 \n Game Boy, Super Nintendo \n Original concept\n\n ''Knight Moves''\n\n 1995 \n Microsoft Windows \n Idealist\n\n ''Ice & Fire''\n\n 1995 \n Windows, Macintosh & PlayStation \n Original concept (with Vladimir Pokhilko)\n\n ''Tetrisphere''\n\n 1997 \n Nintendo 64 \n Contributor\n\n ''Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection''\n\n 1997 \n Windows & Game Boy Color \n Designer \n\n ''Microsoft Pandora's Box''\n\n 1999 \n Windows \n Designer\n\n ''Microsoft A.I. Puzzler''\n\n 2001 \n Windows \n Designer\n\n ''Hexic''\n\n 2003 \n Windows \n Original concept and design \n\n ''Hexic HD''\n\n 2005 \n Xbox 360 (Pre-loaded on every Xbox 360 hard drive) \n Original concept and design \n\n ''Dwice ''\n\n 2006 \n Windows \n Designer\n\n ''Hexic 2''\n\n 2007 \n Xbox 360 (Sold through Xbox Live Arcade) \n Designer \n\n Marbly\n\n 2013 \n iOS (Sold through Appstore) \n Original concept and design\n\n", "In 1996, GameSpot named him as the fourth most influential computer game developer of all time.\n\nOn 7 March 2007, he received the Game Developers Choice Awards First Penguin Award. The award was given for pioneering the casual games market.\n\nOn 24 June 2009, he received the honorary award at the LARA - Der Deutsche Games Award in Cologne, Germany.\n\nIn 2012, IGN included Pajitnov on their list of 5 Memorable Video Game Industry One-Hit Wonders, calling him \"the ultimate video game one-hit wonder.\"\n", "''BreakThru!'', video game endorsed by Pajitnov\n''ClockWerx'', video game endorsed by Pajitnov\n", "\n", "\n* ''Alexey Pajitnov'' profile at MobyGames\n* ''Tetris - From Russia with Love'', BBC documentary (website).\n* Video Interview with Alexey Pajitnov at GameZombie.tv\n* Tetris Creator Claims ''Free and Open Source Software'' Destroys the Market.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Works", "Awards and recognition", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alexey Pajitnov
[ "\n\n\n'''`Abdu’l-Bahá'''' (Persian/‎, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born '''‘Abbás Effendí''' (), was the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith. In 1892, `Abdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's will to be his successor and head of the Bahá'í Faith. `Abdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran to an aristocratic family of the realm. At the age of eight his father was imprisoned and the family's possessions were looted, leaving them in virtual poverty. Along with his father, `Abdu'l-Bahá was exiled to Baghdad where the family lived for nine years.\n\nDuring his youth he was faithful to his father and was regarded as an outstanding member of the Bahá’í exile community. As a teenager he was his father’s amanuensis and was regularly seen debating theological issues with the learned men of the area. In 1863, Bahá'u'lláh and his family were banished from Baghdad to Istanbul. During the 1860s the family was further banished from Constantinople to Adrianople, and then finally to the penal-colony of Acre, Palestine.\n\nWith his father's death in 1892, and his appointment as head of the Bahá’í Faith, there was much opposition to him, including virtually all his family members. Notwithstanding this, practically all of the worldwide Bahá’í community accepted his leadership. In 1908, at the age of 64 and after forty years imprisonment, `Abdu’l-Bahá was freed by the Young Turks and he and his family began to live in relative safety. His journeys to the West, and his \"Tablets of the Divine Plan\" spread the Bahá'í message beyond its middle-eastern roots, and his Will and Testament laid the foundation for the current Bahá'í administrative order. Many of his writings, prayers and letters are extant, and his discourses with the Western Bahá'ís emphasize the growth of the faith by the late 1890s. `Abdu'l-Bahá's given name was `Abbás, but he preferred the title of `Abdu'l-Bahá (servant of the glory of God). He is commonly referred to in Bahá'í texts as \"The Master\", and received the title of KBE after his personal storage of grain was used to relieve famine in Palestine following World War I, but never used the title.\n", "`Abdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran, Iran on 23 May 1844 (5th of Jamadiyu'l-Avval, 1260 AH), the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh and Navváb. He was born on the very same night on which the Báb declared his mission. Born with the given name of `Abbás, he was named after his grandfather Mírzá `Abbás Núrí, a prominent and powerful nobleman. As a child, `Abdu'l-Bahá was shaped by his father's position as a prominent Bábí. He recalled how he met the Bábí Táhirih and how she would take \"me on to her knee, caress me, and talk to me. I admired her most deeply\". `Abdu’l-Bahá had a happy and carefree childhood. The family’s Tehran home and country houses were comfortable and beautifully decorated. `Abdu'l-Bahá enjoyed playing in the gardens with his younger sister with whom he was very close. Along with his younger siblings – a sister, Bahíyyih, and a brother, Mihdí – the three lived in an environment of privilege, happiness and comfort. With his father declining a position as minister of the royal court; during his young boyhood `Abdu’l-Bahá witnessed his parents' various charitable endeavours, which included converting part of the home to a hospital ward for women and children.\n\n`Abdu'l-Bahá received a haphazard education during his childhood. It was customary not to send children of nobility to schools. Most noblemen were educated at home briefly in scripture, rhetoric, calligraphy and basic mathematics. Many were educated to prepare themselves for life in the royal court. Despite a brief spell at a traditional preparatory school at the age of seven for one year, `Abdu'l-Bahá received no formal education. As he grew he was educated by his mother, and uncle. Most of his education however, came from his father. Years later in 1890 Edward Granville Browne described how `Abdu'l-Bahá was \"one more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, and the Muhammadans...scarcely be found even amongst the eloquent.\"\n\nWhen `Abdu'l-Bahá was seven, he contracted tuberculosis and was expected to die. Though the malady faded away, he would be plagued with bouts of illness for the rest of his life.\n\nOne event that affected `Abdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when `Abdu'l-Bahá was eight years old; the imprisonment led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. `Abdu'l-Bahá accompanied his mother to visit Bahá'u'lláh who was then imprisoned in the infamous subterranean dungeon the Síyáh-Chál. He described how \"I saw a dark, steep place. We entered a small, narrow doorway, and went down two steps, but beyond those one could see nothing. In the middle of the stairway, all of a sudden we heard His Bahá’u’lláh's…voice: 'Do not bring him in here', and so they took me back\".\n", "Bahá'u'lláh was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and `Abdu'l-Bahá then eight joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter (January to April) of 1853. During the journey `Abdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. After a year of difficulties Bahá'u'lláh absented himself rather than continue to face the conflict with Mirza Yahya and secretly secluded himself in the mountains of Sulaymaniyah in April 1854 a month before `Abdu'l-Bahá's tenth birthday. Mutual sorrow resulted in him, his mother and sister becoming constant companions. `Abdu'l-Bahá was particularly close to both, and his mother took active participation in his education and upbringing. During the two-year absence of his father `Abdu'l-Bahá took up the duty of managing the affairs of the family, before his age of maturity (14 in middle-eastern society) and was known to be occupied with reading and, at a time of hand-copied scriptures being the primary means of publishing, was also engaged in copying the writings of the Báb. `Abdu’l-Bahá also took an interest in the art of horse riding and, as he grew, became a renowned rider.\n\nIn 1856, news of an ascetic carrying on discourses with local Súfí leaders that seemed to possibly be Bahá'u'lláh reached the family and friends. Immediately, family members and friends went to search for the elusive dervish – and in March brought Bahá'u'lláh back to Baghdad. On seeing his father, `Abdu'l-Bahá fell to his knees and wept loudly \"Why did you leave us?\", and this followed with his mother and sister doing the same. `Abdu'l-Bahá soon became his father's secretary and shield. During the sojourn in the city `Abdu’l-Bahá grew from a boy into a young man. He was noted as a \"remarkably fine looking youth\", and remembered for his charity and amiableness. Having passed the age of maturity `Abdu'l-Bahá was regularly seen in the mosques of Baghdad discussing religious topics and the scripture as a young man. Whilst in Baghdad, `Abdu'l-Bahá composed a commentary at the request of his father on the Muslim tradition of \"I was a Hidden Treasure\" for a Súfí leader named `Alí Shawkat Páshá. `Abdu'l-Bahá was fifteen or sixteen at the time and `Alí Shawkat Páshá regarded the more than 11000 word essay as a remarkable feat for somebody of his age. In 1863 in what became known as the Garden of Ridván Bahá'u'lláh announced to a few that he was the manifestation of God and He whom God shall make manifest whose coming had been foretold by the Báb. On day eight of the twelve days, it is believed `Abdu'l-Baha was the first person Baha'u'llah revealed his claim to.\n", "`Abdu'l-Bahá (right) with his brother Mírzá Mihdí\nIn 1863 Bahá'u'lláh was summoned to Constantinople (Istanbul), and thus his whole family including `Abdu'l-Bahá, then nineteen, accompanied him on his 110-day journey. The journey to Constantinople was another wearisome journey, and `Abdu'l-Bahá helped feed the exiles. It was here that his position became more prominent amongst the Bahá’ís. This was further solidified by Bahá’u’lláh’s tablet of the Branch in which he constantly exalts his son's virtues and station. The family were soon exiled to Adrianople and `Abdu'l-Bahá went with the family. `Abdu’l-Bahá again suffered from frostbite.\n\nIn Adrianople `Abdu’l-Bahá was regarded as the sole comforter of his family – in particular to his mother. At this point `Abdu'l-Bahá was known by the Bahá'ís as \"the Master\", and by non-Bahá'ís as `Abbás Effendi (\"Effendi\" signifies \"Sir\"). It was in Adrianople that Bahá’u’lláh referred to his son as \"the Mystery of God\". The title of \"Mystery of God\" symbolises, according to Bahá'ís, that `Abdu'l-Bahá is not a manifestation of God but how a \"person of `Abdu'l-Bahá the incompatible characteristics of a human nature and superhuman knowledge and perfection have been blended and are completely harmonized\". `Abdu'l-Bahá was at this point noted for having black hair which flowed to his shoulders, large blue eyes, rose-through-alabaster coloured skin and a fine nose. Bahá'u'lláh gave his son many other titles such as ''Ghusn-i-A'zam'' (meaning \"Mightiest Branch\" or \"Mightier Branch\"), the \"Branch of Holiness\", \"the Center of the Covenant\" and the apple of his eye. `Abdu'l-Bahá (\"the Master\") was devastated when hearing the news that he and his family were to be exiled separately from Bahá'u'lláh. It was, according to Bahá'ís, through his intercession that the idea was reverted and the family were allowed to be exiled together.\n", "Prison in Acre\nAt the age of 24, `Abdu'l-Bahá was clearly chief-steward to his father and an outstanding member of the Bahá’í community. Bahá’u’lláh and his family were – in 1868 – exiled to the penal colony of Acre, Palestine where it was expected that the family would perish. Arrival in Acre was distressing for the family and exiles. They were greeted in a hostile manner by the surrounding population and his sister and father fell dangerously ill. When told that the women were to sit on the shoulders of the men to reach the shore, `Abdu'l-Bahá took a chair and carried the women to the bay of Acre. `Abdu'l-Bahá was able to procure some anesthetic and nursed the sick. The Bahá’ís were imprisoned under horrendous conditions in a cluster of cells covered in excrement and dirt. `Abdu'l-Bahá himself fell dangerously ill with dysentery, however a sympathetic soldier permitted a physician to help cure him. The population shunned them, the soldiers treated them the same, and the behaviour of Siyyid Muhammad-i-Isfahani (an Azali) did not help matters. Morale was further destroyed with the accidental death of `Abdu'l-Bahá’s youngest brother Mírzá Mihdí at the age of 22. His death devastated the family – particularly his mother and father – and the grieving `Abdu'l-Bahá kept a night-long vigil beside his brother’s body.\n\n=== Later in Acre ===\nOver time, he gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Bahá'i exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Acre that, according to the Bahá'ís, they recognized the innocence of the Bahá'ís, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Four months after the death of Mihdí the family moved from the prison to the House of `Abbúd. The people of Acre started to respect the Bahá'ís and in particular, `Abdu'l-Bahá. `Abdu'l-Bahá was able to arrange for houses to be rented for the family, the family later moved to the Mansion of Bahjí around 1879 when an epidemic caused the inhabitants to flee.\n\n`Abdu'l-Bahá soon became very popular in the penal colony and Myron Henry Phelps a wealthy New York lawyer described how \"a crowd of human beings...Syrians, Arabs, Ethiopians, and many others\", all waited to talk and receive `Abdu'l-Bahá. He undertook a history of the Bábí religion through publication of A Traveller's Narrative (Makála-i-Shakhsí Sayyáh) in 1886, later translated and published in translation in 1891 through Cambridge University by the agency of Edward Granville Browne who described `Abdu'l-Bahá as: \n\n===Marriage and family life===\n`Abdu'l-Bahá at age 24\nAs a young man speculation was rife amongst the Bahá’ís to whom `Abdu'l-Bahá would marry. Several young girls were seen as marriage prospects but `Abdu’l-Bahá seemed disinclined to marriage. On 8 March 1873, at the urging of his father, the twenty-eight-year-old `Abdu’l-Bahá married Fátimih Nahrí of Isfahán (1847–1938) a twenty-five-year-old from an upper-class family of the city. Her father was Mírzá Muḥammad `Alí Nahrí of Isfahan an eminent Bahá’í with prominent connections. Fátimih was brought from Persia to Acre, Palestine after both Bahá’u’lláh and his wife Navváb expressed an interest in her to marry `Abdu’l-Bahá. After a wearisome journey from Isfahán to Akka she finally arrived accompanied by her brother in 1872. The young couple were betrothed for about five months before the marriage itself commenced. In the meantime, Fátimih lived in the home of `Abdu'l-Bahá’s uncle Mírzá Músá. According to her later memoirs, Fátimih fell in love with `Abdu'l-Bahá on seeing him. `Abdu'l-Bahá himself had showed little inkling to marriage until meeting Fátimih; who was entitled Munírih by Bahá’u’lláh. Munírih is a title meaning \"Luminous\".\n\nThe marriage resulted in nine children. The first born was a son Mihdí Effendi who died aged about 3. He was followed by Ḍiyá'iyyih Khánum, Fu’ádíyyih Khánum (d. few years old), Rúhangíz Khánum (d. 1893), Túbá Khánum, Husayn Effendi (d.1887 aged 5), Túbá Khánum, Rúhá Khánum and Munnavar Khánum. The death of his children caused `Abdu’l-Bahá immense grief – in particular the death of his son Husayn Effendi came at a difficult time following the death of his mother and uncle. The surviving children (all daughters) were; Ḍiyá'iyyih Khánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi) (d. 1951) Túbá Khánum (1880–1959) Rúḥá Khánum and Munavvar Khánum (d. 1971). Bahá'u'lláh wished that the Bahá'ís follow the example of `Abdu'l-Bahá and gradually move away from polygamy. The marriage of `Abdu’l-Bahá to one woman and his choice to remain monogamous, from advice of his father and his own wish, legitimised the practice of monogamy to a people whom hitherto had regarded polygamy as a righteous way of life.\n", "`Abdu'l-Bahá\nAfter Bahá'u'lláh died on 29 May 1892, the Will and Testament of Bahá'u'lláh named `Abdu'l-Bahá as Centre of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Bahá'u'lláh's writings. In the Will and Testament `Abdu'l-Bahá's half-brother, Muhammad `Alí, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to `Abdu'l-Bahá. Muhammad `Alí became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Badi'u'llah and Diya'u'llah. He began correspondence with Bahá'ís in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about `Abdu'l-Bahá. While most Bahá'ís followed `Abdu'l-Bahá, a handful followed Muhammad `Alí including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim George Kheiralla, an early Bahá'í missionary to America.\n\nMuhammad `Alí and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse `Abdu'l-Bahá of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Bahá'u'lláh. It was at this time that `Abdu'l-Bahá, in order to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations leveled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as \"`Abdu'l-Bahá\" an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Bahá to make it clear that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude. `Abdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. With the exception of `Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, Muhammad `Alí was supported by all of the remaining male relatives of Bahá'u'lláh, including Shoghi Effendi's father, Mírzá Hádí Shírází. However Muhammad `Alí's and his families statements had very little effect on the Bahá'ís in general - in the `Akká area, the followers of Muhammad `Alí represented six families at most, they had no common religious activities, and were almost wholly assimilated into Muslim society.\n\n=== First Western pilgrims ===\nEarly Western Bahá'í pilgrims. Standing left to right: Charles Mason Remey, Sigurd Russell, Edward Getsinger and Laura Clifford Barney; Seated left to right: Ethel Jenner Rosenberg, Madam Jackson, Shoghi Effendi, Helen Ellis Cole, Lua Getsinger, Emogene Hoagg\nBy the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started coming to Akka on pilgrimage to visit `Abdu'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that Bahá'ís raised up in the West had met `Abdu'l-Bahá. The first group arrived in 1898 and throughout late 1898 to early 1899 Western Bahá’ís sporadically visited `Abdu'l-Bahá. The group was relatively young containing mainly women from high American society in their 20s. The group of Westerners aroused suspicion for the authorities, and consequently `Abdu'l-Bahá’s confinement was tightened. During the next decade `Abdu'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with Bahá'ís around the world, helping them to teach the religion; the group included May Ellis Bolles in Paris, Englishman Thomas Breakwell, American Herbert Hopper, French , Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, and American Laura Clifford Barney. It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of `Abdu'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions.\n\n===Ministry, 1901–1912===\n\nDuring the final years of the 19th century, while `Abdu'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to `Akka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Bahá'u'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years. With the increase of pilgrims visiting `Abdu'l-Bahá, Muhammad `Alí worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on `Abdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the Governor of `Akka being supportive of `Abdu'l-Bahá, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit `Abdu'l-Bahá, he was confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad `Alí, including Badi'u'llah and Siyyid `Aliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad `Ali and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad `Ali's plots and noting that what was circulating about `Abdu'l-Bahá was fabrication.\n\nFrom 1902 to 1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Báb that `Abdu'l-Bahá was directing, he started to put into execution two different projects; the restoration of the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran and the construction of the first Bahá'í House of Worship in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. `Abdu'l-Bahá asked Aqa Mirza Aqa to coordinate the work so that the house of the Báb would be restored to the state that it was at the time of the Báb's declaration to Mulla Husayn in 1844; he also entrusted the work on the House of Worship to Vakil-u'd-Dawlih.\n\nDuring this period, `Abdu'l-Bahá communicated with a number Young Turks, opposed to the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, including Namık Kemal, Ziya Pasha and Midhat Pasha, in an attempt to disseminate Bahá'í thought into their political ideology. He emphasized Bahá'ís \"seek freedom and love liberty, hope for equality, are well-wishers of humanity and ready to sacrifice their lives to unite humanity\" but on a more broad approach than the Young Turks. Abdullah Cevdet, one of the founders of the Committee of Union and Progress who considered the Bahá'í Faith an intermediary step between Islam and the ultimate abandonment of religious belief, would go on trial for defense of Bahá'ís in a periodical he founded.\n\n‛Abdu'l-Bahá also had contact with military leaders as well, including such individuals as Bursalı Mehmet Tahir Bey and Hasan Bedreddin. The latter, who was involved in the overthrow of Sultan Abdülaziz, is commonly known as Bedri Paşa or Bedri Pasha and is referred to in Persian Bahá'í sources as Bedri Bey (Badri Beg). He was a Bahá'í who translated ‛Abdu’l-Baha's works into French.\n\n`Abdu'l-Bahá also met Muhammad Abduh, one of the key figures of Islamic Modernism and the Salafi movement, in Beirut, at a time when the two men were both opposed to the Ottoman ''ulama'' and shared similar goals of religious reform. Rashid Rida asserts that during his visits to Beirut, `Abdu'l-Bahá would attend Abduh's study sessions. Regarding the meetings of `Abdu'l-Bahá and Muhammad 'Abduh, Shoghi Effendi asserts that \"His several interviews with the well-known Shaykh Muhammad ‘Abdu served to enhance immensely the growing prestige of the community and spread abroad the fame of its most distinguished member.\"\n\nDue to `Abdu'l-Bahá's political activities and alleged accusation against him by Muhammad `Ali, a Commission of Inquiry interviewed `Abdu'l-Bahá in 1905, with the result that he was almost exiled to Fezzan. In response, `Abdu'l-Bahá wrote the sultan a letter protesting that his followers refrain from involvement in partisan politics and that his ''tariqa'' had guided many Americans to Islam. The next few years in `Akka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit `Abdu'l-Bahá. By 1909 the mausoleum of the Shrine of the Báb was completed.\n\n==Journeys to the West==\n`Abdu'l-Bahá, during his trip to the United States\n\n\n\nThe 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire, and `Abdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment. His first action after his freedom was to visit the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh in Bahji. While `Abdu'l-Bahá continued to live in `Akka immediately following the revolution, he soon moved to live in Haifa near the Shrine of the Báb. In 1910, with the freedom to leave the country, he embarked on a three-year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Bahá'í message.\n\nFrom August to December 1911, `Abdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Bahá'í communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.\n\nIn the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Bahá'í believers, instead, to \"Donate this to charity.\" He instead travelled on a slower craft, the S.S. Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. After hearing of the Titanic's sinking on 16 April he was quoted as saying \"I was asked to sail upon the Titanic, but my heart did not prompt me to do so.\" While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D.C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal (his only visit to Canada). He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On 5 December 1912 he set sail back to Europe.\n\nDuring his visit to North America he visited many missions, churches, and groups, as well as having scores of meetings in Bahá'ís' homes, and offering innumerable personal meetings with hundreds of people. During his talks he proclaimed Bahá'í principles such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, oneness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice. He also insisted that all his meetings be open to all races.\n\nHis visit and talks were the subject of hundreds of newspaper articles. In Boston newspaper reporters asked `Abdu'l-Bahá why he had come to America, and he stated that he had come to participate in conferences on peace and that just giving warning messages is not enough. `Abdu'l-Bahá's visit to Montreal provided notable newspaper coverage; on the night of his arrival the editor of the ''Montreal Daily Star'' met with him and that newspaper along with The Montreal Gazette, ''Montreal Standard'', Le Devoir and La Presse among others reported on `Abdu'l-Bahá's activities. The headlines in those papers included \"Persian Teacher to Preach Peace\", \"Racialism Wrong, Says Eastern Sage, Strife and War Caused by Religious and National Prejudices\", and \"Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists, Abdul Baha's Novel Scheme for Distribution of Surplus Wealth.\" The ''Montreal Standard'', which was distributed across Canada, took so much interest that it republished the articles a week later; the Gazette published six articles and Montreal's largest French language newspaper published two articles about him. His 1912 visit to Montreal also inspired humourist Stephen Leacock to parody him in his bestselling 1914 book ''Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich''. In Chicago one newspaper headline included \"His Holiness Visits Us, Not Pius X but A. Baha,\" and `Abdu'l-Bahá's visit to California was reported in the ''Palo Altan''.\n\nBack in Europe, he visited London, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on June 12, 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.\n", "`Abdu'l-Bahá on Mount Carmel with pilgrims in 1919\nDuring World War I `Abdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to `Abdu'l-Bahá. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgrims came to see him in Haifa.\n\nthumb\n\nAccording to Harry Charles Luke, an official in the British Colonial Office who served as assistant Governor of Jerusalem, `Abdu'l-Bahá \"was created by King George V a K.B.E.\" on December 4, 1919, being conferred his knighthood \"for valuable services rendered to the British Government in the early days of the Occupation.\" This has been judged to be humanitarian service to people following the privations of war and the chaos in its immediate aftermath by averting a famine in Northern Palestine. He was ceremonially knighted on April 27, 1920, an event which was prominently reported in the ''Star of the West'' as \" a most wonderful celebration.\"\n\n`Abdu'l-Bahá praised the Zionist movement and encouraged the Zionists to \"mingle with other races and live in unity with them\" under a neutral government like the British administration following World War I. He had earlier declared that the prophecies of the Old Testament would be fulfilled and that \"the Israelites will all gather in the Holy Land\".\n\n`Abdu'l-Bahá died on November 28, 1921 (27th of Rabi'u'l-Avval, 1340 AH.) at about 1:00 AM. The news of the death was however kept a secret from a number of his relatives, such as his half-brother Mírzá Muhammad `Alí, whom he had himself declared Covenant-breakers and were thus denied participation in the funeral. On his funeral, Esslemont notes:\n:\"... a funeral the like of which Haifa, nay Palestine itself, had surely never seen... so deep was the feeling that brought so many thousands of mourners together, representative of so many religions, races and tongues\".\n\nHe is buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. Plans are in place to one day build a Shrine of `Abdu'l-Bahá. In his Will and Testament he appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi Rabbani as the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith.\n", "The total estimated number of tablets that `Abdu'l-Bahá wrote are over 27,000, of which only a fraction have been translated into English. His works fall into two groups including first his direct writings and second his lectures and speeches as noted by others. The first group includes ''The Secret of Divine Civilization'' written before 1875, ''A Traveller's Narrative'' written around 1886, the Resāla-ye sīāsīya or ''Sermon on the Art of Governance'' written in 1893, the ''Memorials of the Faithful'', and a large number of tablets written to various people; including various Western intellectuals such as August Forel which has been translated and published as the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel. The ''Secret of Divine Civilization'' and the ''Sermon on the Art of Governance'' were widely circulated anonymously.\n\nThe second group includes Some Answered Questions, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and Paris Talks, ''`Abdu'l-Baha in London'' and ''Promulgation of Universal Peace'' which are respectively addresses given by `Abdu'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States.\n\nThe following is a list of some of `Abdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks:\nFoundations of World Unity\nMemorials of the Faithful\nParis Talks\nSecret of Divine Civilization\nSome Answered Questions\nTablets of the Divine Plan\nTablet to Auguste-Henri Forel\nTablet to The Hague\nWill and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá\nPromulgation of Universal Peace\nSelections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá\nDivine Philosophy\nTreatise on Politics / Sermon on the Art of Governance\n", "Bahá'u'lláh's family\nMírzá Mihdí\nÁsíyih Khánum\nBahiyyih Khánum\nMunirih Khánum\nShoghi Effendi\nHouse of `Abdu'l-Bahá\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n* (also relevant to Abdu'l-Baha's business interests and income).\n", "\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* Selections from the Writings of `Abdu'l-Bahá\n* Tablets of `Abdu'l-Bahá Abbas\n* Abbas Effendi-`Abdu'l-Bahá\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", " Baghdad ", " Constantinople/Adrianople ", " Acre ", "Early years of his ministry", "Final years", "Works", "See also", "Explanatory notes", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	`Abdu'l-Bahá
[ "\n'''Ambrose of Alexandria''' (before 212 – c. 250) was a friend of the Christian theologian Origen. Ambrose was attracted by Origen's fame as a teacher, and visited the Catechetical School of Alexandria in 212. At first a gnostic Valentinian and Marcionist, Ambrose, through Origen's teaching, eventually rejected this theology and became Origen's constant companion, and was ordained deacon. He plied Origen with questions, and urged him to write his Commentaries () on the books of the Bible, and, as a wealthy nobleman and courtier, he provided his teacher with books for his studies and secretaries to lighten the labor of composition.\n\nHe suffered during the persecution under the Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax in 235. He was later released and died a confessor. The last mention of Ambrose in the historical record is in Origen's ''Contra Celsum,'' which the latter wrote at the solicitation of Ambrose.\n\nOrigen often speaks of Ambrose in affectionately as a man of education with excellent literary and scholarly tastes. All of Origen's works written after 218 are dedicated to Ambrose, including his ''On Martyrdom'', ''Contra Celsum'', ''Commentary on St. John's Gospel'', and ''On Prayer''. Ambrose's letters to Origen (praised by Jerome) are lost, although part of one exists.\n", "Ambrose is venerated as a saint by some branches of Christianity. His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church falls on 17 March.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Veneration", "References" ]	Ambrose of Alexandria
[ "\n\n'''Arthur Robert Jensen''' (August 24, 1923 – October 22, 2012) was an American psychologist and author. He was a professor of educational psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. Jensen was known for his work in psychometrics and differential psychology, which is concerned with how and why individuals differ behaviorally from one another.\n\nHe was a major proponent of the hereditarian position in the nature and nurture debate, the position that genetics play a significant role in behavioral traits, such as intelligence and personality. He was the author of over 400 scientific papers published in refereed journals and sat on the editorial boards of the scientific journals ''Intelligence'' and ''Personality and Individual Differences''.\n\nHe was rated as one of the 50 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. He was also a controversial figure, largely for his conclusions regarding the causes of race-based differences in intelligence.\n", "Jensen was born August 24, 1923, in San Diego, California, the son of Linda Mary (née Schachtmayer) and Arthur Alfred Jensen, who operated and owned a lumber and building materials company. His paternal grandparents were Danish immigrants and his mother was of half Polish Jewish and half German descent. He studied at University of California, Berkeley (B.A. 1945), San Diego State College (M.A., 1952) and Columbia University (Ph.D., 1956), and did his doctoral thesis with Percival Symonds on the Thematic Apperception Test: He published this work. From 1956 through 1958, he did postdoctoral research at the University of London, Institute of Psychiatry with Hans Eysenck.\n\nUpon returning to the United States, he became a researcher and professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he focused on individual differences in learning, especially the influences of culture, development, and genetics on intelligence and learning. He received tenure at Berkeley in 1962 and was given his first sabbatical in 1964. He concentrated much of his work on the learning difficulties of culturally disadvantaged students. In 2003, he was awarded the Kistler Prize for original contributions to the understanding of the connection between the human genome and human society. In 2006, the International Society for Intelligence Research awarded Jensen its Lifetime Achievement Award.\n\nJensen has had a lifelong interest in classical music and was, early in his life, attracted by the idea of becoming a conductor himself. At 14, he conducted a band that won a nationwide contest held in San Francisco. Later, he conducted orchestras and attended a seminar given by Nikolai Sokoloff. Soon after graduating from Berkeley, he moved to New York, mainly to be near the conductor Arturo Toscanini. He was also deeply interested in the life and example of Gandhi, producing an unpublished book-length manuscript on his life. During Jensen's period in San Diego he spent time working as a social worker with the San Diego Department of Public Welfare.\n", "Jensen's interest in learning differences directed him to the extensive testing of school children. The results led him to distinguish between two separate types of learning ability. ''Level I'', or associative learning, may be defined as retention of input and rote memorization of simple facts and skills. ''Level II'', or conceptual learning, is roughly equivalent to the ability to manipulate and transform inputs, that is, the ability to solve problems.\n\nLater, Jensen was an important advocate in the mainstream acceptance of the general factor of intelligence, a concept which was essentially synonymous with his ''Level II'' conceptual learning. The general factor, or ''g'', is an abstraction that stems from the observation that scores on all forms of cognitive tests correlate positively with one another.\n\nJensen claimed, on the basis of his research, that general cognitive ability is essentially an inherited trait, determined predominantly by genetic factors rather than by environmental conditions. He also contended that while associative learning, or memorizing ability, is equally distributed among the races, conceptual learning, or synthesizing ability, occurs with significantly greater frequency in whites than in non-whites.\n\nJensen's most controversial work, published in February 1969 in the ''Harvard Educational Review'', was titled \"How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?\" It concluded, among other things, that Head Start programs designed to boost African-American IQ scores had failed, and that this was likely never to be remedied, largely because, in Jensen's estimation, 80% of the variance in IQ in the population studied was the result of genetic factors and the remainder was due to environmental influences.\n\nThe work became one of—if not the most—cited papers in the history of psychological testing and intelligence research.\n\nAfter the paper was released, students and faculty staged large protests outside Jensen's U.C. Berkeley office. Jensen was denied reprints of his work by his publisher and was not permitted to reply in response to letters of criticism — both extremely unusual policies for their day.\n\n\nIn a later article, Jensen argued that his claims had been misunderstood:\n\n\n...nowhere have I \"claimed\" an \"innate deficiency\" of intelligence in blacks. My position on this question is clearly spelled out in my most recent book: \"The plain fact is that at present there exists no scientifically satisfactory explanation for the differences between the IQ distributions in the black and white populations. The only genuine consensus among well-informed scientists on this topic is that the cause of the difference remains an open question.\" (Jensen, 1981a, p. 213).\n\n\nAlthough a critic of Jensen's thesis, economist Thomas Sowell, criticizing the taboo against research on race and intelligence, wrote:\nProfessor Jensen pointed out back in 1969 that black children's IQ scores rose by 8 to 10 points after he met with them informally in a play room and then tested them again after they were more relaxed around him. He did this because \"I felt these children were really brighter than their IQ would indicate.\" What a shame that others seem to have less confidence in black children than Professor Jensen has had.\n\nHowever, Jensen's 1998 ''The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability'' gives his position suggesting a genetic component is implicated in the white-black difference in IQ. In Chapter 12: Population Differences in ''g'': Causal Hypotheses, Jensen writes:\n\nThe relationship of the g factor to a number of biological variables and its relationship to the size of the white-black differences on various cognitive tests (i.e., Spearman's hypothesis) suggests that the average white-black difference in ''g'' has a biological component. Human races are viewed not as discrete, or Platonic, categories, but rather as breeding populations that, as a result of natural selection, have come to differ statistically in the relative frequencies of many polymorphic genes. The genetic distances between various populations form a continuous variable that can be measured in terms of differences in gene frequencies. Racial populations differ in many genetic characteristics, some of which, such as brain size, have behavioral and psychometric correlates, particularly ''g''.\n\n\nIn 1994 he was one of 52 signatories on \"Mainstream Science on Intelligence, \" an editorial written by Linda Gottfredson and published in the ''Wall Street Journal'', which declared the consensus of the signing scholars on the meaning and significance of IQ following the publication of the book ''The Bell Curve''.\n\nIn 2005, Jensen's article, co-written with J. Philippe Rushton, named \"Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability\", was published in the APA journal ''Psychology, Public Policy and Law''. Jensen and Rushton present ten categories of evidence in support of the notion that IQ differences between whites and blacks are partly genetic in origin.\n", "He died on October 22, 2012 at his home in Kelseyville, California at age 89.\n", "Melvin Konner wrote in the notes to his book ''The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit'':\n\nStatements made by Arthur Jensen, William Shockley, and other investigators in the late 1960s and early 1970s about race and IQ or social class and IQ rapidly passed into currency in policy discussions. Many of these statements were proved wrong, but they had already influenced some policymakers, and that influence is very difficult to recant.\n\n\nMany studies that purport to be both science-based and attempt to influence public policy have been accused of scientific racism. Konner wrote:\n\n\nWhat of the latest currents of thought? Are they likely to lead to, or at least encourage, further distortions of social policy? The indications are not all encouraging. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray published a book in 1994 clearly directed at policy, just as Jensen and others had in the 1960s and 1970s. ''The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life'' (New York: Free Press 1994) teamed a psychologist with a conservative policy advocate to try to prove that both the class structure and the racial divide in the United States result from genetically determined differences in intelligence and ability.\n\nTheir general assertions about genes and IQ were not very controversial, but their speculations on race were something else again.\n\nBy 1994, the time of ''The Bell Curve'''s publishing, Jensen had received $1.1 million from the Pioneer Fund,\nan organization frequently described as racist and \"white supremacist\" in nature.\nThe fund contributed a total of $3.5 million to researchers cited in The Bell Curve's most controversial chapter \"that suggests some races are naturally smarter than others\" with Jensen's works being cited twenty-three times in the book's bibliography.\n\nLisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University claimed in 2005 that, unwaveringly for over 30 years, Jensen has largely ignored evidence that fails to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent a genetic racial hierarchy.\n\nPaleontologist and evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould attacked Jensen's work in his 1981 book ''The Mismeasure of Man''. Gould writes that Jensen misapplies the concept of \"heritability\", which is defined as a measure of the variation of a trait due to inheritance ''within'' a population (Gould 1981: 127; 156-157). According to Gould, Jensen uses heritability to measure differences ''between'' populations. Gould also disagrees with Jensen's belief that IQ tests measure a real variable, ''g'', or \"the general factor common to a large number of cognitive abilities\" which can be measured along a unilinear scale.\n\nThis is a claim most closely identified with Charles Spearman. According to Gould, Jensen misunderstood the research of L. L. Thurstone to ultimately support this claim; Gould, however, argues that Thurstone's factor analysis of intelligence revealed ''g'' to be an illusion (1981: 159; 13-314). Gould criticizes Jensen's sources including his use of Catharine Cox's 1926 ''Genetic Studies of Genius'', which examines historiometrically the IQs of historic intellectuals after their deaths (Gould 1981: 153-154).\n\nIn 1980 Jensen published a detailed book in defense of the tests used to measure mental abilities, entitled ''Bias in Mental Testing''. Reviewing this book, psychologist Kenneth Kaye endorsed Jensen's distinction between bias and discrimination. The purpose of tests is to discriminate (that is, reveal actual differences) on the basis of ability; bias constitutes error. Jensen defined any test as biased for a particular group if that group differs significantly from the majority group in the slopes, intercepts, or standard error of the estimates of their regression lines. Most studies found no difference in the regression lines between black and white groups, but those differences that had been found to be biased had overpredicted rather than underpredicted the minority group's performance (for example, grades in Officer Candidate courses). Jensen's conclusion:\n\n\nUntil we find out what the relevant psychological predictors are for which racial classification per se is merely a 'stand-in' variable, we have no choice but to include race (or other group membership) as a predictive variable along with the test scores or other predictive measures. On the other hand, if the overprediction of the minority group's criterion performance is not too extreme, it may seem reasonable to many to leave it uncorrected, thereby giving the benefit of the slight predictive bias to the presumably disadvantaged group.\n\n\nPointing out that \"many of Jensen's opponents allowed their scientific conclusions to be far more biased by their political views than he did, Kaye quoted 18th-century David Hume: \"There is no Method of Reasoning more Common, and yet none more blameable, than in philosophical Debates, to endeavor the Refutation of any Hypothesis, by a Pretext of its dangerous Consequences to Religion and Morality.\"\n\nIn a 1982 review of ''The Mismeasure of Man'', Jensen gives point-by-point rebuttals to much of Gould's critique, including Gould's treatment of heritability, the \"reification\" of ''g'', and the use of Thurstone's analysis.\n", "In Arthur Jensen's response to Gould's criticisms, in the paper titled ''The Debunking of Scientific Fossils and Straw Persons'', Jensen begins his paper with this observation:\n\n\nStephen Jay Gould is a paleontologist at Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology and offers a course at Harvard entitled, \"Biology as a Social Weapon.\" Apparently the course covers much the same content as does the present book. Having had some personal cause for interest in ideologically motivated attacks on biologically oriented behavioral scientists, I first took notice of Gould when he played a prominent role in a group called Science for the People and in that group's attack on the theories of Harvard zoologist Edward O. Wilson, a leader in the development of sociobiology...\n\n\nWhile Jensen recognizes the validity of some of Gould's claims, in many places, he criticizes Gould's general approach:\n\n\nThis charge of a social, value-laden science undoubtedly contains an element of truth. In recent years, however, we recognize this charge as the keystone of the Marxist interpretation of the history of science.\n\n\nJensen adds that Gould made a number of misrepresentations, whether intentional or unintentional, while purporting to present Jensen's own positions:\n\n\nIn his references to my own work, Gould includes at least nine citations that involve more than just an expression of Gould's opinion; in these citations Gould purportedly paraphrases my views. Yet in eight of the nine cases, Gould's representation of these views is false, misleading, or grossly caricatured. Nonspecialists could have no way of knowing any of this without reading the cited sources. While an author can occasionally make an inadvertent mistake in paraphrasing another, it appears Gould's paraphrases are consistently slanted to serve his own message.\n\n\nJensen expressed considerably greater praise of his frequent intellectual sparring partner, James R. Flynn:\n\n\nNow and then I am asked by colleagues, students, and journalists: who, in my opinion, are the most respectable critics of my position on the race-IQ issue? The name James R. Flynn is by far the first that comes to mind. His book, ''Race, IQ and Jensen'' (1980), is a distinguished contribution to the literature on this topic, and, among the critiques I have seen of my position, is virtually in a class by itself for objectivity, thoroughness, and scholarly integrity.\n\n\n\n", "\n===The ''g'' Factor===\n''The ''g'' Factor: The Science of Mental Ability'' (1998) is a book on the general intelligence factor (''g''). The book deals with the intellectual history of g and various models of how to conceptualize intelligence, and with the biological correlates of g, its heritability, and its practical predictive power.\n\n===Clocking the Mind===\n''Clocking the Mind : Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences'' (2006) deals with mental chronometry (MC), and covers a variety of techniques for measuring the speed with which the brain processes information. Whereas IQ merely represents an interval (ranking) scale and thus possesses no true ratio scale properties, Jensen argues mental chronometry represents a true natural science of mental ability.\n", "\n* History of the race and intelligence controversy\n* Jensen box\n", "\n", "\n===Interviews===\n* \"Profiles in Research. Arthur Jensen. Interview by Daniel H. Robinson and Howard Wainer.\" Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics Fall 2006, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 327–352\n* \"A Conversation With Arthur Jensen (Part 1)\". (1992). ''American Renaissance'', 3(8).\n* \"A Conversation With Arthur Jensen (Part 2\". (1992). ''American Renaissance'', 3(9).\n* ''Intelligence, Race, and Genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen.'' (2002) Frank Miele (of ''Skeptic Magazine''). Westview Press. \n\n===Selected articles, books, and book chapters===\nJensen. A. R. (1973). ''Educational differences''. London. Methuen. google books link\nJensen, A. R. (1974). Ethnicity and scholastic achievement. ''Psychological Reports, 34,'' 659-668.\nJensen, A. R. (1974). Kinship correlations reported by Sir Cyril Burt. ''Behavior Genetics, 4,'' 1-28.\nJensen, A. R. (1989). The relationship between learning and intelligence. ''Learning and Individual Differences, 1,'' 37-62.\nJensen, A. R. (1993). Why is reaction time correlated with psychometric g? ''Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2,'' 53-56.\nJensen, A. R. (1993). Spearman's g: Links between psychometrics and biology. In F. M. Crinella, & J. Yu (Eds.), ''Brain mechanisms: Papers in memory of Robert Thompson'' (pp. 103–129). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.\nJensen, A. R. (1995). Psychological research on race differences. ''American Psychologist, 50,'' 41-42.\nJensen, A. R. (1996). Giftedness and genius: Crucial differences. In C. P. Benbow, & D. J. Lubinski (Eds), ''Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues'' (pp. 393–411). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.\nJensen, A. R. (1998) The g factor and the design of education. In R. J. Sternberg & W. M. Williams (Eds.), ''Intelligence, instruction, and assessment: Theory into practice.'' (pp. 111–131). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.\nJensen, A. R. (2000). Testing: The dilemma of group differences. ''Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 6,'' 121-128.\nJensen, A. R. (2002). Galton's legacy to research on intelligence. ''Journal of Biosocial Science, 34,'' 145-172.\nJensen, A. R. (2002). Psychometric g: Definition and substantiation. In R. J. Sternberg, & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.). ''The general factor of intelligence: How general is it?'' (pp. 39–53). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum.\nKranzler, J. H., & Jensen, A. R. (1989). Inspection time and intelligence: A meta-analysis. ''Intelligence, 13,'' 329-347.\nRushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R.. (2005). Thirty years of research on Black-White differences in cognitive ability. ''Psychology, Public Policy, & the Law, 11,'' 235-294. ( pdf)\nRushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2003). African-White IQ differences from Zimbabwe on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised are mainly on the ''g'' factor. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 34,'' 177-183. ( pdf)\nRushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2005). Wanted: More race-realism, less moralistic fallacy. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11,'' 328-336. ( pdf)\n", "* Arthur Robert Jensen memorial site\n* Jensen's Response to Gould's Criticisms\n* Southern Poverty Law Center version of Jensen biography\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "IQ and academic achievement", "Death", "Criticism", "Jensen's response and criticism", "Books", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Arthur Jensen
[ "\n\nThe '''Aleuts''' () (''Aleut'y''), who are usually known in the Aleut language by the endonym '''Unangax̂''' Унаңан (lit. \"people\", Unangan, singular), are the indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands.\n\nBoth the Unangax̂ and the islands are divided between the US state of Alaska and the Russian administrative division of Kamchatka Krai.\n", "While English and Russian are the dominant languages used by Aleuts living in the United States and Russia respectively, the Aleut language is still spoken by an estimated 150 people in the United States and 5 people in Russia. The language belongs to the Eskimo-Aleut language family and includes three dialect groupings: Eastern Aleut, spoken on the Eastern Aleutian, Shumagin, Fox and Pribilof Islands; Atkan, spoken on Atka and Bering islands; and the now extinct Attuan dialect. The Pribilof Islands boast the highest number of active speakers of Aleutian. Most of the Native elders speak Aleut, but it is very rare for an everyday person to speak the language fluently.\n\nAleut was written in the Cyrillic script beginning in 1829. From 1870, the language was written in the Latin script. An Aleut dictionary and grammar have been published, and portions of the Bible were translated into Aleut.\n", "Traditional Aleut dress\nThe Aleut (Unangan) dialects and tribes:\n\n* '''Attuan dialect''' and speaking tribes: \n ''Sasignan'' (in Attuan dialect) / ''Sasxinan'' (in Eastern dialect) / ''Sasxinas'' (in Western dialect) or ''Near Islanders'' : in the Near Islands (Attu, Agattu, Semichi).\n ''Kasakam Unangangis'' (in Aleut, lit. «Russian Aleut») or ''Copper Island Aleut'' : in the Commander Islands of Russian Federation (Bering, Medny).\n? ''Qax̂un'' or ''Rat Islanders'' : in the Buldir Island and Rat Islands (Kiska, Amchitka, Semisopochnoi).\n '''Atkan dialect''' or '''Western Aleut''' or ''Aliguutax̂'' (in Aleut) and speaking tribes: \n ''Naahmiĝus'' or ''Delarof Islanders'' : in the Delarof Islands (Amatignak) and Andreanof Islands (Tanaga).\n ''Niiĝuĝis'' or ''Andreanof Islanders'' : in the Andreanof Islands (Kanaga, Adak, Atka, Amlia, Seguam). \n* '''Eastern Aleut dialect''' and speaking tribes: \n ''Akuuĝun'' or ''Uniiĝun'' or ''Islanders of the Four Mountains'' : in the Islands of Four Mountains (Amukta, Kagamil). \n ''Qawalangin'' or ''Fox Islanders'' : in the Fox Islands (Umnak, Samalga, western part of Unalaska). \n ''Qigiiĝun'' or ''Krenitzen Islanders'' : in the Krenitzin Islands (eastern part of Unalaska, Akutan, Akun, Tigalda).\n ''Qagaan Tayaĝungin'' or ''Sanak Islanders'' : in the Sanak Islands (Unimak, Sanak). \n ''Taxtamam Tunuu'' dialect of Belkofski. \n ''Qaĝiiĝun'' or ''Shumigan Islanders'' : in the Shumagin Islands.\n", "\n\nThe Aleut people (Unangax̂) historically lived throughout the Aleutian Islands, the Shumagin Islands, and the far western part of the Alaska Peninsula, with an estimated population of around 25,000 prior to European contact. In the 1820s, the Russian-American Company administered a large portion of the North Pacific during a Russian-led expansion of the fur trade. They resettled many Aleut families to the Commander Islands (within the Aleutsky District of the Kamchatka Krai in Russia) and to the Pribilof Islands (in Alaska). These continue to have majority-Aleut communities.\n\nAccording to the 2000 Census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut, while 17,000 identified as having partial Aleut ancestry. Prior to sustained European contact, approximately 25,000 Aleut lived in the archipelago. The Encyclopædia Britannica Online says more than 15,000 people have Aleut ancestry in the early 21st century. The Aleut suffered high fatalities in the 19th and early 20th centuries from Eurasian infectious diseases to which they had no immunity. In addition, the population suffered as their customary lifestyles were disrupted. Russian traders and later Europeans married Aleut women and had families with them.\n", "\n===After Russian contact===\n''Aleut in Festival Dress in Alaska'', watercolor by Mikhail Tikhanov, 1818\nAfter the arrival of Russian Orthodox missionaries in the late 18th century, many Aleuts became Christian. Of the numerous Russian Orthodox congregations in Alaska, most are majority Alaska Native in ethnicity. One of the earliest Christian martyrs in North America was Saint Peter the Aleut.\n\n====Recorded Uprising against the Russians====\n\nIn the 18th century, Russia ''promyshlenniki'' traders established settlements on the islands. There was high demand for the furs that the Aleut provided from hunting. In May 1784, local Aleut revolted on Amchitka against the Russian traders. (The Russians had a small trading post there.) According to what Aleut people said, in an account recorded by Japanese castaways and published in 2004, otters were decreasing year by year. The Russians paid the Aleut less and less in goods in return for the furs they made. The Japanese learned that the Aleut felt the situation was at crisis. The leading Aleuts negotiated with the Russians, saying they had failed to deliver enough supplies in return for furs. Nezimov, leader of the Russians, ordered two of his men, Stephanov (ステッパノ ''Suteppano'') and Kazhimov (カジモフ ''Kazimofu'') to kill his mistress Oniishin (オニイシン ''Oniishin''), who was the Aleut chief's daughter, because he doubted that Oniishin had tried to dissuade her father and other leaders from pushing for more goods.\n\nThat evening, hundreds of Aleut men gathered on a mountain and marched to the Russians' houses. When five Russians opened fire, the Aleuts ran away. The next day the Aleut returned, but escaped again when the Russians started firing. While the men attempted another attack the next day, they yelled and moved more quickly towards the house. As Russians opened fire, they started to run away again. After they ran, the Russians noticed that all the men had left the village. The Russians took around 40 women and children hostage, forcing the Aleut to surrender. The Russians killed four Aleut leaders.\n\nAfter the 4 leaders had been killed, the Aleut began to move from Amchitka to neighboring islands. Nezimov, leader of the Russian group, was jailed after the whole incident was reported to Russian officials. (According to , written by Katsuragawa Hoshū after interviewing Daikokuya Kōdayū.)\n\n===Aleut Genocide against Nicoleño Tribe in California===\nIn 1811, in order to obtain more of the commercially valuable otter pelts, a party of Aleut hunters traveled to the coastal island of San Nicolas, near the Alta California-Baja California border. The locally resident Nicoleño nation sought a payment from the Aleut hunters for the large number of otters being killed in the area. Disagreement arose, turning violent; in the ensuing battle, the Aleut killed nearly all the Nicoleño men. Together with high fatalities from European diseases, the Nicoleños suffered so much from the loss of their men that by 1853, only one living Nicoleña person remained. (See Juana Maria, ''The Lone Woman of San Nicolas'', also known as Karana)\n\n===Internment during World War II===\nIn 1942, during World War II, Japanese forces occupied Attu and Kiska Islands in the western Aleutians. They later transported captive Attu Islanders to Hokkaidō, where they were held as prisoners of war in harsh conditions. The United States government evacuated hundreds more Aleuts from the western chain and the Pribilofs during WWII, placing them in internment camps in southeast Alaska, where many died of starvation and disease. In total, about 75 died in American internment and 19 as a result of Japanese occupation. The Aleut Restitution Act of 1988 was an attempt by Congress to compensate the survivors. On June 17, 2017, the US Government formally apologized for the internment of the Unangan people and their treatment in the camps.\n\nThe World War II campaign by the United States to retake Attu and Kiska was a significant component of the operations in the Pacific theater.\n\n===Population Decline===\nBefore major influence from outside, there were approximately 25,000 Aleuts on the archipelago. Foreign diseases, harsh treatment and disruption of traditional society soon reduced the population to less than one-tenth this number. The 1910 Census count showed 1,491 Aleuts. In the 2000 Census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut; nearly 17,000 said Aleuts were among their ancestors. Alaskans generally recognize that intermarriage during the Russian occupation, while the colonists were limited in number, resulted in few full-blooded Aleuts remaining today. Full-blooded Aleuts still exist and are growing in number, and there are also people who may be part Russian or other descent but solely identify as Aleut.\n", "\n===Housing===\nThe Aleut constructed partially underground houses called ''barabara''. According to Lillie McGarvey, a 20th-century Aleut leader, ''barabaras'' keep \"occupants dry from the frequent rains, warm at all times, and snugly sheltered from the high winds common to the area\". Aleuts traditionally built houses by digging an oblong square pit in the ground, usually or smaller. The pit was then covered by a roof framed with driftwood, thatched with grass, then covered with earth for insulation. Inside benches were placed along the sides, with a hearth in the middle. The bedrooms were at the back of the lodge, opposite the entrance.\n\n===Subsistence===\nThe Aleut survived by hunting and gathering. They fished for salmon, crabs, shellfish, and cod, as well as harvesting sea mammals such as seal, walrus and whales. The fish and sea animals were processed in a variety of ways: dried, smoked or roasted. Caribou, musk oxen, deer, moose, whale and other types of game were eaten roasted or preserved for later use. Berries were dried. They were also processed as ''alutiqqutigaq'', a mixture of berries, fat and fish. The boiled skin and blubber of a whale was a delicacy, as was walrus.\nToday many Aleut continue to eat their traditional foods, but also buy the processed foods from Outside, which are very expensive in Alaska.\n\n===Art===\n''Basket and Lid'', Aleut (Native American), early 20th century, Brooklyn Museum\nMen's hunting hat, Arvid Adolf Etholén collection, Museum of Cultures, Helsinki, Finland\n\nTraditional arts of the Aleut include weapon-making, building of ''baidarkas'' (special hunting boats), weaving, figurines, clothing, carving, and mask making. Men as well as women often carved ivory and wood. 19th-century craftsmen were famed for their ornate wooden hunting hats, which feature elaborate and colorful designs and may be trimmed with sea lion whiskers, feathers, and ivory. Andrew Gronholdt of the Shumagin Islands has played a vital role in reviving the ancient art of building the ''chaguda-x'' or traditional bentwood hats.\n\nAleut women sewed finely stitched waterproof parkas from seal gut, and wove fine baskets from dune wildrye grass or ''Elymus mollis''. Some women continue to make baskets in this way. Aleut arts are practiced and taught throughout the state of Alaska. As many Aleut have moved out of the islands to other parts of the state, they have taken with them the knowledge of their arts. They have also adopted new materials and methods for their art.\n\nThe Aleut carved work, distinct in each region, has attracted traders for centuries, including early Europeans and other Alaska Natives. Historically carving was a male art and leadership attribute; in today’s world it is an art of both sexes. Most commonly the carvings of ivory and wood originated as part of making hunting weapons. Other carvings depicted the animals of their world, which were so important: such as seals and whales. They also depicted humans.\n\nThe Aleut also carve walrus ivory for other uses, such as jewelry and sewing needles. Jewelry is made with designs specific to the region of each people. Each clan would have a specific style to signify their origin. Jewelry ornaments were made for piercing lips (labrum), nose, and ears, as well as for necklaces. Each woman had her own sewing needles, which she made, and that often had detailed end of animal heads.\n\nThe main Aleut method of basketry was false embroidery (overlay). Strands of grasses or reeds were overlaid upon the basic weaving surface, to obtain a plastic effect. Basketry was an art reserved for women. Early Aleut women created baskets and woven mats of exceptional technical quality, using only their thumbnail, grown long and then sharpened, as a tool. Today, Aleut weavers continue to produce woven grass pieces of a remarkable cloth-like texture, works of modern art with roots in ancient tradition. Birch bark, puffin feathers, and baleen are also commonly used by the Aleut in basketry. The Aleut term for grass basket is ''qiigam aygaaxsii''. One Aleut leader recognized by the State of Alaska for her work in teaching and reviving Aleut basketry was Anfesia Shapsnikoff. Her life and accomplishments are portrayed in the book ''Moments Rightly Placed''(1998).\n\nMasks were created to portray figures of their myths and oral history. The Atka people believed that another people lived in their land before them. They portrayed such ancients in their masks, which show anthropomorphic creatures named in their language. Knut Bergsland says their word means “like those found in caves.” Masks were generally carved from wood and were decorated with paints made from berries or other natural products. Feathers were inserted into holes carved out for extra decoration. These masks were used in ceremonies ranging from dances to praises, each with its own meaning and purpose.\n\n===Tattoos and piercings===\nThe tattoos and piercings of the Aleut people demonstrated accomplishments as well as their religious views. They believed their body art would please the spirits of the animals and make any evil go away. The body orifices were believed to be pathways for the entry of evil entities. By piercing their orifices: the nose, the mouth, and ears, they would stop evil entities, ''khoughkh'', from entering their bodies (Osborn, 52). Body art also enhanced their beauty, social status, and spiritual authority.\n\nBefore the 19th century, piercings and tattoos were very common among the Aleut people, especially among women. Piercings, such as the nose pin, were common among both men and women and were usually performed a few days after birth. The ornament was made of various materials, a piece of bark or bone, or an eagle’s feather shaft. From time to time, adult women decorated the nose pins by hanging pieces of amber and coral from strings on it; the semi-precious objects dangled down to their chins.\n\nPiercing ears was also very common. The Aleuts pierced holes around the rim of their ears with dentalium shells (tooth shells or tusk shells), bone, feathers, dried bird wings or skulls and/or amber. Materials associated with birds were important, as birds were considered to defend animals in the spirit world. A male would wear sea lion whiskers in his ears as a trophy of his expertise as a hunter. Worn for decorative reasons, and sometimes to signify social standing, reputation, and the age of the wearer, Aleuts would pierce their lower lips with walrus ivory and wear beads or bones. The individual with the most piercings held the highest respect.\n\nTattooing for women began when they reached physical maturity, or menstruation, at about age 20. Men traditionally received their first tattoo after killing their first animal, another rite of passage. Sometimes tattoos signaled social class. For example, the daughter of a rich, famous ancestor or father would work hard at her tattoos to show the accomplishments of that ancestor or father. They would sew, or prick, different designs on the chin, the side of the face, or under the nose.\n\nThe Russians arrived in the Aleutian Islands in 1786 and were active there, with small trading settlements and religious missions, through the mid-19th century.\n\n===Aleut clothing===\nImitation of the ''sax'', a traditional Aleut coat made from bird skins and sea otter fur.\nA Kamleika, or seal skin coat\n\nThe Aleut people developed in one of the harshest climates in the world, and learned to create and protect warmth. Both men and women wore parkas that extended below the knees. The women wore the skin of seal or sea-otter, and the men wore bird skin parkas, the feathers turned in or out depending on the weather. When the men were hunting on the water, they wore waterproof parkas made from seal or sea-lion guts, or the entrails of bear, walrus, or whales. Parkas had a hood that could be cinched, as could the wrist openings, so water could not get in. Men wore breeches made from the esophageal skin of seals. Children wore parkas made of downy eagle skin with tanned bird skin caps. They called these parkas ''kameikas,'' meaning raingear in the English language.(Aleut Corp. Web.).\n\nSea-lions, harbor seals, and the sea otters are the most abundant marine mammals. The men brought home the skins and prepared them by soaking them in urine and stretching them. The women undertook the sewing (''Enthnohistory:'' Gross & Khera pg. 32). Preparation of the gut for clothing involved several steps. The prepared intestines were turned inside out. A bone knife was used to remove the muscle tissue and fat from the walls of the intestine. The gut was cut and stretched, and fastened to stakes to dry. It was then cut and sewn to make waterproof parkas, bags, and other receptacles (Turner, Ch. 5, pg. 70). On some hunting trips, the men would take several women with them. They would catch birds and prepare the carcasses and feathers for future use. They caught Puffins, Lunda Cirrhata, Fratercula Corniculata, Guillemots, and Cephus & Murres.\n\nIt took 40 skins of tufted puffin and 60 skins of horned puffin to make one parka. A woman would need a year for all the labor to make one parka. Each lasted two years with proper care. All parkas were decorated with bird feathers, beard bristles of seal and sea-lion, beaks of sea parrots, bird claws, sea otter fur, dyed leather, and caribou hair sewn in the seams. (Gross & Khera, pg. 34).\n\nWomen made needles from the wingbones of seabirds. They made thread from the sinews of different animals and fish guts. A thin strip of seal intestine could also be used, twisted to form a thread. The women grew their thumbnail extra long and sharpened it. They could split threads to make them as fine as a hair. They used vermilion paint, hematite, the ink bag of the octopus, and the root of a kind of grass or vine to color the threads.\n\n===Hunting technologies===\n\n====Boats====\n\nSaint Paul Island, by Louis Choris, 1817\nThe interior regions of the rough, mountainous Aleutian Islands provided little in terms of natural resources for the Aleutian people. They collected stones for weapons, tools, stoves or lamps. They collected and dried grasses for their woven baskets. For everything else, the Aleuts had learned to use the fish and mammals they caught and processed to satisfy their needs.\n\nIn order to hunt sea mammals and to travel between islands, the Aleuts became experts of sailing and navigation. While hunting, they used small watercraft called ''baidarkas.'' For regular travel, they used their large baidaras. \nA man rowing a baidara (large skin boat)\n\nThe baidara was a large, open, walrus-skin-covered boat. Aleut families used it when traveling among the islands. It was also used to transport goods for trade, and warriors took them to battle.\n\nThe baidarka (small skin boat) was a small boat covered in sea lion skin. It was developed and used for hunting because of its sturdiness and maneuverability. The Aleut baidarka resembles that of a Yup'ik kayak, but it is hydrodynamically sleeker and faster. They made the baidarka for one or two persons only. The deck was made with a sturdy chamber, the sides of the craft were nearly vertical and the bottom was rounded. Most one-man baidarkas were about feet long and wide, whereas a two-man was on average about long and wide. It was from the baidarka that Aleut men would stand on the water to hunt from the sea.\n\n====Weapons====\nThe Aleuts hunted small sea mammals with barbed darts and harpoons slung from throwing boards. These boards gave precision as well as some extra distance to these weapons.\n\nHarpoons were also called throwing-arrows when the pointed head fit loosely into the socket of the foreshaft and the head was able to detach from the harpoon when it penetrated an animal, and remain in the wound. There were three main kinds of harpoon that the Aleut’s used: a simple harpoon, with a head that kept its original position in the animal after striking, a compound (toggle-head) harpoon in which the head took a horizontal position in the animal after penetration, and the throwing-lance used to kill large animals.\n\nThe simple Aleut harpoon consisted of four main parts: the wooden shaft, the bone foreshaft, and the bonehead (tip) with barbs pointed backward. The barbed head was loosely fitted into the socket of the foreshaft so that when the animal was stabbed, it pulled the head away from the rest of the harpoon. The sharp barbs penetrated with ease, but could not be pulled out. The bone tip is fastened to a length of braided twine meanwhile; the hunter held the other end of the twine in his hand.\n\nThe compound harpoon was the most prevalent weapon of the Aleut people. Also known as the toggle-head spear, it was about the same size as the simple harpoon and used to hunt the same animals, however, this harpoon provided a more efficient and lethal weapon. This harpoon separated into four parts. The longest part was the shaft with the thicker stalk closer to the tip of the harpoon. The shaft was fitted into the socket of the fore shaft and a bone ring was then placed over the joint to hold the two pieces together, as well as, protecting the wooden shaft from splitting. Connected to the fore shaft of the harpoon is the toggle head spear tip. This tip was made of two sub shafts that break apart on impact with an animal. The upper sub shaft held the razor stone head and attached to the lower sub shaft with a small braided twine loop. Once the tip penetrates the animal the upper sub head broke off from the rest of the shaft, however, since it was still connected with the braided loop it rotated the head into a horizontal position inside the animal’s body so that it could not get away from the hunter.\n\nThe throwing lance may be distinguished from a harpoon because of the fact that all its pieces are fixed and immovable. A lance was a weapon of war and it was also used to kill large marine animals after it has already been harpooned. The throwing lance usually consisted of three parts: a wooden shaft, a bone ring or belt, and the compound head that was made with a barbed bonehead and a stone tip. The length of the compound head was equivalent to the distance between the planes of a man’s chest to his back. The lance would penetrate the chest and pass through the chest cavity and exit from the back. The bone ring was designed to break after impact so that the shaft could be used again for another kill.\n\n===Burial practices===\nThey buried their dead ancestors near the village.\nArcheologists have found many different types of burials, dating from a variety of periods, in the Aleutian Islands. The Aleut developed a style of burials that were accommodated to local conditions, and honored the dead. They have had four main types of burials: ''umqan'', cave, above-ground sarcophagi, and burials connected to communal houses.\n\nUmqan burials are the most widely known type of mortuary practice found in the Aleutian Islands. The people created burial mounds, that tend to be located on the edge of a bluff. They placed stone and earth over the mound to protect and mark it. Such mounds were first excavated by archeologists in 1972 on Southwestern Unmak Island, and dated to the early contact period. Researchers have found a prevalence of these umqan burials, and concluded it is a regional mortuary practice. It may be considered a pan-Aleutian mortuary practice.\n\nCave burials have been found throughout the Eastern Aleutian Islands. The human remains are buried in shallow graves at the rear of the cave. These caves tend to be located next to middens and near villages. Some grave goods have been found in the caves associated with such burials. For example, a deconstructed boat was found in a burial cave on Kanaga Island. There were no other major finds of grave goods in the vicinity.\n\nThroughout the Aleutian Islands, gravesites have been found that are above-ground sarcophagi. These sarcophagi are left exposed, with no attempt to bury the dead in the ground. These burials tend to be isolated and limited to the remains of adult males, which may indicate a specific ritual practice. In the Near Islands, isolated graves have also been found with the remains, and not just the sarcophagus, left exposed on the surface. This way of erecting sarcophagi above ground is not as common as umqan and cave burials, but it is still widespread.\n\nAnother type of practice has been to bury remains in areas next to the communal houses of the settlement. Human remains are abundant in such sites. They indicate a pattern of burying the dead within the main activity areas of the settlement. These burials consist of small pits adjacent to the houses and scattered around them. In these instances, mass graves are common for women and children. This type of mortuary practice has been mainly found in the Near Islands.\n\nIn addition to these four main types, other kinds of burials have been found in the Aleutian Islands. These more isolated examples include mummification, private burial houses, abandoned houses, etc. To date, such examples are not considered to be part of a larger, unifying tradition. The findings discussed represent only the sites that have been excavated.\n\nThe variety of mortuary practices mostly did not included the ritual of including extensive grave goods, as has been found in other cultures. The remains so far have been mainly found with other human and faunal remains. The addition of objects to \"accompany\" the dead is rare. Archaeologists have been trying to dissect the absence of a great tradition of grave goods, but findings have been ambiguous and do not really help the academic community to understand these practices more.\n\nNot much information is known about the ritual parts of burying the dead. Archeologists and anthropologists have not found much evidence related to burial rituals. This lack of ritual evidence could hint at either no ritualized ceremony, or one that has not yet been revealed in the archaeological record. As a result, archaeologists cannot decipher the context to understand exactly why a certain type of burial was used in particular cases.\n", "* John Hoover (1919–2011), sculptor\n* Carl E. Moses (1929-2014) businessman, state representative, who served from 1965–1973 as both a Republican and Democrat,\n* Cungagnaq (St. Peter the Aleut) (d. 1815), martyr and saint in some jurisdictions of the Eastern Orthodox Church\n* St. Jacob Netsvetov (1802–1864), Russian Orthodox saint and priest\n* Sergie Sovoroff (1901–1989), educator, ''iqya-x'' (model sea kayak) builder\n", "\nAdamagan\nAleutian Islands\nAleutian tradition\nAlutiiq\nIndigenous Amerindian genetics\nMaritime Fur Trade\nSadlermiut\nUnangan Aleut\n* List of Native American peoples in the United States\n\n", "\n", "\nGross, J. Joseph, Sigrid Khera. Ethnohistory of the Aleuts. Fairbanks: Department of Anthropology University of Alaska, November 4, 1980.\nTurner, M. Lucien. An Aleutian Ethnography. Ed. L. Raymond Hudson. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 2008.\nKevin, Osborn. The Peoples of the Arctic. New York : Chelsea House Publishers, 1990. 52. Print.\n\nLee, Molly, Angela J. Linn, and Chase Hensel. Not Just a Pretty Face: Dolls and Human Figurines in Alaska Native Cultures. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska, 2006. Print.\nBlack, Lydia T. ''Aleut Art: Unangam Aguqaadangin''. Anchorage, Alaska: Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, 2005.\nCorbett, Debra G. 2001 Prehistoric Village Organization in the Western Aleutians. In Archaeology of the Aleut Zone of Alaska, edited by D. Dumond, pp. 251–266. University of Oregon Anthropological Papepers, no. 58. University of Oregon, Eugene.\nNelson, Willis H., and Frank Barnett. 1955 A Burial Cave on Kanaga Island, Aleutian Islands. American Antiquity 20(4):387-392.\nVeltre, Douglas W. 2001 Korovinski: Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Investigations of a Pre- and Post-Contact Aleut and Russian Settlement on Atka Island. In Archaeology of the Aleut Zone of Alaska, edited by D. Dumond, pp. 251–266. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers, no. 58. University of Oregon, Eugene.\n\n", "\nBlack, Lydia T. ''Aleut Art: Unangam Aguqaadangin''. Anchorage, Alaska: Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, 2005.\n* Cook, James. ''The Voyages of Captain James Cook.'' Hertfordshire, UK: Wordsworth Editions, 1999. .\n* Jochelson, Waldemar. ''History, Ethnology, and Anthropology of the Aleut''. Washington: Carnegie institution of Washington, 1933.\n* Jochelson, Waldemar, Bergsland, Knut (Editor) & Dirks, Moses (Editor). ''Unangam Ungiikangin Kayux Tunusangin = Unangam Uniikangis ama Tunuzangis = Aleut Tales and Narratives''. Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1990..\n* Kohlhoff, Dean. ''When the Wind Was a River Aleut Evacuation in World War II''. Seattle: University of Washington Press in association with Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, Anchorage, 1995. \n* Murray, Martha G., and Peter L. Corey. ''Aleut Weavers''. Juneau, AK: Alaska State Museums, Division of Libraries, Archives and Museums, 1997.\n* Reedy-Maschner, Katherine. \"Aleut Identities : Tradition and Modernity in an Indigenous Fishery\". Montréal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010. \n* Veltre, Douglas W. ''Aleut Unangax̂ Ethnobotany An Annotated Bibliography''. Akureyri, Iceland: CAFF International Secretariat, 2006. \n* \" Aleutian World War II.\" National Park Service.\n\n", "\n* Aleut Corporation\n* Aleut Management Services\n* Aleutian Pribilof Island Association\n* Qawalangin Tribe of Unalaska\n* Museum of the Aleutians\n* Unalaska Communities of Memory Project Jukebox\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Language ", "Tribes", "Population and distribution", "History", " Traditional culture and technology ", "Notable Aleut", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Aleut
[ "The '''Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act''' ('''ANCSA''') was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 18, 1971, constituting at the time the largest land claims settlement in United States history. ANCSA was intended to resolve long-standing issues surrounding aboriginal land claims in Alaska, as well as to stimulate economic development throughout Alaska. \n\nThe settlement established Alaska Native claims to the land by transferring titles to twelve Alaska Native regional corporations and over 200 local village corporations. A thirteenth regional corporation was later created for Alaska Natives who no longer resided in Alaska. The act is codified as 43 U.S.C. 1601 et seq.\n", "Cliff Groh was one of a number of non-Native lawyers who assisted various Native organizations in achieving passage of ANCSA.\nWhen Alaska became a state in 1959, section 4 of the Alaska Statehood Act provided that any existing Alaska Native land claims would be unaffected by statehood and held in status quo. Yet while section 4 of the act preserved Native land claims until later settlement, section 6 allowed for the state government to claim lands deemed vacant. Section 6 granted the state of Alaska the right to select lands then in the hands of the federal government, with the exception of Native territory. As a result, nearly from the public domain would eventually be transferred to the state. The state government also attempted to acquire lands under section 6 of the Statehood Act that were subject to Native claims under section 4, and that were currently occupied and used by Alaska Natives. The federal Bureau of Land Management began to process the Alaska government's selections without taking into account the Native claims and without informing the affected Native groups.\n\nIt was against this backdrop that the original language for a land claims settlement was developed. \n\nA 9.2-magnitude earthquake struck the state in 1964. Recovery efforts drew the attention of the federal government, which found that Alaska Natives had the poorest living conditions in the country. The Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska decided that Natives should receive $100 million and the 10% revenue royalty. Nothing was done with this proposal, however, and a freeze on land transfers remained in effect. \n\nIn 1968, Governor Walter Hickel summoned a group of Native leaders to work out a settlement that would be satisfactory to Natives. The group met for ten days and asked for $20 million in exchange for requested lands. They also asked for 10% of federal mineral lease revenue.\n\nIn 1969 President Nixon appointed Hickel as Secretary of the Interior. The Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) protested against Hickel’s nomination, but he was eventually confirmed.\n\nHickel worked with the AFN, negotiating with Native leaders and state government over the disputed lands. Offers went back and forth, with each rejecting the other’s proposals. The AFN wanted rights to land, while then Governor Keith Miller believed Natives did not have legitimate claims to state land in light of the provisions of the Alaska Statehood Act. \n\nBut a succeeding Alaska state administration under Governor William A. Egan would stake out positions upon which the AFN and other stakeholders could largely agree. Native leaders, in addition to the Alaska's congressional delegation and the state's newly elected Governor William A. Egan, eventually reached the basis for presenting an agreement to Congress. The proposed settlement terms faced challenges in both houses but found a strong ally in Senator Henry M. Jackson from Washington state. The most controversial issues that continued to hold up approval were methods for determining land selection by Alaska Natives and financial distribution.\n\nIn 1968, the Atlantic-Richfield Company discovered oil at Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic coast, catapulting the issue of land ownership into headlines. In order to lessen the difficulty of drilling at such a remote location and transporting the oil to the lower 48 states, the oil companies proposed building a pipeline to carry the oil across Alaska to the port of Valdez At Valdez, the oil would be loaded onto tankers and shipped to the contiguous states. The plan had been approved, but a permit to construct the pipeline, which would cross lands involved in the land claims dispute, could not be granted until the Native claims were settled.\n\nWith major petroleum dollars on the line, pressure mounted to achieve a definitive legislative resolution at the federal level. In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was signed into law by President Nixon. It abrogated Native claims to aboriginal lands except those that are the subject of the law. In return, Natives received up to of land and were paid $963 million. The land and money were to be divided among regional, urban, and village tribal corporations established under the law, often recognizing existing leadership.\n", "In 1971, barely one million acres of land in Alaska was in private hands. ANCSA, together with section 6 of Alaska Statehood Act, which the new act allowed to come to fruition, affected ownership to about of land in Alaska once wholly controlled by the federal government. That is larger by than the combined areas of Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia.\n\nWhen the bill passed in 1971, it included provisions that had never before been attempted in previous United States settlements with Native Americans. The newly passed Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act created twelve Native regional economic development corporations. Each corporation was associated with a specific region of Alaska and the Natives who had traditionally lived there. This innovative approach to native settlements engaged the tribes in corporate capitalism. \n\nThe idea originated with the AFN, who believed that the Natives would have to become a part of the capitalist system in order to survive. As stockholders in these corporations, the Natives could earn some income and stay in their traditional villages. If the corporations were managed properly, they could make profits that would enable individuals to stay, rather than having to leave Native villages to find better work. This was intended to help preserve Native culture.\n", "Alaska Natives had three years from passage of ANCSA to make land selections of the granted under the act. In some cases Native corporations received outside aid in surveying the land. For instance, Doyon, Limited (one of the 13 regional corporations) was helped by the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska. The Institute determined which land contained resources such as minerals and coal. NASA similarly provided satellite imagery to aid in Native corporations finding areas most suited for vegetation and their traditional subsistence culture. The imagery showed locations of caribou and moose, as well as forests with marketable timber. In total about were analyzed for Doyon. Natives were able to choose tens of thousands of acres of land rich with timber while Doyon used mineral analysis to attract businesses.\n\nThe state of Alaska to date has been granted approximately 85% or of the land claims it has made under ANCSA. The state is entitled to a total of under the terms of the Statehood Act. Originally the state had 25 years after passage of the Alaska Statehood Act to file claims under section 6 of the act with the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Amendments to ANCSA extended that deadline until 1994, with the expectation that BLM would complete processing of land transfers subject to overlapping Native claims by 2009. Nonetheless, some Native and state selections under ANCSA remained unresolved as late as December 2014.\n", "There was largely positive reaction to ANCSA, although not entirely. The act was supported by Natives as well as non-Natives, and likewise enjoyed bipartisan support. Natives were heavily involved in the legislative process, and the final draft of the act used many AFN ideas. \n\nSome Natives have argued that ANCSA has hastened cultural genocide of Alaska Natives. Some Natives critiqued ANCSA as an illegitimate treaty since only tribal leaders were involved and the provisions of the act were not voted on by indigenous populations. One native described it as a social and political experiment. Critics have also argued that Natives so feared massacre or incarceration that they offered no resistance to the act. \n\nOthers have argued that the settlement was arguably the most generous afforded by the United States to a Native group. They note that some of the largest and most profitable corporations in the state are the twelve created by ANCSA. Other critics attacked the act as \"Native welfare\" and such complaints continue to be expressed. \n\nThe corporation system has been critiqued, as in some cases stockholders have sold land to outside corporations that have leveled forests and extracted minerals. But supporters of the system argue that it has provided economic benefits for indigenous peoples that outweigh these problems.\n", "* Native claims in Alaska were extinguished by means of section 4 of ANCSA.\n* In exchange for abrogating Native claims, approximately one-ninth of the state's land plus $962.5 million were distributed to more than 200 local Alaska Native \"village corporations\" established under section 8, in addition to 12 land-owning for-profit Alaska Native \"regional corporations\" and a non-land-owning thirteenth corporation for Alaska Natives who had left the state established under section 6.\n* Of the compensation monies, $462.5 million was to come from the federal treasury and the rest from oil revenue-sharing.\n* Settlement benefits would accrue to those with at least one-fourth Native ancestry under sections 3(b) and 5(a).\n* Of the approximately 80,000 Natives enrolled under ANCSA, those living in villages (approximately two-thirds of the total) would receive 100 shares in both a village and a regional corporation.\n* The remaining one-third would be \"at large\" shareholders with 100 shares in a regional corporation with additional rights to revenue from regional mineral and timber resources.\n* The Alaska Native Allotment Act was revoked but with the proviso that pending claims under that act would continue to be processed under section 18. Successful applicants would be excluded under ANCSA by section 14(h)(5) from land to be used for a primary residence.\n* The twelve regional corporations within the state would administer the settlement.\n* A thirteenth corporation composed of Natives who had left the state would receive compensation but not land.\n* Surface rights to were patented to the Native village and regional corporations under sections 12(c), as well as 14(h)(1) and (8).\n* The surface rights to the patented land were granted to the village corporations and the subsurface right to the land were granted to the regional corporation, creating a split estate pursuant to section 14(f).\n\n===Alaska Native regional corporations===\n\nRegional corporations established by the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act.\nThe following thirteen regional corporations were created under ANCSA:\n* Ahtna, Incorporated\n* The Aleut Corporation \n* Arctic Slope Regional Corporation \n* Bering Straits Native Corporation \n* Bristol Bay Native Corporation \n* Calista Corporation\n* Chugach Alaska Corporation\n* Cook Inlet Region, Inc. \n* Doyon, Limited\n* Koniag, Incorporated\n* NANA Regional Corporation \n* Sealaska Corporation\n* The 13th Regional Corporation\n\nAdditionally, most regions and some villages have created their own nonprofits providing social services and health care through grant funding and federal compacts. The objectives of these nonprofits are varied, but focus generally on cultural and educational activities. These include scholarships for Native students, sponsorship of cultural and artistic events, preservation efforts for Native languages, and protection of sites with historic or religious importance.\n\n===Alaska Native village and urban corporations===\nANCSA created about 224 village and urban corporations. Below is a representative list of village and urban corporations created under ANCSA:\n* Ukpeaġvik Iñupiat Corporation, village corporation for Barrow\n* Bethel Native Corporation, village corporation for Bethel\n* Cape Fox Corporation, village corporation for Saxman\n* Deloycheet, Inc., village corporation for Holy Cross\n* Huna Totem Corporation, village corporation for Hoonah\n* Haida Corporation, village corporation for Hydaburg\n* Goldbelt, Inc., urban corporation for Juneau\n* Paug-Vik, Inc. Ltd., village corporation for Naknek\n* Chenega Corporation, village corporation for Chenega\n* Afognak Native Corporation, village corporation for Afognak and Port Lions\n* Kavilco Incorporated, village corporation for Kasaan\n* Klukwan, Inc., village corporation for Klukwan\n* The Kuskokwim Corporation, village corporation for Aniak, Crooked Creek, Georgetown, Kalskag, Lower Kalskag, Napaimute, Red Devil, Russian Mission, Sleetmute and Stony River\n* Natives of Kodiak, Inc., urban corporation for Kodiak\n* Ounalashka Corporation, village corporation for Unalaska\n* Ouzinkie Native Corporation, village corporation for Ouzinkie\n* Shee Atika, Incorporated, urban corporation for Sitka\n", "Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act\nAlaska Statehood Act\nAlaska Native Allotment Act\nAlaska Land Transfer Acceleration Act\n", "\n", "Borneman, Walter R. ''Alaska: Saga of a Bold Land''. Harper Perennial. (2004)\nDombrowski, Kirk. ''Against Culture: Development, Politics, and Religion in Indian Alaska'' U of Nebraska Press. (2001)\nHaycox, Stephen. ''Alaska: An American Colony''. University of Washington Press. (2006)\nHaycox, Stephen. ''Frigid Embrace: Politics, Economics, and Environment in Alaska'' Oregon University Press. (2002) \nHaynes, James B. \"Land Selection and Development under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act,\" ''Arctic Institute of North America'', Vol. 28-3, pp. 201–208 (September 1975)\nLinxwiler, James D. \"The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: The First Twenty Years,\" ''Proceedings from the 38th Annual Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Institute''. (1992)\nRoderick, Libby. ''Alaska Native Cultures and Issues: Responses to Frequently Asked Questions''. University of Alaska Press. (2010)\nWilliams, Maria Sháa Tláa. ''The Alaska Native Reader: History, Culture, Politics''. Duke University Press. (2009). \nWorl, Rosita. \"Reconstructing Sovereignty in Alaska,\" ''Cultural Survival Quarterly''. (Fall 2001)\n", "Berger, Thomas R. ''Village Journey: The Report of the Alaska Native Review Commission''. (April 1985)\nCase, David S. ''Alaska Natives and American Laws: Third Edition''. (2012)\n ''GAO Report: Increased Use of Alaska Native Corporations’ Special 8(a) Provisions Calls for Tailored Oversight'' (April 2006)\nKentch, Gavin. \"A Corporate Culture? The Environmental Justice Challenges of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act\". 81 Miss. L.J. 813 (2012)\nLazarus (Jr.), Arthur. \"The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: A Flawed Victory,\" ''Law and Contemporary Problems''. (Winter 1976)\nLondon, J. Tate. \"The \"1991 Amendments\" to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: Protection for Native Lands?\", 8 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 200. (1989)\nMcPhee, John. ''Coming into the Country''. (1976)\nWalsh, John F. \"Settling the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act\", 38 Stan. L. Rev. 227 (1985)\n", " The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Resource Center\n* Alaska Native Land Claims Settlement Act of 1971\n* Revisiting the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA)\n* Alaska Native Corporation Links\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Background", "Effect of land conveyances", "Native and state land selection", "Criticism of ANCSA", "Selected provisions of ANCSA", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act
[ "\n\nFrancesco Albani's ''The Baptism of Christ,'' when Jesus became one with God according to Adoptionism \n\n'''Adoptionism''', sometimes called dynamic monarchianism, is a nontrinitarian theological doctrine which holds that Jesus was adopted as the Son of God at his baptism, his resurrection, or his ascension. According to Epiphanius's account of the Ebionites, the group believed that Jesus was chosen on account of his sinless devotion to the will of God.\n\nAdoptionism was declared heresy at the end of the 2nd century and was rejected by the Synods of Antioch and the First Council of Nicaea, which defined the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and identified the man Jesus with the eternally begotten Son or Word of God in the Nicene Creed.\n", "\n=== Early primary writings ===\n\nBart D. Ehrman suggests in ''The Orthodox Corruption of the Scripture'' that Adoptionist theology may date back almost to the time of Jesus.\n\nThe Gospel of Mark is believed by most modern scholars to be the first of the four canonical gospels to have been written, dating from the time of the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. Mark gives prominent mention to the destruction of the Second Temple and appears to have provided source material for Matthew and Luke. Many details found in later writings do not appear in the earliest manuscripts of Mark, including the phrase \"Son of God\" at . Ehrman notes that this places the first use of the title \"Son of God\" for Jesus at his baptism, suggesting that Mark's gospel may reflect early Adoptionist views. The words \"Today I have begotten you\" are omitted from Mark, however; it is therefore generally believed to have less Adoptionist tendencies than the lost, non-canonical Gospel of the Hebrews.\n\nAdoptionist theology may also be reflected in canonical epistles, the earliest of which pre-date the writing of the gospels. The letters of Paul the Apostle, for example, do not mention a virgin birth of Christ. Paul describes Jesus as \"born of a woman, born under the law\" and \"as to his human nature was a descendant of David\" in the Epistle to the Galatians and the Epistle to the Romans. Many interpreters, however, take his statements in Philippians 2 to imply that Paul believed Jesus to have existed as equal to God before his incarnation. The Book of Hebrews, a contemporary sermon by an unknown author, describes God as saying \"You are my son; today I have begotten you.\" () The latter phrase, a quote of , could reflect an early Adoptionist view.\n\n=== 2nd century: ante-Nicene Christology ===\n\nThe first known exponent of Adoptionism in the 2nd century is Theodotus of Byzantium. According to Hippolytus of Rome (''Philosophumena'', VII, xxiii) Theodotus taught that Jesus was a man born of a virgin, according to the Council of Jerusalem, that he lived like other men, and was most pious; but that at his baptism in the Jordan the \"Christ\" came down upon the man Jesus in the likeness of a dove. (Luke 3:22 And the Holy Ghost descended in a bodily shape like a dove upon him, and a voice came from heaven, which said, Thou art my beloved Son; in thee I am well pleased. Luke 4:1 And Jesus being full of the Holy Ghost returned from Jordan, and was led by the Spirit into the wilderness,) Therefore, wonders (Greek ''dynameis'') were not wrought in him until the Spirit (which Theodotus called Christ) came down and was manifested in Him. (''Philosophumena'', VII, xxiii) The belief was declared heretical by Pope Victor I.\n\nThe 2nd-century work Shepherd of Hermas also taught that Jesus was a virtuous man filled with the Holy Spirit and adopted as the Son. While the Shepherd of Hermas was popular and sometimes bound with the canonical scriptures, it didn't retain canonical status, if it ever had it.\n\nIn the 3rd century, Paul of Samosata, Patriarch of Antioch, promoted Adoptionism. He said Jesus had been a man who kept himself sinless and achieved union with God. His views, however, did not neatly fit in either of the two main forms of Monarchianism.\n\n=== Spanish Adoptionism ===\n\nSpanish Adoptionism was a theological position which was articulated in Umayyad and Christian-held regions of the Iberian peninsula in the 8th and 9th centuries. The issue seems to have begun with the claim of archbishop Elipandus of Toledo that – in respect to his human nature – Christ was ''adoptive'' Son of God. Another leading advocate of this Christology was Felix of Urgel. In Spain, Adoptionism was opposed by Beatus of Liebana, and in the Carolingian territories, the Adoptionist position was condemned by Pope Hadrian I, Alcuin of York, Agobard, and officially in Carolingian territory by the Council of Frankfurt (794).\n\nDespite the shared name of \"Adoptionism\" the Spanish Adoptionist Christology appears to have differed sharply from the Adoptionism of early Christianity. Spanish advocates predicated the term ''adoptivus'' of Christ only in respect to his humanity; once the divine Son \"emptied himself\" of divinity and \"took the form of a servant\" (Philippians 2:7), Christ's human nature was \"adopted\" as divine.\n\nHistorically, many scholars have followed the Adoptionists' Carolingian opponents in labeling Spanish Adoptionism as a minor revival of “Nestorian” Christology. John C. Cavadini has challenged this notion by attempting to take the Spanish Christology in its own Spanish/North African context in his study, ''The Last Christology of the West: Adoptionism in Spain and Gaul, 785–820''.\n\n=== 12th century and later: Neo-Adoptionism ===\n\nA third wave was the revived form (\"Neo-Adoptionism\") of Peter Abelard in the 12th century. Later, various modified and qualified Adoptionist tenets emerged from some theologians in the 14th century. Duns Scotus (1300) and Durandus of Saint-Pourçain (1320) admit the term ''Filius adoptivus'' in a qualified sense. In more recent times the Jesuit Gabriel Vásquez, and the Lutheran divines Georgius Calixtus and Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch, have defended Adoptionism as essentially orthodox.\n\n=== Later Adoptionist groups ===\n\nA form of Adoptionism surfaced in Unitarianism during the 18th century as the virgin birth was increasingly denied by Unitarians . In the 19th century the term Psilanthropism, was applied by such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge who so called his own view that Jesus was the son of Joseph.\n\nA similar form of Adoptionism was expressed in the writings of James Strang, a Latter Day Saint leader who founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) after the death of Joseph Smith in 1844. In his Book of the Law of the Lord, a purported work of ancient scripture found and translated by Strang, he offers an essay entitled \"Note on the Sacrifice of Christ\" in which he explains his unique (for Mormonism as a whole) doctrines on the subject. Jesus Christ, said Strang, was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, who was chosen from before all time to be the Savior of mankind, but who had to be born as an ordinary mortal of two human parents (rather than being begotten by the Father or the Holy Spirit) to be able to truly fulfill his Messianic role. Strang claimed that the earthly Christ was in essence \"adopted\" as God's son at birth, and fully revealed as such during the Transfiguration. After proving himself to God by living a perfectly sinless life, he was enabled to provide an acceptable sacrifice for the sins of men, prior to his resurrection and ascension.\n", "\nAdoptionism is one of two main forms of monarchianism (the other is modalism, which regards \"Father\" and \"Son\" as two historical or soteriological roles of a single divine Person). Adoptionism (also known as dynamic monarchianism) denies the eternal pre-existence of Christ, and although it explicitly affirms his deity subsequent to events in his life, many classical trinitarians claim that the doctrine implicitly denies it by denying the constant hypostatic union of the eternal Logos to the human nature of Jesus. Under Adoptionism Jesus is currently divine and has been since his adoption, although he is not equal to the Father, per \"my Father is greater than I\" (). and as such is a kind of subordinationism.\n\nAdoptionism was one position in a long series of Christian disagreements about the precise nature of Christ (see Christology) in the developing dogma of the Trinity, an attempt to explain the relationship between Jesus of Nazareth, both as man and God, and God the Father while confidently claiming to be uncompromisingly monotheistic. It differs significantly from the doctrine of the Trinity that was later affirmed by the ecumenical councils.\n\nSome scholars see Adoptionist concepts in the Gospel of Mark and in the writings of the Apostle Paul. According to this view, though Mark has Jesus as the Son of God, references occurring at the strategic points in 1:1 (\"The beginning of the gospel about Jesus Christ, the Son of God\", but not in all versions, see Mark 1), 5:7 (\"What do you want with me, Jesus, Son of the Most High God?\") and 15:39 (\"Surely this man was the Son of God!\"), the concept of the Virgin Birth of Jesus had not been developed or elucidated at the time of the writing of this early Christian text. By the time the Gospels of Luke and Matthew were written, Jesus is identified as being the Son of God from the time of birth. Finally, the Gospel of John portrays him as the pre-existent Word () as existing \"in the beginning\".\n", "* Adoptivi\n* Arianism\n* Binitarianism\n", "\n", "* Philip Schaff ''History of the Christian Church'', Volume IV, 1882\n", "\n* Adoptionism in ''Catholic Encyclopedia''\n* Adoptionism in ''Christian Cyclopedia''\n* Chapter XI. Doctrinal Controversies, from Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Adoptionism and Christology ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]	Adoptionism
[ "'''Apollinarism''' or '''Apollinarianism''' was a view proposed by Apollinaris of Laodicea (died 390) that Jesus could not have had a human mind; rather, Jesus had a human body and lower soul (the seat of the emotions) but a divine mind. \n\nThe Trinity had been recognized at the Council of Nicea in 325, but debate about exactly what it meant continued. A rival to the more common belief that Jesus Christ had two natures was monophysitism (\"one nature\"), the doctrine that Christ had only one nature. Apollinarism and Eutychianism were two forms of monophysitism. Apollinaris' rejection that Christ had a human mind was considered an over-reaction to Arianism and its teaching that Christ was not divine.\n\nTheodoret charged Apollinaris with confounding the persons of the Godhead and with giving in to the heretical ways of Sabellius. Basil of Caesarea accused him of abandoning the literal sense of the scripture, and taking up wholly with the allegorical sense. His views were condemned in a Synod at Alexandria, under Athanasius of Alexandria, in 362, and later subdivided into several different heresies, the main ones of which were the Polemians and the Antidicomarianites.\n\nIt was declared to be a heresy in 381 by the First Council of Constantinople, since Christ was officially depicted as fully human and fully God. Followers of Apollinarianism were accused of attempting to create a tertium quid (\"third thing,\" neither God nor man).\n\nApollinaris further taught, following Tertullian, that the souls of men were propagated by other souls, as well as their bodies (see traducianism). \n\nChristian philosopher William Lane Craig has proposed a neo-Apollinarian Christology in which the divine Logos completes the human nature of Christ. Craig says his proposal is tentative and he welcomes critique and interaction from other scholars.\n", "\n", "\n Catholic Encyclopedia entry\nArtemi, E., «Mia physis of God Logos sesarkomeni» a)The analysis of this phrase according to Cyril of Alexandria b)The analysis of this phrase according to Apollinaris of Laodicea»,Ecclesiastic Faros t. ΟΔ (2003), 293 – 304.\nMcGrath, Alister. 1998. ''Historical Theology, An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought.'' Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Chapter 1.\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Notes", "References" ]	Apollinarism
[ "\n\nAn '''acid–base reaction''' is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. Several theoretical frameworks provide alternative conceptions of the reaction mechanisms and their application in solving related problems; these are called the acid–base theories, for example, Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory. Their importance becomes apparent in analyzing acid–base reactions for gaseous or liquid species, or when acid or base character may be somewhat less apparent. The first of these concepts was provided by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, around 1776.\n", "\n===Historic development===\n\n====Lavoisier's oxygen theory of acids====\nThe first scientific concept of acids and bases was provided by Lavoisier in around 1776. Since Lavoisier's knowledge of strong acids was mainly restricted to oxoacids, such as (nitric acid) and (sulfuric acid), which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen, and since he was not aware of the true composition of the hydrohalic acids (HF, HCl, HBr, and HI), he defined acids in terms of their containing ''oxygen'', which in fact he named from Greek words meaning \"acid-former\" (from the Greek οξυς (''oxys'') meaning \"acid\" or \"sharp\" and γεινομαι (''geinomai'') meaning \"engender\"). The Lavoisier definition was held as absolute truth for over 30 years, until the 1810 article and subsequent lectures by Sir Humphry Davy in which he proved the lack of oxygen in , H2Te, and the hydrohalic acids. However, Davy failed to develop a new theory, concluding that \"acidity does not depend upon any particular elementary substance, but upon peculiar arrangement of various substances\". One notable modification of oxygen theory was provided by Berzelius, who stated that acids are oxides of nonmetals while bases are oxides of metals.\n\n====Liebig's hydrogen theory of acids====\nIn 1838, Justus von Liebig proposed that an acid is a hydrogen-containing substance in which the hydrogen could be replaced by a metal. This redefinition was based on his extensive work on the chemical composition of organic acids, finishing the doctrinal shift from oxygen-based acids to hydrogen-based acids started by Davy. Liebig's definition, while completely empirical, remained in use for almost 50 years until the adoption of the Arrhenius definition.\n\n====Arrhenius definition====\n\nSvante Arrhenius\nThe first modern definition of acids and bases in molecular terms was devised by Svante Arrhenius. A hydrogen theory of acids, it followed from his 1884 work with Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald in establishing the presence of ions in aqueous solution and led to Arrhenius receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1903.\n\nAs defined by Arrhenius:\n''an Arrhenius acid'' is a substance that dissociates in water to form hydrogen ions (H+); that is, an acid increases the concentration of H+ ions in an aqueous solution.\n\nThis causes the protonation of water, or the creation of the hydronium (H3O+) ion. Thus, in modern times, the symbol H+ is interpreted as a shorthand for H3O+, because it is now known that a bare proton does not exist as a free species in aqueous solution.\n''an Arrhenius base'' is a substance that dissociates in water to form hydroxide (OH−) ions; that is, a base increases the concentration of OH− ions in an aqueous solution.\nThe Arrhenius definitions of acidity and alkalinity are restricted to aqueous solutions, and refer to the concentration of the solvent ions. Under this definition, pure H2SO4 and HCl dissolved in toluene are not acidic, and molten NaOH and solutions of calcium amide in liquid ammonia are not alkaline.\n\nOverall, to qualify as an Arrhenius acid, upon the introduction to water, the chemical must either cause, directly or otherwise:\nan increase in the aqueous hydronium concentration, or\na decrease in the aqueous hydroxide concentration.\n\nConversely, to qualify as an Arrhenius base, upon the introduction to water, the chemical must either cause, directly or otherwise:\na decrease in the aqueous hydronium concentration, or\nan increase in the aqueous hydroxide concentration.\n\nThe reaction of an acid with a base is called a neutralization reaction. The products of this reaction are a salt and water.\n:acid + base → salt + water\n\nIn this traditional representation an acid–base neutralization reaction is formulated as a double-replacement reaction. For example, the reaction of hydrochloric acid, HCl, with sodium hydroxide, NaOH, solutions produces a solution of sodium chloride, NaCl, and some additional water molecules.\n:HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O\n\nThe modifier (aq) in this equation was implied by Arrhenius, rather than included explicitly. It indicates that the substances are dissolved in water. Though all three substances, HCl, NaOH and NaCl are capable of existing as pure compounds, in aqueous solutions they are fully dissociated into the aquated ions H+, Cl−, Na+ and OH−.\n\n===Brønsted–Lowry definition===\n\n\n\nThe Brønsted–Lowry definition, formulated in 1923, independently by Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted in Denmark and Martin Lowry in England, is based upon the idea of protonation of bases through the de-protonation of acids – that is, the ability of acids to \"donate\" hydrogen ions (H+)—otherwise known as protons—to bases, which \"accept\" them.\n\nAn acid–base reaction is, thus, the removal of a hydrogen ion from the acid and its addition to the base. The removal of a hydrogen ion from an acid produces its ''conjugate base'', which is the acid with a hydrogen ion removed. The reception of a proton by a base produces its ''conjugate acid'', which is the base with a hydrogen ion added.\n\nUnlike the previous definitions, the Brønsted–Lowry definition does not refer to the formation of salt and solvent, but instead to the formation of ''conjugate acids'' and ''conjugate bases'', produced by the transfer of a proton from the acid to the base. In this approach, acids and bases are fundamentally different in behavior from salts, which are seen as electrolytes, subject to the theories of Debye, Onsager, and others. An acid and a base react not to produce a salt and a solvent, but to form a new acid and a new base. The concept of neutralization is thus absent. Brønsted–Lowry acid–base behavior is formally independent of any solvent, making it more all-encompassing than the Arrhenius model.\n\nThe general formula for acid–base reactions according to the Brønsted–Lowry definition is:\n:HA + B → BH+ + A−\nwhere HA represents the acid, B represents the base, BH+ represents the conjugate acid of B, and A− represents the conjugate base of HA.\n\nFor example, a Brønsted-Lowry model for the dissociation of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in aqueous solution would be the following:\n:HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl−\n\nThe removal of H+ from the HCl produces the chloride ion, Cl−, the conjugate base of the acid. The addition of H+ to the H2O (acting as a base) forms the hydronium ion, H3O+, the conjugate acid of the base.\n\nWater is amphoteric—that is, it can act as both an acid and a base. The Brønsted-Lowry model explains this, showing the dissociation of water into low concentrations of hydronium and hydroxide ions:\n:H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH−\n\nThis equation is demonstrated in the image below:\ncenter\n\nHere, one molecule of water acts as an acid, donating an H+ and forming the conjugate base, OH−, and a second molecule of water acts as a base, accepting the H+ ion and forming the conjugate acid, H3O+.\n\nAs an example of water acting as an acid, consider an aqueous solution of pyridine, C5H5N.\n:C5H5N + H2O C5H5NH+ + OH−\n\nIn this example, a water molecule is split into a hydrogen ion, which is donated to a pyridine molecule, and an hydroxide ion.\n\nIn the Brønsted-Lowry model, the solvent does not necessarily have to be water. For example, consider what happens when acetic acid, CH3COOH, dissolves in liquid ammonia.\n: + + \n\nAn H+ ion is removed from acetic acid, forming its conjugate base, the acetate ion, CH3COO−. The addition of an H+ ion to an ammonia molecule of the solvent creates its conjugate acid, the ammonium ion, NH.\n\nThe Brønsted–Lowry model calls hydrogen-containing substances (like HCl) acids. Thus, some substances, which many chemists considered to be acids, such as SO3 or BCl3, are excluded from this classification due to lack of hydrogen. Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in 1938, \"To restrict the group of acids to those substances that contain hydrogen interferes as seriously with the systematic understanding of chemistry as would the restriction of the term oxidizing agent to substances containing oxygen.\" Furthermore, KOH and KNH2 are not considered Brønsted bases, but rather salts containing the bases OH− and NH.\n\n===Lewis definition===\n\nThe hydrogen requirement of Arrhenius and Brønsted–Lowry was removed by the Lewis definition of acid–base reactions, devised by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1923, in the same year as Brønsted–Lowry, but it was not elaborated by him until 1938. Instead of defining acid–base reactions in terms of protons or other bonded substances, the Lewis definition defines a base (referred to as a ''Lewis base'') to be a compound that can donate an ''electron pair'', and an acid (a ''Lewis acid'') to be a compound that can receive this electron pair.\n\nFor example, boron trifluoride, BF3 is a typical Lewis acid. It can accept a pair of electrons as it has a vacancy in its octet. The fluoride ion has a full octet and can donate a pair of electrons. Thus\n:BF3 + F− → BF\nis a typical Lewis acid, Lewis base reaction. All compounds of group 13 elements with a formula AX3 can behave as Lewis acids. Similarly, compounds of group 15 elements with a formula DY3, such as amines, NR3, and phosphines, PR3, can behave as Lewis bases. Adducts between them have the formula X3A←DY3 with a dative covalent bond, shown symbolically as ←, between the atoms A (acceptor) and D (donor). Compounds of group 16 with a formula DX2 may also act as Lewis bases; in this way, a compound like an ether, R2O, or a thioether, R2S, can act as a Lewis base. The Lewis definition is not limited to these examples. For instance, carbon monoxide acts as a Lewis base when it forms an adduct with boron trifluoride, of formula F3B←CO\n\nAdducts involving metal ions are referred to as co-ordination compounds; each ligand donates a pair of electrons to the metal ion. The reaction\n:Ag(H2O)4+ + 2NH3 → Ag(NH3)2+ + 4H2O\ncan be seen as an acid–base reaction in which a stronger base (ammonia) replaces a weaker one (water)\n\nThe Lewis and Brønsted–Lowry definitions are consistent with each other since the reaction\n:H+ + OH− H2O\nis an acid–base reaction in both theories.\n\n===Solvent system definition===\nOne of the limitations of the Arrhenius definition is its reliance on water solutions. Edward Curtis Franklin studied the acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia in 1905 and pointed out the similarities to the water-based Arrhenius theory. Albert F. O. Germann, working with liquid phosgene, , formulated the solvent-based theory in 1925, thereby generalizing the Arrhenius definition to cover aprotic solvents.\n\nGermann pointed out that in many solutions, there are ions in equilibrium with the neutral solvent molecules:\n'''solvonium''': A generic name for a positive ion.\n'''solvate''': A generic name for a negative ion.\n\nFor example, water and ammonia undergo such dissociation into hydronium and hydroxide, and ammonium and amide, respectively:\n:2 + \n:2 + \n\nSome aprotic systems also undergo such dissociation, such as dinitrogen tetroxide into nitrosonium and nitrate, antimony trichloride into dichloroantimonium and tetrachloroantimonate, and phosgene into chlorocarboxonium and chloride:\n: + \n:2 + \n: + \n\nA solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvonium ions and a decrease in the concentration of solvate ions is defined as an ''acid''. A solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvate ions and a decrease in the concentration of the solvonium ions is defined as a ''base''.\n\nThus, in liquid ammonia, (supplying ) is a strong base, and (supplying ) is a strong acid. In liquid sulfur dioxide (), thionyl compounds (supplying ) behave as acids, and sulfites (supplying ) behave as bases.\n\nThe non-aqueous acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia are similar to the reactions in water:\n: + → \n: + → \n\nNitric acid can be a base in liquid sulfuric acid:\n: + 2 → + + 2 \nThe unique strength of this definition shows in describing the reactions in aprotic solvents; for example, in liquid :\n: + → + \n\nBecause the solvent system definition depends on the solute as well as on the solvent itself, a particular solute can be either an acid or a base depending on the choice of the solvent: is a strong acid in water, a weak acid in acetic acid, and a weak base in fluorosulfonic acid; this characteristic of the theory has been seen as both a strength and a weakness, because some substances (such as and ) have been seen to be acidic or basic on their own right. On the other hand, solvent system theory has been criticized as being too general to be useful. Also, it has been thought that there is something intrinsically acidic about hydrogen compounds, a property not shared by non-hydrogenic solvonium salts.\n\n===Lux–Flood definition===\nThis acid–base theory was a revival of oxygen theory of acids and bases, proposed by German chemist Hermann Lux in 1939, further improved by Håkon Flood circa 1947 and is still used in modern geochemistry and electrochemistry of molten salts. This definition describes an acid as an oxide ion () acceptor and a base as an oxide ion donor. For example:\n: + → \n: + → \n: + → + 2 \n\nThis theory is also useful in the systematisation of the reactions of noble gas compounds, especially the xenon oxides, fluorides, and oxofluorides.\n\n===Usanovich definition===\nMikhail Usanovich developed a general theory that does not restrict acidity to hydrogen-containing compounds, but his approach, published in 1938, was even more general than Lewis theory. Usanovich's theory can be summarized as defining an acid as anything that accepts negative species or donates positive ones, and a base as the reverse. This defined the concept of redox (oxidation-reduction) as a special case of acid–base reactions\n\nSome examples of Usanovich acid–base reactions include:\n: + → 2 + (species exchanged: anion)\n: + → 6 + 2 (species exchanged: 3 anions)\n: + → 2 + 2 (species exchanged: 2 electrons)\n", "===HSAB Theory===\n\n\n\nIn 1963, Ralph Pearson proposed a qualitative concept known as the Hard and Soft Acids and Bases principle. later made quantitative with help of Robert Parr in 1984. 'Hard' applies to species that are small, have high charge states, and are weakly polarizable. 'Soft' applies to species that are large, have low charge states and are strongly polarizable. Acids and bases interact, and the most stable interactions are hard–hard and soft–soft. This theory has found use in organic and inorganic chemistry.\n\n===ECW Model===\n\n\n\nThe ECW Model is quantitative model that describes and predicts the strength of Lewis acid base interactions, -ΔH . The model assigned E and C parameters to many Lewis acids and bases. Each acid is characterized by an EA and a CA. Each base is likewise characterized by its own EB and CB. The E and C parameters refer, respectively, to the electrostatic and covalent contributions to the strength of the bonds that the acid and base will form. The equation is\n\n \n\n:-ΔH = EAEB + CACB + W\n\n \n\nThe W term represents a constant energy contribution for acid–base reaction such as the cleavage of a dimeric acid or base. The equation predicts reversal of acids and base strengths. The graphical presentations of the equation show that there is no single order of Lewis base strengths or Lewis acid strengths.\n", "\nThe reaction of a strong acid with a strong base is essentially a quantitative reaction. For example,\n:HCl(aq) + Na(OH)(aq) → H2O + NaCl(aq)\n\nIn this reaction both the sodium and chloride ions are spectators as the neutralization reaction,\n:H+ + OH− → H2O\ndoes not involve them. With weak bases addition of acid is not quantitative because a solution of a weak base is a buffer solution. A solution of a weak acid is also a buffer solution. When a weak acid reacts with a weak base an equilibrium mixture is produced. For example, adenine, written as AH can react with a hydrogen phosphate ion, .\n:AH + A− + \n\nThe equilibrium constant for this reaction can be derived from the acid dissociation constants of adenine and of the dihydrogen phosphate ion.\n:A−H+ = ''K''a1AH\n:H+ = ''K''a2\n\nThe notation X signifies \"concentration of X\". When these two equations are combined by eliminating the hydrogen ion concentration, an expression for the equilibrium constant, ''K'' is obtained.\n:A− = ''K''AH; ''K'' = \n", "\nAn acid–alkali reaction is a special case of an acid–base reaction, where the base used is also an alkali. When an acid reacts with an alkali salt (a metal hydroxide), the product is a metal salt and water. Acid–alkali reactions are also neutralization reactions.\n\nIn general, acid–alkali reactions can be simplified to\n:(aq) + (aq) → \nby omitting spectator ions.\n\nAcids are in general pure substances that contain hydrogen cations () or cause them to be produced in solutions. Hydrochloric acid () and sulfuric acid () are common examples. In water, these break apart into ions:\n: → (aq) + (aq)\n: → (aq) + (aq)\n\nThe alkali breaks apart in water, yielding dissolved hydroxide ions:\n: → (aq) + (aq)\n", "Acid–base titration\nElectron configuration\nLewis structure\nNucleophilic substitution and Redox reactions\nProtonation and Deprotonation\nResonance structure\n", "\n", "\n\n===Sources===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* Acid-base Physiology: an on-line text\n* John W. Kimball's online Biology book section of acid and bases.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Acid–base definitions", "Rationalizing the Strength of Lewis Acid Base Interactions", "Acid–base equilibrium", "Acid–alkali reaction", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Acid–base reaction
[ "\n\n\n\n'''`Ali ibn al-Husayn ul-Iṣfahānī''' (), also known as '''Abu-l-Faraj''' or, in the West, as '''Abulfaraj''' (897–967) was an historian of Arab-Quraysh origin who is noted for collecting and preserving ancient Arabic lyrics and poems in his major work, the ''Kitāb al-Aghānī''.\n\n", "Abu al-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī was born in Isfahan, but spent his youth and made his early studies in Baghdad. He was a direct descendant of the last of the Umayyad caliphs, Marwan II, and was thus connected with the Umayyad rulers in al-Andalus, and seems to have kept up a correspondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian antiquities.\n\nHis later life was spent in various parts of the Islamic world, in Aleppo with its Hamdanid governor Sayf ad-Dawlah (to whom he dedicated the ''Book of Songs''), in Ray with the Buwayhid vizier Ibn 'Abbad, and elsewhere.\n\nAlthough he wrote poetry, also an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and a genealogical work, his fame rests upon his ''Book of Songs'' (Kitab al-Aghani).\n", "''Kitab al-Aghani'' (''Book of Songs''), a twenty volumes work that relates the stories of composers, poets, and singers (both men and women), along with some of their anecdotes, from the oldest epoch of Arabic literature down to the 9th century. These stories are related through ''isnad'' channels. The poems were put to music, but the musical signs are no longer readable. Because of the accompanying biographical annotations on the authors and composers, the work is an important historical source. \nIt contains a mass of information as to the life and customs of the early Arabs, and is the most valuable authority we have for their pre-Islamic and early Islamic days.\n", "List of Arab scientists and scholars\nList of Iranian scientists and scholars\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "''Book of Songs''", "See also", "References" ]	Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani
[ "\n\nFaçade of the Alcobaça Monastery.\nGothic fountain house and renaissance water basin in the cloister of the Alcobaça Monastery.\nSquare in Alcobaça.\n\n'''Alcobaça''' () is a city and a municipality in Oeste Subregion, region Centro in Portugal, formerly included in the Estremadura Province. The city grew along the valleys of the rivers Alcoa and Baça, from which it derives its name. The municipality population in 2011 was 56,693, in an area of 408.14 km². The city proper has a population of 15,800 inhabitants.\n\nThe city of Alcobaça became notable after the first king of Portugal, Afonso Henriques, decided to build a church to commemorate the Conquest of Santarém from the Moors in 1147. The church later evolved into the Monastery of Alcobaça, one of the most magnificent gothic monuments in the country. In the church are the tombs of Pedro I of Portugal and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro. Over the centuries this monastery played an important role in shaping Portuguese culture.\n\nA few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is the Monastery of Batalha, another gothic building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota. To the west of Alcobaça is the fishing village of Nazaré, now a popular resort town. To the south is the city of Caldas da Rainha and the medieval town of Óbidos. Also to the northeast is the town of Porto de Mós with its rebuilt castle.\n", "A town that only became notable in the 12th century when it was chosen as the future site of Portugal's largest church. In March 1147, the fledgling King Dom Afonso Henriques, defeated the Moors by capturing the city of Santarém. As a tribute to his victory he vowed to build a magnificent home for the Order of Cistercians. It took another 76 years before this task was completed. The monarchy continued to carry out further construction and 60 years later King Dinis built the main cloister. The Monastery was consecrated in 1262.\n\nThe church contains the tombs of Pedro I of Portugal and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro and with it the story of the tragic liaison between Pedro and Inês. Forced at an early age as a royal duty, he was to marry Constanza, the ''Infanta'' (Princess) of Castile, but died shortly after the marriage. Dom Pedro escape with his true love and later lived in the city of Coimbra. His father, King Afonso IV, believing that the family of Inês was a threat to his own kingdom had her murdered. Shortly after the death of his father Dom Pedro declared that he had married Inês in a prior secret ceremony in Bragança, and promptly took a gruesome revenge on the killers and exhumed her body. He presented the embalmed corpse at the court with a crown on her head and demanded that all his courtiers kneel and individually pay homage to her decomposed hand. Today, their ornate tombs face each other so that on Judgment Day his first sight would be of his beloved Inês.\n\nDuring the following centuries the monks from this monastery had a major influence on the development of Portuguese culture. Notably, in 1269 they were the first to give public lessons to their flock, and later they produced the first authoritative history on Portugal in a series of books. In 1810 the invading French pillaged the Abbey taking with them most of its most important treasures, including the noteworthy library. The items that remained were later stolen in 1834 during an anti-clerical riot and the banning of the religious Orders in Portugal.\n", "Administratively, the municipality is divided into 13 civil parishes (''freguesias''):\n* Alcobaça e Vestiaria\n* Alfeizerão\n* Aljubarrota\n* Bárrio\n* Benedita\n* Cela\n* Coz, Alpedriz e Montes\n* Évora de Alcobaça\n* Maiorga\n* Pataias e Martingança\n* São Martinho do Porto\n* Turquel\n* Vimeiro\n", "The main feature of the city is essentially the monastery that proudly presents a long and sombre façade with 18th-century embellishments. This austerity is further emphasized in the cloisters with its apt name of \"Cloister of Silence\". In contrast within the Abbey is the massive kitchen with a running stream specially diverted to pass through as a supply of fresh water. The open area of the kitchen chimney is large enough to take a whole ox for roasting. The surround to the sacristy doorway is an outstanding example of Manueline decoration. In 1794, Lord Beckford visited the Abbey and commented that he found some 300 monks \"living in a very splendid manner\"!\n", "A few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is another wondrous building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota in 1385, when Dom João I of Portugal defeated the Castilians and ensuring two hundred years of independence from the Castilian invaders. The construction of the Abbey at Batalha commenced in 1388 and was added to by various Portuguese Kings over these next two centuries. To the east of Batalha is the world-famous location of Fátima and a point of pilgrimage for the Roman Catholic religion due to the vision of the Virgin Mary in 1917 by three young children whilst tending their flock. To the west of Alcobaça is the well-known fishing village of Nazaré. Today, the village is now a small town and a popular holiday resort with most of its past and traditions having rapidly evaporated in the course of time. A very successful Portuguese feature film was made in the early 20th century that dramatically captured the primitive and dangerous life of these fishermen. Stoutly Catholic, the inhabitants have retained some of their past as can be still seen in their own particular style of costume. To the south is Caldas da Rainha and the quaint medieval town of Óbidos that is an attraction for any tourists that enjoys a true glimpse of the past. Also to the south is the town of Porto de Mós with its fanciful rebuilt castle. This town borders the Nature Reserve Parque Natural das Serras de Aire e Candeeiros. These 390 square kilometres of limestone-covered landscape is also known for its underground caverns. The best known being the Grutas de Mira de Aire can be visited and consists of tunnels, caverns with stalactites, stalagmites, lakes, and a music and light finale.\n", "* Market days – Every Monday\n* Carnaval de Alcobaça – February/March\n* Cistermúsica – classical music festival – June / July\n* Saint Bernard's fair – August 20\n* Municipal holiday – August 20\n* ''Marionetas na Cidade'' – puppetry festival – mid-October\n* Saint Simon's fair – 4th week of October\n* International display of Sweets and Conventual Liqueurs – November\n", "\n\nAlcobaça is twinned with:\n* Bełchatów, Poland\n* Cacuaco, Angola\n* Aubergenville, France\n* Chicopee, United States\n", "\nAlcobaça IPR\nMonastery of Alcobaça\nMonastery of Batalha\nNazaré\n", "\n", "\n\n* Municipality official website\n* Social Networking and business Portal\n* Web Television of Alcobaça\n* Photos from Alcobaça\n* Adrian Fletcher's Paradoxplace Alcobaça Pages (photos)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", "Parishes", " City information", " Nearby locations ", " Major events ", "International relations", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alcobaça, Portugal
[ "\n\nAmphisbaena\nThe '''amphisbaena''' (, plural: '''amphisbaenae''') is a mythological, ant-eating serpent with a head at each end. The creature is alternatively called the '''amphisbaina''', '''amphisbene''', '''amphisboena''', '''amphisbona''', '''amphista''', '''amfivena''', '''amphivena''', or '''anphivena''' (the last two being feminine), and is also known as the \"Mother of Ants\". Its name comes from the Greek words ''amphis'', meaning \"both ways\", and ''bainein'', meaning \"to go\". According to Greek mythology, the amphisbaena was spawned from the blood that dripped from the Gorgon Medusa's head as Perseus flew over the Libyan Desert with it in his hand, after which Cato's army then encountered it along with other serpents on the march. Amphisbaena fed off of the corpses left behind. The amphisbaena has been referred to by various poets such as Nicander, John Milton, Alexander Pope, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, A. E. Housman and Allen Mandelbaum; as a mythological and legendary creature, it has been referenced by Lucan, Pliny the Elder, Isidore of Seville, and Thomas Browne, the last of whom debunked its existence.\n", "A 15th-century amphisbaena on a misericord in Buckinghamshire\n\n\nThis early description of the amphisbaena depicts a venomous, dual-headed snakelike creature. However, Medieval and later drawings often show it with two or more scaled feet, particularly chicken feet, and feathered wings. Some even depict it as a horned, dragon-like creature with a serpent-headed tail and small, round ears, while others have both \"necks\" of equal size so that it cannot be determined which is the rear head. Many descriptions of the amphisbaena say its eyes glow like candles or lightning, but the poet Nicander seems to contradict this by describing it as \"always dull of eye\". He also says: \"From either end protrudes a blunt chin; each is far from each other.\" Nicander's account seems to be referring to what is indeed called the Amphisbaenia.\n", "An amphisbaena on coat of arms of Gmina Zapolice\nThe amphisbaena is said to make its home in the desert.\n", "In ancient times, the supposedly dangerous amphisbaena had many uses in the art of folk medicine and other such remedies. It was said that expecting women wearing a live amphisbaena around their necks would have safe pregnancies; however, if one's goal was to cure ailments such as arthritis or the common cold, one should wear only its skin. By eating the meat of the amphisbaena, one could supposedly attract many lovers of the opposite sex, and slaying one during the full moon could give power to one who is pure of heart and mind. Lumberjacks suffering from cold weather on the job could nail its carcass or skin to a tree to keep warm, while in the process allowing the tree to be felled more easily.\n", "In ''The Book of Beasts'', T.H. White suggests that the creature derives from sightings of the worm lizards of the same name. These creatures are found in the Mediterranean countries where many of these legends originated.\n", "In John Milton's Paradise Lost, after the Fall and the return of Satan to Hell, some of the fallen angelic host are transformed into the amphisbaena, to represent the animal by which the Fall was caused, i.e. a snake. \nThe amphisbaena is mentioned in the first book of Andrzej Sapkowski's The Witcher series, i.e. The Last Wish, when The Witcher's protagonist, Geralt of Rivia, is recalling past events when he meets an old acquaintance named Irion. The amphisbaena was endangering the region of Kovir until the beast was slain by Geralt's hand.\n", "* Amphisbaenia\n* Polycephaly\n* Ouroboros\n* Double-headed serpent\n* Pushmi-Pullyu\n", "\n", "* Hunt, Jonathan (1998). ''Bestiary: An Illuminated Alphabet of Medieval Beasts'' (1st ed.). Hong Kong: Simon & Schuster. .\n* Dave. Amphisbaena. Dave's Mythical Creatures and Places. Available: URL https://web.archive.org/web/20050405212903/http://www.eaudrey.com/myth/amphisbaena.htm. Last accessed 3 May 2005.\n* Levy, Sidney J. (1996). \"Stalking the Amphisbaena\", ''Journal of Consumer Research'', 23 (3), Dec. 1996, pp. 163–176.\n", "\n* Theoi Greek Mythology : Amphisbaena\n* The Medieval Bestiary : Amphisbaena\n* Dave's Mythical Creatures and Places - Amphisbaena\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Appearance ", " Habitat ", " Folk medicine ", " Origins ", " In literature ", " See also ", "References", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]	Amphisbaena
[ "An '''amyl alcohol''' is any of 8 alcohols with the formula C5H11OH. A mixture of amyl alcohols (also called amyl alcohol) can be obtained from fusel alcohol. Amyl alcohol is used as a solvent and in esterfication, by which is produced amyl acetate and other important products. The name ''amyl alcohol'' without further specification applies to the normal (straight-chain) form, 1-pentanol.\n\nThese are the 8 structural isomers of alcohols with molecular formula C5H12O:\n\n:{\| class=\"wikitable sortable\"\n+'''Amyl alcohol isomers'''\n\n Common name !! Structure !! Type !! IUPAC name !! Boiling point (°C)\n\n normal amyl alcohol\n 150px\n primary\n Pentan-1-ol\n 138.5\n\n isobutyl carbinolor isoamyl alcoholor isopentyl alcohol\n 120px\n primary\n 3-Methylbutan-1-ol\n 131.2\n\n active amyl alcohol\n 120px\n primary\n 2-Methylbutan-1-ol\n 128.7\n\n tertiary butyl carbinolor neopentyl alcohol\n 100px\n primary\n 2,2-Dimethylpropan-1-ol\n 113.1\n\n 3-Pentanol\n 100px\n secondary\n Pentan-3-ol\n 115.3\n\n methyl (n) propyl carbinol\n 100px\n secondary\n Pentan-2-ol\n 118.8\n\n methyl isopropyl carbinol\n 80px\n secondary\n 3-Methylbutan-2-ol\n 113.6\n\n dimethyl ethyl carbinolor tertiary amyl alcohol\n 100px\n tertiary\n 2-Methylbutan-2-ol\n 102\n\n\nThree of these alcohols, active amyl alcohol (2-methylbutan-1-ol), methyl (n) propyl carbinol (pentan-2-ol), and methyl isopropyl carbinol (3-methylbutan-2-ol), contain an asymmetric carbon atom and are therefore optically active.\n\nThe most important is isobutyl carbinol, the chief constituent of fermentation amyl alcohol and a constituent of fusel oil. It can be separated from fusel oil by either of two methods: shaking with strong brine solution and separating the oily layer from the brine layer; distilling it and collecting the fraction that boils between 125 and 140 °C. Further purification is possible with this procedure: shaking the product with hot limewater, separating the oily layer, drying the product with calcium chloride, and distilling it, collecting the fraction boiling between 128 and 132 °C.\n\nIsobutyl carbinol can be synthesized from isobutanol by conversion into isovaleraldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to isobutyl carbinol by means of sodium amalgam. It is a colourless liquid of density 0.8247 g/cm³ (0 °C), boiling at 131.6 °C, slightly soluble in water, and easily dissolved in organic solvents. It has a characteristic strong smell and a sharp burning taste. Amyl alcohol has an oral LD50 of 200 mg/kg in mice, suggesting that it is significantly more toxic than ethanol. On passing the vapour through a red-hot tube, it decomposes into acetylene, ethylene, propylene, and other compounds. It is oxidized by chromic acid to isovaleraldehyde, and it forms addition compounds crystals with calcium chloride and tin(IV) chloride.\n\nThe other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically. Of these, tertiary butyl carbinol has been the most difficult to obtain, with the first reported synthesis in 1891 by L. Tissier using the reduction of a mixture of trimethyl acetic acid and trimethylacetyl chloride with sodium amalgam. It is a solid that melts at 48 to 50 °C and boils at 112.3 °C.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Notes" ]	Amyl alcohol
[ "\n\n\n'''Amyl nitrite''' is a chemical compound with the formula C5H11ONO. A variety of isomers are known, but they all feature an amyl group attached to the nitrite functional group. The alkyl group is unreactive and the chemical and biological properties are mainly due to the nitrite group. Like other alkyl nitrites, amyl nitrite is bioactive in mammals, being a vasodilator, which is the basis of its use as a prescription medicine. As an inhalant, it also has a psychoactive effect, which has led to its recreational use with its smell being described as that of old socks or dirty feet. It is also referred to as banapple gas.\n", "* Amyl nitrite is employed medically to treat heart diseases as well as angina. \n* Amyl nitrite is sometimes used as an antidote for cyanide poisoning. It can act as an oxidant, to induce the formation of methemoglobin. Methemoglobin in turn can sequester cyanide as cyanomethemoglobin.\n* Amyl nitrite is used as a cleaning agent and solvent in industrial and household applications. It replaced dichlorodifluoromethane, an industrial chemical universally banned in 1996 due to damage to the ozone layer,) as a printed circuit board cleaner. A very small amount is added to some perfumes.\n* It is also used recreationally as an inhalant drug that induces a brief euphoric state, and when combined with other intoxicant stimulant drugs such as cocaine or MDMA, the euphoric state intensifies and is prolonged. Once some stimulative drugs wear off, a common side effect is a period of depression or anxiety, colloquially called a \"come down\"; amyl nitrite is sometimes used to combat these negative after-effects. This effect, combined with its dissociative effects, has led to its use as a recreational drug (see poppers).\n", "The term \"amyl nitrite\" encompasses several isomers. For example, a common form of amyl nitrite with the formula (CH3)2CHCH2CH2ONO may be more specifically referred to as isoamyl nitrite. When the amyl group is a linear or normal (n) alkyl group, the resulting amyl nitrite would have the structural formula CH3(CH2)4ONO.\n\nDespite a very similar name to amyl nitrite, amyl nitrate has a different chemical composition and different properties. Vast numbers of people confuse the two drugs, especially those wishing to purchase \"poppers\" (amyl nitrite) for recreational purposes.\n", "Alkyl nitrites are prepared by the reaction of alcohols with nitrous acid:\n\n:C6H11OH + HONO → C5H11ONO + H2O\nThe reaction is called esterification. Synthesis of alkyl nitrites is, in general, straightforward and can be accomplished in home laboratories. A common procedure includes the dropwise addition of concentrated sulfuric acid to a cooled mixture of an aqueous sodium nitrite solution and an alcohol. The intermediately-formed stoichiometric mixture of nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide then converts the alcohol to the alkyl nitrite, which, due to its low density, will form an upper layer that can be easily decanted from the reaction mixture.\n\nIsoamyl nitrite decomposes in the presence of base to give nitrite salts and the isoamyl alcohol:\n:C5H11ONO + NaOH → C5H11OH + NaNO2\n\nAmyl nitrite, like other alkyl nitrites, reacts with carbanions to give oximes.\n\nAmyl nitrites are also useful as reagents in a modification of the Sandmeyer reaction. The reaction of the alkyl nitrite with an aromatic amine in a halogenated solvent produces a radical aromatic species, this then frees a halogen atom from the solvent. For the synthesis of aryl iodides diiodomethane is used, whereas bromoform is the solvent of choice for the synthesis of aryl bromides.\n", "Amyl nitrite, in common with other alkyl nitrites, is a potent vasodilator; it expands blood vessels, resulting in lowering of the blood pressure. Alkyl nitrites are a source of nitric oxide, which signals for relaxation of the involuntary muscles. Physical effects include decrease in blood pressure, headache, flushing of the face, increased heart rate, dizziness, and relaxation of involuntary muscles, especially the blood vessel walls and the internal and external anal sphincter. There are no withdrawal symptoms. Overdose symptoms include nausea, vomiting, hypotension, hypoventilation, shortness of breath, and fainting. The effects set in very quickly, typically within a few seconds and disappear within a few minutes. Amyl nitrite may also intensify the experience of synesthesia.\n", "\n", "* Editorial on the use of the word \"amyl\".\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Uses", "Nomenclature", "Synthesis and reactions", "Physiological effects", "References", "External links" ]	Amyl nitrite
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Autumn''', also known as '''fall''' in American and Canadian English, is one of the four temperate seasons. Autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March (Southern Hemisphere), when the duration of daylight becomes noticeably shorter and the temperature cools down considerably. One of its main features is the shedding of leaves from deciduous trees.\n\nSome cultures regard the autumnal equinox as \"mid-autumn\", while others with a longer temperature lag treat it as the start of autumn. Meteorologists (and most of the temperate countries in the southern hemisphere) use a definition based on months, with autumn being September, October and November in the northern hemisphere, and March, April and May in the southern hemisphere.\n\nIn North America, autumn is usually considered to start with the September equinox (21 to 24 September) and end with the winter solstice (21 or 22 December). Popular culture in North America associates Labor Day, the first Monday in September, as the end of summer and the start of autumn; certain summer traditions, such as wearing white, are discouraged after that date. As daytime and nighttime temperatures decrease, trees shed their leaves. In traditional East Asian solar term, autumn starts on or around 8 August and ends on or about 7 November. In Ireland, the autumn months according to the national meteorological service, Met Éireann, are September, October and November. However, according to the Irish Calendar, which is based on ancient Gaelic traditions, autumn lasts throughout the months of August, September and October, or possibly a few days later, depending on tradition. In Australia and New Zealand, autumn officially begins on 1 March and ends on 31 May.\n", "Autumnal scene with yellow, orange and red leaves on trees and fallen on the ground\nLeaves of a maple tree in autumn\nThe word ''autumn'' comes from the ancient Etruscan root ''autu-'' and has within it connotations of the passing of the year. It was borrowed by the neighbouring Romans, and became the Latin word ''''. After the Roman era, the word continued to be used as the Old French word '''' ('''' in modern French) or '''' in Middle English, and was later normalised to the original Latin. In the Medieval period, there are rare examples of its use as early as the 12th century, but by the 16th century, it was in common use.\n\nBefore the 16th century, ''harvest'' was the term usually used to refer to the season, as it is common in other West Germanic languages to this day (cf. Dutch '''', German '''' and Scots ''''). However, as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns, the word ''harvest'' lost its reference to the time of year and came to refer only to the actual activity of reaping, and ''autumn'', as well as ''fall'', began to replace it as a reference to the season.\n\nThe alternative word ''fall'' for the season traces its origins to old Germanic languages. The exact derivation is unclear, with the Old English '''' or '''' and the Old Norse '''' all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning \"to fall from a height\" and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term came to denote the season in 16th-century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like \"fall of the leaf\" and \"fall of the year\".\n\nDuring the 17th century, English emigration to the British colonies in North America was at its peak, and the new settlers took the English language with them. While the term ''fall'' gradually became obsolete in Britain, it became the more common term in North America.\n\nThe name ''backend'', a once common name for the season in Northern England, has today been largely replaced by the name autumn.\n", "\n===Harvest===\nHarvest straw bales in a field of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany\nAssociation with the transition from warm to cold weather, and its related status as the season of the primary harvest, has dominated its themes and popular images. In Western cultures, personifications of autumn are usually pretty, well-fed females adorned with fruits, vegetables and grains that ripen at this time. Many cultures feature autumnal harvest festivals, often the most important on their calendars. Still extant echoes of these celebrations are found in the autumn Thanksgiving holiday of the United States and Canada, and the Jewish Sukkot holiday with its roots as a full-moon harvest festival of \"tabernacles\" (living in outdoor huts around the time of harvest). There are also the many North American Indian festivals tied to harvest of ripe foods gathered in the wild, the Chinese Mid-Autumn or Moon festival, and many others. The predominant mood of these autumnal celebrations is a gladness for the fruits of the earth mixed with a certain melancholy linked to the imminent arrival of harsh weather.\n\nThis view is presented in English poet John Keats' poem ''To Autumn'', where he describes the season as a time of bounteous fecundity, a time of 'mellow fruitfulness'.\n\nWhile most foods are harvested during the autumn, foods particularly associated with the season include pumpkins (which are integral parts of both Thanksgiving and Halloween) and apples, which are used to make the seasonal beverage apple cider.\n\n===Melancholia===\nMaple tree with red leaves in the morning mist. Western Estonia\nAutumn, especially in poetry, has often been associated with melancholia. The possibilities of summer are gone, and the chill of winter is on the horizon. Skies turn grey, the amount of usable daylight drops rapidly, and many people turn inward, both physically and mentally. It has been referred to as an unhealthy season.\n\nSimilar examples may be found in Irish poet William Butler Yeats' poem ''The Wild Swans at Coole'' where the maturing season that the poet observes symbolically represents his own ageing self. Like the natural world that he observes, he too has reached his prime and now must look forward to the inevitability of old age and death. French poet Paul Verlaine's \"''Chanson d'automne''\" (\"Autumn Song\") is likewise characterised by strong, painful feelings of sorrow. Keats' ''To Autumn'', written in September 1819, echoes this sense of melancholic reflection, but also emphasises the lush abundance of the season.\n\n===Halloween===\nHalloween pumpkins\nAutumn is associated with Halloween (influenced by Samhain, a Celtic autumn festival), and with it a widespread marketing campaign that promotes it. Halloween is in autumn in the northern hemisphere. The television, film, book, costume, home decoration, and confectionery industries use this time of year to promote products closely associated with such a holiday, with promotions going from early September to 31 October, since their themes rapidly lose strength once the holiday ends, and advertising starts concentrating on Christmas.\n\n===Other associations===\nPumpkin pie is commonly served on and around Thanksgiving in North America\nAll Saints' Day at a cemetery in Sanok – flowers and lit candles are placed to honor the memory of deceased relatives. Poland, 1 November 2011\nMisty November evening, Germany\nAutumn rain in London\nBack to school sale at a Walmart\nAutumn also has a strong association with the end of summer holiday and the start of a new school year, particularly for children in primary and secondary education. \"Back to School\" advertising and preparations usually occurs in the weeks leading to the beginning of autumn.\n\nEaster is in autumn in the southern hemisphere. \n\nThanksgiving Day is a national holiday celebrated in Canada, in the United States, in some of the Caribbean islands and in Liberia. Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday of October in Canada and on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States, and around the same part of the year in other places. Similarly named festival holidays occur in Germany and Japan.\n\nTelevision stations and networks, particularly in North America, traditionally begin their regular seasons in autumn, with new series and new episodes of existing series debuting mostly during late September or early October (series that debut outside the fall season are usually known as mid-season replacements). A sweeps period takes place in November to measure Nielsen Ratings.\n\nAmerican football is played almost exclusively in the autumn months; at the high school level, seasons run through September and October, with some playoff games and holiday rivalry contests being played as late as Thanksgiving. College football's regular season runs from September through November, while the main professional circuit, the National Football League, plays from September through December. Summer sports, such as stock car racing and Major League Baseball, wrap up their seasons in early autumn; MLB's championship World Series is known popularly as the \"Fall Classic\". (Amateur baseball is usually finished by August.) Likewise, professional winter sports, such as professional ice hockey, basketball and most leagues of soccer football in Europe, are in the early stages of their seasons during autumn; American college basketball and college ice hockey play teams outside their athletic conferences during the late autumn before their in-conference schedules begin in winter.\n\nThe Christian religious holidays of All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day are observed in autumn in the Northern hemisphere.\n\nSince 1997, Autumn has been one of the top 100 names for girls in the United States.\n\nIn Indian mythology, autumn is considered to be the preferred season for the goddess of learning Saraswati, who is also known by the name of \"goddess of autumn\" (Sharada).\n\nIn Asian mysticism, Autumn is associated with the element of metal, and subsequently with the colour white, the White Tiger of the West, and death and mourning.\n\nIn the United States, Labor Day is a public holiday celebrated on the first Monday in September.\n", "\nAutumn in Tennessee\n\nAlthough colour change in leaves occurs wherever deciduous trees are found, coloured autumn foliage is noted in various regions of the world: most of North America, Eastern Asia (including China, Korea, and Japan), Europe, the forest of Patagonia, eastern Australia and New Zealand's South Island.\n\nEastern Canada and New England are famous for their autumnal foliage, and this attracts major tourism (worth billions of US dollars) for the regions.\n", "\nFile:Frederic Edwin Church - Autumn.jpg\|''Otoño'', Frederic Edwin Church, 1875. Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza\nImage:Millais - Herbstblätter.jpg\|John Everett Millais, \"Autumn Leaves\"\nFile:Qian Xuan - Early Autumn.jpg\|''Early Autumn'', Qian Xuan, 13th century, depiction of decaying lotus leaves and dragonflies hovering over stagnant water\nFile:Giuseppe Arcimboldo - Autumn, 1573.jpg\|''Autumn'', Giuseppe Arcimboldo, 1573\nFile:Herbst (MW 2010.11.13.).jpg\|Herbst (Autumn), Meinolf Wewel\nFile:Alfons_Mucha_-_1896_-_Autumn.jpg\|''Autumn'' (1896) by Art Nouveau artist Alphonse Mucha\nFile:Autumnwoman.jpg\|The personification of Autumn from an 1871 Currier and Ives print\nFile:Stanisław Masłowski (1853-1926), Autumn landscape in Rybiniszki, 1902.jpeg\|Autumn landscape in Rybiniszki, Latvia, watercolor by Stanisław Masłowski, 1902 (National Museum in Warsaw, Poland)\nFile:Maxfield_Parrish_-_Autumn_(1905).jpg\|This 1905 print by Maxfield Frederick Parrish illustrated Keats' poem 'Autumn'\n\n", "* Autumn in New England\n* Diwali\n", ":\n\n", "\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Associations", "Tourism", "Paintings", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Autumn
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Alameda''' ( ; Spanish: ) is a city in Alameda County, California, United States. It is located on Alameda Island and Bay Farm Island, and is adjacent to and south of Oakland and east of San Francisco across the San Francisco Bay. Bay Farm Island, a portion of which is also known as \"Harbor Bay Isle\", is not actually an island, and is part of the mainland adjacent to the Oakland International Airport. The city's estimated 2017 population was 79,928. Alameda is a charter city, rather than a general law city, allowing the city to provide for any form of government. Alameda became a charter city and adopted a council–manager government in 1916, which it retains to the present.\n", "\nThe island Alameda occupies what was originally a peninsula connected to Oakland. Much of it was low-lying and marshy, but on higher ground than the peninsula and adjacent parts of what is now downtown Oakland were home to one of the largest coastal oak forests in the world. The area was therefore called ''Encinal'', Spanish for \"forest of evergreen oak\". ''Alameda'' is Spanish for \"grove of poplar trees\" or \"tree-lined avenue\", and was chosen in 1853 by popular vote.\n\nThe inhabitants at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the late 18th century were a local band of the Ohlone tribe. The peninsula became part of the vast Rancho San Antonio granted in 1820 to Luis Peralta by the Spanish king who claimed California. The grant was later confirmed by the new Republic of Mexico upon its independence from Spain.\n\nOver time, the place became known as Bolsa de Encinal or Encinal de San Antonio.\n\nThe city was founded on June 6, 1853, and the town originally contained three small settlements. \"Alameda\" referred to the village at Encinal and High Streets, Hibbardsville was at the North Shore ferry and shipping terminal, and Woodstock was on the west near the ferry piers of the South Pacific Coast Railroad and the Central Pacific. Eventually, the Central Pacific's ferry pier became the Alameda Mole, featuring transit connections between San Francisco ferries, local trollies and Southern Pacific (formerly Central Pacific) commuter lines.\n\nThe first post office opened in 1854. The first school, Schmermerhorn School, was opened in 1855 (and eventually became Lincoln School), Encinal School was opened in 1860 (and closed in 1980). The San Francisco and Alameda Railroad opened the Encinal station in 1864. The Encinal area was also known as Fasskings Station in honor of Frederick Louis Fassking. Encinal's own post office opened in 1876, was renamed West End in 1877, and closed in 1891. The West End area was originally called Bowman's Point in honor of Charles G. Bowman, an early settler.\n\nThe Alameda Terminal was the site of the arrival of the first train via the First Transcontinental Railroad into the San Francisco Bay Area on September 6, 1869. The transcontinental terminus was switched to the Oakland Mole two months later, on November 8, 1869.\n\nThe borders of Alameda were made coextensive with the island in 1872, incorporating Woodstock into Alameda.\nMark Twain described Alameda as being \"The Garden of California.\" \n\nIn 1917, an attraction called Neptune Beach was built in the area now known as Crab Cove. Often compared to Coney Island, the park was a major attraction in the 1920s and 1930s. The original owners of the facility, the Strehlow family, partnered with a local confectioner to create tastes unique to Neptune Beach. Both the American snow cone and the popsicle were first sold at Neptune Beach. The Kewpie doll, hand-painted and dressed in unique hand-sewn dresses, became the original prize for winning games at the beach – another Neptune Beach invention. The Strehlows owned and operated the beach on their own, even filling in a section of the bay to add an additional Olympic-size swimming pool and an exceptional roller coaster which must have given riders a tremendous view of the bay. The ''Cottage Baths'' were available for rent.\n\nNeptune Beach's two huge outdoor pools hosted swimming races and exhibitions by such famous swimmers as Olympian Johnny Weissmuller, who later starred as the original Tarzan, and Jack LaLanne, who started a chain of health clubs. The park closed down in 1939 because of the Great Depression, the completion of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, people circumventing paying the admission price, and the rise of car culture. Once the Bay Bridge was complete, the rail lines, which ran right past the entrance to Neptune Beach on the way to the Alameda Mole and the Ferry, lost riders in droves. People began using their cars to escape the city and the immediate suburbs like Alameda and traveling further afield in California. Alameda lost its resort status as more distant locations became more attractive to cash-rich San Francisco tourists. Youngsters in town became aware of ways to avoid paying the dime for admission to the park. Strong swimmers or even waders could sneak in on the bay side just by swimming around the fence.\n\nSome of the resort homes and buildings from the Neptune beach era still exist in present-day Alameda. The Croll Building, on the corner of Webster Street and Central Avenue, was the site of Croll's Gardens and Hotel, famous as training quarters for some of the greatest fighters in boxing history from 1883 to 1914. James J. Corbett, Bob Fitzsimmons, Jim Jefferies, Jack Johnson, and many other champions all stayed and trained here. Today this beautifully preserved building is home to Croll's Pizza and the 1400 Bar & Grill Restaurant. Neptune Court, just a block away on the corner of Central Ave. and McKay Ave., provides another glimpse of what resort life was like in Alameda in the 1920s. A short walk near Crab Cove will reveal many more historic gems.\n\nThe vast majority of the Neptune Beach structures – the hand-carved carousel from the world-famed Dentzel Company, the Ferris wheel, the roller coaster, and other rides – were auctioned off in 1940 for mere pennies on the dollar of their original cost. Today, A consequence of the Neptune Beach closing around 1940 was a total dearth of quality, clean swimming facilities in town. A grass roots effort to create swimming pools at two high schools and two city parks would continue into the early 1960s.\n\nWhen the railroad came to town in the 1860s Park Street developed into the major thoroughfare of the city and the location of the main Alameda train station, residents of Old Alameda pulled up stakes and moved across town to the new downtown. The street's location was chosen by two landowners who wished to attract tenants and development to their land. As a result, they designated their mutual property line as Park Street.\n\nIn 1902, the need for expanded shipping facilities led to the dredging of a canal through the marshland between Oakland and Alameda, turning Alameda into an island. Most of the soil from the canal was used to fill in nearby marshland. The area of Alameda called Bay Farm Island is no longer an island, but is attached by fill to Oakland. In his youth, author Jack London was known to take part in oyster pirating in the highly productive oyster beds near Bay Farm Island, today long gone. The Alameda Works Shipyard was one of the largest and best equipped shipyards in the country. In the 1950s, Alameda's industrial and ship building industries thrived along the Alameda Estuary, where the world's first-ever, land-based, containerized shipping crane was used. Currently, the Port of Oakland across the estuary serves as one of the largest ports on the West Coast, using the shipping technologies originally experimented with in Alameda. As of March 21, 2006, Alameda is a \"Coast Guard City\", one of seven in the country.\n\nIn addition to the regular trains running to the Alameda Mole, Alameda was also served by local steam commuter lines of the Southern Pacific (initially, the Central Pacific) which were later transformed into the East Bay Electric Lines. Southern Pacific's electrified trains were not streetcars, but full-sized railroad cars which connected to the mainland by bridges at Webster Street and Fruitvale (only the latter bridge survives today). The trains ran to both the Oakland Mole and the Alameda Mole. In fact, one line which ran between the two moles was dubbed the \"Horseshoe Line\" for the shape of the route on a map. Soon after the completion of the Bay Bridge, Alameda trains ran directly to San Francisco on the lower deck of the bridge, the ferries having been rendered unnecessary. Alameda was the site of the Southern Pacific's West Alameda Shops where all the electric trains were maintained and repaired.\n\nIn the 1930s Pan American Airways established a seaplane port along the fill that led to the Alameda Mole. This was the original home base for the famous China Clipper flying boat.\nIn 1929, the University of California established the San Francisco Airdrome located near the current Webster Street tube as a public airport. The Bay Airdrome had its gala christening party in 1930. The airfield was a busy place, as an early home base for Coastal Air Freight, Varney Air Lines, West Coast Air Transport, Western Air Express, the transbay Air Ferries, and Boeing's Pacific Air Transport. The Airdrome was closed in 1941 when its air traffic interfered with the newly built Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda). With the advent of World War II, a vast stretch of the marshy area southwest of the Alameda Mole was filled and the NAS Alameda established. This major Naval facility included a large airfield, as well as docks for several aircraft carriers. It closed in 1997.\n\nIn the late 1950s the Utah Construction Company began a landfill beyond the ''Old Sea Wall'' and created ''South Shore''.\n\nOn February 7, 1973, a USN Vought A-7E Corsair II fighter jet on a routine training mission from Lemoore Naval Air Station, suddenly caught fire, 28,000 feet over the San Francisco Bay and crashed into the Tahoe Apartments in Alameda. Eleven people, including pilot Lieutenant Robert Lee Ward died in the crash and fire.\n", "\nAerial view of Alameda Island (center), with Oakland in the foreground and San Francisco behind\n\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (53.79%) is water.\n\nAlthough Alameda's nickname is \"The Island City\" (or simply \"the island\"), the current city occupies two islands as well as a small section of the mainland. Today, the city consists of the main original section, with the former Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda) at the west end of Alameda Island, Southshore along the southern side of Alameda Island, and Bay Farm Island, which is part of the mainland proper. The area of the former NAS is now known as \"Alameda Point.\" The Southshore area is separated from the main part of Alameda Island by a lagoon; the north shore of the lagoon is located approximately where the original south shore of the island was. Alameda Point and Southshore are built on bay fill.\n\nNot all of Alameda Island is part of the City of Alameda. Although nearly all of the island is in Alameda city limits, a small portion of a dump site west of the former runways at Alameda Point extends far enough into San Francisco Bay that it is over the county line and part of the City and County of San Francisco. \n\nCoast Guard Island, a small island between Alameda Island and Oakland, is also part of Alameda and is the home of Integrated Support Command Alameda\n\n===Climate===\nThis region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Alameda has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated \"Csb\" on climate maps. Annual precipitation is about 20 inches, all rain (snow is extremely rare at sea level in the San Francisco Bay area).\n", "\n\n===2010===\nThe 2010 United States Census reported that Alameda had a population of 73,812. (2015 census estimates place the population at 78,630) \n\nThe population density was 3,214.9 people per square mile (1,241.3/km²). The racial makeup of Alameda was 37,460 (50.8%) White, 23,058 (31.2%) Asian, 4,759 (6.4%) African American, 426 (0.6%) Native American, 381 (0.5%) Pacific Islander, 2,463 (3.3%) from other races, and 5,265 (7.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8,092 persons (11.0%).\n\nThe Census reported that 72,316 people (98.0% of the population) lived in households, 857 (1.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 639 (0.9%) were institutionalized.\n\nThere were 30,123 households, out of which 9,144 (30.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,440 (44.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,623 (12.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,228 (4.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,681 (5.6%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 459 (1.5%) same-sex married couples or same-sex partnerships. 9,347 households (31.0%) were made up of individuals and 2,874 (9.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40. There were 18,291 families (60.7% of all households); the average family size was 3.06.\n\nThe age distribution of the population shows 15,304 people (20.7%) under the age of 18, 5,489 people (7.4%) aged 18 to 24, 21,000 people (28.5%) aged 25 to 44, 22,044 people (29.9%) aged 45 to 64, and 9,975 people (13.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.7 years. For every 100 females there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males.\n\nPer capita money income in past 12 months (2013 dollars), 2009 – 2013 was $41,340.00 per US Census. Median household income, 2009 – 2013 was $74,606.00 per US Census.\n\nThere were 32,351 housing units at an average density of 1,409.0 per square mile (544.0/km²), of which 14,488 (48.1%) were owner-occupied, and 15,635 (51.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7%. 37,042 people (50.2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 35,274 people (47.8%) lived in rental housing units.\n\n\n\n\n Demographic profile\n 2010\n\n Total Population \n 73,812: 100.0%\n\n One Race \n 68,547: 92.9%\n\n Not Hispanic or Latino \n 65,720: 89.0%\n\n White alone \n 33,468: 45.3%\n\n Black or African American alone \n 4,516: 6.1%\n\n American Indian and Alaska Native alone \n 247: 0.3%\n\n Asian alone \n 22,822: 30.9%\n\n Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone \n 342: 0.5%\n\n Some other race alone \n 278: 0.4%\n\n Two or more races alone \n 4,047: 5.5%\n\n Hispanic or Latino (of any race) \n 8,092: 11.0%\n\n\n\n===2000===\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 72,259 people, 30,226 households, and 17,863 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,583.3/km² (6,693.4/mi²). There were 31,644 housing units at an average density of 1,131.3/km² (2,931.2/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 56.95% White, 6.21% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 26.15% Asian, 0.60% Pacific Islander, 3.29% from other races, and 6.13% from two or more races. 9.31% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.\n\nThere were 30,226 households out of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% were non-families. 32.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.04.\n\nIn the city, the age distribution of the population shows 21.5% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $56,285, and the median income for a family was $68,625. Males had a median income of $49,174 versus $40,165 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,982. About 6.0% of families and 8.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.4% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over.\n\nThere is a large Filipino community; and also a major Portuguese community, from which Tom Hanks' mother came and where Lyndsy Fonseca was raised for some time. Alameda also has a historic Japanese American community and had a small Japanese business district on a portion of Park Street prior to World War II, when the city's Japanese population was interned. A Japanese Buddhist church is one of the few remaining buildings left of Alameda's pre-war Japanese American community.\n\n== Politics == \nLike much of the heavily Democratic Alameda County, the City of Alameda is considered a liberal city. In addition to voting solidly for Democratic candidates in statewide elections, voters in the city have approved a number of progressive ballot initiatives.\n\n\n Year\n Office\n Results\n\n\n 2000\n U.S. President\n Gore 67.41% — 26.01% Bush — Nader (G) 5.72% \n\n U.S. Senator\n Feinstein 69.19% — 23.36% Campbell — Benjamin (G) 4.66%\n\n\n 2002\n Governor\n Davis 59.86% — 24.14% Simon — Camejo (G) 11.42%\n\n\n 2004\n U.S. President\n Kerry 74.65% — 23.96% Bush \n\n U.S. Senator\n Boxer 74.13% — 21.44% Jones — Feinland (P&F) 2.16%\n\n Proposition 71\n Yes 70.03% — 29.97% No\n\n\n 2006\n U.S. Senator\n Feinstein 77.55% — 15.80% Mountjoy — Todd Chretien (G) 3.59% \n\n Governor\n Angelides 53.07% — 39.53% Schwarzenegger — Camejo (G) 4.87%\n\n\n 2008\n U.S. President\n Obama 77.39% — 20.55% McCain\n\n Proposition 8\n No 68.39% — 31.61% Yes \n\n Proposition 4\n No 68.70% — 31.30% Yes\n\n\n 2010\n U.S. Senator\n Boxer 72.73% — 22.93% Fiorina\n\n Governor\n Brown 74.78% — 22.04% Whitman\n\n Proposition 19\n Yes 57.85% — 42.15% No\n\n\n 2012\n U.S. President\n Obama 78.65% — 18.50% Romney \n\n U.S. Senator\n Feinstein 82.28% — 17.72% Emken\n\n Proposition 30\n Yes 72.82% — 27.18% No\n\n\n 2014\n Governor\n Brown 83.91% — 16.09% Kashkari\n\n\n", "Vehicle access to Alameda Island is via three bridges from Oakland (Park Street, Fruitvale Avenue, and High Street Bridges), as well as the two one-way Posey and Webster Street Tubes leading into Oakland's Chinatown. Connections from Alameda to Bay Farm Island is provided via the Bay Farm Island Bridge for vehicular traffic as well as the Bay Farm Island Bicycle Bridge (the only pedestrian/bicycle-only drawbridge in the United States). California State Route 61 runs down city streets from the Posey and Webster Street Tubes, across the Bay Farm Island Bridge, and south to the Oakland Airport.\n\nPublic transportation includes the AC Transit buses (which include express buses to San Francisco) and two ferry services — the Alameda/Oakland Ferry and the Alameda Harbor Bay Ferry. AC Transit buses also cover 3 bus times in the morning and afternoon to Lincoln Middle School, located in Alameda. Both ferry services may soon be transferred to the Water Transit Authority. The closest BART stations are Lake Merritt and 12th Street, near the exit to the Posey Tube, and Fruitvale, near the Fruitvale Bridge.\n\nEven though the island is just minutes off Interstate 880 in Oakland, the speed limit for the city is 25 mph (40 km/h) on almost every road. Many unaware drivers fail to slow down after exiting the highway. Groups like Pedestrian Friendly Alameda and BikeAlameda advocate stronger enforcement of speeding laws.\n\nAlameda has also featured prominently on automotive blog Jalopnik, with their \"Down on The Street\" segment consisting of cars found on the streets of Alameda. Jalopnik has nicknamed it \"The Island That Rust Forgot\".\n", "Victorian house in AlamedaDue to its proximity to the Bay, wind surfers and kite surfers can often be seen at Robert W. Crown Memorial State Beach. From the beach there are also views of the San Francisco skyline and the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge.\n\nThe aircraft carrier ''USS ''Hornet'', a museum ship, has been moored at the former Naval Air Station as the USS ''Hornet'' Museum since 1998. This ship was originally named the ''USS Kearsarge'', but was renamed in honor of the previous Hornet CV-8 (famous for the Doolittle raid), which was lost in October 1942.\n\nAlameda is known for its Victorian houses; 9% of all single-family houses (1500) in Alameda are Victorian, and many more have been divided into two to four-unit dwellings. It is said that Alameda has more pre-1906 earthquake era homes in the Gold Coast section than any other city in the Bay Area.\n\nAlameda is home to the official offices and training facility of the Oakland Raiders American football team, which is located on Bay Farm Island. The facility is also home to The Raider Image, the merchandise arm of the franchise, which the public can visit.\n\nAt the turn of the 19th century, the city of Alameda took a large chunk of Charles Froling's land away to build a street. Froling had planned to build his dream house on the plot of land he received through inheritance. To spite the city and an unsympathetic neighbor, Froling built a house wide, long and high on the tiny strip of land left to him. The Froling spite house is still standing and occupied.\n\nAlameda is also known for its Fourth of July parade, which is advertised as the second oldest and second longest Fourth of July parade in the United States. It features homemade floats, classic cars, motorized living room furniture, fire-breathing dragons, marching bands, and large crowds. The parade route is about 3 miles (5 km) long.\n\nThe Historic Park Street Business District is known for its many buildings that date back to the 1800s and is a designated Historic Commercial District on the National Register. This main thoroughfare of downtown Alameda Is filled with local shops, restaurants, drinking establishments, and services. The renovated 1932 Alameda Theatre & Cineplex is the cultural centerpiece of the commercial district. In addition, popular attractions include High Scores Arcade Museum (a retro video game arcade) and Subpar Miniature Golf (an indoor miniature golf complex that features Bay Area landmarks such as the Golden Gate Bridge and Coit Tower at each hole).\n", "\n===Alameda Point===\nNaval Air Station Alameda (NAS), at Alameda Point, which was decommissioned in 1997, has been turned over to the City of Alameda for civilian development. The area of the former NAS is now known as Alameda Point. In late July 2006, the City of Alameda announced a deal with the Navy that would turn the land over to the city for $108M. The transfer process was initially slowed down by disputes between the Navy and the city regarding payment for environmental cleanup of the land.\n\nIn September 2010 the US Veterans Administration proposed construction of a $209 million state-of-the-art facility at Alameda Point that would provide primary care, specialty care, and mental health, substance abuse and other services. The VA received Congressional $17.33 million in budget authority for the project in 2011. But concerns over the proximity to a nesting site for an endangered bird, the California least tern, have led to delays in moving the project forward. The VA's 2012 and 2013 budget requests to Congress contain no funding requests for Alameda Point. \n\nIn September 2011 Alameda and the Navy reached an agreement on the terms of a no-cost conveyance for the entire 918 acres at Alameda Point.\n\n===America's Cup ===\nThe 33rd America's Cup Race was won by Golden Gate Yacht Club racing team BMW Oracle, founded by Larry Ellison. One possible use of the air station would be an alternate or partnered site with San Francisco for 34th America's Cup.\nWithin 2 weeks of the Golden Gate Yacht Club winning the America's Cup, Alameda city council with local support sent a unanimous letter of support to hold AC 34 in San Francisco Bay Area.\nIn early 2011, the City Council created an ad hoc America's Cup Citizens Advisory Committee to look for ways that Alameda could draw interest from teams and potential spectators. Through those efforts, in mid-2012, the Swedish Artemis Racing team announced that they would create their team base in one of the former air station hangars on Alameda Point.\n\n===Wine and spirits production===\nRosenblum Cellars Winery, Rock Wall Winery, Building 43 Winery, Hangar 1, and St. George Spirits are located at Alameda Point. In 1978, Alameda veterinarian Kent Rosenblum and his wife Kathy founded Rosenblum Cellars. In 2008, the company was purchased by Diageo Estates. Shauna Rosenblum, daughter of Kent and Kathy, is the wine maker for Rock Wall Winery. In December, 2007, St. George Absinthe Verte, produced by St. George Spirits became the first brand of American-made absinthe to be legally produced in the United States since a ban was enacted in 1912.\n\n===Theaters===\nThe Alameda Theatre in 2006 prior to expansion and restoration\nThe city restored the historic Art Deco city landmark Alameda Theatre, expanding it to include a theater multiplex. The public opening was May 21, 2008.\n\nThe South Shore Mall Twin Cinema opened in 1969 and served as a prominent theater on the island until its closure in 1998. In 2002, the building was demolished and its former site is now a parking lot.\n\nAlameda also hosts the Altarena Playhouse, which since 1957 has been home to the Bay Area's oldest continuously operating community theater organization.\n\n===Top employers===\nAccording to the City's 2016 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:\n\n\n\n #\n Employer\n # of Employees\n\n1\nAlameda Unified School District\n876\n\n2\nPenumbra Inc\n858\n\n3\nVF Outdoor\n751\n\n4\nAlameda Hospital\n694\n\n5\nOakland Raiders\n604\n\n6\nCity of Alameda\n518\n\n7\nAbbott Diabetes Care Inc\n512\n\n8\nSafeway\n480\n\n9\nWind River Systems\n447\n\n10\nKaiser Foundation Health Plan\n425\n\n", "Alameda's first newspaper, the ''Encinal'', appeared in the early 1850s and the paper's editor was instrumental in the movement to incorporate the city. Following the ''Encinal'', several other papers appeared along geographic lines, and the ''Daily Argus'' eventually rose to prominence. A young Alameda native, Joseph R. Knowland, wrote political and historical articles for the Alameda papers. Later, Knowland owned the powerful ''Oakland Tribune''. Around 1900, the ''Daily Argus'' began to fade in importance and east and west papers ''The Times'' and ''The Star'' combined to take the leading role as the ''Alameda Times-Star'' in the 1930s. The ''Times-Star'' was sold to the Alameda Newspaper Group in the 1970s.\n\nIn 1997, the Hills Newspaper chain was bought by Knight Ridder, at the time, the second-largest newspaper chain in the U.S. Following the buyout, former Hills Newspapers employees recognized the lack of a local community voice in Alameda, and again formed a new locally based newspaper, the ''Alameda Sun'', in 2001. In 2006, Knight Ridder announced its impending sale to McClatchy Corp., a Sacramento-based publishing firm. McClatchy Corp. has put the ''Contra Costa Times'', which under the Knight Ridder reorganization included all five of the original Hills Newspapers, up for sale. The current owners of the ''Alameda Times-Star'', MediaNews, Inc., based in Colorado, have announced a strong interest in buying both the ''Contra Costa Times'' chain and the ''San Jose Mercury News'', consolidating the daily newspaper market of the East Bay, effectively under one owner. MediaNews closed the ''Times-Star'' in 2011.\n\nThe Alameda community is currently served by two weekly newspapers, the Alameda Journal, owned by the MediaNews Group, and the Alameda Sun, along with news websites, The Alamedan, Action Alameda News.\n", "===Alameda Free Library===\n\nAfter two previous failures, voters in the city passed a ballot measure in 2000 authorizing a bond measure for construction of a new library to replace the city's Carnegie library, damaged during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The city also received state funds for the new library and opened the doors to the new facility in November 2006.\n\nThere is a library branch on Bay Farm Island and another at Santa Clara and Eighth Avenue.\n\n===Alameda Hospital===\nFounded in 1894, Alameda Hospital is located at Clinton Avenue and Willow Street.\n\n===Alameda Municipal Power===\nUnlike surrounding communities, Alameda has a municipal power service, Alameda Municipal Power (AMP), that delivers services directly to consumers. AMP sold the majority of its telecommunications business to Comcast in 2008 but continues to provide telecommunication service at Alameda Point.\n\nDuring the California electricity crisis of 2000 and 2001, Alameda Municipal Power did not raise electricity rates, while residents in most of the state endured significant price increases.\n", "\nThe Alameda Arts Council (AAC) serves as the local Alameda City arts council. The Alameda Civic Ballet is the ballet troupe of the city. The Alameda Museum features displays on the history of Alameda. The Alameda Art Association has about 80 members as of January 2011, and has a gallery space at South Shore Center mall. The Association began in 1944. An annual benefit, Circus for Arts in the Schools, was started by clown artist Jeff Raz in 2004. Photo-realist Robert Bechtle has painted numerous Alameda subjects, including \"Alameda Gran Torino\", which was acquired by SFMOMA in 1974 and remains one of Bechtle's most famous works.\n\n===Films shot in Alameda===\nAlameda has been home to many movie sets. Some of the movies filmed on the island have included ''Bicentennial Man'', ''The Net'', ''The Matrix Reloaded'', ''The Matrix Revolutions'', ''Bee Season'', the original 1968 ''Your, Mine and Ours'' and the movie musical ''Rent''. Parts of Alameda High School were animated for the ''Animatrix'' episode \"Kid's Story\". A massive hangar at the former Naval Air Station Alameda was used to film special scenes requiring computer-generated imagery for movies such as ''Bicentennial Man'', ''Flubber'', ''What Dreams May Come'', ''Mission: Impossible 2'' and many scenes from the ''Matrix'' trilogy, including the signature bullet time scene. The open space of the decommissioned naval base often hosts ''MythBusters''' more dangerous experiments. The movie \"Spirit Of '76\" was filmed all throughout Alameda.\n\nThe documentary, ''Shallow Waters: The Public Death of Raymond Zack'' was filmed at Alameda locations, and chronicled the 2011 Death of Raymond Zack on Crown Beach in Alameda. The film was screened in 2016 at the Michaan Auction House Theater in Alameda.\n\nThe USS Hornet Museum, permanently moored at Alameda Point, has been the site for scenes used in major theatrical releases: ''XXX: State of the Union'', ''Rescue Dawn'', and ''The Master''. In addition, the aircraft carrier has been used for television shows such as ''JAG'', ''Carrier'', ''Looking'', ''The Great Escape'', and the special military episode of ''Fear Factor''; plus a number of television commercials.\n\n===The Altarena Playhouse===\nThe Altarena Playhouse, which performs comedies, dramas and musicals, was founded in 1938 and is the longest continuously operating community theater in the San Francisco Bay Area.\n\n===Rhythmix Cultural Works===\nRhythmix Cultural Works (RCW) brings people of all ages together to experience and explore music, dance, visual art and educational opportunities. RCW's programs are housed in a restored industrial waterfront building that speaks to Alameda’s history while creating an inclusive venue that reflects the Bay Area’s rich diversity. The organization offers an array of arts programming to the community including Island Arts, Island City Waterways, Round the World Festival and its Performance Art and Learning program (PAL) that serves more than 2000 youth with free cultural arts assemblies each year.\n\n===Festivals on Webster Street===\nWebster Street in Alameda has long been the host of many arts, crafts and holiday festivals. During some of these festivals, the Chamber of Commerce along with the West Alameda Business Association (WABA) will block of a portion of Webster St. for the entertainment of festival goers. Festivals such as The Island JAM formerly known as the Peanut Butter Jam Festival brings a lot of local and outside visitors. Other event on the \"West-End\" include Trick-or-Treat on Webster Street where merchants supply goodies for local children and culminates with a parade and costume contest; in December \"Santa Claus Meet-n-Greet on Webster Street\" happens with elves, and a photo with the big guy.\n\n===Festivals on Park Street===\nThere are three major events when the street in Alameda's historic downtown district is closed to vehicular traffic. The ''Park Street Spring Festival'' takes place every May during the weekend of Mother's Day and attracts over 50,000 visitors. The ''Park Street Art & Wine Faire'' takes place the last weekend of every July and attracts over 100,000 visitors. Both street fairs feature over 150 arts & crafts vendors, food vendors, beer and wine pouring, a children's area, and two stages with regional entertainment. The ''Park Street Classic Car Show'' is held on the second Saturday every October and displays over 400 vintage vehicles.\n", "* Albert Arents, mining engineer who helped develop mineral resources of Rocky Mountains.\n* Ian Axel, originally from Fair Lawn, New Jersey; singer-songwriter, lead singer of two-member indie group A Great Big World.\n* John Baker, MLB catcher for San Diego Padres.\n* Shirley Temple Black, actress and former U.S. ambassador, resident.\n* Mike Brisiel, offensive guard for Oakland Raiders.\n* Virginia Lee Burton, Caldecott-winning children's author and illustrator.\n* Harold Camping television and radio personality, president and general manager of Family Stations, Inc.\n* One of Alameda's most famous natives was General James Doolittle, who won the Medal of Honor for his bombing of Japan during World War II.\n* Garrett Eckbo, landscape architect who lived in Alameda as a child, later forming the Bay Area firm of Eckbo, Royston, Williams with Robert Royston and Edward Williams.\n* Actor Leif Erickson was born in Alameda in 1911.\n* College basketball coach Larry Eustachy was born in Alameda.\n* Debbi Fields, founder of Mrs. Fields Cookies, attended Alameda High School, where she was a cheerleader.\n* Albert Ghiorso, nuclear scientist, co-discoverer of 12 chemical elements on periodic table; in Guinness Book of World Records for Most Elements Discovered.\n* Brad Gillis, guitarist with Night Ranger, a San Francisco rock band formed in the 1980s.\n* Katharine Graham, the late publisher of the Washington Post, lived in Alameda as a child, according to Personal History, her autobiography.\n* Bandleader and radio personality Horace Heidt was born in Alameda on May 21, 1901.\n* Bruce Henderson, author, lived in Alameda, according to his book ''Hero Found: The Greatest POW Escape of the Vietnam War''.\n* Benjamin Jealous, former President of the NAACP, lived in Alameda.\n* Mikael Johnston, founding member of Warner Bros. Records house music act Mephisto Odyssey.\n* Alameda native congressman Joseph R. Knowland was editor and publisher of the ''Oakland Tribune''.\n* The late U.S. Senator William Fife Knowland was student body president at Alameda High School.\n* Robert L. Lippert, theater chain owner and film producer, was an Alameda native.\n* Paul Mantz (1903-1965), air racer and Hollywood stunt pilot, was born in Alameda.\n* Louis A. McCall, Sr., drummer and musician best known as co-founder of Con Funk Shun.\n* Margaret McNamara, founder of Reading is Fundamental, and wife of Robert McNamara, grew up in Alameda.\n* George P. Miller, congressman from 1945 to 1973.\n* Hugo Wilhelm Arthur Nahl, designer of Seal of California.\n* Don Perata, former President Pro Tempore of California State Senate, lives in Alameda; once taught at Saint Joseph Notre Dame High, Encinal High and Alameda High, among other Alameda schools.\n* Carl Ravazza, bandleader, born in Alameda, 1910.\n* Bill Rigney, Major League Baseball player and manager, was born in Alameda.\n* Dutch Ruether, pitcher for 1927 New York Yankees, was born in Alameda.\n* Alan Schroeder, children's book author.\n* Operatic mezzo-soprano Frederica Von Stade still gives performances and supports the arts in local schools, but no longer lives in Alameda.\n* Alameda was briefly the home of author Robert Louis Stevenson.\n* Sharon Tate, actress, resident in mid-1950s.\n* Charles Lee Tilden, for whom Tilden Regional Park is named, was a longtime resident of Alameda; Tilden Way at the southeast end of the city is named for him.\n* Baseball Hall of Famer Willie Stargell, MLB player Tommy Harper, MLB player Curtell Howard Motton, 2003 National League Rookie of the Year Dontrelle Willis, 2007 National League Most Valuable Player Jimmy Rollins, NBA player J.R. Rider, and NFL players Melvin Carver and Junior Tautalatasi all attended Encinal High School.\n* NBA player and coach Jason Kidd and MLB pitcher Joe Nelson attended St. Joseph Notre Dame High School in Alameda.\n* MLB players Ray French, Johnny Vergez, Andy Carey, Bill Serena, Dick Bartell, Duffy Lewis and Chris Speier all attended Alameda High School.\n* Many people from naval families, including celebrities such as Ann Curry, Phyllis Diller, Tom Hanks, and Jim Morrison of The Doors, have lived in Alameda.\n", "\nPublic primary and secondary education in Alameda is the responsibility of the Alameda Unified School District, which is legally separate from the City of Alameda government (as is common throughout California). The College of Alameda, a two-year community college in the West End is part of the Peralta Community College District. The city has numerous private primary schools, and one private high school, St. Joseph Notre Dame High School, a Catholic school.\n", "Alameda's relationships with Wuxi and Jiangyin were initiated in 2005, in part, by Stewart Chen, who then served on the City of Alameda Social Service and Human Relations board, and who went on to be elected to Alameda City Council in November, 2012.\n\nWuxi, China, is a so-called friendship city, because the diplomacy organization Sister Cities International does not recognize the relationship.\n\n* Jiangyin, China\n* Arita, Japan\n* Yeongdong-gun, South Korea\n* Lidingö, Sweden. Initiated in 1959 as part of President Eisenhower's people-to-people-movement, whose purpose was to develop better understanding among people from different countries after World War II. Both Alameda and Lidingö are islands with a bridge connecting them to a big city.\n* Dumaguete City of Negros Oriental, Philippines\n\n===Friendship city===\n* Wuxi, China (Friendship city since 2004)\n\n===Controversy===\nIn September, 2013, a Tibetan rights group initiated a social media and e-mail campaign targeting the Mayor of Alameda, complaining that City of Alameda's participation in, and association with, a flag-raising ceremony to recognize National Day of the People's Republic of China on October 1 was tantamount to endorsing the communist regime in China, its human rights abuses, and the occupation of Tibet. The City of Alameda responded that the ceremony was a function of the Alameda Sister City Association and the Alameda Wuxi Friendship Committee, not a function of the City of Alameda. The Tibetan rights group responded that on September 26, the City of Alameda Social Service and Human Relations board appointed a member, Michael Robles-Wong, as a representative to the Sister City Association.\n\nOn October 1, 2013, the Tibetan rights groupsTibetTruth and Bay Area Friends of Tibet sent roughly 75 protesters to Alameda City Hall to protest the ceremony, which organizers ultimately canceled before it began. Former City of Alameda Councilmember Frank Matarrese announced the cancellation. Then-city councilmember Stewart Chen subsequently defended the ceremony, as a diplomatic, not political, exercise.\n", "\nEarl King, Ernest Ramsay, and Frank Conner, convicted of murdering a ship's officer in Alameda, 1936\nList of islands of California\nList of ships built in Alameda, California\n", "\n \n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Demographics", " Transportation ", " Attractions ", " Economic development ", "Local newspapers and magazines", "Services", "Arts and culture", " Notable residents ", " Education ", "Sister cities", " See also ", "References", "External links" ]	Alameda, California
[ "\nThe '''Alpha Helix''' ('''α-helix''') is a common motif in the secondary structure of proteins and is a righthand-spiral conformation (i.e. helix) in which every backbone N−H group donates a hydrogen bond to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid located three or four residues earlier along the protein sequence. \n\nAlpha Helix is also called a classic '''Pauling–Corey–Branson α-helix'''. The name '''3.613-helix''' is also used for this type of helix, denoting the average number of residues per helical turn, with 13 atoms being involved in the ring formed by the hydrogen bond. \n\nAmong types of local structure in proteins, the α-helix is the most regular and the most predictable from sequence, as well as the most prevalent.\n", "\n\nIn the early 1930s, William Astbury showed that there were drastic changes in the X-ray fiber diffraction of moist wool or hair fibers upon significant stretching. The data suggested that the unstretched fibers had a coiled molecular structure with a characteristic repeat of ~.\n\nAstbury initially proposed a kinked-chain structure for the fibers. He later joined other researchers (notably the American chemist Maurice Huggins) in proposing that:\n\n* the unstretched protein molecules formed a helix (which he called the α-form)\n* the stretching caused the helix to uncoil, forming an extended state (which he called the β-form).\n\nAlthough incorrect in their details, Astbury's models of these forms were correct in essence and correspond to modern elements of secondary structure, the α-helix and the β-strand (Astbury's nomenclature was kept), which were developed by Linus Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson in 1951 (see below); that paper showed both right- and left-handed helices, although in 1960 the crystal structure of myoglobin showed that the right-handed form is the common one. Hans Neurath was the first to show that Astbury's models could not be correct in detail, because they involved clashes of atoms. Neurath's paper and Astbury's data inspired H. S. Taylor, Maurice Huggins and Bragg and collaborators to propose models of keratin that somewhat resemble the modern α-helix.\n\nTwo key developments in the modeling of the modern α-helix were: the correct bond geometry, thanks to the crystal structure determinations of amino acids and peptides and Pauling's prediction of ''planar'' peptide bonds; and his relinquishing of the assumption of an integral number of residues per turn of the helix. The pivotal moment came in the early spring of 1948, when Pauling caught a cold and went to bed. Being bored, he drew a polypeptide chain of roughly correct dimensions on a strip of paper and folded it into a helix, being careful to maintain the planar peptide bonds. After a few attempts, he produced a model with physically plausible hydrogen bonds. Pauling then worked with Corey and Branson to confirm his model before publication. In 1954, Pauling was awarded his first Nobel Prize \"for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances\" (such as proteins), prominently including the structure of the α-helix.\n", "\n=== Geometry and hydrogen bonding ===\nThe amino acids in an α-helix are arranged in a right-handed helical structure where each amino acid residue corresponds to a 100° turn in the helix (i.e., the helix has 3.6 residues per turn), and a translation of along the helical axis. Dunitz describes how Pauling's first article on the theme in fact shows a left-handed helix, the enantiomer of the true structure. Short pieces of left-handed helix sometimes occur with a large content of achiral glycine amino acids, but are unfavorable for the other normal, biological -amino acids. The pitch of the alpha-helix (the vertical distance between consecutive turns of the helix) is , which is the product of 1.5 and 3.6. What is most important is that the N-H group of an amino acid forms a hydrogen bond with the C=O group of the amino acid ''four'' residues earlier; this repeated ''i'' + 4 → ''i'' hydrogen bonding is the most prominent characteristic of an α-helix. Official international nomenclature specifies two ways of defining α-helices, rule 6.2 in terms of repeating ''φ'', ''ψ'' torsion angles (see below) and rule 6.3 in terms of the combined pattern of pitch and hydrogen bonding. The α-helices can be identified in protein structure using several computational methods, one of which being DSSP (Dictionary of Protein Secondary Structure).\n\nContrast of helix end views between α (offset squarish) vs 310 (triangular)\nSimilar structures include the 310 helix (''i'' + 3 → ''i'' hydrogen bonding) and the π-helix (''i'' + 5 → ''i'' hydrogen bonding). The α-helix can be described as a 3.613 helix, since the ''i'' + 4 spacing adds three more atoms to the H-bonded loop compared to the tighter 310 helix, and on average, 3.6 amino acids are involved in one ring of α-helix. The subscripts refer to the number of atoms (including the hydrogen) in the closed loop formed by the hydrogen bond.\n\nRamachandran plot (''φ'', ''ψ'' plot), with data points for α-helical residues forming a dense diagonal cluster below and left of center, around the global energy minimum for backbone conformation.\nResidues in α-helices typically adopt backbone (''φ'', ''ψ'') dihedral angles around (−60°, −45°), as shown in the image at right. In more general terms, they adopt dihedral angles such that the ''ψ'' dihedral angle of one residue and the ''φ'' dihedral angle of the ''next'' residue sum to roughly −105°. As a consequence, α-helical dihedral angles, in general, fall on a diagonal stripe on the Ramachandran diagram (of slope −1), ranging from (−90°, −15°) to (−35°, −70°). For comparison, the sum of the dihedral angles for a 310 helix is roughly −75°, whereas that for the π-helix is roughly −130°. The general formula for the rotation angle ''Ω'' per residue of any polypeptide helix with ''trans'' isomers is given by the equation\n\n:\n\nThe α-helix is tightly packed; there is almost no free space within the helix. The amino-acid side-chains are on the outside of the helix, and point roughly \"downward\" (i.e., toward the N-terminus), like the branches of an evergreen tree (Christmas tree effect). This directionality is sometimes used in preliminary, low-resolution electron-density maps to determine the direction of the protein backbone.\n\n=== 2D (2-dimensional) diagrams for representing α-helices ===\n\n\nThree differently arranged styles of 2D diagrams are used to represent different aspects of the sequence and structure relationships that confer specific physical and interaction properties on individual α-helices. Two of these emphasize circular placement around the cylindrical cross-section: The first-developed such diagram is called the \"helical wheel\", and a more recent version is called the \"wenxiang diagram\". The latter name came from the fact that it resembles a coil-like incense used in China to repel mosquitos ().\n\nThe helical wheel represents a helix by a projection of the Cα backbone structure down the helix axis, while the wenxiang diagram represents it more abstractly as a smooth spiral coiled on the plane of the page. Both label the sequence with one-letter amino-acid code (see amino acid) at each Cα position, using different colors or symbols to code the amino-acid properties. Hydrophobic vs hydrophilic amino acids are always distinguished, as the most important property governing helix interactions. Sometimes positively vs negatively charged hydrophilics are distinguished, and sometimes ambiguous amino acids such as glycine (G) are distinguished. Color-coding conventions are various. The helical wheel does not change representation along the helix, while the wenxiang diagram is able to show the relative locations of the amino acids in an α-helix regardless of how long it is.\n\nEither circular style of diagram can provide an intuitive and easily visualizable 2D picture that characterizes the disposition of hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues in α-helices, and can be used to study helix–helix interactions, helix-membrane interactions as quantified by the helical hydrophobic moment, or protein-protein interactions.\n\nVarious utilities and web sites are available to generate helical wheels, such as the page by Kael Fischer.\n\nThe third style of 2D diagram is called a \"helical net\". It is generated by opening the cylindrical surface of each helix along a line parallel to the axis and laying the result out vertically. The helix net is not suitable for studying helix–helix packing interactions, but it has become the dominant means of representing the sequence arrangement for integral membrane proteins because it shows important relationships of the helical sequence to vertical positioning within the membrane even without knowledge of how the helices are arranged in 3D.\n\n=== Stability ===\n\nHelices observed in proteins can range from four to over forty residues long, but a typical helix contains about ten amino acids (about three turns). In general, short polypeptides do not exhibit much α-helical structure in solution, since the entropic cost associated with the folding of the polypeptide chain is not compensated for by a sufficient amount of stabilizing interactions. In general, the backbone hydrogen bonds of α-helices are considered slightly weaker than those found in β-sheets, and are readily attacked by the ambient water molecules. However, in more hydrophobic environments such as the plasma membrane, or in the presence of co-solvents such as trifluoroethanol (TFE), or isolated from solvent in the gas phase, oligopeptides readily adopt stable α-helical structure. Furthermore, crosslinks can be incorporated into peptides to conformationally stabilize helical folds. Crosslinks stabilize the helical state by entropically destabilizing the unfolded state and by removing enthalpically stabilized \"decoy\" folds that compete with the fully helical state. It has been shown that α-helices are more stable, robust to mutations and designable than β-strands in natural proteins, and also in artificial designed proteins. \n\nAn α-helix in ultrahigh-resolution electron density contours, with oxygen atoms in red, nitrogen atoms in blue, and hydrogen bonds as green dotted lines (PDB file 2NRL, 17-32). The N-terminus is at the top, here.\n", "Since the α-helix is defined by its hydrogen bonds and backbone conformation, the most detailed experimental evidence for α-helical structure comes from atomic-resolution X-ray crystallography such as the example shown at right. It is clear that all the backbone carbonyl oxygens point downward (toward the C-terminus) but splay out slightly, and the H-bonds are approximately parallel to the helix axis. Protein structures from NMR spectroscopy also show helices well, with characteristic observations of nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) couplings between atoms on adjacent helical turns. In some cases, the individual hydrogen bonds can be observed directly as a small scalar coupling in NMR.\n\nThere are several lower-resolution methods for assigning general helical structure. The NMR chemical shifts (in particular of the Cα, Cβ and C′) and residual dipolar couplings are often characteristic of helices. The far-UV (170–250 nm) circular dichroism spectrum of helices is also idiosyncratic, exhibiting a pronounced double minimum at around 208 and 222 nm. Infrared spectroscopy is rarely used, since the α-helical spectrum resembles that of a random coil (although these might be discerned by, e.g., hydrogen-deuterium exchange). Finally, cryo electron microscopy is now capable of discerning individual α-helices within a protein, although their assignment to residues is still an active area of research.\n\nLong homopolymers of amino acids often form helices if soluble. Such long, isolated helices can also be detected by other methods, such as dielectric relaxation, flow birefringence, and measurements of the diffusion constant. In stricter terms, these methods detect only the characteristic prolate (long cigar-like) hydrodynamic shape of a helix, or its large dipole moment.\n", "Different amino-acid sequences have different propensities for forming α-helical structure. Methionine, alanine, leucine, glutamate, and lysine uncharged (\"MALEK\" in the amino-acid 1-letter codes) all have especially high helix-forming propensities, whereas proline and glycine have poor helix-forming propensities. Proline either breaks or kinks a helix, both because it cannot donate an amide hydrogen bond (having no amide hydrogen), and also because its sidechain interferes sterically with the backbone of the preceding turn inside a helix, this forces a bend of about 30° in the helix's axis. However, proline is often seen as the ''first'' residue of a helix, it is presumed due to its structural rigidity. At the other extreme, glycine also tends to disrupt helices because its high conformational flexibility makes it entropically expensive to adopt the relatively constrained α-helical structure.\n\n=== Table of standard amino acid alpha-helical propensities ===\nEstimated differences in free energy, Δ(Δ''G''), estimated in kcal/mol per residue in an α-helical configuration, relative to alanine arbitrarily set as zero. Higher numbers (more positive free energies) are less favoured. Significant deviations from these average numbers are possible, depending on the identities of the neighbouring residues.\n\n:{\| class=\"wikitable sortable\"\n+Differences in free energy per residue\n Amino acid\n 3-letter\n 1-letter\n Helical penalty\n\nkcal/mol\nkJ/mol\n\n Alanine\n Ala\n A\n \n\n Arginine\n Arg\n R\n \n\n Asparagine\n Asn\n N\n \n\n Aspartic acid\n Asp\n D\n \n\n Cysteine\n Cys\n C\n \n\n Glutamic acid\n Glu\n E\n \n\n Glutamine\n Gln\n Q\n \n\n Glycine\n Gly\n G\n \n\n Histidine\n His\n H\n \n\n Isoleucine\n Ile\n I\n \n\n Leucine\n Leu\n L\n \n\n Lysine\n Lys\n K\n \n\n Methionine\n Met\n M\n \n\n Phenylalanine\n Phe\n F\n \n\n Proline\n Pro\n P\n \n\n Serine\n Ser\n S\n \n\n Threonine\n Thr\n T\n \n\n Tryptophan\n Trp\n W\n \n\n Tyrosine\n Tyr\n Y\n \n\n Valine\n Val\n V\n \n\n", "A helix has an overall dipole moment due to the aggregate effect of the individual microdipoles from the carbonyl groups of the peptide bond pointing along the helix axis. The effects of this macrodipole are a matter of some controversy. α-helices often occur with the N-terminal end bound by a negatively charged group, sometimes an amino acid side chain such as glutamate or aspartate, or sometimes a phosphate ion. Some regard the helix macrodipole as interacting electrostatically with such groups. Others feel that this is misleading and it is more realistic to say that the hydrogen bond potential of the free NH groups at the N-terminus of an α-helix can be satisfied by hydrogen bonding; this can also be regarded as set of interactions between local microdipoles such as .\n", "Coiled-coil α helices are highly stable forms in which two or more helices wrap around each other in a \"supercoil\" structure. Coiled coils contain a highly characteristic sequence motif known as a '''heptad repeat''', in which the motif repeats itself every seven residues along the sequence (''amino acid'' residues, not DNA base-pairs). The first and especially the fourth residues (known as the ''a'' and ''d'' positions) are almost always hydrophobic; the fourth residue is typically leucine this gives rise to the name of the structural motif called a ''leucine zipper'', which is a type of coiled-coil. These hydrophobic residues pack together in the interior of the helix bundle. In general, the fifth and seventh residues (the ''e'' and ''g'' positions) have opposing charges and form a salt bridge stabilized by electrostatic interactions. Fibrous proteins such as keratin or the \"stalks\" of myosin or kinesin often adopt coiled-coil structures, as do several dimerizing proteins. A pair of coiled-coils a four-helix bundle is a very common structural motif in proteins. For example, it occurs in human growth hormone and several varieties of cytochrome. The Rop protein, which promotes plasmid replication in bacteria, is an interesting case in which a single polypeptide forms a coiled-coil and two monomers assemble to form a four-helix bundle.\n\nThe amino acids that make up a particular helix can be plotted on a helical wheel, a representation that illustrates the orientations of the constituent amino acids (see the article for leucine zipper for such a diagram). Often in globular proteins, as well as in specialized structures such as coiled-coils and leucine zippers, an α-helix will exhibit two \"faces\" one containing predominantly hydrophobic amino acids oriented toward the interior of the protein, in the hydrophobic core, and one containing predominantly polar amino acids oriented toward the solvent-exposed surface of the protein.\n", "The Hemoglobin molecule has four heme-binding subunits, each made largely of α-helices.\nMyoglobin and hemoglobin, the first two proteins whose structures were solved by X-ray crystallography, have very similar folds made up of about 70% α-helix, with the rest being non-repetitive regions, or \"loops\" that connect the helices. In classifying proteins by their dominant fold, the Structural Classification of Proteins database maintains a large category specifically for all-α proteins.\n\nHemoglobin then has an even larger-scale quaternary structure, in which the functional oxygen-binding molecule is made up of four subunits.\n", "PDB file 1HLO)\nPDB file 1GZM), with a bundle of seven helices crossing the membrane (membrane surfaces marked by horizontal lines)\n\n=== DNA binding ===\nα-Helices have particular significance in DNA binding motifs, including helix-turn-helix motifs, leucine zipper motifs and zinc finger motifs. This is because of the convenient structural fact that the diameter of an α-helix is about including an average set of sidechains, about the same as the width of the major groove in B-form DNA, and also because coiled-coil (or leucine zipper) dimers of helices can readily position a pair of interaction surfaces to contact the sort of symmetrical repeat common in double-helical DNA. An example of both aspects is the transcription factor Max (see image at left), which uses a helical coiled coil to dimerize, positioning another pair of helices for interaction in two successive turns of the DNA major groove.\n\n=== Membrane spanning ===\nα-Helices are also the most common protein structure element that crosses biological membranes (transmembrane protein) it is presumed because the helical structure can satisfy all backbone hydrogen-bonds internally, leaving no polar groups exposed to the membrane if the sidechains are hydrophobic. Proteins are sometimes anchored by a single membrane-spanning helix, sometimes by a pair, and sometimes by a helix bundle, most classically consisting of seven helices arranged up-and-down in a ring such as for rhodopsins (see image at right) or for G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs).\n\n=== Mechanical properties ===\nα-Helices under axial tensile deformation, a characteristic loading condition that appears in many alpha-helix-rich filaments and tissues, results in a characteristic three-phase behavior of stiff-soft-stiff tangent modulus. Phase I corresponds to the small-deformation regime during which the helix is stretched homogeneously, followed by phase II, in which alpha-helical turns break mediated by the rupture of groups of H-bonds. Phase III is typically associated with large-deformation covalent bond stretching.\n", "Alpha-helices in proteins may have low-frequency accordion-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy and analyzed via the quasi-continuum model. Helices not stabilized by tertiary interactions show dynamic behavior, which can be mainly attributed to helix fraying from the ends.\n", "\n\nHomopolymers of amino acids (such as polylysine) can adopt α-helical structure at low temperature that is \"melted out\" at high temperatures. This '''helix–coil transition''' was once thought to be analogous to protein denaturation. The statistical mechanics of this transition can be modeled using an elegant transfer matrix method, characterized by two parameters: the propensity to initiate a helix and the propensity to extend a helix.\n", "Julian Voss-Andreae's ''Alpha Helix for Linus Pauling'' (2004), powder coated steel, height . The sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home on 3945 SE Hawthorne Boulevard in Portland, Oregon, USA.\n\nAt least five artists have made explicit reference to the α-helix in their work: Julie Newdoll in painting and Julian Voss-Andreae, Bathsheba Grossman, Byron Rubin, and Mike Tyka in sculpture.\n\nSan Francisco area artist Julie Newdoll, who holds a degree in Microbiology with a minor in art, has specialized in paintings inspired by microscopic images and molecules since 1990. Her painting \"Rise of the Alpha Helix\" (2003) features human figures arranged in an α helical arrangement. According to the artist, \"the flowers reflect the various types of sidechains that each amino acid holds out to the world\". It is interesting to note that this same metaphor is also echoed from the scientist's side: \"β sheets do not show a stiff repetitious regularity but flow in graceful, twisting curves, and even the α-helix is regular more in the manner of a flower stem, whose branching nodes show the influence of environment, developmental history, and the evolution of each part to match its own idiosyncratic function.\"\n\nJulian Voss-Andreae is a German-born sculptor with degrees in experimental physics and sculpture. Since 2001 Voss-Andreae creates \"protein sculptures\" based on protein structure with the α-helix being one of his preferred objects. Voss-Andreae has made α-helix sculptures from diverse materials including bamboo and whole trees. A monument Voss-Andreae created in 2004 to celebrate the memory of Linus Pauling, the discoverer of the α-helix, is fashioned from a large steel beam rearranged in the structure of the α-helix. The , bright-red sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home in Portland, Oregon.\n\nRibbon diagrams of α-helices are a prominent element in the laser-etched crystal sculptures of protein structures created by artist Bathsheba Grossman, such as those of insulin, hemoglobin, and DNA polymerase. Byron Rubin is a former protein crystallographer now professional sculptor in metal of proteins, nucleic acids, and drug molecules many of which featuring α-helices, such as subtilisin, human growth hormone, and phospholipase A2.\n\nMike Tyka is a computational biochemist at the University of Washington working with David Baker. Tyka has been making sculptures of protein molecules since 2010 from copper and steel, including ubiquitin and a potassium channel tetramer.\n", "* 310 helix\n* Pi helix\n* Beta sheet\n* Davydov soliton\n* Folding (chemistry)\n* Knobs into holes packing\n* \n", "\n", "\n* .\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "* NetSurfP ver. 1.1 - Protein Surface Accessibility and Secondary Structure Predictions\n* α-helix rotational angle calculator\n* Artist Julie Newdoll's website\n* Artist Julian Voss-Andreae's website\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Discovery ", " Structure ", " Experimental determination ", " Amino-acid propensities ", " Dipole moment ", " Coiled coils ", " Larger-scale assemblies ", " Functional roles ", " Dynamical features ", " Helix–coil transition ", " The α-helix in art ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Alpha helix
[ "\n\n\n'''Accrington''' is a town in the Hyndburn borough of Lancashire, England. It lies about east of Blackburn, west of Burnley, east of Preston, north of Manchester city centre and is situated on the mostly culverted River Hyndburn. Commonly abbreviated by locals to \"'''Accy'''\", the town has a population of 54,800 according to the 2001 census and the urban area has a population of over 85,000.\n\nAccrington is a former centre of the cotton and textile machinery industries. The town is famed for manufacturing the hardest and densest building bricks in the world, \"The Accrington NORI\" (iron), which were used in the construction of the Empire State Building and for the foundations of Blackpool Tower; famous for Accrington Stanley F.C. and the Haworth Art Gallery which holds Europe's largest collection of Tiffany glass.\n", "\n===Origin of the name===\nThe name Accrington appears to be Anglo-Saxon in origin. In the records it variously appears as ''Akarinton'' in 1194; ''Akerunton'', ''Akerinton'' and ''Akerynton'' in 1258; ''Acrinton'' in 1292; ''Ackryngton'' in 1311 and ''Acryngton'' in 1324.\n\nThe name may mean ''acorn farmstead'' from Anglo-Saxon ''æcern'' meaning ''acorn'' and ''tun'' meaning ''farmstead'' or ''village''. The southern part of Accrington, the township of New Accrington, was formerly in the Forest of Blackburnshire and the presence of oak trees may be inferred from local place names like Broad Oak and Oak Hill. The products of oak trees were once an important food for swine and a farmstead may have been named for such produce. Anglo-Saxon ''ᴁcerntun'' might become Middle English ''Akerenton'', ''Akerinton'' and the like. Also worth considering is that in the Lancashire dialect ''acorn'' was ''akran''.\n\nThere is no known Old English personal name from which the first element can be derived. But if the Frisian names ''Akkrum'', ''Akkeringa'' and Dutch name ''Akkerghem'', are derived from the personal name ''Akker'' there may be a corresponding Old English name from which ''Accrington'' may be derived.\n\n===Early history===\nAccrington covers two townships which were established in 1507 following disafforestation; those of Old Accrington and New Accrington which were merged in 1878 with the incorporation of the borough council. There have been settlements there since the medieval period, likely in the Grange Lane and Black Abbey area, and the King's Highway which passes above the town was at one time used by the kings and queens of England when they used the area for hunting when the Forest of Accrington was one of the four forests of the hundred of Blackburnshire.\n\nRobert de Lacy gave the manor of Accrington to the monks of Kirkstall in the 12th century. The monks built a grange there; removing the inhabitants to make room for it. The locals got their revenge by setting fire to the new building, destroying its contents and in the process killing the three lay brothers who occupied it. An area of the town is named 'Black Abbey', a possible reference to the murders. Regardless of whatever happened, Accrington did not remain under monastic control for long before reverting to the de Lacys.\n\nIt is thought the monks of Kirkstall may have built a small chapel there during their tenure for the convenience of those in charge residing there and their tenants, but the records are uncertain. What is known is that there was a chapel in Accrington prior to 1553 where the vicar of Whalley was responsible for the maintenance of divine worship. However it did not have its own minister and it was served, when at all, by the curate of one of the adjacent chapels. In 1717 Accrington was served by the curate of Church, who preached there only once a month. St. James's Church was built in 1763, replacing the old chapel however it did not achieve parochial status until as late as 1870.\n\n===Industrial Revolution===\n\n\n\nUntil around 1830 visitors considered Accrington to be just a \"considerable village\". The Industrial Revolution, however, resulted in large changes and Accrington's location on the confluence of a number of streams made it attractive to industry and a number of mills were built in the town in the mid-eighteenth century. Further industrialisation then followed in the late eighteenth century and local landowners began building mansions in the area on the outskirts of the settlement where their mills were located while their employees lived in overcrowded unsanitary conditions in the centre.\n\nIndustrialisation resulted in rapid population growth during the nineteenth century, as people moved from over north-west England to Accrington, with the population increasing from 3,266 in 1811 to 10,376 in 1851 to 43,211 in 1901 to its peak in 1911 at 45,029.\n\nThis fast population growth and slow response from the established church allowed non-conformism to flourish in the town. By the mid-nineteenth century there were Wesleyan, Primitive Methodist, United Free Methodist, Congregationalist, Baptist, Swedenborgian, Unitarian, Roman Catholic and Catholic Apostolic churches in the town. The Swedenborgian church was so grand that it was considered to be the ‘Cathedral' of that denomination.\n\nFor many decades the textiles industry, the engineering industry and coal mining were the central activities of the town. Cotton mills and dye works provided work for the inhabitants, but often in very difficult conditions. There was regular conflict with employers over wages and working conditions. On 24 April 1826 over 1,000 men and women, many armed, gathered at Whinney Hill in Clayton-le-Moors to listen to a speaker from where they marched on Sykes's Mill at Higher Grange Lane, near the site of the modern police station and Magistrate's Courts, and smashed over 60 looms. These riots spread from Accrington through Oswaldtwistle, Blackburn, Darwen, Rossendale, Bury and Chorley. In the end after three days of riots 1,139 looms were destroyed, 4 rioters and 2 bystanders shot dead by the authorities in Rossendale and 41 rioters sentenced to death (all of whose sentences were commuted).\n\nIn the 1842 'plug riots' a general strike spread from town to town due to conditions in the town. In a population of 9,000 people as few as 100 were fully employed. From 15 August 1842 the situation boiled over and bands of men entered the mills which were running and stopped the machinery by knocking out the boiler plugs. This allowed the water and steam to escape shutting down the mill machinery. Thousands of strikers walked over the hills from one town to another to persuade people to join the strike in civil disturbances that lasted about a week. The strike was associated with the Chartist movement but eventually proved unsuccessful in its aims.\n\nIn the early 1860s the Lancashire cotton famine badly affected Accrington, although less so than the wider area due to its more diverse economy, with as many as half of the town's mill employees out of work at one time.\n\nConditions were such that a Local Board of Health was constituted in 1853 and the town itself incorporated in 1878 allowing the enforcement of local laws to improve the town.\n\n===Accrington Pals===\n\n\nOne well-known association the town has is with the 'Accrington Pals', the nickname given to the smallest home town battalion of volunteers formed to fight in the First World War. The Pals battalions were a peculiarity of the 1914-18 war: Lord Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War, believed that it would help recruitment if friends and work-mates from the same town were able to join up and fight together. Strictly speaking, the 'Accrington Pals' battalion is properly known as the '11th East Lancashire Regiment': the nickname is a little misleading, since of the four 250-strong companies that made up the original battalion only one was composed of men from Accrington. The rest volunteered from other east Lancashire towns such as Burnley, Blackburn and Chorley.\n\nThe Pals' first day of action, 1 July 1916, took place in Serre, near Montauban in the north of France. It was part of the 'Big Push' (later known as the Battle of the Somme) that was intended to force the German Army into a retreat from the Western Front, a line they had held since late 1914. The German defences in Serre were supposed to have been obliterated by sustained, heavy, British shelling during the preceding week; however, as the battalion advanced it met with fierce resistance. 235 men were killed and a further 350 wounded — more than half of the battalion — within half an hour. Similarly desperate losses were suffered elsewhere on the front, in a disastrous day for the British Army (approximately 19,000 British soldiers were killed in a single day).\n\nLater in the year, the East Lancashire Regiment was rebuilt with new volunteers — in all, 865 Accrington men were killed during World War I. All of these names are recorded on a war memorial, an imposing white stone cenotaph, which stands in Oak Hill Park in the south of the town. The cenotaph also lists the names of 173 local fatalities from World War II. The trenches from which the Accrington Pals advanced on 1 July 1916 are still visible in John Copse west of the village of Serre, and there is a memorial there made of Accrington brick.\n\nAfter the war and until 1986, Accrington Corporation buses were painted in the regimental colours of red and blue with gold lining. The mudguards were painted black as a sign of mourning.\n", "The 2001 census gave the population of Accrington town as 45,600. The figure for the urban area was 78,224, increased from 70,442 in 1991. This total includes Accrington, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Oswaldtwistle. For comparison purposes that is approximately the same size as Aylesbury, Carlisle, Guildford or Scunthorpe urban areas.\n\nThe borough of Hyndburn as a whole has a population of 88,996. This includes Accrington Urban Area and other outlying towns and villages such as; Altham, Baxenden, part of Belthorn, Huncoat, Rishton and Stanhill.\n", "\nFormerly cotton and textile machinery were important industries in the town. NORIs, a type of iron hard engineering brick, were produced nearby in Huncoat was closed in 2013, but later reopened in 2015. Mills and factories are Accrington's past but there a few factories and garages now occupy the old building.\n", "The council has a regeneration plan in place, which will, according to the council, boost the local economy. The plan is to upgrade many old shops, and build a bus station. A memorial for the Accrington Pals may be built outside the town hall.\n\nThe Hyndburn Borough Council plans to spend £10 million to refurbish the town centre, which includes:\n\nUpgrading all the shops in the town centre.\nBuilding a new bus station. Plans for the new bus station, which was later named 'George Slynn' in honour of the former Hundburn Council leader, were put forward in January 2013 and approved in October 2014. The bus station was completed during and officially opened on 11 July 2016. The new station came under heavy criticism with traders of Accrington's Market and town hall, as it would see the old station discontinued, which was situated much closer and provided ease of access for regular customers.\n\nHalf of Blackburn Road is being refurbished and is now being made into a more attractive shopping street, upgrading shops, adding more trees, and repaving the pavements.\n\nTwo new phases are being built, the first one called the Acorn Park, where new houses are being built with balconies and greener spaces, and Phoenix Place, which will also include new housing and the building of a new mosque to help the overcrowding of nearby mosques. The wood nook area has the highest amount of abandoned housing in Hyndburn, which is also being refurbished and extended for sale to new families.\n", "\nAccrington is a hill town located at the western edge of the Pennines within a bowl and largely encircled by surrounding hills to heights of 300-400m. The Hyndburn or Accrington Brook flows through the centre of the town. Hill settlements origins were as the economic foci of the district engaging in the spinning and weaving of woolen cloth. Wool, lead and coal were other local industries.\nGeographical coordinates: 53° 46' 0\" North, 2° 21' 0\" West. Height above sea level: there is a spot height outside the Market Hall which is 133.5m; the bench mark on the side of the neighbouring Town Hall is 441.10 feet. The highest height in the town is 320m which is in Baxenden and the lowest is the town hall which is at 132.5m. most of the town is around 200m.\n", "The town has strong local travel links as Accrington railway station lies on the East Lancashire Line serving trains running locally and trains running from Blackpool to York. However, recent changes to the train timetables have been a disservice to Accrington, increasing the journey time to Preston (a vital link to London or Scotland) by up to 1.5 hours. However, there are still buses to Manchester every thirty minutes as well as more frequent services to other towns in east Lancashire. The main road running through the town centre is the A680 running from Rochdale to Whalley. The town is served by junction seven of the M65 and is linked from the A680 and the A56 dual carriageway which briefly merge; linking to the M66 motorway heading towards Manchester. The closest airports are Manchester Airport at , Blackpool Airport at and Leeds Bradford Airport at .\n\nThere was once a rail link south to Manchester via Haslingden and Bury, but this was closed in the 1960s as part of cuts following the Beeching Report. The trackbed from Accrington to Baxenden is now a linear treelined cycleway/footpath. A train service to Manchester via the Todmorden Curve opened in 2015. A new bus station is being built in Accrington too.\n\nBus operators Pilkington Bus and M&M Coaches are based in Accrington, and Holmeswood Coaches, Rosso and Transdev Blazefield subsidiaries Blackburn Bus Company and Burnley Bus Company also provide bus services in the town; routes serve places such as Blackburn, Oswaldtwistle, Rishton, Burnley and Clitheroe. However M&M Coaches ceased business suddenly on 21 September\n", "Accrington Library\nAccrington Library, on St James Street, is a Carnegie library that opened in 1908. It is noted for its stained glass window designed by Gustav Hiller and as a place of inspiration for the young Jeanette Winterson.\n\nNear the Tesco supermarket, there is Accrington Skate Park which is popular during the school holidays. On Broadway, Accrington Police Station serves the Borough of Hyndburn. In April 2003, Hyndburn Community Fire Station opened, also serving the Borough of Hyndburn.\n", "\nThe town is served by the Lancashire Constabulary Police station on Broadway after moving into town from its previous location on Manchester Road as an effort to save money due to rising expenses and decreasing funding by the government. Crime is very low in Accrington compared to nearby towns.\n", "\n===Governance===\nAccrington is represented in parliament as a part of the constituency of Hyndburn. The constituency boundaries do not align exactly with those of the district of the same name.\n\nAccrington was first represented nationally after the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 after the 1885 general election by Accrington (UK Parliament constituency). This seat was abolished in the 1983 general election and replaced with the present constituency of Hyndburn (UK Parliament constituency).\n\nAccrington became incorporated as a municipal borough in 1878. Under the Local Government Act 1972, since 1974, the town has formed part of the larger Borough of Hyndburn including the former Urban Districts of Oswaldtwistle, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Rishton.\n\nHyndburn consists of 16 wards, electing a total of 35 councillors. Due to its size Accrington is represented by a number of wards in the Borough of Hyndburn. The town largely consists of the Milnshaw, Peel, Central, Barnfield and Spring Hill wards, although some parts of those wards are in other towns in the borough.\n\n===Health===\nAccrington Acorn PHCC under construction\nThe local hospital is Accrington Victoria Hospital however, as it only deals with minor issues, Accident and Emergency is provided by the Royal Blackburn Hospital. Other services are provided at the Accrington Pals Primary Health Care Centre and the Accrington Acorn Primary Health Care Centre.\n\n===Media===\nThe chief publications in the area are the weekly ''Accrington Observer'', part of MEN media, and the ''Lancashire Telegraph''. Accrington Observer is currently stationed within the Market Hall.\n", "A Ron Hill 10K marathon happens every year at the end of March or start of April and is named for the local Olympic runner for Britain Ron Hill. The marathon goes around town and through the local countrysides, and is organised by the council and local businesses. There is also an annual 1K family run which began in 2014. In 2015 more than five hundred runners ran in the race. Their also a race held by the local rotary around August time.\n", "\n===Football team===\nAccrington Stanley F.C. wall plaque: \"Industry and Prudence Conquer\"\nAccrington Stanley F.C., entered the Football League in 1921 with the formation of the old Third Division (North); after haunting the lower reaches of English football for forty years, they eventually resigned from the League in 1962, due to financial problems, and folded in 1965. The club was reformed three years later and then worked its way through the non-league divisions to reach the Nationwide Conference in 2003. In the 2005–06 season, Stanley, after winning against Woking with three matches to spare, secured a place back in the Football League and the town celebrated with a small parade and honours placed on senior executives of the team. One of the teams relegated—and thus being replaced by Stanley—were Oxford United, who were voted into the Football League to replace the previous Accrington Stanley. The football stadium is called the Crown Ground. Until the 2012-13 season, when Fleetwood Town entered the league, Accrington was the smallest town in England and Wales with a Football League club.\n\nAccrington Stanley Football Club has had its own pub in the town, the Crown, since July 2007.\n\n====Team history====\nAn earlier club, Accrington F.C., were one of the twelve founder members of the Football League in 1888. However, their time in league football was even less successful and considerably briefer than that of Accrington Stanley: they dropped out of the league in 1893 and folded shortly afterwards due to financial problems. The town of Accrington thus has the unique \"distinction\" of having lost two separate clubs from league football. They are currently placed in League 2 alongside local club Blackpool\n\n===Cricket===\nAccrington has a cricket ground. Cricket is also played in parks.Schools nearby have shown major interest in cricket and have held cricket training and tournaments.\n\n===Golf===\nAccrington has a golf course.\n\n===Other sports===\nThere are many gyms in the town and the council has held fitness classes for the women and old people. There are two sports centres, the main on being the Hyndburn Sports Centre, Which is currently renovating their swimming pool area. near Lidl.\n", "List of primary schools in Accrington;\n* Hyndburn Park Primary School,\n* Peel Park Primary School,\n* Sacred Heart Primary School,\n* Benjamin Hargreaves CE Primary School,\n* Springhill County Primary School,\n* Accrington Huncoat Primary School,\n* St Johns and St Augustines CE Primary School,\n* St Mary Magdalen's CE Primary School,\n* St Nicholas' CE Primary School,\n* Woodnook Primary School,\n* St James CE Primary School, Altham,\n* St Johns CE Primary School, Baxenden,\n* All Saints CE Primary School,\n* Mount Pleasant Primary School,\n* Green Haworth CE Primary School,\n* Stonefold CE Primary School,\n* St Peters CE Primary School.\n\nSecondary schools serving Accrington are:\n* Accrington Academy\n* Heathland School\n* The Hollins Technology College\n* Mount Carmel Roman Catholic High School\n* Norden High School and Sports College\n* Rhyddings Business and Enterprise School\n* St Christopher's Church of England High School\n\nAll the secondary schools compete each other to achieve better results which resulted in the Hollins Technology College winning an award from SSAT for fantastic progress. The Hollins is also within the top 3% In the country and well known for its development.\nThe college in the town centre is Accrington and Rossendale College; nearby universities include University Centre at Blackburn College, and the University of Central Lancashire in Preston. There is also a library near the town centre where books and internet are available.\n", "Haworth Art Gallery\nThe Haworth Art Gallery was previously a mansion named as Hollins Hill Mansion. The museum houses a collection of Tiffany glassware presented to the town by Joseph Briggs, an Accrington man who had joined Tiffany's in the late 19th century and eventually became art director and assistant manager.It is situated in Haworth Park on Manchester Road.\nThe Viaduct\nThe Viaduct is a bridge which has a railway line on it, it goes through the town and has many storage units and shop on sale buy the National Rail. The Viaduct ends at the Accrington Eco Station.\n* Town Hall\nThe Accrington Town Hall was built in the 19th century and is also listed. It has a reception rooms where pantomimes and fitness clubs are held. Weddings could also be held there. The town hall is on Blackburn Road near The Arcade.\nThe Arcade\nThe Arcade is a Victorian shopping Centre with about 10-15 outlets and has many restaurants there. It is on Church street near the town hall. The arcade has hardware shops and shops like Argos. There are some restaurants in there too. Sadly most outlets are closing since the year 2013. In 2016, there was a revamp of the Arcade which saw specialist shops such as Darts, Vinyl and Knitted Wear added into the Arcade. \nOakhill Park\nOakhill Park is a large and old park with a sceneric view of Accrington. It has won many awards such as the best park in Lancashire It has also been awarded an Eco Award. The Haworth Art Gallery is in the park. It is on Manchester Road.\n* The Coppice and Peel Park\nPeel Park is a park in Accrington which was opened by William Peel on 29 September 1909. The Coppice is a hill within the park, and provides a 2.2 mile scenic walk around the park. There was a centenary celebration marking 100 years from the Coppice being handed over to the people of Accrington on 26 September 2009. There was also a refurbishment of the paths and monument at the top of the Coppice at this time. Since then there has been several revamps to the Playground area of the park.\n", "Andy Kanavan, rock drummer with Dire Straits and Level 9 a.k.a. Andy Canavan was born there\nJon Anderson, singer with rock band Yes, was born there\nReece Bibby, member of Stereo Kicks and 2014 finalist of The X Factor (UK TV series). Now a member of the band New Hope Club\nHarrison Birtwistle, composer\nThomas Birtwistle, trade unionist\nMike Duxbury, footballer, was born in the town\nVicky Entwistle, actor, Janice Battersby in the TV Soap ''Coronation Street''\n Paul Evans, a senior officer of the UK House of Commons, Clerk of the Journals (2014- ), born in the town in 1955\nGraeme Fowler, cricketer, former England batsman, cricket coach and occasional pundit on BBC Radio's Test Match Special\nNicholas Freeston (1907-1978), Award-winning Lancashire poet\nAndy Hargreaves, academic\nJulie Hesmondhalgh, actor, Hayley Cropper in the TV Soap ''Coronation Street''\nFrederick Higginbottom, journalist and newspaper editor\nRon Hill, long-distance and marathon runner\nNetherwood Hughes, World War I veteran, died in 2009, aged 108\nDavid Lloyd, cricketer, now a pundit for Sky Sports\nWilliam Macrorie bishop of Maritzburg\nPaul Manning (police officer), undercover police officer and whistleblower\nMystic Meg, astrologer, born in the town as Margaret Anne Lake in 1942\nEdward Ormerod, mining engineer and inventor of the Ormerod safety link for use in coal mines\nAlan Ramsbottom, professional cyclist\nAnthony Rushton, tech entrepreneur\nJonathan Slinger, RADA trained actor\nHollie Steel, ''Britain's Got Talent'' finalist of 2009\nDiana Vickers, singer-songwriter, stage actress and fashion designer\nJohn Virtue, artist\nJohn Rex Whinfield, chemist, inventor of Terylene (polyester), the first completely synthetic fibre invented in UK\nJeanette Winterson, author, ''Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit'' is an account of her childhood in the town\n", "\n\nThe centre of Accrington is located around a pedestrianised street called Broadway with shops on both sides, which connects Blackburn Road to Whalley Road. On one side of Broadway forms part of a shopping centre called the Accrington Arndale, which consists of 52 retail units, and opened in October 1987. There are two retail parks, the main one which consists of four high street chains. The markets, with indoor and outdoor stalls, are on Blackburn Road next to the Town Hall.\n\nThe indoor market was opened in 1869 and the Market Hall is now a listed building; in 2010 it was refurbished and the following year it was named as best indoor market in a National Association of British Market Authorities competition. The outdoor market, with 37 stalls, is next to it and opens most days\n\nThe town centre is home to a number of high street multiples, including: Fulton's Foods, Greggs, Argos, EE, Specsavers, cex, Wilko, Shoe Zone, Superdrug, Costa Coffee, Sports Direct, Cash Generator, GAME, Santander, Poundland, Timpson, Vodafone, Coral, Althams Travel, Ladbrokes, Paddy Power, Carphone Warehouse, Wilko, O2, Halifax, British Heart Foundation, Post Office, Thomas Cook, Thomson, Peacocks, Burton, Holland & Barrett, NatWest, Dorothy Perkins, WHSmith, Nationwide, Iceland, The Original Factory Shop, Boots Opticians, Sense, Card Factory, Subway, Boots, Store Twenty One, Poundworld, Peacocks, B&M Bargains, Wetherspoons, and a mix of other shops.\n\nIn March 2015, Subway announced plans to open a second store in Accrington. In September 2016, Papa John's Pizza announced plans to open within the Accrington Arndale. The store opened later that year.\n\nFast-food restaurants include; McDonald's, Burger King, Subway and KFC. Real Cafe is also set to return to the Streak Food Court, although this looks likely to of fell through. A BT Call Centre is also in town, employing many local people. A Viaduct VUE cinema is located in the town, having opened in October 2002, part of an entertainment complex which also had bowling alley, Accrington Super Bowl, which closed in 2013. Farmfoods and Domino's Pizza announced that they would open stores in the former Accrington Super Bowl. In July 2016, Farmfoods opened, with Domino's Pizza to follow shortly afterwards. There is also an unrented retail unit there.\n\nNear the town centre, there is a small retail park which includes a Home Bargains, Pets at Home, Iceland and Poundstretcher, in a shopping development known as Eastgate Retail Park, which opened in 1998. In June 2015, Iceland announced plans to open on the retail park. It opened in September 2015.\n\nA Tesco Extra is on Eagle Street, which opened in 2010, and a large Asda superstore on Hyndburn Road, which opened in 1985. Asda has been trading in the town since 1970, but from a different store, before moving to its current site. Asda and Tesco are the main supermarkets with discount retailers, such as Aldi and Lidl, which reopened following an rebuild. A Homebase was located in the town, but it closed in February 2015, and was converted into an B&M Homestore. A Halfords Autocentre is located in the town, as are Kwik Fit, ATS Euromaster, and National Tyres. ''Fountain Retail Park'', which opened in 1998, in honour of the aforementioned works, includes a Matalan.\n\nIn Whitebirk, a retail park, the Peel Centre, includes an Currys, PC World, Onit Furniture, Dreams, Smyths Toys Superstore, B&M Bargains, ScS Sofas, Sofaworks, Harveys Furniture & Bensons for Beds. In January 2015, Smyths Toys Superstore announced plans to open in the park, and opened in October 2015. B&M Bargains also has presence in the centre. The Range has an store in Whitebirk, located where B&Q used to be in Blackburn, before it relocated in September 2004 to the Nova Scotia Retail Park, in the Grimshaw Park area. In December 2015, Aldi announced plans to open in the park. In April 2016, the plans were approved, although the application saw opposition.\n\nThe Dunkenhalgh Hotel is owned by Mercure Hotels. In May 2012, Queen Elizabeth II stayed at the hotel, during her visit to Lancashire.\n\nThe Peel Group, the site's owner, have repetitively have had planning permission denied for a controversial expansion of the park, first in May 2005, then June 2007, and most recently August 2014, by the High Court, after an appeal was lodged. They wanted the use of the site to be changed, by adding ASDA Living, Boots, and Next, trying to make a \"copy\" of Preston's Deepdale, as well as relocating other stores. In June 2007, then–Blackburn MP Jack Straw announced that it would be the \"death knell\" for Blackburn, as did then–Hyndburn MP Greg Pope, saying that it would be the \"death knell\" for Accrington.\n\nAs well as motor dealerships from Ford (Peoples), Vauxhall & Chevrolet (Accrington Garages), the town was home to an Arnold Clark (previously Bowker BMWMini) car dealer, which closed down in 2010, and was demolished in January 2015. This was in order to make way for Brickworks, which opens in July 2015. BP, Esso (which includes a Tesco Express), and Texaco operate garages in the town. An out of town business park, Accrington Trade Park, which opened in 2004, includes an Screwfix, Eurocell, James Hargreaves, and Howdens, located nearby ASDA.\n", "* Listed buildings in Accrington\n* Howard & Bullough\n", "\n", "William Turner. ''Pals: the 11th (Service) Battalion (Accrington), East Lancashire Regiment''. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword, 1998. \n", "\n\n Hyndburn Borough Council\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Demography", "Economy", "Regeneration and investment", "Geography", "Transport", "Public services", "Law enforcement", "Social", "Special events", "Sport", "Education", "Landmarks", "Notable residents", " Shops ", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Accrington
[ "\nThe remains of the Tel Megiddo site in northern Israel\nRuins atop Tel Megiddo.\n\n\nAccording to the Book of Revelation in the New Testament of the Bible, '''Armageddon''' (, from ''Harmagedōn'', Late Latin: , from Hebrew: הר מגידו Har Megiddo) is the prophesied location of a gathering of armies for a battle during the end times, variously interpreted as either a literal or a symbolic location. The term is also used in a generic sense to refer to any end of the world scenario.\n\n\"Mount\" Tel Megiddo is not actually a mountain, but a tell (a hill created by many generations of people living and rebuilding on the same spot) on which ancient forts were built to guard the Via Maris, an ancient trade route linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Megiddo was the location of various ancient battles, including one in the 15th century BC and one in 609 BC. Modern Megiddo is a town approximately west-southwest of the southern tip of the Sea of Galilee in the Kishon River area in Israel.\n", "Model of Megiddo fortifications, 1457 BCE.\nThe word ''Armageddon'' appears only once in the Greek New Testament, in . The word is translated to Greek from Hebrew ''har məgiddô'' (), ''har'' (Strong H2022) meaning \"a mountain or range of hills (sometimes used figuratively): - hill (country), mount (-ain), X promotion.\" This is a shortened form of ''Harar'' (Strong H2042) \"to loom up; a mountain; -hill, mount\". ''Megiddo'' (Strong מְגִדּוֹן H4023) /meg-id-do'/ \"Megiddon or Megiddo, a place of crowds.\") The name refers to a fortification made by King Ahab (869-50 BC) that dominated the Plain of Jezreel.\n", "''Saint John the Evangelist on Patmos''. Painting by Hieronymus Bosch (1505).\n\n\nMegiddo is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament, ten times in reference to the ancient city of Megiddo, and twice with reference to \"the plain of Megiddo\", most probably simply meaning \"the plain next to the city\".\nNone of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs. The one New Testament reference to the city of Armageddon found in in fact also makes no specific mention of any armies being predicted to one day gather in this city, but instead seems to predict only that \"they (will gather) the kings together to .... Armageddon\". \nThe text does however seem to imply, based on the text from the earlier passage of Revelation 16:14, that the purpose of this gathering of kings in the \"place called Armageddon\" is \"for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty\". Because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location. Rushdoony says, \"There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo. This is a deliberate destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place.\" \nOther scholars, including C. C. Torrey, Kline and Jordan argue that the word is derived from the Hebrew ''moed'' (), meaning \"assembly\". Thus, \"Armageddon\" would mean \"Mountain of Assembly,\" which Jordan says is \"a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion.\"\n\n=== Orthodoxy ===\nThe traditional viewpoint interprets this Bible prophecy to be symbolic of the progression of the world toward the \"great day of God, the Almighty\" in which the great looming mountain of God's just and holy wrath is poured out against unrepentant sinners, led by Satan, in a literal end-of-the-world final confrontation. Armageddon is the symbolic name given to this event based on scripture references regarding divine obliteration of God's enemies. The hermeneutical method supports this position by referencing Judges 4 and 5 where God miraculously destroys the enemy of His elect, Israel, at Megiddo, also called the Valley of Josaphat.\n\nChristian scholar William Hendriksen says:\n\n\n=== Dispensationalism ===\nThe Dispensational viewpoint interprets biblical prophecy literally and expects that the fulfillment of prophecy will also be literal, depending upon the context of scripture. In his discussion of Armageddon, J. Dwight Pentecost has devoted an entire chapter to the subject, titled \"The Campaign of Armageddon\", in which he discusses Armageddon as a campaign and not a specific battle, which will be fought in the Middle East. Pentecost writes:\n\n\nPentecost then discusses the location of this campaign, and mentions the \"hill of Megiddo\" and other geographic locations such as \"the valley of Jehoshaphat\" and \"the valley of the passengers\", \"Lord coming from Edom or Idumea, south of Jerusalem, when He returns from the judgment\"; and Jerusalem itself.\n\nPentecost further describes the area involved:\n\n\nPentecost then outlines the biblical time period for this campaign to occur and with further arguments concludes that it must take place with the 70th week of Daniel. The invasion of Israel by the Northern Confederacy \"will bring the Beast and his armies to the defense of Israel as her protector\". He then uses Daniel to further clarify his thinking: (Dan. 11:40b-45).\n\nAgain, events are listed by Pentecost in his book:\n# \"The movement of the campaign begins when the King of the South moves against the Beast-False Prophet coalition, which takes place 'at the time of the end.'\"\n# The King of the South gets in battle with the North King and the Northern Confederacy (). Jerusalem is destroyed as a result of this attack, and, in turn, the armies of the Northern Confederacy are destroyed.\n# \"The full armies of the Beast move into Israel (11:41) and shall conquer all that territory (11:41-42). Edom, Moab, and Ammon alone escape. . . .\"\n# \". . . a report that causes alarm is brought to the Beast\"\n# \"The Beast moves his headquarters into the land of Israel and assembles his armies there.\"\n# \"It is there that his destruction will come. (11:45).\"\n\nAfter the destruction of the Beast at the Second Coming of Jesus, the promised Kingdom is set up, in which Jesus and the Saints will rule for a thousand years. Satan is then loosed \"for a season\" and goes out to deceive the nations, specifically, Gog and Magog. The army mentioned attacks the Saints in the New Jerusalem, they are defeated by a judgment of fire coming down from Heaven, and then comes the Great White Throne judgment, which includes all of those through the ages and these are cast into the Lake of Fire, which event is also known as the \"second death\" and Gehenna, not to be confused with Hell, which is Satan's domain. Pentecost describes this as follows:\n\n\n=== Jehovah's Witnesses ===\n\nJehovah's Witnesses believe that Armageddon is the means by which God will fulfill his purpose for the Earth to be populated with happy healthy humans free of sin and death. They teach that the armies of heaven will eradicate all who oppose the Kingdom of God, wiping out all wicked humans on Earth, leaving only righteous mankind.\n\nThey believe that the gathering of all the nations of the earth refers to the uniting of the world's political powers, as a gradual process beginning in 1914 and seen later in manifestations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations following the First and Second World Wars. These political powers are said to be influenced by Satan and his demons in opposition to God's kingdom. Babylon the Great is interpreted as the world empire of false religion, and that it will be destroyed by the beast just prior to Armageddon. Witnesses believe that after all other religions have been destroyed, the governments will turn to persecute them, and that God will then intervene, precipitating Armageddon.\n \nJehovah's Witnesses teach that the armies of heaven, led by Jesus, will then destroy all forms of human government and then Jesus, along with a selected 144,000 humans, will rule Earth for 1,000 years. They believe that Satan and his demons will be bound for that period, unable to influence mankind. After the 1,000 years are ended, and the second resurrection has taken place, Satan is released and allowed to tempt the perfect human race one last time. Those who follow Satan are destroyed, along with him, leaving the earth, and humankind at peace with God forever, free of sin and death.\n\nThe religion's current teaching on Armageddon originated in 1925 with former Watch Tower Society president J. F. Rutherford, who based his interpretations on the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Psalms as well as additional material from the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles. The doctrine marked a further break from the teachings of Watch Tower Society founder Charles Taze Russell, who for decades had taught that the final war would be an anarchistic struggle for domination on earth. Tony Wills, author of a historical study of Jehovah's Witnesses, claimed that Rutherford seemed to relish his descriptions of how completely the wicked would be destroyed at Armageddon, dwelling at great length on prophecies of destruction. He stated that towards the close of his ministry Rutherford allocated about half the space available in ''The Watchtower'' magazines to discussion of Armageddon.\n\n=== Seventh-day Adventist ===\n\nSeventh-day Adventist understanding of Revelation 13-22\nThe teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist Church state that the terms \"Armageddon\", \"Day of the Lord\" and \"The Second Coming of Christ\" all describe the same event. Seventh-day Adventists further teach that the current religious movements taking place in the world are setting the stage for Armageddon, and they are concerned by an anticipated unity between spiritualism, American Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. A further significant difference in Seventh-day Adventist theology is the teaching that the events of Armageddon will leave the earth desolate for the duration of the millennium. They teach that the righteous will be taken to heaven while the rest of humanity will be destroyed, leaving Satan with no one to tempt and effectively \"bound.\" The final re-creation of a \"new heaven and a new earth.\" then follows the millennium.\n\n=== Christadelphians ===\nFor Christadelphians, Armageddon marks the \"great climax of history when the nations would be gathered together 'into a place called in the Hebrew tongue Armageddon', and the judgment on them would herald the setting up of the Kingdom of God.\" \n", "In Ahmadiyya, Armageddon is viewed as a spiritual battle or struggle in the present age between the forces of good, i.e. righteousness, purity and virtue, and the forces of evil. The final struggle between the two comes as satanic influence is let loose with the emergence of Gog and Magog. Satan gathers all his powers, and uses all his methods to mislead people, introducing an age where iniquity, promiscuity, atheism, and materialism abound.\n\nAhmadiyya believe that God appointed Promised Messiah and Mahdi for the spiritual reformation and moral direction of mankind. This age continues for approximately one thousand years as per Judeo-Christian and Islamic prophecies of the Apocalypse; it is characterised by the assembling of mankind under one faith, Islam in Ahmadiyya belief.\n", "\nFrom Bahá'í literature a number of interpretations of the expectations surrounding the Battle of Armageddon may be inferred, three of them being associated with events surrounding the World Wars.\n\nThe first interpretation deals with a series of tablets written by Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Bahá'í Faith, to be sent to various kings and rulers. The second, and best-known one, relates to events near the end of World War I involving General Allenby and the Battle of Megiddo (1918) wherein World Powers are said to have drawn soldiers from many parts of the world to engage in battle at Megiddo. In winning this battle Allenby also prevented the Turks from killing 'Abdu'l-Baha, then head of the Baha'i Faith, whom they had intended to crucify. A third interpretation reviews the overall progress of the World Wars, and the situation in the world before and after.\n", "The idea that a final Battle of Armageddon will be fought at Tel Megiddo has had a wide influence, especially in the US. According to Donald E. Wagner, Professor of Religion and Director of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at North Park University, Ronald Reagan was an adherent of \"Armageddon theology,\" and \"seemed to blend his political analysis with his Armageddon theology quite naturally.\"\n\nAn American militia group called Hutaree, based on the idea that it will soon defend itself from the Antichrist's armies, received wide attention in 2010, when several members were indicted for plotting to kill a police officer and plant roadside bombs along the funeral procession. The charges were dismissed.\n", "\n\n* 1 Maccabees\n* Amik Valley\n* Antiochus Epiphanes\n* Apocalyptic literature\n* ''Armageddon'' (novel)\n* Dagor Dagorath\n* Futurist view of the Book of Revelation\n* Historicist views of Revelation\n* ''Megiddo: The Omega Code 2''\n* Millenarianism\n* Millennialism\n* Preterist interpretation of the Book of Revelation\n* Ragnarök\n* Siege of Jerusalem (70)\n* ''Waiting for Armageddon''\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", " Christianity ", " Ahmadiyya ", " Bahá'í Faith ", " Influence ", " See also ", " References " ]	Armageddon
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Athlon''' is the brand name applied to a series of x86-compatible microprocessors designed and manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). The original Athlon (now called ''Athlon Classic'') was the first seventh-generation x86 processor. The original Athlon was the first desktop processor to reach speeds of one gigahertz (GHz). AMD has continued using the ''Athlon'' name with the Athlon 64, an eighth-generation processor featuring x86-64 (later renamed AMD64) architecture, and the Athlon II. AMD also uses the ''Athlon'' name for some of its series of APUs targeting the Socket AM1 desktop SoC architecture.\n\nThe Athlon made its debut on June 23, 1999. Athlon comes from the Ancient Greek (''athlon'') meaning ″(sport) contest″, or \"prize of a contest\", or \"place of a contest; arena\".\n", "AMD founder (and then-CEO) Jerry Sanders aggressively pursued strategic partnerships and engineering talent in the late 1990s, desiring to leverage the success AMD had gained in the PC market with the preceding AMD K6 line of processors. One major partnership announced in 1998 paired AMD with semiconductor giant Motorola to co-develop copper-based semiconductor technology, and resulted with the K7 project being the first commercial processor to utilize copper fabrication technology. In the announcement, Sanders referred to the partnership as creating a \"virtual gorilla\" that would enable AMD to compete with Intel on fabrication capacity while limiting AMD's financial outlay for new facilities.\n\nThe K7 design team was led by Dirk Meyer, who had worked as a lead engineer at DEC on multiple Alpha microprocessors during his employment at DEC. When DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998, the company discontinued Alpha processor development. Sanders approached many of the Alpha engineering staff as Compaq/DEC wound down their semiconductor business, and was able to bring in nearly all of the Alpha design team. The K7 engineering design team was thus now consisted of both the previously acquired NexGen K6 team (already including engineers such as Vinod Dham) and the nearly complete Alpha design team.\n\nIn August 1999, AMD released the Athlon (K7) processor.\n\nBy working with Motorola, AMD was able to refine copper interconnect manufacturing to the production stage about one year before Intel. The revised process permitted 180-nanometer processor production. The accompanying die-shrink resulted in lower power consumption, permitting AMD to increase Athlon clock speeds to the 1 GHz range. Yields on the new process exceeded expectations, permitting AMD to deliver high speed chips in volume in March 2000.\n\nThe Athlon architecture also used the EV6 bus licensed from DEC as its main system bus. Intel required licensing to use the GTL+ bus used by its Slot 1 Pentium II and later processors. By licensing the EV6 bus used by the Alpha line of processors from DEC, AMD was able to develop its own chipsets and motherboards, and avoid being dependent on licensing from its direct competitor.\n", "Athlon architecture\n\nInternally, the Athlon is a fully seventh generation x86 processor, the first of its kind. Like the AMD K5 and K6, the Athlon dynamically buffers internal micro-instructions at runtime resulting from parallel x86 instruction decoding. The CPU is an out-of-order design, again like previous post-5x86 AMD CPUs. The Athlon utilizes the Alpha 21264's EV6 bus architecture with double data rate (DDR) technology. This means that at 100 MHz, the Athlon front side bus actually transfers at a rate similar to a 200 MHz single data rate bus (referred to as 200 MT/s), which was superior to the method used on Intel's Pentium III (with SDR bus speeds of 100 MHz and 133 MHz).\n\nAMD designed the CPU with more robust x86 instruction decoding capabilities than that of K6, to enhance its ability to keep more data in-flight at once. The Athlon's three decoders could potentially decode three x86 instructions to six microinstructions per clock, although this was somewhat unlikely in real-world use. The critical branch predictor unit, essential to keeping the pipeline busy, was enhanced compared to what was on board the K6. Deeper pipelining with more stages allowed higher clock speeds to be attained. Whereas the AMD K6-III+ topped out at 570 MHz due to its short pipeline, even when built on the 180 nm process, the Athlon was capable of clocking much higher.\n\nAMD ended its long-time handicap with floating point x87 performance by designing a super-pipelined, out-of-order, triple-issue floating point unit. Each of its three units was tailored to be able to calculate an optimal type of instructions with some redundancy. By having separate units, it was possible to operate on more than one floating point instruction at once. This FPU was a huge step forward for AMD. While the K6 FPU had looked anemic compared to the Intel P6 FPU, with Athlon this was no longer the case.\n\nThe 3DNow! floating point SIMD technology, again present, received some revisions and a name change to \"Enhanced 3DNow!\". Additions included DSP instructions and an implementation of the extended MMX subset of Intel SSE.\n\nThe Athlon's CPU cache consisted of the typical two levels. Athlon was the first x86 processor with a 128 kB split level 1 cache; a 2-way associative cache separated into 2×64 kB for data and instructions (a concept from Harvard architecture). This cache was double the size of K6's already large 2×32 kB cache, and quadruple the size of Pentium II and III's 2×16 kB L1 cache. The initial Athlon (Slot A, later called Athlon Classic) used 512 kB of level 2 cache separate from the CPU, on the processor cartridge board, running at 50% to 33% of core speed. This was done because the 250 nm manufacturing process was too large to allow for on-die cache while maintaining cost-effective die size. Later Athlon CPUs, afforded greater transistor budgets by smaller 180 nm and 130 nm process nodes, moved to on-die L2 cache at full CPU clock speed.\n\n===Athlon \"Classic\"===\nAthlon Slot A cartridge. Note heat sink and cooling fan assembly on rear side.\nLogo on Slot A Athlon cartridge.\nAn open Slot A cartridge. MPU die is in the center.\n\nThe AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August '99. It launched at 500 MHz and was, on average, 10% faster than the Pentium III at the same clock for Business applications, and even faster (~20%) for gaming workloads.\n\nThe Athlon Classic is a cartridge-based processor, named Slot A and similar to Intel's cartridge Slot 1 used for Pentium II and Pentium III. It used the same, commonly available, physical 242 pin connector used by Intel Slot 1 processors but rotated by 180 degrees to connect the processor to the motherboard. The reversal served to make the slot keyed to prevent installation of the wrong CPU, as the Athlon and Intel processors used fundamentally different (and incompatible) signaling standards for their front-side bus. The cartridge assembly allowed the use of higher speed cache memory modules than could be put on (or reasonably bundled with) motherboards at the time. Similar to the Pentium II and the Katmai-based Pentium III, the Athlon Classic contained 512 kB of L2 cache. This high-speed SRAM cache was run at a divisor of the processor clock and was accessed via its own 64-bit bus, known as a \"back-side bus\" allowing the processor to both service system front side bus requests (the rest of the system) and cache accesses simultaneously versus the traditional approach of pushing ''everything'' through the front-side bus.\n\nOne limitation (also afflicting the Intel Pentium III) is that SRAM cache designs at the time were incapable of keeping up with the Athlon's clock scalability, due both to manufacturing limitations of the cache chips and the difficulty of routing electrical connections to the cache chips themselves. It became increasingly difficult to reliably run an external processor cache to match the processor speeds being released—and in fact it became impossible. Thus initially the Level 2 cache ran at half of the CPU clock speed up to 700 MHz (350 MHz cache). Faster Slot-A processors had to compromise further and run at 2/5 (up to 850 MHz, 340 MHz cache) or 1/3 (up to 1 GHz, 333 MHz cache). This later race to 1 GHz (1000 MHz) by AMD and Intel further exacerbated this bottleneck as ever higher speed processors demonstrated decreasing gains in overall performance—stagnant SRAM cache memory speeds choked further improvements in overall speed. This directly lead to the development of integrating L2 cache onto the processor itself and remove the dependence on external cache chips. AMD's integration of the cache onto the Athlon processor itself would later result in the Athlon Thunderbird.\n\nThe Slot-A Athlons were the first multiplier-locked CPUs from AMD. This was partly done to hinder CPU remarking being done by questionable resellers around the globe. AMD's older CPUs could simply be set to run at whatever clock speed the user chose on the motherboard, making it trivial to relabel a CPU and sell it as a faster grade than it was originally intended. These relabeled CPUs were not always stable, being overclocked and not tested properly, and this was damaging to AMD's reputation. Although the Athlon was multiplier locked, crafty enthusiasts eventually discovered that a connector on the PCB of the cartridge could control the multiplier. Eventually a product called the \"Goldfingers device\" was created by inventors Ryan Petersen and Micheal Franz Schuete that could unlock the CPU, named after the gold connector pads on the processor board that it attached to.\n\nIn commercial terms, the Athlon \"Classic\" was an enormous success—not just because of its own merits, but also because Intel endured a series of major production, design, and quality control issues at this time. In particular, Intel's transition to the 180 nm production process, starting in late 1999 and running through to mid-2000, suffered delays. There was a shortage of Pentium III parts. In contrast, AMD enjoyed a remarkably smooth process transition and had ample supplies available, causing Athlon sales to become quite strong.\n\nThe Argon-based Athlon contained 22 million transistors and measured 184 mm2. It was fabricated by AMD in a slightly modified version of their CS44E process, a 0.25 µm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process with six levels of aluminium interconnect. \"Pluto\" and \"Orion\" Athlons were fabricated in a 0.18 µm process.\n\n;Specifications\n* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 kB (Data + Instructions)\n* L2-Cache: 512 kB, external chips on CPU module with 50%, 40% or 33% of CPU speed\n* MMX, 3DNow!\n* Slot A (EV6)\n* Front-side bus: 200 MT/s (100 MHz double-pumped)\n* VCore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6–1.8 V (K75)\n* First release: June 23, 1999 (K7), November 29, 1999 (K75)\n* Clockrate: 500–700 MHz (K7), 550–1000 MHz (K75)\n\n===Thunderbird (T-Bird)===\nAthlon \"Thunderbird\"\nOpen Athlon Thunderbird slot A cartridge\nAMD Athlon\n\nThe second generation Athlon, the ''Thunderbird'', debuted on June 5, 2000. This version of the Athlon shipped in a more traditional pin-grid array (PGA) format that plugged into a socket (\"Socket A\") on the motherboard (it also shipped in the slot A package). It was sold at speeds ranging from 600 MHz to 1.4 GHz (Athlon Classics using the Slot A package could clock up to 1 GHz). The major difference, however, was cache design. Just as Intel had done when they replaced the old Katmai-based Pentium III with the much faster Coppermine-based Pentium III, AMD replaced the 512 kB external reduced-speed cache of the Athlon Classic with 256 kB of on-chip, full-speed exclusive cache. As a general rule, more cache improves performance, but faster cache improves it further still.\n\nAMD changed cache design significantly with the Thunderbird core. With the older Athlon CPUs, the CPU caching was of an inclusive design where data from the L1 is duplicated in the L2 cache. Thunderbird moved to an exclusive design where the L1 cache's contents are not duplicated in the L2. This increases total cache size of the processor and effectively makes caching behave as if there is a very large L1 cache with a slower region (the L2) and a very fast region (the L1). Because of Athlon's very large L1 cache and the exclusive design, which turns the L2 cache into basically a \"victim cache\", the need for high L2 performance and size was lessened. AMD kept the 64-bit L2 cache data bus from the older Athlons, as a result, and allowed it to have a relatively high latency. A simpler L2 cache reduced the possibility of the L2 cache causing clock scaling and yield issues. Still, instead of the 2-way associative scheme used in older Athlons, Thunderbird did move to a more efficient 16-way associative layout.\n\nThe Thunderbird was AMD's most successful product since the Am386DX-40 ten years earlier. Mainboard designs had improved considerably by this time, and the initial trickle of Athlon mainboard makers had swollen to include every major manufacturer. AMD's new fab in Dresden came online, allowing further production increases, and the process technology was improved by a switch to copper interconnects. In October 2000, the Athlon \"C\" was introduced, raising the mainboard front-side bus speed from 100 MHz to 133 MHz (266 MT/s) and providing roughly 10% extra performance per clock over the \"B\" model Thunderbird.\n\n;Specifications\n* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 kB (Data + Instructions)\n* L2-Cache: 256 kB, fullspeed\n* MMX, 3DNow!\n* Slot A & Socket A (EV6)\n* Front-side bus: 100 MHz (Slot-A, B-models), 133 MHz (C-models) (200 MT/s, 266 MT/s)\n* VCore: 1.70–1.75 V\n* First release: June 5, 2000\n* Transistor count: 37 million\n* Manufacturing Process: 0.18 µm/180 nm\n* Clockrate:\n Slot A: 650–1000 MHz\n Socket A, 100 MHz FSB (B-models): 600–1400 MHz\n** Socket A, 133 MHz FSB (C-models): 1000–1400 MHz\n", "Athlon XP logo\n\n===Palomino=== \nAthlon XP \"Palomino\" 2000+\n\nAMD released the third-generation Athlon, code-named \"Palomino\", on October 9, 2001 as the ''Athlon XP''. The \"XP\" suffix is interpreted to mean ''extended performance'' and also as an unofficial reference to Microsoft Windows XP. The ''Athlon XP'' was marketed using a PR system, which compared its relative performance to an Athlon utilizing the earlier \"Thunderbird\" core. ''Athlon XP'' launched at speeds between 1.33 GHz (PR1500+) and 1.53 GHz (PR1800+), giving AMD the x86 performance lead with the 1800+ model. Less than a month later, it enhanced that lead with the release of the 1600 MHz 1900+, and subsequent 1.67 GHz Athlon XP 2000+ in January 2002.\n\nPalomino was the first K7 core to include the full SSE instruction set from the Intel Pentium III, as well as AMD's 3DNow! Professional. It is roughly 10% faster than Thunderbird at the same clock speed, thanks in part to the new SIMD functionality and to several additional improvements. The core has enhancements to the K7's TLB architecture and added a hardware data prefetch mechanism to take better advantage of available memory bandwidth. Palomino was also the first socketed Athlon officially supporting dual processing, with chips certified for that purpose branded as the '''Athlon MP'''. According to articles posted on HardwareZone, it was possible to mod the Athlon XP to function as an MP by connecting some fuses on the OPGA, although results varied with the motherboard used.\n\nChanges in core layout also resulted in Palomino being more frugal with its electrical demands, consuming approximately 20% less power than its predecessor, and thus reducing heat output comparatively as well. While the preceding Athlon \"Thunderbird\" was capable of clock speeds exceeding 1400 MHz, the power and thermal considerations required to reach those speeds would have made it increasingly impractical as a marketable product. Thus, Palomino's goals of lowered power consumption (and resultant heat produced) allowed AMD to increase performance within a reasonable power envelope. Palomino's design also allowed AMD to continue using the same 180 nm manufacturing process node and core voltages as Thunderbird.\n\nInterestingly, the Palomino core actually debuted earlier in the mobile market—branded as '''Mobile Athlon 4''' with the codename \"Corvette\". It distinctively used a ceramic interposer much like the Thunderbird instead of the organic pin grid array package used on all later Palomino processors.\n\n;Specifications\n* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 kB (Data + Instructions)\n* L2-Cache: 256 kB, fullspeed\n* MMX, 3DNow!, SSE\n* Socket A (EV6)\n* Front-side bus: 133 MHz (266 MT/s)\n* VCore: 1.50 to 1.75 V\n* Power consumption: 68 W\n* First release: October 9, 2001\n* Clockrate:\n Athlon 4: 850–1400 MHz\n Athlon XP: 1333–1733 MHz (1500+ to 2100+)\n** Athlon MP: 1000–1733 MHz\n\n===Thoroughbred (T-Bred)===\nAthlon XP \"Thoroughbred B\" 2400+\n\nThe fourth-generation Athlon ''Thoroughbred'' was released on June 10, 2002 at 1.8 GHz (Athlon XP PR2200+). The \"Thoroughbred\" core marked AMD's first production 130 nm silicon, resulting in a significant reduction in die size compared to its 180 nm predecessor.\n\nThere came to be two steppings (revisions) of this core commonly referred to as Tbred-A (cpuid:6 8 0) and Tbred-B (cpuid:6 8 1). The initial version (later known as A) was simply a direct die shrink of the Palomino, and demonstrated that AMD had successfully transitioned to a 130 nm process. While successful in reducing the production cost per processor, the unmodified Palomino design did not demonstrate the expected reduction in heat and clock scalability usually seen when a design is shrunk to a smaller process. As a result, AMD was not able to increase Thoroughbred-A clock speeds much above those of the Palomino it was to replace. Tbred-A was only sold in versions from 1333 MHz to 1800 MHz, and was only able to displace the more production-costly Palomino from AMD's lineup.\n\nAMD thus reworked the Thoroughbred's design to better match the process node on which it was produced, in turn creating the Thoroughbred-B. A significant aspect of this redesign was the addition of another ninth \"metal layer\" to the already quite complex eight-layered Thoroughbred-A. For comparison, the competing Pentium 4 Northwood only utilized six, and its successor Prescott seven layers. While the addition of more layers itself does not improve performance, it gives more flexibility for chip designers routing electrical pathways within a chip, and importantly for the Thoroughbred core, more flexibility in working around electrical bottlenecks that prevented the processor from attaining higher clock speeds. The Tbred-B offered a startling improvement in headroom over the Tbred-A, which made it very popular for overclocking. The Tbred-A often struggled to reach clock speeds above 1.9 GHz, while the Tbred-B often could easily reach 2.3 GHz and above.\n\nThe Thoroughbred line received an increased front side bus clock during its lifetime, from 133 MHz (266 MT/s) to 166 MHz (333 MT/s) improving the processor's ability to access memory and I/O efficiency, and resulted in improved per-clock performance. AMD shifted their PR rating scheme accordingly, making lower clock speeds equate to higher PR ratings.\n\nThe Thoroughbred-B was the ''direct'' basis for its successor—the Tbred-B with an ''additional'' 256 kB of L2 cache (for 512 kB total) became the Barton core.\n\n;Specifications\n* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 kB (Data + Instructions)\n* L2-Cache: 256 kB, fullspeed\n* MMX, 3DNow!, SSE\n* Socket A (EV6)\n* Front-side bus: 133/166 MHz (266/333 MT/s)\n* VCore: 1.50–1.65 V\n* First release: June 10, 2002 (A), August 21, 2002 (B)\n* Clockrate:\n Thoroughbred \"A\": 1400–1800 MHz (1600+ to 2200+)\n Thoroughbred \"B\": 1400–2250 MHz (1600+ to 2800+)\n 133 MHz FSB: 1400–2133 MHz (1600+ to 2600+)\n 166 MHz FSB: 2083–2250 MHz (2600+ to 2800+)\n\n===Barton and Thorton===\nAthlon XP \"Barton\" 2500+\n\nFifth-generation Athlon ''Barton''-core processors released in early 2003 with PR of 2500+, 2600+, 2800+, 3000+, and 3200+. While not operating at higher clock rates than ''Thoroughbred''-core processors, they were marked with higher PR by featuring an increased 512 kB L2 cache; later models additionally supported an increased 200 MHz (400 MT/s) front side bus. The ''Thorton'' core was a later variant of the ''Barton'' with half of the L2 cache disabled, and thus was functionally identical to the ''Thoroughbred-B'' core. The name ''Thorton'' is a portmanteau of ''Thoroughbred'' and ''Barton''.\n\nBy the time of Barton's release, the ''Northwood''-based Pentium 4 had become more than competitive with AMD's processors. Unfortunately for AMD, a simple increase in size of the L2 cache to 512 kB did not have nearly the same impact as it did for Intel's Pentium 4 line, as the Athlon architecture was not nearly as cache-constrained as the Pentium 4. The Athlon's exclusive-cache architecture and shorter pipeline made it less sensitive to L2 cache size, and the Barton only saw an increase of several percent gained in per-clock performance over the Thoroughbred-B it was derived from. While the increased performance was welcome, it was not sufficient to overtake the Pentium 4 line in overall performance. The PR also became somewhat inaccurate because some Barton models with lower clock rates were being given higher PR than higher-clocked Thoroughbred processors. Instances where a computational task did not benefit more from the additional cache to make up for the loss in raw clock speed created situations where a lower rated (but faster clocked) Thoroughbred would outperform a higher-rated (but lower clocked) Barton.\n\nThe Barton was also used to officially introduce a higher 400 MT/s bus clock for the Socket A platform, which was used to gain some Barton models more efficiency (and increased PR). However, it was clear by this time that Intel's quad-pumped bus was scaling well above AMD's double-pumped EV6 bus. The 800 MT/s bus used by many later Pentium 4 processors was well out of the Athlon XP's reach. In order to reach the same bandwidth levels, the Athlon XP's bus would have to be clocked at levels simply unreachable.\n\nBy this point, the four-year-old Athlon EV6 bus architecture had scaled to its limit. To maintain or exceed the performance of Intel's newer processors would require a significant redesign. The K7 derived Athlons were replaced in March 2003 by the Athlon 64 family, which featured an on-chip memory controller and a completely new HyperTransport bus to replace EV6.\n\n;Specifications:\n''Barton (130 nm)''\n* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 kB (Data + Instructions)\n* L2-Cache: 512 kB, fullspeed\n* MMX, 3DNow!, SSE\n* Socket A (EV6)\n* Front-side bus: 166/200 MHz (333/400 MT/s)\n* VCore: 1.65 V\n* First release: February 10, 2003\n* Clockrate: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)\n 166 MHz FSB: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)\n 200 MHz FSB: 2100, 2200 MHz (3000+, 3200+)\n\n''Thorton (130 nm)''\n* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 kB (Data + Instructions)\n* L2-Cache: 256 kB, fullspeed\n* MMX, 3DNow!, SSE\n* Socket A (EV6)\n* Front-side bus: 133/166/200 MHz (266/333/400 MT/s)\n* VCore: 1.50–1.65 V\n* First release: September 2003\n* Clockrate: 1667–2200 MHz (2000+ to 3100+)\n 133 MHz FSB: 1600–2133 MHz (2000+ to 2600+)\n 166 MHz FSB: 2083 MHz (2600+)\n** 200 MHz FSB: 2200 MHz (3100+)\n\n===Mobile Athlon XP=== \n\nAthlon XP Mobile \"Barton\" 2400+\n\nA Mobile Athlon XPs (''Athlon XP-M'') using a given core is physically identical to the equivalent desktop Athlon XPs counterpart, only differing by the configuration used to achieve a given performance level. Processors are usually binned and selected to become a mobile processor by their ability run a given processor speed while supplied with a lower (than desktop) voltage. This results in lower power consumption, longer battery life, and reduced heat over using a normal desktop part. Additionally Mobile XPs feature not being multiplier-locked and generally higher-rated maximum operating temperatures, requirements intended for better operation within the tight thermal constraints within a notebook PC—but also making them attractive for overclocking.\n\nThe Athlon XP-M replaced the older Mobile Athlon 4 based on the ''Palomino'' core, with the Athlon XP-M using the newer ''Thoroughbred'' and ''Barton'' cores. The Athlon XP-M was also offered in a compact microPGA socket 563 version for space constrained applications as an alternative to the larger Socket A.\n\nLike their mobile K6-2+/III+ predecessors, the CPUs were capable of dynamic clock adjustment for power optimization, and also was the reason for the unlocked multiplier. When the system is idle, the CPU clocks itself down via lower bus multiplier and selects a lower voltage. When a program demands more computational resources, the CPU quickly (there is some latency) returns to an intermediate or maximum speed with appropriate voltage to meet the demand. This technology was marketed as \"PowerNow!\" and was similar to Intel's SpeedStep power saving technique. The feature was controlled by the CPU, motherboard BIOS, and operating system. AMD later renamed the technology to Cool'n'Quiet on their K8-based CPUs (Athlon 64, etc.), and introduced it for use on desktop PCs as well.\n\nAthlon XP-Ms were popular with desktop overclockers, as well as underclockers. The lower voltage requirement and higher heat rating selected CPUs that were essentially \"cherry picked\" from the manufacturing line. Being some of the best cores \"off the line\", these CPUs typically overclocked more reliably than their desktop-headed counterparts. Also, the fact that they were not locked to a single multiplier was a significant simplification in the overclocking process. Some ''Barton'' core Athlon XP-Ms have been successfully overclocked as high as 3.1 GHz.\n\nThe chips were also liked for their undervolting ability. Undervolting is a process of determining the lowest voltage at which a CPU can remain stable at a given clock speed. As Athlon XP-M CPUs were already rated running lower voltages than their desktop siblings, it was a better starting point for lowering voltage even further. A popular application was use in home theater PC systems due to high performance and low heat output resultant from low Vcore settings.\n\nBesides not being multiplier locked, XP-Ms curiously were not disabled from multi processor operation. Thus they could be used in place of the more expensive Athlon MP in dual socket A motherboards. Since those boards generally lacked multiplier and voltage adjustment, and normally only supported 133 MHz FSB, adjustments would still be needed for full speed operation. One method of modification known as wire-modding involves connecting the appropriate CPU pins on the CPU socket with small lengths of wire to select the appropriate multiplier. A typical overclock of a mobile 2500+ CPU to 2.26 GHz with 17x multiplier would result in being faster than highest official 2800+ MP CPU running at 2.13 GHz.\n", "* Intel Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Celeron\n* VIA C3 and C7\n* Transmeta Efficeon\n", "The fastest supercomputers based on AthlonMP:\n* Rutgers University, Department of Physics & Astronomy. Machine: NOW Cluster—AMD Athlon. CPU: 512 AthlonMP (1.65 GHz). Rmax: 794 GFLOPS.\n", "* List of AMD microprocessors\n* List of AMD Athlon microprocessors\n* List of AMD Duron microprocessors\n* List of AMD Athlon XP microprocessors\n* List of AMD Athlon 64 microprocessors\n* List of AMD Athlon X2 microprocessors\n* List of AMD Phenom microprocessors\n* List of AMD Opteron microprocessors\n* List of AMD Sempron microprocessors\n* List of Intel microprocessors\n", "\n\n", "\n* cpu-collection.de AMD Athlon processor images and descriptions\n* amdboard.com AMD Athlon/Duron/Sempron CPU identification and OPN breakdown\n* AMD's Technical Specifications for 7th generation CPUs (.pdf)\n* Easy identification with Interactive AMD product ID\n* Xbit Labs EV6 vs GTL+ System Bus\n* motherboards.org Unlocking the Duron and Athlon Using the Pencil Trick\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Background", "General architecture", "Athlon XP/MP", "Athlon competitors", "Supercomputers", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Athlon
[ "\nAccording to the Hebrew Bible, '''Amnon''' (, \"faithful\") was the oldest son of David and his wife, Ahinoam, who is described as \"the Jezreelitess\". He was born in Hebron when David was king of Judah.\n\nAmnon and Tamar, painted by Jan Steen", "Although he was the heir-apparent to David's throne, Amnon is best remembered for the rape of his half-sister Tamar, daughter of David and Maachah. Despite the biblical prohibition on sexual relations between half-brothers and sisters, Amnon had an overwhelming desire for her. He acted on advice from his cousin, Jonadab the son of Shimeah, David's brother, to lure Tamar into his quarters by pretending to be sick and desiring her to cook a special meal for him. While in his quarters, and ignoring her protests, he raped her, then had her expelled from his house. King David was angry about the incident, but could not bring himself to punish his eldest son, while Absalom, Amnon's half-brother and Tamar's full brother, nursed a bitter grudge against Amnon for the rape of his sister.\n\n''The Banquet of Absalom'', attributed to Niccolò De Simone.\nTwo years later, to avenge Tamar, Absalom invited all of David's sons to a feast at sheep-shearing time, then had his servants kill Amnon after he had become drunk with wine. As a result, Absalom fled to Geshur.\n\n records that in time David came to terms with the death of Amnon, his first-born. Methodist founder John Wesley is critical of David: \"He can almost find in his heart to receive into favour the murderer of his brother. How can we excuse David from the sin of Eli, who honoured his sons more than God?\"\n", "* The Spanish poet Federico García Lorca wrote a poem about Amnon's rape of his sister Tamar, included in Lorca's 1928 poetry collection ''Romancero Gitano'' (translated as ''Gypsy Ballads''). Lorca's version is considerably different from the Biblical original - Amnon is depicted as being overcome by a sudden uncontrollable passion, with none of the cynical planning and premeditation of the original story. He assaults and rapes Tamar and then flees into the night on his horse, with archers shooting at him from the walls - whereupon King David cuts the strings of his harp.\n''The Rape of Tamar'', novel by Dan Jacobson ()\n The Death of Amnon poem by Elizabeth Hands\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Rape of Tamar", "Literary references", "References" ]	Amnon
[ "\n\nThe '''Amu Darya''', also called the '''Amu''' or '''Amo River''', and historically known by its Latin name '''''', is a major river in Central Asia. It is formed by the junction of the Vakhsh and Panj rivers, in the Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve on the border between Tajikistan and Afghanistan, and flows from there north-westwards into the southern remnants of the Aral Sea. In ancient times, the river was regarded as the boundary between Greater Iran and Turan.\n", "Amu Darya delta from space\nThe Amu Darya (, ''''; /; //; , ''Amudaryo''; , ''; , ''Ôxos'', اوكسوس''), also called the Amu River, is a major river in Central Asia.\n\nIn classical antiquity, the river was known as the ''Ōxus'' in Latin and Ὦξος ''Ôxos'' in Greek—a clear derivative of Vakhsh, the name of the largest tributary of the river. In Vedic Sanskrit, the river is also referred to as Vakṣu (वक्षु). The Avestan texts too refer to the River as Yakhsha/Vakhsha (and Yakhsha Arta (\"upper Yakhsha\") referring to the Jaxartes/Syr Darya twin river to Amu Darya).\n\nIn Middle Persian sources of the Sassanid period the river is known as ''Wehrōd'' (lit. \"good river\").\n\nThe name ''Amu'' is said to have come from the medieval city of ''Āmul'', (later, Chahar Joy/Charjunow, and now known as Türkmenabat), in modern Turkmenistan, with ''Darya'' being the Persian word for \"river\".\n\nMedieval Arabic and Muslim sources call the river ''Jayhoun'' (جيحون ''Jayḥūn''; also ''Jaihun'', ''Jayhoon'', or ''Dzhaykhun'') which is derived from ''Gihon'', the biblical name for one of the four rivers of the Garden of Eden.\n\n===As the river Gozan===\nWestern travelers in the 19th century mention that one of the names by which the river was known in Afghanistan was Gozan, and that this name was used by Greek, Mongol, Chinese, Persian, Jewish, and Afghan historians. However, this name is no longer used.\n\n:''\"Hara (Bokhara) and to the river of Gozan (that is to say, the Amu, (called by Europeans the Oxus)....\"''.\n\n:''\"the Gozan River is the River Balkh, i.e. the Oxus or the Amu Darya.....\"''.\n\n:''\"... and were brought into Halah (modern day Balkh), and Habor (which is Pesh Habor or Peshawar), and Hara (which is Herat), and to the river Gozan (which is the Ammoo, also called Jehoon)...\"''.\n", "Map of area around the Aral Sea. Aral Sea boundaries are c. 2008. The Amu Darya drainage basin is in orange, and the Syr Darya basin in yellow.\n\nThe river's total length is and its drainage basin totals in area, providing a mean discharge of around of water per year. The river is navigable for over . All of the water comes from the high mountains in the south where annual precipitation can be over . Even before large-scale irrigation began, high summer evaporation meant that not all of this discharge reached the Aral Sea – though there is some evidence the large Pamir glaciers provided enough melt water for the Aral to overflow during the 13th and 14th centuries.\n\nSince the end of the 19th century there have been four different claimants as the true source of the Oxus:\n# The Pamir River, which emerges from Lake Zorkul (once also known as Lake Victoria) in the Pamir Mountains (ancient Mount Imeon), and flows west to Qila-e Panja, where it joins the Wakhan River to form the Panj River.\n# The Sarhad or Little Pamir River flowing down the Little Pamir in the High Wakhan\n# Lake Chamaktin, which discharges to the east into the Aksu River, which in turn becomes the Murghab and then Bartang rivers, and which eventually joins the Panj Oxus branch 350 kilometres downstream at Roshan Vomar in Tajikistan.\n# An ice cave at the end of the Wakhjir valley, in the Wakhan Corridor, in the Pamir Mountains, near the border with Pakistan.\nAfghanistan-Tajikistan bridge over the Amu Darya.\nA glacier turns into the Wakhan River and joins the Pamir River about downstream.\nBill Colegrave's expedition to Wakhan in 2007 found that both claimants 2 and 3 had the same source, the Chelab stream, which bifurcates on the watershed of the Little Pamir, half flowing into Lake Chamaktin and half into the parent stream of the Little Pamir/Sarhad River. Therefore, the Chelab stream may be properly considered the true source or parent stream of the Oxus.\nThe Panj River forms the border of Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It flows west to Ishkashim where it turns north and then north-west through the Pamirs passing the Tajikistan–Afghanistan Friendship Bridge. It subsequently forms the border of Afghanistan and Uzbekistan for about , passing Termez and the Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge. It delineates the border of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan for another before it flows into Turkmenistan at Atamurat. As the ''Amudarya'', it flows across Turkmenistan south to north, passing Türkmenabat, and forms the border of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan from Halkabat. It is then split by the Tuyamuyun Hydro Complex into many waterways that used to form the river delta joining the Aral Sea, passing Urgench, Daşoguz, and other cities, but it does not reach what is left of the sea any more and is lost in the desert.\n\nUse of water from the Amu Darya for irrigation has been a major contributing factor to the shrinking of the Aral Sea since the late 1950s.\n\nHistorical records state that in different periods, the river flowed into the Aral Sea (from the south), into the Caspian Sea (from the east), or both, similar to the Syr Darya (Jaxartes, in Ancient Greek).\n", "Pontoon Bridge on the Amu River near Urgench, in 2014 it was replaced by the stationary bridge.\nThe of the Amu Darya drainage basin include most of Tajikistan, the southwest corner of Kyrgyzstan, the northeast corner of Afghanistan, a narrow portion of eastern Turkmenistan and the western half of Uzbekistan. Part of the Amu Darya basin divide in Tajikistan forms that country's border with China (in the east) and Pakistan (to the south). About 61% of the drainage lies within Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, while 39% is in Afghanistan.\n\nThe abundant water flowing in the Amu Darya comes almost entirely from glaciers in the Pamir Mountains and Tian Shan,\nwhich, standing above the surrounding arid plain, collect atmospheric moisture which otherwise would probably escape somewhere else. Without its mountain water sources, the Amu Darya would not contain any water—would not exist—because it rarely rains in the lowlands through which most of the river flows. Of the total drainage area only about actively contribute water to the river.\nThis is because many of the river's major tributaries (especially the Zeravshan River) have been diverted, and much of the river's drainage is arid. Throughout most of the steppe, the annual rainfall is about .\n", "\nAncient Bactria\nBāqī Chaghānyānī pays homage to Babur beside the Amu Darya river, 1504 CE\n\nThe ancient Greeks called the Amu Darya the ''Oxus''. In ancient times, the river was regarded as the boundary between Greater Iran and Tūrān. The river's drainage lies in the area between the former empires of Genghis Khan and Alexander the Great, although they occurred at very different times. When the Mongols came to the area, they used the water of the Amu Darya to flood Konye-Urgench. One southern route of the Silk Road ran along part of the Amu Darya northwestward from Termez before going westwards to the Caspian Sea.\n\nIt is believed that the Amu Darya's course across the Kara-Kum Desert has gone through several major shifts in the past few thousand years. Much of the time – most recently from the 13th century to the late 16th century – the Amu Darya emptied into both the Aral and the Caspian Seas, reaching the latter via a large distributary called the Uzboy River. The Uzboy splits off from the main channel just south of the Amudarya Delta. Sometimes the flow through the two branches was more or less equal, but often most of the Amu Darya's flow split to the west and flowed into the Caspian.\n\nPeople began to settle along the lower Amu Darya and the Uzboy in the 5th century, establishing a thriving chain of agricultural lands, towns, and cities. In about 985 AD the massive Gurganj Dam at the bifurcation of the forks started to divert water to the Aral. Genghis Khan's troops destroyed the dam in 1221, and the Amu Darya shifted to distributing its flow more or less equally between the main stem and the Uzboy. But in the 18th century, the river again turned north, flowing into the Aral Sea, a path it has taken since. Less and less water flowed down the Uzboy. When Russian explorer, Bekovich—Cherkasski suveyed the region in 1720, Amu Darya did not flow into the Caspian Sea anymore.\n\nRussian troops crossing Amu Darya, c. 1873\n\nThe first Englishman to reach the Oxus, William Moorcroft visited about 1824. Another to reach the region in the Great Game period, a naval officer called John Wood, came with an expedition to find the source of the river in 1839. He found modern-day Lake Zorkul, called it Lake Victoria, and proclaimed he had found the source. Then, the French explorer and geographer Thibaut Viné collected a lot of information about this area during five expeditions between 1856 and 1862.\n\nFrench geographer Thibaut Viné\n\nThe question of finding a route between the Oxus valley and India has been of concern historically. A direct route crosses extremely high mountain passes in the Hindu Kush and isolated areas like Kafiristan. Some in Britain feared that the Empire of Russia, which at the time wielded great influence over the Oxus area, would overcome these obstacles and find a suitable route through which to invade British India – but this never came to pass. The area was taken over by Russia during the Russian conquest of Turkestan.\n\nThe Soviet Union became the ruling power in the early 1920s and expelled Mohammed Alim Khan. It later put down the Basmachi movement and killed Ibrahim Bek. A large refugee population of Central Asians, including Turkmen, Tajiks and Uzbeks, fled to northern Afghanistan. In the 1960s and 1970s the Soviets started using the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya to irrigate extensive cotton fields in the Central Asian plain. Before this time, water from the rivers was already being used for agriculture, but not on this massive scale. The Qaraqum Canal, Karshi Canal, and Bukhara Canal were among the larger of the irrigation diversions built. However, the Main Turkmen Canal, which would have diverted water along the dry Uzboy River bed into central Turkmenistan, was never built. The 1970s, in the course of the Soviet war in Afghanistan, Soviet forces used the valley to invade Afghanistan through Termez. The Soviet Union fell in the 1990s and Central Asia split up into the many smaller countries that lie within or partially within the Amu Darya basin. \n\nDuring the Soviet era a resource-sharing system was instated in which Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan shared water originating from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers with Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan in summer. In return, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan received Kazakh, Turkmen, and Uzbek coal, gas, and electricity in winter. After the fall of the Soviet Union this system disintegrated and the Central Asian nations have failed to reinstate it. Inadequate infrastructure, poor water-management, and outdated irrigation methods all exacerbate the issue.\n\n===Siberian Tiger Introduction Project===\n\nThe Amu-Darya's delta was suggested as a potential site. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least of large tracts of contiguous habitat with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not available at this stage and cannot be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at this stage.\n", "\n\nThe Oxus river, and Arnold's poem, fire the imaginations of the children who adventure with ponies over the moors of the West Country in the 1930s children's book ''The Far-Distant Oxus''. There were two sequels, ''Escape to Persia'' and ''Oxus in Summer''.\n\nRobert Byron's 1937 travelogue, ''The Road to Oxiana'', describes its author's journey from the Levant through Persia to Afghanistan, with the Oxus as his stated goal.\n\nGeorge MacDonald Fraser's ''Flashman at the Charge'', (1973), places Flashman on the Amu Darya and the Arral Sea during the (fictitious) Russian advance on India during The Great Game period.\n", "* List of rivers of Afghanistan\n* Mount Imeon\n* Sherabad River\n* Surkhan Darya\n* Transoxiana\n* Zeravshan River\n", "\nThis distinction between Turan and Iran appears in Shahnameh.\n", "* Curzon, George Nathaniel. 1896. ''The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus''. Royal Geographical Society, London. Reprint: Elibron Classics Series, Adamant Media Corporation. 2005. (pbk; (hbk).\n* Gordon, T. E. 1876. ''The Roof of the World: Being the Narrative of a Journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir''. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. Reprint by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company. Taipei. 1971.\n* Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. ''Between Oxus and Jumna''. London. Oxford University Press.\n* Wood, John, 1872. ''A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''. With an essay on the Geography of the Valley of the Oxus by Colonel Henry Yule. London: John Murray.\n", "\n* \n* The Amu Darya Basin Network\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Names", "Description", "Watershed", "History", "Literature", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Amu Darya
[ "\n\nThe '''Islamic conquest of Afghanistan''' (642–870) began in the middle of the 7th century after the Islamic conquest of Persia was completed, when Arab Muslims defeated the Sassanid Empire at the battles of Walaja, al-Qādisiyyah and Nahavand. The Muslim Arabs then began to move towards the lands east of Persia and in 652 captured the city, Herat, and established an Arab governor. By 661, the Caliphate was forced to put down a rebellion in Herat and in 702 Yazidb. al-Muhallab drove out Arab rebels again.\n\nBy 667, the Afghan area was under invasion by the Arabs but in 683 Kabul and other parts of Afghanistan fought with resistance and completely routed the invading army which was led by the Governor of Seistan. The near-complete conversion of Afghans to Islam was during the period of the Ghaznavids in the 10th century with Kafiristan holding out until Emir Abdur Rahman Khan conquered and forcibly converted them in the 1890s. Ethnic Arabs who have settled in Afghanistan, came to form the first community of Afghan Arabs.\n", "\nNames of territories during the Caliphate\nThe invasion of Persia was completed five years after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and all of the Persian territories came under Arab control, though pockets of tribal resistance continued for centuries in the Afghan territories. During the 7th century, Arab armies made their way into the region of Afghanistan from Khorasan with the new religion of Islam.\n\n===Kabul Shahis===\n\nThe area had been under the rule of the Buddhist and then Hindu dynasty called the Kabul Shahis since the 5th century. Muslims missionaries converted many people to Islam; however, the entire population did not convert, with repetitive revolts from the mountain tribes in the Afghan area taking place. The Hindu Shahi were defeated in the early part of the 10th century by Mahmud of Ghazna, who ruled between 998 and 1030. He also expelled the Hindu Shahi from Gandhara.\n\nIn 870, Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar, a local ruler from the Saffarid dynasty of Zaranj, Afghanistan, conquered most of present-day Afghanistan in the name of Islam. In many cases, the people he conquered had rebelled against their Islamic overlords and reverted to prior forms of worship.\n\nFrom the 8th century to the 9th century, many inhabitants of what is present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan were converted to Sunni Islam. It is surmised from the writings of Al Biruni that some Pashtuns living in Pakhtunkhwa (present-day western Pakistan) had not been completely converted. Al Biruni, writing in Tarikh al Hind, also alludes to the Pashtun tribes of Pakhtunkhwa as Hindus.\n\n\n\n\n\nVarious historical sources such as Martin Ewans, E.J. Brill and Farishta have recorded the introduction of Islam to Kabul and other parts of Afghanistan to the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazna\n\n\n\n\n\nAl-Idirisi (1100-1165/1166) testifies that until as late as the 12th century, a contract of investiture for every Hindu Shahi king was performed at Kabul and that here he was obliged to agree to certain ancient conditions which completed the contract.\n\n\n\nDuring the end of the 9th century, the Samanids extended its rule from Bukhara to as far south as the Indus River and west into parts of Persia. Although Arab Muslim intellectual life was still centered in Baghdad, Sunni Islam, predominated in the Samanid areas at this time. This period of time was considered an era of great cultural, intellectual, and artistic flourishing under the patronage of the Muslim Samanids. By the mid-10th century, the Samanid Dynasty had crumbled in the face of attacks from Turkish tribes to the north and from the Ghaznavids, a rising Turkic dynasty in Afghanistan.\n\nThe region was ruled by Hindu and Buddhist dynasty called the Kabul Shahis since the 5th century. Mountain tribe revolts hindered the process of converting the tribes. In 870, Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari, a local Persian ruler from the Saffarid dynasty of Zaranj, Afghanistan, conquered most of the cities of present-day Afghanistan in the name of Islam. ", "\nHistory of Afghanistan\nTimeline of Afghanistan\nHistory of Arabs in Afghanistan\nPre-Islamic Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan\nMuslim conquests\n", "\n", "Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List)\n", "* ''The Guardian'': \" Lost Tribe Struggles for Survival\"\n* ''Press Trust of India :\" Inscription throws new light to Hindu rule in Afghanistan \"\n* Association for the protection of Afghan Archeology\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Caliphate", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Islamic conquest of Afghanistan
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Durrani Empire''' (), also called the '''Afghan Empire''', was founded and built by Ahmad Shah Durrani with its capitals at Kandahar, Afghanistan, and Peshawar, Pakistan. At its maximum extent, the empire covered the nearly-entire modern states of Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as some parts of northeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, northwestern India including the Kashmir region. It is recognized as one of the most powerful Muslim empires.\n\nAfter the death of Nader Shah in 1747, the region of Kandahar was claimed by Ahmad Shah Durrani. From there he began conquering Ghazni followed by Kabul. In 1749 the Mughal ruler had ceded sovereignty over what is now Pakistan and northwestern Punjab to the Afghans. Ahmad Shah then set out westward to take possession of Herat, which was ruled by Shahrokh Shah. He next sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush and in short order all the different tribes began joining his cause. Ahmad Shah and his forces invaded India four times, taking control of the Kashmir and the Punjab region. Early in 1757, he sacked Delhi, but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over the Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Durrani's forces instigated the Vaḍḍā Ghallūghārā when they killed thousands of Sikhs in the Punjab.\n\nAfter the death of Ahmad Shah in about 1772, his son Timur Shah became the next ruler of the Durrani dynasty who decided to make Kabul the new capital of the empire, and used Peshawar as the winter capital. The Durrani Empire is considered the foundation of the modern state of Afghanistan, and Pakistan. with Ahmad Shah Durrani being credited as \"Father of the Nation\".\n", "\n\nIn 1709 Mir Wais Hotak, chief of the Ghilji tribe of Kandahar Province, gained independence from the Safavid Persians. From 1722 to 1725, his son Mahmud Hotak briefly ruled large parts of Iran and declared himself as ''Shah of Persia''. However, the Hotak dynasty came to a complete end in 1738 after being toppled and banished by the Afsharids who were led by Nader Shah Afshar of Persia.\n\nThe year 1747 marks the definitive appearance of an Afghan political entity independent of both the Persian and Mughal empires. In October 1747 a loya jirga (grand council) concluded near the city of Kandahar with Ahmad Shah Durrani being selected as the new leader of the Afghans, thus the Durrani dynasty was founded. Despite being younger than the other contenders, Ahmad Shah had several overriding factors in his favor. He belonged to a respectable family of political background, especially since his father served as Governor of Herat who died in a battle defending the Afghans.\n\n===Early victories===\nBala Hissar fort in Peshawar was one of the royal residences of the Durrani kings.\nOne of Ahmad Shah's first military action was the capture Ghazni from the Ghiljis, and then wresting Kabul from the local ruler. In 1749, the Mughal ruler was induced to cede Sindh, the Punjab region and the important trans Indus River to Ahmad Shah in order to save his capital from Afghan attack. Having thus gained substantial territories to the east without a fight, Ahmad Shah turned westward to take possession of Herat, which was ruled by Nader Shah Afshar's grandson, Shahrukh Afshar. Ahmad Shah next sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush mountains. In short order, the powerful army brought under its control the Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkmen, and other tribes of northern Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah invaded the remnants of the Mughal Empire a third time, and then a fourth, consolidating control over the Kashmir and Punjab regions, with Lahore being governed by Afghans. He sacked Delhi in 1757 but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control of the city as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Leaving his second son Timur Shah to safeguard his interests, Ahmad Shah left India to return to Afghanistan.\n\n===Relations with China===\nAlarmed by the expansion of China's Qing Dynasty up to the eastern border of Kazakhstan, Ahmad Shah attempted to rally neighboring Muslim khanates and the Kazakhs to unite and attack China, ostensibly to liberate its western Muslim subjects. Ahmad Shah halted trade with Qing China and dispatched troops to Kokand. However, with his campaigns in India exhausting the state treasury, and with his troops stretched thin throughout Central Asia, Ahmad Shah lacked sufficient resources to do anything except to send envoys to Beijing for unsuccessful talks.\n\n===Third Battle of Panipat===\n\nAhmad Shah Durrani and his coalition decisively defeat the Maratha Confederacy, during the Third Battle of Panipat and restored the Mughal Empire to Shah Alam II.\n\nThe Mughal power in northern India had been declining since the reign of Aurangzeb, who died in 1707; In 1751-52, ''Ahamdiya'' treaty was signed between the Marathas and Mughals, when Balaji Bajirao was the Peshwa. Through this treaty, the Marathas controlled virtually the whole of India from their capital at Pune and the Mughal rule was restricted only to Delhi (the Mughals remained the nominal heads of Delhi). Marathas were now straining to expand their area of control towards the Northwest of India. Ahmad Shah sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunathrao. He defeated the Rohillas and Afghan garrisons in Punjab and succeeded in ousting Timur Shah and his court from India and brought Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the Indian side of Attock under Maratha rule. Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the formidable attacks of the Maratha Confederacy.\n\nAhmad Shah declared a jihad (or Islamic holy war) against the Marathas, and warriors from various Afghan tribes joined his army, including the Baloch people under the command of Khan of Kalat Mir Nasir I of Kalat. Early skirmishes were followed by victory for the Afghans against the smaller Maratha garrisons in Northwest India and by 1759 Ahmad Shah and his army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of Sadashivrao Bhau. Once again, Panipat was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies was waged along a twelve-kilometer front. Despite decisively defeating the Marathas, what might have been Ahmad Shah's peaceful control of his domains was disrupted by many challenges. As far as losses are concerned, Afghans too suffered heavily in the Third Battle of Panipat. This weakened his grasp over Punjab which fell to the rising Sikh misls. There were rebellions in the north in the region of Bukhara.\n\n===Decline===\nThe victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's—and Afghan—power. However, even prior to his death, the empire began to unravel. In 1762, Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the Sikhs. From this time and on, the domination and control of the Empire began to loosen. He assaulted Lahore and, after taking their holy city of Amritsar, massacred thousands of Sikh inhabitants, destroying their revered Golden Temple. Within two years, the Sikhs rebelled again and rebuilt their holy city of Amritsar. Ahmad Shah tried several more times to subjugate the Sikhs permanently, but failed. Ahmad Shah also faced other rebellions in the north, and eventually he and the Uzbek Emir of Bukhara agreed that the Amu Darya would mark the division of their lands. A decade after the third Battle of Panipat, Marathas under the leadership of Mahadji Scindia entered and recaptured Delhi in 1771, cutting off Rohillas from the Durranis forever. Ahmad Shah retired to his home in the mountains east of Kandahar, where he died on April 14, 1773. He had succeeded to a remarkable degree in balancing tribal alliances and hostilities, and in directing tribal energies away from rebellion. He earned recognition as Ahmad Shah Baba, or \"Father\" of Afghanistan.\n", "\nCity of Kandahar, its principal bazaar and citadel, taken from the Nakkara Khauna\n\nAhmad Shah's successors governed so ineptly during a period of profound unrest that within fifty years of his death, the Durrani empire ''per se'' was at an end, and Afghanistan was embroiled in civil war. Much of the territory conquered by Ahmad Shah fell to others in this half century. By 1818, the Sadozai rulers who succeeded Ahmad Shah controlled little more than Kabul and the surrounding territory within a 160-kilometer radius. They not only lost the outlying territories but also alienated other tribes and lineages among the Durrani Pashtuns.\n\n===Timur Shah (1772–1793)===\n\n\nAhmad Shah was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah, who had been deputed to administer his father's conquests in Northern India, but had been driven out by the Marathas. Upon Ahmad Shah's death, the Durrani chieftains only reluctantly accepted Timur's accession. Most of his reign was spent fighting a civil war and resisting rebellion; Timur was even forced to move his capital from Kandahar to Kabul due to the insurgency. Timur Shah proved an ineffectual ruler, during whose reign the Durrani empire began to crumble. He is notable for having had 24 sons, several of whom became rulers of the Durrani territories. Timur died in 1793 and was then succeeded by his fifth son Zaman Shah\n\n===Zaman Shah (1793–1801)===\n\n\nAfter the death of Timur Shah, three of his sons, the governors of Kandahar, Herat and Kabul, contended for the succession. Zaman Shah, governor of Kabul, held the field by virtue of being in control of the capital, and became shah at the age of twenty-three. Many of his half-brothers were imprisoned on their arrival in the capital for the purpose, ironically, of electing a new shah. The quarrels among Timur's descendants that through Afghanistan into turmoil also provided the pretext for the interventions of outside forces.\n\nThe efforts of the Sadozai heirs of Timur to impose a true monarchy on the truculent Pashtun tribes, and their efforts to rule absolutely and without the advice of the other major Pashtun tribal leaders, were ultimately unsuccessful. The Sikhs started rising to power in defense of the years of invasions of Punjab by the Afghanis. Zaman Shah was unsuccessful in subduing them. A young Sikh chief, Ranjit Singh, then succeeded in wresting power from Zaman's forces. Later when Zaman was blinded by his brother, it was Ranjit Singh who gave him asylum in Punjab.\n\nZaman's downfall was triggered by his attempts to consolidate power. Although it had been through the support of the Barakzai chief, Painda Khan Barakzai, that he had come to the throne, Zaman soon began to remove prominent Barakzai leaders from positions of power and replace them with men of his own lineage, the Sadozai. This upset the delicate balance of Durrani tribal politics that Ahmad Shah had established and may have prompted Painda Khan and other Durrani chiefs to plot against the shah. Painda Khan and the chiefs of the Nurzai and the Alizai Durrani clans were executed, as was the chief of the Qizilbash clan. Painda Khan's son fled to Iran and pledged the substantial support of his Barakzai followers to a rival claimant to the throne, Zaman's older brother, Mahmud Shah. The clans of the chiefs Zaman had executed joined forces with the rebels, and they took Kandahar without bloodshed.\n\n===Mahmud Shah (first reign, 1801–1803)===\n\nZeman Shah's overthrow in 1801 was not the end of civil strife in Afghanistan, but the beginning of even greater violence. Mahmud Shah's first reign lasted for only two years before he was replaced by Shuja Shah.\n\n===Shuja Shah (1803–1809 and 1839–1842)===\n\nYet another of Timur Shah's sons, Shuja Shah (or Shah Shuja), ruled for only six years. On June 7, 1809, Shuja Shah signed a treaty with the British, which included a clause stating that he would oppose the passage of foreign troops through his territories. This agreement, the first Afghan pact with a Europea power, stipulated joint action in case of Franco-Persian aggression against Afghan or British dominions. Only a few weeks after signing the agreement, Shuja was deposed by his predecessor, Mahmud. Much later, he was reinstated by the British, ruling during 1839–1842. Two of his sons also ruled for a brief period in 1842.\n\n===Mahmud Shah (second reign, 1809–1818)===\n\n\nMahmud's second reign lasted nine years. Mahmud alienated the Barakzai, especially Fateh Khan, the son of Painda Khan, who was eventually seized and blinded. Revenge would later be sought and obtained by Fateh Khan's youngest brother, Dost Mohammad Khan.\n\n===Sultan Ali Shah (1818–1819)===\nThe main street in the bazaar at Kabul.\n\nAli Shah was another son of Timur Shah. He seized power for a brief period in 1818-19.\n\n===Ayub Shah (1819–1823)===\n\nAyub Shah was another son of Timur Shah, who deposed Sultan Ali Shah. He was himself later deposed, and presumably killed in 1823. The loss of Kashmir during his reign opened a new chapter in South Asian history.\n", "* Indian Campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani\n", "\n\n", "Malleson, George Bruce (1879) ''History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878'' W.H. Allen & Co., London, , limited view at Google Books\nSingh, Ganda (1959) ''Ahmad Shah Durrani: Father of Modern Afghanistan'' Asia Publishing House, London, \nFraser-Tytler, William Kerr (1953) ''Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia'' Oxford University Press, London, \nTanner, Stephen (2002) ''Afghanistan : a military history from Alexander the Great to the fall of the Taliban'' Da Capo Press, New York, , also available from NetLibrary\nElphinstone, Mountstuart 1779-1859 ''An account of the kingdom of Caubul, and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary and India : comprising a view of the Afghaun nation and a history of the Dooraunee monarchy.''London : Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1815. Available in digital formats from the Internet Archive Digital Library \n", "\n Afghanistan 1747-1809: Sources in the India Office Records\n* Some details and images of Durrani coins\n* Biography of Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani)\n* Ahmad Shah Baba\n* History of Abdali tribe\n* Afghanistan and the Search for Unity Article on Durrani methods of government, published in ''Asian Affairs'', Volume 38, Issue 2, 2007, pp. 145–157.\n* Afghanistan & the British Raj From the Royal Geographical Society of South Australia blog entry with information on the Durrani Empire of Ahmad Shah, \"Pearl of the Pearls\". From an extensive collection of 19th century British reference works on travel and exploration in Afghanistan.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Reign of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1747–1772)", "Other Durrani rulers (1772–1826)", " See also ", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Durrani Empire
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Aimaq''' (), also transliterated as ''Aimak'' or ''Aymaq'', are a collection of Persian-speaking nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes. Aimaqs are found mostly throughout Pakistan in the Kyber and Balochistan region and in the West Central highlands of Afghanistan, immediately to the north of Herat, and also to a much lesser amount in the Khorasan Province of Iran. They speak a number of subdialects of the Aimaq dialect of Persian, however some southern groups of Taymani and Maleki Aymaqs have adopted Pashto.\n\nAimaks were originally known as ''chahar'' (\"four\") Aymaqs: the Taimani (the main element in the population of Ghor), the Firozkohi, the Temuri, and the Jamshidi. Other sources state that the Aimaq Hazara are one of the ''Chahar'', with the Temuri instead being of the \"lesser Aimaqs\" or ''Aimaq-e digar'' (\"other Aimaqs\") along with the Tahiri, Zuri, Maleki, and Mishmast.\n", "Aymāq is a Turkic and Mongolic word that means \"tribe\" or \"grazing territory\". Aimaq Hazara and Taimuri are most Mongoloid of the Aimaqs. The Temuri and Aimaq Hazaras live in yurts, whereas other Aimaqs live in traditional Afghan black tents.\n\n\n\n Name !! Origin\n\n Chagatai \n Chagatai Khanate\n\n Chenghizi \n named after Genghis\n\n Damanrigi \n \n\n Durzai \n Pashtuns\n\n Ghuri \n \n\n Kakar \n Pashtuns\n\n Kakeri \n \n\n Khamidi \n \n\nKipchak \n Kipchak\n\n Maleki \n \n\n Mishmast \n \n\n Mobari \n \n\n Tahiri\n \n Arabs\n\n Zuri \n \n\n\n", "\nethnic groups and subgroups in Afghanistan (2005)\nEstimates of the Aimaq population vary between 250,000 and 500,000. They are largely Sunni Muslims, in contrast to the Hazara, who are mostly Shia Muslims. The Temuri Aimaqs are of Mongolian origin, apparent in their physical appearance and their housing (Mongolian-style yurts). However, the Taimanis, Ferozkohis, and Jamshidis are of Iranian origin, and refer to themselves as Tajik; the majority of the Aimaqs in Afghanistan are of these latter three sub-groups.\n", "* Tajiks\n* Farsiwan\n* Persian-speakers of Afghanistan\n* Qara'unas\n* Hazara people\n* Taymani\n* Persian people\n", "\n", "* Macgregor, ''Central Asia'', (Calcutta, 1871)\n", "* Aimaq Man with Children, Pal-Kotal-I-Guk, Ghor Province \n* Aimaq Nomad Camp Pal-Kotal-I-Guk Between Chakhcharan and Jam Afghanistan\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origin and classification", "Demographics", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Aimaq people
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n Note (category: variability): \n H and K emission vary.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Arcturus''' (), also designated '''Alpha Boötis''' ('''α Boötis''', abbreviated '''Alpha Boo''', '''α Boo'''), is the brightest star in the constellation of Boötes, the fourth-brightest in the night sky, and the brightest in the northern celestial hemisphere. Together with Spica and Denebola (or Regulus, depending on the source), Arcturus is part of the Spring Triangle asterism and, by extension, also of the Great Diamond along with the star Cor Caroli.\n\nRelatively close at 36.7 light-years from the Sun, Arcturus is a red giant of spectral type K0III—an ageing star around 7.1 billion years old that has used up its core hydrogen and moved off the main sequence. It is 1.08 ± 0.06 times as massive as the Sun, but has expanded to 25.4 ± 0.2 times its diameter and is around 170 times as luminous.\n", "''α Boötis'' (Latinised to ''Alpha Boötis'') is the star's Bayer designation.\n\nThe traditional name ''Arcturus'' derives from Ancient Greek Ἀρκτοῦρος (''Arktouros'') and means \"Guardian of the Bear\", ultimately from ἄρκτος (''arktos''), \"bear\" and οὖρος (''ouros''), \"watcher, guardian\". It has been known by this name since at least the time of Hesiod. This is a reference to its being the brightest star in the constellation of Boötes (of which it forms the left foot), which is next to the constellations of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, the Greater and Lesser Bears.\n\nIn 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included ''Arcturus'' for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.\n", "\nWith an apparent visual magnitude of −0.05, Arcturus is the brightest star in the Northern celestial hemisphere and the fourth-brightest star in the night sky, after Sirius (−1.46 apparent magnitude), Canopus (−0.72) and Alpha Centauri (−0.27). However, Alpha Centauri is a binary star, whose unresolved components to the naked eye are both fainter than Arcturus. This makes Arcturus the third-brightest individual star, just ahead of Alpha Centauri A, whose apparent magnitude is −0.01. The French mathematician and astronomer Jean-Baptiste Morin observed Arcturus in the daytime with a telescope (a first for any star other than the Sun and supernovae) in 1635, and Arcturus has been seen at or just before sunset with the naked eye.\n\nArcturus is visible from both Earth's hemispheres as it is located 19° north of the celestial equator. The star culminates at midnight on 27 April, and at 9PM on June 10 being visible during the late northern spring or the southern autumn. From the Northern Hemisphere, an easy way to find Arcturus is to follow the arc of the handle of the Big Dipper (Plough). By continuing in this path, one can find Spica, \"Arc to Arcturus, then spike to Spica\".\n\nPtolemy described Arcturus as ''subrufa'' (\"slightly red\"): it has a B-V color index of +1.23, roughly midway between Pollux (B-V +1.00) and Aldebaran (B-V +1.54).\n\nEta Boötis, or Muphrid, is only 3.3 light-years distant from Arcturus, and would have a visual magnitude −2.5, whereas an observer on the former system would find Arcturus as bright as Venus as seen from Earth.\n", "Optical image of Arcturus (DSS2 / MAST / STScI / NASA)\nBased upon an annual parallax shift of 88.83 milliarcseconds as measured by the Hipparcos satellite, Arcturus is from the Sun (the margin of error is 0.54 milliarcseconds, translating to a margin of error of ±).\n\nArcturus is a type K0 III red giant star. With an absolute magnitude of −0.30 it is, together with Vega and Sirius, one of the most luminous stars in the Sun's neighborhood. It is about 110 times brighter than the Sun in visible light wavelengths, but this underestimates its strength as much of the light it gives off is in the infrared; total (bolometric) power output is about 180 times that of the Sun. The lower output in visible light is due to a lower efficacy as the star has a lower surface temperature than the Sun. With a near-infrared J band magnitude of −2.2, only Betelgeuse (−2.9) and R Doradus (−2.6) are brighter.\n\nAs the brightest K-type giant in the sky, it was the subject of an atlas of its visible spectrum, made from photographic spectra taken with the coudé spectrograph of the Mt. Wilson 2.5m telescope published in 1968, a key reference work for stellar spectroscopy. Subsequent spectral atlases\n\n\n with greater wavelength coverage and superior signal-to-noise ratio made with digital detectors have supplanted the older work, but the Arcturus spectrum remains an important standard for stellar spectroscopy.\n\nAs a single star, the mass of Arcturus cannot be measured directly, but models suggest it is slightly larger than that of the Sun. Evolutionary matching to the observed physical parameters gives a mass of , while the oxygen isotope ratio for a first Dredge-up star gives a mass of .\n\nArcturus has been estimated to be around 6 billion to 8.5 billion years old, and is ascending the red giant branch until it accumulates a large enough degenerate helium core to ignite the helium flash. It has likely exhausted the hydrogen from its core and is now in its active hydrogen shell burning phase. It will continue to expand before entering horizontal branch stage of its life cycle.\n\n===Oscillations===\nAs one of the brightest stars in the sky, Arcturus has been the subject of a number of studies in the emerging field of asteroseismology. Belmonte and colleagues carried out a radial velocity (Doppler shift of spectral lines) study of the star in April and May 1988, which showed variability with a frequency of the order of a few microhertz, the highest peak corresponding to 4.3 μHz (2.7 days) with an amplitude of 60 ms−1, with a frequency separation of c. 5 μHz. They suggested that the most plausible explanation for the variability of Arcturus is stellar oscillations.\n\nAsteroseismological measurements allow direct calculation of the mass and radius, giving values of and . This form of modelling is still relatively inaccurate, but a useful check on other models.\n\n===Element abundance===\nAstronomers term \"metals\" those elements with higher atomic numbers than helium. Arcturus has an enrichment of alpha elements relative to iron but only about a third of solar metallicity, Arcturus is possibly a Population II star.\n\n===Kinematics===\nArcturus has a high proper motion, two arcseconds a year, greater than any first magnitude star other than α Centauri. It is moving rapidly () relative to the Solar System, and is now almost at its closest point to the Sun. Closest approach will happen in about 4,000 years, when the star will be a few hundredths of a light-year closer to Earth than it is today. Arcturus is thought to be an old disk star, and appears to be moving with a group of 52 other such stars, known as the Arcturus stream.\n\nIn antiquity, Arcturus was closer to the centre of the constellation.\n\n===Possible planetary system===\n''Hipparcos'' also suggested that Arcturus is a binary star, with the companion about twenty times dimmer than the primary and orbiting close enough to be at the very limits of humans' current ability to make it out. Recent results remain inconclusive, but do support the marginal ''Hipparcos'' detection of a binary companion.\n\nIn 1993, radial velocity measurements of Aldebaran, Arcturus and Pollux showed that Arcturus exhibited a long-period radial velocity oscillation, which could be interpreted as a ''substellar companion''. This substellar object would be nearly 12 times the mass of Jupiter and be located roughly at the same orbital distance from Arcturus as the Earth is from the Sun, at 1.1 Astronomical Units. However, all three stars surveyed showed similar oscillations yielding similar companion masses, and the authors concluded that the variation was likely to be intrinsic to the star rather than due to the gravitational effect of a companion. So far no substellar companion has been confirmed.\n\n", "\n=== In Arabic ===\nIn Arabic, Arcturus is one of two stars called ''al-simāk'' \"the uplifted one\" (the other is Spica). Arcturus is specified as السماك الرامح ''as-simāk ar-rāmiħ'' \"the uplifted one of the lancer\". The term ''Al Simak Al Ramih'' has appeared in Al Achsasi Al Mouakket catalogue (translated into Latin as ''Al Simak Lanceator'').\n\nThis has been variously romanized in the past, leading to obsolete variants such as ''Aramec'' and ''Azimech''. For example, the name ''Alramih'' is used in Geoffrey Chaucer's ''Treatise on the Astrolabe'' (1391). Another Arabic name is ''Haris-el-sema'', from ''حارس السماء'' ''ħāris al-samā’'' \"the keeper of heaven\". or '' حارس الشمال'' ''ħāris al-shamāl’'' \"the keeper of north\".\n\nArcturus was once again called by its classical name from the Renaissance onwards.\n\n===Asia===\nIn Chinese astronomy, Arcturus is called ''Da Jiao'' (), because it is the brightest star in the Chinese constellation called ''Jiao Xiu'' (). Later it become a part of another constellation ''Kang Xiu'' ().\n\nIn Indian Astrology or Vedic Astrology or Sidereal Astrology, Arcturus is called ''Swati'' which is a word meaning \"very beneficent\" derived from the language Sanskrit. It is the eponymous star of one of the nakshatras (lunar mansions) of Hindu astrology.\n\nIn Indonesia, Arcturus is called ''Bintang Biduk'' (star of boat).\n\nIn Japan, Arcturus is called ''Mugi-boshi'' (麦星), meaning ''star of wheat''.\n\n===Other languages===\nThe Wotjobaluk Koori people of southeastern Australia knew Arcturus as ''Marpean-kurrk'', mother of ''Djuit'' (Antares) and another star in Bootes, ''Weet-kurrk'' (Muphrid). Its appearance in the north signified the arrival of the larvae of the wood ant (a food item) in spring. The beginning of summer was marked by the star's setting with the Sun in the west and the disappearance of the larvae. The people of Milingimbi Island in Arnhem Land saw Arcturus and Muphrid as man and woman, and took the appearance of Arcturus at sunrise as a sign to go and harvest ''rakia'' or spikerush. The Wailwun of northern New South Wales knew Arcturus as ''Guembila'' \"red\".\n\nIn Inuit astronomy, Arcturus is called the Old Man (''Uttuqalualuk'' in Inuit) and The First Ones (''Sivulliik'' in Inuit).\n\nThe Mi'kmaq of eastern Canada saw Arcturus as ''Kookoogwéss'', the owl.\n\nArcturus had several names that described its significance to indigenous Polynesians. In the Society Islands, Arcturus, called ''Ana-tahua-taata-metua-te-tupu-mavae'' (\"a pillar to stand by\"), was one of the ten \"pillars of the sky\", bright stars that represented the ten heavens of the Tahitian afterlife. In Hawaii, the pattern of Boötes was called ''Hoku-iwa'', meaning \"stars of the frigate bird\". This constellation marked the path for Hawaiiloa on his return to Hawaii from the South Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiians called Arcturus ''Hoku-leʻa''. It was equated to the Tuamotuan constellation ''Te Kiva'', meaning \"frigate-bird\", which could either represent the figure of Boötes or just Arcturus. However, Arcturus may instead be the Tuamotuan star called ''Turu''. The Hawaiian name for Arcturus as a single star was likely ''Hoku-leʻa'', which means \"star of gladness\", or \"clear star\". In the Marquesas Islands, Arcturus was probably called ''Tau-tou'' and was the star that ruled the month approximating January. The Maori and Moriori called it ''Tautoru'', a variant of the Marquesan name and a name shared with Orion's Belt.\n", "\nAs one of the brightest stars in the sky, Arcturus has been significant to observers since antiquity.\n\n===Historical cultures===\n\nPrehistoric Polynesian navigators knew Arcturus as ''Hōkūleʻa'', the \"Star of Joy\". Arcturus is the zenith star of the Hawaiian Islands. Using Hōkūleʻa and other stars, the Polynesians launched their double-hulled canoes from Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands. Traveling east and north they eventually crossed the equator and reached the latitude at which Arcturus would appear directly overhead in the summer night sky. Knowing they had arrived at the exact latitude of the island chain, they sailed due west on the trade winds to landfall. If Hōkūleʻa could be kept directly overhead, they landed on the southeastern shores of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi. For a return trip to Tahiti the navigators could use Sirius, the zenith star of that island. Since 1976, the Polynesian Voyaging Society's ''Hōkūle‘a'' has crossed the Pacific Ocean many times under navigators who have incorporated this wayfinding technique in their non-instrument navigation.\n\nIn ancient Mesopotamia, it was linked to the god Enlil, and also known as Shudun, \"yoke\", or SHU-PA of unknown derivation in the ''Three Stars Each'' Babylonian star catalogues and later MUL.APIN around 1100 BC.\n\nIn Ancient Rome, the star's celestial activity was supposed to portend tempestuous weather, and a personification of the star acts as narrator of the prologue to Plautus' comedy ''Rudens'' (circa 211 BC).\n\nIn the Hebrew scriptures Arcturus is referred to in Job 38:32.\n\nIn the Middle Ages, Arcturus was considered a Behenian fixed star and attributed to the stone Jasper and the plantain herb. Cornelius Agrippa listed its kabbalistic sign Image:Agrippa1531 Alchameth.png under the alternate name ''Alchameth''.\n\nThe Karandavyuha sutra, compiled at the end of the 4th century or beginning of the 5th century C.E., names one of Avalokiteshvara's meditative absorptions as \"The face of Arcturus\".\n\n===Modern cultures===\n\nArcturus achieved fame when its light was rumored to be the mechanism used to open the 1933 Chicago World's Fair. The star was chosen as it was thought that light from Arcturus had started its journey at about the time of the previous Chicago World's Fair in 1893 (at 36.7 light-years away, and the light actually started in 1896.\n\nThe star is featured in the 1977 documentary film ''Powers of Ten'', in which it is seen when a camera zooms from Earth to the whole of the known universe.\n\nIn the 2016 Sci-Fi film Passengers, the starship Avalon slingshots around a red giant called Arcturus about 31 years after leaving Earth.\n", "* Arcturus in fiction\n", "\n", "\n* SolStation.com entry\n* Arcturus at Constellation Guide\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Nomenclature", "Visibility", "Properties", "Other names", "In culture", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Arcturus
[ "\n\n'''Androphagi''' (Ancient Greek : \"Ἀνδροφάγοι\" for \"man-eaters\") was an ancient nation of cannibals north of Scythia (according to Herodotus), probably in the forests between the upper waters of the Dnepr and Don. These people may have assisted the Scythians when King Darius the Great led a Persian invasion into what is now Southern Russia to punish the Scythians for their raids into the Achaemenid Empire.\n\nHerodotus first wrote of ''andropophagi'' in his ''Histories'', where he described them as one of several tribes near Scythia. An extra note indicates that the ''andropophagi'' are cannibals, as reflected in their name:\n\n\n\nPliny the Elder later wrote in his ''Naturalis Historia'' that the same cannibals near Scythia wore the scalps of men on their chest.\n\n\n\nHistorian Marija Gimbutas has hypothesized that \"Androphagoi\" is a Greek translation of mard-xwaar \"man-eater\" in the old North Iranian language of the Scythians. From mard-xwaar one can derive \"Mordva\" or \"Mordvin\", the Russian name of the Finno-Ugrian Erzya and Moksha peoples of east-central European Russia. From Herodotus we can deduce a location for the Androphagoi that is approximately the same as that occupied by the modern Mordvins.\n", "Issedones\nAnthropophagi\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References" ]	Androphagi
[ "\n\n'''Albert Lawrence Brooks''' (born '''Albert Lawrence Einstein'''; July 22, 1947) is an American actor, filmmaker, author, and comedian. He received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor for 1987's ''Broadcast News'' and was widely praised for his performance in the 2011 film ''Drive''. His voice acting credits include Marlin in ''Finding Nemo'' (2003) and ''Finding Dory'' (2016), and recurring guest voices for ''The Simpsons'', including Russ Cargill in ''The Simpsons Movie'' (2007). He has directed, written, and starred in several comedy films, such as ''Modern Romance'' (1981), ''Lost in America'' (1985), and ''Defending Your Life'' (1991). He is also the author of ''2030: The Real Story of What Happens to America'' (2011).\n", "Brooks was born in Beverly Hills, California, the son of Thelma Leeds (née Goodman), a singer and actress, and Harry Parke, a radio comedian who performed on Eddie Cantor's radio program and was known as Parkyakarkus. His brothers are comedic actor Bob Einstein, better known as a character he created named \"Super Dave Osborne\", and for a recurring role in ''Curb Your Enthusiasm''; and Cliff Einstein, a partner and longtime chief creative officer at Los Angeles advertising agency Dailey & Associates. His half-brother was Charles Einstein (1926–2007), a writer for such television programs as ''Playhouse 90'' and ''Lou Grant''. Brooks is Jewish; his grandparents emigrated from Austria and Russia. He grew up among show business families in southern California, attending Beverly Hills High School with Richard Dreyfuss and Rob Reiner.\n", "\n===Early career===\nBrooks attended Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, but dropped out after one year to focus on his comedy career. By the age of 19, he had changed his professional name to Albert Brooks, joking that \"the real Albert Einstein changed his name to sound more intelligent\". He began a comedy career that quickly made him a regular on variety and talk shows during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Brooks led a new generation of self-reflective baby-boomer comics appearing on NBC's ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson''. His onstage persona, that of an egotistical, narcissistic, nervous comic, an ironic showbiz insider who punctured himself before an audience by disassembling his mastery of comedic stagecraft, influenced other '70s post-modern comedians, including Steve Martin, Martin Mull, and Andy Kaufman.\n\nAfter two successful comedy albums, ''Comedy Minus One'' (1973) and the Grammy Award–nominated ''A Star Is Bought'' (1975), Brooks left the stand-up circuit to try his hand as a filmmaker. He had already made his first short film, ''The Famous Comedians School'', a satiric short and an early example of the mockumentary subgenre that appeared on the PBS show The Great American Dream Machine in 1972.\n\nIn 1975, he directed six short films for the first season of NBC's ''Saturday Night Live'':\n\n* October 11, 1975, episode (host: George Carlin): \"The Impossible Truth\"\n* October 18, 1975, episode (host: Paul Simon): failed ''Candid Camera'' stunts and home movies\n* October 25, 1975, episode (host: Rob Reiner): heart surgery\n* November 8, 1975, episode (host: Candice Bergen): upcoming season\n* December 13, 1975, episode (host: Richard Pryor): sick\n* January 9, 1976, episode (host: Elliott Gould): audience test screening\n\nIn 1976 he appeared in his first mainstream film role, in Martin Scorsese's landmark ''Taxi Driver''; Scorsese allowed Brooks to improvise much of his dialogue. The role reflected Brooks's decision to move to Los Angeles to enter the film business. In an interview, Brooks mentioned a conversation he'd had with ''Taxi Driver'' screenwriter Paul Schrader, in which Schrader said that Brooks's character was the only one in the movie that he could not \"understand\" – a remark that Brooks found amusing, as the movie's antihero was a psychotic loner.\n\nBrooks directed his first feature film, ''Real Life'', in 1979. The film, in which Brooks (playing a version of himself) obnoxiously films a typical suburban family in an effort to win both an Oscar and a Nobel Prize, was a sendup of PBS's ''An American Family'' documentary. It has also been viewed as foretelling the future emergence of reality television. Brooks also made a cameo appearance in the film ''Private Benjamin'' (1980), starring Goldie Hawn. (He also got starring credits in the film, even though his character dies within roughly the first half-hour of the film.)\n\n===1981–1999===\nThrough the 1980s and 1990s, Brooks co-wrote (with longtime collaborator Monica Johnson), directed and starred in a series of well-received comedies, playing variants on his standard neurotic and self-obsessed character. These include 1981's ''Modern Romance'', where Brooks played a film editor desperate to win back his ex-girlfriend (Kathryn Harrold). The film received a limited release and ultimately grossed under $3 million domestically, but was well received by critics, with one reviewer commenting that the film was \"not Brooks at his best, but still amusing\". His best-received film, ''Lost in America'' (1985), featured Brooks and Julie Hagerty as a couple who leave their yuppie lifestyle and drop out of society to live in a motor home as they have always dreamed of doing, meeting disappointment.\n\nBrooks's ''Defending Your Life'' (1991) placed his lead character in the afterlife, put on trial to justify his human fears and determine his cosmic fate. Critics responded to the offbeat premise and the chemistry between Brooks and Meryl Streep, as his post-death love interest. His later efforts did not find large audiences, but still retained Brooks's touch as a filmmaker. He garnered positive reviews for ''Mother'' (1996), which starred Brooks as a middle-aged writer moving back home to resolve tensions between himself and his mother (Debbie Reynolds). 1999's ''The Muse'' featured Brooks as a Hollywood screenwriter who has \"lost his edge\" using the services of an authentic muse (Sharon Stone) for inspiration. In an interview with Brooks with regards to ''The Muse'', Gavin Smith wrote, \"Brooks's distinctive film making style is remarkably discreet and unemphatic; he has a light, deft touch, with a classical precision and economy, shooting and cutting his scenes in smooth, seamless successions of medium shots, with clean, high-key lighting.\"\n\nBrooks has appeared as a guest voice on ''The Simpsons'' five times during its run (always under the name ''A. Brooks''), and is described as the best guest star in the show's history by IGN, particularly for his role as supervillain Hank Scorpio in the episode \"You Only Move Twice\".\n\nBrooks also acted in other writers' and directors' films during the 1980s and 1990s. He had a cameo in the opening scene of ''Twilight Zone: The Movie'', playing a driver whose passenger (Dan Aykroyd) has a shocking secret. In James L. Brooks's hit ''Broadcast News'' (1987), Albert Brooks was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for playing an insecure, supremely ethical network TV reporter, who offers the rhetorical question, \"Wouldn't this be a great world if insecurity and desperation made us more attractive?\" He also won positive notices for his role in 1998's ''Out of Sight'', playing an untrustworthy banker and ex-convict.\n\n===2000–present===\nBrooks received positive reviews for his portrayal of a dying retail store owner who befriends disillusioned teen Leelee Sobieski in ''My First Mister'' (2001). Brooks continued his voiceover work in Pixar's ''Finding Nemo'' (2003), as the voice of Marlin, one of the film's protagonists; ''Nemo'' is Brooks's largest grossing film to date.\n\nIn 2005, his film ''Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World'' was dropped by Sony Pictures due to their desire to change the title. Warner Independent Pictures purchased the film and gave it a limited release in January 2006; the film received mixed reviews and a low box office gross. The movie goes back to the days of Brooks's ''Real Life'', as Brooks once again plays himself, a filmmaker commissioned by the U.S. government to see what makes the Muslim people laugh, thus sending him on a tour of India and Pakistan.\n\nIn 2006 he appeared in the documentary film ''Wanderlust'' as David Howard from \"Lost in America\". The documentary included many other well known people. In 2007, he continued his long term collaboration with ''The Simpsons'' by voicing Russ Cargill, the central antagonist of ''The Simpsons Movie''.\n\nHe has played Lenny Botwin, Nancy Botwin's estranged father-in-law, on Showtime's television series ''Weeds''. St. Martin's Press published his first novel, ''2030: The Real Story of What Happens to America'', on May 10, 2011.\n\nIn 2011, Brooks co-starred as the vicious gangster Bernie Rose, the main antagonist in the motion picture ''Drive'', alongside Ryan Gosling and Carey Mulligan, a role that has been given much critical praise and positive reviews, with several critics proclaiming Brooks' performance as one of the film's best aspects. After receiving awards and nominations from several film festivals and critic groups, but not an Academy Award nomination, Brooks responded humorously on Twitter, \"And to the Academy: ‘You don't like me. You really don't like me’.\"\n\nIn 2016, Brooks reprised the role of Marlin from Finding Nemo in the 2016 sequel ''Finding Dory'' and voiced Tiberius, a curmudgeonly red-tailed hawk in ''The Secret Life of Pets''.\n", "In 1997, Brooks married website designer Kimberly Shlain, daughter of surgeon and writer Leonard Shlain. They have two children, Jacob and Claire, and reside in Santa Monica, California.\n", "\n===Film===\n\n\n Year\n Title\n Role\n Notes\n\n 1976\n ''Taxi Driver''\n Tom\n\n\n 1979\n ''Real Life''\n Albert Brooks\n Also writer and director\n\n 1980\n ''Private Benjamin''\n Yale Goodman\n\n\n 1981\n ''Modern Romance''\n Robert Cole\n Also writer and director\n\n 1983\n ''Twilight Zone: The Movie''\n Car Driver\n Segment: ''Prologue''\n\n 1983\n ''Terms of Endearment''\n Rudyard\n Credited as \"A. Brooks\"\n\n 1984\n ''Unfaithfully Yours''\n Norman Robbins\n\n\n 1985\n ''Lost in America''\n David Howard\n Also writer and directorNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Screenplay\n\n 1987\n ''Broadcast News''\n Aaron Altman\n American Comedy Award for Funniest Male Supporting ActorBoston Society of Film Critics Award for Best ActorNominated – Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor2nd place – National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor3rd place – National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor\n\n 1991\n ''Defending Your Life''\n Daniel Miller\n Also writer and director\n\n 1994\n ''I'll Do Anything''\n Burke Adler\n\n\n 1994\n ''The Scout''\n Al Percolo\n Also writer\n\n 1996\n ''Mother''\n John Henderson\n Also writer and directorNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best ScreenplayNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Screenplay\n\n 1997\n ''Critical Care''\n Dr. Butz\n\n\n 1998\n ''Dr. Dolittle''\n Jacob the Tiger (voice)\n\n\n 1998\n ''Out of Sight''\n Richard Ripley\n\n\n 1999\n ''The Muse''\n Steven Phillips\n Also writer and director\n\n 2001\n ''My First Mister''\n Randall 'R' Harris\n \n\n 2003\n ''The In-Laws''\n Jerry Peyser\n\n\n 2003\n ''Finding Nemo''\n Marlin (voice)\n\n\n 2003\n ''Exploring the Reef''\n Marlin (voice)\n Short film\n\n 2005\n ''Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World''\n Albert Brooks\n Also writer and director\n\n 2007\n ''The Simpsons Movie''\n Russ Cargill (voice)\n Credited as \"A. Brooks\"\n\n 2011\n ''Drive''\n Bernie Rose\n African American Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorAustin Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorBoston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActorChicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorFlorida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActorHouston Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorLas Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActorNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActorNew York Film Critics Online Award for Best Supporting ActorOklahoma Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActorPhoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorSan Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActorSatellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion PictureSt. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorVillage Voice Film Poll – Supporting ActorWashington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated – Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated – Central Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Nominated – Detroit Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated – Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion PictureNominated – Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting MaleNominated – Indiana Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor Nominated – London Film Critics Circle Award for Supporting Actor of the YearNominated – Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated – San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated – Southeastern Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor \n\n 2012\n ''This Is 40''\n Larry\n\n\n 2014\n ''A Most Violent Year''\n Andrew Walsh\n\n\n 2015\n ''The Little Prince''\n The Businessman (voice)\n\n\n 2015\n ''Concussion''\n Dr. Cyril Wecht\n\n\n 2016\n ''Finding Dory''\n Marlin (voice)\n\n\n 2016\n ''The Secret Life of Pets''\n Tiberius (voice)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Television===\n\n\n Year\n Title\n Role\n Notes\n\n 1969\n ''Hot Wheels''\n Mickey Barnes / Kip Chogi (voices)\n\n\n 1970\n ''The Odd Couple''\n Rudy\n Episode 1.8: \"Oscar, the Model\" and Episode 1.11: \"Felix Is Missing\"\n\n 1971\n ''Love, American Style''\n Christopher Leacock\n Episode 2.16: \"Love and Operation Model/Love and the Sack\"\n\n 1972\n ''The New Dick Van Dyke Show''\n Dr. Norman\n Episode 2.2: \"The Needle\"\n\n 1975–76\n ''Saturday Night Live''\n Additional characters\n Writer and director of several segments\n\n 1976\n ''The Famous Comedians School''\n N/A\n Television film; writer, editor and director\n\n 1990–present\n ''The Simpsons''\n Various characters\n Appeared in seven episodesCredited as \"A. Brooks\"\n\n 2008\n ''Weeds''\n Lenny Botwin\n 4 episodes\n\n 2018\n ''The Cops''\n Al (Brooks)\n 10 episodes\n\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* Interview: Albert Brooks: Comedy And Dystopia – On Point.\n* The films of Albert Brooks, ''Hell Is For Hyphenates'', January 31, 2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Personal life", "Filmography", "References", "External links" ]	Albert Brooks
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Antares''' (), also designated '''Alpha Scorpii''' ('''α Scorpii''', abbreviated '''Alpha Sco''', '''α Sco'''), is on average the fifteenth-brightest star in the night sky, and the brightest star in the constellation of Scorpius. Distinctly reddish when viewed with the naked eye, Antares is a slow irregular variable star that ranges in brightness from apparent magnitude +0.6 to +1.6. Often referred to as \"the heart of the scorpion\", Antares is flanked by Sigma and Tau Scorpii in the centre of the constellation.\n\nClassified as a red supergiant of spectral type M1.5Iab, Antares is one of the largest known stars. It is the brightest, most massive, and most evolved stellar member of the nearest OB association (the Scorpius–Centaurus Association). Antares is a member of the Upper Scorpius subgroup of the Scorpius–Centaurus Association, which contains thousands of stars with mean age 11 million years at a distance of approximately . It is thought to be between 15 and 18 times as massive as the Sun, and have around 883 times its radius. Hence, if placed in the center of the Solar System, its outer surface would lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.\n", "σ and τ Scorpii. Antares appears white in this WISE false colour infrared image.\n''α Scorpii'' (Latinised to ''Alpha Scorpii'') is the star's Bayer designation. It also has the Flamsteed designation 21 Scorpii, as well as catalogue designations such as HR 6134 in the Bright Star Catalogue and HD 148478 in the Henry Draper Catalogue. As a prominent infrared source, it appears in the Two Micron All-Sky Survey catalogue as 2MASS J16292443-2625549 and the Two Micron All-Sky Survey catalogue as IRAS 16262-2619. It is also catalogued as a double star WDS J16294-2626 and CCDM J16294-2626.\n\nThe traditional name ''Antares'' derives from the Ancient Greek , meaning \"equal to-Ares\" (\"equal to-Mars\"), due to the similarity of its reddish hue to the appearance of the planet Mars. The comparison of Antares with Mars may have originated with early Mesopotamian astronomers. However, some scholars have speculated that the star may have been named after Antar, or Antarah ibn Shaddad, the Arab warrior-hero celebrated in the pre-Islamic poems Mu'allaqat. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organised a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardise proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included ''Antares'' for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.\n\nAntares is a variable star and is listed in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars but as a Bayer-designated star it does not have a separate variable star designation.\n", "VLTI reconstructed view of the surface of Antares\nAntares is a supergiant star with a stellar classification of M1.5Iab. With a radius that is approximately 883 times that of the Sun, it is one of largest stars, if placed in the center of the Solar System, its outer surface would lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Based upon parallax measurements, Antares is approximately from the Sun. Its visual luminosity is about 10,000 times that of the Sun, but because the star radiates a considerable part of its energy in the infrared part of the spectrum, the bolometric luminosity equals roughly 65,000 times that of the Sun. The mass of the star has been calculated to be in the range of 15 to 18 solar masses. A 2012 analysis by Pecaut and colleagues comparing the effective temperature and luminosity of Antares to theoretical evolutionary tracks for massive stars which include rotation an initial progenitor mass of approximately 17 solar masses and an age of 12 million years. Initial mass must also take into account the mass loss from powerful winds, and this would yield a less massive star not stated in this reference paper.\n\nThe size of Antares may be calculated using its parallax and angular diameter. The parallax angle is given in the adjacent box, and the angular diameter is known from lunar occultation measurements (41.3 ± 0.1 milliarcseconds). This implies a radius of 890 ± 150 solar radii at this distance. By analysing its radial velocity from its spectrum, Pugh and colleagues calculated a period of 5.93 ± 0.01 years and considered whether this change was orbital or pulsational. If the latter, then the radius of the star changes by 165 ± 22 solar radii (19% ± 4%). However, if this were the case, Antares' brightness would vary by a greater amount.\n\nAntares is a type ''LC'' slow irregular variable star, whose apparent magnitude slowly varies from +0.6 to +1.6.\n\n===Position===\nAntares near the Sun on 30 November. This date may vary between 30 November and 2 December every year\nAntares is visible in the sky all night around May 31 of each year, when the star is at opposition to the Sun. At this time, Antares rises at dusk and sets at dawn as seen at the equator. For approximately two to three weeks on either side of November 30, Antares is not visible in the night sky, because it is near conjunction with the Sun; this period of invisibility is longer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere, since the star's declination is significantly south of the celestial equator.\n\nAntares is one of the four first magnitude stars that lies within 6.5° of the ecliptic (the others are Spica, Regulus and Aldebaran) and therefore can be occulted by the Moon. It can also, rarely, be occulted by Venus. The last occultation of Antares by Venus took place on September 17, 525 BC; the next one will take place on November 17, 2400. Other planets have not occulted Antares in the last millennium nor will they do so in the next millennium, as they pass as a result of their actual node position and inclination always northward of Antares. On 31 July 2009, Antares was occulted by the Moon. The event was visible in much of southern Asia and the Middle East. Every year around December 2 the Sun passes 5° north of Antares.\n\n===Companion star===\nAntares has a magnitude 5.5 companion star, Antares B, that changed from an angular separation (from its primary, Antares A) of 3.3 arcseconds in 1854 to 2.86 arcseconds in 1990. It was first observed by Scottish astronomer James William Grant FRSE while in India on 23 July 1844. The last is equal to a projected separation of about 529 astronomical units (au) at the estimated distance of Antares, giving a minimum value for the separation of the pair. Spectroscopic examination of the energy states in the outflow of matter from the companion star suggests that it is about 224 au beyond the primary. Antares B is a blue-white main-sequence star of spectral type B2.5V; it also has numerous unusual spectral lines suggesting it has been polluted by matter ejected by Antares A.\n\nThe companion star is normally difficult to see in small telescopes due to glare from Antares A, but can sometimes be seen in apertures over . The companion is often described as green, but this is probably either a contrast effect, or the result of the mixing of light from the two stars when they are seen together through a telescope and are too close to be completely resolved. Antares B can sometimes be observed with a small telescope for a few seconds during lunar occultations while Antares A is hidden by the Moon. It was discovered by Johann Tobias Bürg during one such occultation on April 13, 1819, but until its existence was confirmed in 1846 it was thought by some to be merely the light of Antares viewed through the Moon's atmosphere (which at the time was theorised to exist). When observed by itself during such an occultation, the companion appears a profound blue or bluish-green color.\n\nThe orbit of the companion star is poorly known, as attempts to analyse the radial velocity of Antares need to be unravelled from the star's own pulsations. Orbital periods are possible within a range of 1,200 to 2,562 years.\n\n===Supernova progenitor===\nMercury \n2. Earth \n3. Jupiter \n4. Sirius \n5. Aldebaran \n6. Betelgeuse < VY Canis Majoris < NML Cygni < UY Scuti.\nAntares, like the similarly-sized red giant Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion, will almost certainly explode as a supernova, probably within the next few hundred thousand years. For a few months, the Antares supernova could be as bright as the full moon and be visible in daytime.\n", "In the Babylonian star catalogues dating from at least 1100 BCE, Antares was called GABA GIR.TAB, \"the Breast of the Scorpion\". In MUL.APIN, which dates between 1100 and 700 BC, it is one of the stars of Ea in the southern sky and marks breast of the Scorpion goddess Ishhara. Later names that translate as \"the Heart of Scorpion\" include '''' from the Arabic ''''. This had been directly translated from the Ancient Greek ''''. '''' translated above Greek name into Latin.''\n\nIn ancient Mesopotamia, Antares may have been known by the following names: Urbat, Bilu-sha-ziri (\"the Lord of the Seed\"), Kak-shisa (\"the Creator of Prosperity\"), Dar Lugal (\"The King\"), Masu Sar (\"the Hero and the King\"), and Kakkab Bir (\"the Vermilion Star\"). In ancient Egypt, Antares represented the scorpion goddess Serket (and was the symbol of Isis in the pyramidal ceremonies).\n\nIn Persia, Antares was known as ''Satevis'', one of the four \"royal stars\". In India, it with Sigma and Tau Scorpii were Jyeshthā (the eldest or biggest), one of the ''nakshatra'' (Hindu lunar mansions). The ancient Chinese called Antares ''()'', because it was the second-brightest star of the mansion ''Xin'' (心). It was the national star of the Shang Dynasty, and it was sometimes referred to as () because of its reddish appearance.\n\nThe Māori people of New Zealand call Antares ''Rehua'', and regard it as the chief of all the stars. Rehua is father of ''Puanga/Puaka'' (Rigel), an important star in the calculation of the Māori calendar. The Wotjobaluk Koori people of Victoria, Australia, knew Antares as ''Djuit'', son of ''Marpean-kurrk'' (Arcturus); the stars on each side represented his wives. The Kulin Kooris saw Antares (''Balayang'') as the brother of ''Bunjil'' (Altair).\n", "Antares in fiction\n", "\n", "\n\n* Antares at Constellation Guide\n* Best Ever Image of a Star’s Surface and Atmosphere - First map of motion of material on a star other than the Sun\n\n\n\n\n >>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Nomenclature", "Properties", "Other names", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Antares
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Aldebaran''', designated '''Alpha Tauri''' ('''α Tauri''', abbreviated '''Alpha Tau''', '''α Tau'''), is an orange giant star located about 65 light years from the Sun in the zodiac constellation of Taurus. It is the brightest star in its constellation and usually the fourteenth-brightest star in the nighttime sky, though it varies slowly in brightness between magnitude 0.75 and 0.95. It is likely that Aldebaran hosts a planet several times the size of Jupiter.\n\nThe planetary exploration probe Pioneer 10 is currently heading in the general direction of the star and should make its closest approach in about two million years.\n", "\n''Alpha Tauri'' is the star's Bayer designation. The name ''Aldebaran'' is Arabic ('''' '''') and means \"the Follower\", presumably because it rises near and soon after the Pleiades. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included ''Aldebaran'' for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.\n\n===Names in other languages===\n\nIn Persia it was known as Tascheter.\n\nIn Brazilian Portuguese it was known as ''Aquele Que Segue'' or ''Olho do Touro''\n\nThe Romans called it ''''.\n\nIn the Middle Ages it was sometimes called Cor Tauri (the Heart of the Bull/Taurus).\n\nJohn Gower refers to it as Aldeboran.\n\nIn Chinese it is known as ('''', the Fifth Star of the Net).\n\nIn Hindu astronomy it is identified as the lunar mansion Rohini (\"the red one\") and as one of the twenty-seven daughters of Daksha and the wife of the god Chandra (moon).\n\n===Mythology===\nThis easily seen and striking star in its suggestive asterism is a popular subject for ancient and modern myths.\n\n* Mexican culture: For the Seris of northwestern Mexico, this star provides light for the seven women giving birth (Pleiades). It has three names: '''', '''', and '''' (\"star that goes ahead\"). The lunar month corresponding to October is called '''' \"Aldebaran's path\".\n* Aboriginal culture: in the Clarence River of northeastern New South Wales, this star is the Ancestor ''Karambal'', who stole another man's wife. The woman's husband tracked him down and burned the tree in which he was hiding. It is believed that he rose to the sky as smoke and became the star Aldebaran.\n\n", "On 11 March AD 509, a lunar occultation of Aldebaran was observed in Athens, Greece. English astronomer Edmund Halley studied the timing of this event, and in 1718 concluded that Aldebaran must have changed position since that time, moving several minutes of arc further to the north. This, as well as observations of the changing positions of stars Sirius and Arcturus, led to the discovery of proper motion. Based on present day observations, the position of Aldebaran has shifted 7′ in the last 2000 years; roughly a quarter the diameter of the full Moon. Note that 5,000 years ago the vernal equinox was close to Aldebaran.\n\nEnglish astronomer William Herschel discovered a faint companion to Aldebaran in 1782; an 11th magnitude star at an angular separation of 117″. This star was shown to be itself a close double star by S. W. Burnham in 1888, and he discovered an additional 14th magnitude companion at an angular separation of 31″. Follow on measurements of proper motion showed that Herschel's companion was diverging from Aldebaran, and hence they were not physically connected. However, the companion discovered by Burnham had almost exactly the same proper motion as Aldebaran, suggesting that the two formed a wide binary star system.\n\nWorking at his private observatory in Tulse Hill, England, in 1864 William Huggins performed the first studies of the spectrum of Aldebaran, where he was able to identify the lines of nine elements, including iron, sodium, calcium, and magnesium. In 1886, Edward C. Pickering at the Harvard College Observatory used a photographic plate to capture fifty absorption lines in the spectrum of Aldebaran. This became part of the Draper Catalogue, published in 1890. By 1887, the photographic technique had improved to the point that it was possible to measure a star's radial velocity from the amount of Doppler shift in the spectrum. By this means, the recession velocity of Aldebaran was estimated as (48 km/s), using measurements performed at Potsdam Observatory by Hermann C. Vogel and his assistant Julius Scheiner.\n\nAldebaran was observed using an interferometer attached to the Hooker Telescope at the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1921 in order to measure its angular diameter, but it was not resolved in these observations. \n", "Size comparison between Aldebaran and the Sun\n\nAldebaran is classified as a type K5 III star, which indicates it is an orange-hued giant star that has evolved off the main sequence band of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram after exhausting the hydrogen at its core. The collapse of the centre of the star into a degenerate helium core has ignited a shell of hydrogen outside the core and Aldebaran is now a red giant. This has caused it to expand to 44.2 times the diameter of the Sun, equivalent to approximately 61 million kilometres (see 10 gigametres for similar sizes).\n\nMeasurements by the Hipparcos satellite and other sources put Aldebaran around away. Stellar models predict it only has about 50% more mass than the Sun, yet it shines with 425 times the Sun's luminosity due to the expanded radius. Aldebaran is a slightly variable star, of the slow irregular variable type ''LB''. It varies by about 0.2 in apparent magnitude from 0.75 to 0.95. With a near-infrared J band magnitude of −2.1, only Betelgeuse (−2.9), R Doradus (−2.6), and Arcturus (−2.2) are brighter.\n\nThe photosphere shows abundances of carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen that suggest the giant has gone through its first dredge-up stage—a normal step in the evolution of a star into a red giant during which material from deep within the star is brought up to the surface by convection. With its slow rotation, Aldebaran lacks a dynamo needed to generate a corona and hence is not a source of hard X-ray emission. However, small scale magnetic fields may still be present in the lower atmosphere, resulting from convection turbulence near the surface. (The measured strength of the magnetic field on Aldebaran is 0.22 G.) Any resulting soft X-ray emissions from this region may be attenuated by the chromosphere, although ultraviolet emission has been detected in the spectrum. The star is currently losing mass at a rate of with a velocity of . This stellar wind may be generated by the weak magnetic fields in the lower atmosphere.\n\nBeyond the chromosphere of Aldebaran is an extended molecular outer atmosphere (MOLsphere) where the temperature is cool enough for molecules of gas to form. This region lies between 1.2 and 2.8 times the radius of the star, with temperatures of 1,000−2,000 K. The spectrum reveals lines of carbon monoxide, water, and titanium oxide. Past this radius, the modest outflow of the stellar wind itself declines in temperature to about 7,500 K at a distance of 1 Astronomical Unit (AU)−the distance of the Earth from the Sun. The wind continues to expand until it reaches the termination shock boundary with the hot, ionized interstellar medium that dominates the Local Bubble, forming a roughly spherical astrosphere with a radius of around 1,000 AU, centered on Aldebaran.\n", "Occultation of Aldebaran by the Moon\nAldebaran is one of the easiest stars to find in the night sky, partly due to its brightness and partly due to its spatial relation to one of the more noticeable asterisms in the sky. If one follows the three stars of Orion's belt from left to right (in the Northern Hemisphere) or right to left (in the Southern), the first bright star found by continuing that line is Aldebaran.\n\nSince the star is located (by chance) in the line of sight between the Earth and the Hyades, it has the appearance of being the brightest member of the more scattered Hyades open star cluster that makes up the bull's-head-shaped asterism; however, the star cluster is actually more than twice as far away, at about 150 light years.\n\nAldebaran is close enough to the ecliptic to be occulted by the Moon. Such occultations occur when the Moon's ascending node is near the autumnal equinox. A series of 49 occultations occur starting at 29 Jan 2015 and ending at 3 Sep 2018. Each event is visible from a different location on Earth, but always in the northern hemisphere or close to the equator. That means that people in e.g. Australia or South Africa can never observe an Aldebaran occultation. This is due to the fact that Aldebaran is slightly too far south of the ecliptic. A reasonably accurate estimate for the diameter of Aldebaran was obtained during the September 22, 1978 occultation. Aldebaran is in conjunction with the Sun around June 1 of each year.\n\nOccultations by planets are not possible at present, as each planet passes Aldebaran north. The closest conjunction of a planet with Aldebaran in the 21st century occurred on July 9, 2012, when Venus passed Aldebaran 56' northward. However, in the far future and far past occultations of Aldebaran by Mercury and Venus occurred as result of wandering nodes. The next occultation of Aldebaran by a planet, Venus, will occur on 5366 August 27.\n", "Five faint stars are positioned so that they appear close to Aldebaran. These double stars were given alphabetic secondary star designations more or less in the order of their discovery, with the letter A reserved for the primary star. Some of the characteristics of these components, including their position relative to Aldebaran, are listed in the table at right.\n\n\n+ WDS 04359+1631 Catalogue Entry\n α Tau\n ApparentMagnitude\n AngularSeparation\n PositionAngle\n Year\n\n B\n 13.60\n 31.60″\n 113°\n 2007\n\n C\n 11.30\n 129.50″\n 32°\n 2011\n\n D\n 13.70\n —\n —\n —\n\n E\n 12.00\n 36.10″\n 323°\n 2000\n\n F\n 13.60\n 255.70″\n 121°\n 2000\n\n\nSome surveys have indicated that Alpha Tauri B may have about the same proper motion and parallax as Aldebaran and thus may be a physical binary system. However these measurements are difficult to make because the dim B component appears so close to the bright primary star. The resulting margin of error is too large to positively establish (or exclude) a physical relationship between the two stars. So far neither the B component, nor anything else, has been unambiguously shown to be physically associated with Aldebaran.\n\nAlpha Tauri CD is a binary system with the C and D component stars gravitationally bound to and co-orbiting each other. These co-orbiting stars have been shown to be located far beyond Aldebaran and are members of the Hyades star cluster. As with the rest of the stars in the cluster they do not physically interact with Aldebaran in any way.\n", "\n\n\nIn 1993, radial velocity measurements of Aldebaran, Arcturus and Pollux showed that Aldebaran exhibited a long-period radial velocity oscillation, which could be interpreted as a ''substellar companion''. The measurements for Aldebaran implied a companion with a minimum mass 11.4 times that of Jupiter in a 643-day orbit at a separation of in a mildly eccentric orbit. However, all three stars surveyed showed similar oscillations yielding similar companion masses, and the authors concluded that the variation was likely to be intrinsic to the star rather than due to the gravitational effect of a companion. In 2015 a study showed stable longterm evidence for both a planetary companion and stellar activity.\n\n", "If the sun were to be observed from this star, it would be a faint 6.4 magnitude star located between Ophiuchus and Scorpius on the diametrically opposite coordinates. This magnitude sits between Uranus's 5.95 and Pallas's 6.49.\n\nWhile some constellations made of bright, distant stars would be more or less similar the rest of the night sky would be unfamiliar to someone from Earth. To highlight differences, Orion would have its belt reduced to two stars due to Mintaka being on top of Alnilam. Furthermore, Bellatrix would be closer to the said belt, giving the constellation an overall ribbon-like shape. \n\nConversely, the Hyades and Pleiades would be in similar regions of the sky due to their enormous distance even from this star (they are located 153 ly and 444 ly, respectively).\n", "* Aldebaran in astrology\n* Aldebaran in fiction\n* Iota Draconis\n* Pollux\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n* Aldebaran at Constellation Guide\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Nomenclature ", "Observation history", " Physical properties ", " Visibility ", "Double star", " Claims of a planetary system ", "View from this star", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Aldebaran
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Altair''' (), also designated '''Alpha Aquilae''' ('''α Aquilae''', abbreviated '''Alpha Aql''', '''α Aql'''), is the brightest star in the constellation of Aquila and the twelfth brightest star in the night sky. It is currently in the G-cloud—a nearby accumulation of gas and dust known as an interstellar cloud. Altair is an A-type main sequence star with an apparent visual magnitude of 0.77 and is one of the vertices of the asterism known as the Summer Triangle (the other two vertices are marked by Deneb and Vega). It is 16.7 light-years (5.13 parsecs) from the Sun and is one of the closest stars visible to the naked eye.\n\nAltair rotates rapidly, with a velocity at the equator of approximately 286 km/s. This is a significant fraction of the star's estimated breakup speed of 400 km/s. A study with the Palomar Testbed Interferometer revealed that Altair is not spherical, but is flattened at the poles due to its high rate of rotation. Other interferometric studies with multiple telescopes, operating in the infrared, have imaged and confirmed this phenomenon.\n", "\n''α Aquilae'' (Latinised to ''Alpha Aquilae'') is the star's Bayer designation. The traditional name ''Altair'' has been used since medieval times. It is an abbreviation of the Arabic phrase , ''al-nesr al-ṭā’ir'' (\"\"). In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included ''Altair'' for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.\n", "230px\nAlong with Beta Aquilae and Gamma Aquilae, Altair forms the well-known line of stars sometimes referred to as the ''Family of Aquila'' or ''Shaft of Aquila''.\n\nAltair is a type-A main sequence star with approximately 1.8 times the mass of the Sun and 11 times its luminosity. Altair possesses an extremely rapid rate of rotation; it has a rotational period of approximately 9 hours. For comparison, the equator of the Sun requires a little more than 25 days for a complete rotation. This rapid rotation forces Altair to be oblate; its equatorial diameter is over 20 percent greater than its polar diameter.\n\nSatellite measurements made in 1999 with the Wide Field Infrared Explorer showed that the brightness of Altair fluctuates slightly, varying by just a few thousandths of a magnitude with several different periods less than 2 hours. As a result, it was identified in 2005 as a Delta Scuti variable star. Its light curve can be approximated by adding together a number of sine waves, with periods that range between 0.8 and 1.5 hours. It is a weak source of coronal X-ray emission, with the most active sources of emission being located near the star's equator. This activity may be due to convection cells forming at the cooler equator.\n\n===Oblateness and surface temperature===\n\nThe angular diameter of Altair was measured interferometrically by R. Hanbury Brown and his co-workers at Narrabri Observatory in the 1960s. They found a diameter of 3milliarcseconds. Although Hanbury Brown et al. realized that Altair would be rotationally flattened, they had insufficient data to experimentally observe its oblateness. Altair was later observed to be flattened by infrared interferometric measurements made by the Palomar Testbed Interferometer in 1999 and 2000. This work was published by G. T. van Belle, David R. Ciardi and their co-authors in 2001.\n\nTheory predicts that, owing to Altair's rapid rotation, its surface gravity and effective temperature should be lower at the equator, making the equator less luminous than the poles. This phenomenon, known as gravity darkening or the von Zeipel effect, was confirmed for Altair by measurements made by the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer in 2001, and analyzed by Ohishi et al. (2004) and Peterson et al. (2006). Also, A. Domiciano de Souza et al. (2005) verified gravity darkening using the measurements made by the Palomar and Navy interferometers, together with new measurements made by the VINCI instrument at the VLTI.\n\nAltair is one of the few stars for which a direct image has been obtained. In 2006 and 2007, J. D. Monnier and his coworkers produced an image of Altair's surface from 2006 infrared observations made with the MIRC instrument on the CHARA array interferometer; this was the first time the surface of any main-sequence star, apart from the Sun, had been imaged. The false-color image was published in 2007. The equatorial radius of the star was estimated to be 2.03 solar radii, and the polar radius 1.63 solar radii—a 25% increase of the stellar radius from pole to equator. The polar axis is inclined by about 60° to the line of sight from the Earth.\n", "\nThe term ''Al Nesr Al Tair'' appeared in Al Achsasi al Mouakket's catalogue, which was translated into Latin as ''Vultur Volans''. This name was applied by the Arabs to the asterism of α, β, and γ Aquilae and probably goes back to the ancient Babylonians and Sumerians, who called α Aquilae the eagle star. The spelling ''Atair'' has also been used. Medieval astrolabes of England and Western Europe depicted Altair and Vega as birds.\n\nThe Koori people of Victoria also knew Altair as ''Bunjil'', the wedge-tailed eagle, and β and γ Aquilae are his two wives the black swans. The people of the Murray River knew the star as ''Totyerguil''. The Murray River was formed when ''Totyerguil'' the hunter speared ''Otjout'', a giant Murray cod, who, when wounded, churned a channel across southern Australia before entering the sky as the constellation Delphinus.\n\nIn Chinese, the asterism consisting of α, β, and γ Aquilae is known as ''Hé Gǔ'' (; lit. \"river drum\"). Altair is thus known as ''Hé Gǔ èr'' (; lit. \"river drum two\", meaning the \"second star of the drum at the river\"). However, Altair is better known by its other names: ''Qiān Niú Xīng'' () or ''Niú Láng Xīng'' (), translated as the ''cowherd star''. These names are an allusion to a love story, ''The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl'', in which Niulang (represented by Altair) and his two children (represented by β and γ Aquilae) are separated from respectively their wife and mother Zhinu (represented by Vega) by the Milky Way. They are only permitted to meet once a year, when magpies form a bridge to allow them to cross the Milky Way.\n\nThe people of Micronesia called Altair ''Mai-lapa'', meaning \"big/old breadfruit\", while the Māori people called this star ''Poutu-te-rangi'', meaning \"pillar of heaven\".\n\nIn Western astrology, the star Altair was ill-omened, portending danger from reptiles.\n\nJapan Airlines's Starjet 777-200 JA8983 was named Altair.\n\nAltair Airlines was a regional airline that operated out of Philadelphia from 1966 to 1982.\n\nThe NASA Constellation Program announced ''Altair'' as the name of the Lunar Surface Access Module (LSAM) on December 13, 2007. The Russian-made Beriev Be-200 Altair seaplane is also named after the star.\n\nThe Altair 8800 was one of the first microcomputers intended for home use.\n\nAltair is the name of three United States navy ships: , and USNS Altair (T-AKR-291).\n\n''Altair'' is the name of a 1919 poem by Karle Wilson Baker. \n\n", "The bright primary star has the multiple star designation WDS 19508+0852A and has three faint visual companion stars, WDS 19508+0852B, C, and D. Component B is not physically close to A but merely appears close to it in the sky.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* Star with Midriff Bulge Eyed by Astronomers, JPL press release, July 25, 2001.\n* Imaging the Surface of Altair, University of Michigan news release detailing the CHARA array direct imaging of the stellar surface in 2007.\n* PIA04204: Altair, NASA. Image of Altair from the Palomar Testbed Interferometer.\n* Altair at SolStation.\n* Secrets of Sun-like star probed, ''BBC News'', June 1, 2007.\n* Astronomers Capture First Images of the Surface Features of Altair, astromart.com.\n* Image of Altair from Aladin.\n* Altair on Constellation Guide\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Nomenclature", "Characteristics", "Etymology, mythology, and culture", "Visual companions", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Altair
[ "\n\n\n\nSkyline from Montaza.\n\n'''Alexandria''' ( or ; Arabic: ''''; ''''; '''') is the second largest city and a major economic centre in Egypt, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country. Its low elevation on the Nile delta makes it highly vulnerable to rising sea levels. Alexandria is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez. Alexandria is also an important tourist destination.\n\nAlexandria was founded around a small, ancient Egyptian town ''c.'' 331 BC by Alexander the Great. It became an important center of the Hellenistic civilization and remained the capital of Hellenistic and Roman and Byzantine Egypt for almost 1000 years until the Muslim conquest of Egypt in AD 641, when a new capital was founded at Fustat (later absorbed into Cairo). Hellenistic Alexandria was best known for the Lighthouse of Alexandria (''Pharos''), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World; its Great Library (the largest in the ancient world; now replaced by a modern one); and the Necropolis, one of the Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages. Alexandria was the second most powerful city of the ancient world after Rome. Ongoing maritime archaeology in the harbor of Alexandria, which began in 1994, is revealing details of Alexandria both before the arrival of Alexander, when a city named Rhacotis existed there, and during the Ptolemaic dynasty.\n\nFrom the late 18th century, Alexandria became a major center of the international shipping industry and one of the most important trading centers in the world, both because it profited from the easy overland connection between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, and the lucrative trade in Egyptian cotton.\n\n", "\n\n===Ancient era===\n\nAlexander The Great\n\nAlexandria is believed to have been founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as (''Alexandria''). Alexander's chief architect for the project was Dinocrates. Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Hellenistic center in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile valley. However, more recent radiocarbon dating of seashell fragments and lead contamination predate this claim by two millennia \n\nAlexandria was the intellectual and cultural center of the ancient world for some time. The city and its museum attracted many of the greatest scholars, including Greeks, Jews and Syrians. The city was later plundered and lost its significance.\n\nJust east of Alexandria (where Abu Qir Bay is now), there was in ancient times marshland and several islands. As early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities of Canopus and Heracleion. The latter was recently rediscovered under water.\n\nAn Egyptian city, Rhakotis, already existed on the shore also, and later gave its name to Alexandria in the Egyptian language (Egyptian '''Raˁ-Ḳāṭit''', written ''rˁ-ḳṭy.t'', 'That which is built up'). It continued to exist as the Egyptian quarter of the city. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to his city. After Alexander's departure, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the expansion. Following a struggle with the other successors of Alexander, his general Ptolemy Lagides succeeded in bringing Alexander's body to Alexandria, though it was eventually lost after being separated from its burial site there.\n\nAlthough Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandria's continuous development, the ''Heptastadion'' and the mainland quarters seem to have been primarily Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the center of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and, for some centuries more, was second only to Rome. It became Egypt's main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds.\n\nAlexandria was not only a center of Hellenism, but was also home to the largest urban Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek version of the Tanakh, was produced there. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Hellenistic center of learning (Library of Alexandria), but were careful to maintain the distinction of its population's three largest ethnicities: Greek, Jewish, and Egyptian.\n\nIn AD 115, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Kitos War, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. In 215, the emperor Caracalla visited the city and, because of some insulting satires that the inhabitants had directed at him, abruptly commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami (365 Crete earthquake), an event annually commemorated years later as a \"day of horror.\"\n\nBritish naval forces\n\n===Muhammad's era===\n\n''Entry of General Bonaparte into Alexandria'', oil on canvas, , ca. 1800, Versailles\nThe Islamic prophet, Muhammad's first interaction with the people of Egypt occurred in 628, during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Hisma). He sent Hatib bin Abi Baltaeh with a letter to the king of Egypt (in reality Emperor Heraclius) and Alexandria called Muqawqis In the letter Muhammad said: \"I invite you to accept Islam, Allah the sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you will bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts\". During this expedition one of Muhammad's envoys Dihyah bin Khalifa Kalbi was attacked, Muhammad sent Zayd ibn Haritha to help him. Dihya approached the Banu Dubayb (a tribe which converted to Islam and had good relations with Muslims) for help. When the news reached Muhammad, he immediately dispatched Zayd ibn Haritha with 500 men to battle. The Muslim army fought with Banu Judham, killed several of them (inflicting heavy casualties), including their chief, Al-Hunayd ibn Arid and his son, and captured 1000 camels, 5000 of their cattle and 100 women and boys. The new chief of the Banu Judham who had embraced Islam appealed to Muhammad to release his fellow tribesmen, and Muhammad released them.\n\n===Islamic era===\n''The Battle of Abukir'', by 300px\nIn 619, Alexandria fell to the Sassanid Persians. Although the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered it in 629, in 641 the Arabs under the general 'Amr ibn al-'As captured it during the Muslim conquest of Egypt, after a siege that lasted 14 months.\n\nAfter the Battle of Ridaniya in 1517, the city was conquered by the Ottoman Turks and remained under Ottoman rule until 1798. Alexandria lost much of its former importance to the Egyptian port city of Rosetta during the 9th to 18th centuries, and only regained its former prominence with the construction of the Mahmoudiyah Canal in 1807.\n\nAlexandria figured prominently in the military operations of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1798. French troops stormed the city on 2 July 1798, and it remained in their hands until the arrival of a British expedition in 1801. The British won a considerable victory over the French at the Battle of Alexandria on 21 March 1801, following which they besieged the city, which fell to them on 2 September 1801. Muhammad Ali, the Ottoman governor of Egypt, began rebuilding and redevelopment around 1810, and by 1850, Alexandria had returned to something akin to its former glory. Egypt turned to Europe in their effort to modernize the country. Greeks, followed by other Europeans and others, began moving to the city. In the early 20th century, the city became a home for novelists and poets.\n\nIn July 1882, the city came under bombardment from British naval forces and was occupied.\n\nIn July 1954, the city was a target of an Israeli bombing campaign that later became known as the Lavon Affair. On 26 October 1954, Alexandria's Mansheya Square was the site of a failed assassination attempt on Gamal Abdel Nasser.\n\nEuropeans began leaving Alexandria following the 1956 Suez Crisis that led to an outburst of Arab nationalism. The nationalization of property by Nasser, which reached its highest point in 1961, drove out nearly all the rest.\n\n===Timeline===\nThe most important battles and sieges of Alexandria include:\nSiege of Alexandria (47 BC), Julius Caesar's civil war\nBattle of Alexandria (30 BC), final war of the Roman Republic\nSiege of Alexandria (619), Byzantine-Persian Wars\nSiege of Alexandria (641), Rashidun conquest of Byzantine Egypt\nAlexandrian Crusade (1365), a crusade led by Peter de Lusignan of Cyprus which resulted in the defeat of the Mamluks and the sack of the city.\nBattle of Alexandria (1801), Napoleonic Wars\nSiege of Alexandria (1801), Napoleonic Wars\nAlexandria expedition (1807), Napoleonic Wars\n", "\nMacedonian Army\n\nGreek Alexandria was divided into three regions:\n;Brucheum\n:the Royal or Greek quarter, forming the most magnificent portion of the city. In Roman times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official quarter, making four regions in all. The city was laid out as a grid of parallel streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean canal;\n;The Jewish quarter\n:forming the northeast portion of the city;\n;Rhakotis\n:The old city of Rhakotis that had been absorbed into Alexandria was occupied chiefly by Egyptians. (from Coptic ''Rakotə'' \"Alexandria\").\nEngraving by L F Cassas of the Canopic Street in Alexandria Egypt made in 1784.Two main streets, lined with colonnades and said to have been each about wide, intersected in the center of the city, close to the point where the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (his Mausoleum) rose. This point is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of the great East–West \"Canopic\" street, only slightly diverged from that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette (now Sharia Fouad). Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate, but remnants of streets and canals were exposed in 1899 by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city.\n\nAlexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a mole and called the ''Heptastadion'' (\"seven stadia\"—a ''stadium'' was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately ). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where the \"Moon Gate\" rose. All that now lies between that point and the modern \"Ras al-Tin\" quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras al-Tin quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbor, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbor.\n\nIn Strabo's time, (latter half of the 1st century BC) the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbor.\n\n#The Royal Palaces, filling the northeast angle of the town and occupying the promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbor on the east. Lochias (the modern Pharillon) has almost entirely disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the \"Private Port,\" and the island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here, as throughout the northeast coast of Africa.\n#The Great Theater, on the modern Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used by Julius Caesar as a fortress, where he withstood a siege from the city mob after he took Egypt after the battle of Pharsalus\n#The Poseidon, or Temple of the Sea God, close to the theater\n#The Timonium built by Marc Antony\n#The Emporium (Exchange)\n#The Apostases (Magazines)\n#The Navalia (Docks), lying west of the Timonium, along the seafront as far as the mole\n#Behind the Emporium rose the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great obelisks, which become known as “Cleopatra's Needles,” and were transported to New York City and London. This temple became, in time, the Patriarchal Church, though some ancient remains of the temple have been discovered. The actual Caesareum, the parts not eroded by the waves, lies under the houses lining the new seawall.\n#The Gymnasium and the Palaestra are both inland, near the Boulevard de Rosette in the eastern half of the town; sites unknown.\n#The Temple of Saturn; site unknown.\n#The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of the two main streets.\n#The Musaeum with its famous Library and theater in the same region; site unknown.\n#The Serapeum, the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. Strabo tells us that this stood in the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far as to place it near “Pompey's Pillar,” which was an independent monument erected to commemorate Diocletian's siege of the city.\n\nThe names of a few other public buildings on the mainland are known, but there is little information as to their actual position. None, however, are as famous as the building that stood on the eastern point of Pharos island. There, The Great Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, reputed to be high, was situated. The first Ptolemy began the project, and the second Ptolemy (Ptolemy II Philadelphus) completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents. It took 12 years to complete and served as a prototype for all later lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top and the tower was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, making it the second longest surviving ancient wonder, after the Great Pyramid of Giza. A temple of Hephaestus also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole.\n\nIn the 1st century, the population of Alexandria contained over 180,000 adult male citizens, according to a census dated from 32 CE, in addition to a large number of freedmen, women, children and slaves. Estimates of the total population range from 216,000 to 500,000 making it one of the largest cities ever built before the Industrial Revolution and the largest pre-industrial city that was not an imperial capital.\n", "Alexandria is located in the country of Egypt, on the southern coast of the Mediterranean.\n\n===Climate===\n150px\n200px\nAlexandria has a borderline hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification: BWh), approaching a hot semi-arid climate (BSh). As the rest of Egypt's northern coast, the prevailing north wind, blowing across the Mediterranean, gives the city a less severe climate from the desert hinterland. Rafah and Alexandria are the wettest places in Egypt, the other wettest places are Rosetta, Baltim, Kafr el-Dawwar and Mersa Matruh. The city's climate is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea, moderating its temperatures, causing variable rainy winters and moderately hot summers that, at times, can be very humid; January and February are the coolest months, with daily maximum temperatures typically ranging from and minimum temperatures that could reach . Alexandria experiences violent storms, rain and sometimes snow, sleet and hail during the cooler months; these events, combined with a poor drainage system, have been responsible for occasional flooding in the city. July and August are the hottest and driest months of the year, with an average daily maximum temperature of .\nThe average annual rainfall is around but has been as high as \n\nPort Said, Kosseir, Baltim, Damietta and Alexandria have the least temperature variation in Egypt.\n\nThe highest recorded temperature was on May 30, 1961, and the coldest recorded temperature was on January 31, 1994.\n\n\n\n\n+Alexandria mean sea temperature\n\nJan\nFeb\nMar\nApr\nMay\nJun\nJul\nAug\nSep\nOct\nNov\nDec\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "Egypt – Obelisk, Alexandria. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection.\nRoman Amphitheater\nPompey's Pillar\nDue to the constant presence of war in Alexandria in ancient times, very little of the ancient city has survived into the present day. Much of the royal and civic quarters sank beneath the harbour due to earthquake subsidence in AD 365, and the rest has been built over in modern times.\nKom El Shoqafa\n\n\"Pompey's Pillar\", a Roman triumphal column, is one of the best-known ancient monuments still standing in Alexandria today. It is located on Alexandria's ancient acropolis—a modest hill located adjacent to the city's Arab cemetery—and was originally part of a temple colonnade. Including its pedestal, it is 30 m (99 ft) high; the shaft is of polished red granite, in diameter at the base, tapering to at the top. The shaft is high, and made out of a single piece of granite. Its volume is and weight approximately 396 tons. Pompey's Pillar may have been erected using the same methods that were used to erect the ancient obelisks. The Romans had cranes but they were not strong enough to lift something this heavy. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehrner conducted several obelisk erecting experiments including a successful attempt to erect a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. This followed two experiments to erect smaller obelisks and two failed attempts to erect a 25-ton obelisk. The structure was plundered and demolished in the 4th century when a bishop decreed that Paganism must be eradicated. \"Pompey's Pillar\" is a misnomer, as it has nothing to do with Pompey, having been erected in 293 for Diocletian, possibly in memory of the rebellion of Domitius Domitianus. Beneath the acropolis itself are the subterranean remains of the Serapeum, where the mysteries of the god Serapis were enacted, and whose carved wall niches are believed to have provided overflow storage space for the ancient Library. In more recent years, many ancient artifacts have been discovered from the surrounding sea, mostly pieces of old pottery.\n\nAlexandria's catacombs, known as ''Kom El Shoqafa'', are a short distance southwest of the pillar, consist of a multi-level labyrinth, reached via a large spiral staircase, and featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues, and other syncretic Romano-Egyptian religious symbols, burial niches, and sarcophagi, as well as a large Roman-style banquet room, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased. The catacombs were long forgotten by the citizens until they were discovered by accident in 1900.\n\nThe most extensive ancient excavation currently being conducted in Alexandria is known as Kom El Deka. It has revealed the ancient city's well-preserved theater, and the remains of its Roman-era baths.\n\nPersistent efforts have been made to explore the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have been given by the local Archaeological Society, and by many individuals, notably Greeks proud of a city which is one of the glories of their national history. Excavations were performed in the city by Greeks seeking the tomb of Alexander the Great without success.\nThe past and present directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time to carry out systematic excavations whenever opportunity is offered; D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund and the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in 1895; and a German expedition worked for two years (1898–1899). But two difficulties face the would-be excavator in Alexandria: lack of space for excavation and the underwater location of some areas of interest.\nSide view of The Temple of Taposiris Magna.\n\nSince the great and growing modern city stands immediately over the ancient one, it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except at enormous cost. Cleopatra VII's royal quarters were inundated by earthquakes and tsunami, leading to gradual subsidence in the 4th century AD. This underwater section, containing many of the most interesting sections of the Hellenistic city, including the palace quarter, was explored in 1992 and is still being extensively investigated by the French underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio and his team. It raised a noted head of Caesarion. These are being opened up to tourists, to some controversy. The spaces that are most open are the low grounds to northeast and southwest, where it is practically impossible to get below the Roman strata.\n\nThe most important results were those achieved by Dr. G. Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighborhood of “Pompey's Pillar”, where there is a good deal of open ground. Here, substructures of a large building or group of buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapeum. Nearby, immense catacombs and ''columbaria'' have been opened which may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now artificially lit and open to visitors.\n\nThe objects found in these researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kom El Shoqafa (Roman) and Ras El Tin (painted).\n\nThe German excavation team found remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little else. Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure under the mound of Kom El Deka, which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea, or a Roman fortress.\n\nThe making of the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being discovered. The wealth underground is doubtlessly immense; but despite all efforts, there is not much for antiquarians to see in Alexandria outside the museum and the neighborhood of “Pompey's Pillar”.\n\n===Temple of Taposiris Magna===\nThe temple was built in the Ptolemy era and dedicated to Osiris, which finished the construction of Alexandria. It is located in Abusir, the western suburb of Alexandria in Borg el Arab city. Only the outer wall and the pylons remain from the temple. There is evidence to prove that sacred animals were worshiped there. Archaeologists found an animal necropolis near the temple. Remains of a Christian church show that the temple was used as a church in later centuries. Also found in the same area are remains of public baths built by the emperor Justinian, a seawall, quays and a bridge. Near the beach side of the area, there are the remains of a tower built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The tower was an exact scale replica of the destroyed Alexandrine Pharos Lighthouse.\n", "\n\n===Islam===\nThe most famous mosque in Alexandria is El-Mursi Abul Abbas Mosque in Bahary. Other notable mosques in the city include Ali ibn Abi Talib mosque in Somouha, Bilal mosque, al-Gamaa al-Bahari in Mandara, Hatem mosque in Somouha, Hoda el-Islam mosque in Sidi Bishr, al-Mowasah mosque in Hadara, Sharq al-Madina mosque in Miami, al-Shohadaa mosque in Mostafa Kamel, Al Qa'ed Ibrahim Mosque, Yehia mosque in Zizinia, Sidi Gaber mosque in Sidi Gaber, and Sultan mosque.\n\nAlexandria is the base of the Salafi movement's in Egypt. Al-Nour Party, which is based in the city and overwhelmingly won most of the Salafi votes in the 2011–12 parliamentary election, supports the president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.\n\n===Christianity===\n\nAfter Rome and Constantinople, Alexandria was considered the third-most important seat of Christianity in the world. The Pope of Alexandria was second only to the bishop of Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire until 430. The Church of Alexandria had jurisdiction over most of the continent of Africa. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, the Church of Alexandria was split between the Miaphysites and the Melkites. The Miaphysites went on to constitute what is known today as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. The Melkites went on to constitute what is known today as the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. In the 19th century, Catholic and Protestant missionaries converted some of the adherents of the Orthodox churches to their respective faiths.\n\nToday, the Patriarchal seat of the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church is Saint Mark Cathedral in Ramleh. The most important Coptic Orthodox churches in Alexandria include Pope Cyril I Church in Cleopatra, Saint Georges Church in Sporting, Saint Mark & Pope Peter I Church in Sidi Bishr, Saint Mary Church in Assafra, Saint Mary Church in Gianaclis, Saint Mina Church in Fleming, Saint Mina Church in Mandara and Saint Takla Haymanot's Church in Ibrahimeya.\n\nThe most important Eastern Orthodox churches in Alexandria are Agioi Anárgyroi Church, Church of the Annunciation, Saint Anthony Church, Archangels Gabriel & Michael Church, Taxiarchon Church, Saint Catherine Church, Cathedral of the Dormition in Mansheya, Church of the Dormition, Prophet Elijah Church, Saint George Church, Church of the Immaculate Conception in Ibrahemeya, Saint Joseph Church in Fleming, Saint Joseph of Arimathea Church, Saint Mark & Saint Nektarios Chapel in Ramleh, Saint Nicholas Church, Saint Paraskevi Church, Saint Sava Cathedral in Ramleh, Saint Theodore Chapel and the Russian church of Saint Alexander Nevsky in Alexandria, which serves the Russian speaking community in the city.\n\nThe Apostolic Vicariate of Alexandria in Egypt-Heliopolis-Port Said has jurisdiction over all Latin Church Catholics in Egypt. Member churches include Saint Catherine Church in Mansheya and Church of the Jesuits in Cleopatra. The city is also the nominal see of the Melkite Greek Catholic titular Patriarchate of Alexandria (generally vested in its leading Patriarch of Antioch) and the actual cathedral see of its Patriarchal territory of Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan, which uses the Byzantine Rite, and the nominal see of the Armenian Catholic diocese of Iskandkeriya (for all Egypt and Sudan, whose actual cathedral is in Cairo), a suffragan of the Armenian Catholic Patriarch of Cilicia, using the Armenian Rite.\n\nThe Saint Mark Church in Shatby, founded as part of Collège Saint Marc, is multi-denominational and holds liturgies according to Latin Catholic, Coptic Catholic and Coptic Orthodox rites.\n\nIn antiquity, Alexandria was a major center of the cosmopolitan religious movement called Gnosticism (today mainly remembered as a Christian heresy).\n\n===Judaism===\nBat Mitzva in Alexandria\n\nAlexandria's once-flourishing Jewish community declined rapidly following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, after which negative reactions towards Zionism among Egyptians led to Jewish residents in the city, and elsewhere in Egypt, being perceived as Zionist collaborators. Most Jewish residents of Egypt fled to the newly established Israel, France, Brazil and other countries in the 1950s and 1960s. The community once numbered 50,000 but is now estimated at below 50. The most important synagogue in Alexandria is the Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue.\n", "Collège Saint Marc\nLycée Français d'Alexandrie\n\n===Colleges and universities===\nAlexandria has a number of higher education institutions. Alexandria University is a public university that follows the Egyptian system of higher education. Many of its faculties are internationally renowned, most notably its Faculty of Medicine & Faculty of Engineering. In addition, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology in New Borg El Arab city, its is a research university set up in collaboration between the Japanese and Egyptian governments in 2010, the Arab Academy for Science, Technology & Maritime Transport is a semi-private educational institution that offers courses for high school, undergraduate level, and postgraduate students. It is considered the most reputable university in Egypt after the AUC American University in Cairo because of its worldwide recognition from board of engineers at UK & ABET in US. Université Senghor is a private French university that focuses on the teaching of humanities, politics and international relations, which mainly targets students from the African continent. Other institutions of higher education in Alexandria include Alexandria Institute of Technology (AIT) and Pharos University in Alexandria.\n\n===Schools===\nAlexandria has a long history of foreign educational institutions. The first foreign schools date to the early 19th century, when French missionaries began establishing French charitable schools to educate the Egyptians. Today, the most important French schools in Alexandria run by Catholic missionaries include Collège de la Mère de Dieu, Collège Notre Dame de Sion, Collège Saint Marc, Ecoles des Soeurs Franciscaines (four different schools), École Girard, École Saint Gabriel, École Saint-Vincent de Paul, École Saint Joseph, École Sainte Catherine, and Institution Sainte Jeanne-Antide. As a reaction to the establishment of French religious institutions, a secular (laic) mission established Lycée el-Horreya, which initially followed a French system of education, but is currently a public school run by the Egyptian government. The only school in Alexandria that completely follows the French educational system is Lycée Français d'Alexandrie (École Champollion). It is usually frequented by the children of French expatriates and diplomats in Alexandria. The Italian school is the Istituto \"Don Bosco\".\n\nEnglish schools in Alexandria are becoming the most popular schools. English language schools in the city include: Riada Language School, Alexandria Language School, Future Language School, Future International Schools (Future IGCSE, Future American School and Future German school), Alexandria American School, British School of Alexandria, Egyptian American School, Pioneers Language School, Princesses Girls' School, Sidi Gaber Language School, Riada American School, Taymour English School, Sacred Heart Girls' School, Schutz American School, Victoria College, El Manar Language School for Girls (previously called Scottish School for Girls), Kawmeya Language School, El Nasr Boys' School (previously called British Boys' School), and El Nasr Girls' College. Most of these schools were nationalized during the rule of Gamal Abdel Nasser, and are currently Egyptian public schools run by the Egyptian Ministry of Education.\n\nThere are only two German schools in Alexandria which are Deutsche Schule der Borromärinnen (DSB of Saint Charles Borromé) and Future Deutsche Schule.\n\nThe Montessori educational system was first introduced in Alexandria in 2009 at Alexandria Montessori.\n\nThe most notable public schools in Alexandria include El Abbassia High School and Gamal Abdel Nasser High School.\n", "300px\n\n===Airports===\nAlexandria is served by Alexandria International Airport and Borg El Arab Airport which is located about away from the city center.\n\nFrom late 2011, Alexandria International Airport was to be closed to commercial operations for two years as it underwent expansion, with all airlines operating out of Borg El Arab Airport from then onwards, where a brand new terminal was completed in February 2010.\nIn 2017 the government officially announced that Alexandria International Airport will shut down for good due to operational reasons, after having initially announced that it was to open during mid-2017.\n\n===Highways===\nInternational Coastal Road (Mersa Matrouh – Alexandria – Port Said)\nCairo–Alexandria Desert Road (Alexandria – Cairo – , 6–8 lanes)\nCairo-Alexandria Agriculture Road (Alexandria – Cairo)\nMehwar El Ta'meer – (Alexandria – Borg El Arab)\n\n===Rail===\nMisr Railway Station\nAlexandria's intracity commuter rail system extends from Misr Station (Alexandria's primary intercity railway station) to Abu Qir, parallel to the tram line. The commuter line's locomotives operate on diesel, as opposed to the overhead-electric tram.\n\nAlexandria plays host to two intercity railway stations: the aforementioned Misr Station (in the older Manshia district in the western part of the city) and Sidi Gaber railway station (in the district of Sidi Gaber in the center of the eastern expansion in which most Alexandrines reside), both of which also serve the commuter rail line. Intercity passenger service is operated by Egyptian National Railways.\n\n===Trams===\n\nAn Alexandria tram\nAn extensive tramway network was built in 1860 and is the oldest in Africa. The network begins at the El Raml district in the west and ends in the Victoria district in the east. Most of the vehicles are blue in color. Some smaller yellow-colored vehicles have further routes beyond the two main endpoints. The tram routes have one of four numbers: 1, 2, 5, and 6. All four start at El Raml, but only two (1 and 2) reach Victoria. There are two converging and diverging points. The first starts at Bolkly (Isis) and ends at San Stefano. The other begins at Sporting and ends at Mostafa Kamel. Route 5 starts at San Stefano and takes the inner route to Bolkly. Route 6 starts at Sidi Gaber El Sheikh in the outer route between Sporting and Mustafa Kamel. Route 1 takes the inner route between San Stefano and Bolkly and the outer route between Sporting and Mustafa Kamel. Route 2 takes the route opposite to Route 1 in both these areas. The tram fares are 25 piastres (0.25 pounds) during most of the day, and 50 piastres (0.50 pounds) after 9pm. Some trams (that date back the 30s) charge a pound. The tram is considered the cheapest method of public transport.\n\n===Taxis and minibuses===\n\nTaxis in Alexandria sport a yellow-and-black livery and are widely available. While Egyptian law requires all cabs to carry meters, these generally do not work and fares must be negotiated with the driver on either departure or arrival.\n\nThe minibus share taxi system, or ''mashrū`'' operates along well-known traffic arteries. The routes can be identified by both their endpoints and the route between them:\nCorniche routes:\nEl Mandara – Bahari\nEl Mandara – El Mansheya\nAsafra – Bahari\nAsafra – El Mansheya\n*El Sa'aa – El Mansheya\nAbu Qir routes:\nEl Mandara – El Mahata (lit. \"the Station\", i.e. Misr Railway Station)\nAbu Qir – El Mahata\nVictoria – El Mahata\nEl Mandara – Victoria\nInterior routes:\nCabo – Bahari\nEl Mansheya – El Awayid\nEl Mansheya – El Maw'af El Gedid (the New Bus Station)\nHadara – El Mahata\n\nThe route is generally written in Arabic on the side of the vehicle, although some drivers change their route without changing the paint. Some drivers also drive only a segment of a route rather than the whole path; such drivers generally stop at a point known as a major hub of the transportation system (for example, Victoria) to allow riders to transfer to another car or to another mode of transport.\nAlexandria port\nFare is generally L.E. 2.00 to travel the whole route. Shorter trips may have a lower fare, depending on the driver and the length of the trip.\n\n===Port===\n\nAlexandria has four ports; namely the Western Port, which is the main port of the country that handles about 60% of the country’s exports and imports, Dekhela Port west of the Western Port, the Eastern Port which is a yachting harbor, and Abu Qir Port at the northern east of the governorate. It is a commercial port for general cargo and phosphates.\n", "\n===Libraries===\nThe Bibliotheca Alexandrina\n\nThe Royal Library of Alexandria, in Alexandria, Egypt, was once the largest library in the world. It is generally thought to have been founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC, during the reign of Ptolemy II of Egypt. It was likely created after his father had built what would become the first part of the library complex, the temple of the Muses—the Museion, Greek ''Μουσείον'' (from which the Modern English word ''museum'' is derived).\n\nIt has been reasonably established that the library, or parts of the collection, were destroyed by fire on a number of occasions (library fires were common and replacement of handwritten manuscripts was very difficult, expensive, and time-consuming). To this day the details of the destruction (or destructions) remain a lively source of controversy.\n\nThe Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2002, near the site of the old Library.\n\n===Museums===\n\nThe Alexandria National Museum was inaugurated 31 December 2003. It is located in a restored Italian style palace in Tariq El Horreya Street (formerly Rue Fouad), near the center of the city. It contains about 1,800 artifacts that narrate the story of Alexandria and Egypt. Most of these pieces came from other Egyptian museums. The museum is housed in the old Al-Saad Bassili Pasha Palace, who was one of the wealthiest wood merchants in Alexandria. Construction on the site was first undertaken in 1926.\nThe Cavafy Museum\nThe Graeco-Roman Museum\nThe Museum of Fine Arts\nThe Royal Jewelry Museum\n\n===Sports===\n\nThe main sport that interests Alexandrians is football, as is the case in the rest of Egypt and Africa. Alexandria Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Alexandria, Egypt. It is currently used mostly for football matches, and was used for the 2006 African Cup of Nations. The stadium is the oldest stadium in Egypt, being built in 1929. The stadium holds 20,000 people. Alexandria was one of three cities that participated in hosting the African Cup of Nations in January 2006, which Egypt won. Sea sports such as surfing, jet-skiing and water polo are practiced on a lower scale. The Skateboarding culture in Egypt started in this city. The city is also home to the Alexandria Sporting Club, which is especially known for its basketball team, which traditionally provides the country's national team with key players. The city hosted the AfroBasket, the continent's most prestigious basketball tournament, on four occasions (1970, 1975, 1983, 2003).\n\nAlexandria has four stadiums:\nAlexandria Stadium\nBorg El Arab Stadium\nEl Krom Stadium\nHarras El Hodoud Stadium\n\nOther less popular sports like tennis and squash are usually played in private social and sports clubs, like:\nAcacia Country Club\nAlexandria Sporting Club – in \"Sporting\"\nAlexandria Country club\nEl-Ittihad El-Iskandary Club\nEl-Olympi Club\nHaras El Hodood Club\nKoroum Club\nLagoon Resort Courts\nSmouha SC – in \"Smouha\"\n\n===Theaters===\nAlexandria Opera House, where classical music, Arabic music, ballet, and opera are performed.\n\n===Tourism===\nAlexandria is a main summer resort and tourist attraction, due to its public and private beaches and ancient history and Museums, especially the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, based on reviving the ancient Library of Alexandria.\n\nOne of the main tourism attractions that start every year from the city is Cross Egypt Challenge. Started in 2011, Cross Egypt Challenge is an international cross-country motorcycle and scooter rally conducted throughout the most difficult tracks and roads of Egypt. Alexandria is known as the yearly starting point of Cross Egypt Challenge and a huge celebration is conducted the night before the rally starts after all the international participants arrive to the city.\n\nFile:Shalalat gardens.JPG\|Shalalat Gardens\nFile:Tree House.jpg\|Montaza Garden\nFile:Alexandria National Museum.jpg\|Alexandria National Museum\nFile:Zentrum der Kunst in Alexandria, Ägypten.jpg\|Alexandria Art Center\nFile:Pict0179.jpg\|Alexandria Opera House\nFile:Fawzia fahmy palace.jpg\|Fawzia Fahmy Palace\nFile:San Stefano Grand Plaza 2.jpg\|San Stefano Grand Plaza\nFile:Monument of the Navy Unknown Soldier in Alexandria (6).jpg\|Monument of the Unknown Navy Soldier\nFile:King Farouk palace.jpg\|Montaza Palace\n\n", "\n\n\nThe Italian consulate in Saad Zaghloul Square\n\n===Twin towns/Sister cities===\nAlexandria is twinned with:\n* Almaty\n* Bratislava\n* Casablanca\n* Cleveland\n* Constanţa\n* Durban\n* İzmir\n* Kazanlak\n* Marseille\n* Kanpur\n* Yevlakh\n* Gyumri\n* Limassol\n* Odessa\n* Shanghai\n* St. Petersburg\n* Thessaloniki\n", "List of cities in Egypt\nAlexandria Governorate\nLibrary of Alexandria\nBaucalis\nCultural tourism in Egypt\nGovernorates of Egypt\nList of megalithic sites\nOf Alexandria\n", "\n", "A. Bernand, ''Alexandrie la Grande'' (1966)\nA. J. Butler, ''The Arab Conquest of Egypt'' (2nd. ed., 1978)\nP.-A. Claudel, ''Alexandrie. Histoire d'un mythe'' (2011)\nA. De Cosson, ''Mareotis'' (1935)\nJ.-Y. Empereur, ''Alexandria Rediscovered'' (1998)\nE. M. Forster, ''Alexandria A History and a Guide'' (1922) (reprint ed. M. Allott, 2004)\nP. M. Fraser, ''Ptolemaic Alexandria'' (1972)\nM. Haag, ''Alexandria: City of Memory'' (2004) 20th-century social and literary history\n* M. Haag, ''Vintage Alexandria: Photographs of the City 1860–1960'' (2008)\nM. Haag, ''Alexandria Illustrated''\nR. Ilbert, I. Yannakakis, ''Alexandrie 1860–1960'' (1992)\nR. Ilbert, ''Alexandrie entre deux mondes'' (1988)\n Philip Mansel, ''Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean'', London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages, , New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages, \nV. W. Von Hagen, ''The Roads that led to Rome'' (1967)\n", "\n\n* Official website\n* Greek Community of Alexandria\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Layout of the ancient city", "Geography", "Historical sites and landmarks", "Religion", "Education", "Transport", "Culture", "International relations", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Alexandria
[ "\n\n\n'''Alexandria''' is a city in Monroe Township, Madison County, Indiana, United States. It is about northeast of Indianapolis. According to the 2010 census, its population was 5,145, a decrease of 17.8% from 6,260 in 2000.\n", "Alexandria was platted in 1836 when it was certain that the Indiana Central Canal would be extended to that point. It was incorporated as a town in 1898.\n", "Alexandria is located at . According to the 2010 census, Alexandria has a total area of , all land.\n", "\nAlexandria is part of the Anderson, Indiana Metropolitan Statistical Area. \n\n===2010 census===\nAs of the census of 2010, there were 5,145 people, 2,113 households, and 1,362 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 2,507 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 97.4% White, 0.3% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.8% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.7% of the population.\n\nThere were 2,113 households of which 33.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.2% were married couples living together, 15.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.5% were non-families. 30.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.95.\n\nThe median age in the city was 38.2 years. 25.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.8% were from 25 to 44; 25.1% were from 45 to 64; and 15.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.8% male and 52.2% female.\n\n===2000 census===\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 6,260 people, 2,481 households, and 1,654 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,308.6 people per square mile (891.9/km²). There were 2,704 housing units at an average density of 997.2 per square mile (385.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 98.10% White, 0.46% Black or African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.11% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.43% from other races, and 0.80% from two or more races. 0.99% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.\n\nThere were 2,481 households out of which 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% were married couples living together, 12.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.3% were non-families. 28.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.04.\n\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.4 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $35,359, and the median income for a family was $42,731. Males had a median income of $30,529 versus $23,384 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,578. About 4.2% of families and 7.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.1% of those under age 18 and 15.0% of those age 65 or over.\n", "The city council consists of seven members. Five members are elected from individual districts and two are elected at-large. The city is governed by a \"strong\" mayor system who appoints two council members and/or city residents to serve at the mayor's pleasure on the board of public works and safety. The chief financial officer is the clerk-treasurer. The clerk-treasure and mayor are full-time elected officials. The Alexandria City Court has a part-time locally elected judge.\n", "\n===Airport===\nAlexandria Airport is a public use airport located southeast of the central business district of Alexandria.\n", "\nJoey Feek, country singer\nBill Gaither, gospel singer\nDanny Gaither, gospel singer\nGloria Gaither, author/lyricist, former singer\nCharles Corydon Hall, industrialist\nRobert L. Rock, politician\n", "\n", "\n\n* City of Alexandria, Indiana website\n* Alexandria Chamber of Commerce\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Demographics", "Government", "Transportation", "Notable people", "References", "External links" ]	Alexandria, Indiana
[ "\nCoin (Didrachm) of Alexandreia, 102-66 BC. Obverse: Laureate head of Apollo. Reverse: Apollo Smintheus standing right, quiver over shoulder, holding bow, arrow, and patera, ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝΟΣ ΣΜΙΝΘΕΩΣ ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΕΩΝ ΑΡΧΑΓΟΡΟΥ in exergue.\n\n'''Alexandria Troas''' (\"Alexandria of the Troad\"; ; ) is the site of an ancient Greek city situated on the Aegean Sea near the northern tip of Turkey's western coast, a little south of Tenedos (modern Bozcaada). It is located southeast of modern Dalyan, a village in the Ezine district of Çanakkale Province. The site sprawls over an estimated ; among the few structures remaining today are a ruined bath, an odeon, a theatre, gymnasium complex and a recently uncovered stadion. The circuit of the old walls can still be traced.\n", "\n===Hellenistic===\nAccording to Strabo, this site was first called Sigeia; around 306 BC Antigonus refounded the city as the much-expanded Antigonia Troas by settling the people of five other towns in Sigeia, including the once influential city of Neandreia. It did not receive its name until its name was changed by Lysimachus to Alexandria Troas, in 301 BC, in memory of Alexander III of Macedon (Pliny merely states, in his view, that the name changed from Antigonia to Alexandria). However, Pliny's view is not correct, because the city continued being called Alexandria Troas, and so is also stated in the 4th-5th c. AD Tabula Peutingeriana. As the chief port of north-west Asia Minor, the place prospered greatly in Roman times, becoming a \"free and autonomous city\" as early as 188 BC, and the existing remains sufficiently attest its former importance. In its heyday the city may have had a population of about 100,000. Strabo mentions that a Roman colony was created at the location in the reign of Augustus, named Colonia Alexandria Augusta Troas (called simply Troas during this period). Augustus, Hadrian and the rich grammarian Herodes Atticus contributed greatly to its embellishment; the aqueduct still preserved is due to the latter. Constantine considered making Troas the capital of the Roman Empire.\n\n===Roman===\nIn Roman times, it was a significant port for travelling between Anatolia and Europe. Paul of Tarsus sailed for Europe for the first time from Alexandria Troas and returned there from Europe (it was there that the episode of the raising of Eutychus later occurred). Ignatius of Antioch also paused at this city before continuing to his martyrdom at Rome.\n\n===Byzantine===\nSeveral of its later bishops are known: Marinus in 325; Niconius in 344; Sylvanus at the beginning of the 5th century; Pionius in 451; Leo in 787; Peter, friend of the Patriarch Ignatius, and adversary to Michael, in the ninth century. In the 10th century Troas is given as a suffragan of Cyzicus and distinct from the famous Troy (Heinrich Gelzer, ''Ungedruckte ... Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum'', 552; ''Georgii Cyprii descriptio orbis romani'', 64); it is not known when the city was destroyed and the diocese disappeared. The bishopric remains a titular see of the Catholic Church under the name Troas, vacant since 1971.\n\nTroas is also a titular see of the Orthodox Church under the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Bishop Savas (Zembillas) of Troas served as hierarch from 2002 to 2011, and then became Metropolitan Savas (Zembillas) of Pittsburgh in the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America.\n\n===Ottoman===\nKarasid Turkomans settled in the area of the Troad in the 14th century. Their ''beylik'' was conquered by the Ottomans in 1336. The ruins of Alexandria Troas came to be known among the Turks as ''Eski Stambul'', the \"Old City\". The site's stones were much plundered for building material (for example Mehmed IV took columns to adorn his Yeni Valide Mosque in Istanbul). As of the mid-18th century the site served as \"a lurking place for bandetti\".\n\n===Modern===\nBy 1911, the site had been overgrown with vallonea oaks and much plundered, but the circuit of the old walls could still be traced, and in several places they were fairly well preserved. \nThey had a circumference of about ten kilometres, and were fortified with towers at regular intervals.\nRemains of an ancient bath and gymnasium complex can be found within this area; this building is locally known as ''Bal Saray'' (Honey Palace) and was originally endowed by Herodes Atticus in the year 135. Trajan built an aqueduct which can still be traced. \nThe harbour had two large basins, now almost choked with sand. \nIt is the subject of an early twenty-first century study by German archaeologists digging and surveying at the site. \nTheir excavation uncovered the remains of a large stadium dating to about 100 BC.\n", "\n", "*Feuser, Stefan, ''Der Hafen von Alexandria Troas'' (Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt, 2009) (Asia Minor Studien, 63).\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "References", "Bibliography", " External links " ]	Alexandria Troas
[ "\n\n'''Alexandria''' (, ) is a town in West Dunbartonshire, Scotland. The town is situated on the River Leven, north-west of Dumbarton.\n", "In 2001, the population of the town was 13,444. It is the largest town in the Vale of Leven, the others being Balloch, Bonhill, Jamestown and Renton; their combined population is over 20,000.\n", "The town's traditional industries, most importantly cotton manufacturing, bleaching and printing, have been phased out. The town was redeveloped in the 1970s with a new town centre layout and traffic system. Local landmarks include Christie Park, and the Fountain in the town centre. Lomond Galleries on North Main Street is a former car factory with an impressive dome and an even more impressive marble entrance hall and staircase. It was originally built in 1906 as the Argyll Motor Works, for Argyll Motors Ltd. A carving above the entrance shows one of the company's cars. After the car production ceased in 1914 it was used by the Admiralty for the manufacture of torpedoes, which were test-fired in Loch Long, and in the early 1970s was the scene of the Plessey sit-in.\n", "Alexandria sits on the former A82 main road between Glasgow and Loch Lomond. There are regular bus services on the route and the town has a railway station on the rail line between Balloch and Glasgow Queen Street.\n\nThe town is reputed to be the only UK town with a railway station and a pub in the middle of a roundabout. A. J. Cronin's uncle owned a pub in Bridge Street. Alexandria Library is located on Gilmour Street.\n", "The town is home to Vale of Leven football club, who play at Millburn Park. The club were a dominant force in early Scottish football history, winning the Scottish Cup in 1877, 1878 and 1879, and were founder members of the Scottish Football League.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Demographics", "Economy", "Transport", "Sport", "References" ]	Alexandria, West Dunbartonshire
[ "\n\n\n'''Alexandria''' () is the capital city of the Teleorman County, Romania. It is located south-west of Bucharest, towards the Bulgarian border. The city is situated on the Vedea River and has 45,434 inhabitants.\n\n\n", "Alexandria was named after its founder, Alexander John Cuza, prince of Romania from 1859 to 1866. Its population in 1900 was 1,675. Its chief trade then was in grain, dispatched by rail to the Danubian port of Zimnicea, or by river to Giurgiu.\n", "In 1989, the city had over 63,000 people and more than six large factories.\n", "\nAlexandria, Teleorman - Catedrala Episcopală \" Sf. Alexandru\".jpg\nAlexandria.Catedrala.6.jpg\nAlexandria-Teleorman- Scoala5 in florar 2011.jpg\nStatuia.Liviu.Vasilica.Alexandria.2.jpg\nFile:Prefectura Teleorman.jpg\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Alexandria in 1900", "Alexandria after the 1989 Revolution", "Gallery", "References", "External links" ]	Alexandria, Romania
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Angela Vincent''' (born 1942) is a professor at Somerville College of Oxford University. She is the head of a research group, which is located in the West Wing within the John Radcliffe Hospital, and works on a wide range of biological disciplines encompassing molecular biology, biochemistry, cellular immunology and intracellular neurophysiology. The group's research is focused on autoimmune and genetic disorders of the neuromuscular junction, peripheral nerves and more recently the exciting field of central nervous system diseases. The principal autoimmune diseases studied are myasthenia gravis, the Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, limbic encephalitis, other types of autoimmune encephalitis and acquired neuromyotonia.\n\nHer contributions are mainly on the roles of antibodies directed against ion channels, proteins complexed to ion channels, such as LGI1, CASPR2 and Contactin-2, within neurons, glia and the nerve-muscle junction in the pathogenesis of above-mentioned diseases.\n\nShe has demonstrated that transfer of these antibodies across the placenta from the pregnant woman to the fetus in utero can cause developmental abnormalities. She has also worked on the principal gene mutations causing neuromuscular diseases.\n\nIn 2009 she presented the Leslie Oliver Oration at Queen's Hospital. In 2011, she was made a FRS.\n", "\n", "* Angela Vincent – Neuroscience\n* WIMM\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ]	Angela Vincent
[ "\nIn mathematics, the '''arithmetic–geometric mean''' ('''AGM''') of two positive real numbers and is defined as follows:\n\nFirst, compute the arithmetic and geometric means of and , calling them and respectively (the latter is the principal square root of the product ):\n\n:\n\nThen, use iteration, with taking the place of and taking the place of . In this way, two sequences and are defined:\n\n:\n\nThese two sequences converge to the same number, which is the arithmetic–geometric mean of and ; it is denoted by , or sometimes by .\n\nThis can be used for algorithmic purposes as in the AGM method, which makes it possible to construct fast algorithms for calculating exponential and trigonometric functions, as well as some mathematical constants, in particular, to quickly compute .\n", "To find the arithmetic–geometric mean of and , first calculate their arithmetic and geometric means, thus:\n\n:\n\nand then iterate as follows:\n\n:\n\nThe first five iterations give the following values:\n\n:{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n \n \n \n\n 0\n 24\n 6\n\n 1\n 5\n 2\n\n 2\n .5\n .416407864998738178455042…\n\n 3\n 203932499369089227521…\n 139030990984877207090…\n\n 4\n 45176983217305…\n 06053858316334…\n\n 5\n 20…\n 06…\n\n\nAs can be seen, the number of digits in agreement (underlined) approximately doubles with each iteration. The arithmetic–geometric mean of 24 and 6 is the common limit of these two sequences, which is approximately 13.4581714817256154207668131569743992430538388544.\n", "The first algorithm based on this sequence pair appeared in the works of Lagrange. Its properties were further analyzed by Gauss.\n", "The geometric mean of two positive numbers is never bigger than the arithmetic mean (see inequality of arithmetic and geometric means); as a consequence, is an increasing sequence, is a decreasing sequence, and . These are strict inequalities if .\n\n is thus a number between the geometric and arithmetic mean of and ; it is also between and .\n\nIf , then .\n\nThere is an integral-form expression for :\n\n:\n\nwhere is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind:\n\n:\n\nIndeed, since the arithmetic–geometric process converges so quickly, it provides an efficient way to compute elliptic integrals via this formula. In engineering, it is used for instance in elliptic filter design.\n", "The reciprocal of the arithmetic–geometric mean of 1 and the square root of 2 is called Gauss's constant, after Carl Friedrich Gauss.\n\n:\n\nThe geometric–harmonic mean can be calculated by an analogous method, using sequences of geometric and harmonic means. The arithmetic–harmonic mean can be similarly defined, but takes the same value as the geometric mean.\n\nThe arithmetic–geometric mean can be used to compute – among others – logarithms, complete and incomplete elliptic integrals of the first and second kind, and Jacobi elliptic functions.\n", "From the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means we can conclude that:\n\n:\n\nand thus\n\n:\n\nthat is, the sequence is nondecreasing.\n\nFurthermore, it is easy to see that it is also bounded above by the larger of and (which follows from the fact that both the arithmetic and geometric means of two numbers lie between them). Thus, by the monotone convergence theorem, the sequence is convergent, so there exists a such that:\n\n:\n\nHowever, we can also see that:\n\n:\n\nand so:\n\n:\n\nQ.E.D.\n", "This proof is given by Gauss.\nLet\n\n:\n\nChanging the variable of integration to , where\n\n:\n\ngives\n\n:\n\nThus, we have\n\n:\nThe last equality comes from observing that .\n\nFinally, we obtain the desired result\n\n:\n", "Gauss noticed that the sequences\n\n: \n\nas\n: \n\nhave the same limit:\n: \nthe arithmetic–geometric mean, ''agm''.\n\nIt is possible to use this fact to construct fast algorithms for calculating elementary transcendental functions and some classical constants, in particular, the constant .\n\n===Applications===\n\n====The number ''π''====\nFor example, according to the Gauss–Salamin formula:\n\n: \n\nwhere\n\n: \n\nwhich can be computed without loss of precision using\n\n: \n\n====Complete elliptic integral ''K''(sin''α'')====\nTaking , yields the ''agm'',\n: \nwhere is a complete elliptic integral of the first kind,\n:\nThat is to say that this quarter period may be efficiently computed through the ''agm'',\n:\n\n====Other applications====\nUsing this property of the AGM along with the ascending transformations of Landen, Richard Brent suggested the first AGM algorithms for the fast evaluation of elementary transcendental functions (''e''''x'', cos ''x'', sin ''x''). Subsequently, many authors went on to study the use of the AGM algorithms.\n", "* Generalized mean\n* Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means\n* Gauss–Legendre algorithm\n", "* Arithmetic-Geometric Mean Calculator\n* Proof of convergence rate in PlanetMath\n\n==References== \n===Notes===\n\n\n===Other===\n\n* Zoltán Daróczy, Zsolt Páles, (2002): \"Gauss-composition of means and the solution of the Matkowski–Suto problem\", ''Publ. Math. Debrecen'' '''61'''(1-2) pp 157–218.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Example", " History ", "Properties", " Related concepts ", "Proof of existence", "Proof of the integral-form expression", "The AGM method", "See also", "External links" ]	Arithmetic–geometric mean
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n is a Japanese manga and game artist. He first achieved mainstream recognition for his highly successful manga ''Dr. Slump'', before going on to create ''Dragon Ball''—his best-known work—and acting as a character designer for several popular video games such as the ''Dragon Quest'' series, ''Blue Dragon'' and ''Chrono Trigger''. Toriyama is regarded as one of the artists that changed the history of manga, as his works are highly influential and popular, particularly ''Dragon Ball,'' which many manga artists cite as a source of inspiration.\n\nHe earned the 1981 Shogakukan Manga Award for best ''shōnen'' or ''shōjo'' manga with ''Dr. Slump'', and it went on to sell over 35 million copies in Japan. It was adapted into a successful anime series, with a second anime created in 1997, 13 years after the manga ended. His next series, ''Dragon Ball'', would become one of the most popular and successful manga in the world. Having sold more than 240 million copies worldwide, it is the second best-selling manga of all time and is considered to be one of the main reasons for the period when manga circulation was at its highest in the mid-1980s and mid-1990s. Overseas, ''Dragon Ball''s anime adaptations have been more successful than the manga and are credited with boosting anime's popularity in the Western world.\n", "Akira Toriyama was born in Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. He has recalled that when he was in elementary school all of his classmates drew, imitating anime and manga, as a result of not having many forms of entertainment. He believes that he began to advance above everyone else when he started drawing pictures of his friends, and after winning a prize at the local art studio for a picture of ''One Hundred and One Dalmatians'', began to think \"art was fun\".\n", "\n===Early work and success 1978–2000===\nBefore becoming a manga artist, he worked at an advertising agency in Nagoya designing posters for three years. After quitting his previous job, Toriyama entered the manga industry by submitting a work to an amateur contest in a ''Jump'' magazine in order to win the prize money. While it did not win, Kazuhiko Torishima, who would later become his editor, contacted him and gave him encouragement. His debut came later in 1978 with the story ''Wonder Island'', which was published in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''. However, he did not rise to popularity until the comedy series ''Dr. Slump'', which was serialized in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' from 1980 to 1984. It follows the adventures of a perverted professor and his small but super-strong robot Arale. He began the series at age 25 while living at home with his parents, but when the series ended in 1984 he was a \"manga superstar\". In 1981, ''Dr. Slump'' earned him the Shogakukan Manga Award for best ''shōnen'' or ''shōjo'' manga series of the year. A very successful anime adaptation aired on TV from 1981 to 1986, with a remake series airing from 1997 to 1999. By 2008, the manga had sold over 35 million copies in Japan.\n\nIn 1984, ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' began serializing Toriyama's ''Dragon Ball'', which became an instant hit. To date it has sold over 156 million copies in Japan alone, making it Shueisha's second best-selling manga of all time. It began as an adventure/gag manga but later turned into a martial arts fighting series, considered by many to be the \"most influential ''shōnen'' manga\". ''Dragon Ball'' was one of the main reasons for the magazine's circulation hitting a record high of 6.53 million copies (1995). The series' success encouraged Toriyama to continue working on it from 1984 to 1995. At the series' end, Toriyama said that he asked everyone involved to let him end the manga, so he could \"take some new steps in life\". During that 11-year period, he produced 519 chapters that were collected into 42 volumes. Moreover, the success of the manga led to five anime adaptations, several animated movies, numerous video games, and mega-merchandising. The third anime adaptation, ''Dragon Ball GT'', was not based on his manga; however, Toriyama was still involved in coming up with the name and designing the main cast. Although the fifth, ''Dragon Ball Super'', is also not based on the manga, Toriyama is credited with its story and character designs. Aside from its popularity in Japan, ''Dragon Ball'' was successful internationally as well, including in Europe and North America, with a total of 240 million copies of the manga sold worldwide.\n\nToriyama's design sense led to a position designing characters for the popular ''Dragon Quest'' series of role-playing video games (formerly called ''Dragon Warrior'' in North America). He has also served as the character designer for the Super Famicom RPG ''Chrono Trigger'' and for the fighting games ''Tobal No. 1'' and ''Tobal 2'' for the PlayStation.\n\nToriyama's own studio is called Bird Studio, which is a play on his name; meaning \"bird\". Toriyama does nearly all of the work at Bird Studio himself, and even when he employed an assistant (until 1995, and only one at a time, which is itself rare for manga artists), the assistant did mostly backgrounds. The studio founded in 1983 has produced occasional one-shots, or stand-alone manga that are not serialized, and some other design work. Toriyama's manga after ''Dragon Ball'' tend to be short (100–200-page) stories, including ''Cowa!'', ''Kajika'', and ''Sand Land''.\n\n===2002–present===\nOn December 6, 2002, Toriyama made his only promotional appearance in the United States at the launch of ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'''s North American counterpart, ''Shonen Jump'', in New York City. Toriyama's ''Dragon Ball'' and ''Sand Land'' were published in the magazine in the first issue, which also included an in-depth interview with him.\n\nOn March 27, 2005, CQ Motors began selling an electric car designed by Toriyama. The one-person QVOLT is part of the company's Choro-Q series of small electric cars, with only 9 being produced. It costs 1,990,000 yen (about $19,000 US), has a top speed of and is available in 5 colors. Designed to look like an American street rod, the QVOLT has a top and a door that are both opened by pulling a cord. Toriyama stated that the car took over a year to design, \"but due to my genius mini-model construction skills, I finally arrived at the end of what was a very emotional journey.\"\n\nHe worked on a 2006 one-shot called ''Cross Epoch'', in cooperation with ''One Piece'' creator Eiichiro Oda. The story is a short crossover that presents characters from both ''Dragon Ball'' and ''One Piece''. Toriyama was the character designer and artist for the 2006 Mistwalker Xbox 360 exclusive RPG ''Blue Dragon'', working with Hironobu Sakaguchi and Nobuo Uematsu, both of whom he had previously worked with on ''Chrono Trigger''. He announced that his help with the making of the ''Blue Dragon'' anime might very well be his final work in anime. In his own words, he said:\n\n\nIn 2008, he collaborated with Masakazu Katsura, his good friend and creator of ''I\"s'' and ''Zetman'', for the ''Jump SQ'' one-shot ''Sachie-chan Good!!''. It was published in North America in the free SJ Alpha Yearbook 2013, which was mailed out to annual subscribers of the digital manga magazine ''Shonen Jump Alpha'' in December 2012. The two worked together again in 2009, for the three-chapter one-shot ''Jiya'' in ''Weekly Young Jump''.\n\nAvex Trax commissioned Toriyama to draw a portrait of pop singer Ayumi Hamasaki; it was printed on the CD of her 2009 single \"Rule/Sparkle\", which was used as the theme song to the American live-action ''Dragonball Evolution'' film. Also in 2009, Toriyama drew a manga titled ''Delicious Island's Mr. U'' for Anjō's Rural Society Project, a nonprofit environmental organization that teaches the importance of agriculture and nature to young children. They originally asked him to do the illustrations for a pamphlet, but Toriyama liked the project and decided to expand it into a story. It is included in a booklet about environmental awareness that is distributed by the Anjō city government.\n\nHe collaborated with ''Shōnen Jump'' to create a video to raise awareness and support for those affected by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on March 11, 2011. ''Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods'', the series' first theatrical film in 17 years, opened on March 30, 2013 and marks the first time Toriyama has been deeply involved in an animation, in this case as early as the screenwriting stages. A special \"dual ticket\" that can be used to see both ''Battle of Gods'' and ''One Piece Film: Z'' was created with new art by both Toriyama and Eiichiro Oda, creator of ''One Piece''.\n\nHis one-shot ''Kintoki'', originally published in 2010, was released in North America's online manga anthology ''Weekly Shonen Jump'' on January 28, 2013. On March 27, the \"Akira Toriyama: The World of ''Dragon Ball''\" exhibit opened at the Takashimaya department store in Nihonbashi, garnering 72,000 visitors in its first nineteen days. The exhibit is separated into seven areas. The first provides a look at the series' history, the second shows the 400-plus characters from the series, the third displays Toriyama's manga manuscripts from memorable scenes, the fourth shows special color illustrations, the fifth displays rare ''Dragon Ball''-related materials, the sixth includes design sketches and animation cels from the anime, and the seventh screens ''Dragon Ball''-related videos. It was there until April 15, when it moved to Osaka from April 17 to 23, and ended in Toriyama's native Nagoya from July 27 to September 1. To celebrate the 45th anniversary of ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'', Toriyama launched a new series in its July 13 issue titled ''Jaco the Galactic Patrolman''. Viz Media began serializing it in English in their digital ''Weekly Shonen Jump'' magazine, beginning just two days later.\n\nThe follow-up film to ''Battle of Gods'', ''Resurrection 'F''' released on April 18, 2015, features even more contributions from Toriyama. He currently contributes to the ''Dragon Ball Super'' anime and manga since June 2015.\n", "Toriyama married his wife on May 2, 1982. She is a former manga artist from Nagoya under the pen name , and occasionally helped Toriyama and his assistant on ''Dr. Slump'' when they were short on time. They have two children; a son named born on March 23, 1987, and a daughter born in October 1990. Toriyama lives in his home studio in Kiyosu.\n\nToriyama has a love of cars and motorcycles, something he inherited from his father who used to race motorbikes and operated an auto repair business for a brief time. Although he does not understand the mechanics himself. The author is an animal lover, having kept many different species of birds, dogs, cats, fish, lizards and bugs as pets since childhood. Some were used as models for characters he created such as Karin and Beerus. Toriyama has had a lifelong passion for plastic models, and has designed several for the Fine Molds brand. He also collected autographs of famous manga artists, having over 30 including Yudetamago and Hisashi Eguchi, a hobby he gave to Peasuke Soramame.\n", "Toriyama admires Osamu Tezuka's ''Astro Boy'' and was impressed by Walt Disney's ''One Hundred and One Dalmatians'', which he remembers for its high-quality animation. Jackie Chan's early movies also had a noticeable influence on his stories, particularly Chan's martial arts comedy film ''Drunken Master''. Toriyama stated he was influenced by animator Toyoo Ashida and the anime television series adaptation of his own ''Dragon Ball''; from which he learned that separating colors instead of blending them makes the art cleaner and coloring illustrations easier. It was Toriyama's sound effects in ''Mysterious Rain Jack'' that caught the eye of Kazuhiko Torishima, who explained that usually they are written in ''katakana'', but Toriyama used the Roman alphabet which he found refreshing. In his opinion, Torishima stated that Toriyama excels in black and white, utilizing black areas, as a result of not having had the money to buy screentone when he started drawing manga.\n\n''Dr. Slump'' is mainly a comedy series, filled with puns, toilet humor and sexual innuendos. But it also contained many science fiction elements; aliens, anthropomorphic characters, time travel, and parodies of works such as Godzilla, ''Star Wars'' and ''Star Trek''. Toriyama also included many real-life people in the series, such as his assistants, wife and colleagues (such as Masakazu Katsura), but most notably his editor Kazuhiko Torishima as the series' main antagonist, Dr. Mashirito.\n\nWhen ''Dragon Ball'' began, it was loosely based on the classic Chinese novel ''Journey to the West'', with Goku being Sun Wukong and Bulma as Xuanzang. Toriyama continued to use his characteristic comedic style in the beginning, but over the course of time this slowly changed, with him turning the series into a \"nearly-pure fighting manga\" later on. He did not plan out in advance what would happen in the series, instead choosing to draw as he went. This, coupled with him simply forgetting things he had already drawn, caused him to find himself in situations that he had to write himself out of. In a rare 2013 interview, commenting on ''Dragon Ball'''s global success, Toriyama admitted, \"Frankly, I don't quite understand why it happened. While the manga was being serialized, the only thing I wanted as I kept drawing was to make Japanese boys happy.\" Speaking of his manga in general, he said, \"The role of my manga is to be a work of entertainment through and through. I dare say I don't care even if my works have left nothing behind, as long as they have entertained their readers.\"\n\nToriyama was commissioned to illustrate the characters and monsters for the first ''Dragon Quest'' video game (1986) in order to separate it from other role-playing games of the time. He has since worked on every title in the series. For each game Yuji Horii first sends rough sketches of the characters with their background information to Toriyama, who then re-draws them. Lastly, Horii approves the finished work. Toriyama explained in 1995 that for video games, because the sprites are so small, as long as they have a distinguishing feature so people can tell which character it is, he can make complex designs without concern of having to reproduce it like he usually would in manga. Besides the character and monster designs, Toriyama also does the games' packaging art and, for ''Dragon Quest VIII'', the boats and ships. The series' Slime character, which has become a sort of mascot for the franchise, is considered to be one of the most recognizable figures in gaming.\n\nManga critic Jason Thompson declared Toriyama's art influential, saying that his \"extremely personal and recognizable style\" was a reason for ''Dragon Ball'''s popularity. He points out that the popular ''shōnen'' manga of the late 1980s and early 1990s had \"manly\" heroes, such as ''City Hunter'' and ''Fist of the North Star'', whereas ''Dragon Ball'' starred the cartoonish and small Goku, thus starting a trend that Thompson says continues to this day. Toriyama himself said he went against the normal convention that the strongest characters should be the largest in terms of physical size, designing many of the series' most powerful characters with small statures. Thompson concluded his analysis by saying that only Akira Toriyama drew like this at the time and that ''Dragon Ball'' is \"an action manga drawn by a gag manga artist.\" However, James S. Yadao, author of ''The Rough Guide to Manga'', points out that an art shift does occur in the series, as the characters gradually \"lose the rounded, innocent look that Toriyama established in ''Dr. Slump'' and gain sharper angles that leap off the page with their energy and intensity.\"\n\nThompson stated in 2011 that \"''Dragon Ball'' is by far the most influential shonen manga of the last 30 years, and today, almost every ''Shōnen Jump'' artist lists it as one of their favorites and lifts from it in various ways.\" Many manga artists have named Toriyama and ''Dragon Ball'' as influences, including ''One Piece'' author Eiichiro Oda, ''Naruto'' creator Masashi Kishimoto, ''Fairy Tail'' and ''Rave'' author Hiro Mashima, ''Venus Versus Virus'' author Atsushi Suzumi, ''Bleach'' creator Tite Kubo, ''Black Cat'' author Kentaro Yabuki, and ''Mr. Fullswing'' author Shinya Suzuki. Ian Jones-Quartey, a producer of the American animated series ''Steven Universe'', is a fan of both ''Dragon Ball'' and ''Dr. Slump'', and uses Toriyama's vehicle designs as reference for his own. He also stated that \"We're all big Toriyama fans on ''Steven Universe'', which kind of shows a bit.\" In 2008, Oricon conducted a poll of people's favorite manga artists, with Toriyama coming in second, only behind ''Nana'' author Ai Yazawa. However, he was number one among male respondents and among those over 30 years of age. They held a poll on the Mangaka that Changed the History of Manga in 2010, ''mangaka'' being the Japanese word for a manga artist. Toriyama came in second, after only Osamu Tezuka, due to his works being highly influential and popular worldwide. Toriyama won the Special 40th Anniversary Festival Award at the 2013 Angoulême International Comics Festival, honoring his years in cartooning. He actually received the most votes for the festival's Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême award that year; however, the selection committee chose Willem as the recipient. Due to his video game design work, IGN named Toriyama number 74 on their list of the Top 100 Game Creators of All Time.\n", "\n===Manga===\n\n\n Name\n Year\n Notes\n\n \n 1977\n Unpublished, submission for ''Monthly Young Jump'' Award. Printed in 1983 in Toriyama's fan club newsletter, ''Bird Land Press'' # 5 & 6.\n\n \n 1978\n Unpublished, submission for ''Monthly Young Jump'' Award. Printed in 1982 in Toriyama's fan club newsletter, ''Bird Land Press'' # 3 & 4.\n\n \n 1978\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' 1978 #52\n\n \n 1978\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' January 1979 Special Issue\n\n \n 1979\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' April Special Issue\n\n \n 1979\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' August Special Issue\n\n ''Dr. Slump''\n 1980–1984\n 236 chapters in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' 1980 #5/6 - 1984 #39, assembled into 18 ''tankōbon'', reassembled into 9 ''aizoban'' in 1990, 9 ''bunkoban'' in 1995, 15 ''kanzenban'' in 2006, and 9 digital volumes in 2013\n\n ''Pola & Roid''\n 1981\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' 1981 #17; Toriyama's prizewinning entry in the 1981 \"Jump Readers' Award\" competition\n\n ''Escape''\n 1981\n One-shot in ''Shōnen Jump'' January 1982 Special Issue\n\n ''Mad Matic''\n 1982\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' 1982 #12; Toriyama's entry in the 1982 \"Jump Readers' Award\" competition\n\n ''Pink''\n 1982\n One-shot in ''Fresh Jump'' December 1982 issue\n\n ''Hetappi Manga Kenkyūjo''\n 1982–1984\n 1 ''tankōbon'' originally serialized in ''Fresh Jump'', drawing lesson co-authored with Akira Sakuma\n\n ''Chobit''\n 1983\n 2 one-shots in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' and ''Fresh Jump''\n\n \n 1983\n 2 one-shots in ''Fresh Jump''\n\n \n 1983\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''\n\n ''Akira Toriyama's Manga Theater Vol.1''\n 1983\n 1 ''tankōbon'', collects previously published one-shots\n\n ''Dragon Ball''\n 1984–1995\n 519 chapters and one extra chapter in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' 1984 #51 - 1995 #25, compiled into 42 ''tankōbon'', reassembled into 34 ''kanzenban'' in 2002 with an altered ending\n\n \n 1986\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' 1986 #49\n\n ''Lady Red''\n 1987\n One-shot in ''Super Jump'' #2\n\n \n 1987\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' 1987 #38\n\n ''Sonchoh''\n 1987\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' 1988 #05\n\n \n 1988\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''\n\n ''Akira Toriyama's Manga Theater Vol.2''\n 1988\n 1 ''tankōbon'', collects previously published one-shots\n\n \n 1989\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''\n\n ''Rocky''\n 1989\n One-shot in , a collection of works by different artists.\n\n ''Wolf''\n 1990\n One-shot, published in the art book ''Akira Toriyama: The World''\n\n \n 1990–1991\n 3 one-shots in ''V Jump''\n\n ''Dub & Peter 1''\n 1992–1993\n 4 one-shots in ''V Jump''\n\n ''Go! Go! Ackman''\n 1993–1994\n 11 one-shots in ''V Jump''\n\n \n 1996\n Two chapters in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''\n\n ''Tokimecha''\n 1996–1997\n Three chapters in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''\n\n \n 1997\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''; Toriyama's winning entry in the revived \"''Jump'' Readers' Cup ’97\" competition, and prototype for his series ''Cowa!''\n\n ''Akira Toriyama's Manga Theater Vol.3''\n 1997\n 1 ''tankōbon'', collects previously published one-shots\n\n ''Cowa!''\n 1997–1998\n 14 chapters serialized in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'', collected in 1 ''tankōbon''\n\n ''Kajika''\n 1998\n 12 chapters serialized in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'', collected in 1 ''tankōbon''\n\n \n 1999\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''\n\n ''Neko Majin''\n 1999–2005\n 3 one-shots in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' and 5 one-shots in ''Monthly Shōnen Jump'', collected into 1 ''kanzenban''\n\n \n 2000\n One-shot drawn entirely on a computer for ''E-Jump'', a special edition of ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' focusing on electronics.\n\n ''Sand Land''\n 2000\n 14 chapters serialized in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'', collected into 1 ''tankōbon''\n\n \n 2006\n 1 chapter of , ''Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari Kōen-mae Hashutsujo'' and ''Dragon Ball'' crossover with Osamu Akimoto for 30th anniversary of ''Kochikame''.\n\n ''Cross Epoch''\n 2006\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'', ''Dragon Ball'' and ''One Piece'' crossover with Eiichiro Oda\n\n \n 2007\n One-shot in ''Monthly Shōnen Jump''\n\n \n 2008\n One-shot in ''Jump SQ'', art by Masakazu Katsura\n\n \n 2009\n One-shot in the pamphlet for ''2030 Magazine''\n\n \n 2009–2010\n 3 chapters in ''Weekly Young Jump'', art by Masakazu Katsura\n\n \n 2010\n One-shot in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''\n\n ''Jaco the Galactic Patrolman''\n 2013\n 11 chapters serialized in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'', collected into 1 ''tankōbon''\n\n\n=== Art books ===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n===Anime===\n* ''Dr. Slump – Arale-chan'' (Anime television series, 1981–1986) – original concept, based on his manga ''Dr. Slump''\n* ''Crusher Joe'' (1983 film) – space station design\n* ''Dragon Ball'' (Anime television series, 1986–1989) – original concept, based on the first half of his manga ''Dragon Ball''\n* – direction, script and character designs\n* ''Dragon Quest'' (Anime television series, 1989–1991) – original character designs\n* ''Dragon Ball Z'' (Anime television series, 1989–1996) – original concept, based on the second half of ''Dragon Ball'', title\n* – original concept, based on his manga ''Pink''\n* – original concept, based on his manga of the same name\n* ''Go! Go! Ackman'' (1994 film) – original concept, based on his manga of the same name\n* ''Imagination Science World Gulliver Boy'' (Anime television series, 1995) – mechanical designs\n* ''Dragon Ball GT'' (Anime television series, 1996–1997) – character designs, title and logo\n* ''Doctor Slump'' (Anime television series, 1997–1999) – original concept, based on his manga ''Dr. Slump''\n* – based on his manga of the same name\n* ''Blue Dragon'' (Anime television series, 2007–2008) – character designs\n* ''Dragon Ball Kai'' (Anime television series, 2009–2011, 2014–2015) – original concept, based on the second half of ''Dragon Ball''.\n* ''Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods'' (2013 film) – original concept, story and character designs\n* ''Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F''' (2015 film) – original concept, screenplay, character designs and title\n* ''Dragon Ball Super'' (Anime television series, 2015–present) – original concept, story concepts, character designs and title\n\n===Video games===\n* ''Dragon Ball: Shenlong no Nazo'' (1986) – designed the character\n* ''Famicom Jump II: Saikyō no Shichinin'' (1991) – boss monster design\n* ''Dragon Quest'' series – character designs\n* ''Dragon Quest Monsters'' series – character designs\n* ''Chrono Trigger'' (1995) – character and setting designs. Toriyama also appears in an alternate ending to the game along with the other developers. He and his Bird Studio created anime cut scenes alongside Toei Animation for the 1999 PlayStation remake.\n* ''Tobal No. 1'' (1996) – character designs\n* ''Blue Dragon'' (2006) – character designs\n* ''Blue Dragon: Awakened Shadow'' (2009) – character designs. Toriyama also voices the character Toripo, which is modeled after his \"Toribot\" self-insert.\n* ''Gaist Crusher'' (2013) – designed the character.\n* ''Chō Soku Henkei Gyrozetter'' (2013) – designed the Beeman character.\n* ''Dragon Ball FighterZ'' (2018) – designed the Android 21 character.\n\n===Other work===\n* ''Fuel Album'' (George Tokoro album, 1981) – insert illustration\n* – album cover\n* ''Polkadot Magic'' (Mami Koyama album, 1984) – album cover\n* Higashiyama Zoo and Botanical Gardens (1984) – designed the logo for the zoo's koala exhibit\n* – character designs\n* Fine Molds (1991) – designed the model maker's mascot\n* ''Super Sense Story'' (Honda road safety brochure, 1991) – character designs\n* ''V Jump'' (1994) – designed the magazine's character\n* Fine Molds (1994) – designed several of their World Fighter Collection line of models\n* ''Bitch's Life'' (art book, 2001) – 1 illustration\n* Shueisha (2002) – designed the character for the 25th anniversary of Shueisha Bunko\n* – wrote and illustrated the book\n* QVOLT (electric car, 2005) – designed the automobile\n* Jump Shop (2005) – designed ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''s online shop's character\n* \"Rule/Sparkle\" (Ayumi Hamasaki single, 2006) – an illustration of Ayumi Hamasaki as Son Goku printed on the single's CD and DVD\n* – an illustration of Chiaki for the cover\n* ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' (2009) – designed the magazine's website's character\n* ''Invade'' (Jealkb album, 2011) – album cover\n* ''Journey to the West: Conquering the Demons'' (2014) – an illustration of Sun Wukong for a poster for the film's Japanese release\n* ''My Jump'' (2016) – designed the mobile app's and characters\n", "\n", "* \n", "\n\n\n* \n* ''Akira Toriyama'' profile on MobyGames\n* ''Akira Toriyama's World'' timeline of works \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Personal life", " Style, influence and accolades ", "Works", " References ", "Further reading", " External links " ]	Akira Toriyama
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Epsilon Ursae Majoris''' ('''ε Ursae Majoris''', abbreviated '''Epsilon UMa''', '''ε UMa'''), also named '''Alioth''', is (despite being designated 'epsilon') the brightest star in the constellation of Ursa Major, and at magnitude 1.76 is the thirty-first-brightest star in the sky.\n\nIt is the star in the tail of the bear closest to its body, and thus the star in the handle of the Big Dipper (Plough) closest to the bowl. It is also a member of the large and diffuse Ursa Major moving group. Historically, the star was frequently used in celestial navigation in the maritime trade, because it is listed as one of the 57 navigational stars.\n", "Book plate by Sidney Hall depicting Ursa Major's stars\n\nAccording to ''Hipparcos'', Alioth is from the Sun. Its spectral type is A1p; the \"p\" stands for ''peculiar'', as the spectrum of its light is characteristic of an Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable. Alioth, as a representative of this type, may harbor two interacting processes. First, the star's strong magnetic field separating different elements in the star's hydrogen 'fuel'. In addition, a rotation axis at an angle to the magnetic axis may be spinning different bands of magnetically sorted elements into the line of sight between Alioth and the Earth. The intervening elements react differently at different frequencies of light as they whip in and out of view, causing Alioth to have very strange spectral lines that fluctuate over a period of 5.1 days. The ''kB9'' suffix to the spectral type indicates that the calcium K line is present and representative of a B9 spectral type even though the rest of the spectrum indicates A1.\n\nWith Alioth, the rotational and magnetic axes are at almost 90 degrees to one another. Darker (denser) regions of chromium form a band at right angles to the equator.\n\nA recent study suggests Alioth's 5.1-day variation may be due to a substellar object of about 14.7 Jupiter masses in an eccentric orbit (e=0.5) with an average separation of 0.055 astronomical units.\n\nAlioth has a relatively weak magnetic field, 15 times weaker than α CVn, but it is still 100 times stronger than that of the Earth.\n", "\n''ε Ursae Majoris'' (Latinised to ''Epsilon Ursae Majoris'') is the star's Bayer designation. \n\nThe traditional name ''Alioth'' comes from the Arabic ''alyat'' (fat tail of a sheep). In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included ''Alioth'' for this star.\n\nThis star was known to the Hindus as ''Añgiras'', one of the Seven Rishis.\n\nIn Chinese, (), meaning ''Northern Dipper'', refers to an asterism consisting of Epsilon Ursae Majoris, Alpha Ursae Majoris, Beta Ursae Majoris, Gamma Ursae Majoris, Delta Ursae Majoris, Zeta Ursae Majoris and Eta Ursae Majoris. Consequently, Epsilon Ursae Majoris itself is known as (, ) and (, ).\n", "USS Allioth (AK-109) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship named after the star.\n", "*Stars and planetary systems in fiction\n", "\n#\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Stellar properties", "Name and etymology", "Namesakes", "See also", "References" ]	Epsilon Ursae Majoris
[ "\nThe '''Amiga 500''', also known as the '''A500''', is the first low-end Commodore Amiga 16/32-bit multimedia home/personal computer. It was announced at the winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1987at the same time as the high-end Amiga 2000and competed directly against the Atari 520ST. Before Amiga 500 was shipped, Commodore suggested that the list price of the Amiga 500 was without a monitor. At delivery in October 1987, Commodore announced that the Amiga 500 would carry a list price. In Europe, the Amiga 500 was released in May 1987. In the Netherlands, the A500 was available from April 1987 for a list price of 1499 HFL (US$730 in 1987).\n\nThe Amiga 500 represents a return to Commodore's roots by being sold in the same mass retail outlets as the Commodore 64to which it was a spiritual successoras opposed to the computer-store-only Amiga 1000, as well as being another computer whose keyboard is included just above in the same case.\n\nThe original Amiga 500 proved to be Commodore’s best-selling Amiga model, enjoying particular success in Europe. Although popular with hobbyists, arguably its most widespread use was as a gaming machine, where its advanced graphics and sound were of significant benefit. Amiga 500 eventually sold 6 million units worldwide.\n", "In October 1989, the Amiga 500 dropped its price from £499 to £399 and was bundled with the ''Batman Pack'' in the United Kingdom. This price drop helped Commodore to sell more than 1 million Amiga 500s in 1989.\n\nIn late 1991, an enhanced model known as the Amiga 500 Plus replaced the original 500 in some markets; it was bundled with the ''Cartoon Classics'' pack in the United Kingdom at £399, although many stores still advertised it as an 'A500'.\n\nThe Amiga 500 series was discontinued in June 1992 and replaced by the similarly specified and priced Amiga 600, although this new machine had originally been intended as a much cheaper model, which would have been the A300. In late 1992, Commodore released the “next-generation” Amiga 1200, a machine closer in concept to the original Amiga 500, but featuring significant technical improvements. Despite this, neither the A1200 nor the A600 replicated the commercial success of its predecessor, as by this time, the popular market was definitively shifting from the home computer platforms of the past to commodity Wintel PCs and the new \"low-cost\" Macintosh Classic, LC and IIsi models.\n", "Codenamed \"Rock Lobster\" during development and outwardly resembling the Commodore 128, the Amiga 500 houses the keyboard and CPU in one shell, unlike the Amiga 1000. It utilizes a Motorola 68000 microprocessor running at (NTSC) or (PAL). The CPU implements a 32-bit model, has 32-bit registers and 32-bit internal data bus, but it has a 16-bit main ALU, uses a 16-bit external data bus and 24-bit address bus, providing a maximum of 16 MB of address space.\n\nThe earliest Amiga 500 models use nearly the same Original Amiga chipset as the Amiga 1000. So graphics can be displayed in multiple resolutions and color depths, even on the same screen. Resolutions vary from 320×200 (up to 32 colors) to 640×200 (up to 16 colors) for NTSC (704×484 overscan) and 320×256 to 640×256 for PAL (704×576 overscan.) The system uses planar graphics, with up to five bitplanes (four in high resolution) allowing 2-, 4-, 8-, 16-, and 32-color screens, from a palette of 4096 colors. Two special graphics modes are also available: Extra HalfBrite, which uses a 6th bitplane as a mask to cut the brightness of any pixel in half (resulting in 32 arbitrary colors plus 32 more colors set at half the value of the first 32), and which allows all 4096 colors to be used on screen simultaneously. Later revisions of the chipset are PAL/NTSC switchable in software.\n\nThe sound chip produces four hardware-mixed channels, two to the left and two to the right, of 8-bit PCM at a sampling frequency of up to . Each hardware channel has its own independent volume level and sampling rate, and can be designated to another channel where it can modulate both volume and frequency using its own output. With DMA disabled it's possible to output with a sampling frequency up to . There's a common trick to output sound with 14-bit precision that can be combined to output 14-bit sound.\n\nThe stock system comes with AmigaOS version 1.2 or 1.3 and of chip RAM (150 ns access time), one built-in double-density standard floppy disk drive that is completely programmable and can read IBM PC disks, standard Amiga disks, and up to using custom-formatting drivers.\n\nDespite the lack of Amiga 2000-compatible internal expansion slots, there are many ports and expansion options. There are two DE9M Atari joystick ports for joysticks or mice, stereo audio (RCA connectors 1 V p-p). There is a floppy drive port for daisy-chaining up to three extra floppy disk drives via an DB23F connector. The then-standard RS-232 serial port (DB25M) and Centronics parallel port (DB25F) are also included. The power supply is (, ). \nThe system displays video in analog RGB PAL or NTSC through a proprietary DB23M connector and in NTSC mode the line frequency is HSync for standard video modes, which is compatible with NTSC television and CVBS/RGB video, but out of range for most VGA-compatible monitors, while a multisync monitor is required for some of the higher resolutions. This connection can also be genlocked to an external video signal. The system was bundled with an RF adapter to provide output on televisions with a coaxial RF input, while monochrome composite video is available via an RCA connector (also coaxial). There is also a Zorro II bus expansion on the left side (behind a plastic cover). Peripherals such as a hard disk drive can be added via the expansion slot and are configured automatically by the Amiga's AutoConfig standard, so that multiple devices do not conflict with each other. Up to of “fast RAM\" can be added using the side expansion slot.\n\nThe Amiga 500 has a \"trap-door\" slot on the underside for an upgrade of of RAM. This extra RAM is classified as \"fast\" RAM, but is sometimes referred to as \"slow\" RAM: due to the design of the expansion bus, it is actually on the chipset bus. Such upgrades usually include a battery-backed real-time clock. All versions of the A500 can have the additional RAM configured as chip RAM by a simple hardware modification, which involves fitting a later model (8372A) Agnus chip. Likewise, all versions of the A500 can be upgraded to chip RAM by fitting the chip and adding additional memory.\n\nThe Amiga 500 also sports an unusual feature for a budget machine, socketed chips, which allow easy replacement of defective chips. The CPU can be directly upgraded on the motherboard to a 68010; or to a 68020, 68030, or 68040 via the side expansion slot; or by removing the CPU and plugging a CPU expansion card into the CPU socket (though this will require opening the computer and voiding any remaining warranty). In fact, all the custom chips can be upgraded to the Amiga Enhanced Chip Set (ECS) versions.\n\nThe case is made from ABS plastics which may become brown with time. This may be reversed by using the public-domain chemical mix \"Retr0bright\", though without a clearcoat to block oxygen, the brown colouring will return.\n\nWhenever the computer is powered on a self-diagnostic test is run that will show any failure with a specific colour where medium green means no chip RAM found or is damaged, red means bad kickstart-ROM, yellow means the CPU has crashed (no trap routine or trying to run bad code) or a bad Zorro expansion card.\n Blue means custom chip problem (Denise, Paula, or Agnus),\n means CIA problem.\nStopping on means that the CIA might be defective. mean there is a ROM or CIA problem, while\n black only (no video) means there is no video output.\nThe keyboard LED uses blink codes: one blink means the keyboard ROM has a checksum error, two blinks means RAM failure, three blinks means watchdog timer failure. Using Caps Lock key and getting a response means CIA and the CPU works. There is no guarantee that every blinking state or color is accurate. Remember when the diagnostic codes are triggered it means the computer has some kind of fault and it can easily mis-interpret the fault and give false readings. For example, if the screen flashes green it can mean the Agnus is bad, the Agnus socket is bad, the logic connected to the Agnus is bad, the logic connected to the CPU is bad, the logic connected to the RAM is bad, a connection between CPU and/or logic and/or Agnus and/or Chip RAM is bad and/or some/all of the chip RAM is faulty etc. etc. Many of the issues with Amigas are caused by damage from corrosion or poor repair skills, especially the A500+ which has a Ni-Cad battery fitted and is always corroded if the battery has not been removed. Likewise a corroded battery on an A501 can cause faults on the A500 motherboard if the corrosion is very bad and has spread to the motherboard. The self-test chip RAM check is '''very''' brief and simplistic and all the other tests are minimalistic to minimize the start-up time (as documented in the Amiga Hardware Manual and many other official Commodore technical documents) so there is no guarantee that any of the diagnostic colours are 100% accurate.\n", "The standard Amiga 500 requires floppies to boot\n* OCS (1.2 & 1.3 models) or ECS (1.3 and 500+ 2.04 models) chipset. ECS revisions of the chipset made PAL/NTSC mode switchable in software.\n Graphics can be of arbitrary dimensions, resolution and colour depth, even on the same screen.\n Without using overscan, the graphics can be 320 or 640 pixels wide by 200/256 or 400/512 pixels tall.\n Planar graphics are used, with up to 5 bitplanes (4 in hires); this allowed 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 colour screens, from a palette of 4096 colours. Two special graphics modes were also included: Extra HalfBrite, which used a 6th bitplane as a mask that halved the brightness of any colour seen, and Hold And Modify (HAM), which allowed all 4096 colours on screen at once.\n Rhett Anderson developed the so-called ''Sliced HAM'' or ''SHAM'' mode, which was based on HAM mode, but used the Copper (part of the Agnus chip which could change hardware registers at given screen positions) to reprogram the color palette registers at each scanline. The advantage of SHM files was the ability to display all 4096 colors while eliminating the color blur of HAM compression.\n** Sound is 4 hardware-mixed channels of 8-bit sound at up to . The hardware channels have independent volumes (65 levels) and sampling rates, and are mixed down to two fully left and fully right stereo outputs. A software controllable low-pass audio filter is also included.\n* 512 KB of chip RAM (150 ns access time).\n* AmigaOS 1.2 or 1.3\n* One double-density floppy disk drive is built in, which is completely programmable and thus can read IBM PC disks, standard Amiga disks, and up to with custom formatting (such as Klaus Deppich’s diskspare.device). Uses (5 rotations/second) and .\n* Built in keyboard.\n* A two-button mouse is included.\n\n=== Graphics ===\n* PAL mode: 320×256, 640×256, 640×512 (interlaced), 704×576 in overscan.\n* NTSC mode: 320×200, 640×200, 640×400 (interlaced), 704×484 in overscan.\nMax 6 bpp. The Amiga could show multiple resolution modes at the same time, splitting the screen vertically. An additional mode called Hold-And-Modify (HAM) makes it possible to utilize over a wide span. This works by letting each pixel position use the previous RGB value and modify one of the red, green or blue values to a new 4-bit value. This will cause some negligible colour artifacts however.\n\n=== Connectors ===\nBackside with connectors\nRF modulated output, to be connected to a TV\n* Two DE9M Atari joystick ports for joysticks or mice\n* Stereo audio (RCA connectors 1 V p-p)\n* A floppy drive port (DB23F), for daisy-chaining up to 3 extra floppy disk drives via an DB23F connector\n* A standard RS-232 serial port (DB25M)\n* A parallel port (DB25F)\n* Power inlet (, )\n* Analogue RGB 50 Hz PAL and NTSC video output, provided on an Amiga-specific DB23M video connector. Can drive video with HSync for standard Amiga video modes. This is not compatible with most VGA monitors. A Multisync monitor is required for some higher resolutions. This connection can also be genlocked to an external video signal. An RF adapter (A520) was frequently bundled with the machine to provide output on regular televisions or on composite monitors. A digital 16 colour Red-Green-Blue-Intensity signal is available too on the same connector.\n* Monochrome video via an RCA connector\n* Zorro II bus expansion on the left side behind a plastic cover\n* Trapdoor slot under the machine, for RAM expansion and real-time clock\n\n=== Expansions ===\n* Expansion ports are limited to a side expansion port and a trapdoor expansion on the underside of the machine. The casing can also be opened up (voiding the warranty), all larger chips are socketed rather than being TH/SMD soldered directly to the motherboard, so they can be replaced by hand.\n* The CPU can be upgraded to a Motorola 68010 directly or to a 68020, 68030 or 68040 via the side expansion slot or a CPU socket adapter board.\n* The chip RAM can be upgraded to 1 MB directly on the motherboard, provided a Fat Agnus chip is also installed to support it.\n* Likewise, all the custom chips can be upgraded to the ECS chipset.\n* The A500+ model instead allowed upgrading by trapdoor chip RAM without clock, but there was no visible means on board to map any of this as FAST, causing incompatibility with some stubbornly coded programs.\n* There were modification instructions available for the A500 to solder or socket another 512 RAM on the board, then run extra address lines to the trapdoor slot to accommodate an additional of fast or chip RAM depending on the installed chipset.\n* Up to 8 MB of “fast RAM” can be added via the side expansion slot, even more if an accelerator with a non-EC (without reduced data/address bus) processor and 32-bit RAM is used.\n* Hard drive and other peripherals can be added via the side expansion slot.\n* Several companies provided combined CPU, memory and hard drive upgradesor provided chainable expansions that extended the bus as they were addedas there is only one side expansion slot.\n* Expansions are configured automatically by AutoConfig software, so multiple pieces of hardware did not conflict with each other.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n Address \n Size in KB \n Description\n\n 0x0000 0000 \n 256.0 \n Chip RAM\n\n 0x0004 0000 \n 256.0 \n Chip RAM (A1000 option card)\n\n 0x0008 0000 \n 512.0 \n Chip RAM expansion\n\n 0x0010 0000 \n 1024.0 \n Extended Chip RAM for ECS/AGA.\n\n 0x0020 0000 \n 8192.0 \n Primary auto-config space (Fast RAM)\n\n 0x00A0 0000 \n 1984.0 \n Reserved\n\n 0x00BF D000 \n 3.8 \n 8520-B (even-byte addresses)\n\n 0x00BF E001 \n 3.8 \n 8520-A (odd-byte addresses)\n\n 0x00C0 0000 \n 1536.0 \n Internal expansion memory (pseudo-fast, \"slow\" RAM on Amiga 500)\n\n 0x00D8 0000 \n 256.0 \n Reserved\n\n 0x00DC 0000 \n 64.0 \n Real time clock\n\n 0x00DD 0000 \n 188.0 \n Reserved\n\n 0x00DF F000 \n 4.0 \n Custom chip registers\n\n 0x00E0 0000 \n 512.0 \n Reserved\n\n 0x00E8 0000 \n 64.0 \n Zorro II auto-config space (before relocation)\n\n 0x00E9 0000 \n 448.0 \n Secondary auto-config space (usually 64K I/O boards)\n\n 0x00F0 0000 \n 512.0 \n 512K System ROM (reserved for extended ROM image e.g. CDTV or CD³²)\n\n 0x00F8 0000 \n 256.0 \n 256K System ROM (Kickstart 2.04 or higher)\n\n 0x00FC 0000 \n 256.0 \n 256K System ROM\n\n", "An A501 compatible expansion\nA popular expansion for the Amiga 500 was the Amiga 501 circuit board that can be installed underneath the computer behind a plastic cover. It contains RAM configured by default as \"Slow RAM\" or \"trap-door RAM\" and a battery-backed real-time clock (RTC). However, the RAM is pseudo-fast RAM, only accessible by the processor, but still as slow as chip RAM. The motherboard can be modified to relocate the trap-door RAM to the chip memory pool, provided a compatible Agnus chip is fitted on the motherboard.\n", "* Digital hardcore group EC8OR recorded their premiere album using only an Amiga 500 and a microphone.\n* Skam group Team Doyobi recorded their premiere album ''Cryptoburners'' using only an Amiga 500 and no microphone.\n* Aggrotech artist X-fusion also recorded music from 1989 to 1992 using an Amiga 500 (and occasionally Kawai K4 and/or Roland JD-800).\n", "\n* Amiga models and variants\n* Minimigan FPGA implementation\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Releases ", " Description ", " Technical specifications ", " Memory map ", " Trap-door expansion 501 ", " Notable uses ", " See also ", " References " ]	Amiga 500
[ "\n'''Aga''' or '''AGA''' may refer to:\n\n", "AGA (Architectural Glass and Aluminum), a Glazing Contractor, established in 1970\nAGA (automobile), ''Autogen Gasaccumulator AG'', 1920's German car company\nAGA AB, ''Aktiebolaget Svenska Gasaccumulator'', a Swedish company, the originator of the AGA Cooker\nAga Rangemaster Group\n*AGA cooker, a cooker currently manufactured by Aga Rangemaster Group\nGreater Anglia, formerly Abellio Greater Anglia, a train company in the United Kingdom\n", "In general, ''Aga'' has historically been used in the Middle East as a term of respect for dignitaries or wealthy people.\nAga Khan (disambiguation)\nAgha (Ottoman Empire), Aga, Agha, or Ağa, an Ottoman Turkish military and administrative rank\nAlejandro G. Abadilla (1906–1969), Filipino poet\nAgnieszka Radwańska, Polish tennis player\nAGA (singer), Hong Kong singer\n\n===Given name===\nAga of Kish, Ensi of Kish and King of Sumer\nAga Ashurov (1880–1936), Azerbaijani statesman\nAga Muhlach (born 1969), Filipino actor and producer\nAga Zaryan (born 1976), Polish vocalist\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Agafa\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agafangel\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agafodor\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agafon\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agafonik\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Agafonika\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agap\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Agapa\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agapit\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Agapiya\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Agata (a variant of \"Agatha\")\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agav\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agavva\nAga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Avgusta\n\n=== Surname ===\nAğa, a Turkish surname\nAlemu Aga (born 1950), Ethopian musician\nAnu Aga (born 1942), Indian businesswoman\nMaria-Laura Aga (born 1994), Belgian footballer\nPatrick Aga, Nigerian politician\nRagheb Aga (born 1984), Kenyan cricketer\nSelim Aga (–1875), Sudanese slave\n", "American Gaming Association\nAmerican Gas Association\nAmerican Gastroenterological Association\nAmerican Go Association\nAmerican Grandprix Association\nAssemblies of God in Australia, a Pentecostal denomination\nAssociation of Government Accountants, government accounting professional organization that administers the CGFM certification\nAustralian Go Association\n", "Androgenetic alopecia\nAnti-gliadin antibodies\nAspartylglucosaminidase\nAdequate, appropriate or average for gestational age, referring to prenatal growth rate\n", "Aga, Egypt\nAga, Niigata, Japan\nAga Point, Guam\nAl Massira Airport, Agadir, Morocco\nBrestovăț, Timiș County, Romania, called in Hungarian\nMonte Aga, mountain in Italy\n", "Amiga Advanced Graphics Architecture, a Commodore Amiga graphics chipset\n", "Aga (bird), ''Corvus kubaryi'', the Mariana crow\nAga saga\nAguano language\nAlcohol and Gaming Authority, government body in Nova Scotia, Canada\nAlte Gesamt-Ausgabe, 19th century publication of compositions by Franz Schubert\nArt Gallery of Alberta, formerly called the Edmonton Art Gallery\n", "Agga (disambiguation)\n*Aegea\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Business", "People", "Groups", "Medicine", "Places", "Technology", "Other", "See also" ]	Aga
[ "\n\n\n\nThe '''Commodore Amiga 1000''', also known as the '''A1000''' and originally simply as the '''Amiga''', is the first personal computer released by Commodore International in the Amiga line. It combines the 16/32-bit Motorola 68000 CPU which was powerful by 1985 standards with one of the most advanced graphics and sound systems in its class, and runs a preemptive multitasking operating system that fits into of read-only memory and shipped with 256 KB of RAM. The primary memory can be expanded internally with a manufacturer supplied 256 KB module for a total of 512 KB of RAM. Using the external slot the primary memory can be expanded up to \n", "The A1000 has a number of characteristics that distinguish it from later Amiga models: It is the only model to feature the short-lived Amiga check-mark logo on its case, the majority of the case is elevated slightly to give a storage area for the keyboard when not in use (a \"keyboard garage\"), and the inside of the case is engraved with the signatures of the Amiga designers (similar to the Macintosh); including Jay Miner and the paw print of his dog Mitchy. The A1000's case was designed by Howard Stolz. As Senior Industrial Designer at Commodore, Stolz was the mechanical lead and primary interface with Sanyo in Japan, the contract manufacturer for the A1000 casing.\n\nThe Amiga 1000 was manufactured in two variations: One uses the NTSC television standard and the other uses the PAL television standard. The NTSC variant was the initial model manufactured and sold in North America. The later PAL model was manufactured in Germany and sold in countries using the PAL television standard. The first NTSC systems lacks the EHB video mode which is present in all later Amiga models.\n\nBecause AmigaOS was rather buggy at the time of the A1000's release, the OS was not placed in ROM then. Instead, the A1000 includes a daughterboard with 256 KB of RAM, dubbed the \"writable control store\" (WCS), into which the core of the operating system is loaded from floppy disk (this portion of the operating system is known as the \"Kickstart\"). The WCS is write-protected after loading, and system resets do not require a reload of the WCS. In Europe, the WCS was often referred to as WOM (Write Once Memory), a play on the more conventional term \"ROM\" (read-only memory).\n", "The preproduction Amiga (which was codenamed \"Velvet\") released to developers in early 1985 contained of RAM with an option to expand it to Commodore later increased the system memory to due to objections by the Amiga development team. The names of the custom chips were different; Denise and Paula were called Daphne and Portia respectively. The casing of the preproduction Amiga was almost identical to the production version: the main difference being an embossed Commodore logo in the top left corner. It did not have the developer signatures or the carry handle.\n\nThe Amiga 1000 has a Motorola 68000 CPU running at 7.15909 MHz (on NTSC systems) or 7.09379 MHz (PAL systems), precisely double the video color carrier frequency for NTSC or 1.6 times the color carrier frequency for PAL. The system clock timings are derived from the video frequency, which simplifies glue logic and allows the Amiga 1000 to make do with a single crystal. In keeping with its video game heritage, the chipset was designed to synchronize CPU memory access and chipset DMA so the hardware runs in real time without wait-state delays.\n\nThough most units were sold with an analog RGB monitor, the A1000 also has a built-in composite video output which allows the computer to be connected directly to some monitors other than their standard RGB monitor. The A1000 also has a \"TV MOD\" output, into which an RF Modulator can be plugged, allowing connection to a TV that was old enough not to even have a composite video input.\n\nThe original 68000 CPU can be directly replaced with a Motorola 68010, which can execute instructions slightly faster than the 68000 but also introduces a small degree of software incompatibility. Third-party CPU upgrades, which mostly fit in the CPU socket, use faster successors 68020/68881 or 68030/68882 microprocessors and integrated memory. Such upgrades often have the option to revert to 68000 mode for full compatibility. Some boards have a socket to seat the original 68000, whereas the 68030 cards typically come with an on-board 68000.\n\nThe original Amiga 1000 is the only model to have 256 KB of Amiga Chip RAM, which can be expanded to 512 KB with the addition of a daughterboard under a cover in the center front of the machine. RAM may also be upgraded via official and third-party upgrades, with a practical upper limit of about 9 MB of \"fast RAM\" due to the 68000's 24-bit address bus. This memory is accessible only by the CPU permitting faster code execution as DMA cycles are not shared with the chipset.\n\nThe Amiga 1000 features an 86-pin expansion port (electrically identical to the later Amiga 500 expansion port, though the A500's connector is inverted). This port is used by third-party expansions such as memory upgrades and SCSI adapters. These resources are handled by the Amiga Autoconfig standard. Other expansion options are available including a bus expander which provides two Zorro-II slots.\n\n=== Specifications ===\nJay Miner's signature from the top cover of a Commodore Amiga 1000 computer. The paw print is that of Mitchy, Miner's dog\nRear view of the A1000\n\n\n Attribute\n Specification\n\n Processor\n Motorola 68000 at 7.16 MHz (NTSC) or 7.09 MHz (PAL)\n\n RAM\n 256 KB of Amiga Chip RAM; upgradeable to 512 KB by dedicated cartridge\n\n ROM\n 8 KB bootstrap ROM. 256 KB WCS reserved for OS (loaded from the Kickstart floppy disk at power-on)\n\n Chipset\n Original Chip Set (OCS)\n\n Video\n 12-bit color palette (4096 colors). Graphic modes with up to 32, 64 (EHB mode; Early NTSC models do not have the EHB mode) or 4096 (HAM mode) on-screen colors:\n\n* 320×200 to 320×400i (NTSC)\n* 320×256 to 320×512i (PAL)\n\nGraphic modes with up to 16 on-screen colors:\n\n* 640×200 to 640×400i (NTSC)\n* 640×256 to 640×512i (PAL)\n\n Audio\n 4× 8-bit PCM channels (2 stereo channels); 28 kHz maximum DMA sampling rate; 70 dB S/N ratio\n\n Removable storage\n 3.5-inch DD floppy disk drive (880 KB capacity)\n\n Audio/video out\n Analog RGB video out (DB-23M); TV MOD audio/video output (for Amiga RF modulator TV connection); Composite video out (RCA); Audio out (2× RCA)\n\n Input/output ports\n Keyboard port (RJ10); 2× mouse/gamepad ports (DE9); RS-232 serial port (DB-25F); Centronics style parallel port (DB-25M); floppy disk drive port (DB-23F)\n\n Expansion slots\n 86-pin expansion port\n\n Operating system\n AmigaOS 1 (Kickstart 1.0/1.1/1.2/1.3 and Workbench 1.0/1.1/1.2/1.3)\n\n", "Introduced on July 23, 1985 during a star-studded gala featuring Andy Warhol and Debbie Harry held at the Vivian Beaumont Theater at Lincoln Center in New York City, machines began shipping in September with a base configuration of 256 KB of RAM at the retail price of . A analog RGB monitor was available for around , bringing the price of a complete Amiga system to 1,595 USD. Before the release of the Amiga 500 and Amiga 2000 models in 1987, the A1000 was simply called ''Amiga''.\n\nIn the US, the A1000 was marketed as ''The Amiga from Commodore'', with the Commodore logo omitted from the case. The Commodore branding was retained for the international versions. \n\nAdditionally, the Amiga 1000 was sold exclusively in computer stores in the US rather than the various non computer-dedicated department and toy stores through which the VIC-20 and Commodore 64 were retailed. These measures were an effort to avoid Commodore's \"toy-store\" computer image created during the Tramiel era. \n\nAlong with the operating system, the machine came bundled with a version of AmigaBASIC developed by Microsoft and a speech synthesis library developed by Softvoice, Inc.\n", "Many A1000 owners remained attached to their machines long after newer models rendered the units technically obsolete, and it attracted numerous aftermarket upgrades. Many CPU upgrades that plugged into the Motorola 68000 socket functioned in the A1000. Additionally, a line of products called the ''Rejuvenator'' series allowed the use of newer chipsets in the A1000, and an Australian-designed replacement A1000 motherboard called ''The Phoenix'' utilized the same chipset as the A3000 and added an A2000-compatible video slot and on-board SCSI controller.\n", "In 1994, as Commodore filed for bankruptcy, ''Byte'' magazine called the Amiga 1000 \"the first multimedia computer... so far ahead of its time that almost nobody—including Commodore's marketing department—could fully articulate what it was all about\".\n\nIn 2006, PC World rated the Amiga 1000 as the 7th greatest PC of all time. In 2007, it was rated by the same magazine as the 37th best tech product of all time.\n", "\n* Amiga models and variants\n* Amiga Sidecarfor using MS-DOS with Intel 8088 @ 4.77 MHz with 256 KB RAM\n", "\n", "\n* The Commodore Amiga A1000 at OLD-COMPUTERS.COM\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Design ", " Technical information ", " Retail ", " Aftermarket upgrades ", " Impact ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Amiga 1000
[ "\nThe graph of a function with a horizontal (''y'' = 0), vertical (''x'' = 0), and oblique asymptote (purple line, given by ''y=2x'').\nA curve intersecting an asymptote infinitely many times.\nIn analytic geometry, an '''asymptote''' () of a curve is a line such that the distance between the curve and the line approaches zero as one or both of the ''x'' or ''y'' coordinates tends to infinity. Some sources include the requirement that the curve may not cross the line infinitely often, but this is unusual for modern authors. In some contexts, such as algebraic geometry, an asymptote is defined as a line which is tangent to a curve at infinity.\n\nThe word asymptote is derived from the Greek ἀσύμπτωτος (''asumptōtos'') which means \"not falling together\", from ἀ priv. + σύν \"together\" + πτωτ-ός \"fallen\". The term was introduced by Apollonius of Perga in his work on conic sections, but in contrast to its modern meaning, he used it to mean any line that does not intersect the given curve.\n\nThere are three kinds of asymptotes: ''horizontal'', ''vertical'' and ''oblique'' asymptotes. For curves given by the graph of a function , horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as ''x'' tends to Vertical asymptotes are vertical lines near which the function grows without bound. An oblique asymptote has a slope that is non-zero but finite, such that the graph of the function approaches it as ''x'' tends to \n\nMore generally, one curve is a ''curvilinear asymptote'' of another (as opposed to a ''linear asymptote'') if the distance between the two curves tends to zero as they tend to infinity, although the term ''asymptote'' by itself is usually reserved for linear asymptotes.\n\nAsymptotes convey information about the behavior of curves ''in the large'', and determining the asymptotes of a function is an important step in sketching its graph. The study of asymptotes of functions, construed in a broad sense, forms a part of the subject of asymptotic analysis.\n", " graphed on Cartesian coordinates. The ''x'' and ''y''-axes are the asymptotes.\nThe idea that a curve may come arbitrarily close to a line without actually becoming the same may seem to counter everyday experience. The representations of a line and a curve as marks on a piece of paper or as pixels on a computer screen have a positive width. So if they were to be extended far enough they would seem to merge, at least as far as the eye could discern. But these are physical representations of the corresponding mathematical entities; the line and the curve are idealized concepts whose width is 0 (see Line). Therefore, the understanding of the idea of an asymptote requires an effort of reason rather than experience.\n\nConsider the graph of the function shown to the right. The coordinates of the points on the curve are of the form where x is a number other than 0. For example, the graph contains the points (1, 1), (2, 0.5), (5, 0.2), (10, 0.1), … As the values of become larger and larger, say 100, 1000, 10,000 …, putting them far to the right of the illustration, the corresponding values of , .01, .001, .0001, …, become infinitesimal relative to the scale shown. But no matter how large becomes, its reciprocal is never 0, so the curve never actually touches the ''x''-axis. Similarly, as the values of become smaller and smaller, say .01, .001, .0001, …, making them infinitesimal relative to the scale shown, the corresponding values of , 100, 1000, 10,000 …, become larger and larger. So the curve extends farther and farther upward as it comes closer and closer to the ''y''-axis. Thus, both the ''x'' and ''y''-axes are asymptotes of the curve. These ideas are part of the basis of concept of a limit in mathematics, and this connection is explained more fully below.\n", "The asymptotes most commonly encountered in the study of calculus are of curves of the form . These can be computed using limits and classified into ''horizontal'', ''vertical'' and ''oblique'' asymptotes depending on their orientation. Horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as ''x'' tends to +∞ or −∞. As the name indicates they are parallel to the ''x''-axis. Vertical asymptotes are vertical lines (perpendicular to the ''x''-axis) near which the function grows without bound. Oblique asymptotes are diagonal lines such that the difference between the curve and the line approaches 0 as ''x'' tends to +∞ or −∞. More general types of asymptotes can be defined in this case. Only open curves that have some infinite branch can have an asymptote. No closed curve can have an asymptote.\n\n===Vertical asymptotes===\nThe line ''x'' = ''a'' is a ''vertical asymptote'' of the graph of the function if at least one of the following statements is true:\n\n# \n# \n\nwhere is the limit as ''x'' approaches the value ''a'' from the left (from lesser values), and is the limit as ''x'' approaches ''a'' from the right.\n\nFor example, if ƒ(''x'') = ''x''/(''x''–1), the numerator approaches 1 and the denominator approaches 0 as ''x'' approaches 1. So\n:\nand the curve has a vertical asymptote ''x''=1. \n\nThe function ''ƒ''(''x'') may or may not be defined at ''a'', and its precise value at the point ''x'' = ''a'' does not affect the asymptote. For example, for the function\n\n:\n\nhas a limit of +∞ as , ''ƒ''(''x'') has the vertical asymptote , even though ''ƒ''(0) = 5. The graph of this function does intersect the vertical asymptote once, at (0,5). It is impossible for the graph of a function to intersect a vertical asymptote (or a vertical line in general) in more than one point. Moreover, if a function is continuous at each point where it is defined, it is impossible that its graph does intersect any vertical asymptote.\n\nA common example of a vertical asymptote is the case of a rational function at a point x such that the denominator is zero and the numerator is non-zero.\n\n===Horizontal asymptotes===\nThe graph of a function can have two horizontal asymptotes. An example of such a function would be \n\n''Horizontal asymptotes'' are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as . The horizontal line ''y'' = ''c'' is a horizontal asymptote of the function ''y'' = ''ƒ''(''x'') if\n: or .\nIn the first case, ''ƒ''(''x'') has ''y'' = ''c'' as asymptote when ''x'' tends to −∞, and in the second ''ƒ''(''x'') has ''y'' = ''c'' as an asymptote as ''x'' tends to +∞\n\nFor example, the arctangent function satisfies\n\n: and \n\nSo the line is a horizontal tangent for the arctangent when ''x'' tends to −∞, and is a horizontal tangent for the arctangent when ''x'' tends to +∞.\n\nFunctions may lack horizontal asymptotes on either or both sides, or may have one horizontal asymptote that is the same in both directions. For example, the function has a horizontal asymptote at ''y'' = 0 when ''x'' tends both to −∞ and +∞ because, respectively,\n\n:\n\n===Oblique asymptotes===\nIn the graph of , the ''y''-axis (''x'' = 0) and the line ''y'' = ''x'' are both asymptotes.\nWhen a linear asymptote is not parallel to the ''x''- and ''y''-axis, it is called an ''oblique asymptote'' or ''slant asymptote''. A function ''f''(''x'') is asymptotic to the straight line (''m'' ≠ 0) if\n\n:\n\nIn the first case the line is an oblique asymptote of ''ƒ''(''x'') when ''x'' tends to +∞, and in the second case the line is an oblique asymptote of ''ƒ(x)'' when ''x'' tends to −∞.\n\nAn example is ƒ(''x'') = ''x'' + 1/''x'', which has the oblique asymptote ''y'' = ''x'' (that is ''m'' = 1, ''n'' = 0) as seen in the limits\n:\n:\n:\n", "The asymptotes of many elementary functions can be found without the explicit use of limits (although the derivations of such methods typically use limits).\n\n===General computation of oblique asymptotes for functions===\n\nThe oblique asymptote, for the function ''f''(''x''), will be given by the equation ''y''=''mx''+''n''. The value for ''m'' is computed first and is given by\n\n:\n\nwhere ''a'' is either or depending on the case being studied. It is good practice to treat the two cases separately. If this limit doesn't exist then there is no oblique asymptote in that direction.\n\nHaving ''m'' then the value for ''n'' can be computed by\n\n:\n\nwhere ''a'' should be the same value used before. If this limit fails to exist then there is no oblique asymptote in that direction, even should the limit defining ''m'' exist. Otherwise is the oblique asymptote of ''ƒ''(''x'') as ''x'' tends to ''a''.\n\nFor example, the function has\n\n: and then\n:\n\nso that is the asymptote of ''ƒ''(''x'') when ''x'' tends to +∞.\n\nThe function has\n\n: and then\n\n:, which does not exist.\n\nSo does not have an asymptote when ''x'' tends to +∞.\n\n=== Asymptotes for rational functions ===\nA rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote or oblique (slant) asymptote, and possibly many vertical asymptotes.\n\nThe degree of the numerator and degree of the denominator determine whether or not there are any horizontal or oblique asymptotes. The cases are tabulated below, where deg(numerator) is the degree of the numerator, and deg(denominator) is the degree of the denominator.\n\n\n+ Table listing the cases of horizontal and oblique asymptotes for rational functions\n\n deg(numerator)−deg(denominator)\n Asymptotes in general\n Example\n Asymptote for example\n\n 1\n none\n \n no linear asymptote, but a curvilinear asymptote exists\n\n\nThe vertical asymptotes occur only when the denominator is zero (If both the numerator and denominator are zero, the multiplicities of the zero are compared). For example, the following function has vertical asymptotes at ''x'' = 0, and ''x'' = 1, but not at ''x'' = 2.\n:\n\n==== Oblique asymptotes of rational functions ====\nBlack: the graph of . Red: the asymptote . Green: difference between the graph and its asymptote for \n\nWhen the numerator of a rational function has degree exactly one greater than the denominator, the function has an oblique (slant) asymptote. The asymptote is the polynomial term after dividing the numerator and denominator. This phenomenon occurs because when dividing the fraction, there will be a linear term, and a remainder. For example, consider the function\n:\nshown to the right. As the value of ''x'' increases, ''f'' approaches the asymptote ''y'' = ''x''. This is because the other term, 1/(''x''+1), approaches 0.\n\nIf the degree of the numerator is more than 1 larger than the degree of the denominator, and the denominator does not divide the numerator, there will be a nonzero remainder that goes to zero as ''x'' increases, but the quotient will not be linear, and the function does not have an oblique asymptote.\n\n=== Transformations of known functions ===\nIf a known function has an asymptote (such as ''y''=0 for ''f''(x)=''e''''x''), then the translations of it also have an asymptote.\n* If ''x''=''a'' is a vertical asymptote of ''f''(''x''), then ''x''=''a''+''h'' is a vertical asymptote of ''f''(''x''-''h'')\n* If ''y''=''c'' is a horizontal asymptote of ''f''(''x''), then ''y''=''c''+''k'' is a horizontal asymptote of ''f''(''x'')+''k''\n\nIf a known function has an asymptote, then the scaling of the function also have an asymptote.\n\n* If ''y''=''ax''+''b'' is an asymptote of ''f''(''x''), then ''y''=''cax''+''cb'' is an asymptote of ''cf''(''x'')\nFor example, ''f''(''x'')=''e''''x''-1+2 has horizontal asymptote ''y''=0+2=2, and no vertical or oblique asymptotes.\n", "(sec(t), cosec(t)), or x2 + y2 = (xy)2, with 2 horizontal and 2 vertical asymptotes.\n\nLet be a parametric plane curve, in coordinates ''A''(''t'') = (''x''(''t''),''y''(''t'')). Suppose that the curve tends to infinity, that is:\n:\nA line ℓ is an asymptote of ''A'' if the distance from the point ''A''(''t'') to ℓ tends to zero as ''t'' → ''b''.\n\nFor example, the upper right branch of the curve ''y'' = 1/''x'' can be defined parametrically as ''x'' = ''t'', ''y'' = 1/''t'' (where ''t'' > 0). First, ''x'' → ∞ as ''t'' → ∞ and the distance from the curve to the ''x''-axis is 1/''t'' which approaches 0 as ''t'' → ∞. Therefore, the ''x''-axis is an asymptote of the curve. Also, ''y'' → ∞ as ''t'' → 0 from the right, and the distance between the curve and the ''y''-axis is ''t'' which approaches 0 as ''t'' → 0. So the ''y''-axis is also an asymptote. A similar argument shows that the lower left branch of the curve also has the same two lines as asymptotes.\n\nAlthough the definition here uses a parameterization of the curve, the notion of asymptote does not depend on the parameterization. In fact, if the equation of the line is then the distance from the point ''A''(''t'') = (''x''(''t''),''y''(''t'')) to the line is given by\n:\nif γ(''t'') is a change of parameterization then the distance becomes\n:\nwhich tends to zero simultaneously as the previous expression.\n\nAn important case is when the curve is the graph of a real function (a function of one real variable and returning real values). The graph of the function ''y'' = ''ƒ''(''x'') is the set of points of the plane with coordinates (''x'',''ƒ''(''x'')). For this, a parameterization is\n:\nThis parameterization is to be considered over the open intervals (''a'',''b''), where ''a'' can be −∞ and ''b'' can be +∞.\n\nAn asymptote can be either vertical or non-vertical (oblique or horizontal). In the first case its equation is ''x'' = ''c'', for some real number ''c''. The non-vertical case has equation , where ''m'' and are real numbers. All three types of asymptotes can be present at the same time in specific examples. Unlike asymptotes for curves that are graphs of functions, a general curve may have more than two non-vertical asymptotes, and may cross its vertical asymptotes more than once.\n", "''x''2+2''x''+3 is a parabolic asymptote to (''x''3+2''x''2+3''x''+4)/''x''\nLet be a parametric plane curve, in coordinates ''A''(''t'') = (''x''(''t''),''y''(''t'')), and ''B'' be another (unparameterized) curve. Suppose, as before, that the curve ''A'' tends to infinity. The curve ''B'' is a curvilinear asymptote of ''A'' if the shortest distance from the point ''A''(''t'') to a point on ''B'' tends to zero as ''t'' → ''b''. Sometimes ''B'' is simply referred to as an asymptote of ''A'', when there is no risk of confusion with linear asymptotes.\n\nFor example, the function\n:\nhas a curvilinear asymptote , which is known as a ''parabolic asymptote'' because it is a parabola rather than a straight line.\n", "Asymptotes are used in procedures of curve sketching. An asymptote serves as a guide line to show the behavior of the curve towards infinity. In order to get better approximations of the curve, curvilinear asymptotes have also been used although the term asymptotic curve seems to be preferred.\n", "A cubic curve, the folium of Descartes (solid) with a single real asymptote (dashed).\nThe asymptotes of an algebraic curve in the affine plane are the lines that are tangent to the projectivized curve through a point at infinity. For example, one may identify the asymptotes to the unit hyperbola in this manner. Asymptotes are often considered only for real curves, although they also make sense when defined in this way for curves over an arbitrary field.\n\nA plane curve of degree ''n'' intersects its asymptote at most at ''n''−2 other points, by Bézout's theorem, as the intersection at infinity is of multiplicity at least two. For a conic, there are a pair of lines that do not intersect the conic at any complex point: these are the two asymptotes of the conic.\n\nA plane algebraic curve is defined by an equation of the form ''P''(''x'',''y'') = 0 where ''P'' is a polynomial of degree ''n''\n:\nwhere ''P''''k'' is homogeneous of degree ''k''. Vanishing of the linear factors of the highest degree term ''P''''n'' defines the asymptotes of the curve: setting , if , then the line\n:\nis an asymptote if and are not both zero. If and , there is no asymptote, but the curve has a branch that looks like a branch of parabola. Such a branch is called a '''''', even when it does not have any parabola that is a curvilinear asymptote. If the curve has a singular point at infinity which may have several asymptotes or parabolic branches.\n\nOver the complex numbers, ''P''''n'' splits into linear factors, each of which defines an asymptote (or several for multiple factors). 0ver the reals, ''P''''n'' splits in factors that are linear or quadratic factors. Only the linear factors correspond to infinite (real) branches of the curve, but if a linear factor has multiplicity greater than one, the curve may have several asymptotes or parabolic branches. It may also occur that such a multiple linear factor corresponds to two complex conjugate branches, and does not corresponds to any infinite branch of the real curve. For example, the curve has no real points outside the square , but its highest order term gives the linear factor ''x'' with multiplicity 4, leading to the unique asymptote ''x''=0.\n", "\nHyperbolas, obtained cutting the same right circular cone with a plane and their asymptotes.\nThe hyperbola\n:\nhas the two asymptotes\n:\nThe equation for the union of these two lines is\n:\nSimilarly, the hyperboloid\n:\nis said to have the '''asymptotic cone'''\n\n:\n\nThe distance between the hyperboloid and cone approaches 0 as the distance from the origin approaches infinity.\n\n\nMore generally, let us consider a surface that has an implicit equation\n\nwhere the are homogeneous polynomials of degree and . Then the equation defines a cone which is centered at the origin. It is called an '''asymptotic cone''', because the distance to the cone of a point of the surface tends to zero when the point on the surface tends to infinity.\n", "* Big O notation\n", "; General references\n* \n\n; Specific references\n\n", "\n* \n* Hyperboloid and Asymptotic Cone, string surface model, 1872 from the Science Museum\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Introduction", "Asymptotes of functions", " Elementary methods for identifying asymptotes ", " General definition ", "Curvilinear asymptotes", "Asymptotes and curve sketching", "Algebraic curves", "Asymptotic cone", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Asymptote
[ "\n\n'''Andrew Stuart Tanenbaum''' (sometimes referred to by the handle '''ast''') (born March 16, 1944) is an American-Dutch computer scientist and professor emeritus of computer science at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam in the Netherlands.\n\nHe is best known as the author of MINIX, a free Unix-like operating system for teaching purposes, and for his computer science textbooks, regarded as standard texts in the field. He regards his teaching job as his most important work. Since 2004 he has operated Electoral-vote.com, a website dedicated to analysis of polling data in federal elections in the United States.\n", "Tanenbaum, was born in New York City and grew up in suburban White Plains, New York. He is Jewish. His paternal grandfather was born in Khorostkiv in the Austro-Hungarian empire.\n\nHe received his bachelor of Science degree in Physics from MIT in 1965 and his Ph.D. degree in astrophysics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1971. Tanenbaum also served as a lobbyist for the Sierra Club.\n\nHe moved to the Netherlands to live with his wife, who is Dutch, but he retains his United States citizenship. He teaches courses about Computer Organization and Operating Systems and supervises the work of Ph.D. candidates at the VU University Amsterdam. On , he announced his retirement.\n", "\n===Books===\nTanenbaum is well recognized for his textbooks on computer science. They include:\n* ''Computer Networks,'' co-authored with David J. Wetherall (1st ed. 1981, 2nd ed. 1988, 3rd ed. 1996, 4th ed. 2002, 5th ed. 2010)\n* ''Operating Systems: Design and Implementation,'' co-authored with Albert Woodhull\n* ''Modern Operating Systems''\n* ''Distributed Operating Systems''\n* ''Structured Computer Organization''\n* ''Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms,'' co-authored with Maarten van Steen\n\nHis book, ''Operating Systems: Design and Implementation'' and MINIX were Linus Torvalds' inspiration for the Linux kernel. In his autobiography ''Just for Fun'', Torvalds describes it as \"the book that launched me to new heights\".\n\nHis books have been translated into many languages including Arabic, Basque, Bulgarian, Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Macedonian, Mexican Spanish, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, and Spanish. They have appeared in over 175 editions and are used at universities around the world.\n\n===Doctoral students===\nTanenbaum has had a number of Ph.D. students who themselves have gone on to become widely known computer science researchers.\nThese include:\n* Henri Bal, a professor at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam\n* Frans Kaashoek, a professor at MIT\n* Sape Mullender, a researcher at Bell Labs\n* Robbert van Renesse, a professor at Cornell University\n* Leendert van Doorn, a distinguished engineer at the Microsoft Corporation\n* Werner Vogels, the Chief Technology Officer at Amazon.com\n\n===Dean of the Advanced School for Computing and Imaging===\nIn the early 1990s, the Dutch government began setting up a number of thematically oriented research schools that spanned multiple universities. These schools were intended to bring professors and Ph.D. students from different Dutch (and later, foreign) universities together to help them cooperate and enhance their research.\n\nTanenbaum was one of the cofounders and first Dean of the Advanced School for Computing and Imaging (ASCI). This school initially consisted of nearly 200 faculty members and Ph.D. students from the Vrije Universiteit, University of Amsterdam, Delft University of Technology, and Leiden University. They were especially working on problems in advanced computer systems such as parallel computing and image analysis and processing.\n\nTanenbaum remained dean for 12 years, until 2005, when he was awarded an Academy Professorship by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, at which time he became a full-time research professor. ASCI has since grown to include researchers from nearly a dozen universities in The Netherlands, Belgium, and France. ASCI offers Ph.D. level courses, has an annual conference, and runs various workshops every year.\n", "\n===Amsterdam Compiler Kit===\nThe Amsterdam Compiler Kit is a toolkit for producing portable compilers. It was started sometime before 1981 and Andrew Tanenbaum was the architect from the start until version 5.5.\n\n===MINIX===\nIn 1987, Tanenbaum wrote a clone of UNIX, called MINIX (MINi-unIX), for the IBM PC. It was targeted at students and others who wanted to learn how an operating system worked. Consequently, he wrote a book that listed the source code in an appendix and described it in detail in the text. The source code itself was available on a set of floppy disks. Within three months, a Usenet newsgroup, comp.os.minix, had sprung up with over 40,000 subscribers discussing and improving the system. One of these subscribers was a Finnish student named Linus Torvalds who began adding new features to MINIX and tailoring it to his own needs. On October 5, 1991, Torvalds announced his own (POSIX like) kernel, called Linux, which originally used the MINIX file system, but it is not based on MINIX code.\n\nAlthough MINIX and Linux have diverged, MINIX continues to be developed, now as a production system as well as an educational one. The focus is on building a highly modular, reliable, and secure, operating system. The system is based on a microkernel, with only 5000 lines of code running in kernel mode. The rest of the operating system runs as a number of independent processes in user mode, including processes for the file system, process manager, and each device driver. The system continuously monitors each of these processes, and when a failure is detected is often capable of automatically replacing the failed process without a reboot, without disturbing running programs, and without the user even noticing. MINIX 3, as the current version is called, is available under the BSD license for free.\n\n===Research projects===\nTanenbaum has also been involved in numerous other research projects in the areas of operating systems, distributed systems, and ubiquitous computing, often as supervisor of Ph.D. students or a postdoctoral researcher. These projects include:\n* Amoeba\n* Globe\n* Mansion\n* Orca\n* Paramecium\n* RFID Guardian\n* Turtle F2F\n\n===Electoral-vote.com===\nIn 2004, Tanenbaum created Electoral-vote.com, a web site analyzing opinion polls for the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election, using them to project the outcome in the Electoral College. He stated that he created the site as an American who \"knows first hand what the world thinks of America and it is not a pretty picture at the moment. I want people to think of America as the land of freedom and democracy, not the land of arrogance and blind revenge. I want to be proud of America again.\" The site provided a color-coded map, updated each day with projections for each state's electoral votes. Through most of the campaign period Tanenbaum kept his identity secret, referring to himself as \"the Votemaster\" and acknowledging only that he personally preferred John Kerry. A libertarian who supports the Democrats, he revealed his identity on November 1, 2004, the day before the election, also stating his reasons and qualifications for running the website.\n\nThrough the site he also covered the 2006 midterm elections, correctly predicting the winner of all 33 Senate races that year.\n\nFor the 2008 elections, he got every state right except for Indiana, which he said McCain would win by 2% (Obama won by 1%) and Missouri, which he said was too close to call (McCain won by 0.1%). He correctly predicted all the winners in the Senate except for Minnesota, where he predicted a 1% win by Norm Coleman over Al Franken. After 7 months of legal battling and recounts, Franken won by 312 votes (0.01%).\n\nIn 2010, he correctly projected 35 out of 37 Senate races in the Midterm elections on the website. The exceptions were Colorado and Nevada.\n", "The Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate was a famous debate between Tanenbaum and Linus Torvalds regarding kernel design on Usenet in 1992.\n", "* Fellow of the ACM\n* Fellow of the IEEE\n* Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1994)\n* Eurosys Lifetime Achievement Award, 2015\n* Honorary doctorate from Petru Maior University, Targu Mures, Romania, 2011\n* Winner of the TAA McGuffey award for classic textbooks for Modern Operating Systems, 2010\n* Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the LADC Conference, 2009\n* Winner of a 2.5 million euro European Research Council Advanced Grant, 2008\n* USENIX Flame Award 2008 for his many contributions to systems design and to openness both in discussion and in source\n* Honorary doctorate from Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Romania\n* Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the Real-Time and Network Systems Conf., 2008\n* Winner of the 2007 IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal\n* Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the USENIX LISA Conf., 2006\n* Coauthor of the Best Paper for High Impact at the IEEE Percom Conf., 2006\n* Academy Professor, 2004\n* Winner of the 2003 TAA McGuffey award for classic textbooks for Computer Networks\n* Winner of the 2002 TAA Texty Award for new textbooks\n* Winner of the 1997 ACM SIGCSE for contributions to computer science education\n* Winner of the 1994 ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award\n* Coauthor of the 1984 ACM SOSP Distinguished Paper Award\n\n===Honorary doctorates===\nTanenbaum in Târgu Mureș\nTanenbaum is 4th from left\n* On May 12, 2008, Tanenbaum received an honorary doctorate from Universitatea Politehnica din București. The award was given in the academic senate chamber, after which Tanenbaum gave a lecture on his vision of the future of the computer field. The degree was given in recognition of Tanenbaum's career work, which includes about 150 published papers, 18 books (which have been translated into over 20 languages), and the creation of a large body of open-source software, including the Amsterdam Compiler Kit, Amoeba, Globe, and MINIX.\n* On October 7, 2011, Universitatea Petru Maior din Târgu Mureș (Petru Maior University of Târgu Mureș) granted Tanenbaum the Doctor Honoris Causa (honorary doctorate) title for his remarkable work in the field of computer science and achievements in education. The academic community is hereby honoring his devotion to teaching and research with this award. At the ceremony, the Chancellor, the Rector, the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences and Letters, and others all spoke about Tanenbaum and his work. The pro-rector then read the 'laudatio,' summarizing Tanenbaum's achievements. These include his work developing MINIX (the predecessor to Linux), the RFID Guardian, his work on Globe, Amoeba, and other systems, and his many books on computer science, which have been translated in many languages, including Romanian, and which are used at Petru Maior University.\n", "Tanenbaum has been keynote speaker at numerous conferences, most recently\n* FrOSCon 2015 Sankt Augustin, Germany, Aug. 22, 2015\n* BSDCan 2015 Ottawa, Canada, June 12, 2015\n* HAXPO 2015 Amsterdam May 28, 2015\n* Codemotion 2015 Rome Italy, March 28, 2015 \n* SIREN 2010 Veldhoven, The Netherlands, Nov. 2, 2010\n* FOSDEM Brussels, Belgium, Feb 7, 2010\n* NSCNE '09 Changsha, China, Nov. 5, 2009\n* E-Democracy 2009 Conference Athens, Greece, Sept. 25, 2009\n* Free and Open Source Conference Sankt Augustin, Germany, August 23, 2008\n* XV Semana Informática of the Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon, Portugal, March 13, 2008\n* NLUUG 25 year anniversary conference, Amsterdam, November 7, 2007\n* linux.conf.au in Sydney, Australia, January 17, 2007\n* Academic IT Festival in Cracow, Poland, February 23, 2006 (2nd edition)\n* ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles, Brighton, England, October 24, 2005\n", "\n\n", "\n\n* Minix Article in Free Software Magazine contains an interview with Andrew Tanenbaum\n\n The MINIX 3 Operating System MINIX Official Website\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Teaching", "Projects", "Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate", "Awards", "Keynote talks", "References", "External links" ]	Andrew S. Tanenbaum
[ "\n\n'''Ariane 5''' is a European heavy-lift launch vehicle that is part of the Ariane rocket family, an expendable launch system used to deliver payloads into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) or low Earth orbit (LEO).\n\nAriane 5 rockets are manufactured under the authority of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales. Airbus Defence and Space is the prime contractor for the vehicles, leading a consortium of other European contractors.\n\nAriane 5 is operated and marketed by Arianespace as part of the ''Ariane'' programme. The rockets are launched by Arianespace from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana.\n\nAriane 5 succeeded Ariane 4, but was not derived from it directly. Ariane 5 has been refined since the first launch in successive versions, \"G\", \"G+\", \"GS\", \"ECA\", and most recently, \"ES\". ESA originally designed Ariane 5 to launch the Hermes spaceplane, and thus intended it to be human rated from the beginning.\n\nTwo satellites can be mounted using a SYLDA carrier (''SYstème de Lancement Double Ariane''). Three main satellites are possible depending on size using SPELTRA (''Structure Porteuse Externe Lancement TRiple Ariane''). Up to eight secondary payloads, usually small experiment packages or minisatellites, can be carried with an ASAP (''Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads'') platform.\n\n Arianespace has signed contracts for Ariane 5 ECA launches up till 2023, after planned introduction of Ariane 6 in 2020.\n\nOn 28 June 2017, Ariane 5 performed its 80th consecutive successful mission since 2003.\n", "Cut drawing of an Ariane 5 ECA\n\n===Cryogenic main stage===\n\nVulcain II engine\|150px\nAriane 5’s cryogenic H173 main stage (H158 for Ariane 5 G, G+, and GS) is called the EPC (''Étage Principal Cryotechnique''—Cryotechnic Main Stage). It consists of a large tank 30.5 metres high with two compartments, one for liquid oxygen and one for liquid hydrogen, and a Vulcain 2 engine at the base with a vacuum thrust of . The H173 EPC weighs about 189 tonnes, including 175 tonnes of propellant. After the main cryogenic stage runs out of fuel, it can re-enter the atmosphere for an ocean splashdown.\n\n===Solid boosters===\nAttached to the sides are two P241 (P238 for Ariane 5 G and G+) solid rocket boosters (SRBs or EAPs from the French ''Étages d’Accélération à Poudre''), each weighing about 277 tonnes full and delivering a thrust of about . They are fueled by a mix of ammonium perchlorate (68%) and aluminum fuel (18%) and HTPB (14%). They each burn for 130 seconds before being dropped into the ocean. The SRBs are usually allowed to sink to the bottom of the ocean, but like the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters they can be recovered with parachutes, and this has occasionally been done for post-flight analysis. (Unlike Space Shuttle SRBs Ariane 5 boosters are not reused.) The most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis. Prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003.\n\nThe French M51 SLBM shares a substantial amount of technology with these boosters.\n\nIn February 2000 the suspected nose cone of an Ariane 5 booster washed ashore on the South Texas coast, and was recovered by beachcombers before the government could get to it.\n\n===Second stage===\nThe second stage is on top of the main stage and below the payload. The Ariane 5 G used the EPS (''Étage à Propergols Stockables''—Storable Propellant Stage), which is fueled by monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and nitrogen tetroxide. It also has 10 tonnes of storable propellants. The EPS was improved for use on the Ariane 5 G+, GS, and ES. Ariane 5 ECA uses the ESC (''Étage Supérieur Cryotechnique''—Cryogenic Upper Stage), which is fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.\n\nThe EPS upper stage is capable of multiple ignitions, first demonstrated during flight V26 which was launched on 5 October 2007. This was purely to test the engine, and occurred after the payloads had been deployed. The first operational use of restart capability as part of a mission came on 9 March 2008, when two burns were made to deploy the first Automated Transfer Vehicle into a circular parking orbit, followed by a third burn after ATV deployment to de-orbit the stage. This procedure was repeated for all subsequent ATV flights.\n\n===Fairing===\nThe payload and all upper stages are covered at launch by a fairing, which is jettisoned once sufficient altitude has been reached (typically above 100 km). The Fairing is also used for aerodynamic stability and protection from heating during supersonic flight and acoustic loads.\n", "'''Legend for launch system status in below table:''' retired — cancelled — operational — under development\n\n\n Variant\n Description\n\n '''G'''\n The original version is dubbed Ariane 5 G (Generic) and had a launch mass of 737 tonnes. Its payload capability to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) was for a single satellite or for dual launches. It flew 17 times with one failure and two partial failures.\n\n '''G+'''\nThe Ariane 5 G+ had an improved EPS second stage, with a GTO capacity of for a single payload or for two. It flew three times in 2004, with no failures.\n\n '''GS'''\nAt the time of the failure of the first Ariane 5 ECA flight in 2002, all Ariane 5 launchers in production were ECA versions. Some of the ECA cores were modified to use the original Vulcain engine and tank volumes while the failure was investigated; these vehicles were designated Ariane 5 GS. The GS used the improved EAP boosters of the ECA variant and the improved EPS of the G+ variant, but the increased mass of the modified ECA core compared to the G and G+ core resulted in slightly reduced payload capacity. Ariane 5 GS could carry a single payload of or a dual payload of to GTO. The Ariane 5 GS flew 6 times from 2005 to 2009 with no failures.\n\n '''ECA'''\nThe Ariane 5 ECA (''Evolution Cryotechnique type A''), first successfully flown in 2005, uses an improved Vulcain 2 first-stage engine with a longer, more efficient nozzle with a more efficient flow cycle and denser propellant ratio. The new ratio required length modifications to the first-stage tanks. The EPS second stage was replaced by the ESC-A (''Etage Supérieur Cryogénique''-A), which has a dry weight of and is powered by an HM-7B engine burning of cryogenic propellant. The ESC-A uses the liquid oxygen tank and lower structure from the Ariane 4's H10 third stage, mated to a new liquid hydrogen tank. Additionally, the EAP booster casings were lightened with new welds and carry more propellant. The Ariane 5 ECA has a GTO launch capacity of for dual payloads or for a single payload. \n\n '''ES'''\nThe Ariane 5 ES (''Evolution Storable'') has an estimated LEO launch capacity of . It includes all the performance improvements of Ariane 5 ECA core and boosters but replaces the ESC-A second stage with the restartable EPS used on Ariane 5 GS variants. It was used to launch the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) into a 260 km circular low Earth orbit inclined at 51.6° and has been used to launch four Galileo navigation satellites at a time directly into their operational orbit.\n\n '''ME''' (cancelled)\nThe Ariane 5 ME (''Mid-life Evolution'') was under development until end of 2014. The last ESA ministerial council of December 2014 has cut further funding for Ariane 5 ME in favour of developing Ariane 6. Last activities for Ariane 5 ME should be completed for end of 2015. Activities on development of the VINCI upper stage have been transferred on Ariane 6.\n\n", ", the Ariane 5 commercial launch price for launching a \"midsize satellite in the lower position\" is approximately , competing for commercial launches in an increasingly competitive market, mainly due to SpaceX.\n\nThe heavier satellite launched in the upper position on a typical dual-satellite Ariane 5 launch is priced higher, on the order of .\n\nTotal launch price of an Ariane 5—which can transport up to two satellites to space, one in the \"upper\" and one in the \"lower\" positions—is around 150 million Euro as of January 2015.\n", "\n===Ariane 5 ME===\nThe Ariane 5 '''ME''' (Mid-life Evolution) was in development until 2015 and seen as a stopgap between / and the new Ariane 6. With first flight planned for 2018, it would have become ESA's principal launcher until the arrival of the new Ariane 6 version.\n\nThe Ariane 5 ME uses a new upper stage, with increased propellant volume, powered by the new Vinci engine. Unlike the HM-7B engine, it can restart several times, allowing for complex orbital maneuvers such as insertion of two satellites into different orbits, direct insertion into geosynchronous orbit, planetary exploration missions, and guaranteed upper stage deorbiting or insertion into graveyard orbit.\n\nThe new launcher also includes a lengthened fairing up to 20m and a new dual launch system to accommodate larger satellites. Compared to an Ariane 5 ECA model, the payload to GTO increases by 15% to 11.5 tonnes and the cost-per-kilogram of each launch is projected to decline by 20%.\n\n==== Development ====\nOriginally known as the Ariane 5 '''ECB''', was to have its first flight in 2006. However, the failure of the first ECA flight in 2002, combined with a deteriorating satellite industry, caused ESA to cancel development in 2003. Development of the Vinci engine continued, though at a lower pace. The ESA Council of Ministers agreed to fund development of the new upper stage in November 2008.\nIn 2009, EADS Astrium was awarded a €200 million contract, and on April 10, 2012 received another €112 million contract to continue development of the Ariane 5 ME with total development effort expected to cost €1 billion.\n\nOn 21 November 2012, ESA agreed to continue with the Ariane 5 ME to meet the challenge of lower priced competitors. It was agreed the Vinci upper stage would also be used as the second stage of a new Ariane 6, and further commonality would be sought. Ariane 5 ME qualification flight is scheduled for mid-2018, followed by gradual introduction into service.\n\nOn 2 December 2014, ESA decided to stop funding the development of Ariane 5 ME and instead focus on Ariane 6 which should have a lower cost per launch and allow more flexibility in the payloads (using two or four P120C solid boosters depending on total payload mass).\n\n===Solid propellant stage===\nWork on the Ariane 5 EAP motors have been continued in the Vega programme. The Vega 1st stage engine—the P80 engine—is a shorter derivation of the EAP. The P80 booster casing is made of filament wound graphite epoxy, much lighter than the current stainless steel casing. A new composite steerable nozzle has been developed while new thermal insulation material and a narrower throat improve the expansion ratio and subsequently the overall performance. Additionally, the nozzle now has electromechanical actuators which have replaced the heavier hydraulic ones used for thrust vector control.\n\nThese developments will probably later make their way back into the Ariane programme. The incorporation of the ESC-B with the improvements to the solid motor casing and an uprated Vulcain engine would deliver to LEO. This would be developed for any lunar missions but the performance of such a design may not be possible if the higher Max-Q for the launch of this rocket poses a constraint on the mass delivered to orbit.\n\n===Ariane 6===\n\n\nThe design brief of the next generation rocket called for a lower-cost and smaller rocket capable of launching a single satellite of up to 6.5 tonnes to GTO. However, after several permutations the finalized design was nearly identical in performance to the Ariane 5, focusing instead on lowering fabrication costs and launch prices.\n\nDevelopment is projected to cost €4 billion. Its first test launch is set for 2021. , Ariane 6 is projected to be launched for about €70 million per flight or about half of the Ariane 5 current price.\n", "\nKourou\n\nAriane 5's first test flight (Ariane 5 Flight 501) on 4 June 1996 failed, with the rocket self-destructing 37 seconds after launch because of a malfunction in the control software. A data conversion from 64-bit floating point value to 16-bit signed integer value to be stored in a variable representing horizontal bias caused a processor trap (operand error) because the floating point value was too large to be represented by a 16-bit signed integer. The software was originally written for the Ariane 4 where efficiency considerations (the computer running the software had an 80% maximum workload requirement) led to four variables being protected with a handler while three others, including the horizontal bias variable, were left unprotected because it was thought that they were \"physically limited or that there was a large margin of error\". The software, written in Ada, was included in the Ariane 5 through the reuse of an entire Ariane 4 subsystem despite the fact that the particular software containing the bug, which was just a part of the subsystem, was not required by the Ariane 5 because it has a different preparation sequence than the Ariane 4.\n\nThe second test flight (L502, on 30 October 1997) was a partial failure. The Vulcain nozzle caused a roll problem, leading to premature shutdown of the core stage. The upper stage operated successfully, but it could not reach the intended orbit.\n\nA subsequent test flight (L503, on 21 October 1998) proved successful and the first commercial launch (L504) occurred on 10 December 1999 with the launch of the XMM-Newton X-ray observatory satellite.\n\nAnother partial failure occurred on 12 July 2001, with the delivery of two satellites into an incorrect orbit, at only half the height of the intended GTO. The ESA Artemis telecommunications satellite was able to reach its intended orbit on 31 January 2003, through the use of its experimental ion propulsion system.\n\nThe next launch did not occur until 1 March 2002, when the Envisat environmental satellite successfully reached an orbit above the Earth in the 11th launch. At , it was the heaviest single payload until the launch of the first ATV on 9 March 2008 (19,360 kg).\n\nThe first launch of the ECA variant on 11 December 2002 ended in failure when a main booster problem caused the rocket to veer off-course, forcing its self-destruction three minutes into the flight. Its payload of two communications satellites (Stentor and Hot Bird 7), valued at about EUR 630 million, was lost in the ocean. The fault was determined to have been caused by a leak in coolant pipes allowing the nozzle to overheat. After this failure, Arianespace SA delayed the expected January 2003 launch for the Rosetta mission to 26 February 2004, but this was again delayed to early March 2004 due to a minor fault in the foam that protects the cryogenic tanks on the Ariane 5. As of June 2017, the failure of the first ECA launch was the last failure of an Ariane 5; since then, all subsequent launches have been successful, with 80 consecutive successes that stretch back to 9 April 2003 with the launch of INSAT-3A and Galaxy 12 satellites.\n\nOn 27 September 2003 the last Ariane 5 G boosted three satellites (including the first European lunar probe, SMART-1), in Flight 162. On 18 July 2004 an Ariane 5 G+ boosted what was at the time the heaviest telecommunication satellite ever, Anik F2, weighing almost .\n\nThe first successful launch of the Ariane 5 ECA took place on 12 February 2005. The payload consisted of the XTAR-EUR military communications satellite, a 'SLOSHSAT' small scientific satellite and a MaqSat B2 payload simulator. The launch had been originally scheduled for October 2004, but additional testing and the military requiring a launch at that time (of a Helios 2A observation satellite) delayed the attempt.\n\nOn 11 August 2005, the first Ariane 5 GS (featuring the Ariane 5 ECA's improved solid motors) boosted Thaïcom-4/iPStar-1, the heaviest telecommunications satellite to date at , into orbit.\n\nOn 16 November 2005, the third Ariane 5 ECA launch (the second successful ECA launch) took place. It carried a dual payload consisting of Spaceway-F2 for DirecTV and Telkom-2 for PT Telekomunikasi of Indonesia. This was the rocket's heaviest dual payload to date, at more than .\n\nOn 27 May 2006, an Ariane 5 ECA rocket set a new commercial payload lifting record of 8.2 tonnes. The dual-payload consisted of the Thaicom 5 and Satmex 6 satellites.\n\nOn 4 May 2007 the Ariane 5 ECA set another new commercial record, lifting into transfer orbit the Astra 1L and Galaxy 17 communication satellites with a combined weight of 8.6 tonnes, and a total payload weight of 9.4 tonnes. This record was again broken by another Ariane 5 ECA, launching the Skynet 5B and Star One C1 satellites, on 11 November 2007. The total payload weight for this launch was .\n\nOn 9 March 2008, the first Ariane 5 ES-ATV was launched to deliver the first ATV called ''Jules Verne'' to the International Space Station. The ATV was the heaviest payload ever launched by a European rocket, providing supplies to the space station with necessary propellant, water, air and dry cargo. This was the first operational Ariane mission which involved an engine restart in the upper stage. (The ES-ATV Aestus EPS upper stage was restartable while the ECA HM7-B engine was not.)\n\nOn 1 July 2009, an Ariane 5 ECA launched TerreStar-1, the largest commercial telecommunication satellite ever built.\n\nOn 28 October 2010, an Ariane 5 ECA launched Eutelsat's W3B (part of its W Series of satellites) and Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation (B-SAT)'s BSAT-3b satellites into orbit. However, the W3B satellite failed to operate shortly after the successful launch and was written off as a total loss due to an oxidizer leak in the satellite's main propulsion system. The BSAT-3b satellite, however, is operating normally.\n\nOn 22 April 2011, the Ariane 5 ECA flight VA-201 broke a commercial record, lifting Yahsat 1A and Intelsat New Dawn with a total payload weight of 10,064 kg to transfer orbit. This record was later broken again during the launch of Ariane 5 ECA flight VA-208 on 2 August 2012, lifting a total of 10,182 kg into the planned geosynchronous transfer orbit, which was broken again 6 months later on flight VA-212 with 10,317 kg sent towards geosynchronous transfer orbit. In June 2016 the GTO record was raised to 10,730 kg, on the first rocket in history that carried a satellite dedicated to financial institutions. The payload record was pushed a further 5 kg to on 24 August with the launch of Intelsat 33e and Intelsat 36. On 1 June 2017, the payload record was broken again to carrying ViaSat 2 and Eutelsat 172B.\n", "\n=== Statistics ===\nAriane 5 rockets have accumulated 94 launches since 1996, 90 of which were successful, yielding a success rate. Between April 2003 and June 2017, Ariane 5 has flown 80 consecutive missions without failure.\n\n\n\n\n\n=== List of past missions ===\n\n\n\nDate & Time (UTC)!! Flight (Vol) !! Configuration !! Serial number !! Payload(s) !! Result !! #\n\n1996-06-04 12:34 \n V-88 \n 5 G \n 501 \n Cluster \n \n 1\n\n1997-10-30 13:43 \n V-101 \n 5 G \n 502 \n MaqSat-H, TEAMSAT, MaqSat-B, YES \n \n 2\n\n1998-10-21 16:37 \n V-112 \n 5 G \n 503 \n MaqSat 3, ARD \n \n 3\n\n1999-12-10 14:32 \n V-119 \n 5 G \n 504 \n XMM-Newton \n \n 4\n\n2000-03-21 23:28 \n V-128 \n 5 G \n 505 \n INSAT-3B, AsiaStar \n \n 5\n\n2000-09-14 22:54 \n V-130 \n 5 G \n 506 \n Astra 2B, GE-7 \n \n 6\n\n2000-11-16 01:07 \n V-135 \n 5 G \n 507 \n PAS-1R, Amsat P3D, STRV 1C, STRV 1D \n \n 7\n\n2000-12-20 00:26 \n V-138 \n 5 G \n 508 \n Astra 2D, GE-8, LDREX \n \n 8\n\n2001-03-08 22:51 \n V-140 \n 5 G \n 509 \n Eutelsat 28A, BSAT-2a \n \n 9\n\n2001-07-12 21:58 \n V-142 \n 5 G \n 510 \n Artemis, BSAT-2b \n \n 10\n\n2002-03-01 01:08 \n V-145 \n 5 G \n 511 \n Envisat \n \n 11\n\n2002-07-05 23:22 \n V-153 \n 5 G \n 512 \n Stellat 5, N-Star c \n \n 12\n\n2002-08-28 22:45 \n V-155 \n 5 G \n 513 \n Atlantic Bird 1, Meteosat 8 \n \n 13\n\n2002-12-11 22:21 \n V-157 \n 5 ECA \n 517 \n Hot Bird 7, Stentor \n \n 14\n\n2003-04-09 22:52 \n V-160 \n 5 G \n 514 \n INSAT-3A, Galaxy 12 \n \n 15\n\n2003-06-11 22:38 \n V-161 \n 5 G \n 515 \n Optus and Defence C1, BSAT-2c \n \n\n 16\n\n2003-09-27 23:14 \n V-162 \n 5 G \n 516 \n INSAT-3E, eBird 1, SMART-1 \n \n 17\n\n2004-03-02 07:17 \n V-158 \n 5 G+ \n 518 \n Rosetta \n \n 18\n\n2004-07-18 00:44 \n V-163 \n 5 G+ \n 519 \n Anik F2 \n \n 19\n\n2004-12-18 16:26 \n V-165 \n 5 G+ \n 520 \n Helios 2A, Essaim 1, 2, 3, 4, PARASOL, Nanosat 01 \n \n 20\n\n2005-02-12 21:03 \n V-164 \n 5 ECA \n 521 \n XTAR-EUR, Maqsat-B2, Sloshsat \n \n 21\n\n2005-08-11 08:20 \n V-166 \n 5 GS \n 523 \n Thaicom 4 \n \n 22\n\n2005-10-13 22:32 \n V-168 \n 5 GS \n 524 \n Syracuse 3A, Galaxy 15 \n \n 23\n\n2005-11-16 23:46 \n V-167 \n 5 ECA \n 522 \n Spaceway F2, TELKOM-2 \n \n 24\n\n2005-12-21 22:33 \n V-169 \n 5 GS \n 525 \n INSAT-4A, Meteosat 9 \n \n 25\n\n2006-03-11 22:33 \n V-170 \n 5 ECA \n 527 \n Spainsat, Hot Bird 7A \n \n 26\n\n2006-05-27 21:09 \n V-171 \n 5 ECA \n 529 \n Satmex 6, Thaicom 5 \n \n 27\n\n2006-08-11 22:15 \n V-172 \n 5 ECA \n 531 \n JCSAT-10, Syracuse 3B \n \n 28\n\n2006-10-13 20:56 \n V-173 \n 5 ECA \n 533 \n DirecTV-9S, Optus D1, LDREX-2 \n \n 29\n\n2006-12-08 22:08 \n V-174 \n 5 ECA \n 534 \n WildBlue 1, AMC-18 \n \n 30\n\n2007-03-11 22:03 \n V-175 \n 5 ECA \n 535 \n Skynet 5A, INSAT-4B \n \n 31\n\n2007-05-04 22:29 \n V-176 \n 5 ECA \n 536 \n Astra 1L, Galaxy 17 \n \n 32\n\n2007-08-14 23:44 \n V-177 \n 5 ECA \n 537 \n Spaceway-3, BSAT-3A \n \n 33\n\n2007-10-05 22:02 \n V-178 \n 5 GS \n 526 \n Intelsat 11, Optus D2 \n \n34\n\n2007-11-14 22:06 \n V-179 \n 5 ECA \n 538 \n Skynet 5B, Star One C1 \n \n35\n\n2007-12-21 21:42 \n V-180 \n 5 GS \n 530 \n RASCOM-QAF 1, Horizons-2 \n \n36\n\n2008-03-09 04:03 \n V-181 \n 5 ES \n 528 \n ATV-1 \"Jules Verne\" \n \n37\n\n2008-04-18 22:17 \n V-182 \n 5 ECA \n 539 \n Star One C2, Vinasat-1 \n \n38\n\n2008-06-12 22:05 \n V-183 \n 5 ECA \n 540 \n Turksat 3A, Skynet 5C \n \n39\n\n2008-07-07 21:47 \n V-184 \n 5 ECA \n 541 \n Badr-6, ProtoStar I \n \n40\n\n2008-08-14 20:44 \n V-185 \n 5 ECA \n 542 \n AMC-21, Superbird 7 \n \n41\n\n2008-12-20 22:35 \n V-186 \n 5 ECA \n 543 \n Eutelsat W2M, Hot Bird 9 \n \n42\n\n2009-02-12 22:09 \n V-187 \n 5 ECA \n 545 \n Hot Bird 10, NSS-9, Spirale A, Spirale B \n \n43\n\n2009-05-14 13:12 \n V-188 \n 5 ECA \n 546 \n Herschel, Planck \n \n 44\n\n2009-07-01 17:52 \n V-189 \n 5 ECA \n 547 \n TerreStar-1 \n \n 45\n\n2009-08-21 22:09 \n V-190 \n 5 ECA \n 548 \n JCSAT-12, Optus D3 \n \n 46\n\n2009-10-01 21:59 \n V-191 \n 5 ECA \n 549 \n Amazonas 2, COMSATBw-1 \n \n 47\n\n2009-10-29 20:00 \n V-192 \n 5 ECA \n 550 \nNSS-12, Thor 6\n \n 48\n\n2009-12-18 16:26 \n V-193 \n 5 GS \n 532 \n Helios 2B \n \n 49\n\n2010-05-21 22:01 \n V-194 \n 5 ECA \n 551 \n Astra 3B, COMSATBw-2 \n \n 50\n\n2010-06-26 21:41 \n V-195 \n 5 ECA \n 552 \n Arabsat-5A, COMS-1 \n \n 51\n\n2010-08-04 20:59 \n V-196 \n 5 ECA \n 554 \n Nilesat 201, RASCOM-QAF 1R \n \n 52\n\n2010-10-28 21:51 \n V-197 \n 5 ECA \n 555 \n Eutelsat W3B, BSAT-3b \n \n 53\n\n2010-11-26 18:39 \n V-198 \n 5 ECA \n 556 \n Intelsat 17, HYLAS 1 \n \n 54\n\n2010-12-29 21:27 \n V-199 \n 5 ECA \n 557 \n Koreasat 6, HispaSat-1E \n \n 55\n\n2011-02-16 21:51 \n V-200 \n 5 ES \n 544 \nATV-2 \"Johannes Kepler\" \n \n 56\n\n2011-04-22 21:37 \n VA-201 \n 5 ECA \n 558 \n Yahsat 1A, Intelsat New Dawn \n \n 57\n\n2011-05-20 20:38 \n VA-202 \n 5 ECA \n 559 \n ST-2, GSAT-8 \n \n 58\n\n2011-08-06 22:52 \n VA-203 \n 5 ECA \n 560 \n Astra 1N, BSAT 3c \n \n 59\n\n2011-09-21 21:38 \n VA-204 \n 5 ECA \n 561 \n Arabsat 5C, SES-2 \n \n 60\n\n2012-03-23 04:34 \n VA-205 \n 5 ES \n 553 \nATV-3 \"Edoardo Amaldi\" \n \n 61\n\n2012-05-15 22:13 \n VA-206 \n 5 ECA \n 562 \n JCSAT-13, Vinasat-2 \n \n 62\n\n2012-07-05 21:36 \n VA-207 \n 5 ECA \n 563 \nEchoStar XVII, MSG-3 \n \n 63\n\n2012-08-02 20:54 \n VA-208 \n 5 ECA \n 564 \nINTELSAT 20, HYLAS 2 \n \n 64\n\n2012-09-28 21:18 \n VA-209 \n 5 ECA \n 565 \nAstra 2F, GSAT-10 \n \n 65\n\n2012-11-10 21:05 \n VA-210 \n 5 ECA \n 566 \nEutelsat 21B, Star One C3 \n \n 66\n\n2012-12-19 21:49 \n VA-211 \n 5 ECA \n 567 \nSkynet 5D, MEXSAT-3 \n \n 67\n\n2013-02-07 21:36\n VA-212 \n 5 ECA \n 568 \n Amazonas-3, Azerspace-1/Africasat-1a \n \n 68\n\n2013-06-05 21:52 \n VA-213 \n 5 ES \n 592 \nATV-4 \"Albert Einstein\" \n \n 69\n\n2013-07-25 19:54 \n VA-214 \n 5 ECA \n 569 \nAlphasat I-XL, INSAT-3D \n \n 70\n\n2013-08-29 20:30 \n VA-215 \n 5 ECA \n 570 \nEutelsat 25B / Es'hail 1, GSAT-7 \n \n 71\n\n2014-02-06 21:30 \n VA-217 \n 5 ECA \n 572 \nABS-2, Athena-Fidus \n \n 72\n\n2014-03-22 22:04 \n VA-216 \n 5 ECA \n 571 \nAstra 5B, Amazonas 4A \n \n 73\n\n2014-07-29 23:47 \n VA-219 \n 5 ES \n 593 \nATV-5 \"Georges Lemaître\" \n \n 74\n\n2014-09-11 22:05 \n VA-218 \n 5 ECA \n 573 \nMEASAT 3b, Optus 10 \n \n 75\n\n2014-10-16 21:43 \n VA-220 \n 5 ECA \n 574 \nIntelsat 30, ARSAT-1 \n \n 76\n\n2014-12-06 20:40 \n VA-221 \n 5 ECA \n 575 \nDirecTV-14, GSAT-16 \n \n 77\n\n2015-04-26 20:00 \n VA-222 \n 5 ECA \n 576 \nThor 7, SICRAL-2 \n \n 78\n\n2015-05-27 21:16 \n VA-223 \n 5 ECA \n 577 \nDirecTV-15, Sky Mexico 1 \n \n 79\n\n2015-07-15 21:42 \n VA-224 \n 5 ECA \n 578 \nStar One C4, MSG-4 \n \n 80\n\n2015-08-20 20:34 \n VA-225 \n 5 ECA \n 579 \nEutelsat 8 West B, Intelsat 34 \n \n 81\n\n2015-09-30 20:30 \n VA-226 \n 5 ECA \n 580 \nSky Muster, ARSAT-2 \n \n 82\n\n2015-11-10 21:34 \n VA-227 \n 5 ECA \n 581 \nArabsat 6B, GSAT-15 \n \n 83\n\n2016-01-27 23:20 \n VA-228 \n 5 ECA \n 583 \n Intelsat 29e \n \n 84\n\n2016-03-09 05:20 \n VA-229 \n 5 ECA \n 582 \n Eutelsat 65 West A \n \n 85\n\n2016-06-18 21:38 \n VA-230 \n 5 ECA \n 584 \n EchoStar 18, BRIsat \n \n 86\n\n2016-08-24 22:16 \n VA-232 \n 5 ECA \n 586 \n Intelsat 33e, Intelsat 36 \n \n 87\n\n2016-10-05 20:30 \n VA-231 \n 5 ECA \n 585 \n Sky Muster II, GSAT-18 \n \n 88\n\n2016-11-17 13:06 \n VA-233 \n 5 ES \n 594 \nGalileo FOC M6\n \n 89\n\n2016-12-21 20:30 \n VA-234 \n 5 ECA \n 587 \nStar One D1, JCSAT-15\n \n 90\n\n2017-02-14 21:39 \n VA-235 \n 5 ECA \n 588 \nSky Brasil 1, Telkom-3S\n \n 91\n\n2017-05-04 21:50\n VA-236 \n 5 ECA \n 589 \n Koreasat 7, SGDC-1 \n \n 92\n\n2017-06-01 23:45 \n VA-237 \n 5 ECA \n 590 \n ViaSat-2, Eutelsat 172B \n \n 93\n\n2017-06-28 21:15 \n VA-238 \n 5 ECA \n 591 \n EuropaSat / HellasSat-3, GSAT-17 \n \n 94\n\n2017-09-29 21:56 \n VA-239 \n 5 ECA \n 5100 \n Intelsat 37e, BSAT-4a \n \n 95\n\n\n=== Scheduled flights ===\n Ariane 5 had 20 missions on its launch manifest. Up to seven launches are planned for the year 2017: six with dual communications satellites due to geosynchronous orbit, and one with 4 Galileo satellites. A flight in March 2017 was postponed to May due to transportation to the launch site being restricted by a blockade erected by striking workers.\n\n", "* List of Ariane launches\n* Comparison of orbital launchers families\n* Comparison of orbital launch systems\n* Future Launchers Preparatory Programme\n", "\n", "\n* Ariane 5 Overview at Arianespace\n* Ariane 5 Programme Information at Astrium\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Vehicle description", "Variants", "Launch pricing and market competition", "Future developments", "Notable launches", " Launch history ", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Ariane 5
[ "\n\n'''Arianespace SA''' is a multinational company founded in 1980 as the world's first commercial launch service provider. It undertakes the production, operation, and marketing of the Ariane programme. The company offers a diverse portfolio of launch vehicles: the heavy-lift Ariane 5 for dual launches to geostationary transfer orbit, the Soyuz-2 as a medium-lift alternative, and the solid-fueled Vega for lighter payloads.\n\n, Arianespace has launched more than 550 satellites in 254 launches over years (236 Ariane missions minus the first 8 flights handled by CNES, 17 Soyuz-2 missions and 9 Vega missions). The first commercial flight managed by the new entity was Spacenet F1 launched on May 23, 1984. Arianespace uses the Guiana Space Center in French Guiana as its main launch site. Through shareholding in Starsem, it can also offer commercial Soyuz launches from the Baikonur spaceport in Kazakhstan. It has its headquarters in Courcouronnes, Essonne, France, near Évry.\n\nOn 21 October 2011 Arianespace launched the first Soyuz rocket ever from outside former Soviet territory. The payload was two Galileo navigation satellites.\n", "Arianespace Logo from 2009-2017\nArianespace primary shareholders are its suppliers, in various European nations. \nArianespace currently has 18 shareholders:\n\n\n\nCountry\nTotal share\nShareholder\nCapital\n\n \n 3.36%\n SABCA\n 2.71%\n\n Thales Alenia Space Belgium\n 0.33%\n\n Techspace Aero SA\n 0.32%\n\n \n <0.01%\n Christian Rovsing A/S \n <0.01%\n\n \n 64.10%\n\n Airbus Safran Launchers Holding\n 62.10%\n\n Air Liquide SA \n 1.89%\n\n Clemessy\n 0.11%\n\n CIE Deutsche\n <0.01%\n\n \n 19.85%\n Airbus Safran Launchers GmbH\n 11.59%\n\n MT Aerospace AG \n 8.26% \n\n \n 3.38%\n Avio S.p.A.\n 3.38%\n\n \n 1.94%\n Airbus Defence and Space B.V.\n 1.94%\n\n \n 0.11%\n Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace AS \n 0.11%\n\n \n 2.14%\n Airbus Defence and Space SAU\n 2.03%\n\n CRISA\n 0.11%\n\n \n 2.45%\n RUAG Space AB\n 0.82%\n\n GKN Aerospace Sweden AB\n 1.63%\n\n \n 2.67%\n RUAG Schweiz AG\n 2.67%\n\n\nArianespace shareholding has been restructured with the creation of an Airbus Safran Launchers company that will develop and manufacture the Ariane 6 launcher. Airbus and Safran shareholdings were pooled along with the purchase of the French governments CNES stake to form a partnership company holding just under 74% of Arianespace shares while the remaining 26% is spread across companies in ten countries including further Airbus subsidiaries.\n\n===Corporate management===\n\n Position\n Name\n\n CEO & Chairman\n Stéphane Israël\n\n Senior Vice-President, Programs\n Louis Laurent\n\n Senior Vice-President, Sales & Customers\n Jacques Breton\n\n Senior Vice President, Chief Financial Officer\n Thomas Hundt\n\n Vice President, Corporate Communication\n Isabelle Veillon\n\n\n====Offices====\n\n Location of Office\n Head of Branch\n\n French Guiana\n Patrick Loire\n\n USA\n Wiener Kernisan\n\n Japan\n Kiyoshi Takamatsu\n\n Singapore\n Richard Bowles\n\n\n===Subsidiaries===\n* Arianespace inc. (U.S. Subsidiary)\n* Arianespace Singapore PTE LTD. (Asian Subsidiary)\n* Starsem S.A. (European-Russian Soyuz commercialization)\n", "\n\nIn 2004, Arianespace held more than 50% of the world market for boosting satellites to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).\n\nHowever, the disruptive force represented by the new sector entrant SpaceX forced Arianespace to cut back on its workforce and focus on cost-cutting to decrease costs to remain competitive against the new low-cost entrant in the launch sector. \n\nAccording to an Arianespace managing director, \"It's quite clear there's a very significant challenge coming from SpaceX,\" he said in 2015. \"Therefore things have to change … and the whole European industry is being restructured, consolidated, rationalised and streamlined.\" \n\nIn the midst of pricing pressure from U.S. company SpaceX, Arianespace made a November 2013 announcement of pricing flexibility for the \"lighter satellites\" it carries to Geostationary orbits aboard its Ariane 5. \n\nIn early 2014, Arianespace was considering requesting additional subsidies from European governments to face the competition from SpaceX and unfavorable changes in the Euro-Dollar exchange rate. The company had halved subsidy support by €100m per year since 2002 but the fall in the value of the US Dollar meant Arianespace was losing €60m per year due to currency fluctuations on launch contracts. \n\nReducing the cost allowed Arianespace to sign four additional contracts in September 2014 for lower slots on a Ariane 5 SYLDA dispenser for the satellites that otherwise could be flown on a SpaceX launch vehicle. \n\nArianespace signed 11 contracts in 2014 until September that year. with two additional being in a late stage of negotiations. Arianespace has a backlog of launches worth billion with 38 satellites to be launched on Ariane 5, 7 on Soyuz and 9 on Vega, claiming 60% of the global satellite launch market.\n\nBy November 2014, SpaceX had \"already begun to take market share\" from Arianespace, and Eutelsat CEO Michel de Rosen — a major customer of Arianespace — said that \"Each year that passes will see SpaceX advance, gain market share and further reduce its costs through economies of scale.\" \n", "Mockups of all the vehicles of Arianespace, including the future Ariane 6\nCurrently Arianespace operates 3 launch vehicles, including two versions of Ariane 5:\n\n\nName\nPayload to LEO (including SSO)\nPayload to GTO\n\n Vega\n \n -\n\n Soyuz\n \n \n\n Ariane 5 ECA\n -\n \n\n Ariane 5 ES\n \n -\n\nAdditionally Arianespace offers optional back-up launch service on H-IIA through Launch Services Alliance.\n\n===Ariane launch vehicles===\n\nSince the first launch in 1979, there have been several versions of the Ariane launch vehicle:\n\nAriane 1, first successful launch on December 24, 1979\nAriane 2, first successful launch on November 20, 1987 ''(the first launch on May 30, 1986 failed)''\nAriane 3, first successful launch on August 4, 1984\nAriane 4, first successful launch on June 15, 1988\nAriane 5, first successful launch on October 30, 1997 ''(the first launch on June 4, 1996 failed)''.\nThe new Ariane 6 vehicle is in development. It would have a similar payload capacity to the Ariane 5 but have considerably lower costs. Tentatively, its first flight is planned for 2020.\n", "\nEuropa rocket\nNewSpace\n\n===Other launch service providers===\nUnited Launch Alliance\nInternational Launch Services\nSpaceX\n*Antrix Corporation\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Company and infrastructure ", "Competition and pricing", " Launch vehicles ", "See also", "References" ]	Arianespace
[ "\n\nThe Commodore '''Amiga 500 Plus''' (often '''A500 Plus''' or simply '''A500+''') is an enhanced version of the original Amiga 500 computer. It was notable for introducing new versions of Kickstart and Workbench, and for some minor improvements in the custom chips, known as the Enhanced Chip Set (or ECS).\n", "The A500+ was released in several markets (including many European countries), but was never sold officially in the U.S.\n\nAlthough officially introduced in 1992, some Amiga 500 Plus units had already been sold (masquerading as Amiga 500 models, and with no prior announcement) during late 1991. It has been speculated that Commodore had already sold out the remaining stocks of Amiga 500s, before the run up to the profitable Christmas sales period. In order to make enough A500s before Christmas, Commodore used stocks of the new 8A revision motherboards destined for the A500+. Many users were unaware that they were purchasing anything other than a standard Amiga 500. Although the Amiga 500+ was an improvement to the Amiga 500, it was minor. It was discontinued and replaced by the Amiga 600 in summer 1992, making it the shortest lived Amiga model.\n", "Commodore created the A500+ for a couple of reasons. The first was cost reduction; minor changes were made to the motherboard to make it cheaper to produce. It was also so that Commodore could introduce the new version of the Amiga Operating system, 2.04.\n", "Due to the new Kickstart, quite a few popular games (such as Treasure Island Dizzy, SWIV, and Lotus Esprit Turbo Challenge) failed to work on the Amiga 500+, and some people took them back to dealers demanding an original Kickstart 1.3 Amiga 500. This problem was solved by third parties who produced Kickstart ROM switching boards, that could allow the Amiga 500+ to be downgraded to Kickstart 1.2 or 1.3. It also encouraged game developers to use better programming habits, which was important since Commodore already had plans for the introduction of the next-generation Amiga 1200 computer. A program, Relokick, was also released (and included with an issue of CU Amiga) which loaded a Kickstart 1.3 ROM image into memory and booted the machine into Kickstart 1.3, allowing incompatible software to run. In some cases, updated compatible versions of games were later released, such as budget versions of Lotus 1 and SWIV.\n", "* Motorola 68000 CPU running at (PAL) / (NTSC), like its predecessor\n* 1 MB of Chip RAM (very early versions came with 512 KB.)\n* Kickstart 2.04 (v37.175)\n* Workbench 37.67 (release 2.04)\n* Built in battery backed RTC (Real Time Clock)\n* Full ECS chipset including new version of the Agnus chip and Denise chip\n", "\n* Amiga models and variants\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Introduction ", " Reason for design ", " Compatibility problems ", " Technical specifications ", " See also ", " Footnotes " ]	Amiga 500 Plus
[ "Accumulators on a tabulating machine circa 1936. Each of the four registers can store a 10-digit decimal number.\nIn a computer's central processing unit (CPU), an '''accumulator''' is a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic results are stored. \n\nWithout a register like an accumulator, it would be necessary to write the result of each calculation (addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to main memory, perhaps only to be read right back again for use in the next operation. Access to main memory is slower than access to a register like the accumulator because the technology used for the large main memory is slower (but cheaper) than that used for a register. Early electronic computer systems were often split into two groups, those with accumulators and those without.\n\nModern computer systems often have multiple general purpose registers that operate as accumulators, and the term is no longer as common as it once was. However, a number of special-purpose processors still use a single accumulator for their work, in order to simplify their design.\n", "Mathematical operations often take place in a stepwise fashion, using the results from one operation as the input to the next. For instance, a manual calculation of a worker's weekly payroll might look something like:\n\n look up the number of hours worked from the employee's time card\n look up the pay rate for that employee from a table\n multiply the hours by the pay rate to get their basic weekly pay\n multiply their basic pay by a fixed percentage to account for income tax\n subtract that number from their basic pay to get their weekly pay after tax\n multiply that result by another fixed percentage to account for retirement plans\n subtract that number from their basic pay to get their weekly pay after all deductions\n\nA computer program carrying out the same task would follow the same basic sequence of operations, although the values being looked up would all be stored in computer memory. In early computers the number of hours would likely be held on a punch card and the pay rate in some other form of memory, perhaps a magnetic drum. Once the multiplication is complete, the result needs to be placed somewhere. On a \"drum machine\" this would likely be back to the drum, an operation that takes considerable time. And then the very next operation has to read that value back in, which introduces another considerable delay.\n\nAccumulators dramatically improve performance in systems like these by providing a scratchpad area where the results of one operation can be fed to the next one for little or no performance penalty. In the example above, the basic weekly pay would be calculated and placed in the accumulator, which could then immediately be used by the income tax calculation. This removes one save and one read operation from the sequence, operations that generally took tens to hundreds of times as long as the multiplication itself.\n", "An '''accumulator machine''', also called a 1-operand machine, or a CPU with ''accumulator-based architecture'', is a kind of CPU where, although it may have several registers, the CPU mostly stores the results of calculations in one special register, typically called \"the accumulator\". Almost all early computers were accumulator machines with only the high-performance \"supercomputers\" having multiple registers. Then as mainframe systems gave way to microcomputers, accumulator architectures were again popular with the MOS 6502 being a notable example. Many 8-bit microcontrollers that are still popular as of 2014, such as the PICmicro and 8051, are accumulator-based machines.\n\nModern CPUs are typically 2-operand or 3-operand machines. The additional operands specify which one of many general purpose registers (also called \"general purpose accumulators\") are used as the source and destination for calculations. These CPUs are not considered \"accumulator machines\".\n\nThe characteristic which distinguishes one register as being the accumulator of a computer architecture is that the accumulator (if the architecture were to have one) would be used as an ''implicit'' operand for arithmetic instructions. For instance, a CPU might have an instruction like: ADD ''memaddress'' that adds the value read from memory location ''memaddress'' to the value in the accumulator, placing the result back in the accumulator. The accumulator is not identified in the instruction by a register number; it is implicit in the instruction and no other register can be specified in the instruction. Some architectures use a particular register as an accumulator in some instructions, but other instructions use register numbers for explicit operand specification.\n", "Any system that uses a single \"memory\" to store the result of multiple operations can be considered an accumulator. J. Presper Eckert refers to even the earliest adding machines of Gottfried Leibniz and Blaise Pascal as accumulator-based systems.\n\nHistorical convention dedicates a register to \"the accumulator\", an \"arithmetic organ\" that literally accumulates its number during a sequence of arithmetic operations:\n\n:\"The first part of our arithmetic organ ... should be a parallel storage organ which can receive a number and add it to the one already in it, which is also able to clear its contents and which can store what it contains. We will call such an organ an Accumulator. It is quite conventional in principle in past and present computing machines of the most varied types, e.g. desk multipliers, standard IBM counters, more modern relay machines, the ENIAC\" (Goldstine and von Neumann, 1946; p. 98 in Bell and Newell 1971).\n\nJust a few of the instructions are, for example (with some modern interpretation):\n* Clear accumulator and add number from memory location X\n* Clear accumulator and subtract number from memory location X\n* Add number copied from memory location X to the contents of the accumulator\n* Subtract number copied from memory location X from the contents of the accumulator\n* Clear accumulator and shift contents of register into accumulator\n\nNo convention exists regarding the names for operations from registers to accumulator and from accumulator to registers. Tradition (e.g. Donald Knuth's (1973) hypothetical MIX computer), for example, uses two instructions called ''load accumulator'' from register/memory (e.g. \"LDA r\") and ''store accumulator'' to register/memory (e.g. \"STA r\"). Knuth's model has many other instructions as well.\n", "Front panel of an IBM 701 computer with lights displaying the accumulator and other registers\nThe 1945 configuration of ENIAC had 20 accumulators, which could operate in parallel. Each one could store an eight decimal digit number and add to it (or subtract from it) a number it received. Most of IBM's early binary \"scientific\" computers, beginning with the vacuum tube IBM 701 in 1952, used a single 36-bit accumulator, along with a separate multiplier/quotient register to handle operations with longer results. The IBM 650, a decimal machine, had one 10 digit accumulator; the IBM 7070, a later, transistorized decimal machine had three accumulators.\n\nThe 12-bit PDP-8 was one of the first minicomputers to use accumulators, and inspired many later machines. The PDP-8 had but one accumulator. The HP 2100 and Data General Nova had 2 and 4 accumulators. The Nova was created when this follow-on to the PDP-8 was rejected in favor of what would become the PDP-11. The Nova provided four accumulators, AC0-AC3, although AC2 and AC3 could also be used to provide offset addresses, tending towards more generality of usage for the registers. The PDP-11 introduced a more contemporary model of general registers, numbered R0-R7 or more, adopted by most later CISC and RISC machines.\n \nEarly 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors such as the 4004, 8008 and numerous others, typically had single accumulators. The 8051 microcontroller has two, a primary accumulator and a secondary accumulator, where the second is used by instructions only when multiplying (MUL AB) or dividing (DIV AB); the former splits the 16-bit result between the two 8-bit accumulators, whereas the latter stores the quotient on the primary accumulator A and the remainder in the secondary accumulator B. As a direct descendent of the 8008, the 8080, and the 8086, the modern ubiquitous Intel x86 processors still uses the primary accumulator EAX and the secondary accumulator EDX for multiplication and division of large numbers. For instance, MUL ECX will multiply the 32-bit registers ECX and EAX and split the 64-bit result between EAX and EDX. However, MUL and DIV are special cases, other arithmetic-logical instructions (ADD, SUB, CMP, AND, OR, XOR, TEST) may specify any of the eight registers EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX, ESP, EBP, ESI, EDI as the accumulator (i.e. left operand and destination); this is also supported for multiply if the upper half of the result is not required. x86 is thus a fairly general register architecture, despite being based on an accumulator model. The 64-bit extension of x86, x86-64, has been further generalized to 16 instead of 8 general registers.\n", "\n*Goldstine, Herman H., and von Neumann, John, \"Planning and Coding of the Problems for an Electronic Computing Instrument\", Rep. 1947, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. Reprinted on pp. 92–119 in Bell, C. Gordon and Newell, Allen (1971), ''Computer Structures: Readings and Examples'', McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. }. A veritable treasure-trove of detailed descriptions of ancient machines including photos.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Basic concept", "Accumulator machines", " History of the computer accumulator ", " Notable accumulator-based computers ", " References " ]	Accumulator (computing)
[ "\nArithmetic tables for children, Lausanne, 1835\n'''Arithmetic''' (from the Greek ἀριθμός ''arithmos'', \"number\") is a branch of mathematics that consists of the study of numbers, especially the properties of the traditional operations between them—addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Arithmetic is an elementary part of number theory, and number theory is considered to be one of the top-level divisions of modern mathematics, along with algebra, geometry, and analysis. The terms ''arithmetic'' and ''higher arithmetic'' were used until the beginning of the 20th century as synonyms for ''number theory'' and are sometimes still used to refer to a wider part of number theory.\n", "The prehistory of arithmetic is limited to a small number of artifacts which may indicate the conception of addition and subtraction, the best-known being the Ishango bone from central Africa, dating from somewhere between 20,000 and 18,000 BC, although its interpretation is disputed.\n\nThe earliest written records indicate the Egyptians and Babylonians used all the elementary arithmetic operations as early as 2000 BC. These artifacts do not always reveal the specific process used for solving problems, but the characteristics of the particular numeral system strongly influence the complexity of the methods. The hieroglyphic system for Egyptian numerals, like the later Roman numerals, descended from tally marks used for counting. In both cases, this origin resulted in values that used a decimal base but did not include positional notation. Complex calculations with Roman numerals required the assistance of a counting board or the Roman abacus to obtain the results.\n\nEarly number systems that included positional notation were not decimal, including the sexagesimal (base 60) system for Babylonian numerals and the vigesimal (base 20) system that defined Maya numerals. Because of this place-value concept, the ability to reuse the same digits for different values contributed to simpler and more efficient methods of calculation.\n\nThe continuous historical development of modern arithmetic starts with the Hellenistic civilization of ancient Greece, although it originated much later than the Babylonian and Egyptian examples. Prior to the works of Euclid around 300 BC, Greek studies in mathematics overlapped with philosophical and mystical beliefs. For example, Nicomachus summarized the viewpoint of the earlier Pythagorean approach to numbers, and their relationships to each other, in his ''Introduction to Arithmetic''.\n\nGreek numerals were used by Archimedes, Diophantus and others in a positional notation not very different from ours. Because the ancient Greeks lacked a symbol for zero (until the Hellenistic period), they used three separate sets of symbols. One set for the unit's place, one for the ten's place, and one for the hundred's. Then for the thousand's place they would reuse the symbols for the unit's place, and so on. Their addition algorithm was identical to ours, and their multiplication algorithm was only very slightly different. Their long division algorithm was the same, and the square root algorithm that was once taught in school was known to Archimedes, who may have invented it. He preferred it to Hero's method of successive approximation because, once computed, a digit doesn't change, and the square roots of perfect squares, such as 7485696, terminate immediately as 2736. For numbers with a fractional part, such as 546.934, they used negative powers of 60 instead of negative powers of 10 for the fractional part 0.934. \n\nThe ancient Chinese had advanced arithmetic studies dating from the Shang Dynasty and continuing through the Tang Dynasty, from basic numbers to advanced algebra. The ancient Chinese used a positional notation similar to that of the Greeks. Since they also lacked a symbol for zero, they had one set of symbols for the unit's place, and a second set for the ten's place. For the hundred's place they then reused the symbols for the unit's place, and so on. Their symbols were based on the ancient counting rods. It is a complicated question to determine exactly when the Chinese started calculating with positional representation, but it was definitely before 400 BC. The ancient Chinese were the first to meaningfully discover, understand, and apply negative numbers as explained in the ''Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'' (''Jiuzhang Suanshu''), which was written by Liu Hui.\n\nThe gradual development of Hindu–Arabic numerals independently devised the place-value concept and positional notation, which combined the simpler methods for computations with a decimal base and the use of a digit representing 0. This allowed the system to consistently represent both large and small integers. This approach eventually replaced all other systems. In the early the Indian mathematician Aryabhata incorporated an existing version of this system in his work, and experimented with different notations. In the 7th century, Brahmagupta established the use of 0 as a separate number and determined the results for multiplication, division, addition and subtraction of zero and all other numbers, except for the result of division by 0. His contemporary, the Syriac bishop Severus Sebokht (650 AD) said, \"Indians possess a method of calculation that no word can praise enough. Their rational system of mathematics, or of their method of calculation. I mean the system using nine symbols.\" The Arabs also learned this new method and called it ''hesab''.\n\nLeibniz's Stepped Reckoner was the first calculator that could perform all four arithmetic operations.\nAlthough the Codex Vigilanus described an early form of Arabic numerals (omitting 0) by 976 AD, Leonardo of Pisa (Fibonacci) was primarily responsible for spreading their use throughout Europe after the publication of his book ''Liber Abaci'' in 1202. He wrote, \"The method of the Indians (Latin ''Modus Indoram'') surpasses any known method to compute. It's a marvelous method. They do their computations using nine figures and symbol zero\".\n\nIn the Middle Ages, arithmetic was one of the seven liberal arts taught in universities.\n\nThe flourishing of algebra in the medieval Islamic world and in Renaissance Europe was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification of computation through decimal notation.\n\nVarious types of tools have been invented and widely used to assist in numeric calculations. Before Renaissance, they were various types of abaci. More recent examples include slide rules, nomograms and mechanical calculators, such as Pascal's calculator. At present, they have been supplanted by electronic calculators and computers.\n", "\nThe basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, although this subject also includes more advanced operations, such as manipulations of percentages, square roots, exponentiation, and logarithmic functions. Arithmetic is performed according to an order of operations. Any set of objects upon which all four arithmetic operations (except division by 0) can be performed, and where these four operations obey the usual laws, is called a field.\n\n===Addition (+)===\n\nAddition is the basic operation of arithmetic. In its simplest form, addition combines two numbers, the ''addends'' or ''terms'', into a single number, the ''sum'' of the numbers (Such as or ).\n\nAdding more than two numbers can be viewed as repeated addition; this procedure is known as summation and includes ways to add infinitely many numbers in an infinite series; repeated addition of the number 1 is the most basic form of counting.\n\nAddition is commutative and associative so the order the terms are added in does not matter. The identity element of addition (the additive identity) is 0, that is, adding 0 to any number yields that same number. Also, the inverse element of addition (the additive inverse) is the opposite of any number, that is, adding the opposite of any number to the number itself yields the additive identity, 0. For example, the opposite of 7 is −7, so .\n\nAddition can be given geometrically as in the following example:\n:If we have two sticks of lengths ''2'' and ''5'', then if we place the sticks one after the other, the length of the stick thus formed is .\n\n===Subtraction (−)===\n\n\nSubtraction is the inverse of addition. Subtraction finds the ''difference'' between two numbers, the ''minuend'' minus the ''subtrahend''. If the minuend is larger than the subtrahend, the difference is positive; if the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, the difference is negative; if they are equal, the difference is 0.\n\nSubtraction is neither commutative nor associative. For that reason, it is often helpful to look at subtraction as addition of the minuend and the opposite of the subtrahend, that is . When written as a sum, all the properties of addition hold.\n\nThere are several methods for calculating results, some of which are particularly advantageous to machine calculation. For example, digital computers employ the method of two's complement. Of great importance is the counting up method by which change is made. Suppose an amount ''P'' is given to pay the required amount ''Q'', with ''P'' greater than ''Q''. Rather than performing the subtraction and counting out that amount in change, money is counted out starting at ''Q'' and continuing until reaching ''P''. Although the amount counted out must equal the result of the subtraction , the subtraction was never really done and the value of might still be unknown to the change-maker.\n\n===Multiplication (× or · or )===\n\nMultiplication is the second basic operation of arithmetic. Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the ''product''. The two original numbers are called the ''multiplier'' and the ''multiplicand'', sometimes both simply called ''factors''.\n\nMultiplication may be viewed as a scaling operation. If the numbers are imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number, say ''x'', greater than 1 is the same as stretching everything away from 0 uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where ''x'' was. Similarly, multiplying by a number less than 1 can be imagined as squeezing towards 0. (Again, in such a way that 1 goes to the multiplicand.)\n\nMultiplication is commutative and associative; further it is distributive over addition and subtraction. The multiplicative identity is 1, that is, multiplying any number by 1 yields that same number. Also, the multiplicative inverse is the reciprocal of any number (except 0; 0 is the only number without a multiplicative inverse), that is, multiplying the reciprocal of any number by the number itself yields the multiplicative identity.\n\nThe product of ''a'' and ''b'' is written as or . When ''a'' or ''b'' are expressions not written simply with digits, it is also written by simple juxtaposition: ''ab''. In computer programming languages and software packages in which one can only use characters normally found on a keyboard, it is often written with an asterisk: \n\n===Division (÷ or /)===\n\nDivision is essentially the inverse of multiplication. Division finds the ''quotient'' of two numbers, the ''dividend'' divided by the ''divisor''. Any dividend divided by 0 is undefined. For distinct positive numbers, if the dividend is larger than the divisor, the quotient is greater than 1, otherwise it is less than 1 (a similar rule applies for negative numbers). The quotient multiplied by the divisor always yields the dividend.\n\nDivision is neither commutative nor associative. As it is helpful to look at subtraction as addition, it is helpful to look at division as multiplication of the dividend times the reciprocal of the divisor, that is When written as a product, it obeys all the properties of multiplication.\n", "'''Decimal representation''' refers exclusively, in common use, to the written numeral system employing arabic numerals as the digits for a radix 10 (\"decimal\") positional notation; however, any numeral system based on powers of 10, e.g., Greek, Cyrillic, Roman, or Chinese numerals may conceptually be described as \"decimal notation\" or \"decimal representation\".\n\nModern methods for four fundamental operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) were first devised by Brahmagupta of India. This was known during medieval Europe as \"Modus Indoram\" or Method of the Indians. Positional notation (also known as \"place-value notation\") refers to the representation or encoding of numbers using the same symbol for the different orders of magnitude (e.g., the \"ones place\", \"tens place\", \"hundreds place\") and, with a radix point, using those same symbols to represent fractions (e.g., the \"tenths place\", \"hundredths place\"). For example, 507.36 denotes 5 hundreds (102), plus 0 tens (101), plus 7 units (100), plus 3 tenths (10−1) plus 6 hundredths (10−2).\n\nThe concept of 0 as a number comparable to the other basic digits is essential to this notation, as is the concept of 0's use as a placeholder, and as is the definition of multiplication and addition with 0. The use of 0 as a placeholder and, therefore, the use of a positional notation is first attested to in the Jain text from India entitled the ''Lokavibhâga'', dated 458 AD and it was only in the early 13th century that these concepts, transmitted via the scholarship of the Arabic world, were introduced into Europe by Fibonacci using the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.\n\nAlgorism comprises all of the rules for performing arithmetic computations using this type of written numeral. For example, addition produces the sum of two arbitrary numbers. The result is calculated by the repeated addition of single digits from each number that occupies the same position, proceeding from right to left. An addition table with ten rows and ten columns displays all possible values for each sum. If an individual sum exceeds the value 9, the result is represented with two digits. The rightmost digit is the value for the current position, and the result for the subsequent addition of the digits to the left increases by the value of the second (leftmost) digit, which is always one. This adjustment is termed a ''carry'' of the value 1.\n\nThe process for multiplying two arbitrary numbers is similar to the process for addition. A multiplication table with ten rows and ten columns lists the results for each pair of digits. If an individual product of a pair of digits exceeds 9, the ''carry'' adjustment increases the result of any subsequent multiplication from digits to the left by a value equal to the second (leftmost) digit, which is any value from (). Additional steps define the final result.\n\nSimilar techniques exist for subtraction and division.\n\nThe creation of a correct process for multiplication relies on the relationship between values of adjacent digits. The value for any single digit in a numeral depends on its position. Also, each position to the left represents a value ten times larger than the position to the right. In mathematical terms, the exponent for the radix (base) of 10 increases by 1 (to the left) or decreases by 1 (to the right). Therefore, the value for any arbitrary digit is multiplied by a value of the form 10''n'' with integer ''n''. The list of values corresponding to all possible positions for a single digit is written \n\nRepeated multiplication of any value in this list by 10 produces another value in the list. In mathematical terminology, this characteristic is defined as closure, and the previous list is described as '''closed under multiplication'''. It is the basis for correctly finding the results of multiplication using the previous technique. This outcome is one example of the uses of number theory.\n", "Compound unit arithmetic is the application of arithmetic operations to mixed radix quantities such as feet and inches, gallons and pints, pounds shillings and pence, and so on. Prior to the use of decimal-based systems of money and units of measure, the use of compound unit arithmetic formed a significant part of commerce and industry.\n\n===Basic arithmetic operations===\nThe techniques used for compound unit arithmetic were developed over many centuries and are well-documented in many textbooks in many different languages. In addition to the basic arithmetic functions encountered in decimal arithmetic, compound unit arithmetic employs three more functions:\n'''Reduction''' where a compound quantity is reduced to a single quantity, for example conversion of a distance expressed in yards, feet and inches to one expressed in inches. \n'''Expansion''', the inverse function to reduction, is the conversion of a quantity that is expressed as a single unit of measure to a compound unit, such as expanding 24 oz to .\n'''Normalization''' is the conversion of a set of compound units to a standard form – for example rewriting \"\" as \"\".\n\nKnowledge of the relationship between the various units of measure, their multiples and their submultiples forms an essential part of compound unit arithmetic.\n\n===Principles of compound unit arithmetic===\nThere are two basic approaches to compound unit arithmetic:\n'''Reduction–expansion method''' where all the compound unit variables are reduced to single unit variables, the calculation performed and the result expanded back to compound units. This approach is suited for automated calculations. A typical example is the handling of time by Microsoft Excel where all time intervals are processed internally as days and decimal fractions of a day.\n'''On-going normalization method''' in which each unit is treated separately and the problem is continuously normalized as the solution develops. This approach, which is widely described in classical texts, is best suited for manual calculations. An example of the ongoing normalization method as applied to addition is shown below.\n\n\nUK pre-decimal currency\n\n\n\n\n4 farthings (f) = 1 penny\n\n12 pennies (d) = 1 shilling\n\n20 shillings (s) = 1 pound (£)\n\n\n\n\nstyle=\"border: 1px solid #FFFFFF;\"\n\nthumb\nThe addition operation is carried out from right to left; in this case, pence are processed first, then shillings followed by pounds. The numbers below the \"answer line\" are intermediate results.\n\nThe total in the pence column is 25. Since there are 12 pennies in a shilling, 25 is divided by 12 to give 2 with a remainder of 1. The value \"1\" is then written to the answer row and the value \"2\" carried forward to the shillings column. This operation is repeated using the values in the shillings column, with the additional step of adding the value that was carried forward from the pennies column. The intermediate total is divided by 20 as there are 20 shillings in a pound. The pound column is then processed, but as pounds are the largest unit that is being considered, no values are carried forward from the pounds column.\n\nIt should be noted that for the sake of simplicity, the example chosen did not have farthings.\n\n\n===Operations in practice===\nA scale calibrated in imperial units with an associated cost display.\nDuring the 19th and 20th centuries various aids were developed to aid the manipulation of compound units, particularly in commercial applications. The most common aids were mechanical tills which were adapted in countries such as the United Kingdom to accommodate pounds, shillings, pennies and farthings and \"Ready Reckoners\" – books aimed at traders that catalogued the results of various routine calculations such as the percentages or multiples of various sums of money. One typical booklet that ran to 150 pages tabulated multiples \"from one to ten thousand at the various prices from one farthing to one pound\".\n\nThe cumbersome nature of compound unit arithmetic has been recognized for many years – in 1586, the Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin published a small pamphlet called ''De Thiende'' (\"the tenth\") in which he declared that the universal introduction of decimal coinage, measures, and weights to be merely a question of time while in the modern era, many conversion programs, such as that embedded in the calculator supplied as a standard part of the Microsoft Windows 7 operating system display compound units in a reduced decimal format rather than using an expanded format (i.e. \"2.5 ft\" is displayed rather than ).\n", "\nUntil the 19th century, ''number theory'' was a synonym of \"arithmetic\". The addressed problems were directly related to the basic operations and concerned primality, divisibility, and the solution of equations in integers, such as Fermat's last theorem. It appeared that most of these problems, although very elementary to state, are very difficult and may not be solved without very deep mathematics involving concepts and methods from many other branches of mathematics. This led to new branches of number theory such as analytic number theory, algebraic number theory, Diophantine geometry and arithmetic algebraic geometry. Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is a typical example of the necessity of sophisticated methods, which go far beyond the classical methods of arithmetic, for solving problems that can be stated in elementary arithmetic.\n", "Primary education in mathematics often places a strong focus on algorithms for the arithmetic of natural numbers, integers, fractions, and decimals (using the decimal place-value system). This study is sometimes known as algorism.\n\nThe difficulty and unmotivated appearance of these algorithms has long led educators to question this curriculum, advocating the early teaching of more central and intuitive mathematical ideas. One notable movement in this direction was the New Math of the 1960s and 1970s, which attempted to teach arithmetic in the spirit of axiomatic development from set theory, an echo of the prevailing trend in higher mathematics.\n\nAlso, arithmetic was used by Islamic Scholars in order to teach application of the rulings related to Zakat and Irth. This was done in a book entitled ''The Best of Arithmetic'' by Abd-al-Fattah-al-Dumyati.\n\nThe book begins with the foundations of mathematics and proceeds to its application in the later chapters.\n", "Lists of mathematics topics\nMathematics\nOutline of arithmetic\nSlide rule\n\n===Related topics===\n\nAddition of natural numbers\nAdditive inverse\nArithmetic coding\nArithmetic mean\nArithmetic progression\nArithmetic properties\nAssociativity\nCommutativity\nDistributivity\nElementary arithmetic\nFinite field arithmetic\nGeometric progression\nInteger\nList of important publications in mathematics\nMental calculation\nNumber line\n\n", "\n", "\nCunnington, Susan, ''The Story of Arithmetic: A Short History of Its Origin and Development'', Swan Sonnenschein, London, 1904\nDickson, Leonard Eugene, ''History of the Theory of Numbers'' (3 volumes), reprints: Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, 1932; Chelsea, New York, 1952, 1966\nEuler, Leonhard, '' Elements of Algebra'', Tarquin Press, 2007\nFine, Henry Burchard (1858–1928), ''The Number System of Algebra Treated Theoretically and Historically'', Leach, Shewell & Sanborn, Boston, 1891\nKarpinski, Louis Charles (1878–1956), ''The History of Arithmetic'', Rand McNally, Chicago, 1925; reprint: Russell & Russell, New York, 1965\nOre, Øystein, ''Number Theory and Its History'', McGraw–Hill, New York, 1948\nWeil, André, ''Number Theory: An Approach through History'', Birkhauser, Boston, 1984; reviewed: Mathematical Reviews 85c:01004\n\n", "\n \n\n\n MathWorld article about arithmetic\nThe New Student's Reference Work/Arithmetic (historical)\n The Great Calculation According to the Indians, of Maximus Planudes – an early Western work on arithmetic at Convergence\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Arithmetic operations", "Decimal arithmetic", "Compound unit arithmetic{{anchor\|Compound Unit Arithmetic}}", "Number theory", "Arithmetic in education", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Arithmetic
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Andersonville''' is a city in Sumter County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 255. It is located in the southwest part of the state, approximately southwest of Macon on the Central of Georgia railroad. During the American Civil War, it was the site of a prisoner-of-war camp, which is now Andersonville National Historic Site.\n\nAndersonville is part of the Americus Micropolitan Statistical Area.\n", "The little hamlet of Anderson was named for John Anderson, a director of the South Western Railroad in 1853 when it was extended from Oglethorpe to Americus. It was known as Anderson Station until the US post office was established in November 1855. The government changed the name of the station from “Anderson” to “Andersonville” in order to avoid confusion with the post office in Anderson, South Carolina.\n\nDuring the Civil War, the Confederate army established Camp Sumter at Andersonville to house incoming Union prisoners of war. The overcrowded Andersonville Prison was notorious for its bad conditions, and nearly 13,000 prisoners died there.\n\nThe town also served as a supply depot during the war period. It included a post office, a depot, a blacksmith shop and stable, a couple of general stores, two saloons, a school, a Methodist church, and about a dozen houses. (Ben Dykes, who owned the land on which the prison was built, was both depot agent and postmaster.)\n\nUntil the establishment of the prison, the area was entirely dependent on agriculture, supported by dark reddish brown sandy loams later mapped as Greenville and Red Bay soil series. After the close of the prison and end of the war, the town continued economically dependent on agriculture, primarily the cultivation of cotton as a commodity crop. The town changed very little over the years.\n\nIt was not until 1968, when the large-scale mining of kaolin, bauxitic kaolin, and bauxite was begun by Mulcoa, Mullite Company of America, that the town was dramatically altered. This operation exploited of scrub oak wilderness into a massive mining and refining operation. The company now ships more than 2000 tons of refined ore from Andersonville each week.\n\nIn 1974, long-time mayor Lewis Easterlin and a group of concerned citizens decided to promote tourism in the town; they stressed its history, redeveloping Main Street to look much as it did during the American Civil War. The city of Andersonville and the Andersonville National Historic Site, location of the prison camp, welcomes tourists from all over the world.\n", "\n\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The population density was 254.1 people per square mile (98.3/km²). There were 142 housing units at an average density of 109.0 per square mile (42.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% White and 34.74% African American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.21% of the population.\n\nThere were 124 households out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.\n\nIn the city, the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $29,107, and the median income for a family was $30,972. Males had a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over.\n", "\n", "\n", "* City website\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", "Demographics", "Climate", " References ", "External links" ]	Andersonville, Georgia
[ "'''Andersonville''' may refer to:\n__NOTOC__", ";In the United States\n* Andersonville, Georgia, United States, site of American Civil War POW camp\n** Andersonville National Historic Site, Confederate POW prison camp in Georgia holding Union POWs\nAndersonville, Chicago, a neighborhood in Chicago, Illinois\nAndersonville Commercial Historic District, an historic district in Chicago\nAndersonville, Indiana\nAndersonville, Michigan\nAndersonville, Ohio, an unincorporated community\nAndersonville, South Carolina\nAndersonville, Tennessee\nAndersonville, Virginia\nAndersonville, West Virginia\n\n;Elsewhere\nAndersonville, New Brunswick, Canada\n", "''Andersonville'' (novel), Pulitzer Prize–winning 1956 novel by MacKinlay Kantor\n* ''Andersonville'' (film), 1996 film based on a POW camp prisoner's diary\n", "*''The Andersonville Trial''\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Places", "Other uses", "See also" ]	Andersonville
[ "\n\n\nAgra Canal headworks, at Okhla barrage, in Delhi, 1871.\nThe '''Agra Canal''' is an important Indian irrigation work which starts from Okhla in Delhi. The Agra canal originates from Okhla barrage, downstream of Nizamuddin bridge. It opened in 1874..\n\nIn the beginning, it was available for navigation, in Delhi, erstwhile Gurgaon, Mathura and Agra Districts, and Bharatpur State. Later, navigation was stopped in 1904 and the canal has since then, been exclusively used for irrigation purposes only. At present the canal does not flow in district Gurgaon, but only in Faridabad, which was earlier a part of Gurgaon.\n\nThe Canal receives its water from the Yamuna River at Okhla, about 10 km to the south of New Delhi. The weir across the Yamuna was the first attempted in Upper India upon a foundation of fine sand; it is about 800-yard long, and rises seven-feet above the summer level of the river.\n\nFrom Okhla the canal follows the high land between the Khari-Nadi and the Yamuna and finally joins the Banganga river about below Agra. Navigable branches connect the canal with Mathura and Agra.\nthe canal irrigates about 1.5 lakh hectares in Agra, and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, Faridabad in Haryana, Bharatpur in Rajasthan and also some parts of Delhi\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Agra Canal also has many places to visit along its coast.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References" ]	Agra Canal
[ "\nShimoshima.\nView of Amakusa islands (with Yushima, Kami-Amakusa in foreground).\nŌe Catholic Church\n\n'''Amakusa''' (天草), which means \"Heaven's Grass,\" is a series of islands off the west coast of Kyushu, the southernmost of the four main islands of Japan.\n", "The largest island of the Amakusa group is Shimoshima, which is 26.5 miles long and 13.5 miles in extreme width (). It is situated at 32°20'N, 130°E, separated from the rest of Kumamoto Prefecture by the Yatsushiro Sea.\n\nIt has no high mountains, but its surface is very hilly. Four of the peaks rise to a height of over . The population resorts to the terrace system of cultivation to cope with the lack of flat arable land.\n", "Amakusa, along with the neighboring Shimabara Peninsula, became the site of the Shimabara rebellion in the 17th century, led by Christians. Following the rebellion, Kakure Kirishitan, the Christians who had survived, continued to practice their faith in secret, despite massive persecution.\n", "Amakusa produces a little coal and pottery stone, both being used by the potters of Hirado and Satsuma Province. Many kilns remain on the islands today, and pottery and pottery stone are still exported.\n\nAmakusa pottery has been recognised by the government. The retail company Muji brought out its own line of ''Hakuji'' home ware, which is produced out of ground translucent Amakusa stones kneaded into clay, using traditional techniques.\n", "Hidenoshin Koyama, who built Thomas Blake Glover's House in Glover Garden, came from this island.\n", "At present, the islands are organized as Amakusa District, Amakusa City, and Kami-amakusa City, all of which are under the administration of Kumamoto Prefecture.\n\n\n", "Amakusa Airfield, with DHC-8 plane on runway.\nA Shimatetsu Ferry boat, transporting passengers between islands.\n\nThe islands are served by Amakusa Airfield, located on the north end of Shimoshima. The islands are connected to the mainland by the Five Bridges of Amakusa and by ferry from Hondo and Matsushima.\n\nThere are also ferries between the islands and the neighboring prefectures of Kagoshima Prefecture and Nagasaki Prefecture. The ferry from Oniike on the north Shimoshima to Kuchinotsu, at the southern tip of the Shimabara Peninsula, is run by the Shimabara Railway and operates hourly each day. The ferry boat from Tomioka Port in Reihoku, sailing north to Mogi in Nagasaki Prefecture, is operated by Yasuda Sangyo Kisen Co. Ltd.\nTwo ferries from Shinwa and Ushibuka, in the south of Shimoshima, connect Amakusa to Nagashima in Kagoshima Prefecture.\n", "\n", "*\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Geography ", " History ", " Economy ", " People ", " Government ", "Transport", "References", "Sources" ]	Amakusa
[ "\n\n\nAn '''afterglow''' is a broad arch of whitish or pinkish sunlight in the sky that is scattered by fine particulates like dust suspended in the atmosphere. An afterglow may appear above the highest clouds in the hour of fading twilight, or be reflected off high snowfields in mountain regions long after sunset. The particles produce a scattering effect upon the component parts of white light.\n\nTrue alpenglow, which occurs long after sunset or long before sunrise, is caused by the backscattering of red sunlight by aerosols and fine dust particles low in the atmosphere. After sunset, alpenglow is an afterglow caused by the illumination of atmospheric particles by sunlight as it gets refracted and scattered through the Earth's atmosphere.\n\nThe high-energy and high-frequency light is scattered out the most, while the remaining low-energy and -frequency light reaches the observer on the horizon at twilight. The backscattering of this light further turns it pinkish to reddish. This period of time is referred to as blue hour and is widely treasured by photographers and painters, as it offers breathtaking views.\n\nThe afterglow persists until the Earth's shadow (terminator line) overtakes the sky above the observer as night falls and the stars appear, with Venus (the second-brightest celestial object after the Moon in the night sky) visible above the horizon opposite of the Belt of Venus around the antisolar point.\n\nAfter the 1883 eruption of the volcano Krakatoa, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared worldwide. An enormous amount of exceedingly fine dust were blown to a great height by the volcano's explosion, and then globally diffused by the high atmospheric winds. Edvard Munch's painting ''The Scream'' possibly depicts an afterglow during this period.\n\n\n\nImage:Lamma evening4.jpg\|Sunset in Hong Kong after the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo\nImage:dresden.afterglow.700px.jpg\|An afterglow in Dresden, Saxony, Germany\nImage:Afterglow.jpg\|An afterglow in Slovenian mountains, near Triglav Lakes Valley\nImage:Full_Image_Sunset_Bates College_Lewiston_Maine_July_3_2008_8.30PM.JPG\|Sunset over the Bates College track in Lewiston, Maine.\nImage:Noarlunga Pier, Adelaide.jpg\|An afterglow at a pier in Australia\nImage:Afterglow Kraków.JPG\|An afterglow on Kraków's housing estate\n\n\n", "* Belt of Venus\n* Earth's shadow\n* Gegenschein\n* Sunset\n* Red sky at morning\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "External links" ]	Afterglow
[ "\n'''Ammonius Grammaticus''' was a 4th-century Egyptian priest who, after the destruction of the pagan temple at Alexandria (389), fled to Constantinople, where he became the tutor of the ecclesiastical historian Socrates.\n", "Ammonius was formerly identified as the author of a treatise titled ''Peri homoíōn kai diaphórōn léxeōn'' (περὶ ὁμοίων καὶ διαφόρων λέξεων, ''On the Differences of Synonymous Expressions'').\nBut it seems more probable that the real author was Herennius Philo of Byblus, who was born during the reign of Nero and lived till the reign of Hadrian, and that the treatise in its present form is a revision prepared by a later Byzantine editor, whose name may have been Ammonius.\n", "\n'''Attribution:'''\n*\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "References" ]	Ammonius Grammaticus
[ "\n\nIn mathematics, particularly abstract algebra, an '''algebraic closure''' of a field ''K'' is an algebraic extension of ''K'' that is algebraically closed. It is one of many closures in mathematics.\n\nUsing Zorn's lemma or the weaker ultrafilter lemma, it can be shown that every field has an algebraic closure, and that the algebraic closure of a field ''K'' is unique up to an isomorphism that fixes every member of ''K''. Because of this essential uniqueness, we often speak of ''the'' algebraic closure of ''K'', rather than ''an'' algebraic closure of ''K''.\n\nThe algebraic closure of a field ''K'' can be thought of as the largest algebraic extension of ''K''.\nTo see this, note that if ''L'' is any algebraic extension of ''K'', then the algebraic closure of ''L'' is also an algebraic closure of ''K'', and so ''L'' is contained within the algebraic closure of ''K''.\nThe algebraic closure of ''K'' is also the smallest algebraically closed field containing ''K'',\nbecause if ''M'' is any algebraically closed field containing ''K'', then the elements of ''M'' that are algebraic over ''K'' form an algebraic closure of ''K''.\n\nThe algebraic closure of a field ''K'' has the same cardinality as ''K'' if ''K'' is infinite, and is countably infinite if ''K'' is finite.\n", "The fundamental theorem of algebra states that the algebraic closure of the field of real numbers is the field of complex numbers.\nThe algebraic closure of the field of rational numbers is the field of algebraic numbers.\nThere are many countable algebraically closed fields within the complex numbers, and strictly containing the field of algebraic numbers; these are the algebraic closures of transcendental extensions of the rational numbers, e.g. the algebraic closure of '''Q'''(π).\nFor a finite field of prime power order ''q'', the algebraic closure is a countably infinite field that contains a copy of the field of order ''q''''n'' for each positive integer ''n'' (and is in fact the union of these copies).\n", "Let be the set of all monic irreducible polynomials in ''K''''x''.\nFor each , introduce new variables where .\nLet ''R'' be the polynomial ring over ''K'' generated by for all and all . Write\n: \n\nwith .\nLet ''I'' be the ideal in ''R'' generated by the . Since ''I'' is strictly smaller than ''R'',\nZorn's lemma implies that there exists a maximal ideal ''M'' in ''R'' that contains ''I''.\nThe field ''K''1=''R''/''M'' has the property that every polynomial with coefficients in ''K'' splits as the product of and hence has all roots in ''K''1. In the same way, an extension ''K''2 of ''K''1 can be constructed, etc. The union of all these extensions is the algebraic closure of ''K'', because any polynomial with coefficients in this new field has its coefficients in some ''K''n with sufficiently large ''n'', and then its roots are in ''K''n+1, and hence in the union itself. \n\nIt can be shown along the same lines that for any subset ''S'' of ''K''''x'', there exists a splitting field of ''S'' over ''K''.\n", "An algebraic closure ''Kalg'' of ''K'' contains a unique separable extension ''Ksep'' of ''K'' containing all (algebraic) separable extensions of ''K'' within ''Kalg''. This subextension is called a '''separable closure''' of ''K''. Since a separable extension of a separable extension is again separable, there are no finite separable extensions of ''Ksep'', of degree > 1. Saying this another way, ''K'' is contained in a ''separably-closed'' algebraic extension field. It is unique (up to isomorphism).\n\nThe separable closure is the full algebraic closure if and only if ''K'' is a perfect field. For example, if ''K'' is a field of characteristic ''p'' and if ''X'' is transcendental over ''K'', is a non-separable algebraic field extension.\n\nIn general, the absolute Galois group of ''K'' is the Galois group of ''Ksep'' over ''K''.\n", "* Algebraically closed field\n* Algebraic extension\n* Puiseux expansion\n", "\n* \n* \n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Examples", "Existence of an algebraic closure and splitting fields", "Separable closure", " See also", "References" ]	Algebraic closure
[ "\n'''Advanced power management''' ('''APM''') is an API developed by Intel and Microsoft and released in 1992 which enables an operating system running an IBM-compatible personal computer to work with the BIOS (part of the computer's firmware) to achieve power management.\n\nRevision 1.2 was the last version of the APM specification, released in 1996. ACPI is intended as the successor to APM. Microsoft dropped support for APM in Windows Vista. The Linux kernel still mostly supports APM, with the last fully functional APM support shipping in 3.3.\n", "The layers in APM\nAPM uses a layered approach to manage devices. APM-aware applications (which include device drivers) talk to an OS-specific APM driver. This driver communicates to the APM-aware BIOS, which controls the hardware. There is the ability to opt out of APM control on a device-by-device basis, which can be used if a driver wants to communicate directly with a hardware device.\n\nCommunication occurs both ways; power management events are sent from the BIOS to the APM driver, and the APM driver sends information and requests to the BIOS via function calls. In this way the APM driver is an intermediary between the BIOS and the operating system.\n\nPower management happens in two ways; through the above-mentioned function calls from the APM driver to the BIOS requesting power state changes, and automatically based on device activity.\n", "There are 12 power events (such as standby, suspend and resume requests, and low battery notifications), plus OEM-defined events, that can be sent from the APM BIOS to the operating system. The APM driver regularly polls for event change notifications.\n\nPower Management Events:\n\n\n Name !! Code !! Comment\n\n System Standby Request Notification \n 0x0001 \n\n\n System Suspend Request Notification \n 0x0002 \n\n\n Normal Resume System Notification \n 0x0003 \n\n\n Critical Resume System Notification \n 0x0004 \n\n\n Battery Low Notification \n 0x0005 \n\n\n Power Status Change Notification \n 0x0006 \n\n\n Update Time Notification \n 0x0007 \n\n\n Critical System Suspend Notification \n 0x0008 \n\n\n User System Standby Request Notification \n 0x0009 \n\n\n User System Suspend Request Notification \n 0x000A \n\n\n System Standby Resume Notification \n 0x000B \n\n\n Capabilities Change Notification \n 0x000C \n Due to setup or device insertion/removal\n\n\nPower management functions:\n\n\n Name !! Code !! Comment\n\n APM Installation Check \n 0x00 \n\n\n APM Real Mode Interface Connect \n 0x01 \n\n\n APM Protected Mode 16-bit Interface Connect \n 0x02 \n Avoids real or virtual86 mode.\n\n APM Protected Mode 32-bit Interface Connect \n 0x03 \n Avoids real or virtual86 mode.\n\n APM Interface Disconnect \n 0x04 \n\n\n CPU Idle \n 0x05 \n Requests system suspend. 0) Clock halted until timer tick interrupt. 1) Slow clock\n\n CPU Busy \n 0x06 \n Driver tells system APM to restore clock speed of the CPU.\n\n '''Set Power State''' \n 0x07 \n Set system or device into Suspend/Standby/Off state.\n\n Enable/Disable Power Management \n 0x08 \n\n\n Restore APM BIOS Power-On Defaults \n 0x09 \n\n\n Get Power Status \n 0x0A \n Supports AC status \"On backup power\". And battery status.\n\n Get PM Event \n 0x0B \n Checks for APM events. Shall be called once per second.\n\n Get Power State \n 0x0C \n\n\n Enable/Disable Device Power Management \n 0x0D \n\n\n APM Driver Version \n 0x0E \n\n\n Engage/Disengage Power Management \n 0x0F \n APM management for a specific device.\n\n Get Capabilities \n 0x10 \n\n\n Get/Set/Disable Resume Timer \n 0x11 \n\n\n Enable/Disable Resume on Ring Indicator \n 0x12 \n\n\n Enable/Disable Timer Based Requests \n 0x13 \n\n\n OEM APM Installation Check \n 0x80 \n Tells if APM BIOS supports OEM hardware dependent functions.\n\n OEM APM Function \n 0x80 \n Access to OEM specific functions.\n\n", "There are 21 APM function calls defined that the APM driver can use to query power management statuses, or request power state transitions. Example function calls include letting the BIOS know about current CPU usage (the BIOS may respond to such a call by placing the CPU in a low-power state, or returning it to its full-power state), retrieving the current power state of a device, or requesting a power state change.\n", "The APM specification defines system power states and device power states.\n\n===System power states===\nAPM defines five power states for the computer system:\n* Full On: The computer is powered on, and no devices are in a power saving mode.\n* APM Enabled: The computer is powered on, and APM is controlling device power management as needed.\n* APM Standby: Most devices are in their low-power state, the CPU is slowed or stopped, and the system state is saved. The computer can be returned to its former state quickly (in response to activity such as the user pressing a key on the keyboard).\n* APM Suspend: Most devices are powered off, but the system state is saved. The computer can be returned to its former state, but takes a relatively long time. (Hibernation is a special form of the APM Suspend state).\n* Off: The computer is turned off.\n\n===Device power states===\nAPM also defines power states that APM-aware hardware can implement. There is no requirement that an APM-aware device implement all states.\n\nThe four states are:\n* Device On: The device is in full power mode.\n* Device Power Managed: The device is still powered on, but some functions may not be available, or may have reduced performance.\n* Device Low Power: The device is not working. Power is maintained so that the device may be 'woken up'.\n* Device Off: The device is powered off.\n", "The CPU core (defined in APM as the CPU clock, cache, system bus and system timers) is treated specially in APM, as it is the last device to be powered down, and the first device to be powered back up. The CPU core is always controlled through the APM BIOS (there is no option to control it through a driver). Drivers can use APM function calls to notify the BIOS about CPU usage, but it is up to the BIOS to act on this information; a driver cannot directly tell the CPU to go into a power saving state.\n", "* Active State Power Management - hardware power management protocol for PCI Express\n* Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) - successor to APM\n* Green computing\n* Power management\n* BatteryMAX (idle detection)\n", "\n", "APM V1.2 Specification (RTF file).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Overview", " Power management events ", "APM functions", "Power states", "CPU", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Advanced Power Management
[ "}\nSaxophone produced by Sax\n'''Antoine-Joseph''' \"'''Adolphe'''\" '''Sax''' (; 6 November 1814 – c. 7 February 1894) was a Belgian inventor and musician who invented the saxophone in the early 1840s (patented in 1846). He played the flute and clarinet. He also invented the saxotromba, saxhorn and saxtuba.\n", "Antoine-Joseph Sax was born on 6 November 1814, in Dinant, in what is now Belgium, to Charles-Joseph Sax and his wife. While his given name was Antoine, he was referred to as Adolphe from childhood. His father and mother were instrument designers themselves, who made several changes to the design of the French horn. Adolphe began to make his own instruments at an early age, entering two of his flutes and a clarinet into a competition at the age of 15. He subsequently studied performance on those two instruments as well as voice at the Royal Conservatory of Brussels.\n\nSax faced many near-death experiences. Over the course of his childhood, he:\n\n* fell from a height of three floors, hit his head on a stone and could barely stand afterwards,\n* at the age of three, drank a bowl full of vitriolized water and later swallowed a pin, \n* burnt himself seriously in a gunpowder explosion, \n* fell onto a hot cast iron frying pan, burning his side,\n* survived poisoning and suffocation in his own bedroom where varnished items were kept during the night,\n* was hit on the head by a cobblestone, and\n* fell into a river and barely survived.\n\nHis mother once said that \"he's a child condemned to misfortune; he won't live.\" His neighbors called him \"little Sax, the ghost\"..\n", "After leaving the Royal Conservatory of Brussels, Sax began to experiment with new instrument designs, while his parents continued to make conventional instruments to bring in money. Adolphe's first important invention was an improvement of the bass clarinet design, which he patented at the age of 24. Sax relocated permanently to Paris in 1841 and began working on a new set of instruments which he exhibited there in 1844. These were valved bugles, and although he had not invented the instrument itself, his examples were much more successful than those of his rivals and became known as saxhorns. They came in seven different sizes, and paved the way for the creation of the flugelhorn. Today, saxhorns are sometimes used in concert bands and orchestras. The saxhorn also laid the groundwork for the modern euphonium.\n\nSax also developed the ''saxotromba'' family, valved brass instruments with narrower bore than the saxhorns, in 1845, though they survived only briefly.\n\nThe use of saxhorns spread rapidly. The saxhorn valves were accepted as state-of-the-art in their time and remain largely unchanged today. The advances made by Adolphe Sax were soon followed by the British brass band movement which exclusively adopted the saxhorn family of instruments. The Jedforest Instrumental Band formed in 1854 and The Hawick Saxhorn Band formed in 1855, within the Scottish Borders, a decade after saxhorn models became available.\n\nThe period around 1840 saw Sax inventing the ''clarinette-bourdon'', an early unsuccessful design of contrabass clarinet. Around this time he also developed the instrument for which he is best known: the saxophone which he patented on 28 June 1846. The saxophone was invented for use in both orchestras and military bands. By 1846 Sax had designed (on paper at least) a full range of saxophones (from sopranino to subcontrabass). Composer Hector Berlioz wrote approvingly of the new instrument in 1842, but despite his support, saxophones never became standard orchestral instruments. However, their ability to play technical passages easily like woodwinds and also project loudly like brass instruments led them to be included in military bands in France and elsewhere. The saxophone was Sax's signature accomplishment and created his reputation more than any other. This helped secure him a job teaching at the Paris Conservatory in 1857.\n\nSax continued to make instruments later in life and presided over the new saxophone program at the Paris Conservatory. Rival instrument makers both attacked the legitimacy of his patents and were sued by Sax for patent infringement. The legal back-and-forth continued for over 20 years. He was driven into bankruptcy twice: in 1856 and again in 1873.\n\nSax suffered from lip cancer between 1853 and 1858 but made a full recovery. In 1894 Sax died in complete poverty in Paris and was interred in section 5 (Avenue de Montebello) at the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris.\n\n\nFile:Saxtromba sopran.jpg\|Saxotromba\nFile:MHS Saxhorn.jpg\|Saxhorn\nFile:Saxtuba1867.jpg\|Saxtuba\nFile:Trombone a six pistons-IMG 0853-black.jpg\|6-piston Trombone\nFile:Bass saxhorn, 1863.jpg\|A bass saxhorn, 1863\n\n", "* 1849: Awarded the Chevalier rank of the Legion of Honour.\n* 1867: ''1e Grand Prix de la Facture Instrumentale'' at the 1867 Paris International Exposition\n* 2015: Google Doodle commemorated his 201st birthday.\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* Pictures of saxophones made by Adolphe and Adolphe Edouard Sax\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", " Honors and awards ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]	Adolphe Sax
[ "\n\n\n\nIn phonetics, '''aspiration''' is the strong burst of breath that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. In English, aspirated consonants are allophones in complementary distribution with their unaspirated counterparts, but in some other languages, notably most Indian and East Asian languages, the difference is contrastive, while in Arabic and Persian, all stops are aspirated.\n\nTo feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of one's mouth, and say ''spin'' and then ''pin'' . One should either feel a puff of air or see a flicker of the candle flame with ''pin'' that one does not get with ''spin''.\n", "In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), aspirated consonants are written using the symbols for voiceless consonants followed by the aspiration modifier letter , a superscript form of the symbol for the voiceless glottal fricative . For instance, represents the voiceless bilabial stop, and represents the aspirated bilabial stop.\n\nVoiced consonants are seldom actually aspirated. Symbols for voiced consonants followed by , such as , typically represent consonants with murmured voiced release (see below). In the grammatical tradition of Sanskrit, aspirated consonants are called '''voiceless aspirated''', and breathy-voiced consonants are called '''voiced aspirated'''.\n\nThere are no dedicated IPA symbols for degrees of aspiration and typically only two degrees are marked: unaspirated and aspirated . An old symbol for light aspiration was , but this is now obsolete. The aspiration modifier letter may be doubled to indicate especially strong or long aspiration. Hence, the two degrees of aspiration in Korean stops are sometimes transcribed or and , but they are usually transcribed and , with the details of voice-onset time given numerically.\n\nPreaspirated consonants are marked by placing the aspiration modifier letter before the consonant symbol: represents the preaspirated bilabial stop.\n\n'''Unaspirated''' or tenuis consonants are occasionally marked with the modifier letter for unaspiration , a superscript equals sign: . Usually, however, unaspirated consonants are left unmarked: .\n", "\nVoiceless consonants are produced with the vocal folds open (spread) and not vibrating, and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed and vibrating (modal voice). Voiceless aspiration occurs when the vocal cords remain open after a consonant is released. An easy way to measure this is by noting the consonant's voice-onset time, as the voicing of a following vowel cannot begin until the vocal cords close.\n\nPhonetically in some languages, such as Navajo, aspiration of stops tends to be realised as voiceless velar airflow; aspiration of affricates is realised as an extended length of the frication.\n\nAspirated consonants are not always followed by vowels or other voiced sounds. For example, in Eastern Armenian, aspiration is contrastive even word-finally, and aspirated consonants occur in consonant clusters. In Wahgi, consonants are aspirated only in final position.\n\n===Degree===\nThe degree of aspiration varies: the voice-onset time of aspirated stops is longer or shorter depending on the language or the place of articulation.\n\nArmenian and Cantonese have aspiration that lasts about as long as English aspirated stops, in addition to unaspirated stops. Korean has lightly aspirated stops that fall between the Armenian and Cantonese unaspirated and aspirated stops as well as strongly aspirated stops whose aspiration lasts longer than that of Armenian or Cantonese. (See voice-onset time.)\n\nAspiration varies with place of articulation. The Spanish voiceless stops have voice-onset times (VOTs) of about 5, 10, and 30 milliseconds, whereas English aspirated have VOTs of about 60, 70, and 80 ms. Voice-onset time in Korean has been measured at 20, 25, and 50 ms for and 90, 95, and 125 for .\n\n===Doubling===\n\nWhen aspirated consonants are doubled or geminated, the stop is held longer and then has an aspirated release. An aspirated affricate consists of a stop, fricative, and aspirated release. A doubled aspirated affricate has a longer hold in the stop portion and then has a release consisting of the fricative and aspiration.\n\n===Preaspiration===\nIcelandic and Faroese have consonants with preaspiration , and some scholars interpret them as consonant clusters as well. In Icelandic, preaspirated stops contrast with double stops and single stops (see :\n* '''' or \"zeal\"\n* '''' \"hoax\"\n* '''' \"opening\"\n\nPreaspirated stops also occur in most Sami languages. For example, in Northern Sami, the unvoiced stop and affricate phonemes , , , , are pronounced preaspirated (, , , ) in medial or final position.\n\n===Fricative===\nAlthough most aspirated obstruents in the world's languages are stops and affricates, aspirated fricatives such as , or have been documented in Korean, in a few Tibeto-Burman languages, in some Oto-Manguean languages, and in the Siouan language Ofo. Some languages, such as Choni Tibetan, have up to four contrastive aspirated fricatives , and .\n\n===Voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration===\nTrue aspirated voiced consonants, as opposed to murmured (breathy-voice) consonants such as the that are common in the languages of India, are extremely rare. They have been documented in Kelabit Taa, and the Kx'a languages. Reported aspirated voiced stops, affricates and clicks are .\n", "Aspiration has varying significance in different languages. It is either allophonic or phonemic, and may be analyzed as an underlying consonant cluster.\n\n===Allophonic===\n\nIn some languages, such as English, aspiration is allophonic. Stops are distinguished primarily by voicing, and voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated, while voiced stops are usually unaspirated.\n\nEnglish voiceless stops are aspirated for most native speakers when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable, as in ''pill'', ''till'', ''kill''.\n\nThey are unaspirated for almost all speakers when immediately following word-initial s, as in ''spill'', ''still'', ''skill''. After an ''s'' elsewhere in a word they are normally unaspirated as well, except sometimes in compound words. When the consonants in a cluster like ''st'' are analyzed as belonging to different morphemes (heteromorphemic) the stop is aspirated, but when they are analyzed as belonging to one morpheme the stop is unaspirated. For instance, ''distend'' has unaspirated since it is not analyzed as two morphemes, but ''distaste'' has an aspirated middle because it is analyzed as ''dis-'' + ''taste'' and the word ''taste'' has an aspirated initial ''t''.\n\nWord-final voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated.\n\nVoiceless stops in Pashto are slightly aspirated prevocalically in a stressed syllable.\n\n===Phonemic===\nIn many languages, such as Armenian, Korean, Thai, Indo-Aryan languages, Dravidian languages, Icelandic, Ancient Greek, and the varieties of Chinese, tenuis and aspirated consonants are phonemic. Unaspirated consonants like and aspirated consonants like are separate phonemes, and words are distinguished by whether they have one or the other.\n\n====Consonant cluster====\nAlemannic German dialects have unaspirated as well as aspirated ; the latter series are usually viewed as consonant clusters.\n\n====Tenseness====\nIn Danish and most southern varieties of German, the lenis consonants transcribed for historical reasons as are distinguished from their fortis counterparts , mainly in their lack of aspiration.\n\n===Absence===\nFrench, Standard Dutch, Tamil, Italian, Russian, Spanish, Modern Greek, and Latvian are languages that do not have phonemic aspirated consonants.\n", "\n===Chinese===\n\nStandard Chinese (Mandarin) has stops and affricates distinguished by aspiration: for instance, , . In pinyin, tenuis stops are written with letters that represent voiced consonants in English, and aspirated stops with letters that represent voiceless consonants. Thus ''d'' represents , and ''t'' represents .\n\nWu Chinese and Southern Min has a three-way distinction in stops and affricates: . In addition to aspirated and unaspirated consonants, there is a series of ''muddy consonants'', like . These are pronounced with slack or breathy voice: that is, they are weakly voiced. Muddy consonants as initial cause a syllable to be pronounced with low pitch or ''light'' (陽 ''yáng'') tone.\n\n===Indian languages===\n\n\nMany Indo-Aryan languages have aspirated stops. Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, and Gujarati have a four-way distinction in stops: voiceless, aspirated, voiced, and breathy-voiced or voiced aspirated, such as . Punjabi has lost breathy-voiced consonants, which resulted in a tone system, and therefore has a distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced: .\n\nSome of the Dravidian languages, such as Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, and Kannada, have a distinction between voiced and voiceless, aspirated and unaspirated only in loanwords from Indo-Aryan languages. In native Dravidian words, there is no distinction between these categories and stops are underspecified for voicing and aspiration.\n\n===Armenian===\n\nMost dialects of Armenian have aspirated stops, and some have breathy-voiced stops.\n\nClassical and Eastern Armenian have a three-way distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced, such as .\n\nWestern Armenian has a two-way distinction between aspirated and voiced: . Western Armenian aspirated corresponds to Eastern Armenian aspirated and voiced , and Western voiced corresponds to Eastern voiceless .\n\n===Greek===\n\nSome forms of Greek before the Koine Greek period are reconstructed as having aspirated stops. The Classical Attic dialect of Ancient Greek had a three-way distinction in stops like Eastern Armenian: . These series were called , , (''psilá, daséa, mésa'') \"smooth, rough, intermediate\", respectively, by Koine Greek grammarians.\n\nThere were aspirated stops at three places of articulation: labial, coronal, and velar . Earlier Greek, represented by Mycenaean Greek, likely had a labialized velar aspirated stop , which later became labial, coronal, or velar depending on dialect and phonetic environment.\n\nThe other Ancient Greek dialects, Ionic, Doric, Aeolic, and Arcadocypriot, likely had the same three-way distinction at one point, but Doric seems to have had a fricative in place of in the Classical period, and the Ionic and Aeolic dialects sometimes lost aspiration (psilosis).\n\nLater, during the Koine Greek period, the aspirated and voiced stops of Attic Greek lenited to voiceless and voiced fricatives, yielding in Medieval and Modern Greek.\n", "\n===Debuccalization===\nThe term ''aspiration'' sometimes refers to the sound change of debuccalization, in which a consonant is lenited (weakened) to become a glottal stop or fricative .\n\n===Breathy-voiced release===\n\nSo-called voiced aspirated consonants are nearly always pronounced instead with breathy voice, a type of phonation or vibration of the vocal folds. The modifier letter after a voiced consonant actually represents a breathy-voiced or murmured dental stop, as with the \"voiced aspirated\" bilabial stop in the Indo-Aryan languages. This consonant is therefore more accurately transcribed as , with the diacritic for breathy voice, or with the modifier letter , a superscript form of the symbol for the voiced glottal fricative .\n\nSome linguists restrict the double-dot subscript to murmured sonorants, such as vowels and nasals, which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript hook-aitch for the breathy-voiced release of obstruents.\n", "\nAspirated h\nVoice-onset time\nList of phonetic topics\nPhonation\nPreaspiration\nRough breathing\nSmooth breathing\nBreathy voice\nTenuis consonant (Unaspirated consonant)\n\n", "\n", "Cho, T., & Ladefoged, P., \"Variations and universals in VOT\". In ''Fieldwork Studies of Targeted Languages V: UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' vol. 95. 1997.\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Transcription", "Phonetics", "Phonology", "Examples", "Other uses", "See also", "Notes", "References" ]	Aspirated consonant
[ "\n\n'''Arteriovenous malformation''' ('''AVM''') is an abnormal connection between arteries and veins, bypassing the capillary system. This vascular anomaly is widely known because of its occurrence in the central nervous system (usually cerebral AVM), but can appear in any location. Although many AVMs are asymptomatic, they can cause intense pain or bleeding or lead to other serious medical problems.\n\nAVMs are usually congenital and belong to the RASopathies.\nThe genetic transmission patterns of AVM, if any, are unknown. AVM is not generally thought to be an inherited disorder, unless in the context of a specific hereditary syndrome.\n", "Video explanation\nSymptoms of AVM vary according to the location of the malformation. Roughly 88% of people with an AVM are asymptomatic; often the malformation is discovered as part of an autopsy or during treatment of an unrelated disorder (called in medicine an \"incidental finding\"); in rare cases, its expansion or a micro-bleed from an AVM in the brain can cause epilepsy, neurological deficit, or pain.\n\nThe most general symptoms of a cerebral AVM include headaches and epileptic seizures, with more specific symptoms occurring that normally depend on the location of the malformation and the individual. Such possible symptoms include:\n\n* Difficulties with movement coordination, including muscle weakness and even paralysis;\n* Vertigo (dizziness);\n* Difficulties of speech (dysarthria) and communication, such as aphasia;\n* Difficulties with everyday activities, such as apraxia;\n* Abnormal sensations (numbness, tingling, or spontaneous pain);\n* Memory and thought-related problems, such as confusion, dementia or hallucinations.\n\nCerebral AVMs may present themselves in a number of different ways:\n\nBleeding (45% of cases)\nAcute onset of severe headache. May be described as the worst headache of the patient's life. Depending on the location of bleeding, may be associated with new fixed neurologic deficit. In unruptured brain AVMs, the risk of spontaneous bleeding may be as low as 1% per year. After a first rupture, the annual bleeding risk may increase to more than 5%.\nSeizure or brain seizure (46%) Depending on the place of the AVM, it can cause loss of vision in one place.\nHeadache (34%)\nProgressive neurologic deficit (21%)\nMay be caused by mass effect or venous dilatations. Presence and nature of the deficit depend on location of lesion and the draining veins.\nPediatric patients\nHeart failure\nMacrocephaly\n*Prominent scalp veins\n\n=== Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations ===\n\nIn the lungs, pulmonary arteriovenous malformations have no symptoms in up to 29% of all cases.\n", "Can occur due to autosomal dominant diseases, such as hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia.\n", "Arteries and veins are part of the human cardiovascular system. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the lungs or the rest of the body, where the blood passes through capillaries, and veins return the blood to the heart. An AVM interferes with this process by forming a direct connection of the arteries and veins. AVMs can cause intense pain and lead to serious medical problems. Although AVMs are often associated with the brain and spinal cord, they can develop in any part of the body.\n\nNormally, the arteries in the vascular system carry oxygen-rich blood, except in the case of the pulmonary artery. Structurally, arteries divide and sub-divide repeatedly, eventually forming a sponge-like capillary bed. Blood moves through the capillaries, giving up oxygen and taking up waste products, including , from the surrounding cells. Capillaries in turn successively join together to form veins that carry blood away. The heart acts to pump blood through arteries and uptake the venous blood.\n\nAn AVM lacks the dampening effect of capillaries on the blood flow, which means that the AVM can get progressively larger over time as the amount of blood flowing through it increases, forcing the heart to work harder to keep up with the extra blood flow. It also causes the surrounding area to be deprived of the functions of the capillaries—removal of and delivery of nutrients to the cells. The resulting tangle of blood vessels, often called a ''nidus'' (Latin for \"nest\"), has no capillaries. It can be extremely fragile and prone to bleeding because of the abnormally direct connections between high-pressure arteries and low-pressure veins. The resultant sign, audible via stethoscope, is a rhythmic, whooshing sound caused by excessively rapid blood flow through the arteries and veins. It has been given the term \"bruit\", French for noise. On some occasions, a patient with a brain AVM may become aware of the noise, which can compromise hearing and interfere with sleep in addition to causing psychological distress.\n", "An arterial venous malformation of the left kidney and a simple cyst of the right kidney\nAn arterial venous malformation of the left kidney leading to aneurysmal dilatation of the left renal vein and inferior vena cava\nAVMs are diagnosed primarily by the following methods:\n Computerized tomography (CT) scan is a noninvasive X-ray to view the anatomical structures within the brain to detect blood in or around the brain. A newer technology called CT angiography involves the injection of contrast into the blood stream to view the arteries of the brain. This type of test provides the best pictures of blood vessels through angiography and soft tissues through CT.\n* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan is a noninvasive test, which uses a magnetic field and radio-frequency waves to give a detailed view of the soft tissues of the brain. \n* Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) – scans created using magnetic resonance imaging to specifically image the blood vessels and structures of the brain. A magnetic resonance angiogram can be an invasive procedure, involving the introduction of contrast dyes (e.g., gadolinium MR contrast agents) into the vasculature of a patient using a catheter inserted into an artery and passed through the blood vessels to the brain. Once the catheter is in place, the contrast dye is injected into the bloodstream and the MR images are taken. Additionally or alternatively, flow-dependent or other contrast-free magnetic resonance imaging techniques can be used to determine the location and other properties of the vasculature.\n\nAVMs can occur in various parts of the body:\n* brain (cerebral AV malformation) \n* spleen\n* lung\n* kidney\n* spinal cord\n* liver\n* intercostal space\n* iris\n* spermatic cord\nextremities – arm, shoulder, etc.\n\nAVMs may occur in isolation or as a part of another disease (for example, Von Hippel-Lindau disease or hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia).\n\nAVMs have been shown to be associated with aortic stenosis.\n\nBleeding from an AVM can be relatively mild or devastating. It can cause severe and less often fatal strokes. If a cerebral AVM is detected before a stroke occurs, usually the arteries feeding blood into the nidus can be closed off to avert the danger. However, interventional therapy may also be relatively risky. \n\n", "Treatment for brain AVMs can be symptomatic, and patients should be followed by a neurologist for any seizures, headaches, or focal neurologic deficits. AVM-specific treatment may also involve endovascular embolization, neurosurgery or radiosurgery.\nEmbolization, that is, cutting off the blood supply to the AVM with coils, particles, acrylates, or polymers introduced by a radiographically guided catheter, may be used in addition to neurosurgery or radiosurgery, but is rarely successful in isolation except in smaller AVMs. Gamma knife may also be used.\n", "The estimated detection rate of AVM in the US general population is 1.4/100,000 per year. This is approximately one fifth to one seventh the incidence of intracranial aneurysms. An estimated 300,000 Americans have AVMs, of whom 12% (approximately 36,000) will exhibit symptoms of greatly varying severity.\n", "Emmanuel, Luschka, and Virchow first described arteriovenous malformations in the mid-1800s. Olivecrona performed the first surgical excision of an intracranial AVM in 1932.\n", "\n=== Notable cases ===\nPhoenix Suns point guard AJ Price nearly died from AVM in 2004 while a student at the University of Connecticut.\nOn December 13, 2006, Senator Tim Johnson of South Dakota was diagnosed with AVM and treated at George Washington University Hospital.\nOn August 3, 2011, Mike Patterson of the Philadelphia Eagles collapsed on the field and suffered a seizure during a practice. After he collapsed, Patterson was rushed to the hospital where he was diagnosed with AVM.\nActor Ricardo Montalbán was born with spinal AVM. During the filming of the 1951 film ''Across the Wide Missouri'', Montalbán was thrown from his horse, knocked unconscious, and trampled by another horse which aggravated his AVM and resulted in a painful back injury that never healed. The pain increased as he aged, and in 1993, Montalbán underwent 9½ hours of spinal surgery which left him paralyzed below the waist and using a wheelchair.\nActor/comedian T. J. Miller was diagnosed with AVM after filming ''Yogi Bear'' in New Zealand in 2010; Miller described his experience with the disease on the Pete Holmes podcast You Made It Weird on October 28, 2011, shedding his comedian side for a moment and becoming more philosophical, narrating his behaviors and inability to sleep during that time. He suffered a seizure upon return to Los Angeles and successfully underwent surgery that had a mortality rate of ten percent.\nJazz guitarist Pat Martino experienced an AVM and subsequently developed amnesia and manic depression. He eventually re-learned to play the guitar by listening to his own recordings from before the aneurysm. He still records and performs to this day.\nYouTube vlogger Nikki Lilly (Nikki Christou), winner of the 2016 season of ''Junior Bake Off'' was born with AVM, which has resulted in some facial disfigurement.\n\n=== Media===\n* In the ninth season of Dynasty, Krystle Carrington suffered from AVM and went into a coma after unsuccessful surgery.\n''Six Feet Under'', an American television series that ran on HBO from 2001–2005, featured a protagonist, Nate Fisher, who suffered from AVM, a recurring feature in the storyline of this character.\nIn the episode \"DNR\" of the TV series ''House M.D.'', the patient was finally diagnosed with an AVM.\nIn the episode \"Save Me\" of season 1 of the TV series ''Grey's Anatomy'', a psychic was diagnosed with an AVM in his left temporal lobe.\n", "Despite many years of research, the central question of whether to treat AVMs has not been answered. All treatments, whether involving surgery, radiation, or drugs, have risks and side-effects. Therefore, it might be better in some cases to avoid treatment altogether and simply accept a small risk of coming to harm from the AVM itself. This question is currently being addressed in clinical trials.\n\n", " Foix–Alajouanine syndrome\n* Haemangioma\n* Klippel–Trénaunay syndrome\n* Parkes Weber syndrome\n", "\n\n", "* AVM Awareness Project\n* The Aneurysm and AVM Foundation\n* AVM Support Groups from the DMOZ Open Directory.\n* University of California San Francisco AVM research.\n* Arteriovenous Malformations – Great Ormond Street Hospital\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Signs and symptoms ", " Genetics ", "Pathophysiology", "Diagnosis", " Treatment ", " Epidemiology ", "History", " Society and culture ", " Research", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Arteriovenous malformation

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