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[ "\n\n\n\n'''Alexis Andrew Nicholas Koerner''' (19 April 1928 – 1 January 1984) was a British blues musician and radio broadcaster, who has sometimes been referred to as \"a founding father of British blues\". A major influence on the sound of the British music scene in the 1960s, Korner was instrumental in bringing together various English blues musicians.\n", "Koerner was born in Paris, to an Austrian Jewish father and a Greek mother. He spent his childhood in France, Switzerland and North Africa and arrived in London in 1940 at the start of World War II. One memory of his youth was listening to a record by black pianist Jimmy Yancey during a German air raid. Korner said, \"From then on all I wanted to do was play the blues.\"\n\nAfter the war, Korner played piano and guitar (his first guitar was built by friend and author Sydney Hopkins, who wrote ''Mister God, This Is Anna'') and in 1949 joined Chris Barber's Jazz Band where he met blues harmonica player Cyril Davies. They started playing together as a duo, started the influential London Blues and Barrelhouse Club in 1955 and made their first record together in 1957. Korner made his first official record on Decca Records DFE 6286 in the company of Ken Colyer's Skiffle Group. His talent extended to playing mandolin on one of the tracks of this rare British EP, recorded in London on 28 July 1955. Korner brought many American blues artists, previously virtually unknown in Britain, to perform.\n", "\nIn 1961, Korner and Davies formed Blues Incorporated, initially a loose-knit group of musicians with a shared love of electric blues and R&B music. The group included, at various times, Charlie Watts, Jack Bruce, Ginger Baker, Long John Baldry, Graham Bond, Danny Thompson and Dick Heckstall-Smith. It also attracted a wider crowd of mostly younger fans, some of whom occasionally performed with the group, including Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Brian Jones, Geoff Bradford, Rod Stewart, John Mayall and Jimmy Page.\n\nAlthough Cyril Davies left the group in late 1962, Blues Incorporated continued to record, with Korner at the helm, until 1966. However, by that time its originally stellar line-up (and crowd of followers) had mostly left to start their own bands. \"While his one-time acolytes the Rolling Stones and Cream made the front pages of music magazines all over the world, Korner was relegated to the role of 'elder statesman'.\"\n\nAlthough he himself was a blues purist, Korner criticised better-known British blues musicians during the blues boom of the late 1960s for their blind adherence to Chicago blues, as if the music came in no other form. He liked to surround himself with jazz musicians and often performed with a horn section drawn from a pool that included, among others, saxophone players Art Themen, Mel Collins, Dick Heckstall-Smith, Lol Coxhill, Dick Morrissey, John Surman and trombonist Mike Zwerin.\n", "In the 1960s Korner began a media career, working initially as a show business interviewer and then on ITV's ''Five O'Clock Club'', a children's TV show. Korner also wrote about blues for the music papers, and continued to maintain his own career as a blues artist, especially in Europe.\n\nOn 17 October 1967, Korner interviewed The Jimi Hendrix Experience for the BBC radio show ''Top Gear''. Some of these tracks, including audio of Korner himself, appear on the Hendrix double-CD ''BBC Sessions'', including Korner playing slide guitar on \"(I'm Your) Hoochie Coochie Man\".\n\nWhile touring Scandinavia he formed the band New Church with guitarist and singer Peter Thorup. They subsequently were one of the support bands at the Rolling Stones Free Concert in Hyde Park, London, on 5 July 1969. Jimmy Page reportedly found out about a new singer, Robert Plant, who had been jamming with Korner, who wondered why Plant had not yet been discovered. Plant and Korner were recording an album with Plant on vocals until Page had asked him to join \"the New Yardbirds\", a.k.a. Led Zeppelin. Only two songs are in circulation from these recordings: \"Steal Away\" and \"Operator\". Korner gave one of his last radio interviews to BBC Midlands on the ''Record Collectors Show'' with Mike Adams and Chris Savory.\n\n===1970s===\n\nKorner and Peter Thorup in Bremen\nIn 1970 Korner and Thorup formed a big-band ensemble, CCS – short for \"The Collective Consciousness Society\" – which had several hit singles produced by Mickie Most, including a version of Led Zeppelin's \"Whole Lotta Love\", which was used as the theme for BBC's ''Top of the Pops'' between 1971 and 1981. Another instrumental called \"Brother\" was used as the theme to the BBC Radio 1 Top 20/40 when Tom Browne/Simon Bates presented the programme in the 1970s. It was also used in the 1990s on Radio Luxembourg for the Top 20 Singles chart. This was the period of Korner's greatest commercial success in the UK.\n\n===1970s to 1984===\nKorner with Snape\nIn 1973, he and Peter Thorup formed another group, Snape, with Boz Burrell, Mel Collins, and Ian Wallace, who were previously together in King Crimson. Korner also played on B.B. King's ''In London'' album, and cut his own, similar \"supersession\" album; ''Get Off My Cloud'', with Keith Richards, Steve Marriott, Peter Frampton, Nicky Hopkins and members of Joe Cocker's Grease Band. In the mid-1970s, while touring Germany, Korner established an intensive working relationship with bassist Colin Hodgkinson who played for the support act Back Door. They would continue to collaborate right up until Korner's death.\n\nIn the 1970s Korner's main career was in broadcasting. In 1973 he presented a unique 6-part documentary on BBC Radio 1, ''The Rolling Stones Story'', and in 1977 he established a Sunday-night blues and soul show on Radio 1, ''Alexis Korner's Blues and Soul Show'', which ran until 1981. He also used his gravelly voice to great effect as an advertising voice-over artist. In 1978, for Korner's 50th birthday, an all-star concert was held featuring many of his above-mentioned friends, as well as Eric Clapton, Paul Jones, Chris Farlowe, Zoot Money and others, which was later released as ''The Party Album'', and as a video.\n\nIn 1981, Korner joined another \"supergroup\", Rocket 88, a project led by Ian Stewart based on boogie-woogie keyboard players, which featured a rhythm section comprising Jack Bruce and Charlie Watts, among others, as well as a horn section. They toured Europe and released an album on Atlantic Records. He played in Italy with Paul Jones and the Blues Society of Italian bluesman Guido Toffoletti.\n", "* ''Blues from the Roundhouse '' 10\" (1957) – Alexis Korner's Breakdown Group\n* ''R&B from the Marquee'' (1962) – Blues Incorporated\n* ''Alexis Korner and Friends'' (1963) – Blues Incorporated\n* ''At the Cavern'' (1964) – Blues Incorporated\n* ''Red Hot from Alex'' (1964) – Blues Incorporated\n* ''Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated'' (1965) – Blues Incorporated\n* ''Sky High'' (1966) – Blues Incorporated\n* ''I Wonder Who'' (1967)\n* ''Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated'' (re-issue of ''Sky High'') – Blues Incorporated\n* ''A New Generation of Blues'' (1968)\n* ''Both Sides'' (1970) – New Church\n* ''CCS 1st'' (1970) – CCS\n* ''Alexis Korner'' (1971)\n* ''Bootleg Him!'' (1972)\n* ''CCS 2nd'' (1972) – CCS\n* ''Accidentally Borne in New Orleans'' (1973) – with Peter Thorup; Snape\n* ''Live on Tour in Germany'' (1973) – with Peter Thorup; Snape\n* ''The Best Band in the Land'' (1973) – CCS\n* ''Alexis Korner'' (1974)\n* ''Get Off My Cloud'' (1975)\n* ''The Lost Album'' (1977)\n* ''Just Easy'' (1978)\n* ''The Party Album'' (1979) – Alexis Korner and Friends\n* ''Me'' (1980)\n* ''Rocket 88'' (1981) – Rocket 88\n* ''Juvenile Delinquent'' (1984)\n* ''Testament'' (1985) – with Colin Hodgkinson\n* ''Live in Paris'' (1988) – with Colin Hodgkinson\n", "In 1950, Korner married Roberta Melville, daughter of art critic Robert Melville. Korner died of lung cancer aged 55 years, on 1 January 1984.\n", "* Bob Brunning (1986), ''Blues: The British Connection'', London: Helter Skelter, 2002. \n* Bob Brunning, ''The Fleetwood Mac Story: Rumours and Lies'', Omnibus Press, 2004; foreword by B.B. King\n* Dick Heckstall-Smith (2004), ''The Safest Place in the World: A Personal History of British Rhythm and blues'', Clear Books. . First Edition: ''Blowing the Blues – Fifty Years Playing the British Blues''\n* Christopher Hjort ''Strange Brew: Eric Clapton and the British Blues Boom, 1965–1970'', foreword by John Mayall, Jawbone, 2007. \n* Harry Shapiro, ''Alexis Korner: The Biography'', London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 1997; Discography by Mark Troster. \n", "\n", "\n* Biography at AllMusic\n* Biography at British Music Experience\n* Alexis Korner page at Radio Rewind\n* BBC Radio 2 radio documentary about Alexis Korner on Vimeo\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early career", "The 1960s", "Broadcasting", "Album discography (selected UK and other releases)", "Family life and death", "Bibliography", "References", "External links" ]	Alexis Korner
[ "\n\nDecommissioned Syrian Army StuG III assault gun with 75mm main armament. This example now resides at the Israeli Armored Corps Museum.\n\nAn '''assault gun''' is a form of self-propelled artillery which utilizes an infantry support gun mounted on a motorized chassis, normally an armored fighting vehicle. Assault guns are designed to provide direct fire support for infantry attacks, especially against other infantry or fortified positions. The term is a literal translation of the German word ''Sturmgeschütz'', which was applied to the first purpose-built assault gun, the StuG III, in 1940.\n\nHistorically, the concept of assault guns was very similar to that of the infantry tank, as both were combat vehicles intended to accompany infantry formations into battle. However, during World War II assault guns were more mobile than tanks and could be utilized as both direct and indirect fire artillery. Although they could approximate the firepower of a tank, assault guns mostly fired high explosive shells at relatively low velocities, which were well suited for their role of knocking out hard points such as fortified positions and buildings. They were not intended to be deployed as tank substitutes or dedicated tank destroyers. Nevertheless, as the conflict progressed, the increasing proliferation of tanks on the battlefield forced many assault gun units to engage armor in defense of the infantry, and led to armies becoming more dependent on multipurpose designs which combined the traditionally separate roles of an assault gun and a tank destroyer.\n\nGerman and Soviet assault guns introduced during World War II usually carried their main armament in a fully enclosed casemate rather than a gun turret. Although this limited the field of fire and traverse of the armament, it also had the advantage of a reduced silhouette and simplified the manufacturing process. The United States never developed a purpose-built assault gun during the war, although it did modify preexisting armored fighting vehicles for that role, including the M4 Sherman and M5 Stuart tanks and the M3 Half-track.\n\nThe assault gun concept was largely abandoned during the postwar era in favor of tanks or multipurpose tank destroyers attached to infantry formations which were also capable of providing direct fire support as needed. In the United States and most Western countries, the assault gun ceased to be recognized as a unique niche, with individual examples being classified either as a self-propelled howitzer or a tank. The Soviet Union continued funding development of new assault guns as late as 1967, although few of its postwar designs were adopted in large numbers. In Soviet and other Eastern European armies, the traditional assault gun was primarily superseded by tank destroyers such as the SU-100 capable of supporting either infantry or armor.\n", "\n===World War II===\nThe Soviet SU-76 was easily constructed in small factories incapable of producing proper tanks.\n\nAssault guns were primarily used during World War II by the forces of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Early in the war, the Germans began to create makeshift assault guns by mounting their infantry support weapons on the bed of a truck or on obsolete tanks with the turret removed. Later in the war, both the Germans and the Soviets introduced fully armoured purpose-built assault guns into their arsenals.\n\nEarly on, the Soviets built the KV-2, a variant of the KV-1 heavy tank with a short-barrelled 152 mm howitzer mounted in an oversized turret. This was not a success in battle, and was replaced with a very successful series of turretless assault guns: the SU-76, SU-122, and the heavy SU-152, which were followed by the ISU-122 and ISU-152 on the new IS heavy tank chassis.\n\n''Sturmtiger'' in the ''Deutsches Panzermuseum'' at Munster, Lower Saxony.\n\nThe primary German assault gun was the ''Sturmgeschütz III'' (StuG III). At about the same time (March 1942) as the howitzer-like KwK 37 gun was dropped from the Panzer IV's use, its ''Sturmkanone'' equivalent in the StuG III up to that time, was likewise replaced with a longer-barreled, high-velocity dual-purpose 75mm gun that had also been derived from the successful PaK 40 anti-tank towed artillery piece. blurred the line between assault guns and tank destroyers and were the Wehrmacht's most-produced armoured fighting vehicle, at some 9,400 examples. The Germans also built a number of other fully armoured turretless assault guns, including the StuG IV, ''Brummbär'' and ''Sturmtiger''. The latter two were very heavy vehicles, and were built only in small quantities.\n\nBattalions of assault guns, usually StuG IIIs, commonly replaced the intended panzer battalion in the German panzergrenadier divisions due to the chronic shortage of tanks, and were sometimes used as makeshifts even in the panzer divisions. Independent battalions were also deployed as \"stiffeners\" for infantry divisions, and the StuG III's anti-tank capabilities bolstered dwindling tank numbers on the Eastern and Western fronts.\nA preserved Sherman M4(105).\nUS and UK forces also deployed vehicles designed for a close support role, but these were conventional tanks whose only significant modification was the replacement of the main gun with a howitzer. Two versions of the American Sherman tank were armed with the M4 105 mm howitzer, the M4(105) and the M4A3(105); these were designated assault guns in US usage of the term. The M8 Scott, based on the chassis of the M5 Stuart light tank, was also an assault cannon and carried a 75 mm short howitzer. The Churchill, Centaur and Cromwell tanks were all produced in versions armed with 95 mm howitzers: the Churchill Mark V and Mark VIII, the Centaur Mark IV and the Cromwell Mark VI. Earlier British tanks, such as the Crusader cruiser tank and the Matilda II Infantry tank were produced in versions armed with the 3-inch howitzer; the first versions of the Churchill tank also had this gun in a hull mounting. American tank destroyer units were often used in the assault gun role for infantry support.\n\nThe AVRE version of the Churchill Tank was armed with a Spigot mortar that fired a HE-filled projectile (nicknamed the ''Flying Dustbin'') . Its task was to attack fortified positions such as bunkers at close range (see Hobart's Funnies).\n\n=== Post-war use ===\n\nIn the post-WWII era, vehicles fitting into an \"assault gun\" category were developed as a light-weight, air-deployable, direct fire weapon for use with airborne troops. Current weapons were either based on jeeps or small tracked vehicles and the airborne troops thus always fought at a distinct disadvantage in terms of heavy weapons. The Soviet Union and the United States were the most attracted to the idea of providing this capability to traditionally light airborne forces. Their answers to the problem were similar, with the United States developing the M56 Scorpion and the Soviet Union developing the ASU-57, both essentially air-droppable light anti-tank guns.\n\nThe Soviets went on to develop an improved air-droppable assault gun, the ASU-85, which served through the 1980s, while their SU-100 remained in service with Communist countries, including Vietnam and Cuba, years after World War II. The US M56 and another armoured vehicle, the M50 Ontos, were to be the last of the more traditional assault guns in US service. Improvised arrangements such as M113 personnel carriers with recoilless rifles were quickly replaced by missile carrier vehicles in the anti-tank role.\n\nThe only vehicle with the qualities of an assault gun to be fielded after the removal of the M50 and M56 from service within the US military was the M551 Sheridan. The Sheridan's gun was a low-velocity weapon suitable in the assault role, but with the addition of the Shillelagh missile could double in the anti-tank role as well. The Sheridan, however, was not developed as an assault gun but as a light reconnaissance vehicle.\n\nCurrently there appears to be a move toward wheeled vehicles fitting a \"tank destroyer\" or \"assault gun\" role, such as the M1128 Mobile Gun System of the US Army, the Centauro Wheeled Tank Destroyer of the Italian and Spanish Armies, the Chinese anti-tank gun PTL-02 and ZBL08 assault gun, and the French AMX 10 RC heavy armoured car. While these vehicles might be useful in a direct fire role, none were developed with this specifically in mind, reminiscent of the use of tank destroyers by the US military in the assault gun role during World War II.\n", "* Armoured warfare\n* Sturmgeschütz\n* Tank destroyer\n* Armoured fighting vehicle\n* List of assault guns\n* Self-propelled gun\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", " See also ", " References " ]	Assault gun
[ "\nEland Mk7 light armored car at the South African Armour Museum, Tempe Base, Bloemfontein.\n\nA military '''armored''' (or '''armoured''') '''car''' is a lightweight wheeled armored fighting vehicle, historically employed for reconnaissance, internal security, armed escort, and other subordinate battlefield tasks. With the gradual decline of mounted cavalry, armored cars were developed for carrying out duties formerly assigned to horsemen. Following the invention of the tank, the armored car remained popular due to its comparatively simplified maintenance and low production cost. It also found favor with several colonial armies as a cheaper weapon for use in underdeveloped regions. During World War II, most armored cars were engineered for reconnaissance and passive observation, while others were devoted to communications tasks. Some equipped with heavier armament could even substitute for tracked combat vehicles in favorable conditions—such as pursuit or flanking maneuvers during the North African Campaign.\n\nSince World War II the traditional functions of the armored car have been occasionally combined with that of the armored personnel carrier, resulting in such multipurpose designs as the BTR-40 or the Cadillac Gage Commando. Postwar advances in recoil control technology have also made it possible for a few armored cars, including the B1 Centauro, the AMX-10RC and EE-9 Cascavel, to carry large cannon capable of threatening many tanks.\n", "===Precursors===\nDuring the Middle Ages, war wagons covered with steel plate, and crewed by men armed with primitive hand cannon, flails and muskets, were used by the Hussite rebels in Bohemia. These were deployed in formations where the horses and oxen were at the centre, and the surrounding wagons were chained together as protection from enemy cavalry. Similar wagons were used by the English army of Henry VIII, and by the Chinese Empire.\n\nWith the invention of the steam engine, Victorian inventors designed prototype self-propelled armored vehicles for use in sieges, although none were deployed in combat. H. G. Wells' short story The Land Ironclads provides a fictionalised account of their use.\n\n===Armed car===\nF.R. Simms' Motor Scout, built in 1898 as an armed car.\nThe Motor Scout was designed and built by British inventor F.R. Simms in 1898. It was the first armed petrol engine-powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar. An iron shield in front of the car protected the driver.\n\nAnother early armed car was invented by Royal Page Davidson at Northwestern Military and Naval Academy in 1898 with the Davidson-Duryea gun carriage and the later Davidson Automobile Battery armored car.\n\nHowever, these were not 'armored cars' as the term is understood today, as they provided little or no protection for their crews from enemy fire. They were also, by virtue of their small capacity engines, less efficient than the cavalry and horse-drawn guns that they were intended to complement.\n\n===First armored cars===\nAt the beginning of the 20th century, the first military armored vehicles were manufactured, by adding armor and weapons to existing vehicles.\n\nF.R. Simms' 1902 Motor War Car, the first armored car to be built.\nThe first armored car was the Simms' Motor War Car, designed by F.R. Simms and built by Vickers, Sons & Maxim of Barrow on a special Coventry-built Daimler chassis with a German-built Daimler motor in 1899. and a single prototype was ordered in April 1899 The prototype was finished in 1902, too late to be used during the Boer War.\n\nThe vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3.3-litre 16-hp Cannstatt Daimler engine, giving it a maximum speed around . The armament, consisting of two Maxim guns, was carried in two turrets with 360° traverse. It had a crew of four. Simms' Motor War Car was presented at the Crystal Palace, London, in April 1902.\n\nThe earliest French armored car - the Charron-Girardot-Voigt 1902.\nAnother early armored car of the period was the French Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the ''Salon de l'Automobile et du cycle'' in Brussels, on 8 March 1902. The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss machine gun, and with 7 mm armour for the gunner.\n\nOne of the first operational armoured cars with four wheel (4x4) drive and fully enclosed rotating turret, was the Austro-Daimler Panzerwagen built by Austro-Daimler in 1904. It was armoured with 3-3.5 mm thick curved plates over the body (drive space and engine) and had a 4mm thick dome-shaped rotating turret that housed one or two machine-guns. It had a 4-cylinder 35 hp 4.4 litre engine giving it average cross country performance. Of note, both the driver and co-driver had adjustable seats enabling them to raise them to see out of the roof of the drive compartment as needed. Austro-Daimler four-wheel-drive Armoured Car (1904)\n\nThe Italians used armored cars during the Italo-Turkish War. A great variety of armored cars appeared on both sides during World War I and these were used in various ways.\n\n=== World War I ===\nGenerally, the armored cars were used by more or less independent car commanders. However, sometimes they were used in larger units up to squadron size. The cars were primarily armed with light machine guns, but larger units usually employed a few cars with heavier guns. As air power became a factor, armored cars offered a mobile platform for antiaircraft guns.\n\nA Rolls-Royce Armoured Car 1920 pattern\nThe first effective use of an armored vehicle in combat was achieved by the Belgian Army in August–September 1914. They had placed Cockerill armour plating and a Hotchkiss machine gun on Minerva Armored Cars. Their successes in the early days of the war convinced the Belgian GHQ to create a Corps of Armoured Cars, who would be sent to fight on the Eastern front once the western front immobilized after the Battle of the Yser.\n\nBelgium Minerva Armored car 1914.\nThe British Royal Naval Air Service dispatched aircraft to Dunkirk to defend the UK from Zeppelins. The officers' cars followed them and these began to be used to rescue downed reconnaissance pilots in the battle areas. They mounted machine guns on them and as these excursions became increasingly dangerous, they improvised boiler plate armoring on the vehicles provided by a local shipbuilder. In London Murray Sueter ordered \"fighting cars\" based on Rolls-Royce, Talbot and Wolseley chassis. By the time Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars arrived in December 1914, the mobile period on the Western Front was already over. As described below, they had a fascinating birth and long and interesting service.\n\nMore tactically important was the development of formed units of armored cars, such as the Canadian Automobile Machine Gun Brigade, which was the first fully mechanized unit in the history of the British Army. The brigade was established on September 2, 1914 in Ottawa, as Automobile Machine Gun Brigade No. 1 by Brigadier-General Raymond Brutinel. The Brigade was originally equipped with 8 armored Autocars mounting 2 machine guns. By 1918 Brutinel's force consisted of two Motor Machine Gun Brigades (each of five gun batteries containing eight weapons apiece). The brigade, and its armored cars, provided yeoman service in many battles, notably at Amiens.\n\nThe Rolls-Royce Armoured Car was famously proposed, developed, and utilised by the 2nd Duke of Westminster. He took a squadron of these cars to France in time to make a noted contribution to the Second Battle of Ypres, and thereafter the cars with their master were sent to the Middle East to play a part in the British campaign in Palestine and elsewhere. These cars appear in the memoirs of numerous officers of the BEF during the earlier stages of the Great War - their ducal master often being described in an almost piratical style.\n\n\n=== World War II ===\nAmerican troops in an M8 Greyhound passing the Arc de Triomphe after the liberation of Paris.\n\nThe British Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Middle East was equipped with Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars and Morris tenders. Some of these vehicles were among the last of a consignment of ex-Royal Navy armored cars that had been serving in the Middle East since 1915. In September 1940 a section of the No. 2 Squadron RAF Regiment Company was detached to General Wavell’s ground forces during the first offensive against the Italians in Egypt. It is said that these armored cars became ‘the eyes and ears of Wavell’. During the actions in the October of that year the Company was employed on convoy escort tasks, airfield defense, fighting reconnaissance patrols and screening operations.\n\nFordson armoured car waits outside Baghdad while negotiations for an armistice take place between British officials and representatives of the Iraqi rebel government.\n\nDuring the Anglo-Iraqi War, some of the units located in the British Mandate of Palestine were sent to Iraq and drove Fordson armored cars. \"Fordson\" armored cars were Rolls-Royce armored cars which received new chassis from a Fordson truck in Egypt.\n\nSince the Treaty of Versailles did not mention armored cars, Germany began developing them early. By the start of the new war, the German army possessed some highly effective reconnaissance vehicles, such as the ''Schwerer Panzerspähwagen''.\n\nThe Soviet BA-64 was influenced by a captured ''Leichter Panzerspähwagen'' before it was first tested in January 1942.\n\nIn the second half of the war, the American M8 Greyhound and the British Daimler Armoured Cars featured turrets mounting light guns (40 mm or less). As with other wartime armored cars, their reconnaissance roles emphasized greater speed and stealth than a tracked vehicle could provide, so their limited armor, armament and off-road capabilities were seen as acceptable compromises.\n", "\n\nA preserved, World War 2, American M3 Scout Car\nA military armored car is a type of armored fighting vehicle having wheels (from four to ten large, off-road wheels) instead of tracks, and usually light armor. Armored cars are typically less expensive and on roads have better speed and range than tracked military vehicles. They do however have less mobility as they have less off-road capabilities because of the higher ground pressure. They also have less obstacle climbing capabilities than tracked vehicles. Wheels are more vulnerable to enemy fire than tracks, they have a higher signature and in most cases less armor than comparable tracked vehicles. As a result, they are not intended for heavy fighting; their normal use is for reconnaissance, command, control, and communications, or for use against lightly armed insurgents or rioters. Only some are intended to enter close combat, often accompanying convoys to protect soft-skinned vehicles.\n\nLight armored cars, such as the British Ferret are armed with just a machine gun. Heavier vehicles are armed with autocannon or a small tank gun. The heaviest armored cars, such as the German, World War II era SdKfz 234 or the modern, US M1128 Mobile Gun System, mount the same guns that arm medium tanks.\n\nVehicle built by railway shop workers for the Danish resistance movement, near the end of World War 2\nArmored cars are popular for peacekeeping or internal security duties. Their appearance is less confrontational and threatening than tanks, and their size and maneuverability is said to be more compatible with tight urban spaces designed for wheeled vehicles. However, they do have a larger turning radius compared to tracked vehicles which can turn on the spot and their tires are vulnerable and are less capable in climbing and crushing obstacles. Further, when there is true combat they are easily outgunned and lightly armored. The threatening appearance of a tank is often enough to keep an opponent from attacking, whereas a less threatening vehicle such as an armored car is more likely to be attacked.\n\nMany modern forces now have their dedicated armored car designs, to exploit the advantages noted above. Examples would be the M1117 Armored Security Vehicle of the USA or Alvis Saladin of the post-World War II era in the United Kingdom.\n\nAlternatively, civilian vehicles may be modified into improvised armored cars in ''ad hoc'' fashion. Many militias and irregular forces adapt civilian vehicles into AFVs (armored fighting vehicles) and troop carriers, and in some regional conflicts these \"technicals\" are the only combat vehicles present. On occasion, even the soldiers of national militaries are forced to adapt their civilian-type vehicles for combat use, often using improvised armor and scrounged weapons.\n", "SdKfz 234/4 heavy armored car (German Tank Museum, 2006)\nSoviet BRDM-2\nArmored bus\nArmored personnel carrier\nArmored car (VIP)\nArmoring:\nAramid\nBulletproof glass\nTwaron\nVehicle armor\nGun truck\nTankette\nTechnical (vehicle)\n", "\n", "Crow, Duncan, and Icks, Robert J., ''Encyclopedia of Armored Cars'', Chatwell Books, Secaucus, NJ, 1976. .\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Military use", " See also ", "Notes", "References" ]	Armored car (military)
[ "\n\nSoviet-made ZSU-23-4 in California. The ZSU-23 is the canonical modern SPAAG system.\n\nAn '''anti-aircraft vehicle''', also known as a '''self-propelled anti-aircraft gun''' ('''SPAAG''') or '''self-propelled air defense system''' ('''SPAD'''), is a mobile vehicle with a dedicated anti-aircraft capability. The Russian equivalent of ''SPAAG'' is ''ZSU'', for ''zenitnaya samokhodnaya ustanovka'', (\"anti-aircraft self-propelled mount\").\n\nSpecific weapon systems used include machine guns, autocannons, larger guns, or missiles, and some mount both guns and longer-ranged missiles (e.g. the Pantsir-S1). Platforms used include both trucks and heavier combat vehicles such as APCs and tanks, which add protection from aircraft, artillery, and small arms fire for front line deployment.\n\nAnti-aircraft guns are usually mounted in a quickly-traversing turret with a high rate of elevation, for tracking fast-moving aircraft. They are often in dual or quadruple mounts, allowing a high rate of fire. Today, missiles (generally mounted on similar turrets) have largely supplanted anti-aircraft guns.\n", "A World War 1, British, truck–mounted, QF 3 inch gun\n\n===World War I===\nAnti-aircraft machine guns have long been mounted on trucks, and these were quite common during World War I. A predecessor of the WWII German \"88\" anti-aircraft gun, the WWI German 77 mm anti-aircraft gun, was truck-mounted and used to great effect against British tanks.\n\nThe British QF 3 inch 20 cwt was mounted on trucks for use on the Western Front.\n\n===Inter-war period===\nBetween the two World Wars the United Kingdom developed the Birch gun, a general purpose artillery piece on an armoured tracked chassis capable of maintaining formation with their current tanks over terrain. The gun could be elevated for anti-aircraft use.\n\nVickers Armstrong also developed a SPAAG based on the chassis of the Mk.E 6-ton light tank/Dragon Medium Mark IV tractor, mounting a Vickers QF-1 \"Pom-Pom\" gun of 40 mm. About 26 were sold to Siam and saw action as infantry support guns and AA guns during the Franco-Thai war (1940-1941) along with 30 Vickers Mk.E Type B 6-ton tanks. This was probably the first tracked SPAAG manufactured in series. Later the British also developed a version of the Mk.VI Light Tank armed with four machine guns that was known as Light Tank AA Mk.I. And also a twin 15 mm version based on the Light Tank Mk.V was built.\n\nAmong early pre-war pioneers of self-propelled AA guns were the Germans. By the time of the war, they fielded the SdKfz 10/4 and 6/2, cargo halftracks mounting single 20 mm or 37 mm AA guns (respectively). Later in the war similar German halftracks mounted quadruple 20 mm weapons.\n\n===World War II===\n20 mm ''Flakvierling'' quadmount on a Panzer IV chassis.\nLarger guns followed on larger trucks, but these mountings generally required off-truck setup in order to unlimber the stabilizing legs these guns needed. One exception to this rule was the Italian Cannone da 90/53 which was highly effective when mounted on trucks, a fit known as the \"''autocannoni da 90/53''\". The 90/53 was a feared weapon, notably in the anti-tank role, but only a few hundred had been produced by the time of the armistice in 1943.\n\nOther nations tended to work on truck chassis. Starting in 1941, the British developed the \"en portee\" method of mounting an anti-tank gun (initially a 2 pounder) on a truck. This was to prevent the weapon from being damaged by long-distance towing across rough, stony deserts, and it was intended only to be a carrying method, with the gun unloaded for firing. However, crews tended to fire their weapons from their vehicles for the mobility this method provided, with consequent casualties. \nThis undoubtedly inspired their Morris C9/B (officially the \"Carrier, SP, 4x4, 40 mm AA\"), a Bofors 40 mm AA gun mounted on a chassis derived from the Morris \"Quad\" Field Artillery Tractor truck. Similar types, based on 3-ton lorries, were produced in Britain, Canada and Australia, and together formed the most numerous self-propelled AA guns in British service.\n\nThe U.S. Army brought truck-towed Bofors 40 mm AA guns along with truck-mounted units fitted with mechanized turrets when they sailed, first for Great Britain and then onto France. The turrets carried four .50 inch (12.7 mm) machine guns, which were designed to be adjusted to converge at the single point where enemy aircraft were expected to appear at low altitude in conduction of strafing runs directed at large infantry and field artillery units.\n\nInterest in mobile AA turned to heavier vehicles with the mass and stability needed to easily train weapons of all sizes. Probably the desire, particularly in German service, for anti-aircraft vehicles to be armoured for their own protection also assisted this trend.\n\nThe concept of an armored SPAAG was pioneered by Hungary during World War II by producing the 40M Nimrod based on the Luftvärnskanonvagn L-62 Anti II license acquired from Sweden. Germany followed later with their \"''Flakpanzer''\" series. German World War II SPAAGs include the Möbelwagen, Wirbelwind, Ostwind and Kugelblitz. Other forces followed with designs of their own, notably the American M16 created by mounting quadruple M2HB Browning machine guns on a M3 Half-track.\n\nThe British developed their own SPAAGs throughout the war mounting multiple machine guns and light cannon on various tank and armoured car chassis and by 1943, the Crusader AA tanks, which mounted the Bofors 40 mm gun or two-three Oerlikon 20 mm cannon. Although used during the Normandy landings, by that point German aircraft were contained by the Allies own air forces and they were largely unneeded.\n\n===Cold War and later===\nCzechoslovak self-propelled anti-aircraft gun M53/59 Praga developed in the late 1950s.\nFlakpanzer Gepard, combining radars, fire control and two 35 mm guns in a new turret mounted on a surplus Leopard chassis.\nTypical of more modern designs, the Tunguska-M1 mounts both missiles and cannons.\nThe introduction of jet engines and the subsequent rough doubling of aircraft speeds greatly reduced the effectiveness of the SPAAG against attack aircraft. A typical SPAAG round might have a muzzle velocity on the order of and might take as long as two to three seconds to reach a target at its maximum range. An aircraft flying at is moving at a rate of about . This means the aircraft will have moved hundreds of meters during the flight time of the shells, greatly complicating the aiming problem to the point where close passes were essentially impossible to aim using manual gunsights. This speed also allowed the aircraft to rapidly fly out of range of the guns; even if the aircraft passes directly over the SPAAG, it would be within its firing radius for under 30 seconds.\n\nSPAAG development continued through the early 1950s with ever-larger guns, improving the range and allowing the engagement to take place at longer distances where the crossing angle was smaller and aiming was easier. Examples including the 40 mm U.S. M42 Duster and the 57 mm Soviet ZSU-57-2. However, both were essentially obsolete before they entered service, and found employment solely in the ground-support role. The M42 was introduced to the Vietnam War to counter an expected North Vietnamese air offensive, but when this failed to materialize it was used as an effective direct-fire weapon. The ZSU-57 found similar use in the Yugoslav Wars, where its high-angle fire was useful in the mountainous terrain.\n\nBy the late 1950s the US Army had given up on the SPAAG concept, considering all gun-based weapons to be useless against modern aircraft. This belief was generally held by many forces, and the anti-aircraft role turned almost exclusively to missile systems. The Soviet Union remained an outlier, beginning development of a new SPAAG in 1957, which emerged as the ZSU-23-4 in 1965. This system included search-and-track radars, fire control, and automatic gun-laying, greatly increasing its effectiveness against modern targets. The ZSU-23 proved very effective when used in concert with SAMs; the presence of SAMs forced aircraft to fly low to avoid their radars, placing them within range of the ZSUs.\n\nThe success of the ZSU-23 led to a resurgence of SPAAG development. This was also prompted by the introduction of attack helicopters in the 1970s, which could hide behind terrain and then \"pop up\" for an attack lasting only a few tens of seconds; missiles were ineffective at low altitudes, while the helicopters would often be within range of the guns for a rapid counterattack. Notable among these later systems is the German Gepard, the first western SPAAG to offer performance equal to or better than the ZSU. This system was widely copied in various NATO forces. \n\nSPAAG development continues, with many modern examples often combining both guns and short-range missiles. Examples include the Soviet/Russian Tunguska-M1, which supplanted the ZSU-23 in service, newer versions of the Gepard, the Chinese Type 95 SPAAA , and the British Marksman turret, which can be used on a wide variety of platforms.\n", "* Man-portable air-defense system\n* Flakpanzer, a collective term for German anti-aircraft tanks, particularly those used in World War II.\n* List of anti-aircraft guns\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "See also", "References" ]	Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon
[ "\n\n\nThe '''adrenal glands''' (also known as '''suprarenal glands''') are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla. The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three zones: zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis.\n\nThe adrenal cortex produces three main types of steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. Mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone) produced in the zona glomerulosa help in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance. The glucocorticoids cortisol and corticosterone are synthesized in the zona fasciculata; their functions include the regulation of metabolism and immune system suppression. The innermost layer of the cortex, the zona reticularis, produces androgens that are converted to fully functional sex hormones in the gonads and other target organs. The production of steroid hormones is called steroidogenesis, and involves a number of reactions and processes that take place in cortical cells. The medulla produces the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline, which function to produce a rapid response throughout the body in stress situations.\n\nA number of endocrine diseases involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland. Overproduction of cortisol leads to Cushing's syndrome, whereas insufficient production is associated with Addison's disease. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a genetic disease produced by dysregulation of endocrine control mechanisms. A variety of tumors can arise from adrenal tissue and are commonly found in medical imaging when searching for other diseases.\n\n", "The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body in the retroperitoneum, above and slightly medial to the kidneys. In humans, the right adrenal gland is pyramidal in shape, whereas the left is semilunar and somewhat larger. The adrenal glands measure approximately 3.0 cm in width, 5.0 cm in length, and up to 1.0 cm in thickness. Their combined weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams. The glands are yellowish in colour.\n\nThe adrenal glands are surrounded by a fatty capsule and lie within the renal fascia, which also surrounds the kidneys. A weak wall of connective tissue separates the glands from the kidneys. The adrenal glands are directly below the diaphragm, and are attached to the crura of the diaphragm by the renal fascia.\n\nEach adrenal gland has two distinct parts, each with a unique function, the outer adrenal cortex and the inner medulla, both of which produce hormones.\n\n===Cortex===\n\nunder the microscope, showing its different layers. From the surface to the center: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis, medulla. In the medulla, the central adrenomedullary vein is visible.\n\nThe adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal gland. Within the cortex are three layers, called \"zones\". When viewed under a microscope each layer has a distinct appearance, and each has a different function. The adrenal cortex is devoted to production of hormones, namely aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens.\n\n====Zona glomerulosa====\nThe outermost layer of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide capillaries.\n\nThis layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase. Aldosterone plays an important role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure.\n\n====Zona fasciculata====\nThe zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol. It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla. Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria and a complex smooth endoplasmic reticulum.\n\n====Zona reticularis====\nThe innermost cortical layer, the zona reticularis, lies directly adjacent to the medulla. It produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans. Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and connective tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and lipid droplets, and sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment.\n\n===Medulla===\n\nThe adrenal medulla is at the centre of each adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body's main source of the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline, released by the medulla. Approximately 20% noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and 80% adrenaline (epinephrine) are secreted here.\n\nThe adrenal medulla is driven by the sympathetic nervous system via preganglionic fibers originating in the thoracic spinal cord, from vertebrae T5–T11. Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion. Unlike other sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood.\n\n===Blood supply===\nThe adrenal glands have one of the greatest blood supply rates per gram of tissue of any organ: up to 60 small arteries may enter each gland. Three arteries usually supply each adrenal gland:\n* The superior suprarenal artery, a branch of the inferior phrenic artery\n* The middle suprarenal artery, a direct branch of the abdominal aorta\n* The inferior suprarenal artery, a branch of the renal artery\nThese blood vessels supply a network of small arteries within the capsule of the adrenal glands. Thin strands of the capsule enter the glands, carrying blood to them.\n\nVenous blood is drained from the glands by the suprarenal veins, usually one for each gland:\n* The right suprarenal vein drains into the inferior vena cava\n* The left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein or the left inferior phrenic vein.\n\nThe central adrenomedullary vein, in the adrenal medulla, is an unusual type of blood vessel. Its structure is different from the other veins in that the smooth muscle in its tunica media (the middle layer of the vessel) is arranged in conspicuous, longitudinally oriented bundles.\n\n===Variability===\nThe adrenal glands may not develop at all, or may be fused in the midline behind the aorta. These are associated with other congenital abnormalities, such as failure of the kidneys to develop, or fused kidneys. The gland may develop with a partial or complete absence of the cortex, or may develop in an unusual location.\n", "Different hormones are produced in different zones of the cortex and medulla of the gland. Light microscopy at magnification × 204.\n\nThe adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by enzymes either within the gland or in other parts of the body. These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions.\n\n===Corticosteroids===\nCorticosteroids are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland, from which they are named. Corticosteroids are named according to their actions:\n* Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone regulate salt (\"mineral\") balance and blood volume.\n* Glucocorticoids such as cortisol influence metabolism rates of proteins, fats and sugars (\"glucose\").\n\n;Mineralocorticoids\nThe adrenal gland produces aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, which is important in the regulation of salt (\"mineral\") balance and blood volume. In the kidneys, aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts by increasing the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions. Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2% of filtered sodium in the kidneys, which is nearly equal to the entire sodium content in human blood under normal glomerular filtration rates. Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Angiotensin II and extracellular potassium are the two main regulators of aldosterone production. The amount of sodium present in the body affects the extracellular volume, which in turn influences blood pressure. Therefore, the effects of aldosterone in sodium retention are important for the regulation of blood pressure.\n\n;Glucocorticoids\nCortisol is the main glucocorticoid in humans. In species that do not create cortisol, this role is played by corticosterone instead. Glucocorticoids have many effects on metabolism. As their name suggests, they increase the circulating level of glucose. This is the result of an increase in the mobilization of amino acids from protein and the stimulation of synthesis of glucose from these amino acids in the liver. In addition, they increase the levels of free fatty acids, which cells can use as an alternative to glucose to obtain energy. Glucocorticoids also have effects unrelated to the regulation of blood sugar levels, including the suppression of the immune system and a potent anti-inflammatory effect. Cortisol reduces the capacity of osteoblasts to produce new bone tissue and decreases the absorption of calcium in the gastrointestinal tract.\n\nThe adrenal gland secretes a basal level of cortisol but can also produce bursts of the hormone in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary. Cortisol is not evenly released during the day – its concentrations in the blood are highest in the early morning and lowest in the evening as a result of the circadian rhythm of ACTH secretion. Cortisone is an inactive product of the action of the enzyme 11β-HSD on cortisol. The reaction catalyzed by 11β-HSD is reversible, which means that it can turn administered cortisone into cortisol, the biologically active hormone.\n\n;Formation\nSteroidogenesis in the adrenal glands – different steps occur in different layers of the gland\nAll corticosteroid hormones share cholesterol as a common precursor. Therefore, the first step in steroidogenesis is cholesterol uptake or synthesis. Cells that produce steroid hormones can acquire cholesterol through two paths. The main source is through dietary cholesterol transported via the blood as cholesterol esters within low density lipoproteins (LDL). LDL enters the cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis. The other source of cholesterol is synthesis in the cell's endoplasmic reticulum. Synthesis can compensate when LDL levels are abnormally low. In the lysosome, cholesterol esters are converted to free cholesterol, which is then used for steroidogenesis or stored in the cell.\n\nThe initial part of conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones involves a number of enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family that are located in the inner membrane of mitochondria. Transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner membrane is facilitated by steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and is the rate-limiting step of steroid synthesis.\n\nThe layers of the adrenal gland differ by function, with each layer having distinct enzymes that produce different hormones from a common precursor. The first enzymatic step in the production of all steroid hormones is cleavage of the cholesterol side chain, a reaction that forms pregnenolone as a product and is catalyzed by the enzyme P450scc, also known as ''cholesterol desmolase''. After the production of pregnenolone, specific enzymes of each cortical layer further modify it. Enzymes involved in this process include both mitochondrial and microsomal P450s and hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases. Usually a number of intermediate steps in which pregnenolone is modified several times are required to form the functional hormones. Enzymes that catalyze reactions in these metabolic pathways are involved in a number of endocrine diseases. For example, the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia develops as a result of deficiency of 21-hydroxylase, an enzyme involved in an intermediate step of cortisol production.\n\n;Regulation\nNegative feedback in the HPA axis\nGlucocorticoids are under the regulatory influence of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a hormone released into the bloodstream by the anterior pituitary. In turn, production of ACTH is stimulated by the presence of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is released by neurons of the hypothalamus. ACTH acts on the adrenal cells first by increasing the levels of StAR within the cells, and then of all steroidogenic P450 enzymes. The HPA axis is an example of a negative feedback system, in which cortisol itself acts as a direct inhibitor of both CRH and ACTH synthesis. The HPA axis also interacts with the immune system through increased secretion of ACTH at the presence of certain molecules of the inflammatory response.\n\nMineralocorticoid secretion is regulated mainly by the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS), the concentration of potassium, and to a lesser extent the concentration of ACTH. Sensors of blood pressure in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidneys release the enzyme renin into the blood, which starts a cascade of reactions that lead to formation of angiotensin II. Angiotensin receptors in cells of the zona glomerulosa recognize the substance, and upon binding they stimulate the release of aldosterone.\n\n===Adrenaline and noradrenaline===\nPrimarily referred to in the United States as Epinephrine and norepinephrine,\nAdrenaline and noradrenaline are catecholamines, water-soluble compounds that have a structure made of a catechol group and an amine group. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline. These hormones are released by the adrenal medulla, which contains a dense network of blood vessels. Adrenaline and noradrenaline act at adrenoreceptors throughout the body, with effects that include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. The actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are responsible for the fight or flight response, characterised by a quickening of breathing and heart rate, an increase in blood pressure, and constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body.\n\n;Formation\nCatecholamines are produced in chromaffin cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland, from tyrosine, a non-essential amino acid derived from food or produced from phenylalanine in the liver. The enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase converts tyrosine to L-DOPA in the first step of catecholamine synthesis. L-DOPA is then converted to dopamine before it can be turned into noradrenaline. In the cytosol, noradrenaline is converted to epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) and stored in granules. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex stimulate the synthesis of catecholamines by increasing the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase and PNMT.\n\nCatecholamine release is stimulated by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Splanchnic nerves of the sympathetic nervous system innervate the medulla of the adrenal gland. When activated, it evokes the release of catecholamines from the storage granules by stimulating the opening of calcium channels in the cell membrane.\n\n===Androgens===\nCells in zona reticularis of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones, or androgens, the most important of which is DHEA. In general, these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body, and are converted to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT or to estrogens (female sex hormones) in the gonads, acting in this way as a metabolic intermediate.\n", "\nThe human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal, adult adrenal glands. Only some 250 genes are more specifically expressed in the adrenal glands compared to other organs and tissues. The adrenal gland specific genes with highest level of expression include members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. Corresponding proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the adrenal gland, such as CYP11A1, HSD3B2 and FDX1 involved in steroid hormone synthesis and expressed in cortical cell layers, and PNMT and DBH involved in noradrenalin and adrenalin synthesis and expressed in the medulla.\n", "The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue. In the center is the adrenal medulla, which produces adrenaline and noradrenaline and releases them into the bloodstream, as part of the sympathetic nervous system. Surrounding the medulla is the cortex, which produces a variety of steroid hormones. These tissues come from different embryological precursors and have distinct prenatal development paths. The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from mesoderm, whereas the medulla is derived from the neural crest, which is of ectodermal origin.\n\nThe adrenal glands in a newborn baby are much larger as a proportion of the body size than in an adult. For example, at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys. The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth, mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex. The cortex, which almost completely disappears by age 1, develops again from age 4–5. The glands weigh about 1 g at birth and develop to an adult weight of about 4 grams each. In a fetus the glands are first detectable after the sixth week of development.\n\n===Cortex===\nAdrenal cortex tissue is derived from the intermediate mesoderm. It first appears 33 days after fertilisation, shows steroid hormone production capabilities by the eighth week and undergoes rapid growth during the first trimester of pregnancy. The fetal adrenal cortex is different from its adult counterpart, as it is composed of two distinct zones: the inner \"fetal\" zone, which carries most of the hormone-producing activity, and the outer \"definitive\" zone, which is in a proliferative phase. The fetal zone produces large amounts of adrenal androgens (male sex hormones) that are used by the placenta for estrogen biosynthesis. Cortical development of the adrenal gland is regulated mostly by ACTH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates cortisol synthesis. During midgestation, the fetal zone occupies most of the cortical volume and produces 100–200 mg/day of DHEA-S, an androgen and precursor of both androgens and estrogens (female sex hormones). Adrenal hormones, especially glucocorticoids such as cortisol, are essential for prenatal development of organs, particularly for the maturation of the lungs. The adrenal gland decreases in size after birth because of the rapid disappearance of the fetal zone, with a corresponding decrease in androgen secretion.\n\n====Adrenarche====\n\nDuring early childhood androgen synthesis and secretion remain low, but several years before puberty (from 6–8 years of age) changes occur in both anatomical and functional aspects of cortical androgen production that lead to increased secretion of the steroids DHEA and DHEA-S. These changes are part of a process called adrenarche, which has only been described in humans and some other primates. Adrenarche is independent of ACTH or gonadotropins and correlates with a progressive thickening of the zona reticularis layer of the cortex. Functionally, adrenarche provides a source of androgens for the development of axillary and pubic hair before the beginning of puberty.\n\n===Medulla===\nThe adrenal medulla is derived from neural crest cells, which come from the ectoderm layer of the embryo. These cells migrate from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the dorsal aorta, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as BMPs. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the sympathetic nervous system. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells because they contain granules that stain with chromium salts, a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex were once thought to be responsible for the differentiation of chromaffin cells. More recent research suggests that BMP-4 secreted in adrenal tissue is the main responsible for this, and that glucocorticoids only play a role in the subsequent development of the cells.\n", "\n\nThe normal function of the adrenal gland may be impaired by conditions such as infections, tumors, genetic disorders and autoimmune diseases, or as a side effect of medical therapy. These disorders affect the gland either directly (as with infections or autoimmune diseases) or as a result of the dysregulation of hormone production (as in some types of Cushing's syndrome) leading to an excess or insufficiency of adrenal hormones and the related symptoms.\n\n===Corticosteroid overproduction===\n====Cushing's syndrome====\nCushing's syndrome is the manifestation of glucocorticoid excess. It can be the result of a prolonged treatment with glucocorticoids or be caused by an underlying disease which produces alterations in the HPA axis or the production of cortisol. Causes can be further classified into ACTH-dependent or ACTH-independent. The most common cause of endogenous Cushing's syndrome is a pituitary adenoma which causes an excessive production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms which include obesity, diabetes, increased blood pressure, excessive body hair (hirsutism), osteoporosis, depression and, most distinctively, stretch marks in the skin, caused by its progressive thinning.\n\n====Primary aldosteronism====\nWhen the zona glomerulosa produces excess aldosterone, the result is primary aldosteronism. Causes for this condition are bilateral hyperplasia (excessive tissue growth) of the glands, or aldosterone-producing adenomas (a condition called Conn's syndrome). Primary aldosteronism produces hypertension and electrolyte imbalance, increasing potassium depletion and sodium retention.\n\n===Adrenal insufficiency===\nAdrenal insufficiency (the deficiency of glucocorticoids) occurs in about 5 in 10,000 in the general population. Diseases classified as ''primary adrenal insufficiency'' (including Addison's disease and genetic causes) directly affect the adrenal cortex. If a problem that affects the hypothalamict-pituitary-adrenal axis arises outside the gland, it is a ''secondary adrenal insufficiency''.\n\n====Addison's disease====\nCharacteristic skin hyperpigmentation in Addison's disease\nAddison's disease refers to primary hypoadrenalism, which is a deficiency in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production by the adrenal gland. In the Western world, Addison's disease is most commonly an autoimmune condition, in which the body produces antibodies against cells of the adrenal cortex. Worldwide, the disease is more frequently caused by infection, especially from tuberculosis. A distinctive feature of Addison's disease is hyperpigmentation of the skin, which presents with other nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue.\n\nA complication seen in untreated Addison's disease and other types of primary adrenal insufficiency is the adrenal crisis, a medical emergency in which low glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid levels result in hypovolemic shock and symptoms such as vomiting and fever. An adrenal crisis can progressively lead to stupor and coma. The management of adrenal crises includes the application of hydrocortisone injections.\n\n====Secondary adrenal insufficiency====\nIn secondary adrenal insufficiency, a dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis leads to decreased stimulation of the adrenal cortex. Apart from suppression of the axis by glucocorticoid therapy, the most common cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency are tumors that affect the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the pituitary gland. This type of adrenal insufficiency usually does not affect the production of mineralocorticoids, which are under regulation of the renin-angiotensin system instead.\n\n====Congenital adrenal hyperplasia====\nCongenital adrenal hyperplasia is a congenital disease in which mutations of enzymes that produce steroid hormones result in a glucocorticoid deficiency and malfunction of the negative feedback loop of the HPA axis. In the HPA axis, cortisol (a glucocorticoid) inhibits the release of CRH and ACTH, hormones that in turn stimulate corticosteroid synthesis. As cortisol cannot be synthesized, these hormones are released in high quantities and stimulate production of other adrenal steroids instead. The most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. 21-hydroxylase is necessary for production of both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, but not androgens. Therefore, ACTH stimulation of the adrenal cortex induces the release of excessive amounts of adrenal androgens, which can lead to the development of ambiguous genitalia and secondary sex characteristics.\n\n===Adrenal tumors===\n\nAdrenal tumors are commonly found as incidentalomas, unexpected asymptomatic tumors found during medical imaging. They are seen in around 3.4% of CT scans, and in most cases they are benign adenomas. Adrenal carcinomas are very rare, with an incidence of 1 case per million per year.\n\nPheochromocytomas are tumors of the adrenal medulla that arise from chromaffin cells. They can produce a variety of nonspecific symptoms, which include headaches, sweating, anxiety and palpitations. Common signs include hypertension and tachycardia. Surgery, especially adrenal laparoscopy, is the most common treatment for small pheochromocytomas.\n", "Bartolomeo Eustachi, an Italian anatomist, is credited with the first description of the adrenal glands in 1563-4. However, these publications were part of the papal library and did not receive public attention, which was first received with Caspar Bartholin the Elder's illustrations in 1611.\n\nThe adrenal glands are named for their location relative to the kidneys. The term \"adrenal\" comes from ''ad-'' (Latin, \"near\") and ''renes'' (Latin, \"kidney\"). Similarly, \"suprarenal\", as termed by Jean Riolan the Younger in 1629, is derived from the Latin ''supra'' () and ''renes'' (). The suprarenal nature of the glands was not truly accepted until the 19th century, as anatomists clarified the ductless nature of the glands and their likely secretory role – prior to this, there was some debate as to whether the glands were indeed suprarenal or part of the kidney.\n\nOne of the most recognized works on the adrenal glands came in 1855 with the publication of ''On the Constitutional and Local Effects of Disease of the Suprarenal Capsule'', by the English physician Thomas Addison. In his monography, Addison described what the French physician George Trousseau would later name Addison's disease, an eponym still used today for a condition of adrenal insufficiency and its related clinical manifestations. In 1894, English physiologists George Oliver and Edward Schafer studied the action of adrenal extracts and observed their pressor effects. In the following decades several physicians experimented with extracts from the adrenal cortex to treat Addison's disease. Edward Calvin Kendall, Philip Hench and Tadeusz Reichstein were then awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries on the structure and effects of the adrenal hormones.\n", "\n", "\n* Adrenal gland at the Human Protein Atlas\n* \n* Adrenal gland histology\n* \n* - \"Adrenal Gland\"\n* \n* - \"Posterior Abdominal Wall: The Retroperitoneal Fat and Suprarenal Glands\"\n* Adrenal Gland, from Colorado State University\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Structure", "Function", " Gene and protein expression ", "Development", "Clinical significance", "History", "References", "External links" ]	Adrenal gland
[ "\n\n\n'''American Media, Inc.''', is a publisher of magazines, supermarket tabloids, and books based in New York City.\n", "The modern American Media came into being after Generoso Pope, Jr., longtime owner of the ''National Enquirer'', died in 1988, and his tabloids came under new ownership. American tabloids began consolidating in 1990, when American Media bought ''Star'' from Rupert Murdoch. The purchase of Globe Communications (owner of the ''Globe'' and the ''National Examiner'') followed nine years later.\n\nAmerican Media is not to be confused with American Media Distribution the international news coverage firm. American Media's corporate headquarters in Boca Raton, Florida, figured prominently in news headlines in late 2001, after an anthrax attack was perpetrated on the company. Since then the corporate headquarters have moved to New York City at 1 Park Avenue in Manhattan, before moving to the Financial District to the former JP Morgan Chase headquarters at 4 New York Plaza. That building was severely damaged by Hurricane Sandy but reopened in February 2013. The CEO, David J. Pecker, travels between the Boca Raton and New York offices while managing the company.\n\nAMI continued to expand after it bought Joe Weider's Weider Publications in 2002. Joe Weider continued to manage control of his magazines under AMI's Weider Publications subsidiary until his death in March 2013.\n\nAmerican Media also owns Distribution Services, an in-store magazine merchandising company. In fall 2002, it launched the book-publishing imprint, AMI Books.\n\nRoger Altman, through Evercore Partners, bought a controlling stake in American Media in 1999. In 2009, American Media was taken over by its bondholders to keep it out of bankruptcy.\n\nIn November 2010, American Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to nearly $1 billion in debt, and assets of less than $50,000. Its subsidiary, American Media Operations Inc., listed assets of $100 to $500 million and debt of over $1 billion. It exited in December.\n\nIn May 2014, American Media announced a decision to shift the headquarters of the ''National Enquirer'' from Florida, where it had been located since 1971, back to New York City, where it originally began as ''The New York Enquirer'' in 1926. In August 2014, American Media was acquired by Chatham Asset Management and Omega Charitable Partnership.\n\nIn 2015, American Media sold ''Shape'', ''Natural Health'', and ''Fit Pregnancy'' to Meredith.\n\nIn March 2017, American Media acquired ''US Weekly'' from Wenner Media for a reported $100 million. Three months later, in June 2017, American Media also acquired ''Men's Journal'' from Wenner Media.\n", "===Current===\n* ''Flex''\n* ''Globe''\n* ''Men's Fitness''\n* ''Muscle & Fitness''\n* ''Muscle & Fitness Hers''\n* ''National Enquirer''\n* ''National Examiner''\n* ''OK!''\n* ''RadarOnline.com''\n* ''Soap Opera Digest''\n* ''Star''\n* ''Us Weekly''\n\n===Former===\n* ''Autoworld Weekly''\n* ''Country Music''\n* ''Country Weekly''\n* ''Fit Pregnancy''\n* ''Natural Health''\n* ''Pixie''\n* ''Shape''\n* ''Soap Opera Weekly''\n* ''Stallone''\n* ''Sun''\n* ''Weekly World News''\n", "Distribution Services, Inc.\nAMI Books\n", "\n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", " Publications", "Divisions", "References", "External links" ]	American Media, Inc.
[ "\n\n'''Titus''' (; ) was an early Christian missionary and church leader, a companion and disciple of Paul the Apostle, mentioned in several of the Pauline epistles including the Epistle to Titus. He is believed to be a Gentile converted to Christianity by Paul and, according to tradition, he was consecrated as Bishop of the Island of Crete.\n\nTitus brought a fundraising letter from Paul to Corinth, to collect for the poor in Jerusalem. Later, on Crete, Titus appointed presbyters (elders) in every city and remained there into his old age, dying in Gortyna, near the city of Candia (modern Heraklion).\n", "Titus was a Greek, apparently from Antioch, who is said to have studied Greek philosophy and poetry in his early years. He seems to have been converted by Paul, whereupon he served as Paul's secretary and interpreter. In the year 49, Titus accompanied Paul to the council held at Jerusalem, on the subject of the Mosaic rites. Although Paul had consented to the circumcision of Timothy, in order to render his ministry acceptable among the Jews, he would not allow the same in regard to Titus, so as not to seem in agreement with those who would require it for Gentile converts.\n\nTowards the close of the year 56, Paul, as he himself departed from Asia, sent Titus from Ephesus to Corinth, with full commission to remedy the fallout precipitated by Timothy's delivery of 1 Corinthians and Paul's \"Painful Visit\", particularly a significant personal offense and challenge to Paul's authority by one unnamed individual. During this journey, Titus served as the courier for what is commonly known as the \"Severe Letter\", a Pauline missive that has been lost but is referred to in 2 Corinthians.\n\nAfter success on this mission, Titus journeyed north and met Paul in Macedonia. There the apostle, overjoyed by Titus' success, wrote 2 Corinthians. Titus then returned to Corinth with a larger entourage, carrying 2 Corinthians with him. Paul joined Titus in Corinth later. From Corinth, Paul then sent Titus to organize the collections of alms for the Christians at Jerusalem. Titus was therefore a troubleshooter, peacemaker, administrator, and missionary.\n\nEarly church tradition holds that Paul, after his release from his first imprisonment in Rome, stopped at the island of Crete to preach. Due to the needs of other churches, requiring his presence elsewhere, he ordained his disciple Titus as bishop of that island, and left him to finish the work he had started. Chrysostom says that this is an indication of the esteem St. Paul held for Titus.\n\nPaul summoned Titus from Crete to join him at Nicopolis in Epirus. Later, Titus traveled to Dalmatia. The New Testament does not record his death.\n\nIt has been argued that the name \"Titus\" in 2 Corinthians and Galatians is nothing more than an informal name used by Timothy, implied already by the fact that even though both are said to be long-term close companions of Paul, they never appear in common scenes. The theory proposes that a number of passages—1 Cor. 4:17, 16.10; 2 Cor. 2:13, 7:6, 13–14, 12:18; and Acts 19.22—all refer to the same journey of a single individual, Titus-Timothy. 2 Timothy seems to dispute this, by claiming that Titus has gone to Dalmatia (). The fact that Paul made a point of circumcising Timothy () but refused to circumcise Titus () indicates that they are different men.\n", "The feast day of Titus was not included in the Tridentine Calendar. When added in 1854, it was assigned to 6 February. In 1969, the Roman Catholic Church assigned the feast to 26 January so as to celebrate the two disciples of Paul, Titus and Timothy, the day after the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America celebrates these two, together with Silas, on the same date. The Orthodox Church commemorates him on 25 August and on 4 January.\n\nHis relics, now consisting of only his skull, are venerated in the Church of St. Titus, Heraklion, Crete, to which it was returned in 1966 after being removed to Venice during the Turkish occupation.\n\nSt. Titus is the patron saint of the United States Army Chaplain Corps. The Corps has established the Order of Titus Award, described by the Department of Defense:\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Veneration", " References " ]	Saint Titus
[ "\n\natomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki had a plutonium charge.\n\n\n\nThe '''actinide''' or '''actinoid''' (IUPAC nomenclature) series encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103, actinium through lawrencium.\n\nStrictly speaking, both actinium and lawrencium have been labeled as group 3 elements, but both elements are often included in any general discussion of the chemistry of the actinide elements. Actinium is the more often omitted of the two, because its placement as a group 3 element is somewhat more common in texts and for semantic reasons: since \"actinide\" means \"like actinium\", it has been argued that actinium cannot logically be an actinide, even though IUPAC acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage.\n\nThe actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol '''An''' is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide. All but one of the actinides are f-block elements, with the exception being either actinium or lawrencium. The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although actinium and thorium lack any f-electrons, and curium and lawrencium have the same number as the preceding element. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f-block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from americium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium and plutonium occupying an intermediate position.\n\nAll actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors.\n\nOf the actinides, primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements. Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium.\n\nIn presentations of the periodic table, the lanthanides and the actinides are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table, with placeholders or else a selected single element of each series (either lanthanum or lutetium, and either actinium or lawrencium, respectively) shown in a single cell of the main table, between barium and hafnium, and radium and rutherfordium, respectively. This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table inserts the lanthanide and actinide series in their proper places, as parts of the table's sixth and seventh rows (periods).\n\n\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"float:right; margin-left:1em;\"\n+Synthesis of transuranium elements\n Element\nYear\nMethod\n\n Neptunium\n 1940\n Bombarding 238U by neutrons\n\n Plutonium\n 1941\n Bombarding 238U by deuterons\n\n Americium\n 1944\n Bombarding 239Pu by neutrons\n\n Curium\n 1944\n Bombarding 239Pu by α-particles\n\n Berkelium\n 1949\n Bombarding 241Am by α-particles\n\n Californium\n 1950\n Bombarding 242Cm by α-particles\n\n Einsteinium\n 1952\n As a product of nuclear explosion\n\n Fermium\n 1952\n As a product of nuclear explosion\n\n Mendelevium\n 1955\n Bombarding 253Es by α-particles\n\n Nobelium\n 1965\n Bombarding 243Am by 15N or 238U with 22Ne\n\n Lawrencium\n 1961–1971\n Bombarding 252Cf by 10B or 11Band of 243Am with 18O\n\n\nLike the lanthanides, the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties. Within the actinides, there are two overlapping groups: transuranium elements, which follow uranium in the periodic table—and transplutonium elements, which follow plutonium. Compared to the lanthanides, which (except for promethium) are found in nature in appreciable quantities, most actinides are rare. The majority of them do not even occur in nature, and of those that do, only thorium and uranium do so in more than trace quantities. The most abundant, or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium, followed by plutonium, americium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and curium.\n\nThe existence of transuranium elements was suggested by Enrico Fermi based on his experiments in 1934. However, even though four actinides were known by that time, it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides. The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period, with thorium, protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th-period hafnium, tantalum and tungsten, respectively. Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view. By 1944 an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 (whereas its supposed 6th period homolog, platinum, can reach oxidation state of 6) prompted Glenn Seaborg to formulate a so-called \"actinide hypothesis\". Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this point of view, but the phrase \"actinide hypothesis\" (the implication being that a \"hypothesis\" is something that has not been decisively proven) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s.\n\nAt present, there are two major methods of producing isotopes of transplutonium elements: (1) irradiation of the lighter elements with either neutrons or (2) accelerated charged particles. The first method is most important for applications, as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides; however, it is limited to relatively light elements. The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium, as well as neutron-deficient isotopes, can be obtained, which are not formed during neutron irradiation.\n\nIn 1962–1966, there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six underground nuclear explosions. Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products, but no isotopes with mass number greater than 257 could be detected, despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long half-lives of α-decay. This inobservation was attributed to spontaneous fission owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels, such as neutron emission and nuclear fission.\n\n===From actinium to uranium===\nEnrico Fermi suggested the existence of transuranium elements in 1934.\n\nUranium and thorium were the first actinides discovered. Uranium was identified in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in pitchblende ore. He named it after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered only eight years earlier. Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide. He then reduced the obtained yellow powder with charcoal, and extracted a black substance that he mistook for metal. Only 60 years later, the French scientist Eugène-Melchior Péligot identified it as uranium oxide. He also isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with metallic potassium. The atomic mass of uranium was then calculated as 120, but Dmitri Mendeleev in 1872 corrected it to 240 using his periodicity laws. This value was confirmed experimentally in 1882 by K. Zimmerman.\n\nThorium oxide was discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in the mineral, which was found in Norway (1827). Jöns Jacob Berzelius characterized this material in more detail by in 1828. By reduction of thorium tetrachloride with potassium, he isolated the metal and named it thorium after the Norse god of thunder and lightning Thor. The same isolation method was later used by Péligot for uranium.\n\nActinium was discovered in 1899 by André-Louis Debierne, an assistant of Marie Curie, in the pitchblende waste left after removal of radium and polonium. He described the substance (in 1899) as similar to titanium and (in 1900) as similar to thorium. The discovery of actinium by Debierne was however questioned in 1971 and 2000, arguing that Debierne's publications in 1904 contradicted his earlier work of 1899–1900. This view instead credits the 1902 work of Friedrich Oskar Giesel, who discovered a radioactive element named ''emanium'' that behaved similarly to lanthanum. The name actinium comes from the Greek ''aktis, aktinos'' (ακτίς, ακτίνος), meaning beam or ray. This metal was discovered not by its own radiation but by the radiation of the daughter products. Owing to the close similarity of actinium and lanthanum and low abundance, pure actinium could only be produced in 1950. The term actinide was probably introduced by Victor Goldschmidt in 1937.\n\nProtactinium was possibly isolated in 1900 by William Crookes. It was first identified in 1913, when Kasimir Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring encountered the short-lived isotope 234mPa (half-life 1.17 minutes) during their studies of the 238U decay. They named the new element ''brevium'' (from Latin ''brevis'' meaning brief); the name was changed to ''protoactinium'' (from Greek πρῶτος + ἀκτίς meaning \"first beam element\") in 1918 when two groups of scientists, led by the Austrian Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn of Germany and Frederick Soddy and John Cranston of Great Britain, independently discovered the much longer-lived 231Pa. The name was shortened to ''protactinium'' in 1949. This element was little characterized until 1960, when A. G. Maddock and his co-workers in the U.K. isolated 130 grams of protactinium from 60 tonnes of waste left after extraction of uranium from its ore.\n\n===Neptunium and above===\nNeptunium (named for the planet Neptune, the next planet out from Uranus, after which uranium was named) was discovered by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson in 1940 in Berkeley, California. They produced the 239Np isotope (half-life = 2.4 days) by bombarding uranium with slow neutrons. It was the first transuranium element produced synthetically.\n\nGlenn T. Seaborg and his group at the University of California at Berkeley synthesized Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No and element 106, which was later named seaborgium in his honor while he was still living. They also synthesized more than a hundred actinide isotopes.\n\nTransuranium elements do not occur in sizeable quantities in nature and are commonly synthesized via nuclear reactions conducted with nuclear reactors. For example, under irradiation with reactor neutrons, uranium-238 partially converts to plutonium-239:\n: \n\nIn this way, Enrico Fermi with collaborators, using the first nuclear reactor Chicago Pile-1, obtained significant amounts of plutonium-239, which were then used in nuclear weapons.\n\nActinides with the highest mass numbers are synthesized by bombarding uranium, plutonium, curium and californium with ions of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, neon or boron in a particle accelerator. So, nobelium was produced by bombarding uranium-238 with neon-22 as\n: {_{92}^{238}U}+_{10}^{22}Ne -> {_{102}^{256}No}+{4_0^1n}.\n\nThe first isotopes of transplutonium elements, americium-241 and curium-242, were synthesized in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso. Curium-242 was obtained by bombarding plutonium-239 with 32-MeV α-particles\n: {_{94}^{239}Pu}+_2^4He -> {_{96}^{242}Cm}+{_0^1n}.\n\nThe americium-241 and curium-242 isotopes also were produced by irradiating plutonium in a nuclear reactor. The latter element was named after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are noted for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity.\n\nBombarding curium-242 with α-particles resulted in an isotope of californium 245Cf (1950), and a similar procedure yielded in 1949 berkelium-243 from americium-241. The new elements were named after Berkeley, California, by analogy with its lanthanide homologue terbium, which was named after the village of Ytterby in Sweden.\n\nIn 1945, B. B. Cunningham obtained the first bulk chemical compound of a transplutonium element, namely americium hydroxide. Over the next three to four years, milligram quantities of americium and microgram amounts of curium were accumulated that allowed production of isotopes of berkelium (Thomson, 1949) and californium (Thomson, 1950). Sizeable amounts of these elements were produced only in 1958 (Burris B. Cunningham and Stanley G. Thomson), and the first californium compound (0.3 µg of CfOCl) was obtained only in 1960 by B. B. Cunningham and J. C. Wallmann.\n\nEinsteinium and fermium were identified in 1952–1953 in the fallout from the \"Ivy Mike\" nuclear test (1 November 1952), the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb. Instantaneous exposure of uranium-238 to a large neutron flux resulting from the explosion produced heavy isotopes of uranium, including uranium-253 and uranium-255, and their β-decay yielded einsteinium-253 and fermium-255. The discovery of the new elements and the new data on neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions. Nevertheless, the Berkeley team were able to prepare einsteinium and fermium by civilian means, through the neutron bombardment of plutonium-239, and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements. The \"Ivy Mike\" studies were declassified and published in 1955. The first significant (submicrograms) amounts of einsteinium were produced in 1961 by Cunningham and colleagues, but this has not been done for fermium yet.\n\nThe first isotope of mendelevium, 256Md (half-life 87 min), was synthesized by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, Gregory R. Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey and Stanley G. Thompson when they bombarded an 253Es target with alpha particles in the 60-inch cyclotron of Berkeley Radiation Laboratory; this was the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time.\n\nThere were several attempts to obtain isotopes of nobelium by Swedish (1957) and American (1958) groups, but the first reliable result was the synthesis of 256No by the Russian group (Georgy Flyorov ''et al.'') in 1965, as acknowledged by the IUPAC in 1992. In their experiments, Flyorov ''et al.'' bombarded uranium-238 with neon-22.\n\nIn 1961, Ghiorso ''et al.'' obtained the first isotope of lawrencium by irradiating californium (mostly californium-252) with boron-10 and boron-11 ions. The mass number of this isotope was not clearly established (possibly 258 or 259) at the time. In 1965, 256Lr was synthesized by Flyorov ''et al.'' from 243Am and 18O. Thus IUPAC recognized the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co-discoverers of lawrencium.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable collapsible collapsed\" style=\"text-align:center; width:100%;\"\n+ Nuclear properties of isotopes of the most important transplutonium isotopes\n\n Isotope\n Half-life\n Probability of spontaneous fission in % \n Emission energy, MeV(yield in %) \n Specific activity of\n\n α\n γ\n α, β-particles, ''Bq/kg''\n fission, ''Bq/kg''\n\n 241Am \n 432.2(7) years \n 4.3(18) \n 5.485 (84.8) 5.442 (13.1)5.388 (1.66) \n 0.059 (35.9)0.026 (2.27) \n 1.27 \n 546.1\n\n243Am \n 7.37(4) years \n 3.7(2) \n 5.275 (87.1)5.233 (11.2)5.181 (1.36) \n 0.074 (67.2) 0.043 (5.9) \n 7.39 \n 273.3\n\n242Cm \n 162.8(2) days \n 6.2(3) \n 6.069 (25.92)6.112 (74.08) \n 0.044 (0.04)0.102 (4) \n 1.23 \n 7.6\n\n244Cm \n 18.10(2) years \n 1.37(3) \n 5.762 (23.6)5.804 (76.4) \n 0.043 (0.02)0.100 (1.5) \n 2.96 \n 4.1\n\n245Cm \n 8.5(1) years \n 6.1(9) \n 5.529 (0.58)5.488 (0.83)5.361 (93.2) \n 0.175 (9.88)0.133 (2.83) \n 6.35 \n 3.9\n\n246Cm \n 4.76(4) years \n 0.02615(7) \n 5.343 (17.8)5.386 (82.2) \n 0.045 (19) \n 1.13 \n 2.95\n\n247Cm \n 1.56(5) years \n — \n 5.267 (13.8)5.212 (5.7)5.147 (1.2) \n 0.402 (72)0.278 (3.4) \n 3.43 \n—\n\n248Cm \n 3.48(6) years \n 8.39(16) \n 5.034 (16.52)5.078 (75) \n—\n 1.40 \n 1.29\n\n249Bk \n 330(4) days \n 4.7(2) \n 5.406 (1)5.378 (2.6) \n 0.32 (5.8) \n 5.88 \n 2.76\n\n249Cf \n 351(2) years \n 5.0(4) \n 6.193 (2.46)6.139 (1.33)5.946 (3.33) \n 0.388 (66)0.333 (14.6) \n 1.51 \n 7.57\n\n250Cf \n 13.08(9) years \n 0.077(3) \n 5.988 (14.99)6.030 (84.6) \n 0.043 \n 4.04 \n 3.11\n\n251Cf \n 900(40) years \n ? \n 6.078 (2.6)5.567 (0.9)5.569 (0.9) \n 0.177 (17.3)0.227 (6.8) \n 5.86 \n—\n\n252Cf \n 2.645(8) years \n 3.092(8) \n 6.075 (15.2)6.118 (81.6) \n 0.042 (1.4)0.100 (1.3) \n 1.92 \n 6.14\n\n254Cf \n 60.5(2) days \n ≈100 \n 5.834 (0.26)5.792 (5.3) \n—\n 9.75 \n 3.13\n\n253Es \n 20.47(3) days \n 8.7(3) \n 6.540 (0.85)6.552 (0.71)6.590 (6.6) \n 0.387 (0.05)0.429 (8) \n 9.33 \n 8.12\n\n254Es \n 275.7(5) days \n 6.358 (2.6)6.415 (1.8) \n 0.042 (100)0.034 (30) \n 6.9 \n—\n\n255Es \n 39.8(12) days \n 0.0041(2) \n 6.267 (0.78)6.401 (7) \n—\n 4.38(β)3.81(α) \n 1.95\n\n255Fm \n 20.07(7) hours \n 2.4(10) \n 7.022 (93.4)6.963 (5.04)6.892 (0.62) \n 0.00057 (19.1)0.081 (1) \n 2.27 \n 5.44\n\n256Fm \n 157.6(13) min \n 91.9(3) \n 6.872 (1.2)6.917 (6.9) \n—\n1.58 \n 1.4\n\n257Fm \n 100.5(2) days \n 0.210(4) \n 6.752 (0.58)6.695 (3.39)6.622 (0.6) \n 0.241 (11)0.179 (8.7) \n 1.87 \n 3.93\n\n256Md \n 77(2) min \n—\n 7.142 (1.84)7.206 (5.9) \n—\n3.53 \n—\n\n257Md \n 5.52(5) hours \n—\n 7.074 (14) \n 0.371 (11.7)0.325 (2.5) \n8.17\n—\n\n258Md \n 51.5(3) days \n—\n 6.73\n—\n3.64 \n—\n\n255No \n 3.1(2) min \n—\n 8.312 (1.16)8.266 (2.6)8.121 (27.8) \n 0.187 (3.4) \n 8.78 \n—\n\n259No \n 58(5) min \n—\n 7.455 (9.8)7.500 (29.3)7.533 (17.3) \n—\n4.63\n—\n\n256Lr \n 27(3) s \n8.390 (16)8.430 (33) \n—\n 5.96 \n—\n\n257Lr \n 646(25) ms \n—\n 8.796 (18)8.861 (82) \n—\n1.54\n—\n\n\nActinides have 89 to 103 protons and usually have 117 to 159 neutrons.\nThirty-one isotopes of actinium and eight excited isomeric states of some of its nuclides were identified by 2010. Three isotopes, 225Ac, 227Ac and 228Ac, were found in nature and the others were produced in the laboratory; only the three natural isotopes are used in applications. Actinium-225 is a member of the radioactive neptunium series; it was first discovered in 1947 as a decay product of uranium-233, it is an α-emitter with a half-life of 10 days. Actinium-225 is less available than actinium-228, but is more promising in radiotracer applications. Actinium-227 (half-life 21.77 years) occurs in all uranium ores, but in small quantities. One gram of uranium (in radioactive equilibrium) contains only 2 gram of 227Ac. Actinium-228 is a member of the radioactive thorium series formed by the decay of 228Ra; it is a β− emitter with a half-life of 6.15 hours. In one tonne of thorium there is 5 gram of 228Ac. It was discovered by Otto Hahn in 1906.\n\nTwenty nine isotopes of protactinium are known with mass numbers 212–240 as well as three excited isomeric states. Only 231Pa and 234Pa have been found in nature. All the isotopes have short lifetime, except for protactinium-231 (half-life 32,760 years). The most important isotopes are 231Pa and 233Pa, which is an intermediate product in obtaining uranium-233 and is the most affordable among artificial isotopes of protactinium. 233Pa has convenient half-life and energy of γ-radiation, and thus was used in most studies of protactinium chemistry. Protactinium-233 is a β-emitter with a half-life of 26.97 days.\n\nUranium has the highest number (25) of both natural and synthetic isotopes. They have mass numbers of 217–242, and three of them, 234U, 235U and 238U, are present in appreciable quantities in nature. Among others, the most important is 233U, which is a final product of transformations of 232Th irradiated by slow neutrons. 233U has a much higher fission efficiency by low-energy (thermal) neutrons, compared e.g. with 235U. Most uranium chemistry studies were carried out on uranium-238 owing to its long half-life of 4.4 years.\n\nThere are 19 isotopes of neptunium with mass numbers from 225 to 244; they are all highly radioactive. The most popular among scientists are long-lived 237Np (t1/2 = 2.20 years) and short-lived 239Np, 238Np (t1/2 ~ 2 days).\n\nSixteen isotopes of americium are known with mass numbers from 232 to 248. The most important are 241Am and 243Am, which are alpha-emitters and also emit soft, but intense γ-rays; both of them can be obtained in an isotopically pure form. Chemical properties of americium were first studied with 241Am, but later shifted to 243Am, which is almost 20 times less radioactive. The disadvantage of 243Am is production of the short-lived daughter isotope 239Np, which has to be considered in the data analysis.\n\nAmong 19 isotopes of curium, the most accessible are 242Cm and 244Cm; they are α-emitters, but with much shorter lifetime than the americium isotopes. These isotopes emit almost no γ-radiation, but undergo spontaneous fission with the associated emission of neutrons. More long-lived isotopes of curium (245–248Cm, all α-emitters) are formed as a mixture during neutron irradiation of plutonium or americium. Upon short irradiation, this mixture is dominated by 246Cm, and then 248Cm begins to accumulate. Both of these isotopes, especially 248Cm, have a longer half-life (3.48 years) and are much more convenient for carrying out chemical research than 242Cm and 244Cm, but they also have a rather high rate of spontaneous fission. 247Cm has the longest lifetime among isotopes of curium (1.56 years), but is not formed in large quantities because of the strong fission induced by thermal neutrons.\n\nFourteen isotopes of berkelium were identified with mass numbers 238–252. Only 249Bk is available in large quantities; it has a relatively short half-life of 330 days and emits mostly soft β-particles, which are inconvenient for detection. Its alpha radiation is rather weak (1.45% with respect to β-radiation), but is sometimes used to detect this isotope. 247Bk is an alpha-emitter with a long half-life of 1,380 years, but it is hard to obtain in appreciable quantities; it is not formed upon neutron irradiation of plutonium because of the β-stability of isotopes of curium isotopes with mass number below 248.\n\nIsotopes of californium with mass numbers 237–256 are formed in nuclear reactors; californium-253 is a β-emitter and the rest are α-emitters. The isotopes with even mass numbers (250Cf, 252Cf and 254Cf) have a high rate of spontaneous fission, especially 254Cf of which 99.7% decays by spontaneous fission. Californium-249 has a relatively long half-life (352 years), weak spontaneous fission and strong γ-emission that facilitates its identification. 249Cf is not formed in large quantities in a nuclear reactor because of the slow β-decay of the parent isotope 249Bk and a large cross section of interaction with neutrons, but it can be accumulated in the isotopically pure form as the β-decay product of (pre-selected) 249Bk. Californium produced by reactor-irradiation of plutonium mostly consists of 250Cf and 252Cf, the latter being predominant for large neutron fluences, and its study is hindered by the strong neutron radiation.\n\n\n+ Properties of some transplutonium isotope pairs\n Parent isotope\n t1/2\n Daughter isotope\n t1/2\n Time to establish radioactive equilibrium\n\n 243Am\n 7370 years\n 239Np\n 2.35 days\n 47.3 days\n\n 245Cm\n 8265 years\n 241Pu\n 14 years\n 129 years\n\n 247Cm\n 1.64 years\n 243Pu\n 4.95 hours\n 7.2 days\n\n 254Es\n 270 days\n 250Bk\n 3.2 hours\n 35.2 hours\n\n 255Es\n 39.8 days\n 255Fm\n 22 hours\n 5 days\n\n 257Fm\n 79 days\n 253Cf\n 17.6 days\n 49 days\n\n\nAmong the 16 known isotopes of einsteinium with mass numbers from 241 to 257 the most affordable is 253Es. It is an α-emitter with a half-life of 20.47 days, a relatively weak γ-emission and small spontaneous fission rate as compared with the isotopes of californium. Prolonged neutron irradiation also produces a long-lived isotope 254Es (t1/2 = 275.5 days).\n\nNineteen isotopes of fermium are known with mass numbers of 242–260. 254Fm, 255Fm and 256Fm are α-emitters with a short half-life (hours), which can be isolated in significant amounts. 257Fm (t1/2 = 100 days) can accumulate upon prolonged and strong irradiation. All these isotopes are characterized by high rates of spontaneous fission.\n\nAmong the 15 known isotopes of mendelevium (mass numbers from 245 to 260), the most studied is 256Md, which mainly decays through the electron capture (α-radiation is ≈10%) with the half-life of 77 minutes. Another alpha emitter, 258Md, has a half-life of 53 days. Both these isotopes are produced from rare einsteinium (253Es and 255Es respectively), that therefore limits their availability.\n\nLong-lived isotopes of nobelium and isotopes of lawrencium (and of heavier elements) have relatively short half-lives. For nobelium 11 isotopes are known with mass numbers 250–260 and 262. The chemical properties of nobelium and lawrencium were studied with 255No (t1/2 = 3 min) and 256Lr (t1/2 = 35 s). The longest-lived nobelium isotope 259No has a half-life of 1.5 hours.\n\nAmong all of these, the only isotopes that occur in sufficient quantities in nature to be detected in anything more than traces and have a measurable contribution to the atomic weights of the actinides are the primordial 232Th, 235U, and 238U, and three long-lived decay products of natural uranium, 230Th, 231Pa, and 234U. Natural thorium consists of 0.02(2)% 230Th and 99.98(2)% 232Th; natural protactinium consists of 100% 231Pa; and natural uranium consists of 0.0054(5)% 234U, 0.7204(6)% 235U, and 99.2742(10)% 238U.\n", "Unprocessed uranium ore\n\nThorium and uranium are the most abundant actinides in nature with the respective mass concentrations of 16 ppm and 4 ppm. Uranium mostly occurs in the Earth's crust as a mixture of its oxides in the minerals uraninite, which is also called pitchblende because of its black color. There are several dozens of other uranium minerals such as carnotite (KUO2VO4·3H2O) and autunite (Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2·nH2O). The isotopic composition of natural uranium is 238U (relative abundance 99.2742%), 235U (0.7204%) and 234U (0.0054%); of these 238U has the largest half-life of 4.51 years. The worldwide production of uranium in 2009 amounted to 50,572 tonnes, of which 27.3% was mined in Kazakhstan. Other important uranium mining countries are Canada (20.1%), Australia (15.7%), Namibia (9.1%), Russia (7.0%), and Niger (6.4%).\n\n\n+ Content of plutonium in uranium and thorium ores\nOre\nLocation\n Uranium content, %\n Mass ratio 239Pu/ore\n Ratio 239Pu/U ()\n\n Uraninite\n Canada\n 13.5\n 9.1\n 7.1\n\n Uraninite\n Congo\n 38\n 4.8\n 12\n\n Uraninite\n Colorado, US\n 50\n 3.8\n 7.7\n\n Monazite\n Brazil\n 0.24\n 2.1\n 8.3\n\n Monazite\n North Carolina, US\n 1.64\n 5.9\n 3.6\n\n Fergusonite \n\n 0.25\n 2), thorite (ThSiO4) and monazite, ((Th,Ca,Ce)PO4). Most thorium minerals contain uranium and vice versa; and they all have significant fraction of lanthanides. Rich deposits of thorium minerals are located in the United States (440,000 tonnes), Australia and India (~300,000 tonnes each) and Canada (~100,000 tonnes).\n\nThe abundance of actinium in the Earth's crust is only about 5%. Actinium is mostly present in uranium-containing, but also in other minerals, though in much smaller quantities. The content of actinium in most natural objects corresponds to the isotopic equilibrium of parent isotope 235U, and it is not affected by the weak Ac migration. Protactinium is more abundant (10−12%) in the Earth's crust than actinium. It was discovered in the uranium ore in 1913 by Fajans and Göhring. As actinium, the distribution of protactinium follows that of 235U.\n\nThe half-life of the longest-lived isotope of neptunium, 237Np, is negligible compared to the age of the Earth. Thus neptunium is present in nature in negligible amounts produced as intermediate decay products of other isotopes. Traces of plutonium in uranium minerals were first found in 1942, and the more systematic results on 239Pu are summarized in the table (no other plutonium isotopes could be detected in those samples). The upper limit of abundance of the longest-living isotope of plutonium, 244Pu, is 3%. Plutonium could not be detected in samples of lunar soil. Owing to its scarcity in nature, most plutonium is produced synthetically.\n", "Monazite—a major thorium mineral\n\nOwing to the low abundance of actinides, their extraction is a complex, multistep process. Fluorides of actinides are usually used because they are insoluble in water and can be easily separated with redox reactions. Fluorides are reduced with calcium, magnesium or barium:\n: \n\nAmong the actinides, thorium and uranium are the easiest to isolate. Thorium is extracted mostly from monazite: thorium pyrophosphate (ThP2O7) is reacted with nitric acid, and the produced thorium nitrate treated with tributyl phosphate. Rare-earth impurities are separated by increasing the pH in sulfate solution.\n\nIn another extraction method, monazite is decomposed with a 45% aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at 140 °C. Mixed metal hydroxides are extracted first, filtered at 80 °C, washed with water and dissolved with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Next, the acidic solution is neutralized with hydroxides to pH = 5.8 that results in precipitation of thorium hydroxide (Th(OH)4) contaminated with ~3% of rare-earth hydroxides; the rest of rare-earth hydroxides remains in solution. Thorium hydroxide is dissolved in an inorganic acid and then purified from the rare earth elements. An efficient method is the dissolution of thorium hydroxide in nitric acid, because the resulting solution can be purified by extraction with organic solvents:\n\nSeparation of uranium and plutonium from nuclear fuel\n\nTh(OH)4 + 4 HNO3 → Th(NO3)4 + 4 H2O\n\nMetallic thorium is separated from the anhydrous oxide, chloride or fluoride by reacting it with calcium in an inert atmosphere:\n\nThO2 + 2 Ca → 2 CaO + Th\n\nSometimes thorium is extracted by electrolysis of a fluoride in a mixture of sodium and potassium chloride at 700–800 °C in a graphite crucible. Highly pure thorium can be extracted from its iodide with the crystal bar process.\n\nUranium is extracted from its ores in various ways. In one method, the ore is burned and then reacted with nitric acid to convert uranium into a dissolved state. Treating the solution with a solution of tributyl phosphate (TBP) in kerosene transforms uranium into an organic form UO2(NO3)2(TBP)2. The insoluble impurities are filtered and the uranium is extracted by reaction with hydroxides as (NH4)2U2O7 or with hydrogen peroxide as UO4·2H2O.\n\nWhen the uranium ore is rich in such minerals as dolomite, magnesite, etc., those minerals consume much acid. In this case, the carbonate method is used for uranium extraction. Its main component is an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate, which converts uranium into a complex UO2(CO3)34−, which is stable in aqueous solutions at low concentrations of hydroxide ions. The advantages of the sodium carbonate method are that the chemicals have low corrosivity (compared to nitrates) and that most non-uranium metals precipitate from the solution. The disadvantage is that tetravalent uranium compounds precipitate as well. Therefore, the uranium ore is treated with sodium carbonate at elevated temperature and under oxygen pressure:\n:2 UO2 + O2 + 6 → 2 UO2(CO3)34−\nThis equation suggests that the best solvent for the uranium carbonate processing is a mixture of carbonate with bicarbonate. At high pH, this results in precipitation of diuranate, which is treated with hydrogen in the presence of nickel yielding an insoluble uranium tetracarbonate.\n\nAnother separation method uses polymeric resins as a polyelectrolyte. Ion exchange processes in the resins result in separation of uranium. Uranium from resins is washed with a solution of ammonium nitrate or nitric acid that yields uranyl nitrate, UO2(NO3)2·6H2O. When heated, it turns into UO3, which is converted to UO2 with hydrogen:\n: UO3 + H2 → UO2 + H2O\nReacting uranium dioxide with hydrofluoric acid changes it to uranium tetrafluoride, which yields uranium metal upon reaction with magnesium metal:\n: 4 HF + UO2 → UF4 + 2 H2O\n\nTo extract plutonium, neutron-irradiated uranium is dissolved in nitric acid, and a reducing agent (FeSO4, or H2O2) is added to the resulting solution. This addition changes the oxidation state of plutonium from +6 to +4, while uranium remains in the form of uranyl nitrate (UO2(NO3)2). The solution is treated with a reducing agent and neutralized with ammonium carbonate to pH = 8 that results in precipitation of Pu4+ compounds.\n\nIn another method, Pu4+ and are first extracted with tributyl phosphate, then reacted with hydrazine washing out the recovered plutonium.\n\nThe major difficulty in separation of actinium is the similarity of its properties with those of lanthanum. Thus actinium is either synthesized in nuclear reactions from isotopes of radium or separated using ion-exchange procedures.\n", "Actinides have similar properties to lanthanides. The 6''d'' and 7''s'' electronic shells are filled in actinium and thorium, and the 5''f'' shell is being filled with further increase in atomic number; the 4''f'' shell is filled in the lanthanides. The first experimental evidence for the filling of the 5''f'' shell in actinides was obtained by McMillan and Abelson in 1940. As in lanthanides (see lanthanide contraction), the ionic radius of actinides monotonically decreases with atomic number (see also Aufbau principle).\n\n\n\n+ Properties of actinides (the mass of the most long-lived isotope is in square brackets)\nProperty\n Ac\n Th\n Pa\n U\n Np\n Pu\n Am\n Cm\n Bk\n Cf\n Es\n Fm\n Md\n No\n Lr\n\nCore charge\n 89\n 90\n 91\n 92\n 93\n 94\n 95\n 96\n 97\n 98\n 99\n 100\n 101\n 102\n 103\n\natomic mass\n 227\n 232.0377(4) \n 231.03588(2) \n 238.02891(3) \n 237\n 244\n 243\n 247\n 247\n 251\n 252\n 257\n 258\n 259\n 266\n\nNumber of natural isotopes\n 3\n 7 \n 3\n 8 \n 3\n 4\n 0\n 0\n 0\n 0\n 0\n 0\n 0\n 0\n 0\n\nNatural isotopes\n 225, 227–228 \n 227–232, 234 \n 231, 233–234 \n 233–240 \n 237, 239–240 \n 238–240, 244 \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n —\n\nNatural quantity isotopes\n — \n 230, 232 \n 231 \n 234, 235, 238 \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n — \n —\n\nLongest-lived isotope\n 227\n 232\n 231\n 238\n 237\n 244\n 243\n 247\n 247\n 251\n 252\n 257\n 258\n 259\n 266\n\nHalf-life of the longest-lived isotope\n 21.8 years\n 14 billion years\n 32,500 years\n 4.47 billion years\n 2.14 million years\n 80.8 million years\n 7,370 years\n 15.6 million years\n 1,400 years\n 900 years\n 1.29 years\n 100.5 days\n 52 days\n 58 min\n 11 hours\n\nMost common isotope\n 227 \n 232 \n 231 \n 238 \n 237 \n 239 \n 241 \n 244 \n 249 \n 252 \n 253 \n 255 \n 256 \n 255 \n 260\n\nHalf-life of the most common isotope\n21.8 years\n14 billion years\n32,500 years\n4.47 billion years\n2.14 million years\n24,100 years\n433 years\n18.1 years\n320 days\n2.64 years\n20.47 days\n20.07 hours\n78 min\n3.1 min\n2.7 min\n\nElectronic configuration in the ground state (gas phase)\n 6d17s2\n 6d27s2\n 5f26d17s2or 5f16d27s2\n 5f36d17s2\n 5f46d17s2or 5f57s2\n 5f67s2\n 5f77s2\n 5f76d17s2\n 5f97s2or 5f86d17s2\n 5f107s2\n 5f117s2\n 5f127s2\n 5f137s2\n 5f147s2\n 5f147s27p1\n\nElectronic configuration in the ground state (solid phase)\n 6d17s2 \n 5f0.56d1.57s2 \n 5f1.76d1.37s2 \n 5f2.96d1.17s2 \n 5f46d17s2 \n 5f56d17s2 \n 5f66d17s2 \n 5f76d17s2 \n 5f86d17s2 \n 5f96d17s2 \n 5f117s2\n 5f127s2\n 5f137s2\n 5f147s2\n 5f146d17s2\n\nOxidation states\n 2, '''3'''\n 2, 3, '''4'''\n 2, 3, 4, '''5'''\n 2, 3, 4, 5, '''6'''\n 3, 4, '''5''', 6, 7\n 3, '''4''', 5, 6, 7, 8\n 2, '''3''', 4, 5, 6, 7, 8\n 2, '''3''', 4, 6\n 2, '''3''', 4\n 2, '''3''', 4\n 2, '''3''', 4\n 2, '''3'''\n 2, '''3'''\n '''2''', 3\n '''3'''\n\nMetallic radius, nm\n 0.203\n 0.180\n 0.162\n 0.153\n 0.150\n 0.162\n 0.173\n 0.174\n 0.170\n 0.186\n 0.186\n ? 0.198\n ? 0.194\n ? 0.197\n ? 0.171\n\nIonic radius, nm: An4+ An3+\n — 0.126\n 0.114 —\n 0.104 0.118\n 0.103 0.118\n 0.101 0.116\n 0.100 0.115\n 0.099 0.114\n 0.099 0.112\n 0.097 0.110\n 0.096 0.109\n 0.085 0.098\n 0.084 0.091\n 0.084 0.090\n 0.084 0.095\n 0.083 0.088\n\nTemperature, °C: melting boiling\n 10503198 \n 18424788 \n 1568? 4027 \n 1132.24131 \n 639? 4174 \n 639.43228 \n 1176? 2607 \n 13403110 \n 9862627 \n 900? 1470 \n 860? 996 \n 1530— \n 830— \n 830— \n 1630—\n\nDensity, g/cm3\n10.07 \n11.78 \n 15.37\n 19.06\n20.45\n19.84\n11.7\n13.51\n14.78\n15.1\n8.84\n? 9.7\n? 10.3\n? 9.9\n? 15.6\n\nStandard electrode potential, V:''E''° (An4+/An0)''E''° (An3+/An0)\n — −2.13\n −1.83 —\n −1.47 —\n −1.38 −1.66\n −1.30 −1.79\n −1.25 −2.00\n −0.90 −2.07\n −0.75 −2.06\n −0.55 −1.96\n −0.59 −1.97\n −0.36 −1.98\n −0.29 −1.96\n — −1.74\n — −1.20\n — −2.10\n\nColor M(H2O)n4+ M(H2O)n3+\n — Colorless\n Colorless Blue\n Yellow Dark blue\n Green Purple\n Yellow-green Purple\n Brown Violet\n Red Rose\n Yellow Colorless\n Beige Yellow-green\n Green Green\n — Pink\n — —\n — —\n — —\n — —\n\n\n\n+Approximate colors of actinide ions in aqueous solution. Colors for the last four actinides are unknown as sufficient quantities have not yet been synthesized.\n Oxidation state\n 89 \n 90 \n 91 \n 92 \n 93 \n 94 \n 95 \n 96 \n 97 \n 98 \n 99 \n 100 \n 101 \n 102 \n 103\n\n +2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n '''Fm2+''' \n '''Md2+''' \n '''No2+''' \n\n\n +3\n '''Ac3+'''\n '''Th3+'''\n '''Pa3+'''\n '''U3+'''\n '''Np3+'''\n '''Pu3+'''\n '''Am3+'''\n '''Cm3+'''\n '''Bk3+'''\n '''Cf3+'''\n '''Es3+'''\n '''Fm3+'''\n '''Md3+'''\n '''No3+'''\n '''Lr3+'''\n\n +4\n \n '''Th4+\n '''Pa4+'''\n '''U4+'''\n '''Np4+'''\n '''Pu4+'''\n '''Am4+'''\n '''Cm4+'''\n '''Bk4+'''\n '''Cf4+'''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n +5\n \n\n ''''''\n ''''''\n ''''''\n ''''''\n ''''''\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n +6\n \n \n\n ''''''\n ''''''\n ''''''\n ''''''\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n +7\n \n \n \n\n ''''''\n ''''''\n ''''''\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n===Physical properties===\n\n\n 400px\n 400px\n\nMajor crystal structures of some actinides vs. temperature\nMetallic and ionic radii of actinides\n\n\nA pellet of 238PuO2 to be used in a radioisotope thermoelectric generator for either the Cassini or Galileo mission. The pellet produces 62 watts of heat and glows because of the heat generated by the radioactive decay (primarily α). Photo is taken after insulating the pellet under a graphite blanket for minutes and removing the blanket.\nCalifornium\n\nActinides are typical metals. All of them are soft and have a silvery color (but tarnish in air), relatively high density and plasticity. Some of them can be cut with a knife. Their electrical resistivity varies between 15 and 150 µOhm·cm. The hardness of thorium is similar to that of soft steel, so heated pure thorium can be rolled in sheets and pulled into wire. Thorium is nearly half as dense as uranium and plutonium, but is harder than either of them. All actinides are radioactive, paramagnetic, and, with the exception of actinium, have several crystalline phases: plutonium has seven, and uranium, neptunium and californium three. The crystal structures of protactinium, uranium, neptunium and plutonium do not have clear analogs among the lanthanides and are more similar to those of the 3''d''-transition metals.\n\nAll actinides are pyrophoric, especially when finely divided, that is, they spontaneously ignite upon reaction with air. The melting point of actinides does not have a clear dependence on the number of ''f''-electrons. The unusually low melting point of neptunium and plutonium (~640 °C) is explained by hybridization of 5''f'' and 6''d'' orbitals and the formation of directional bonds in these metals.\n\n\n+ Comparison of ionic radii of lanthanides and actinides\n\n Lanthanides\n Ln3+, Å\n Actinides\n An3+, Å\n An4+, Å\n\n Lanthanum\n 1.061\n Actinium\n 1.11\n–\n\n Cerium\n 1.034\n Thorium\n 1.08\n 0.99\n\n Praseodymium\n 1.013\n Protactinium\n 1.05\n 0.93\n\n Neodymium\n 0.995\n Uranium\n 1.03\n 0.93\n\n Promethium\n 0.979\n Neptunium\n 1.01\n 0.92\n\n Samarium\n 0.964\n Plutonium\n 1.00\n 0.90\n\n Europium\n 0.950\n Americium\n 0.99\n 0.89\n\n Gadolinium\n 0.938\n Curium\n 0.98\n 0.88\n\n Terbium\n 0.923\n Berkelium \n–\n–\n\n Dysprosium\n 0.908\n Californium \n–\n–\n\n Holmium\n 0.894\n Einsteinium \n–\n–\n\n Erbium\n 0.881\n Fermium \n–\n–\n\n Thulium\n 0.869\n Mendelevium \n–\n–\n\n Ytterbium\n 0.858\n Nobelium \n–\n–\n\n Lutetium\n 0.848\n Lawrencium \n–\n–\n\n\n===Chemical properties===\nLike the lanthanides, all actinides are highly reactive with halogens and chalcogens; however, the actinides react more easily. Actinides, especially those with a small number of 5''f''-electrons, are prone to hybridization. This is explained by the similarity of the electron energies at the 5''f'', 7''s'' and 6''d'' shells. Most actinides exhibit a larger variety of valence states, and the most stable are +6 for uranium, +5 for protactinium and neptunium, +4 for thorium and plutonium and +3 for actinium and other actinides.\n\nChemically, actinium is similar to lanthanum, which is explained by their similar ionic radii and electronic structure. Like lanthanum, actinium has oxidation of +3, but it is less reactive and has more pronounced basic properties. Among other trivalent actinides Ac3+ is least acidic, i.e. has the weakest tendency to hydrolyze in aqueous solutions.\n\nThorium is rather active chemically. Owing to lack of electrons on 6''d'' and 5''f'' orbitals, the tetravalent thorium compounds are colorless. At pH 2O)84+. The Th4+ ion is relatively large, and depending on the coordination number can have a radius between 0.95 and 1.14 Å. As a result, thorium salts have a weak tendency to hydrolyse. The distinctive ability of thorium salts is their high solubility, not only in water, but also in polar organic solvents.\n\nProtactinium exhibits two valence states; the +5 is stable, and the +4 state easily oxidizes to protactinium(V). Thus tetravalent protactinium in solutions is obtained by the action of strong reducing agents in a hydrogen atmosphere. Tetravalent protactinium is chemically similar to uranium(IV) and thorium(IV). Fluorides, phosphates, hypophosphate, iodate and phenylarsonates of protactinium(IV) are insoluble in water and dilute acids. Protactinium forms soluble carbonates. The hydrolytic properties of pentavalent protactinium are close to those of tantalum(V) and niobium(V). The complex chemical behavior of protactinium is a consequence of the start of the filling of the 5''f'' shell in this element.\n\nUranium has a valence from 3 to 6, the last being most stable. In the hexavalent state, uranium is very similar to the group 6 elements. Many compounds of uranium(IV) and uranium(VI) are non-stoichiometric, i.e. have variable composition. For example, the actual chemical formula of uranium dioxide is UO2+x, where ''x'' varies between −0.4 and 0.32. Uranium(VI) compounds are weak oxidants. Most of them contain the linear \"uranyl\" group, . Between 4 and 6 ligands can be accommodated in an equatorial plane perpendicular to the uranyl group. The uranyl group acts as a hard acid and forms stronger complexes with oxygen-donor ligands than with nitrogen-donor ligands. and are also the common form of Np and Pu in the +6 oxidation state. Uranium(IV) compounds exhibit reducing properties, e.g., they are easily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. Uranium(III) is a very strong reducing agent. Owing to the presence of d-shell, uranium (as well as many other actinides) forms organometallic compounds, such as UIII(C5H5)3 and UIV(C5H5)4.\n\nNeptunium has valence states from 3 to 7, which can be simultaneously observed in solutions. The most stable state in solution is +5, but the valence +4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds. Neptunium metal is very reactive. Ions of neptunium are prone to hydrolysis and formation of coordination compounds.\n\nPlutonium also exhibits valence states between 3 and 7 inclusive, and thus is chemically similar to neptunium and uranium. It is highly reactive, and quickly forms an oxide film in air. Plutonium reacts with hydrogen even at temperatures as low as 25–50 °C; it also easily forms halides and intermetallic compounds. Hydrolysis reactions of plutonium ions of different oxidation states are quite diverse. Plutonium(V) can enter polymerization reactions.\n\nThe largest chemical diversity among actinides is observed in americium, which can have valence between 2 and 6. Divalent americium is obtained only in dry compounds and non-aqueous solutions (acetonitrile). Oxidation states +3, +5 and +6 are typical for aqueous solutions, but also in the solid state. Tetravalent americium forms stable solid compounds (dioxide, fluoride and hydroxide) as well as complexes in aqueous solutions. It was reported that in alkaline solution americium can be oxidized to the heptavalent state, but these data proved erroneous. The most stable valence of americium is 3 in the aqueous solutions and 3 or 4 in solid compounds.\n\nValence 3 is dominant in all subsequent elements up to lawrencium (with the possible exception of nobelium). Curium can be tetravalent in solids (fluoride, dioxide). Berkelium, along with a valence of +3, also shows the valence of +4, more stable than that of curium; the valence 4 is observed in solid fluoride and dioxide. The stability of Bk4+ in aqueous solution is close to that of Ce4+. Only valence 3 was observed for californium, einsteinium and fermium. The divalent state is proven for mendelevium and nobelium, and in nobelium it is more stable than the trivalent state. Lawrencium shows valence 3 both in solutions and solids.\n\nThe redox potential \\mathit E_\\frac{M^4+}{AnO2^2+} increases from −0.32 V in uranium, through 0.34 V (Np) and 1.04 V (Pu) to 1.34 V in americium revealing the increasing reduction ability of the An4+ ion from americium to uranium. All actinides form AnH3 hydrides of black color with salt-like properties. Actinides also produce carbides with the general formula of AnC or AnC2 (U2C3 for uranium) as well as sulfides An2S3 and AnS2.\n\n\nFile:Uranyl Nitrate.jpg\|Uranyl nitrate (UO2(NO3)2)\nFile:U Oxstufen.jpg\|Aqueous solutions of uranium III, IV, V, VI salts\nFile:Np ox st .jpg\|Aqueous solutions of neptunium III, IV, V, VI, VII salts\nFile:Plutonium in solution.jpg\|Aqueous solutions of plutonium III, IV, V, VI, VII salts\nFile:UCl4.jpg\|Uranium tetrachloride\nFile:UF6.jpg\|Uranium hexafluoride\nFile:Yellowcake.jpg\|U3O8 (yellowcake)\n\n", "\n===Oxides and hydroxides===\n\n\n+ Oxides of actinides\n\nCompound\nColor\nCrystal symmetry, type\nLattice constants, Å\nDensity, g/cm3\nTemperature, °C\n\n''a''\n''b''\n''c''\n\n Ac2O3\n White\n Hexagonal, La2O3\n 4.07 \n\n 6.29\n 9.19\n –\n\n PaO2\n\n Cubic, CaF2\n 5.505 \n\n\n\n\n\n Pa2O5\n White\n cubic, CaF2 Cubic Tetragonal Hexagonal Rhombohedral Orthorhombic\n 5.446 10.891 5.429 3.817 5.425 6.92\n - - - - - 4.02\n - 10.992 5.503 13.22 - 4. 18 \n\n 700 700–1100 1000 1000–1200 1240–1400 –\n\n ThO2\n Colorless\n Cubic\n 5.59 \n\n\n 9.87\n –\n\n UO2\n Black-brown\n Cubic\n 5.47 \n\n\n 10.9\n –\n\n NpO2\n Greenish-brown\n Cubic, CaF2\n 5.424 \n\n\n 11.1\n –\n\n PuO\n Black\n Cubic, NaCl\n 4.96 \n\n\n 13.9\n –\n\n PuO2\n Olive green\n Cubic\n 5.39 \n\n\n 11.44\n –\n\n Am2O3\n Red-brown Red-brown\n Cubic, Mn2O3 Hexagonal, La2O3\n 11.03 3.817 \n\n\n 10.57 11.7\n –\n\n AmO2\n Black\n Cubic, CaF2\n 5.376 \n\n\n\n\n\n Cm2O3\n White - -\n Cubic, Mn2O2 Hexagonal, LaCl3 Monoclinic, Sm2O3\n 11.01 3.80 14.28\n - - 3.65\n - 6 8.9\n 11.7\n –\n\n CmO2\n Black\n Cubic, CaF2\n 5.37 \n\n\n\n\n\n Bk2O3\n Light brown\n Cubic, Mn2O3\n 10.886\n\n\n\n\n\n BkO2\n Red-brown\n Cubic, CaF2\n 5.33 \n\n\n\n\n\n Cf2O3\n Colorless Yellowish -\n Cubic, Mn2O3 Monoclinic, Sm2O3 Hexagonal, La2O3\n 10.79 14.12 3.72\n - 3.59 -\n - 8.80 5.96 \n\n\n\n CfO2\n Black\n Cubic\n 5.31 \n\n\n\n\n\n Es2O3\n\n Cubic, Mn2O3 Monoclinic Hexagonal, La2O3\n 10.07 14.1 3.7\n - 3.59 -\n - 8.80 6 \n\n\n\n\n\n+Approximate colors of actinide oxides(most stable are bolded)\n Oxidation state\n 89 \n 90 \n 91 \n 92 \n 93 \n 94 \n 95 \n 96 \n 97 \n 98 \n99\n\n +3\n \n \n \n \n\n Pu2O3\n Am2O3\n '''Cm2O3'''\n Bk2O3\n '''Cf2O3'''\n '''Es2O3'''\n\n +4\n \n '''ThO2\n PaO2\n UO2\n '''NpO2'''\n '''PuO2'''\n '''AmO2'''\n CmO2\n '''BkO2'''\n CfO2\n\n\n +5\n \n\n '''Pa2O5'''\n U2O5\n Np2O5\n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n +6 \n \n \n\n '''U3O8'''\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n\n UO3\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n\n+ Dioxides of some actinides\n\nChemical formula\n ThO2\n PaO2\n UO2\n NpO2\n PuO2\n AmO2\n CmO2\n BkO2\n CfO2\n\nCAS-number\n 1314-20-1\n 12036-03-2\n 1344-57-6\n 12035-79-9\n 12059-95-9\n 12005-67-3\n 12016-67-0\n 12010-84-3\n 12015-10-0\n\nMolar mass\n 264.04 \n 263.035 \n 270.03 \n 269.047 \n 276.063 \n 275.06 \n 270–284\n 279.069 \n 283.078\n\nMelting point\n 3390 °C\n\n2865 °C\n2547 °C\n2400 °C\n2175 °C\n \n \n\n\nCrystal structure\n250px'''An'''4+: __ / O2−: __\n\nSpace group\nFmm\n\nCoordination number\n'''An'''8, O4\n\n: '''An''' – actinide Depending on the isotopes\n\n\nSome actinides can exists in several oxide forms such as An2O3, AnO2, An2O5 and AnO3. For all actinides, oxides AnO3 are amphoteric and An2O3, AnO2 and An2O5 are basic, they easily react with water, forming bases:\n\n: An2O3 + 3 H2O → 2 An(OH)3.\nThese bases are poorly soluble in water and by their activity are close to the hydroxides of rare-earth metals. The strongest base is of actinium. All compounds of actinium are colorless, except for black actinium sulfide (Ac2S3). Dioxides of tetravalent actinides crystallize in the cubic system, same as in calcium fluoride.\n\nThorium reacting with oxygen exclusively forms dioxide:\n: {Th}+O2 ->\\ce{1000^\\circ C} \\overbrace{ThO2}^{Thorium\\ dioxide}\n\nThorium dioxide is a refractory material with the highest melting point among any known oxide (3390 °C). Adding 0.8–1% ThO2 to tungsten stabilizes its structure, so the doped filaments have better mechanical stability to vibrations. To dissolve ThO2 in acids, it is heated to 500–600 °C; heating above 600 °C produces a very resistant to acids and other reagents form of ThO2. Small addition of fluoride ions catalyses dissolution of thorium dioxide in acids.\n\nTwo protactinium oxides were obtained: PaO2 (black) and Pa2O5(white); the former is isomorphic with ThO2 and the latter is easier to obtain. Both oxides are basic, and Pa(OH)5 is a weak, poorly soluble base.\n\nDecomposition of certain salts of uranium, for example UO2(NO3)·6H2O in air at 400 °C, yields orange or yellow UO3. This oxide is amphoteric and forms several hydroxides, the most stable being UO2(OH)2.\nReaction of uranium(VI) oxide with hydrogen results in uranium dioxide, which is similar in its properties with ThO2. This oxide is also basic and corresponds to the uranium hydroxide (U(OH)4).\n\nPlutonium, neptunium and americium form two basic oxides: An2O3 and AnO2. Neptunium trioxide is unstable; thus, only Np3O8 could be obtained so far. However, the oxides of plutonium and neptunium with the chemical formula AnO2 and An2O3 are well characterized.\n\n===Salts===\n\n\n+ Trichlorides of some actinides\n\nChemical formula\n AcCl3\n UCl3\n NpCl3\n PuCl3\n AmCl3\n CmCl3\n BkCl3\n CfCl3\n\nCAS-number\n 22986-54-5\n 10025-93-1\n 20737-06-8\n 13569-62-5\n 13464-46-5\n 13537-20-7\n 13536-46-4\n 13536-90-8\n\nMolar mass\n 333.386 \n 344.387 \n 343.406 \n 350.32 \n 349.42 \n 344–358*\n 353.428 \n 357.438\n\nMelting point\n\n 837 °C\n800 °C\n767 °C\n715 °C\n695 °C\n603 °C\n545 °C\n\nBoiling point\n\n 1657 °C\n\n1767 °C\n850 °C\n \n \n\n\nCrystal structure\nThe crystal structure of uranium trichloride'''An'''3+: __ / Cl−: __\n\nSpace group\nP63/m\n\nCoordination number\n'''An'''9, Cl 3\n\nLattice constants\n ''a'' = 762 pm ''c'' = 455 pm\n ''a'' = 745.2 pm ''c'' = 432.8 pm\n \n ''a'' = 739.4 pm ''c'' = 424.3 pm\n ''a'' = 738.2 pm ''c'' = 421.4 pm\n ''a'' = 726 pm ''c'' = 414 pm\n ''a'' = 738.2 pm ''c'' = 412.7 pm\n ''a'' = 738 pm ''c'' = 409 pm\n\n: '''An''' – actinide Depending on the isotopes\n\n\n\n+ Actinide fluorides\n\nCompound\nColor\nCrystal symmetry, type\nLattice constants, Å\nDensity, g/cm3\n\n''a''\n''b''\n''c''\n\n AcF3\n White\n Hexagonal, LaF3\n 4.27 \n\n 7.53\n 7.88\n\n PaF4\n Dark brown\n Monoclinic\n 12.7\n 10.7\n 8.42\n –\n\n PaF5\n Black\n Tetragonal, β-UF5\n 11.53 \n\n 5.19\n –\n\n ThF4\n Colorless\n Monoclinic\n 13\n 10.99\n 8.58\n 5.71\n\n UF3\n Reddish-purple\n Hexagonal\n 7.18 \n\n 7.34\n 8.54\n\n UF4\n Green\n Monoclinic\n 11.27\n 10.75\n 8.40\n 6.72\n\n α-UF5\n Bluish\n Tetragonal\n 6.52 \n\n 4.47\n 5.81\n\n β-UF5\n Bluish\n Tetragonal\n 11.47 \n\n 5.20\n 6.45\n\n UF6\n Yellowish\n Orthorhombic\n 9.92\n 8.95\n 5.19\n 5.06\n\n NpF3\n Black or purple\n Hexagonal\n 7.129 \n\n 7.288\n 9.12\n\n NpF4\n Light green\n Monoclinic\n 12.67\n 10.62\n 8.41\n 6.8\n\n NpF6\n Orange\n Orthorhombic\n 9.91\n 8.97\n 5.21\n 5\n\n PuF3\n Violet-blue\n Trigonal\n 7.09 \n\n 7.25\n 9.32\n\n PuF4\n Pale brown\n Monoclinic\n 12.59\n 10.57\n 8.28\n 6.96\n\n PuF6\n Red-brown\n Orthorhombic\n 9.95\n 9.02\n 3.26\n 4.86\n\n AmF3\n Pink or light beige\n hexagonal, LaF3\n 7.04\n\n 7.255\n 9.53\n\n AmF4\n Orange-red\n Monoclinic\n 12.53\n 10.51\n 8.20\n –\n\n CmF3\n From brown to white\n Hexagonal\n 4.041 \n\n 7.179\n 9.7\n\n CmF4\n Yellow\n Monoclinic, UF4\n 12.51\n 10.51\n 8.20\n –\n\n BkF3\n Yellow-green\n Trigonal, LaF3 Orthorhombic, YF3\n 6.97 6.7\n - 7.09\n 7.14 4.41\n 10.15 9.7\n\n BkF4\n\n Monoclinic, UF4\n 12.47\n 10.58\n 8.17\n –\n\n CfF3\n - -\n Trigonal, LaF3 Orthorhombic, YF3\n 6. 94 6.65\n - 7.04\n 7.10 4.39\n –\n\n CfF4\n - -\n Monoclinic, UF4 Monoclinic, UF4\n 1.242 1.233\n 1.047 1.040\n 8.126 8.113\n –\n\n\nEinsteinium triiodide glowing in the dark\nActinides easily react with halogens forming salts with the formulas MX3 and MX4 (X = halogen). So the first berkelium compound, BkCl3, was synthesized in 1962 with an amount of 3 nanograms. Like the halogens of rare earth elements, actinide chlorides, bromides, and iodides are water-soluble, and fluorides are insoluble. Uranium easily yields a colorless hexafluoride, which sublimates at a temperature of 56.5 °C; because of its volatility, it is used in the separation of uranium isotopes with gas centrifuge or gaseous diffusion. Actinide hexafluorides have properties close to anhydrides. They are very sensitive to moisture and hydrolyze forming AnO2F2. The pentachloride and black hexachloride of uranium were synthesized, but they are both unstable.\n\nAction of acids on actinides yields salts, and if the acids are non-oxidizing then the actinide in the salt is in low-valence state:\n: U + 2 H2SO4 → U (SO4)2 + 2 H2\n: 2 Pu + 6 HCl → 2 PuCl3 + 3 H2\nHowever, in these reactions the regenerating hydrogen can react with the metal, forming the corresponding hydride. Uranium reacts with acids and water much more easily than thorium.\n\nActinide salts can also be obtained by dissolving the corresponding hydroxides in acids. Nitrates, chlorides, sulfates and perchlorates of actinides are water-soluble. When crystallizing from aqueous solutions, these salts forming a hydrates, such as Th(NO3)4·6H2O, Th(SO4)2·9H2O and Pu2(SO4)3·7H2O. Salts of high-valence actinides easily hydrolyze. So, colorless sulfate, chloride, perchlorate and nitrate of thorium transform into basic salts with formulas Th(OH)2SO4 and Th(OH)3NO3. The solubility and insolubility of trivalent and tetravalent actinides is like that of lanthanide salts. So phosphates, fluorides, oxalates, iodates and carbonates of actinides are weakly soluble in water; they precipitate as hydrates, such as ThF4·3H2O and Th(CrO4)2·3H2O.\n\nActinides with oxidation state +6, except for the AnO22+-type cations, form AnO42−, An2O72− and other complex anions. For example, uranium, neptunium and plutonium form salts of the Na2UO4 (uranate) and (NH4)2U2O7 (diuranate) types. In comparison with lanthanides, actinides more easily form coordination compounds, and this ability increases with the actinide valence. Trivalent actinides do not form fluoride coordination compounds, whereas tetravalent thorium forms K2ThF6, KThF5, and even K5ThF9 complexes. Thorium also forms the corresponding sulfates (for example Na2SO4·Th (SO4)2·5H2O), nitrates and thiocyanates. Salts with the general formula An2Th(NO3)6·''n''H2O are of coordination nature, with the coordination number of thorium equal to 12. Even easier is to produce complex salts of pentavalent and hexavalent actinides. The most stable coordination compounds of actinides – tetravalent thorium and uranium – are obtained in reactions with diketones, e.g. acetylacetone.\n", "Interior of a smoke detector containing americium-241.\nWhile actinides have some established daily-life applications, such as in smoke detectors (americium) and gas mantles (thorium), they are mostly used in nuclear weapons and use as a fuel in nuclear reactors. The last two areas exploit the property of actinides to release enormous energy in nuclear reactions, which under certain conditions may become self-sustaining chain reaction.\n\nSelf-illumination of a nuclear reactor by Cherenkov radiation.\nThe most important isotope for nuclear power applications is uranium-235. It is used in the thermal reactor, and its concentration in natural uranium does not exceed 0.72%. This isotope strongly absorbs thermal neutrons releasing much energy. One fission act of 1 gram of 235U converts into about 1 MW·day. Of importance, is that 235U emits more neutrons than it absorbs; upon reaching the critical mass, 235U enters into a self-sustaining chain reaction. Typically, uranium nucleus is divided into two fragments with the release of 2–3 neutrons, for example:\n: \n\nOther promising actinide isotopes for nuclear power are thorium-232 and its product from the thorium fuel cycle, uranium-233.\n\n\n Nuclear reactor\n\n The core of most Generation II nuclear reactors contains a set of hollow metal rods, usually made of zirconium alloys, filled with solid nuclear fuel pellets – mostly oxide, carbide, nitride or monosulfide of uranium, plutonium or thorium, or their mixture (the so-called MOX fuel). The most common fuel is oxide of uranium-235.\nNuclear reactor scheme\nFast neutrons are slowed by moderators, which contain water, carbon, deuterium, or beryllium, as thermal neutrons to increase the efficiency of their interaction with uranium-235. The rate of nuclear reaction is controlled by introducing additional rods made of boron or cadmium or a liquid absorbent, usually boric acid. Reactors for plutonium production are called breeder reactor or breeders; they have a different design and use fast neutrons.\n\nEmission of neutrons during the fission of uranium is important not only for maintaining the nuclear chain reaction, but also for the synthesis of the heavier actinides. Uranium-239 converts via β-decay into plutonium-239, which, like uranium-235, is capable of spontaneous fission. The world's first nuclear reactors were built not for energy, but for producing plutonium-239 for nuclear weapons.\n\nAbout half of the produced thorium is used as the light-emitting material of gas mantles. Thorium is also added into multicomponent alloys of magnesium and zinc. So the Mg-Th alloys are light and strong, but also have high melting point and ductility and thus are widely used in the aviation industry and in the production of missiles. Thorium also has good electron emission properties, with long lifetime and low potential barrier for the emission. The relative content of thorium and uranium isotopes is widely used to estimate the age of various objects, including stars (see radiometric dating).\n\nThe major application of plutonium has been in nuclear weapons, where the isotope plutonium-239 was a key component due to its ease of fission and availability. Plutonium-based designs allow reducing the critical mass to about a third of that for uranium-235. The \"Fat Man\"-type plutonium bombs produced during the Manhattan Project used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher densities than normal, combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency. Thus only 6.2 kg of plutonium was needed for an explosive yield equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. (See also Nuclear weapon design.) Hypothetically, as little as 4 kg of plutonium—and maybe even less—could be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs.\n \nPlutonium-238 is potentially more efficient isotope for nuclear reactors, since it has smaller critical mass than uranium-235, but it continues to release much thermal energy (0.56 W/g) by decay even when the fission chain reaction is stopped by control rods. Its application is limited by the high price (about 1000 USD/g). This isotope has been used in thermopiles and water distillation systems of some space satellites and stations. So Galileo and Apollo spacecraft (e.g. Apollo 14) had heaters powered by kilogram quantities of plutonium-238 oxide; this heat is also transformed into electricity with thermopiles. The decay of plutonium-238 produces relatively harmless alpha particles and is not accompanied by gamma-irradiation. Therefore, this isotope (~160 mg) is used as the energy source in heart pacemakers where it lasts about 5 times longer than conventional batteries.\n \nActinium-227 is used as a neutron source. Its high specific energy (14.5 W/g) and the possibility of obtaining significant quantities of thermally stable compounds are attractive for use in long-lasting thermoelectric generators for remote use. 228Ac is used as an indicator of radioactivity in chemical research, as it emits high-energy electrons (2.18 MeV) that can be easily detected. 228Ac-228Ra mixtures are widely used as an intense gamma-source in industry and medicine.\n\nDevelopment of self-glowing actinide-doped materials with durable crystalline matrices is a new area of actinide utilization as the addition of alpha-emitting radionuclides to some glasses and crystals may confer luminescence.\n", "Schematic illustration of penetration of radiation through sheets of paper, aluminium and lead brick\nPeriodic table with elements colored according to the half-life of their most stable isotope.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRadioactive substances can harm human health via (i) local skin contamination, (ii) internal exposure due to ingestion of radioactive isotopes, and (iii) external overexposure by β-activity and γ-radiation. Together with radium and transuranium elements, actinium is one of the most dangerous radioactive poisons with high specific α-activity. The most important feature of actinium is its ability to accumulate and remain in the surface layer of skeletons. At the initial stage of poisoning, actinium accumulates in the liver. Another danger of actinium is that it undergoes radioactive decay faster than being excreted. Adsorption from the digestive tract is much smaller (~0.05%) for actinium than radium.\n\nProtactinium in the body tends to accumulate in the kidneys and bones. The maximum safe dose of protactinium in the human body is 0.03 µCi that corresponds to 0.5 micrograms of 231Pa. This isotope, which might be present in the air as aerosol, is 2.5 times more toxic than hydrocyanic acid.\n\nPlutonium, when entering the body through air, food or blood (e.g. a wound), mostly settles in the lungs, liver and bones with only about 10% going to other organs, and remains there for decades. The long residence time of plutonium in the body is partly explained by its poor solubility in water. Some isotopes of plutonium emit ionizing α-radiation, which damages the surrounding cells. The median lethal dose (LD50) for 30 days in dogs after intravenous injection of plutonium is 0.32 milligram per kg of body mass, and thus the lethal dose for humans is approximately 22 mg for a person weighing 70 kg; the amount for respiratory exposure should be approximately four times greater. Another estimate assumes that plutonium is 50 times less toxic than radium, and thus permissible content of plutonium in the body should be 5 µg or 0.3 µCi. Such amount is nearly invisible in under microscope. After trials on animals, this maximum permissible dose was reduced to 0.65 µg or 0.04 µCi. Studies on animals also revealed that the most dangerous plutonium exposure route is through inhalation, after which 5–25% of inhaled substances is retained in the body. Depending on the particle size and solubility of the plutonium compounds, plutonium is localized either in the lungs or in the lymphatic system, or is absorbed in the blood and then transported to the liver and bones. Contamination via food is the least likely way. In this case, only about 0.05% of soluble 0.01% insoluble compounds of plutonium absorbs into blood, and the rest is excreted. Exposure of damaged skin to plutonium would retain nearly 100% of it.\n\nUsing actinides in nuclear fuel, sealed radioactive sources or advanced materials such as self-glowing crystals has many potential benefits. However, a serious concern is the extremely high radiotoxicity of actinides and their migration in the environment. Use of chemically unstable forms of actinides in MOX and sealed radioactive sources is not appropriate by modern safety standards. There is a challenge to develop stable and durable actinide-bearing materials, which provide safe storage, use and final disposal. A key need is application of actinide solid solutions in durable crystalline host phases.\n", " Actinides in the environment\n* Major actinides\n* Minor actinides\n* Transuranics\n\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n", "\n* Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory image of historic periodic table by Seaborg showing actinide series for the first time\n* Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, ''Uncovering the Secrets of the Actinides''\n* Los Alamos National Laboratory, ''Actinide Research Quarterly''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Discovery, isolation and synthesis", "Isotopes", "Distribution in nature", "Extraction", "Properties", "Compounds", "Applications", "Toxicity", "See also", "References and notes", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Actinide
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Arthur Asher Miller''' (October 17, 1915 – February 10, 2005) was an American playwright, essayist, and figure in twentieth-century American theater. Among his most popular plays are ''All My Sons'' (1947), ''Death of a Salesman'' (1949), ''The Crucible'' (1953) and ''A View from the Bridge'' (1955, revised 1956). He also wrote several screenplays and was most noted for his work on ''The Misfits'' (1961). The drama ''Death of a Salesman'' has been numbered on the short list of finest American plays in the 20th century alongside ''Long Day's Journey into Night'' and ''A Streetcar Named Desire''.\n\nMiller was often in the public eye, particularly during the late 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. During this time, he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama; testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee; and was married to Marilyn Monroe. In 1980, Miller received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. He received the Prince of Asturias Award and the Praemium Imperiale prize in 2002 and the Jerusalem Prize in 2003, as well as the Dorothy and Lillian Gish Lifetime Achievement Award.\n", "\n===Early life===\nMiller was born on October 17, 1915, in Harlem, in the New York City borough of Manhattan, the second of three children of Augusta (Barnett) and Isidore Miller. Miller was of Polish Jewish descent. His father was born in Radomyśl Wielki, Galicia (then part of Austria-Hungary, now Poland), and his mother was a native of New York whose parents also arrived from that town. Isidore owned a women's clothing manufacturing business employing 400 people. He became a wealthy and respected man in the community. The family, including his younger sister Joan Copeland, lived on West 110th Street in Manhattan, owned a summer house in Far Rockaway, Queens, and employed a chauffeur. In the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the family lost almost everything and moved to Gravesend, Brooklyn. As a teenager, Miller delivered bread every morning before school to help the family. After graduating in 1932 from Abraham Lincoln High School, he worked at several menial jobs to pay for his college tuition.\n\nAt the University of Michigan, Miller first majored in journalism and worked for the student paper, the ''Michigan Daily''. It was during this time that he wrote his first play, ''No Villain''. Miller switched his major to English, and subsequently won the Avery Hopwood Award for ''No Villain.'' The award brought him his first recognition and led him to begin to consider that he could have a career as a playwright. Miller enrolled in a playwriting seminar taught by the influential Professor Kenneth Rowe, who instructed him in his early forays into playwriting; Rowe emphasized how a play is built in order to achieve its intended effect, or what Miller called \"the dynamics of play construction\". Rowe provided realistic feedback along with much-needed encouragement, and became a lifelong friend. Miller retained strong ties to his alma mater throughout the rest of his life, establishing the university's Arthur Miller Award in 1985 and Arthur Miller Award for Dramatic Writing in 1999, and lending his name to the Arthur Miller Theatre in 2000. In 1937, Miller wrote ''Honors at Dawn,'' which also received the Avery Hopwood Award.\nAfter his graduation in 1938, he joined the Federal Theatre Project, a New Deal agency established to provide jobs in the theater. He chose the theater project despite the more lucrative offer to work as a scriptwriter for 20th Century Fox. However, Congress, worried about possible Communist infiltration, closed the project in 1939. Miller began working in the Brooklyn Navy Yard while continuing to write radio plays, some of which were broadcast on CBS.\n\n===Early career===\n\nIn 1940, Miller married Mary Grace Slattery. The couple had two children, Jane and Robert (born May 31, 1947). Miller was exempted from military service during World War II because of a high-school football injury to his left kneecap.\n1940 was also the year his first play was produced; ''The Man Who Had All the Luck'' won the Theatre Guild's National Award. The play closed after four performances with disastrous reviews.\n\nIn 1947, Miller's play ''All My Sons'', the writing of which had commenced in 1941, was a success on Broadway (earning him his first Tony Award, for Best Author) and his reputation as a playwright was established. Years later, in a 1994 interview with Ron Rifkin, Miller said that most contemporary critics regarded ''All My Sons'' as \"a very depressing play in a time of great optimism\" and that positive reviews from Brooks Atkinson of ''The New York Times'' had saved it from failure.\n\nIn 1948, Miller built a small studio in Roxbury, Connecticut. There, in less than a day, he wrote Act I of ''Death of a Salesman''. Within six weeks, he completed the rest of the play, one of the classics of world theater. ''Death of a Salesman'' premiered on Broadway on February 10, 1949, at the Morosco Theatre, directed by Elia Kazan, and starring Lee J. Cobb as Willy Loman, Mildred Dunnock as Linda, Arthur Kennedy as Biff, and Cameron Mitchell as Happy. The play was commercially successful and critically acclaimed, winning a Tony Award for Best Author, the New York Drama Circle Critics' Award, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. It was the first play to win all three of these major awards. The play was performed 742 times.\n\nIn 1949, Miller exchanged letters with Eugene O'Neill regarding Miller's production of ''All My Sons''. O'Neill had sent Miller a congratulatory telegram; in response, he wrote a letter that consisted of a few paragraphs detailing his gratitude for the telegram, apologizing for not responding earlier, and inviting Eugene to the opening of ''Death of a Salesman''. O'Neill replied, accepting the apology, but declining the invitation, explaining that his Parkinson's disease made it difficult to travel. He ended the letter with an invitation to Boston, which never occurred.\n\n===Critical years===\nIn 1955, a one-act version of Miller's verse drama ''A View from the Bridge'' opened on Broadway in a joint bill with one of Miller's lesser-known plays, ''A Memory of Two Mondays''. The following year, Miller revised ''A View from the Bridge'' as a two-act prose drama, which Peter Brook directed in London. A French-Italian co-production ''Vu du pont'', based on the play, was released in 1962.\n\n====Marriages and family====\nMarriage ceremony with Marilyn Monroe in 1956\n\nIn June 1956, Miller left his first wife, Mary Slattery, whom he married in 1940, and married film star Marilyn Monroe. They had met in 1951, had a brief affair, and remained in contact since. Monroe had just turned 30 when they married, and having never had a real family of her own, was eager to join the family of her new husband.\n\nMonroe began to reconsider her career and the fact that trying to manage it made her feel helpless. She admitted to Miller, \"I hate Hollywood. I don't want it anymore. I want to live quietly in the country and just be there when you need me. I can't fight for myself anymore.\"\n\nShe converted to Judaism to \"express her loyalty and get close to both Miller and his parents\", writes biographer Jeffrey Meyers. Monroe told her close friend, Susan Strasberg: \"I can identify with the Jews. Everybody's always out to get them, no matter what they do, like me.\" Soon after she converted, Egypt banned all of her movies.\n\nAway from Hollywood and the culture of celebrity, Monroe's life became more normal; she began cooking, keeping house and giving Miller more attention and affection than he had been used to. His children, aged twelve and nine, adored her and were reluctant to return to their mother when the weekend was over. As she was also fond of older people, she got along well with his parents, and the feeling was mutual.\n\nLater that year, Miller was subpoenaed by the HUAC, and Monroe accompanied him. In her personal notes, she wrote about her worries during this period:\n\n\nMiller began work on writing the screenplay for ''The Misfits'' in 1960, directed by John Huston and starring Monroe. But it was during the filming that Miller and Monroe's relationship hit difficulties, and he later said that the filming was one of the lowest points in his life. Monroe was taking drugs to help her sleep and more drugs to help her wake up, which caused her to arrive on the set late and then have trouble remembering her lines. Huston was unaware that Miller and Monroe were having problems in their private life. He recalled later, \"I was impertinent enough to say to Arthur that to allow her to take drugs of any kind was criminal and utterly irresponsible. Shortly after that I realized that she wouldn't listen to Arthur at all; he had no say over her actions.\"\n\nShortly before the film's premiere in 1961, Miller and Monroe divorced after their five years of marriage. Nineteen months later, Monroe died of a likely drug overdose. Huston, who had also directed her in her first major role in ''The Asphalt Jungle'' in 1950, and who had seen her rise to stardom, put the blame for her death on her doctors as opposed to the stresses of being a star: \"The girl was an addict of sleeping pills and she was made so by the God-damn doctors. It had nothing to do with the Hollywood set-up.\"\n\nMiller later married photographer Inge Morath in February 1962. She had worked as a photographer documenting the production of ''The Misfits''. The first of their two children, Rebecca, was born September 15, 1962. Their son, Daniel, was born with Down syndrome in November 1966; he was institutionalized and excluded from the Millers' personal life at Arthur's insistence. The couple remained together until Inge's death in 2002. Arthur Miller's son-in-law, actor Daniel Day-Lewis, is said to have visited Daniel frequently, and to have persuaded Arthur Miller to reunite with him.\n\n====HUAC controversy and ''The Crucible''====\nIn 1952, Elia Kazan appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Kazan named eight members of the Group Theatre, including Clifford Odets, Paula Strasberg, Lillian Hellman, J. Edward Bromberg, and John Garfield, who in recent years had been fellow members of the Communist Party.\n\nAfter speaking with Kazan about his testimony, Miller traveled to Salem, Massachusetts to research the witch trials of 1692. ''The Crucible'', in which Miller likened the situation with the House Un-American Activities Committee to the witch hunt in Salem in 1692, opened at the Beck Theatre on Broadway on January 22, 1953. Though widely considered only somewhat successful at the time of its release, today ''The Crucible'' is Miller's most frequently produced work throughout the world. It was adapted into an opera by Robert Ward in 1961.\n\nMiller and Kazan were close friends throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, but after Kazan's testimony to the HUAC, the pair's friendship ended, and they did not speak to each other for the next ten years. The HUAC took an interest in Miller himself not long after ''The Crucible'' opened, denying him a passport to attend the play's London opening in 1954. Kazan defended his own actions through his film ''On the Waterfront'', in which a dockworker heroically testifies against a corrupt union boss.\n\nWhen Miller applied in 1956 for a routine renewal of his passport, the House Un-American Activities Committee used this opportunity to subpoena him to appear before the committee. Before appearing, Miller asked the committee not to ask him to name names, to which the chairman, Francis E. Walter (D-PA) agreed.\nDies of House Un-American Activities Committee reads and proofs his letter replying to Pres. Roosevelt's attack on the Committee, October 26, 1938\n\nWhen Miller attended the hearing, to which Monroe accompanied him, risking her own career, he gave the committee a detailed account of his political activities. Reneging on the chairman's promise, the committee demanded the names of friends and colleagues who had participated in similar activities. Miller refused to comply, saying \"I could not use the name of another person and bring trouble on him.\" As a result, a judge found Miller guilty of contempt of Congress in May 1957. Miller was sentenced to a fine and a prison sentence, blacklisted, and disallowed a US passport. In 1958, his conviction was overturned by the court of appeals, which ruled that Miller had been misled by the chairman of the HUAC.\n\nMiller's experience with the HUAC affected him throughout his life. In the late 1970s he became very interested in the highly publicized Barbara Gibbons murder case, in which Gibbons' son Peter Reilly was convicted of his mother's murder based on what many felt was a coerced confession and little other evidence. ''City Confidential'', an A&E Network series, produced an episode about the murder, postulating that part of the reason Miller took such an active interest (including supporting Reilly's defense and using his own celebrity to bring attention to Reilly's plight) was because he had felt similarly persecuted in his run-ins with the HUAC. He sympathized with Reilly, whom he firmly believed to be innocent and to have been railroaded by the Connecticut State Police and the Attorney General who had initially prosecuted the case.\n\n===Later career===\nMiller in 1966\nIn 1964 ''After the Fall'' was produced, and is said to be a deeply personal view of Miller's experiences during his marriage to Monroe. The play reunited Miller with his former friend Kazan: they collaborated on both the script and the direction. ''After the Fall'' opened on January 23, 1964, at the ANTA Theatre in Washington Square Park amid a flurry of publicity and outrage at putting a Monroe-like character, called Maggie, on stage. Robert Brustein, in a review in the ''New Republic'', called ''After the Fall'' \"a three and one half hour breach of taste, a confessional autobiography of embarrassing explicitness . . . there is a misogynistic strain in the play which the author does not seem to recognize. . . . He has created a shameless piece of tabloid gossip, an act of exhibitionism which makes us all voyeurs, . . . a wretched piece of dramatic writing.\" That same year, Miller produced ''Incident at Vichy''. In 1965, Miller was elected the first American president of PEN International, a position which he held for four years. A year later, Miller organized the 1966 PEN congress in New York City. Miller also wrote the penetrating family drama, ''The Price'', produced in 1968. It was Miller's most successful play since ''Death of a Salesman.''\n\nIn 1969, Miller's works were banned in the Soviet Union after he campaigned for the freedom of dissident writers. Throughout the 1970s, Miller spent much of his time experimenting with the theatre, producing one-act plays such as ''Fame'' and ''The Reason Why'', and traveling with his wife, producing ''In The Country'' and ''Chinese Encounters'' with her. Both his 1972 comedy ''The Creation of the World and Other Business'' and its musical adaptation, ''Up from Paradise'', were critical and commercial failures.\n\nMiller was an unusually articulate commentator on his own work. In 1978 he published a collection of his ''Theater Essays'', edited by Robert A. Martin and with a foreword by Miller. Highlights of the collection included Miller's introduction to his ''Collected Plays'', his reflections on the theory of tragedy, comments on the McCarthy Era, and pieces arguing for a publicly supported theater. Reviewing this collection in the ''Chicago Tribune,'' Studs Terkel remarked, \"in reading the ''Theater Essays''...you are exhilaratingly aware of a social critic, as well as a playwright, who knows what he's talking about.\"\n\nIn 1983, Miller traveled to China to produce and direct ''Death of a Salesman'' at the People's Art Theatre in Beijing. The play was a success in China and in 1984, ''Salesman in Beijing,'' a book about Miller's experiences in Beijing, was published. Around the same time, ''Death of a Salesman'' was made into a TV movie starring Dustin Hoffman as Willy Loman. Shown on CBS, it attracted 25 million viewers. In late 1987, Miller's autobiographical work,\n''Timebends'', was published. Before it was published, it was well known that Miller would not talk about Monroe in interviews; in ''Timebends'' Miller talks about his experiences with Monroe in detail.\n\nDuring the early-mid 1990s, Miller wrote three new plays: ''The Ride Down Mt. Morgan'' (1991), ''The Last Yankee'' (1992), and ''Broken Glass'' (1994). In 1996, a film of ''The Crucible'' starring Daniel Day-Lewis, Paul Scofield, Bruce Davison, and Winona Ryder opened. Miller spent much of 1996 working on the screenplay to the film.\n\n''Mr. Peters' Connections'' was staged Off-Broadway in 1998, and ''Death of a Salesman'' was revived on Broadway in 1999 to celebrate its fiftieth anniversary. The play, once again, was a large critical success, winning a Tony Award for best revival of a play.\n\nIn 1993, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts. Miller was honored with the PEN/Laura Pels International Foundation for Theater Award for a Master American Dramatist in 1998. In 2001 the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) selected Miller for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities. Miller's lecture was entitled \"On Politics and the Art of Acting.\"\nMiller's lecture analyzed political events (including the U.S. presidential election of 2000)\nin terms of the \"arts of performance,\" and it drew attacks from some conservatives such as Jay Nordlinger, who called it \"a disgrace,\"\n and George Will, who argued that Miller was not legitimately a \"scholar.\"\n\nIn 1999, Miller was awarded The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, one of the richest prizes in the arts, given annually to \"a man or woman who has made an outstanding contribution to the beauty of the world and to mankind's enjoyment and understanding of life.\" In 2001, Miller received the National Book Foundation's Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters. On May 1, 2002, Miller was awarded Spain's Principe de Asturias Prize for Literature as \"the undisputed master of modern drama.\" Later that year, Ingeborg Morath died of lymphatic cancer at the age of 78. The following year Miller won the Jerusalem Prize.\n\nIn December 2004, 89-year-old Miller announced that he had been in love with 34-year-old minimalist painter Agnes Barley and had been living with her at his Connecticut farm since 2002, and that they intended to marry. Within hours of her father's death, Rebecca Miller ordered Barley to vacate the premises, having consistently opposed the relationship. Miller's final play, ''Finishing the Picture'', opened at the Goodman Theatre, Chicago, in the fall of 2004, with one character said to be based on Barley. It was reported to be based on his experience during the filming ''The Misfits'', though Miller insisted the play is a work of fiction with independent characters that were no more than composite shadows of history.\n\n===Death===\nMiller died of bladder cancer and congestive heart failure, at his home in Roxbury, Connecticut. He had been in hospice care at his sister's apartment in New York since his release from hospital the previous month. He died on the evening of February 10, 2005 (the 56th anniversary of the Broadway debut of ''Death of a Salesman''), aged 89, surrounded by Barley, family and friends. He is interred at Roxbury Center Cemetery in Roxbury.\n", "Arthur Miller's career as a writer spanned over seven decades, and at the time of his death, Miller was considered to be one of the greatest dramatists of the twentieth century. After his death, many respected actors, directors, and producers paid tribute to Miller, some calling him the last great practitioner of the American stage, and Broadway theatres darkened their lights in a show of respect.\nMiller's alma mater, the University of Michigan, opened the Arthur Miller Theatre in March 2007. As per his express wish, it is the only theatre in the world that bears Miller's name.\n\nOther notable arrangements for Miller's legacy are that his letters, notes, drafts and other papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin.\n\nArthur Miller is also a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame. He was inducted in 1979.\n\nIn 1993 he received the Four Freedom Award for Freedom of Speech\n\n===pancakes===\n\n\n====Stage plays====\n* ''No Villain'' (1936)\n* ''They Too Arise'' (1937, based on ''No Villain'')\n* ''Honors at Dawn'' (1938, based on ''They Too Arise'')\n* ''The Grass Still Grows'' (1938, based on ''They Too Arise'')\n* ''The Great Disobedience'' (1938)\n* ''Listen My Children'' (1939, with Norman Rosten)\n* ''The Golden Years'' (1940)\n* ''The Man Who Had All the Luck'' (1940)\n* ''The Half-Bridge'' (1943)\n* ''All My Sons'' (1947)\n* ''Death of a Salesman'' (1949)\n* ''An Enemy of the People'' (1950, based on Henrik Ibsen's play ''An Enemy of the People'')\n* ''The Crucible'' (1953)\n* ''A View from the Bridge'' (1955)\n* ''A Memory of Two Mondays'' (1955)\n* ''After the Fall'' (1964)\n* ''Incident at Vichy'' (1964)\n* ''The Price'' (1968)\n* ''The Reason Why'' (1970)\n* ''Fame'' (one-act, 1970; revised for television 1978)\n* ''The Creation of the World and Other Business'' (1972)\n* ''Up from Paradise'' (1974)\n* ''The Archbishop's Ceiling'' (1977)\n* ''The American Clock'' (1980)\n* ''Playing for Time'' (television play, 1980)\n* ''Elegy for a Lady'' (short play, 1982, first part of ''Two Way Mirror'')\n* ''Some Kind of Love Story'' (short play, 1982, second part of ''Two Way Mirror'')\n* ''I Think About You a Great Deal'' (1986)\n* ''Playing for Time'' (stage version, 1985)\n* ''I Can't Remember Anything'' (1987, collected in ''Danger: Memory!'')\n* ''Clara'' (1987, collected in ''Danger: Memory!'')\n* ''The Ride Down Mt. Morgan'' (1991)\n* ''The Last Yankee'' (1993)\n* ''Broken Glass'' (1994)\n* ''Mr Peters' Connections'' (1998)\n* ''Resurrection Blues'' (2002)\n* ''Finishing the Picture'' (2004)\n\n====Radio plays====\n* ''The Pussycat and the Expert Plumber Who Was a Man'' (1941)\n* ''Joel Chandler Harris'' (1941)\n* ''The Battle of the Ovens'' (1942)\n* ''Thunder from the Mountains'' (1942)\n* ''I Was Married in Bataan'' (1942)\n* ''That They May Win'' (1943)\n* ''Listen for the Sound of Wings'' (1943)\n* ''Bernardine'' (1944)\n* ''I Love You'' (1944)\n* ''Grandpa and the Statue'' (1944)\n* ''The Philippines Never Surrendered'' (1944)\n* ''The Guardsman'' (1944, based on Ferenc Molnár's play)\n* ''The Story of Gus'' (1947)\n\n====Screenplays====\n* ''The Hook'' (1947)\n* ''All My Sons'' (1948)\n* ''Let's Make Love'' (1960)\n* ''The Misfits'' (1961)\n* ''Everybody Wins'' (1984)\n* ''Death of a Salesman'' (1985)\n* ''The Crucible'' (1995)\n* ''Mr. Peters' Connections (1998)\n\n====Assorted fiction====\n* ''Focus'' (novel, 1945)\n* \"The Misfits\" (novella, 1957)\n* ''I Don't Need You Anymore'' (short stories, 1967)\n* ''Homely Girl: A Life'' (short story, 1992, published in UK as \"Plain Girl: A Life\" 1995)\n* \"The Performance\" (short story)\n* ''Presence: Stories'' (2007) (short stories include ''The Bare Manuscript'', ''Beavers'', ''The Performance'', and ''Bulldog'')\n\n\n====Non-fiction====\n* ''Situation Normal'' (1944) is based on his experiences researching the war correspondence of Ernie Pyle.\n* ''In Russia'' (1969), the first of three books created with his photographer wife Inge Morath, offers Miller's impressions of Russia and Russian society.\n* ''In the Country'' (1977), with photographs by Morath and text by Miller, provides insight into how Miller spent his time in Roxbury, Connecticut and profiles of his various neighbors.\n* ''Chinese Encounters'' (1979) is a travel journal with photographs by Morath. It depicts the Chinese society in the state of flux which followed the end of the Cultural Revolution. Miller discusses the hardships of many writers, professors, and artists as they try to regain the sense of freedom and place they lost during Mao Zedong's regime.\n* ''Salesman in Beijing'' (1984) details Miller's experiences with the 1983 Beijing People's Theatre production of ''Death of a Salesman''. He describes the idiosyncrasies, understandings, and insights encountered in directing a Chinese cast in a decidedly American play.\n* ''Timebends: A Life'', Methuen London (1987) . Like ''Death of a Salesman'', the book follows the structure of memory itself, each passage linked to and triggered by the one before.\n\n====Collections====\n* Abbotson, Susan C. W. (ed.), ''Arthur Miller: Collected Essays'', Penguin 2016 \n* Centola, Steven R. ed. ''Echoes Down the Corridor: Arthur Miller, Collected Essays 1944–2000'', Viking Penguin (US)/Methuen (UK), 2000 \n* Kushner, Tony, ed. ''Arthur Miller, Collected Plays 1944–1961'' (Library of America, 2006) .\n* Martin, Robert A. (ed.), \"The theater essays of Arthur Miller\", foreword by Arthur Miller. NY: Viking Press, 1978 \n", "\nMiller successfully synthesized diverse dramatic styles and movements in the belief that a play should embody a delicate balance between the individual and society, between the singular personality and the polity, and between the separate and collective elements of life. He thought himself a writer of social plays with a strong emphasis on moral problems in American society and often questioned psychological causes of behavior. He also built on the realist tradition of Henrik Ibsen in his exploration of the individual's conflict with society but also borrowed Symbolist and expressionist techniques from Bertolt Brecht and others. Some critics attempt to interpret his work from either an exclusively political or an exclusively psychological standpoint but fail to pierce the social veil that Miller creates in his work. Miller often stressed that society made his characters what they are and how it dictated all of their fears and choices.\n\n===Themes===\n\n====All American family====\nWhile Miller comes under criticism for his reputation, most critics note him as a dramatist of the family. One of his greatest strengths is his penetrating insight into familial relationships. Often, Miller positions his characters are living in service of their family. The conventions of the family play, such as patterns, setting, and style of representation were set canonically by Eugene O'Neill, Tennessee Williams, and Miller. In these plays, white men are privileged with their family and social responsibility; typically, these men are lower class. Miller maintained that family relationships and families must be immersed in social context.\n\n====Social responsibility====\nMiller is known for the consciousness of the characters in his play. In his plays, he confronts a level of banality with the roller coaster of guilt and responsibility. Some strong examples of characters who portray this struggle between their conscious and their social responsibility are Joe Keller in All My Sons and John Proctor in The Crucible. Miller often creates consequences for characters who ignore or violate their social responsibilities.\n\n====Life, death and human purpose====\n\nMiller's determination to deal with the eternal themes of life, death and human purpose is one of his most prominent themes across his works. This theme spans from Willy Loman's dedication to providing for his family and his inherent belief that his death would leave a legacy, to John Proctor's willingness to die to preserve his name. Nearly all of Miller's protagonists struggle with the mark they leave on life and what it means to die.\n\n===Famous characters of his works===\n\n====Willy Loman====\nIn ''Death of a Salesman'' – originally entitled “The Inside of His Head” – Miller brilliantly solves the problem of revealing his main character's inner discord, rendering Willy Loman as solid as the society in which he tries to sell himself. Indeed, many critics believe that Miller has never surpassed his achievement in this play, which stands as his breakthrough work, distinguished by an extremely long Broadway run, by many revivals, and by many theater awards, including the Pulitzer Prize in 1949. ''Death of a Salesman'' seems destined to remain an American classic and a standard text in American classrooms.\n\nWilly Loman desperately wants to believe that he has succeeded, that he is “well liked” as a great salesman, a fine father, and a devoted husband. That he has not really attracted the admiration and popularity at which he has aimed is evident, however, in the weariness that belabors him from the beginning of the play. Nearing retirement he suffers a drastic decrease in sales work, a dissatisfying marriage, and a turbulent relationship with his sons which inexorably leads to his suicide with the justification that the insurance will finally provide for his family.\n\n====Eddie Carbone====\nEddie Carbone is the central character in ''A View From The Bridge'' and is not positioned as the protagonist or the antagonist. He is a longshoreman who lives with his wife, Beatrice, and his 17-year-old niece, Catherine. When his family from Italy, Rodolpho and Marco, migrate illegally and begin to live with him, the small world that he operates in is disrupted. Eddie becomes conflicted and ultimately self-destructive over his sexual attraction to his niece and her involvement with one of his Italian tenants. His character arc culminates as he becomes an informer to the immigration authorities which leads to a confrontation with one of his tenants. Marco labels him as an informer and Eddie perceives this as a permanent blemish on his good name. This confrontation ultimately leads to his death, leaving Eddie as one of Miller's examples of tragic figures.\n\n====John Proctor====\nJohn Proctor is the protagonist of one of Miller's most controversial works, ''The Crucible''. He is a faithful farmer who lives by a strict moral code that he violates by succumbing to an affair with a young girl, Abigail, who serves in his home. After Proctor rejects her, Abigail spitefully accuses John's wife of witchcraft, involving him in a string of affairs that challenge his beliefs and convictions. In his attempts to save his wife, he is convicted of witchcraft as well, and will only be acquitted if he confesses to his crime and signs his name to a piece of paper. Proctor is a strong, vital man in the prime of his life both in his confession of witchcraft and the subsequent passion with which he defends his name at the cost of his life.\n\n====Joe Keller====\nCritics have long admired the playwright's suspenseful handling of the Keller family's burden in the play ''All My Sons''. The critical character in this work is Joe Keller, who permitted defective parts to remain in warplanes that subsequently crash. Not only does Joe Keller fail to recognize his social responsibility, but also he allows his business partner to take the blame and serve the prison term for the crime. Gradually, events combine to strip Keller of his rationalizations. He argues that he never believed that the cracked engine heads would be installed and that he never admitted his mistake because it would have driven him out of business at the age of sixty-one, when he would not have another chance to “make something” for his family, his highest priority. Joe's irresponsibility is exposed through his son's questioning of his very humanity. Joe's suicide results from the tremendous guilt and self-awareness that arises during the play.\n\n====Maggie====\n\nMaggie is a character that appears in Arthur Miller's partially autobiographical play, ''After the Fall''. She is both one of his most criticised and controversial characters, and one of his most famous ones. She is a thinly veiled version of Marilyn Monroe, Miller's former wife, and thus her suicide attempts after her and Quentin's divorce, and her depression is from reality. This is one of the reasons that reviews upon its first release were generally negative, owing to the similarities between fact and fiction. However, academic scholars find her to be one of the best, if not the best, of Miller's creations, as the play presents readers with a superb portrait of a woman facing a mental crisis. It also shows Monroe in comparison to the reasons for her marriage to Miller- for example, the fact that Miller took her seriously, and was ready to treat her as more than just an object, like everybody else. Miller also highlights his own feelings after Monroe's death by showing Quentin's, and his regret that he had been unable to save her from herself.\n\n===Literary and public criticism===\nChristopher Bigsby wrote ''Arthur Miller: The Definitive Biography'' based on boxes of papers Miller made available to him before his death in 2005. The book was published in November 2008, and is reported to reveal unpublished works in which Miller \"bitterly attacked the injustices of American racism long before it was taken up by the civil rights movement\".\n\nIn his book ''Trinity of Passion'', author Alan M. Wald conjectures that Miller was \"a member of a writer's unit of the Communist Party around 1946,\" using the pseudonym Matt Wayne, and editing a drama column in the magazine ''The New Masses''.\n\nTwo months after Miller died Peter O'Toole called him a \"bore\" and Roger Kimball went on record saying that Miller's artistic accomplishments were meager.\n\n===Foundation===\n\nThe Arthur Miller Foundation was founded to honor the legacy of Miller and his New York City Public School Education. The mission of the foundation is: \"Promoting increased access and equity to theater arts education in our schools and increasing the number of students receiving theater arts education as an integral part of their academic curriculum.\" Other initiatives include certification of new theater teachers and their placement in public schools; increasing the number of theater teachers in the system from the current estimate of 180 teachers in 1800 schools; supporting professional development of all certified theater teachers; providing teaching artists, cultural partners, physical spaces, and theater ticket allocations for students. The foundation's primary purpose is to provide arts education in the New York City school system. The current chancellor of the foundation is Carmen Farina, a large proponent of the Common Core State Standards Initiative. Alec Baldwin, Ellen Barkin, Katori Hall, Dustin Hoffman, Scarlett Johansson, Tony Kushner, Michael Mayer, Jim McElhinney, Julianne Moore, Liam Neeson, Lynn Nottage, David O. Russell, Liev Schreiber all serve on the Master Arts Council. Son-in-law Daniel Day-Lewis serves on the current board of directors.\n\nThe foundation celebrated Miller's 100th birthday with a one-night-only performance of Miller's seminal works in November 2015.\n\nThe Arthur Miller Foundation currently supports a pilot program in theater and film at the public school Quest to Learn in partnership with the Institute of Play. The model is being used as an in-school elective theater class and lab. The objective is to create a sustainable theater education model to disseminate to teachers at professional development workshops.\n", "\n* Hollywood blacklist\n\n", "\n\n===Bibliography===\n* Bigsby, Christopher (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller'', Cambridge 1997 \n* Gottfried, Martin, ''Arthur Miller, A Life'', Da Capo Press (US)/Faber and Faber (UK), 2003 \n* Koorey, Stefani, ''Arthur Miller's Life and Literature'', Scarecrow, 2000 \n* Moss, Leonard. ''Arthur Miller'', Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1980.\n", "* ''Critical Companion to Arthur Miller'', Susan C. W. Abbotson, Greenwood (2007)\n* ''Student Companion to Arthur Miller'', Susan C. W. Abbotson, Facts on File (2000)\n* ''File on Miller'', Christopher Bigsby (1988)\n* ''Arthur Miller & Company'', Christopher Bigsby, editor (1990)\n* ''Arthur Miller: A Critical Study'', Christopher Bigsby (2005)\n* ''Remembering Arthur Miller'', Christopher Bigsby, editor (2005)\n* ''Arthur Miller 1915–1962'', Christopher Bigsby (2008, U.K.; 2009, U.S.)\n* ''The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller (Cambridge Companions to Literature)'', Christopher Bigsby, editor (1998, updated and republished 2010)\n* ''Arthur Miller 1962–2005'', Christopher Bigsby (2011)\n* \n* ''Arthur Miller: Critical Insights'', Brenda Murphy, editor, Salem (2011)\n* ''Understanding Death of a Salesman'', Brenda Murphy and Susan C. W. Abbotson, Greenwood (1999)\n'''Critical Articles'''\n* ''Arthur Miller Journal'', published biannually by Penn State UP. Vol. 1.1 (2006)\n* Radavich, David. \"Arthur Miller's Sojourn in the Heartland.\" ''American Drama'' 16:2 (Summer 2007): 28–45.\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Arthur Miller Society\n* \n* \n* A Visit With Castro – Miller's article in ''The Nation'', January 12, 2004\n* \n* Joyce Carol Oates on Arthur Miller\n* Arthur Miller Bio\n* The Arthur Miller Foundation\n* Arthur Miller official website\n* Arthur Miller and Mccarthyism\n\n'''Interviews'''\n* \n* \n* Miller interview, ''Humanities'', March–April 2001\n\n'''Obituaries'''\n* ''The New York Times'' Obituary\n* NPR obituary\n* CNN obituary\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Legacy", "Miller's styles, themes, and characters", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Arthur Miller
[ "\n\nAnton Diabelli, lithograph by Josef Kriehuber\n\n'''Anton''' (or '''Antonio''') '''Diabelli''' (5 September 17817 April 1858) was an Austrian music publisher, editor and composer. Best known in his time as a publisher, he is most familiar today as the composer of the waltz on which Ludwig van Beethoven wrote his set of thirty-three ''Diabelli Variations''.\n", "Diabelli was born in Mattsee near Salzburg, then in the Archbishopric of Salzburg. A musical child, he sang in the boys' choir at Salzburg Cathedral where he is believed to have taken music lessons with Michael Haydn. By the age of 19 Diabelli had already composed several important compositions including six masses.\n\nDiabelli was trained to enter the priesthood and in 1800 joined the monastery at Raitenhaslach, Bavaria. He remained there until 1803, when Bavaria closed all its monasteries.\n", "In 1803 Diabelli moved to Vienna and began teaching piano and guitar and found work as a proofreader for a music publisher. During this period he learned the music publishing business while continuing to compose. In 1809 he composed his comic opera, ''Adam in der Klemme.'' In 1817 he started a music publishing business and in 1818 he formed a partnership with Pietro Cappi to create the music publishing firm of Cappi & Diabelli.\n\nCappi & Diabelli became well known by arranging popular pieces so they could be played by amateurs at home. A master of promotion, Diabelli selected widely-accessible music such as famous opera tune arrangements, dance music and popular new comic theatre songs.\n\nThe firm soon established a reputation in more serious music circles by championing the works of Franz Schubert. Diabelli recognized the composer's potential and became the first to publish Schubert's work with \"Der Erlkönig\" in 1821. Diabelli's firm continued to publish Schubert's work until 1823 when an argument between Cappi and Schubert terminated their business. The following year Diabelli and Cappi parted ways, Diabelli launching a new publishing house, Diabelli & Co., in 1824. Following Schubert's early death in 1828 Diabelli purchased a large portion of the composer's massive musical estate from Schubert's brother Ferdinand. As Schubert had hundreds of unpublished works, Diabelli's firm was able to publish \"new\" Schubert works for more than 30 years after the composer's death.\n\nDiabelli's publishing house expanded throughout his life, before he retired in 1851, leaving it under the control of Carl Anton Spina. When Diabelli died in 1858 Spina continued to run the firm and published much music by Johann Strauss II and Josef Strauss. In 1872 the firm was taken over by Friedrich Schreiber and in 1876 it merged with the firm of August Cranz who bought the company in 1879 and ran it under his name.\n\nDiabelli died in Vienna at the age of 76.\n", "\nDiabelli produced a number of well-known works as a composer, including an operetta called ''Adam in der Klemme'', several masses, songs and numerous piano and classical guitar pieces. Numerically his guitar pieces form the largest part of his works. His pieces for piano four hands are popular.\n\nDiabelli's composition ''Pleasures of Youth: Six Sonatinas'' is a collection of six sonatinas depicting a struggle between unknown opposing forces. This is suggested by the sharp and frequent change in dynamics from ''forte'' to ''piano''. When ''forte'' is indicated the pianist is meant to evoke a sense of wickedness, thus depicting the antagonist. In contrast the markings of ''piano'' represent the protagonist.\n\n===Diabelli Variations===\n\nThe composition for which Diabelli is now best known was actually written as part of an adventuring story. In 1819, as a promotional idea, he decided to try to publish a volume of variations on a \"patriotic\" waltz he had penned expressly for this purpose, with one variation by every important Austrian composer living at the time, as well as several significant non-Austrians. The combined contributions would be published in an anthology called ''Vaterländischer Künstlerverein''. Fifty-one composers responded with pieces, including Beethoven, Schubert, Archduke Rudolph of Austria, F.X. Wolfgang Mozart (jun.), Moritz Count von Dietrichstein, Heinrich Eduard Josef Baron von Lannoy, Ignaz Franz Baron von Mosel, Carl Czerny, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Ignaz Moscheles, and the eight-year-old Franz Liszt (although it seems Liszt was not invited personally, but his teacher Czerny arranged for him to be involved). Czerny was also enlisted to write a coda. Beethoven, however, instead of providing just one variation, provided 33, and his formed Part I of ''Vaterländischer Künstlerverein''. They constitute what is generally regarded as one of the greatest of Beethoven's piano pieces and as the greatest set of variations of their time, and are generally known simply as the ''Diabelli Variations'', Op. 120. The other 50 variations were published as Part II of ''Vaterländischer Künstlerverein''.\n", "A sonatina of Diabelli's, presumably Sonatina in F major, Op. 168, No. 1 (I: Moderato cantabile), provides the title and a motif for the French novella ''Moderato Cantabile'' by Marguerite Duras.\n", "Romantic guitar\n", "\n", " Anton Diabelli's guitar works - a thematic catalogue with an introduction; Doctoral Thesis by Jukka Savijoki (Sibelius Academy; 1996)\n* Anton Diabelli's Guitar Works: A Thematic Catalogue by Jukka Savijoki (Editions Orphée)\n* Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark\n* Boije Collection The Music Library of Sweden\n* www.karadar.com/Dictionary/diabelli.html\n* \n* \n* Free scores at the Mutopia Project\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Compositions", "Cultural references", "See also", "References", "Published music and further reading", "External links" ]	Anton Diabelli
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Anita Faye Hill''' (born July 30, 1956) is an American attorney and academic. She is a University Professor of Social Policy, Law, and Women's Studies at Brandeis University and a faculty member of Brandeis' Heller School for Social Policy and Management. She became a national figure in 1991 when she accused U.S. Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, her boss at the United States Department of Education and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, of sexual harassment.\n", "Hill was born in Lone Tree, Oklahoma, the youngest of the 13 children of Albert and Erma Hill, who were farmers. Her family came from Arkansas, where her great-grandparents and her maternal grandfather, Henry Eliot, were born into slavery. Hill was raised in the Baptist faith.\n\nAfter graduating as valedictorian from Morris High School, Oklahoma she enrolled at Oklahoma State University, receiving a bachelor's degree with honors in psychology in 1977. She went on to Yale Law School, obtaining her Juris Doctor degree with honors in 1980.\n\nShe was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in 1980 and began her law career as an associate with the Washington, D.C. firm of Wald, Harkrader & Ross. In 1981, she became an attorney-adviser to Clarence Thomas who was then the Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights. When Thomas became chairman of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in 1982, Hill went along to serve as his assistant, leaving the job in 1983.\n\nHill then became an assistant professor at the Evangelical Christian O. W. Coburn School of Law at Oral Roberts University where she taught from 1983 to 1986. In 1986, she joined the faculty at the University of Oklahoma College of Law where she taught commercial law and contracts.\n", "\n\nIn 1991, President George H. W. Bush nominated Clarence Thomas, by then a federal Circuit Judge, to succeed retiring Associate Justice Thurgood Marshall on the Supreme Court. Senate hearings on his confirmation were initially completed with Thomas's good character being presented as a primary qualification for the high court because he had only been a judge for slightly more than one year. There had been little organized opposition to Thomas's nomination, and his confirmation seemed assured until a report of a private interview of Hill by the FBI was leaked to the press. The hearings were then reopened, and Hill was called to publicly testify. Hill said in the October 1991 televised hearings that Thomas had sexually harassed her while he was her supervisor at the Department of Education and the EEOC. When questioned on why she followed Thomas to the second job after he had already allegedly harassed her, she said working in a reputable position within the civil rights field had been her ambition. The position was appealing enough to inhibit her to go back into private practice with her previous firm. She only realized later in her life that this ambitious venture was a poor judgment and also explained that \"at that time, it appeared that the sexual overtures ... had ended.\"\n\nAccording to Hill, during her two years of employment as Thomas's assistant, Thomas had asked her out socially many times, and after she refused, he used work situations to discuss sexual subjects. \"He spoke about...such matters as women having sex with animals and films showing group sex or rape scenes,\" she said, adding that on several occasions Thomas graphically described \"his own sexual prowess\" and the details of his anatomy. Hill also recounted an instance in which Thomas examined a can of Coke on his desk and asked, \"Who has put pubic hair on my Coke?\" During court session, Republican Senator Orrin Hatch implied that \"Hill was working in tandem with \"slick lawyers\" and interest groups bent on destroying Thomas' chances to join the court\". Thomas said he considered Hill a friend whom he had helped at every turn, so when accusations of harassment came from her they were particularly hurtful and he said, \"I lost the belief that if I did my best, all would work out.\"\n\nFour female witnesses reportedly waited in the wings to support Hill's credibility, but they were not called, due to what the ''Los Angeles Times'' described as a private, compromise deal between Republicans and the Senate Judiciary Committee Chair, Democrat Joe Biden. According to ''Time'' magazine, one of the witnesses, Angela Wright, may not have been considered credible on the issue of sexual harassment because she had been fired from the EEOC by Thomas.\n\nHill agreed to take a polygraph test. While senators and other authorities noted that polygraph results cannot be relied upon and are inadmissible in courts, Hill's results did support her statements. Thomas did not take a polygraph test. He made a vehement and complete denial, saying that he was being subjected to a \"high-tech lynching for uppity blacks\" by white liberals who were seeking to block a black conservative from taking a seat on the Supreme Court. After extensive debate, the United States Senate confirmed Thomas to the Supreme Court by a vote of 52–48, the narrowest margin since the 19th century.\n\nThomas's supporters questioned Hill's credibility, claiming she was delusional or had been spurned, leading her to seek revenge. They cited the time delay of ten years between the alleged behavior by Thomas and Hill's accusations, and noted that Hill had followed Thomas to a second job and later had personal contacts with Thomas, including giving him a ride to an airport—behavior which they said would be inexplicable if Hill's allegations were true. Hill countered that she had come forward because she felt an obligation to share information on the character and actions of a person who was being considered for the Supreme Court. She testified that after leaving the EEOC, she had had two \"inconsequential\" phone conversations with Thomas, and had seen him personally on two occasions, once to get a job reference and the second time when he made a public appearance in Oklahoma where she was teaching.\n\nDoubts about the veracity of Hill's 1991 testimony persisted long after Thomas took his seat on the Court. They were furthered by ''American Spectator'' writer David Brock in his 1993 book ''The Real Anita Hill'', though he later recanted the claims he had made, described in his book as \"character assassination,\" and apologized to Hill. After interviewing a number of women who alleged that Thomas had frequently subjected them to sexually explicit remarks, ''Wall Street Journal'' reporters Jane Mayer and Jill Abramson wrote a book which concluded that Thomas had lied during his confirmation process. Richard Lacayo in his 1994 review of the book for ''Time'' magazine remarked, however, that \"Their book doesn't quite nail that conclusion.\" In 2007, Kevin , a coauthor of another book on Thomas, remarked that what happened between Thomas and Hill was \"ultimately unknowable\" by others, but that it was clear that \"one of them lied, period.\" Writing in 2007, Neil Lewis of ''The New York Times'' remarked that, \"To this day, each side in the epic he-said, she-said dispute has its unmovable believers.\"\n\nIn 2007, Thomas published his autobiography, ''My Grandfather's Son'', in which he revisited the controversy, calling Hill his \"most traitorous adversary\" and saying that pro-choice liberals, who feared that he would vote to overturn ''Roe v. Wade'' if he were seated on the Supreme Court, used the scandal against him. He described Hill as touchy and apt to overreact, and her work at the EEOC as mediocre. He acknowledged that three other former EEOC employees had backed Hill's story, but said they had all left the agency on bad terms. He also wrote that Hill \"was a left-winger who'd never expressed any religious sentiments whatsoever...and the only reason why she'd held a job in the Reagan administration was because I'd given it to her.\" Hill denied the accusations in an op-ed in ''The New York Times'' saying she would not \"stand by silently and allow Justice Thomas, in his anger, to reinvent me\".\n\nIn October 2010, Thomas's wife Virginia, a conservative activist, left a voicemail at Hill's office asking that Hill apologize for her 1991 testimony. Hill initially believed the call was a hoax and referred the matter to the Brandeis University campus police who alerted the FBI. After being informed that the call was indeed from Virginia Thomas, Hill told the media that she did not believe the message was meant to be conciliatory and said, \"I testified truthfully about my experience and I stand by that testimony.\" Virginia Thomas responded that the call had been intended as an \"olive branch\".\n\n===Effects===\nShortly after the Thomas confirmation hearings, President George H. W. Bush dropped his opposition to a bill giving harassment victims the right to seek federal damage awards, back pay and reinstatement, and the law was passed by Congress. One year later, harassment complaints filed with the EEOC were up 50 percent and public opinion had shifted in Hill's favor. Private companies also started training programs to deter sexual harassment. When journalist Cinny Kennard asked Hill in 1991 if she would testify against Thomas all over again, Hill answered, \"I'm not sure if I could have lived with myself if I had answered those questions any differently.\"\n\nThe manner in which the all-male Senate Judiciary Committee challenged and dismissed Hill's accusations of sexual harassment angered women politicians and lawyers. According to D.C. Congressional Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton, Hill's treatment by the panel also said to be a contributing factor to the large number of women elected to Congress in 1992, \"women clearly went to the polls with the notion in mind that you had to have more women in Congress\", she said. In their anthology, ''All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, but Some of Us Are Brave'', editors Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell-Scott, and Barbara Smith described black feminists mobilizing \"a remarkable national response to the Anita Hill-Clarence Thomas controversy.\n\nIn 1992, a feminist group began a nationwide fundraising campaign and then obtained matching state funds to endow a professorship at the University of Oklahoma Law School in honor of Hill. Conservative Oklahoma state legislators reacted by demanding Hill's resignation from the university, then introducing a bill to prohibit the university from accepting donations from out-of-state residents, and finally attempting to pass legislation to close down the law school. Elmer Zinn Million, a local activist and organized protester who was caught up by the zeal compared Hill to the assassin of President Kennedy. He was known as the \"one-armed man\" by the ''Oklahoma Observer''. Certain officials at the university attempted to revoke Hill's tenure. After five years of pressure, Hill resigned. The University of Oklahoma Law School defunded the Anita F. Hill professorship in May 1999, without the position having ever been filled.\n", "Hill accepted a position as a visiting scholar at the Institute for the Study of Social Change at University of California, Berkeley in January, 1997, but soon joined the faculty of Brandeis University—first at the Women's Studies Program, later moving to the Heller School for Social Policy and Management. In 2011, she also took a counsel position with the Civil Rights & Employment Practice group of the plaintiffs' law firm Cohen Milstein Sellers & Toll.\n\nOver the years, Hill has provided commentary on gender and race issues on national television programs, including ''60 Minutes'', ''Face the Nation'' and ''Meet the Press''. She has been a speaker on the topic of commercial law as well as race and women's rights. She is also the author of articles that have been published in ''The New York Times'' and ''Newsweek'' and has contributed to many scholarly and legal publications in the areas of international commercial law, bankruptcy, and civil rights.\n\nIn 1995 Hill co-edited ''Race, Gender and Power in America: The Legacy of the Hill-Thomas Hearings'' with Emma Coleman Jordan. In 1997 Hill published her autobiography, ''Speaking Truth to Power'', in which she chronicled her role in the Clarence Thomas confirmation controversy and wrote that creating a better society had been a motivating force in her life. She contributed the piece \"The Nature of the Beast: Sexual Harassment\" to the 2003 anthology ''Sisterhood Is Forever: The Women's Anthology for a New Millennium'', edited by Robin Morgan. In 2011 Hill published her second book, ''Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home'', which focuses on the sub-prime lending crisis that resulted in the foreclosure of many homes owned by African-Americans. She calls for a new understanding about the importance of a home and its place in the American Dream. On March 26, 2015, the Brandeis Board of Trustees unanimously voted to recognize Hill with a promotion to Private University Professor of Social Policy, Law, and Women's Studies.\n", "In 1999, Ernest Dickerson directed ''Strange Justice'', a film based on Anita vs. Clarence Thomas controversy. Her case also inspired the 1994 ''Law & Order'' episode \"Virtue\", about a young lawyer who feels pressured to sleep with her supervisor at her law firm. Hill was the subject of the 2013 documentary film ''Anita'' by director Freida Lee Mock, which chronicles her experience during the Clarence Thomas scandal. Hill was portrayed by actress Kerry Washington in the 2016 HBO film ''Confirmation''.\nHill is mentioned in the 1992 Sonic Youth song \"Youth Against Fascism\". The Clarence Thomas scandal is mentioned in the 1994 ''Rugrats'' episode \"Mommy's Little Assets.\"\n", "\nOn October 20, 1998, Anita Hill published the book ''Speaking Truth to Power''. Throughout much of the book she gives details on her side of the sexual harassment controversy, and her professional relationship with Clarence Thomas. Aside from that, she also provides a glimpse of what her personal life was like all the way from her childhood days growing up in Oklahoma to her position as a law professor.\n\nIn 2011, Hill’s second book, ''Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home'' was published . She discusses the relationship between the home and the American Dream. She also exposes the inequalities within gender and race and home ownership. She argues that inclusive democracy is more important than debates about legal rights. She uses her own history and history of other African American women such as Nannie Helen Burroughs, in order to strengthen her argument for reimagining equality altogether.\n\nIn 1994, she wrote a tribute to Thurgood Marshall, the first African American Supreme Court Justice who preceded Clarence Thomas, titled ''A Tribute to Thurgood Marshall: A Man Who Broke with Tradition on Issues of Race and Gender''''.'' She notes Thurgood’s contributions to the principles of equality as a judge and how his work has affected the lives of African Americans, specifically African American women.\n\nAnita F. Hill became a proponent for women’s rights and feminism. This can be seen through the chapter she wrote in the book ''Women and leadership: the state of play and strategies for change''. She wrote about women judges and why, in her opinion, they play such a large role in balancing the judicial system. She argues that since women and men have different life experiences, ways of thinking, and histories, both are needed for a balanced court system. She writes that in order for the best law system to be created in the United States, all people need the ability to be represented.\n", "In 2005, Hill was selected as a Fletcher Foundation Fellow. In 2008 she was awarded the Louis P. and Evelyn Smith First Amendment Award by the Ford Hall Forum. She also serves on the Board of Trustees for Southern Vermont College in Bennington, Vermont. Her opening statement to the Senate Judiciary Committee in 1991 is listed as #69 in American Rhetoric's Top 100 Speeches of the 20th Century (listed by rank). She was inducted into the Oklahoma Women's Hall of Fame in 1993. On January 7, 2017, Hill was inducted as an honorary member of Zeta Phi Beta sorority at their National Executive Board Meeting in Dallas, Texas.\n", "* Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination\n* Sexual harassment\n", "\n", "* Faculty profile at Brandeis University\n* \n* Audio lecture: Anita Hill discusses ''Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home'' on October 4, 2011, on Forum Network.\n* An Outline of the Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas Controversy at Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", " Clarence Thomas controversy ", "Later career", "In popular culture", " Written works ", "Awards and recognition", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Anita Hill
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe term 'the 10th of August' is widely used by historians as a shorthand for the Storming of the Tuileries Palace on the 10th of August, 1792, the effective end of the French monarchy until it was restored in 1814.\n", "654 - Pope Eugene I elected to succeed Martinus I.\n955 – Battle of Lechfeld: Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor defeats the Magyars, ending 50 years of Magyar invasion of the West.\n991 – Battle of Maldon: The English, led by Byrhtnoth, Ealdorman of Essex, are defeated by a band of inland-raiding Vikings near Maldon, Essex.\n1270 – Yekuno Amlak takes the imperial throne of Ethiopia, restoring the Solomonic dynasty to power after a 100-year Zagwe interregnum.\n1316 – The Second Battle of Athenry takes place near Athenry during the Bruce campaign in Ireland.\n1512 – The naval Battle of Saint-Mathieu, during the War of the League of Cambrai, sees the simultaneous destruction of the Breton ship ''La Cordelière'' and the English ship ''The Regent''.\n1519 – Ferdinand Magellan's five ships set sail from Seville to circumnavigate the globe. The Basque second-in-command Juan Sebastián Elcano will complete the expedition after Magellan's death in the Philippines.\n1557 – Battle of St. Quentin: Spanish victory over the French in the Italian War of 1551–59.\n1585 – The Treaty of Nonsuch signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Dutch Rebels. \n1628 – The Swedish warship sinks in the Stockholm harbour after only about 20 minutes of her maiden voyage.\n1675 – The foundation stone of the Royal Greenwich Observatory in London, England is laid.\n1680 – The Pueblo Revolt begins in New Mexico.\n1741 – King Marthanda Varma of Travancore defeats the Dutch East India Company at the Battle of Colachel, effectively bringing about the end of the Dutch colonial rule in India. \n1755 – Under the orders of Charles Lawrence, the British Army begins to forcibly deport the Acadians from Nova Scotia to the Thirteen Colonies.\n1776 – American Revolutionary War: Word of the United States Declaration of Independence reaches London.\n1792 – French Revolution: Storming of the Tuileries Palace: Louis XVI of France is arrested and taken into custody as his Swiss Guards are massacred by the Parisian mob.\n1793 – The Musée du Louvre is officially opened in Paris, France.\n1809 – Quito, now the capital of Ecuador, declares independence from Spain. This rebellion will be crushed on August 2, 1810.\n1813 – Instituto Nacional, is founded by the Chilean patriot José Miguel Carrera. It is Chile's oldest and most prestigious school. Its motto is ''Labor Omnia Vincit'', which means \"Work conquers all things\".\n1821 – Missouri is admitted as the 24th U.S. state.\n1846 – The Smithsonian Institution is chartered by the United States Congress after James Smithson donates $500,000.\n1856 – The Last Island hurricane strikes Louisiana, resulting in over 200 deaths.\n1861 – American Civil War: Battle of Wilson's Creek: A mixed force of Confederate, Missouri State Guard, and Arkansas State troops defeat outnumbered attacking Union forces in the southwestern part of the state.\n1864 – After Uruguay's governing Blanco Party refuses Brazil's demands, José Antônio Saraiva announces that the Brazilian military will begin reprisals, beginning the Uruguayan War.\n1901 – The U.S. Steel recognition strike by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers begins.\n1904 – Russo-Japanese War: The Battle of the Yellow Sea between the Russian and Japanese battleship fleets takes place.\n1905 – Russo-Japanese War: Peace negotiations begin in Portsmouth, New Hampshire.\n1913 – Second Balkan War: Delegates from Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece sign the Treaty of Bucharest, ending the war.\n1920 – World War I: Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI's representatives sign the Treaty of Sèvres that divides up the Ottoman Empire between the Allies.\n1932 – A chondrite-type meteorite breaks into at least seven pieces and lands near the town of Archie in Cass County, Missouri.\n1944 – World War II: The Battle of Guam comes to an effective end.\n 1944 – World War II: The Battle of Narva ends with a combined German–Estonian force successfully defending Narva, Estonia, from invading Soviet troops.\n1948 – ''Candid Camera'' makes its television debut after being on radio for a year as ''Candid Microphone''.\n1949 – U.S. President Harry S. Truman signs the National Security Act Amendment, streamlining the defense agencies of the United States government, and replacing the Department of War with the United States Department of Defense.\n1953 – First Indochina War: The French Union withdraws its forces from Operation Camargue against the Viet Minh in central Vietnam.\n1954 – At Massena, New York, the groundbreaking ceremony for the Saint Lawrence Seaway is held.\n1961 – First use in Vietnam War of the Agent Orange by the U.S. Army.\n1966 – The Heron Road Bridge collapses while being built, killing nine workers in the deadliest construction accident in both Ottawa and Ontario.\n1969 – A day after murdering Sharon Tate and four others, members of Charles Manson's cult kill Leno and Rosemary LaBianca.\n1971 – The Society for American Baseball Research is founded in Cooperstown, New York.\n1977 – In Yonkers, New York, 24-year-old postal employee David Berkowitz (\"Son of Sam\") is arrested for a series of killings in the New York City area over the period of one year.\n1978 – Three members of the Ulrich family are killed in an accident. This leads to the Ford Pinto litigation.\n1981 – Murder of Adam Walsh: The head of John Walsh's son is found. This inspires the creation of the television series ''America's Most Wanted''.\n1988 – Japanese American internment: U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, providing $20,000 payments to Japanese Americans who were either interned in or relocated by the United States during World War II.\n1990 – The Magellan space probe reaches Venus.\n1993 – Two earthquakes affect New Zealand. A 7.0 shock (intensity VI (''Strong'')) on the South Island was followed nine hours later by a 6.4 event (intensity VII (''Very strong'')) on the North Island.\n* 1993 – Varg Vikernes murders Euronymous in his Oslo apartment.\n1995 – Oklahoma City bombing: Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols are indicted for the bombing. Michael Fortier pleads guilty in a plea-bargain for his testimony.\n1998 – HRH Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah is proclaimed the crown prince of Brunei with a Royal Proclamation.\n2001 – The 2001 Angola train attack occurred, causing 252 deaths.\n2003 – The highest temperature ever recorded in the United Kingdom, in Kent, England. It is the first time the United Kingdom has recorded a temperature over .\n* 2003 – The Okinawa Monorail is opened in Naha, Okinawa.\n2009 – Twenty people are killed in Handlová, Trenčín Region, in the deadliest mining disaster in Slovakia's history.\n2012 – The Marikana massacre begins near Rustenburg, South Africa, resulting in the deaths of 47 people.\n2014 – Forty people are killed when Sepahan Airlines Flight 5915 crashes at Tehran's Mehrabad Airport.\n", " 941 – Lê Hoàn, Vietnamese emperor (d. 1005)\n1267 – James II of Aragon (d. 1327)\n1296 – John of Bohemia (d. 1346)\n1360 – Francesco Zabarella, Italian cardinal (d. 1417)\n1397 – Albert II of Germany (d. 1439)\n1439 – Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter, Duchess of York (d. 1476)\n1449 – Bona of Savoy, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1503)\n1466 – Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua (d. 1519)\n1489 – Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German lawyer and politician (d. 1553)\n1520 – Madeleine of Valois (d. 1537)\n1528 – Eric II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1584)\n1547 – Francis II, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (d. 1619)\n1560 – Hieronymus Praetorius, German organist and composer (d. 1629)\n1602 – Gilles de Roberval, French mathematician and academic (d. 1675)\n1645 – Eusebio Kino, Italian priest and missionary (d. 1711)\n1737 – Anton Losenko, Russian painter and academic (d. 1773)\n1740 – Samuel Arnold, English organist and composer (d. 1802)\n1744 – Alexandrine Le Normant d'Étiolles, French daughter of Madame de Pompadour (d. 1754)\n1782 – Vicente Guerrero, Mexican insurgent leader and President of Mexico (d. 1831)\n1805 – Ferenc Toldy, German-Hungarian historian and critic (d. 1875)\n1809 – John Kirk Townsend, American ornithologist and explorer (d. 1851)\n1810 – Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Italian soldier and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1861)\n1814 – Henri Nestlé, German businessman, founded Nestlé (d. 1890)\n* 1814 – John C. Pemberton, United States soldier and Confederate general (d. 1881)\n1821 – Jay Cooke, American financier, founded Jay Cooke & Company (d. 1905)\n1823 – Hugh Stowell Brown, English minister and reformer (d. 1886)\n1825 – István Türr, Hungarian soldier, architect, and engineer, co-designed the Corinth Canal (d. 1908)\n1827 – Lovro Toman, Slovenian lawyer and politician (d. 1870) \n1839 – Aleksandr Stoletov, Russian physicist and academic (d. 1896)\n1845 – Abai Qunanbaiuli, Kazakh poet, composer, and philosopher (d. 1904)\n1848 – William Harnett, Irish-American painter and educator (d. 1892)\n1856 – William Willett, English inventor, founded British Summer Time (d. 1915)\n1860 – Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, Indian singer and musicologist (d. 1936)\n1865 – Alexander Glazunov, Russian composer, conductor, and educator (d. 1936)\n1868 – Hugo Eckener, German pilot and businessman (d. 1954)\n1869 – Laurence Binyon, English poet, playwright, and scholar (d. 1943)\n1870 - 1871 – Trần Tế Xương a Vietnamese poet and satirist\n1872 – William Manuel Johnson, American bassist (d. 1972)\n1874 – Herbert Hoover, American engineer and politician, 31st President of the United States (d. 1964)\n1877 – Frank Marshall, American chess player and author (d. 1944)\n1878 – Alfred Döblin, Polish-German physician and author (d. 1957)\n1880 – Robert L. Thornton, American businessman and politician, Mayor of Dallas (d. 1964)\n1884 – Panait Istrati, Romanian journalist and author (d. 1935)\n1888 – Prince Christopher of Greece and Denmark (d. 1940)\n1889 – Charles Darrow, American game designer, created ''Monopoly'' (d. 1967)\n1890 – Angus Lewis Macdonald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 1954)\n1894 – V. V. Giri, Indian lawyer and politician, 4th President of India (d. 1980) \n1895 – Hammy Love, Australian cricketer (d. 1969)\n1897 – John W. Galbreath, American businessman and philanthropist, founded Darby Dan Farm (d. 1988)\n 1897 – Jack Haley, American actor and singer (d. 1979)\n1900 – Arthur Porritt, Baron Porritt, New Zealand physician and politician, 11th Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1994)\n1902 – Norma Shearer, Canadian-American actress (d. 1983)\n* 1902 – Curt Siodmak, German-English author and screenwriter (d. 2000)\n* 1902 – Arne Tiselius, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)\n1903 – Ward Moore, American author (d. 1978)\n1905 – Era Bell Thompson, American journalist and author (d. 1986)\n1907 – Su Yu, Chinese general and politician (d. 1984)\n1908 – Rica Erickson, Australian botanist, historian, and author (d. 2009)\n* 1908 – Billy Gonsalves, American soccer player (d. 1977)\n1909 – Leo Fender, American businessman, founded Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (d. 1991)\n 1909 – Richard J. Hughes, American politician, 45th Governor of New Jersey, and Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court (d. 1992)\n1910 – Guy Mairesse, French race car driver (d. 1954)\n1911 – Leonidas Andrianopoulos, Greek footballer (d. 2011)\n* 1911 – A. N. Sherwin-White, English historian and author (d. 1993)\n1912 – Jorge Amado, Brazilian novelist and poet (d. 2001)\n1913 – Noah Beery Jr., American actor (d. 1994) \n* 1913 – Kalevi Kotkas, Estonian-Finnish high jumper and discus thrower (d. 1983)\n* 1913 – Wolfgang Paul, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1993)\n1914 – Jeff Corey, American actor and director (d. 2002)\n 1914 – Carlos Menditeguy, Argentinian race car driver and polo player (d. 1973)\n* 1914 – Ray Smith, English cricketer (d. 1996)\n* 1914 – Margaret Morgan Lawrence, American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst\n1918 – Eugene P. Wilkinson, American admiral (d. 2013)\n1920 – Red Holzman, American basketball player and coach (d. 1998)\n1922 – Al Alberts, American pop singer (The Four Aces) and composer (d. 2009)\n1923 – Bill Doolittle, American football player and coach (d. 2014)\n* 1923 – Rhonda Fleming, American actress \n* 1923 – Fred Ridgway, English cricketer and footballer (d. 2015)\n* 1923 – SM Sultan, Bangladeshi painter and illustrator (d. 1994)\n1924 – Nancy Buckingham, English author\n 1924 – Martha Hyer, American actress (d. 2014)\n1925 – George Cooper, English general\n1926 – Marie-Claire Alain, French organist and educator (d. 2013)\n1927 – Jimmy Martin, American singer and guitarist (d. 2005)\n 1927 – Vernon Washington, American actor (d. 1988)\n1928 – Jimmy Dean, American singer, actor, and businessman, founded the Jimmy Dean Food Company (d. 2010)\n 1928 – Eddie Fisher, American singer and actor (d. 2010)\n* 1928 – Gerino Gerini, Italian race car driver (d. 2013)\n* 1928 – Gus Mercurio, American-Australian actor (d. 2010)\n1930 – Barry Unsworth, English-Italian author and academic (d. 2012)\n1931 – Dolores Alexander, American journalist and activist (d. 2008)\n* 1931 – Tom Laughlin, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)\n1932 – Alexander Goehr, English composer and academic\n 1932 – Gaudencio Rosales, Filipino cardinal\n1933 – Elizabeth Butler-Sloss, Baroness Butler-Sloss, English lawyer and judge\n 1933 – Rocky Colavito, American baseball player and sportscaster\n* 1933 – Keith Duckworth, English engineer, founded Cosworth (d. 2005)\n1934 – Tevfik Kış, Turkish wrestler and trainer\n1935 – Ian Stewart, Baron Stewartby, English politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces\n* 1935 – Ad van Luyn, Dutch bishop\n1936 – Malene Schwartz, Danish actress\n1937 – Anatoly Sobchak, Russian scholar and politician, Mayor of Saint Petersburg (d. 2000)\n1938 – Tony Ross, English author and illustrator\n1939 – Kate O'Mara, English actress (d. 2014) \n* 1939 – Charlie Rose, American lawyer and politician (d. 2012)\n1940 – Bobby Hatfield, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003)\n 1940 – Sid Waddell, English sportscaster (d. 2012)\n1941 – Anita Lonsbrough, English swimmer and journalist\n 1941 – Susan Dorothea White, Australian painter and sculptor\n1942 – Betsey Johnson, American fashion designer\n 1942 – Michael Pepper, English physicist and engineer\n1943 – Louise Forestier, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress\n 1943 – Jimmy Griffin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005)\n* 1943 – Michael Mantler, American trumpet player and composer \n* 1943 – Shafqat Rana, Indian-Pakistani cricketer\n* 1943 – Ronnie Spector, American singer-songwriter \n1947 – Ian Anderson, Scottish-English singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1947 – Anwar Ibrahim, Malaysian academic and politician, 7th Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia\n* 1947 – John Spencer, English rugby player and manager\n* 1947 – Alan Ward, English cricketer\n1948 – Nick Stringer, English actor \n1950 – Patti Austin, American singer-songwriter \n1951 – Juan Manuel Santos, Colombian businessman and politician, 59th President of Colombia\n1952 – Daniel Hugh Kelly, American actor\n* 1952 – Diane Venora, American actress\n1954 – Peter Endrulat, German footballer\n 1954 – Rick Overton, American screenwriter, actor and comedian\n1955 – Jim Mees, American set designer (d. 2013)\n 1955 – Mel Tiangco, Filipino journalist and talk show host\n1956 – Dianne Fromholtz, Australian tennis player\n 1956 – José Luis Montes, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 2013)\n* 1956 – Fred Ottman, American wrestler\n* 1956 – Charlie Peacock, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer\n* 1956 – Perween Warsi, Indian-English businesswoman\n1957 – Fred Ho, American saxophonist, composer, and playwright (d. 2014)\n 1957 – Andres Põime, Estonian architect \n1958 – Michael Dokes, American boxer (d. 2012) \n 1958 – Jack Richards, English cricketer, coach, and manager\n* 1958 – Rosie Winterton, English nurse and politician, Shadow Leader of the House of Commons\n1959 – Rosanna Arquette, American actress, director, and producer\n 1959 – Albert Owen, Welsh sailor and politician\n* 1959 – Mark Price, English drummer \n* 1959 – Florent Vollant, Canadian singer-songwriter \n1960 – Antonio Banderas, Spanish actor and producer\n 1960 – Annely Ojastu, Estonian sprinter and long jumper\n* 1960 – Kenny Perry, American golfer\n1961 – Jon Farriss, Australian drummer, songwriter, and producer \n1962 – Suzanne Collins, American author and screenwriter\n* 1962 – Julia Fordham, English singer-songwriter\n1963 – Phoolan Devi, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 2001)\n 1963 – Anton Janssen, Dutch footballer and coach\n* 1963 – Andrew Sullivan, English-American journalist and author\n1964 – Aaron Hall, American singer-songwriter \n 1964 – Kåre Kolve, Norwegian saxophonist and composer\n* 1964 – Hiro Takahashi, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005)\n1965 – Claudia Christian, American actress, singer, writer, and director\n 1965 – Mike E. Smith, American jockey and sportscaster\n* 1965 – John Starks, American basketball player and coach\n1966 – Charlie Dimmock, English gardener and television host\n 1966 – Hansi Kürsch, German singer-songwriter and bass player \n1967 – Philippe Albert, Belgian footballer and sportscaster\n 1967 – Riddick Bowe, American boxer\n* 1967 – Gus Johnson, American sportscaster\n* 1967 – Todd Nichols, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1967 – Reinout Scholte, Dutch cricketer\n1968 – Michael Bivins, American singer and producer\n 1968 – Greg Hawgood, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n1969 – Emily Symons, Australian actress\n 1969 – Brian Drummond, Canadian voice actor\n1970 – Doug Flach, American tennis player\n 1970 – Bret Hedican, American ice hockey player and sportscaster\n* 1970 – Brendon Julian, New Zealand-Australian cricketer and journalist\n* 1970 – Steve Mautone, Australian footballer and coach\n1971 – Sal Fasano, American baseball player and coach\n 1971 – Stephan Groth, Danish singer-songwriter \n* 1971 – Roy Keane, Irish footballer and manager\n* 1971 – Robby Maria, Austrian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1971 – Mario Kindelán, Cuban boxer \n* 1971 – Paul Newlove, English rugby player\n* 1971 – Kevin Randleman, American mixed martial artist and wrestler (d. 2016)\n* 1971 – Justin Theroux, American actor\n1972 – Dilana, South African-American singer-songwriter and actress\n 1972 – Lawrence Dallaglio, English rugby player and sportscaster\n* 1972 – Angie Harmon, American model and actress\n* 1972 – Christofer Johnsson, Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n1973 – Lisa Raymond, American tennis player\n 1973 – Javier Zanetti, Argentinian footballer\n1974 – Haifaa al-Mansour, Saudi Arabian director and producer\n 1974 – Luis Marín, Costa Rican footballer and manager\n* 1974 – Rachel Simmons, American scholar and author\n* 1974 – David Sommeil, French footballer\n1975 – İlhan Mansız, Turkish footballer and figure skater\n1976 – Roadkill, American wrestler\n* 1976 – Ian Murray, Scottish businessman and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland\n1977 – Danny Griffin, Irish footballer\n 1977 – Matt Morgan, English comedian, actor, and radio host\n1978 – Danny Allsopp, Australian footballer\n 1978 – Marcus Fizer, American basketball player\n* 1978 – Chris Read, English cricketer\n1979 – Dinusha Fernando, Sri Lankan cricketer\n 1979 – Ted Geoghegan, American author, screenwriter, and producer\n* 1979 – Brandon Lyon, American baseball player\n* 1979 – Rémy Martin, French rugby player\n* 1979 – Matjaž Perc, Slovene physicist\n* 1979 – Yannick Schroeder, French race car driver\n1980 – Wade Barrett, English boxer, wrestler, and actor\n1981 – Taufik Hidayat, Indonesian badminton player\n1982 – John Alvbåge, Swedish footballer\n 1982 – Josh Anderson, American baseball player\n* 1982 – Julia Melim, Brazilian actress\n1983 – Kyle Brown, American soccer player\n 1983 – C. B. Dollaway, American mixed martial artist\n* 1983 – Héctor Faubel, Spanish motorcycle racer\n* 1983 – Alexander Perezhogin, Russian ice hockey player\n* 1983 – Mathieu Roy, Canadian ice hockey player \n1984 – Ryan Eggold, American actor and composer\n 1984 – Mokomichi Hayami, Japanese model and actor\n* 1984 – Jigar Naik, English cricketer\n1985 – Melissa Barrera, American television host\n 1985 – Enrico Cortese, Italian footballer\n* 1985 – Roy O'Donovan, Irish footballer\n* 1985 – Kakuryū Rikisaburō, Mongolian sumo wrestler\n* 1985 – Julia Skripnik, Estonian tennis player\n1986 – Andrea Hlaváčková, Czech tennis player\n1987 – Jim Bakkum, Dutch singer and actor\n* 1987 – Ari Boyland, New Zealand actor and singer\n1989 – Sam Gagner, Canadian ice hockey player\n 1989 – Ben Sahar, Israeli footballer\n* 1989 – Brenton Thwaites, Australian actor\n1990 – Cruze Ah-Nau, Australian rugby player\n1991 – Marcus Foligno, American-Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1991 – Chris Tremain, Australian cricketer\n* 1991 – Dagný Brynjarsdóttir, Icelandic footballer\n* 1991 – Nikos Korovesis, Greek footballer\n1992 – Chanel Simmonds, South African tennis player\n 1992 – Oliver Rowland, English race car driver\n1993 – Andre Drummond, American basketball player\n 1993 – Yuto Nakajima, Japanese actor, dancer, model, singer, and idol\n* 1993 – Shin Hye-jeong, South Korean singer\n1994 – Bernardo Silva, Portuguese footballer\n1997 – Kylie Jenner, American television personality and model\n\n", "* 258 – Lawrence of Rome, Spanish-Italian deacon and saint (b. 225)\n* 794 – Fastrada, Frankish noblewoman (b. 765)\n* 796 – Eanbald, archbishop of York\n* 847 – Al-Wathiq, Abbasid caliph (b. 816)\n* 955 – Bulcsú, Hungarian tribal chieftain (''horka'')\n* 955 – Conrad ('the Red'), duke of Lorraine\n1241 – Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany (b. 1184)\n1250 – Eric IV of Denmark (b. 1216)\n1284 – Tekuder, Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate \n1316 – Felim mac Aedh Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht\n1322 – John of La Verna, Italian ascetic (b. 1259)\n1410 – Louis II, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1337)\n1535 – Ippolito de' Medici, Italian cardinal (b. 1509)\n1536 – Francis III, Duke of Brittany, Dauphin of France, Brother of Henry II (b. 1518)\n1653 – Maarten Tromp, Dutch admiral (b. 1598)\n1655 – Alfonso de la Cueva, 1st Marquis of Bedmar, Spanish cardinal and diplomat (b. 1572)\n1660 – Esmé Stewart, 2nd Duke of Richmond (b. 1649)\n1723 – Guillaume Dubois, French cardinal and politician, French Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (b. 1656)\n1759 – Ferdinand VI of Spain (b. 1713)\n1784 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish-English painter (b. 1713)\n1796 – Ignaz Anton von Indermauer, Austrian nobleman and government official (b. 1759)\n1802 – Franz Aepinus, German-Russian philosopher and academic (b. 1724)\n1806 – Michael Haydn, Austrian composer and educator (b. 1737)\n1839 – Sir John St Aubyn, 5th Baronet, English lawyer and politician (b. 1758)\n1862 – Hon'inbō Shūsaku, Japanese Go player (b. 1829)\n1875 – Karl Andree, German geographer and journalist (b. 1808)\n1889 – Arthur Böttcher, German pathologist and anatomist (b. 1831)\n1890 – John Boyle O'Reilly, Irish-born poet, journalist and fiction writer (b. 1844)\n1896 – Otto Lilienthal, German pilot and engineer (b. 1848)\n1904 – Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, French lawyer and politician, 68th Prime Minister of France (b. 1846)\n1915 – Henry Moseley, English physicist and engineer (b. 1887)\n1918 – Erich Löwenhardt, German lieutenant and pilot (b. 1897)\n1920 – Ádám Politzer, Hungarian-Austrian physician and academic (b. 1835)\n1929 – Pierre Fatou, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1878)\n* 1929 – Aletta Jacobs, Dutch physician (b. 1854)\n1932 – Rin Tin Tin, American acting dog (b. 1918)\n1933 – Alf Morgans, Welsh-Australian politician, 4th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1850)\n1945 – Robert H. Goddard, American physicist and engineer (b. 1882)\n1948 – Kan'ichi Asakawa, Japanese-American historian, author, and academic (b. 1873)\n* 1948 – Andrew Brown, Scottish footballer and coach (b. 1870)\n* 1948 – Montague Summers, English clergyman and author (b. 1880)\n1949 – Homer Burton Adkins, American chemist (b. 1892)\n1954 – Robert Adair, American-born British actor (b. 1900)\n1958 – Frank Demaree, American baseball player and manager (b. 1910)\n1960 – Hamide Ayşe Sultan, Ottoman princess (b. 1887)\n1961 – Julia Peterkin, American author (b. 1880)\n1963 – Estes Kefauver, American lawyer and politician (b. 1903)\n* 1963 – Ernst Wetter, Swiss lawyer and jurist (b. 1877)\n1969 – János Kodolányi, Hungarian author (b. 1899)\n1976 – Bert Oldfield, Australian cricketer (b. 1894)\n1979 – Dick Foran, American actor and singer (b. 1910)\n 1979 – Walter Gerlach, German physicist and academic (b. 1889)\n1980 – Yahya Khan, Pakistani general and politician, 3rd President of Pakistan (b. 1917)\n1982 – Anderson Bigode Herzer, Brazilian author and poet (b. 1962)\n1985 – Nate Barragar, American football player and sergeant (b. 1906)\n1987 – Georgios Athanasiadis-Novas, Greek lawyer and politician, 163rd Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1893)\n1991 – Lưu Trọng Lư Vietnamese poet and playwright (b. 1912)\n1993 – Euronymous, Norwegian singer, guitarist, and producer (b. 1968)\n1997 – Jean-Claude Lauzon, Canadian director and screenwriter (b. 1953)\n 1997 – Conlon Nancarrow, American-Mexican pianist and composer (b. 1912)\n1999 – Jennifer Paterson, English chef and television presenter (b. 1928)\n 1999 – Acharya Baldev Upadhyaya, Indian historian, scholar, and critic (b. 1899)\n2000 – Gilbert Parkhouse, Welsh cricketer and rugby player (b. 1925)\n2001 – Lou Boudreau, American baseball player and manager (b. 1917)\n2002 – Michael Houser, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1962)\n 2002 – Kristen Nygaard, Norwegian computer scientist and politician (b. 1926)\n2007 – Henry Cabot Lodge Bohler, American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1925)\n 2007 – James E. Faust, American lawyer and religious leader (b. 1920)\n* 2007 – Jean Rédélé, French race car driver and pilot, founded Alpine (b. 1922)\n* 2007 – Tony Wilson, English journalist, producer, and manager, co-founded Factory Records (b. 1950)\n2008 – Isaac Hayes, American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor (b. 1942)\n2010 – Markus Liebherr, German-Swiss businessman (b. 1948)\n* 2010 – Adam Stansfield, English footballer (b. 1978)\n* 2010 – David L. Wolper, American director and producer (b. 1928)\n2011 – Billy Grammer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1925)\n2012 – Philippe Bugalski, French race car driver (b. 1963)\n* 2012 – Ioan Dicezare, Romanian general and pilot (b. 1916)\n* 2012 – Irving Fein, American producer and manager (b. 1911)\n* 2012 – William W. Momyer, American general and pilot (b. 1916)\n* 2012 – Carlo Rambaldi, Italian special effects artist (b. 1925)\n2013 – William P. Clark Jr., American judge and politician, 12th United States National Security Advisor (b. 1931)\n 2013 – Jonathan Dawson, Australian historian and academic (b. 1941)\n* 2013 – Eydie Gormé, American singer and actress (b. 1928)\n* 2013 – David C. Jones, American general (b. 1921)\n* 2013 – Jody Payne, American singer and guitarist (b. 1936)\n* 2013 – Amy Wallace, American author (b. 1955)\n2014 – Jim Command, American baseball player and scout (b. 1928)\n 2014 – Dotty Lynch, American journalist and academic (b. 1945)\n* 2014 – Kathleen Ollerenshaw, English mathematician, astronomer, and politician, Lord Mayor of Manchester (b. 1912)\n* 2014 – Bob Wiesler, American baseball player (b. 1930)\n2015 – Buddy Baker, American race car driver and sportscaster (b. 1941)\n 2015 – Endre Czeizel, Hungarian physician, geneticist, and academic (b. 1935)\n* 2015 – Knut Osnes, Norwegian footballer and coach (b. 1922)\n* 2015 – Eriek Verpale, Belgian author and poet (b. 1952)\n* 2017 – Ruth Pfau, German-Pakistani doctor and nun (b. 1929)\n\n", "* Christian feast day:\n Bessus\n Blane (Roman Catholic Church)\n Geraint of Dumnonia\n Lawrence of Rome\n Nicola Saggio\n Nuestra Señora del Buen Suceso de Parañaque, Patroness of Parañaque, Philippines\n** August 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Argentine Air Force Day (Argentina)\n* Constitution Day (Anguilla)\n* National Day (Ecuador), anniversary of the Declaration of Independence of Quito, proclaimed independence from Spain on August 10, 1809. Independence finally occurred on May 24, 1822 at the Battle of Pichincha.\n* International Biodiesel Day\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 10
[ "An '''audio file format''' is a file format for storing digital audio data on a computer system. The bit layout of the audio data (excluding metadata) is called the audio coding format and can be uncompressed, or compressed to reduce the file size, often using lossy compression. The data can be a raw bitstream in an audio coding format, but it is usually embedded in a container format or an audio data format with defined storage layer.\n", "It is important to distinguish between the audio coding format, the container containing the raw audio data, and an audio codec. A codec performs the encoding and decoding of the raw audio data while this encoded data is (usually) stored in a container file. Although most audio file formats support only one type of audio coding data (created with an audio coder), a multimedia container format (as Matroska or AVI) may support multiple types of audio and video data.\n\nThere are three major groups of audio file formats:\n\n* Uncompressed audio formats, such as WAV, AIFF, AU or raw header-less PCM;\n* Formats with lossless compression, such as FLAC, Monkey's Audio (filename extension .ape), WavPack (filename extension .wv), TTA, ATRAC Advanced Lossless, ALAC (filename extension .m4a), MPEG-4 SLS, MPEG-4 ALS, MPEG-4 DST, Windows Media Audio Lossless (WMA Lossless), and Shorten (SHN).\n* Formats with lossy compression, such as Opus, MP3, Vorbis, Musepack, AAC, ATRAC and Windows Media Audio Lossy (WMA lossy).\n\n===Uncompressed audio format===\n\nOne major uncompressed audio format, LPCM, is the same variety of PCM as used in Compact Disc Digital Audio and is the format most commonly accepted by low level audio APIs and D/A converter hardware. Although LPCM can be stored on a computer as a raw audio format, it is usually stored in a .wav file on Windows or in a .aiff file on macOS. The AIFF format is based on the Interchange File Format (IFF), and the WAV format is based on the similar Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF). WAV and AIFF are designed to store a wide variety of audio formats, lossless and lossy; they just add a small, metadata-containing header before the audio data to declare the format of the audio data, such as LPCM with a particular sample rate, bit depth, endianness and number of channels. Since WAV and AIFF are widely supported and can store LPCM, they are suitable file formats for storing and archiving an original recording.\n\nBWF (Broadcast Wave Format) is a standard audio format created by the European Broadcasting Union as a successor to WAV. Among other enhancements, BWF allows more robust metadata to be stored in the file. See ''European Broadcasting Union: Specification of the Broadcast Wave Format'' (EBU Technical document 3285, July 1997). This is the primary recording format used in many professional audio workstations in the television and film industry. BWF files include a standardized timestamp reference which allows for easy synchronization with a separate picture element. Stand-alone, file based, multi-track recorders from AETA, Sound Devices, Zaxcom, HHB Communications Ltd, Fostex, Nagra, Aaton, and TASCAM all use BWF as their preferred format.\n\n===Lossless compressed audio format===\nA lossless compressed format stores data in less space without losing any information. The original, uncompressed data can be recreated from the compressed version.\n\nUncompressed audio formats encode both sound and silence with the same number of bits per unit of time. Encoding an uncompressed minute of absolute silence produces a file of the same size as encoding an uncompressed minute of music. In a lossless compressed format, however, the music would occupy a smaller file than an uncompressed format and the silence would take up almost no space at all.\n\nLossless compression formats include the common FLAC, WavPack, Monkey's Audio, ALAC (Apple Lossless). They provide a compression ratio of about 2:1 (i.e. their files take up half the space of PCM). Development in lossless compression formats aims to reduce processing time while maintaining a good compression ratio.\n\n===Lossy compressed audio format===\nLossy compression enables even greater reductions in file size by removing some of the audio information and simplifying the data. This of course results in a reduction in audio quality, but a variety of techniques are used, mainly by exploiting psychoacoustics, to remove the parts of the sound that have the least effect on perceived quality, and to minimize the amount of audible noise added during the process. The popular MP3 format is probably the best-known example, but the AAC format found on the iTunes Music Store is also common. Most formats offer a range of degrees of compression, generally measured in bit rate. The lower the rate, the smaller the file and the more significant the quality loss.\n", "\n\n\n\n File Extension\n Creation Company\n Description\n\n .3gp \n \n Multimedia container format can contain proprietary formats as AMR, AMR-WB or AMR-WB+, but also some open formats\n\n .aa \n Audible.com (Amazon.com) \n A low-bitrate audiobook container format with DRM, containing audio encoded as either MP3 or the ACELP speech codec.\n\n .aac \n \n The Advanced Audio Coding format is based on the MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 standards. AAC files are usually ADTS or ADIF containers.\n\n .aax \n Audible.com (Amazon.com) \n An Audiobook format, which is a variable-bitrate (allowing high quality) M4B file encrypted with DRM. MPB contains AAC or ALAC encoded audio in an MPEG-4 container. (More details below.)\n\n .act \n \n ACT is a lossy ADPCM 8 kbit/s compressed audio format recorded by most Chinese MP3 and MP4 players with a recording function, and voice recorders\n\n .aiff \n Apple \n A standard audio file format used by Apple. It could be considered the Apple equivalent of wav.\n\n .amr \n \n AMR-NB audio, used primarily for speech.\n\n .ape \n Matthew T. Ashland \n Monkey's Audio lossless audio compression format.\n\n .au \n Sun Microsystems \n The standard audio file format used by Sun, Unix and Java. The audio in au files can be PCM or compressed with the μ-law, a-law or G729 codecs.\n\n .awb \n \n AMR-WB audio, used primarily for speech, same as the ITU-T's G.722.2 specification.\n\n .dct \n NCH Software \n A variable codec format designed for dictation. It has dictation header information and can be encrypted (as may be required by medical confidentiality laws). A proprietary format of NCH Software.\n\n .dss \n Olympus \n DSS files are an Olympus proprietary format. It is a fairly old and poor codec. GSM or MP3 are generally preferred where the recorder allows. It allows additional data to be held in the file header.\n\n .dvf \n Sony \n A Sony proprietary format for compressed voice files; commonly used by Sony dictation recorders.\n\n .flac \n \n A file format for the Free Lossless Audio Codec, a lossless compression codec.\n\n .gsm \n \n Designed for telephony use in Europe, gsm is a very practical format for telephone quality voice. It makes a good compromise between file size and quality. Note that wav files can also be encoded with the gsm codec.\n\n .iklax \n iKlax \n An iKlax Media proprietary format, the iKlax format is a multi-track digital audio format allowing various actions on musical data, for instance on mixing and volumes arrangements.\n\n .ivs \n 3D Solar UK Ltd \n A proprietary version with Digital Rights Management developed by 3D Solar UK Ltd for use in music downloaded from their Tronme Music Store and interactive music and video player.\n\n .m4a \n \n An audio-only MPEG-4 file, used by Apple for unprotected music downloaded from their iTunes Music Store. Audio within the m4a file is typically encoded with AAC, although lossless ALAC may also be used.\n\n .m4b \n \n An Audiobook / podcast extension with AAC or ALAC encoded audio in an MPEG-4 container. Both M4A and M4B formats can contain metadata including chapter markers, images, and hyperlinks, but M4B allows \"bookmarks\" (remembering the last listening spot), whereas M4A does not.\n\n .m4p \n Apple \n A version of AAC with proprietary Digital Rights Management developed by Apple for use in music downloaded from their iTunes Music Store.\n\n .mmf \n Yamaha, Samsung \n A Samsung audio format that is used in ringtones. Developed by Yamaha (SMAF stands for \"Synthetic music Mobile Application Format\", and is a multimedia data format invented by the Yamaha Corporation, .mmf file format).\n\n .mp3 \n \n MPEG Layer III Audio. It is the most common sound file format used today.\n\n .mpc \n \n Musepack or MPC (formerly known as MPEGplus, MPEG+ or MP+) is an open source lossy audio codec, specifically optimized for transparent compression of stereo audio at bitrates of 160–180 kbit/s.\n\n .msv \n Sony \n A Sony proprietary format for Memory Stick compressed voice files.\n\n .ogg, .oga, mogg \n Xiph.Org Foundation \n A free, open source container format supporting a variety of formats, the most popular of which is the audio format Vorbis. Vorbis offers compression similar to MP3 but is less popular. Mogg, the \"Multi-Track-Single-Logical-Stream Ogg-Vorbis\", is the multi-channel or multi-track Ogg file format.\n\n .opus \n Internet Engineering Task Force \n A lossy audio compression format developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and made especially suitable for interactive real-time applications over the Internet. As an open format standardised through RFC 6716, a reference implementation is provided under the 3-clause BSD license.\n\n .ra, .rm \n RealNetworks \n A RealAudio format designed for streaming audio over the Internet. The .ra format allows files to be stored in a self-contained fashion on a computer, with all of the audio data contained inside the file itself.\n\n .raw \n \n A raw file can contain audio in any format but is usually used with PCM audio data. It is rarely used except for technical tests.\n\n .sln \n \n Signed Linear PCM format used by Asterisk. Prior to v.10 the standard formats were 16-bit Signed Linear PCM sampled at 8 kHz and at 16 kHz. With v.10 many more sampling rates were added.\n\n .tta \n \n The True Audio, real-time lossless audio codec.\n\n .vox \n \n The vox format most commonly uses the Dialogic ADPCM (Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation) codec. Similar to other ADPCM formats, it compresses to 4-bits. Vox format files are similar to wave files except that the vox files contain no information about the file itself so the codec sample rate and number of channels must first be specified in order to play a vox file.\n\n .wav \n \n Standard audio file container format used mainly in Windows PCs. Commonly used for storing uncompressed (PCM), CD-quality sound files, which means that they can be large in size—around 10 MB per minute. Wave files can also contain data encoded with a variety of (lossy) codecs to reduce the file size (for example the GSM or MP3 formats). Wav files use a RIFF structure.\n\n .wma \n Microsoft \n Windows Media Audio format, created by Microsoft. Designed with Digital Rights Management (DRM) abilities for copy protection.\n\n .wv \n \n Format for wavpack file http://www.wavpack.com/flash/wavpack.htm\n\n .webm \n \n Royalty-free format created for HTML5 video.\n\n .8svx \n Electronic Arts \n The IFF-8SVX format for 8-bit sound samples, created by Electronic Arts in 1984 at the birth of the Amiga.\n\n\n", "* Audio compression (data)\n* Comparison of audio coding formats\n* Comparison of container formats\n* Comparison of video codecs\n* List of open-source audio codecs\n* Timeline of audio formats\n", "\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Format types", "List of formats", " See also ", "References" ]	Audio file format
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\nThe United States Air Force facility commonly known as '''Area 51''' is a highly classified remote detachment of Edwards Air Force Base, within the Nevada Test and Training Range. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the correct names for the facility are '''Homey Airport''' and '''Groom Lake''', though the name ''Area 51'' was used in a CIA document from the Vietnam War. The facility has also been referred to as ''Dreamland'' and ''Paradise Ranch'', among other nicknames. The special use airspace around the field is referred to as Restricted Area 4808 North (R-4808N).\n\nThe base's current primary purpose is publicly unknown; however, based on historical evidence, it most likely supports the development and testing of experimental aircraft and weapons systems (black projects). The intense secrecy surrounding the base has made it the frequent subject of conspiracy theories and a central component to unidentified flying object (UFO) folklore. Although the base has never been declared a secret base, all research and occurrences in Area 51 are Top Secret/Sensitive Compartmented Information (TS/SCI). On 25 June 2013, following a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request filed in 2005, the CIA publicly acknowledged the existence of the base for the first time, declassifying documents detailing the history and purpose of Area 51.\n\nArea 51 is located in the southern portion of Nevada in the western United States, north-northwest of Las Vegas. Situated at its center, on the southern shore of Groom Lake, is a large military airfield. The site was acquired by the United States Air Force in 1955, primarily for the flight testing of the Lockheed U-2 aircraft. The area around Area 51, including the small town of Rachel on the \"Extraterrestrial Highway\", is a popular tourist destination.\n", "\n===Area 51===\nNAFR, and the NTS \nThe original rectangular base of is now part of the so-called \"Groom box\", a rectangular area measuring , of restricted airspace. The area is connected to the internal Nevada Test Site (NTS) road network, with paved roads leading south to Mercury and west to Yucca Flat. Leading northeast from the lake, the wide and well-maintained Groom Lake Road runs through a pass in the Jumbled Hills. The road formerly led to mines in the Groom basin, but has been improved since their closure. Its winding course runs past a security checkpoint, but the restricted area around the base extends further east. After leaving the restricted area, Groom Lake Road descends eastward to the floor of the Tikaboo Valley, passing the dirt-road entrances to several small ranches, before converging with State Route 375, the \"Extraterrestrial Highway\", south of Rachel.\n\nArea 51 shares a border with the Yucca Flat region of the Nevada Test Site, the location of 739 of the 928 nuclear tests conducted by the United States Department of Energy at NTS. The Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository is southwest of Groom Lake.\n\n===Groom Lake===\nNevada Test Range topographic chart centered on Groom Lake\nGroom Lake is a salt flat in Nevada used for runways of the Nellis Bombing Range Test Site airport (KXTA) on the north of the Area 51 USAF military installation. The lake at elevation is approximately from north to south and from east to west at its widest point. Located within the namesake Groom Lake Valley portion of the Tonopah Basin, the lake is south of Rachel, Nevada.\n", "The origin of the Area 51 name is unclear. The most accepted comes from a grid numbering system of the area by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC); while Area 51 is not part of this system, it is adjacent to Area 15. Another explanation is that 51 was used because it was unlikely that the AEC would use the number.\n\n===Groom Lake===\n\nLead and silver were discovered in the southern part of the Groom Range in 1864, and the English ''Groome Lead Mines Limited'' company financed the Conception Mines in the 1870s, giving the district its name (nearby mines included Maria, Willow and White Lake). The interests in Groom were acquired by J. B. Osborne and partners and patented in 1876, and his son acquired the interests in the 1890s. Claims were incorporated as two 1916 companies with mining continuing until 1918 and resuming after World War II until the early 1950s.\n\n===World War II===\nThe airfield on the Groom Lake site began service in 1942 as Indian Springs Air Force Auxiliary Field, and consisted of two unpaved 5000-foot runways aligned NE/SW, NW/SE .\n\n===U-2 program===\n\n\n\"The Ranch\" with U-2 flight line\nThe Groom Lake test facility was established in April 1955 by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for ''Project Aquatone'', the development of the Lockheed U-2 strategic reconnaissance aircraft.\n\nAs part of the project, the director, Richard M. Bissell, Jr., understood that, given the extreme secrecy enveloping the project, the flight test and pilot training programs could not be conducted at Edwards Air Force Base or Lockheed's Palmdale facility. A search for a suitable testing site for the U-2 was conducted under the same extreme security as the rest of the project.\n\nHe notified Lockheed, who sent an inspection team out to Groom Lake. According to Lockheed's U-2 designer Kelly Johnson: \n\nThe lakebed made an ideal strip from which they could test aircraft, and the Emigrant Valley's mountain ranges and the NTS perimeter, about north of Las Vegas, protected the test site from visitors. The CIA asked the AEC to acquire the land, designated \"Area 51\" on the map, and add it to the Nevada Test Site.\n\nJohnson named the area \"Paradise Ranch\" to encourage workers to move to a place that the CIA's official history of the U-2 project would later describe as \"the new facility in the middle of nowhere\"; the name became shortened to \"the Ranch\". On 4 May 1955, a survey team arrived at Groom Lake and laid out a , north-south runway on the southwest corner of the lakebed and designated a site for a base support facility. \"The Ranch\", also known as Site II, initially consisted of little more than a few shelters, workshops and trailer homes in which to house its small team. In a little over three months, the base consisted of a single, paved runway, three hangars, a control tower, and rudimentary accommodations for test personnel. The base's few amenities included a movie theatre and volleyball court. Additionally, there was a mess hall, several water wells, and fuel storage tanks. By July 1955, CIA, Air Force, and Lockheed personnel began arriving. The Ranch received its first U-2 delivery on 24 July 1955 from Burbank on a C-124 Globemaster II cargo plane, accompanied by Lockheed technicians on a Douglas DC-3. Regular Military Air Transport Service flights were set up between Area 51 and Lockheed's Burbank, California offices. To preserve secrecy, personnel flew to Nevada on Monday mornings and returned to California on Friday evenings.\n\nRCS testing at Groom Lake\".\nThe 2nd YF-12A interceptor prototype at Groom Lake, Nevada (USAF Photograph)\nAn A-12 (60-6924) takes off from Groom Lake during one of the first test flights, piloted by Louis Schalk, 26 April 1962\n\n===OXCART program===\n\n'''Project OXCART''' established in August 1959 for \"antiradar studies, aerodynamic structural tests, and engineering designs and all later work on the\" Lockheed A-12 included testing at Groom Lake, which before improvements for OXCART had inadequate facilities: buildings for only 150 people, a asphalt runway, and limited fuel, hangar, and shop space. Selected for its seclusion and climate, Groom Lake had received a new official name \"Area 51\" when A-12 test facility construction began in September 1960, including a new runway to replace the existing runway (completed by 15 November 1960 with \"expansion joints parallel to the direction of aircraft roll\" to limit vibration.)\n\nFour years of \"Project 51\" construction began on 1 October 1960 by Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company (REECo) with double-shift construction schedules. The contractor upgraded base facilities and built a new runway (14/32) diagonally across the southwest corner of the lakebed. An Archimedes curve approximately two miles across was marked on the dry lake so that an A-12 pilot approaching the end of the overrun could abort to the playa instead of plunging the aircraft into the sagebrush. Area 51 pilots called it \"The Hook\". For crosswind landings two unpaved airstrips (runways 9/27 and 03/21) were marked on the dry lakebed.\n\nBy August 1961, construction of the essential facilities was completed (3 surplus Navy hangars were erected on the base's north side—hangars 4, 5, and 6.) A fourth, Hangar 7, was new construction. The original U-2 hangars were converted to maintenance and machine shops. Facilities in the main cantonment area included workshops and buildings for storage and administration, a commissary, control tower, fire station, and housing. The Navy also contributed more than 130 surplus Babbitt duplex housing units for long-term occupancy facilities. Older buildings were repaired, and additional facilities were constructed as necessary. A reservoir pond, surrounded by trees, served as a recreational area one mile north of the base. Other recreational facilities included a gymnasium, movie theatre, and a baseball diamond. A permanent aircraft fuel tank farm was constructed by early 1962 for the special JP-7 fuel required by the A-12. Seven tanks were constructed, with a total capacity of 1,320,000 gallons.\n\nFor the arrival of OXCART; security was enhanced and the small civilian mine in the Groom basin was closed. In January 1962, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) expanded the restricted airspace in the vicinity of Groom Lake. The lakebed became the center of a 600-square-mile addition to restricted area R-4808N.\n\nThe CIA facility received eight USAF F-101 Voodoos for training, two T-33 Shooting Star trainers for proficiency flying, a C-130 Hercules for cargo transport, a U-3A for administrative purposes, a helicopter for search and rescue, and a Cessna 180 for liaison use; and Lockheed provided an F-104 Starfighter for use as a chase plane.\n\nThe first A-12 test aircraft was covertly trucked from Burbank on 26 February 1962, arrived at Groom Lake on 28 February, was assembled, and made its first flight 26 April 1962 when the base had over 1,000 personnel. Initially, all not connected with a test were herded into the mess hall before each takeoff. This was soon dropped as it disrupted activities and was impractical with the large number of flights. The closed airspace above Groom Lake was within the Nellis Air Force Range airspace, and pilots saw the A-12 20–30 times (at least one signed a secrecy agreement.).\n\nGroom was also the site of the first Lockheed D-21 drone test flight on 22 December 1964 (not launched until 5 March 1966). By the end of 1963, nine A-12s were at Area 51, assigned to the CIA operated \"1129th Special Activities Squadron\".\n\nAlthough it was decided on 10 January 1967 to phase out the CIA A-12 program, A-12s at Groom Lake occasionally deployed to Kadena AB, Okinawa, for Project Black Shield in 1967 (the 9 A-12s were stored at Palmdale in June 1968 and the 1129th SAS was inactivated.)\n\n===D-21 Tagboard===\n\nThe D-21 mounted on the back of the M-21. Note the intake cover on the drone, which was used on early flights.\n\nFollowing the loss of Gary Powers' U-2 over the Soviet Union, there were several discussions about using the A-12 OXCART as an unpiloted drone aircraft. Although Kelly Johnson had come to support the idea of drone reconnaissance, he opposed the development of an A-12 drone, contending that the aircraft was too large and complex for such a conversion. However, the Air Force agreed to fund the study of a high-speed, high-altitude drone aircraft in October 1962. The Air Force interest seems to have moved the CIA to take action, the project designated \"Q-12\". By October 1963, the drone's design had been finalized. At the same time, the Q-12 underwent a name change. To separate it from the other A-12-based projects, it was renamed the \"D-21\". (The \"12\" was reversed to \"21\"). \"Tagboard\" was the project's code name.\n\nThe first D-21 was completed in the spring of 1964 by Lockheed. After four more months of checkouts and static tests, the aircraft was shipped to Groom Lake and reassembled. It was to be carried by a two-seat derivative of the A-12, designated the \"M-21\". When the D-21/M-21 reached the launch point, the first step would be to blow off the D-21's inlet and exhaust covers. With the D-21/M-21 at the correct speed and altitude, the LCO would start the ramjet and the other systems of the D-21. With the D-21's systems activated and running, and the launch aircraft at the correct point, the M-21 would begin a slight pushover, the LCO would push a final button, and the D-21 would come off the pylon\".\n\nDifficulties were addressed throughout 1964 and 1965 at Groom Lake with various technical issues. Captive flights showed unforeseen aerodynamic difficulties. By late January 1966, more than a year after the first captive flight, everything seemed ready. The first D-21 launch was made on 5 March 1966 with a successful flight, with the D-21 flying 120 miles with limited fuel. A second D-12 flight was successful in April 1966 with the drone flying 1,200 miles, reaching Mach 3.3 and 90,000 feet. An accident on 30 July 1966 with a fully fueled D-21, on a planned checkout flight suffered from a non-start of the drone after its separation, causing it to collide with the M-21 launch aircraft. The two crewmen ejected and landed in the ocean 150 miles offshore. One crew member was picked up by a helicopter, but the other, having survived the aircraft breakup and ejection, drowned when sea water entered his pressure suit. Kelly Johnson personally cancelled the entire program, having had serious doubts from the start of the feasibility. A number of D-21s had already been produced, and rather than scrapping the whole effort, Johnson again proposed to the Air Force that they be launched from a B-52H bomber.\n\nBy late summer of 1967, the modification work to both the D-21 (now designated D-21B) and the B-52Hs were complete. The test program could now resume. The test missions were flown out of Groom Lake, with the actual launches over the Pacific. The first D-21B to be flown was Article 501, the prototype. The first attempt was made on 28 September 1967, and ended in complete failure. As the B-52 was flying toward the launch point, the D-21B fell off the pylon. The B-52H gave a sharp lurch as the drone fell free. The booster fired and was \"quite a sight from the ground\". The failure was traced to a stripped nut on the forward right attachment point on the pylon. Several more tests were made, none of which met with success. However, the fact is that the resumptions of D-21 tests took place against a changing reconnaissance background. The A-12 had finally been allowed to deploy, and the SR-71 was soon to replace it. At the same time, new developments in reconnaissance satellite technology were nearing operation. Up to this point, the limited number of satellites available restricted coverage to the Soviet Union. A new generation of reconnaissance satellites could soon cover targets anywhere in the world. The satellites' resolution would be comparable to that of aircraft, but without the slightest political risk. Time was running out for the Tagboard.\n\nSeveral more test flights, including two over China, were made from Beale AFB, California, in 1969 and 1970, to varying degrees of success. On 15 July 1971, Kelly Johnson received a wire canceling the D-21B program. The remaining drones were transferred by a C-5A and placed in dead storage. The tooling used to build the D-21Bs was ordered destroyed. Like the A-12 Oxcart, the D-21B Tagboard drones remained a Black airplane, even in retirement. Their existence was not suspected until August 1976, when the first group was placed in storage at the Davis-Monthan AFB Military Storage and Disposition Center. A second group arrived in 1977. They were labeled \"GTD-21Bs\" (GT stood for ground training).\n\nDavis-Monthan is an open base, with public tours of the storage area at the time, so the odd-looking drones were soon spotted and photos began appearing in magazines. Speculation about the D-21Bs circulated within aviation circles for years, and it was not until 1982 that details of the Tagboard program were released. However, it was not until 1993 that the B-52/D-21B program was made public. That same year, the surviving D-21Bs were released to museums.\n\n===Foreign technology evaluation===\n\nMiG-17F \"Fresco\"s loaned to the United States by Israel in 1969.\nHAVE DOUGHNUT, (MiG-21F-13) flown by United States Navy and Air Force Systems Command during its 1968 exploitation.\n\nDuring the Cold War, one of the missions carried out by the United States was the test and evaluation of captured Soviet fighter aircraft. Beginning in the late 1960s, and for several decades, Area 51 played host to an assortment of Soviet-built aircraft. Under the ''HAVE DOUGHNUT'', ''HAVE DRILL'' and ''HAVE FERRY'' programs, the first MiGs flown in the United States were used to evaluate the aircraft in performance, technical, and operational capabilities, pitting the types against U.S. fighters.\n\nThis was not a new mission, as testing of foreign technology by the USAF began during World War II. After the war, testing of acquired foreign technology was performed by the Air Technical Intelligence Center (ATIC, which became very influential during the Korean War), under the direct command of the Air Materiel Control Department. In 1961 ATIC became the Foreign Technology Division (FTD), and was reassigned to Air Force Systems Command. ATIC personnel were sent anywhere where foreign aircraft could be found.\n\nThe focus of Air Force Systems Command limited the use of the fighter as a tool with which to train the front line tactical fighter pilots. Air Force Systems Command recruited its pilots from the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards Air Force Base, California, who were usually graduates from various test pilot schools. Tactical Air Command selected its pilots primarily from the ranks of the Weapons School graduates.\n\nIn August 1966, Iraqi Air Force fighter pilot Captain Munir Redfa defected, flying his MiG-21 to Israel after being ordered to attack Iraqi Kurd villages with napalm. His aircraft was transferred to Groom Lake within a month to study. In 1968 the US Air Force and Navy jointly formed a project known as ''Have Doughnut'' in which Air Force Systems Command, Tactical Air Command, and the U.S. Navy's Air Test and Evaluation Squadron Four (VX-4) flew this acquired Soviet made aircraft in simulated air combat training. Because U.S. possession of the Soviet MiG-21 was, itself, secret, it was tested at Groom Lake. A joint Air Force-Navy team was assembled for a series of dogfight tests.\n\nComparisons between the F-4 and the MiG-21 indicated that, on the surface, they were evenly matched. But air combat was not just about technology. In the final analysis, it was the skill of the man in the cockpit. The Have Doughnut tests showed this most strongly. When the Navy or Air Force pilots flew the MiG-21, the results were a draw; the F-4 would win some fights, the MiG-21 would win others. There were no clear advantages. The problem was not with the planes, but with the pilots flying them. The pilots would not fly either plane to its limits. One of the Navy pilots was Marland W. \"Doc\" Townsend, then commander of VF-121, the F-4 training squadron at NAS Miramar. He was an engineer and a Korean War veteran and had flown almost every navy aircraft. When he flew against the MiG-21, he would outmaneuver it every time. The Air Force pilots would not go vertical in the MiG-21. The Have Doughnut project officer was Tom Cassidy, a pilot with VX-4, the Navy's Air Development Squadron at Point Mugu. He had been watching as Townsend \"waxed\" the air force MiG-21 pilots. Cassidy climbed into the MiG-21 and went up against Townsend's F-4. This time the result was far different. Cassidy was willing to fight in the vertical, flying the plane to the point where it was buffeting, just above the stall. Cassidy was able to get on the F-4's tail. After the flight, they realized the MiG-21 turned better than the F-4 at lower speeds. The key was for the F-4 to keep its speed up. What had happened in the sky above Groom Lake was remarkable. An F-4 had defeated the MiG-21; the weakness of the Soviet plane had been found. Further test flights confirmed what was learned. It was also clear that the MiG-21 was a formidable enemy. United States pilots would have to fly much better than they had been to beat it. This would require a special school to teach advanced air combat techniques.\n\nOn 12 August 1968, two Syrian air force lieutenants, Walid Adham and Radfan Rifai, took off in a pair of MiG-17Fs on a training mission. They lost their way and, believing they were over Lebanon, landed at the Beset Landing Field in northern Israel. (One version has it that they were led astray by an Arabic-speaking Israeli). Prior to the end of 1968 these MiG-17s were transferred from Israeli stocks and added to the Area 51 test fleet. The aircraft were given USAF designations and fake serial numbers so that they could be identified in DOD standard flight logs. As in the earlier program, a small group of Air Force and Navy pilots conducted mock dogfights with the MiG-17s. Selected instructors from the Navy's Top Gun school at NAS Miramar, California, were chosen to fly against the MiGs for familiarization purposes. Very soon, the MiG-17's shortcomings became clear. It had an extremely simple, even crude, control system which lacked the power-boosted controls of American aircraft. The F-4's twin engines were so powerful it could accelerate out of range of the MiG-17's guns in thirty seconds. It was important for the F-4 to keep its distance from the MiG-17. As long as the F-4 was one and a half miles from the MiG-17, it was outside the reach of the Soviet fighter's guns, but the MiG was within reach of the F-4's missiles.\n\nThe data from the Have Doughnut and Have Drill tests were provided to the newly formed Top Gun school at NAS Miramar. By 1970, the Have Drill program was expanded; a few selected fleet F-4 crews were given the chance to fight the MiGs. The most important result of Project Have Drill is that no Navy pilot who flew in the project defeated the MiG-17 Fresco in the first engagement. The Have Drill dogfights were by invitation only. The other pilots based at Nellis Air Force Base were not to know about the U.S.-operated MiGs. To prevent any sightings, the airspace above the Groom Lake range was closed. On aeronautical maps, the exercise area was marked in red ink. The forbidden zone became known as \"Red Square\".\n\nDuring the remainder of the Vietnam War, the Navy kill ratio climbed to 8.33 to 1. In contrast, the Air Force rate improved only slightly to 2.83 to 1. The reason for this difference was Top Gun. The Navy had revitalized its air combat training, while the Air Force had stayed stagnant. Most of the Navy MiG kills were by Top Gun graduates.\n\nIn May 1973, Project ''Have Idea'' was formed which took over from the older Have Doughnut, Have Ferry and Have Drill projects and the project was transferred to the Tonopah Test Range Airport. At Tonopah testing of foreign technology aircraft continued and expanded throughout the 1970s and 1980s.\n\nArea 51 also hosted another foreign materiel evaluation program called HAVE GLIB. This involved testing Soviet tracking and missile control radar systems. A complex of actual and replica Soviet-type threat systems began to grow around \"Slater Lake\", a mile northwest of the main base, along with an acquired Soviet \"Barlock\" search radar placed at Tonopah Air Force Station. They were arranged to simulate a Soviet-style air defense complex.\n\nThe Air Force began funding improvements to Area 51 in 1977 under project SCORE EVENT. In 1979, the CIA transferred jurisdiction of the Area 51 site to the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California. Mr. Sam Mitchell, the last CIA commander of Area 51, relinquished command to USAF Lt. Col. Larry D. McClain.\n\n===Have Blue/F-117 program===\n\nUnderside view of ''Have Blue''\nF-117 flying over mountains\nThe Lockheed Have Blue prototype stealth fighter (a smaller proof-of-concept model of the F-117 Nighthawk) first flew at Groom in December 1977.\n\nIn 1978, the Air Force awarded a full-scale development contract for the F-117 to Lockheed Corporation's Advanced Development Projects. On 17 January 1981 the Lockheed test team at Area 51 accepted delivery of the first full Scale Development (FSD) prototype ''79–780'', designated YF-117A. At 6:05 am on 18 June 1981 Lockheed Skunk Works test pilot Hal Farley lifted the nose of YF-117A ''79–780''' off the runway of Area 51.\n\nMeanwhile, Tactical Air Command (TAC) decided to set up a group-level organization to guide the F-117A to an initial operating capability. That organization became the 4450th Tactical Group (Initially designated \"A Unit\"), which officially activated on 15 October 1979 at Nellis AFB, Nevada, although the group was physically located at Area 51. The 4450th TG also operated the A-7D Corsair II as a surrogate trainer for the F-117A, and these operations continued until 15 October 1982 under the guise of an avionics test mission.\n\nFlying squadrons of the 4450th TG were the 4450th Tactical Squadron (Initially designated \"I Unit\") activated on 11 June 1981, and 4451st Tactical Squadron (Initially designated \"P Unit\") on 15 January 1983. The 4450th TS, stationed at Area 51, was the first F-117A squadron, while the 4451st TS was stationed at Nellis AFB and was equipped with A-7D Corsair IIs painted in a dark motif, tail coded \"LV\". Lockheed test pilots put the YF-117 through its early paces. A-7Ds was used for pilot training before any F-117A's had been delivered by Lockheed to Area 51, later the A-7D's were used for F-117A chase testing and other weapon tests at the Nellis Range.\n\n15 October 1982 is important to the program because on that date Major Alton C. Whitley, Jr. became the first USAF 4450th TG pilot to fly the F-117A.\n\nAlthough ideal for testing, Area 51 was not a suitable location for an operational group, so a new covert base had to be established for F-117 operations.\nTonopah Test Range Airport was selected for operations of the first USAF F-117 unit, the 4450th Tactical Group (TG). From October 1979, the Tonopah Airport base was reconstructed and expanded. The 6,000 ft runway was lengthened to 10,000 ft. Taxiways, a concrete apron, a large maintenance hangar, and a propane storage tank were added.\n\nBy early 1982, four more YF-117A airplanes were operating out of the southern end of the base, known as the \"Southend\" or \"Baja Groom Lake\". After finding a large scorpion in their offices, the testing team (Designated \"R Unit\") adopted it as their mascot and dubbed themselves the \"Baja Scorpions\". Testing of a series of ultra-secret prototypes continued at Area 51 until mid-1981, when testing transitioned to the initial production of F-117 stealth fighters. The F-117s were moved to and from Area 51 by C-5 under the cloak of darkness, in order to maintain program security. This meant that the aircraft had to be defueled, disassembled, cradled, and then loaded aboard the C-5 at night, flown to Lockheed, and unloaded at night before the real work could begin. Of course, this meant that the reverse actions had to occur at the end of the depot work before the aircraft could be reassembled, flight-tested, and redelivered, again under the cover of darkness. In addition to flight-testing, Groom performed radar profiling, F-117 weapons testing, and was the location for training of the first group of frontline USAF F-117 pilots.\n\nWhile the \"Baja Scorpions\" were working on the F-117, there was also another group at work in secrecy, known as \"the Whalers\" working on Tacit Blue. A fly-by-wire technology demonstration aircraft with curved surfaces and composite material, to evade radar, it was a prototype, and never went into production. Nevertheless, this strange-looking aircraft was responsible for many of the stealth technology advances that were used on several other aircraft designs, and had a direct influence on the B-2; with first flight of Tacit Blue being performed on February 5, 1982, by Northrop Grumman test pilot, Richard G. Thomas.\n\nProduction FSD airframes from Lockheed were shipped to Area 51 for acceptance testing. As the Baja Scorpions tested the aircraft with functional check flights and L.O. verification, the operational airplanes were then transferred to the 4450th TG.\n\nOn 17 May 1982, the move of the 4450th TG from Groom Lake to Tonopah was initiated, with the final components of the move completed in early 1983. Production FSD airframes from Lockheed were shipped to Area 51 for acceptance testing. As the Baja Scorpions tested the aircraft with functional check flights and L.O. verification, the operational airplanes were then transferred to the 4450th TG at Tonopah.\n\n\nThe R-Unit was inactivated on 30 May 1989. Upon inactivation, the unit was reformed as Detachment 1, 57th Fighter Weapons Wing (FWW). In 1990 the last F-117A (''843'') was delivered from Lockheed. After completion of acceptance flights at Area 51 of this last new F-117A aircraft, the flight test squadron continued flight test duties of refurbished aircraft after modifications by Lockheed. In February/March 1992 the test unit moved from Area 51 to the USAF Palmdale Plant 42 and was integrated with the Air Force Systems Command 6510th Test Squadron. Some testing, especially RCS verification and other classified activity was still conducted at Area 51 throughout the operational lifetime of the F-117. The recently inactivated (2008) 410th Flight Test Squadron traces its roots, if not its formal lineage to the 4450th TG R-unit.\n\n\n===Later operations===\nF-22 during a Red Flag exercise with Groom Lake in the background (March 2013)\nSince the F-117 became operational in 1983, operations at Groom Lake have continued. The base and its associated runway system were expanded, including expansion of housing and support facilities. In 1995, the federal government expanded the exclusionary area around the base to include nearby mountains that had hitherto afforded the only decent overlook of the base, prohibiting access to of land formerly administered by the Bureau of Land Management. On October 22, 2015 a federal judge signed an order giving land that belonged to a Nevada family since the 1870s to the United States Air Force for expanding Area 51. According to the judge, the land that overlooked the base was taken to address security and safety concerns connected with their training and testing.\n", "\n===U.S. government's positions on Area 51===\nA letter from the USAF replying to a query about Area 51\nCIA document from 1967 referring to Area 51\n\nThe amount of information the United States government has been willing to provide regarding Area 51 has generally been minimal. The area surrounding the lake is permanently off-limits to both civilian and normal military air traffic. Security clearances are checked regularly; cameras and weaponry are not allowed. Even military pilots training in the NAFR risk disciplinary action if they stray into the exclusionary \"box\" surrounding Groom's airspace. Surveillance is supplemented using buried motion sensors. Area 51 is a common destination for Janet, the ''de facto'' name of a small fleet of passenger aircraft operated on behalf of the United States Air Force to transport military personnel, primarily from McCarran International Airport.\n\nThe USGS topographic map for the area only shows the long-disused Groom Mine. A civil aviation chart published by the Nevada Department of Transportation shows a large restricted area, defined as part of the Nellis restricted airspace. The National Atlas page showing federal lands in Nevada shows the area as lying within the Nellis Air Force Base. Higher resolution (and more recent) images from other satellite imagery providers (including Russian providers and the IKONOS) are commercially available. These show the runway markings, base facilities, aircraft, and vehicles.\n\nWhen documents that mention the Nevada Test Site (NTS) and operations at Groom are declassified, mentions of Area 51 and Groom Lake are routinely redacted. One exception is a 1967 memo from CIA director Richard Helms regarding the deployment of three OXCART aircraft from Groom to Kadena Air Base to perform reconnaissance over North Vietnam. Although most mentions of OXCART's home base are redacted in this document, as is a map showing the aircraft's route from there to Okinawa, the redactor appears to have missed one mention: page 15 (page 17 in the PDF), section No. 2 ends \"Three OXCART aircraft and the necessary task force personnel will be deployed from Area 51 to Kadena.\"\n\nOn 25 June 2013, CIA released an official history of the U-2 and OXCART projects that officially acknowledged the existence of Area 51. The release was in response to a Freedom of Information Act request submitted in 2005 by Jeffrey T. Richelson of George Washington University's National Security Archives, and contain numerous references to Area 51 and Groom Lake, along with a map of the area.\n\n===Environmental lawsuit===\nArea 51 viewed from distant Tikaboo Peak\nA closed-circuit TV camera watches over the perimeter of Area 51\n\nIn 1994, five unnamed civilian contractors and the widows of contractors Walter Kasza and Robert Frost sued the USAF and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Their suit, in which they were represented by George Washington University law professor Jonathan Turley, alleged they had been present when large quantities of unknown chemicals had been burned in open pits and trenches at Groom. Biopsies taken from the complainants were analyzed by Rutgers University biochemists, who found high levels of dioxin, dibenzofuran, and trichloroethylene in their body fat. The complainants alleged they had sustained skin, liver, and respiratory injuries due to their work at Groom, and that this had contributed to the deaths of Frost and Kasza. The suit sought compensation for the injuries they had sustained, claiming the USAF had illegally handled toxic materials, and that the EPA had failed in its duty to enforce the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (which governs handling of dangerous materials). They also sought detailed information about the chemicals to which they were allegedly exposed, hoping this would facilitate the medical treatment of survivors. Congressman Lee H. Hamilton, former chairman of the House Intelligence Committee, told ''60 Minutes'' reporter Lesley Stahl, \"The Air Force is classifying all information about Area 51 in order to protect themselves from a lawsuit.\"\n\nCiting the State Secrets Privilege, the government petitioned trial judge U.S. District Judge Philip Pro (of the United States District Court for the District of Nevada in Las Vegas) to disallow disclosure of classified documents or examination of secret witnesses, alleging this would expose classified information and threaten national security. When Judge Pro rejected the government's argument, President Bill Clinton issued a Presidential Determination, exempting what it called, \"The Air Force's Operating Location Near Groom Lake, Nevada\" from environmental disclosure laws. Consequently, Pro dismissed the suit due to lack of evidence. Turley appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, on the grounds that the government was abusing its power to classify material. Secretary of the Air Force Sheila E. Widnall filed a brief that stated that disclosures of the materials present in the air and water near Groom \"can reveal military operational capabilities or the nature and scope of classified operations.\" The Ninth Circuit rejected Turley's appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear it, putting an end to the complainants' case.\n\nThe President continues to annually issue a determination continuing the Groom exception. This, and similarly tacit wording used in other government communications, is the only formal recognition the U.S. Government has ever given that Groom Lake is more than simply another part of the Nellis complex.\n\nAn unclassified memo on the safe handling of F-117 Nighthawk material was posted on an Air Force web site in 2005. This discussed the same materials for which the complainants had requested information (information the government had claimed was classified). The memo was removed shortly after journalists became aware of it.\n", "In December 2007, airline pilots noticed that the base had appeared in their aircraft navigation systems' latest Jeppesen database revision with the ICAO airport identifier code of KXTA and listed as \"Homey Airport\". The probably inadvertent release of the airport data led to advice by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) that student pilots should be explicitly warned about KXTA, not to consider it as a waypoint or destination for any flight even though it now appears in public navigation databases.\n", "Area 51 border and warning sign stating that \"photography is prohibited\" and that \"use of deadly force is authorized\" under the terms of the 1950 McCarran Internal Security Act.\n\nSignage around the base perimeter advises that deadly force is authorized against trespassers.\n", "Groom Lake (upper left) and Papoose Lake (lower right). Photo by Doc Searls, 2010.\n\nIn January 2006, space historian Dwayne A. Day published an article in online aerospace magazine ''The Space Review'' titled \"Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident\". The article was based on a memo written in 1974 to CIA director William Colby by an unknown CIA official. The memo reported that astronauts on board Skylab 4 had, as part of a larger program, inadvertently photographed a location of which the memo said:\n\nAlthough the name of the location was obscured, the context led Day to believe that the subject was Groom Lake. As Day noted:\n\nThe memo details debate between federal agencies regarding whether the images should be classified, with Department of Defense agencies arguing that it should, and NASA and the State Department arguing against classification. The memo itself questions the legality of unclassified images to be retroactively classified.\n\nRemarks on the memo, handwritten apparently by DCI (Director of Central Intelligence) Colby himself, read:\n\n\n\nThe declassified documents do not disclose the outcome of discussions regarding the Skylab imagery. The behind-the-scenes debate proved moot as the photograph appeared in the Federal Government's Archive of Satellite Imagery along with the remaining Skylab 4 photographs, with no record of anyone noticing until Day identified it in 2007.\n\n===Other satellite imagery===\nOther satellite imagery is also available, including images that show what appears to be F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft stationed on the base.\n", "Its secretive nature and undoubted connection to classified aircraft research, together with reports of unusual phenomena, have led Area 51 to become a focus of modern UFO and other conspiracy theories. Some of the activities mentioned in such theories at Area 51 include:\n* The storage, examination, and reverse engineering of crashed alien spacecraft (including material supposedly recovered at Roswell), the study of their occupants (living and dead; see grey alien), and the manufacture of aircraft based on alien technology.\n* Meetings or joint undertakings with extraterrestrials.\n* The development of exotic energy weapons for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or other weapons programs.\n* The development of means of weather control.\n* The development of time travel and teleportation technology.\n* The development of unusual and exotic propulsion systems related to the Aurora Program.\n* Activities related to a supposed shadowy one world government or the Majestic 12 organization.\nMany of the hypotheses concern underground facilities at Groom or at Papoose Lake (also known as \"S-4 location\"), south, and include claims of a transcontinental underground railroad system, a disappearing airstrip (nicknamed the \"Cheshire Airstrip\", after Lewis Carroll's Cheshire cat) which briefly appears when water is sprayed onto its camouflaged asphalt, and engineering based on alien technology. Publicly available satellite imagery, however, reveals clearly visible landing strips at Groom Dry Lake, but not at Papoose Lake.\n\nIn the mid-1950s, civilian aircraft flew under 20,000 feet while military aircraft flew under 40,000 feet. Once the U-2 began flying at above 60,000 feet, an unexpected side effect was an increasing number of UFO sighting reports. Sightings occurred most often during early evenings hours, when airline pilots flying west saw the U-2's silver wings reflect the setting sun, giving the aircraft a \"fiery\" appearance. Many sighting reports came to the Air Force's Project Blue Book, which investigated UFO sightings, through air-traffic controllers and letters to the government. The project checked U-2 and later OXCART flight records to eliminate the majority of UFO reports it received during the late 1950s and 1960s, although it could not reveal to the letter writers the truth behind what they saw. Similarly, veterans of experimental projects such as OXCART and NERVA at Area 51 agree that their work (including 2,850 OXCART test flights alone) inadvertently prompted many of the UFO sightings and other rumors:\n\nThey believe that the rumors helped maintain secrecy over Area 51's actual operations. While the veterans deny the existence of a vast underground railroad system, many of Area 51's operations did (and presumably still do) occur underground.\n\nSeveral people have claimed knowledge of events supporting Area 51 conspiracy theories. These have included Bob Lazar, who claimed in 1989 that he had worked at Area 51's \"Sector Four (S-4)\", said to be located underground inside the Papoose Range near Papoose Lake. Lazar has stated he was contracted to work with alien spacecraft that the U.S. government had in its possession.\n\nSimilarly, the 1996 documentary ''Dreamland'' directed by Bruce Burgess included an interview with a 71-year-old mechanical engineer who claimed to be a former employee at Area 51 during the 1950s. His claims included that he had worked on a \"flying disc simulator\" which had been based on a disc originating from a crashed extraterrestrial craft and was used to train US Pilots. He also claimed to have worked with an extraterrestrial being named \"J-Rod\" and described as a \"telepathic translator\".\n\nIn 2004, Dan Burisch (pseudonym of Dan Crain) claimed to have worked on cloning alien viruses at Area 51, also alongside the alien named \"J-Rod\". Burisch's scholarly credentials are the subject of much debate, as he was apparently working as a Las Vegas parole officer in 1989 while also earning a PhD at State University of New York (SUNY).\n", "\n\nNovels, films, television programs, and other fictional portrayals of Area 51 describe it—or a fictional counterpart—as a haven for extraterrestrials, time travel, and sinister conspiracies, often linking it with the Roswell UFO incident.\nIn the 1996 action film ''Independence Day'', the United States military uses alien technology captured at Roswell to attack the invading alien fleet from Area 51. The president of the United States dismissed the site's existence as a myth until his secretary revealed it to him, at which he questioned where the off-the-book-funding comes from. In the 2016 sequel, ''Independence Day: Resurgence'', that 20 years after the events of the first film, Area 51 has become the Space Defense Headquarters for Earth Space Defense (ESD).\nThe 2015 film Area 51 (film) is a mockumentary which depicts four individuals attempting to sneak into Area 51. \nThe \"Hangar 51\" government warehouse of the ''Indiana Jones'' films stores, among other exotic items, the Ark of the Covenant and an alien corpse from Roswell.\nIn the television series ''Stargate SG-1'', Area 51 serves as a storage and testing facility for advanced weapon systems and aircraft/spacecraft designed using alien technology discovered after the Stargate was activated. The series states that prior to the Stargate's activation, rumors of alien technology or individuals existing at Area 51 were unfounded.\nThe television series ''Seven Days'' takes place inside Area 51, with the base containing a covert NSA time travel operation using alien technology recovered from Roswell.\nThe 2005 video game ''Area 51'' is set in the base, and mentions the Roswell and moon landing hoax conspiracy theories.\nBob Mayer's Area 51 novel series (originally written under his pen name, Robert Doherty) is set on the base, and Operation Highjump is said to have been a cover for an expedition to excavate flying saucers buried under Antarctica's ice shelf by long-ago extraterrestrial visitors.\nThe 2000 video games ''Deus Ex'' and Perfect Dark feature Area 51, and the 1995 arcade game Area 51 puts the player in control of a soldier attempting to stop the takeover of the base by aliens.\n* Episode 7 of season 6 of the TV series ''Archer'', titled \"Nellis\", is set in Area 51, where Pam and Krieger encounter extraterrestrials. However, Area 51 is fictionalized as part of nearby Nellis Air Force Base, rather than being part of Edwards Air Force Base.\n* At least two Warhammer 40K stories involve unrelated places named Regio Quinquaginta-Unus. In '''The Greater good''' (a Ciaphas Cain novel by Sandy Mitchell) it's a secret Adeptus Mechanicus site holding alien artifacts, and, it turns out, live Genestealer specimens as well.\n\n", "\n* Black project\n* Black site\n* Dugway Proving Ground, a restricted facility in the Utah desert.\n* Groom Range, a mountain range north of the lakebed.\n* Kapustin Yar, a Russian rocket launch and development site.\n* Special Access Program\n* Title 51 of the United States Code, National and Commercial Space Programs\n* Tonopah Test Range Airport, a large airfield also within the Nellis Range.\n* Tonopah Test Range, also known as Area 52\n* Woomera Test Range, a defense and aerospace testing area in Australia.\n", "===Specific===\n\n\n===General===\n\n* Rich, Ben R.; Janos, Leo (1994). ''Skunk Works: A personal memoir of my years at Lockheed''. Boston: Little, Brown. \n* Darlington, David (1998). ''Area 51: The Dreamland Chronicles''. New York: Henry Holt. \n* Patton, Phil (1998). ''Dreamland: Travels Inside the Secret World of Roswell and Area 51''. New York: Villard / Random House \n* Area 51 resources at the Federation of American Scientists.\n* Lesley Stahl \"Area 51 / Catch 22\" ''60 Minutes'' CBS Television 17 March 1996, a US TV news magazine's segment about the environmental lawsuit.\n* Inside Area 51, an index of articles from the ''Las Vegas Review-Journal''. .\n* Jacobsen, Annie (2011). \"Area 51\". New York, Little, Brown and Company. (hc)\n\n", "\n\n===General===\n* Dreamland Resort – Detailed history of Area 51\n* Roadrunners Internationale – Covering the history of the U2 and A-12 Blackbird spy plane projects\n* \"How Area 51 Works\", on HowStuffWorks\n\n===Maps and photographs===\n* The site Wikimapia\n* Dreamland Resort's map of Area 51 buildings\n* Dreamland Resort Maps – Maps of Area 51 and Google Earth plug-ins\n* Topographic Map of the Emigrant Valley / Groom area\n* Photographs of McCarran EG&G terminal and JANET aircraft\n* Official FAA aeronautical chart of Groom Lake\n* Historical pictures of Groom Lake, Groom Lake Mining District, Department of Special Collections, Digital Image Collections, University of Nevada, Reno, accessed 30 January 2009\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Geography", "History", "Legal status", "Civil aviation identification", " Security", "1974 Skylab photography", "UFO and other conspiracy theories", "In popular culture", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Area 51
[ "\n\n'''Audio signal processing''' or '''audio processing''' is the intentional alteration of audio signals often through an '''audio effect''' or effects unit. As audio signals may be electronically represented in either digital or analog format, signal processing may occur in either domain. Analog processors operate directly on the electrical signal, while digital processors operate mathematically on the digital representation of that signal.\n", "Audio signals are electronic representations of sound waves—longitudinal waves which travel through air, consisting of compressions and rarefactions. The energy contained in audio signals is typically measured in decibels. Audio processing was necessary for early radio broadcasting, as there were many problems with studio to transmitter links.\n", "\n\"Analog\" indicates something that is mathematically represented by a set of continuous values; for example, the analog clock uses constantly moving hands on a physical clock face, where moving the hands directly alters the information that clock is providing. Thus, an analog signal is one represented by a continuous stream of data, in this case along an electrical circuit in the form of voltage, current or charge changes ''(compare with digital signals below)''. Analog signal processing (ASP) then involves physically altering the continuous signal by changing the voltage or current or charge via various electrical means.\n\nHistorically, before the advent of widespread digital technology, ASP was the only method by which to manipulate a signal. Since that time, as computers and software became more advanced, digital signal processing has become the method of choice.\n", "\nA digital representation expresses the pressure wave-form as a sequence of symbols, usually binary numbers. This permits signal processing using digital circuits such as microprocessors and computers. Although such a conversion can be prone to loss, most modern audio systems use this approach as the techniques of digital signal processing are much more powerful and efficient than analog domain signal processing.\n", "\nProcessing methods and application areas include storage, level compression, data compression, transmission, enhancement (e.g., equalization, filtering, noise cancellation, echo or reverb removal or addition, etc.)\n\n=== Audio broadcasting ===\n\nTraditionally the most important audio processing (in audio broadcasting) takes place just before the transmitter. Studio audio processing is limited in the modern era due to digital audio systems (mixers, routers) being pervasive in the studio.\n\nIn audio broadcasting, the audio processor must\n* prevent or minimize overmodulation,\n* compensate for non-linear transmitters (a potential issue with medium wave and shortwave broadcasting) and\n* adjust overall loudness to desired level\n", "Audio unprocessed by reverb and delay is metaphorically referred to as \"dry\", while processed audio is referred to as \"wet\".\n\n* ''echo'' - to simulate the effect of reverberation in a large hall or cavern, one or several delayed signals are added to the original signal. To be perceived as echo, the delay has to be of order 35 milliseconds or above. Short of actually playing a sound in the desired environment, the effect of echo can be implemented using either digital or analog methods. Analog echo effects are implemented using tape delays and/or spring reverbs. When large numbers of delayed signals are mixed over several seconds, the resulting sound has the effect of being presented in a large room, and it is more commonly called reverberation or reverb for short.\n* ''flanger'' - to create an unusual sound, a delayed signal is added to the original signal with a continuously variable delay (usually smaller than 10 ms). This effect is now done electronically using DSP, but originally the effect was created by playing the same recording on two synchronized tape players, and then mixing the signals together. As long as the machines were synchronized, the mix would sound more-or-less normal, but if the operator placed his finger on the flange of one of the players (hence \"flanger\"), that machine would slow down and its signal would fall out-of-phase with its partner, producing a phasing effect. Once the operator took his finger off, the player would speed up until its tachometer was back in phase with the master, and as this happened, the phasing effect would appear to slide up the frequency spectrum. This phasing up-and-down the register can be performed rhythmically.\n* ''phaser'' - another way of creating an unusual sound; the signal is split, a portion is filtered with an all-pass filter to produce a phase-shift, and then the unfiltered and filtered signals are mixed. The phaser effect was originally a simpler implementation of the flanger effect since delays were difficult to implement with analog equipment. Phasers are often used to give a \"synthesized\" or electronic effect to natural sounds, such as human speech. The voice of C-3PO from Star Wars was created by taking the actor's voice and treating it with a phaser.\n* ''chorus'' - a delayed signal is added to the original signal with a constant delay. The delay has to be short in order not to be perceived as echo, but above 5 ms to be audible. If the delay is too short, it will destructively interfere with the un-delayed signal and create a flanging effect. Often, the delayed signals will be slightly pitch shifted to more realistically convey the effect of multiple voices.\n* ''equalization'' - different frequency bands are attenuated or boosted to produce desired spectral characteristics. Moderate use of equalization (often abbreviated as \"EQ\") can be used to \"fine-tune\" the tone quality of a recording; extreme use of equalization, such as heavily cutting a certain frequency can create more unusual effects.\n* ''filtering'' - Equalization is a form of filtering. In the general sense, frequency ranges can be emphasized or attenuated using low-pass, high-pass, band-pass or band-stop filters. Band-pass filtering of voice can simulate the effect of a telephone because telephones use band-pass filters.\n* ''overdrive'' effects such as the use of a fuzz box can be used to produce distorted sounds, such as for imitating robotic voices or to simulate distorted radiotelephone traffic (e.g., the radio chatter between starfighter pilots in the science fiction film ''Star Wars'') . The most basic overdrive effect involves ''clipping'' the signal when its absolute value exceeds a certain threshold.\n* ''pitch shift'' - this effect shifts a signal up or down in pitch. For example, a signal may be shifted an octave up or down. This is usually applied to the entire signal, and not to each note separately. Blending the original signal with shifted duplicate(s) can create harmonies from one voice. Another application of pitch shifting is pitch correction. Here a musical signal is tuned to the correct pitch using digital signal processing techniques. This effect is ubiquitous in karaoke machines and is often used to assist pop singers who sing out of tune. It is also used intentionally for aesthetic effect in such pop songs as Cher's ''Believe'' and Madonna's ''Die Another Day''.\n* ''time stretching'' - the complement of pitch shift, that is, the process of changing the speed of an audio signal without affecting its pitch.\n* ''resonators'' - emphasize harmonic frequency content on specified frequencies. These may be created from parametric EQs or from delay-based comb-filters.\n* ''robotic voice effects'' are used to make an actor's voice sound like a synthesized human voice.\n* ''synthesizer'' - generate artificially almost any sound by either imitating natural sounds or creating completely new sounds.\n* ''modulation'' - to change the frequency or amplitude of a carrier signal in relation to a predefined signal. Ring modulation, also known as amplitude modulation, is an effect made famous by Doctor Who's Daleks and commonly used throughout sci-fi.\n* ''compression'' - the reduction of the dynamic range of a sound to avoid unintentional fluctuation in the dynamics. Level compression is not to be confused with audio data compression, where the amount of data is reduced without affecting the amplitude of the sound it represents.\n* ''3D audio effects'' - place sounds outside the stereo basis\n* ''reverse echo'' - a swelling effect created by reversing an audio signal and recording echo and/or delay while the signal runs in reverse. When played back forward the last echos are heard before the effected sound creating a rush like swell preceding and during playback. Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin used this effect in the bridge of \"Whole Lotta Love\".\n* ''active noise control''- a method for reducing unwanted sound\n* ''wave field synthesis'' - a spatial audio rendering technique for the creation of virtual acoustic environments\n", "* Sound card\n* Sound effect\n", "\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Analog signals ", " Digital signals ", " Application areas ", " Techniques ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading " ]	Audio signal processing
[ "\nEvolution according to Amdahl's law of the theoretical speedup in latency of the execution of a program in function of the number of processors executing it, for different values of p. The speedup is limited by the serial part of the program. For example, if 95% of the program can be parallelized, the theoretical maximum speedup using parallel computing would be 20 times.\n\nIn computer architecture, '''Amdahl's law''' (or '''Amdahl's argument''') is a formula which gives the theoretical speedup in latency of the execution of a task at fixed workload that can be expected of a system whose resources are improved. It is named after computer scientist Gene Amdahl, and was presented at the AFIPS Spring Joint Computer Conference in 1967.\n\nAmdahl's law is often used in parallel computing to predict the theoretical speedup when using multiple processors. For example, if a program needs 20 hours using a single processor core, and a particular part of the program which takes one hour to execute cannot be parallelized, while the remaining 19 hours () of execution time can be parallelized, then regardless of how many processors are devoted to a parallelized execution of this program, the minimum execution time cannot be less than that critical one hour. Hence, the theoretical speedup is limited to at most 20 times (). For this reason, parallel computing with many processors is useful only for highly parallelizable programs.\n", "\nAmdahl's law can be formulated in the following way:\n: \nwhere\n* ''S''latency is the theoretical speedup of the execution of the whole task;\n* ''s'' is the speedup of the part of the task that benefits from improved system resources;\n* ''p'' is the proportion of execution time that the part benefiting from improved resources originally occupied.\n\nFurthermore,\n\n: \n\nshows that the theoretical speedup of the execution of the whole task increases with the improvement of the resources of the system and that regardless of the magnitude of the improvement, the theoretical speedup is always limited by the part of the task that cannot benefit from the improvement.\n\nAmdahl's law applies only to the cases where the problem size is fixed. In practice, as more computing resources become available, they tend to get used on larger problems (larger datasets), and the time spent in the parallelizable part often grows much faster than the inherently serial work. In this case, Gustafson's law gives a less pessimistic and more realistic assessment of the parallel performance.\n", "\nA task executed by a system whose resources are improved compared to an initial similar system can be split up into two parts:\n\n* a part that does not benefit from the improvement of the resources of the system;\n* a part that benefits from the improvement of the resources of the system.\n\nAn example is a computer program that processes files from disk. A part of that program may scan the directory of the disk and create a list of files internally in memory. After that, another part of the program passes each file to a separate thread for processing. The part that scans the directory and creates the file list cannot be sped up on a parallel computer, but the part that processes the files can.\n\nThe execution time of the whole task before the improvement of the resources of the system is denoted as . It includes the execution time of the part that would not benefit from the improvement of the resources and the execution time of the one that would benefit from it. The fraction of the execution time of the task that would benefit from the improvement of the resources is denoted by . The one concerning the part that would not benefit from it is therefore . Then:\n\n: \n\nIt is the execution of the part that benefits from the improvement of the resources that is accelerated by the factor after the improvement of the resources. Consequently, the execution time of the part that does not benefit from it remains the same, while the part that benefits from it becomes:\n\n: \n\nThe theoretical execution time of the whole task after the improvement of the resources is then:\n\n: \n\nAmdahl's law gives the theoretical speedup in latency of the execution of the whole task ''at fixed workload '', which yields\n: \n\n=== Parallel programs ===\n\nIf 30% of the execution time may be the subject of a speedup, ''p'' will be 0.3; if the improvement makes the affected part twice as fast, ''s'' will be 2. Amdahl's law states that the overall speedup of applying the improvement will be:\n\n: \n\nFor example, assume that we are given a serial task which is split into four consecutive parts, whose percentages of execution time are , , , and respectively. Then we are told that the 1st part is not sped up, so , while the 2nd part is sped up 5 times, so , the 3rd part is sped up 20 times, so , and the 4th part is sped up 1.6 times, so . By using Amdahl's law, the overall speedup is\n: \nNotice how the 20 times and 5 times speedup on the 2nd and 3rd parts respectively don't have much effect on the overall speedup when the 4th part (48% of the execution time) is accelerated by only 1.6 times.\n\n=== Serial programs ===\nAssume that a task has two independent parts, ''A'' and ''B''. Part ''B'' takes roughly 25% of the time of the whole computation. By working very hard, one may be able to make this part 5 times faster, but this reduces the time of the whole computation only slightly. In contrast, one may need to perform less work to make part ''A'' perform twice as fast. This will make the computation much faster than by optimizing part ''B'', even though part ''B'''s speedup is greater in terms of the ratio, (5 times versus 2 times).\n\nFor example, with a serial program in two parts ''A'' and ''B'' for which and ,\n* if part ''B'' is made to run 5 times faster, that is and , then\n: \nif part ''A'' is made to run 2 times faster, that is and , then\n: \n\nTherefore, making part ''A'' to run 2 times faster is better than making part ''B'' to run 5 times faster. The percentage improvement in speed can be calculated as\n: \n\n Improving part ''A'' by a factor of 2 will increase overall program speed by a factor of 1.60, which makes it 37.5% faster than the original computation.\n* However, improving part ''B'' by a factor of 5, which presumably requires more effort, will achieve an overall speedup factor of 1.25 only, which makes it 20% faster.\n", "\nAmdahl's law is often conflated with the law of diminishing returns, whereas only a special case of applying Amdahl's law demonstrates law of diminishing returns. If one picks optimally (in terms of the achieved speedup) what to improve, then one will see monotonically decreasing improvements as one improves. If, however, one picks non-optimally, after improving a sub-optimal component and moving on to improve a more optimal component, one can see an increase in the return. Note that it is often rational to improve a system in an order that is \"non-optimal\" in this sense, given that some improvements are more difficult or require larger development time than others.\n\nAmdahl's law does represent the law of diminishing returns if on considering what sort of return one gets by adding more processors to a machine, if one is running a fixed-size computation that will use all available processors to their capacity. Each new processor added to the system will add less usable power than the previous one. Each time one doubles the number of processors the speedup ratio will diminish, as the total throughput heads toward the limit of 1/(1 − ''p'').\n\nThis analysis neglects other potential bottlenecks such as memory bandwidth and I/O bandwidth. If these resources do not scale with the number of processors, then merely adding processors provides even lower returns. \n\nAn implication of Amdahl's law is that to speedup real applications which have both serial and parallel portions, heterogeneous computing techniques are required. For example, a CPU-GPU heterogeneous processor may provide higher performance and energy efficiency than a CPU-only or GPU-only processor.", "\n* Gustafson's law\n* Critical path method\n* Moore's law\n", "\n", "\n* \n\n* \n", "\n\n* \n\n* Oral history interview with Gene M. Amdahl Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota (1989). Amdahl discusses his graduate work at the University of Wisconsin and his design of WISC. Discusses his role in the design of several computers for IBM including the STRETCH, IBM 701, and IBM 704. He discusses his work with Nathaniel Rochester and IBM's management of the design process. Mentions work with Ramo-Wooldridge, Aeronutronic, and Computer Sciences Corporation\n\n* Amdahl's Law: Not all performance improvements are created equal (2007)\n* \"Amdahl's Law\" by Joel F. Klein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project (2007)\n* Amdahl's Law in the Multicore Era (July 2008)\n* What the $#@! is Parallelism, Anyhow? (Charles Leiserson, May 2008)\n* Evaluation of the Intel Core i7 Turbo Boost feature, by James Charles, Preet Jassi, Ananth Narayan S, Abbas Sadat and Alexandra Fedorova (2009)\n* Calculation of the acceleration of parallel programs as a function of the number of threads, by George Popov, Valeri Mladenov and Nikos Mastorakis (January 2010)\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Definition ", " Derivation ", " Relation to the law of diminishing returns ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Amdahl's law
[ "\n\n\nLoreto region of Peru\n'''Ayahuasca''' (; ), or iowaska, or '''yagé''' ( or ), is an entheogenic brew made out of ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' vine and other ingredients. The brew is used as a traditional spiritual medicine in ceremonies among the Indigenous peoples of the Amazon basin.\n\nIt has been reported that some psychoactive effects can be felt from consuming the ayahuasca vine alone. The hallucinogen DMT will be digested in the stomach and remain inactive without the inclusion of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) such as ''Banisteriopsis caapi''. Therefore, a combination of both a MAOI-containing plant and DMT-containing substance is necessary for full hallucinogenic effects. The resulting brew is known by a number of different names (see below).\n", "Ayahuasca\nAyahuasca is known by many names throughout Northern South America and Brazil.\n\n''Ayahuasca'' is the hispanicized style spelling of a word in the Quechua languages, which are spoken in the Andean states of Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia. Speakers of Quechua languages or of the Aymara language may prefer the spelling ''ayawaska''. This word refers both to the liana ''Banisteriopsis caapi'', and to the brew prepared from it. In the Quechua languages, ''aya'' means \"spirit, soul\", \"corpse, dead body\", and ''waska'' means \"rope\" and \"woody vine\", \"liana\". The word ''ayahuasca'' has been variously translated as \"liana of the soul\", \"liana of the dead\", and \"spirit liana\".\n\nIn Brazil, the brew and the liana are informally called either '''''caapi''''' or '''''cipó'''''; the latter is the Portuguese word for liana (or woody climbing vine). In the União do Vegetal of Brazil, an organised spiritual tradition in which people drink ayahuasca, the brew is prepared exclusively from ''B. caapi'' and ''P. viridis''. Adherents of União do Vegetal call this brew '''''hoasca''''' or '''''vegetal'''''.\n\nThe Achuar people and Shuar people of Ecuador and Peru call it '''''natem''''', whereas the Sharanahua peoples of Peru call it '''''shori'''''.\n", "In the 16th century, Christian missionaries from Spain and Portugal first encountered indigenous South Americans using ayahuasca; their earliest reports described it as \"the work of the devil\". In the 20th century, the active chemical constituent of ''B. caapi'' was named ''telepathine'', but it was found to be identical to a chemical already isolated from ''Peganum harmala'' and was given the name harmaline. Beat writer William Burroughs read a paper by Richard Evans Schultes on the subject and while traveling through South America in the early 1950s sought out ''yagé'' in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction (see ''The Yage Letters''). Ayahuasca became more widely known when the McKenna brothers published their experience in the Amazon in ''True Hallucinations''. Dennis McKenna later studied pharmacology, botany, and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he, which became the subject of his master's thesis.\n\nRichard Evans Schultes allowed for Claudio Naranjo to make a special journey by canoe up the Amazon River to study yage with the South American Indians. He brought back samples of this drug and published the first scientific description of the effects of its active alkaloids.\n\nIn Brazil, a number of modern religious movements based on the use of ayahuasca have emerged, the most famous of them being Santo Daime and the União do Vegetal (or UDV), usually in an animistic context that may be shamanistic or, more often (as with Santo Daime and the UDV), integrated with Christianity. Both Santo Daime and União do Vegetal now have members and churches throughout the world. Similarly, the US and Europe have started to see new religious groups develop in relation to increased ayahuasca use. Some Westerners have teamed up with shamans in the Amazon rainforest regions, forming ayahuasca healing retreats that claim to be able to cure mental and physical illness and allow communication with the spirit world.\n\nIn recent years, the brew has been popularized by Wade Davis (''One River),'' English novelist Martin Goodman in ''I Was Carlos Castaneda'', Chilean novelist Isabel Allende, writer Kira Salak, author Jeremy Narby (''The Cosmic Serpent''), author Jay Griffiths (\"Wild: An Elemental Journey\"), and radio personality Robin Quivers. It was also key to the plot of Season 18, Episode 18, \"Spellbound\" of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.\n", "Sections of ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' vine are macerated and boiled alone or with leaves from any of a number of other plants, including ''Psychotria viridis'' (''chacruna'') or ''Diplopterys cabrerana'' (also known as ''chaliponga'' and ''chacropanga''). The resulting brew may contain the powerful psychedelic drug DMT and MAO inhibiting harmala alkaloids, which are necessary to make the DMT orally active. The traditional making of ayahuasca follows a ritual process that requires the user to pick the lower chacruna leaf at sunrise then say a prayer. The vine must be \"cleaned meticulously with wooden spoons\" and pounded \"with wooden mallets until it's fibre.\" \n\nBrews can also be made with no DMT-containing plants; ''Psychotria viridis'' being substituted by plants such as ''Justicia pectoralis'', ''Brugmansia'', or sacred tobacco, also known as ''mapacho'' (Nicotiana rustica), or sometimes left out with no replacement. This brew varies radically from one batch to the next, both in potency and psychoactive effect, based mainly on the skill of the shaman or brewer, as well as other admixtures sometimes added and the intent of the ceremony. Natural variations in plant alkaloid content and profiles also affect the final concentration of alkaloids in the brew, and the physical act of cooking may also serve to modify the alkaloid profile of harmala alkaloids.\n", "Ayahuasca\n\nAyahuasca is used largely as a treasured sacrament. People who work with ayahuasca in non-traditional contexts often align themselves with the philosophies and cosmologies associated with ayahuasca shamanism, as practiced among indigenous peoples like the Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon. While non-native users know of the spiritual applications of ayahuasca, a less well-known traditional usage focuses on the medicinal properties of ayahuasca. When used for its medicinal purposes, ayahuasca affects the human consciousness for fewer than six hours, beginning half an hour after consumption and peaking after two hours. Ayahuasca also has cardiovascular effects, moderately increasing both heart rate and diastolic blood pressure. In some cases, individuals experience significant psychological stress during the experience. It is for this reason that extreme caution should be taken with those who may be at risk of heart disease.\n\nThe psychedelic effects of ayahuasca include visual and auditory stimulation, the mixing of sensory modalities, and psychological introspection that may lead to great elation, fear, or illumination. Its purgative properties are important (known as ''la purga'' or \"the purge\"). The intense vomiting and occasional diarrhea it induces can clear the body of worms and other tropical parasites, and harmala alkaloids themselves have been shown to be anthelmintic. Thus, this action is twofold; a direct action on the parasites by these harmala alkaloids (particularly harmine in ayahuasca) works to kill the parasites, and parasites are expelled through the increased intestinal motility that is caused by these alkaloids.\n\nDietary taboos are often associated with the use of ayahuasca. In the rainforest, these tend towards the purification of one's self – abstaining from spicy and heavily-seasoned foods, excess fat, salt, caffeine, acidic foods (such as citrus) and sex before, after, or during a ceremony. A diet low in foods containing tyramine has been recommended, as the speculative interaction of tyramine and MAOIs could lead to a hypertensive crisis. However, evidence indicates that harmala alkaloids act only on MAO-A, in a reversible way similar to moclobemide (an antidepressant that does not require dietary restrictions). Dietary restrictions are not used by the highly urban Brazilian ayahuasca church União do Vegetal, suggesting the risk is much lower than perceived and probably non-existent.\n\n=== Role of shamans ===\nShamans and experienced users of ayahuasca advise against consuming ayahuasca when not in the presence of one or several well-trained shamans.\n\nIn some areas, there are purported brujos (Spanish for 'Sorcerers') who masquerade as real shamans and who entice tourists to drink ayahuasca in their presence. Shamans believe one of the purposes for this is to steal one's energy and/or power, of which they believe every person has a limited stockpile.\n\n=== Traditional brew ===\nNapo region of Ecuador\nTraditional ayahuasca brews are usually made with ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' as an MAOI, although dimethyltryptamine sources and other admixtures vary from region to region. There are several varieties of caapi, often known as different \"colors\", with varying effects, potencies, and uses.\n\nDMT admixtures:\n* ''Psychotria viridis'' (Chacruna) – leaves\n* ''Diplopterys cabrerana'' (Chaliponga, Chagropanga, ''Banisteriopsis rusbyana'') – leaves\n* ''Psychotria carthagenensis'' (Amyruca) – leaves\n\nOther common admixtures:\n* ''Justicia pectoralis''\n* ''Brugmansia'' (Toé)\n* ''Nicotiana rustica'' (Mapacho, variety of tobacco)\n* ''Ilex guayusa'', a relative of yerba mate\n\nCommon admixtures with their associated ceremonial values and spirits:\n\n'''Ayahuma bark''': Dead head tree. Provides protection and is used in healing susto (soul loss from spiritual fright or trauma). \n'''Capirona bark''': Provides cleansing and protection. It is noted for its smooth bark, white flowers, and hard wood. \n'''Chullachaki caspi bark''' (''Brysonima christianeae''): Provides cleansing to the physical body. Used to transcend physical body ailments.\n'''Lopuna blanca bark''': Provides protection. \n'''Punga amarilla bark''': Yellow Punga. Provides protection. Used to pull or draw out negative spirits or energies. \n'''Remo caspi bark''': Oar Tree. Used to move dense or dark energies.\n'''Wyra (huaira) caspi bark''' (''Cedrelinga catanaeformis''): Air Tree. Used to create purging, transcend gastro/intestinal ailments, calm the mind, and bring tranquility. \n'''Shiwawaku bark''': Brings purple medicine to the ceremony. \n'''Uchu sanango''': Head of the sanango plants. \n'''Huacapurana''': Giant tree of the Amazon with very hard bark.\n", "In the late 20th century, the practice of ayahuasca drinking began spreading to Europe, North America and elsewhere. The first ayahuasca churches, affiliated with the Brazilian Santo Daime, were established in the Netherlands. A legal case was filed against two of the Church's leaders, Hans Bogers (one of the original founders of the Dutch Santo Daime community) and Geraldine Fijneman (the head of the Amsterdam Santo Daime community). Bogers and Fijneman were charged with distributing a controlled substance (DMT); however, the prosecution was unable to prove that the use of ayahuasca by members of the Santo Daime constituted a sufficient threat to public health and order such that it warranted denying their rights to religious freedom under ECHR Article 9. The 2001 verdict of the Amsterdam district court is an important precedent. Since then groups that are not affiliated to the Santo Daime have used ayahuasca, and a number of different \"styles\" have been developed, including non-religious approaches.\n\n=== Ayahuasca analogues ===\n\nIn modern Europe and North America, ayahuasca analogs are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant can be used as a substitute for the ayahuasca vine, and the DMT-rich ''Mimosa hostilis'' is used in place of ''chacruna''. Australia has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of ''Acacia''.\n\nThe name \"ayahuasca\" specifically refers to a botanical decoction that contains ''Banisteriopsis caapi''. A synthetic version, known as pharmahuasca, is a combination of an appropriate MAOI and typically DMT. In this usage, the DMT is generally considered the main psychoactive active ingredient, while the MAOI merely preserves the psychoactivity of orally ingested DMT, which would otherwise be destroyed in the gut before it could be absorbed in the body. In contrast, traditionally among Amazonian tribes, the B.Caapi vine is considered to be the \"spirit\" of ayahuasca, the gatekeeper, and guide to the otherworldly realms.\n\nBrews similar to ayahuasca may be prepared using several plants not traditionally used in South America:\n\nDMT admixtures:\n* ''Acacia maidenii'' (Maiden's Wattle) not all plants are \"active strains,\" meaning some plants will have very little DMT and others larger amounts, ''Acacia phlebophylla'', and other Acacias, most commonly employed in Australia – bark\n ''Acacia obtusifolia'' Has a similar range to ''Acacia maidenii'' – bark\n* ''Anadenanthera peregrina'', ''A. colubrina, A. excelsa, A. macrocarpa''\n* ''Mimosa hostilis'' (Jurema) – root bark – not traditionally employed with ayahuasca by any existing cultures, though likely it was in the past. Popular in Europe and North America.\n\nMAOI admixtures:\n* Harmal (''Peganum harmala'', Syrian rue) – seeds\n* Passion flower \n* synthetic MAOIs, especially RIMAs\n", "Molecular structure of harmine\nMolecular structure of harmaline\nMolecular structure of tetrahydroharmine\nHarmala alkaloids are MAO-inhibiting ''beta''-carbolines. The three most studied harmala alkaloids in the ''B. caapi'' vine are harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine. Harmine and harmaline are selective and reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), while tetrahydroharmine is a weak serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI).\n\nThis inhibition of MAO-A allows DMT to diffuse unmetabolized past the membranes in the stomach and small intestine, and eventually cross the blood–brain barrier (which, by itself, requires no MAO-A inhibition) to activate receptor sites in the brain. Without RIMAs or the non-selective, nonreversible monoamine oxidase inhibition by drugs like phenelzine and tranylcypromine, DMT would be oxidized (and thus rendered biologically inactive) by monoamine oxidase enzymes in the digestive tract.\n\nIndividual polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450-2D6 enzyme affect the ability of individuals to metabolize harmine. Some natural tolerance to habitual use of ayahuasca (roughly once weekly) may develop through upregulation of the serotonergic system. A phase 1 pharmacokinetic study on ayahuasca (as Hoasca) with 15 volunteers was conducted in 1993, during the Hoasca Project. A review of the Hoasca Project has been published.\n", "Ayahuasca cooking\nPeople who have consumed ayahuasca report having spiritual revelations regarding their purpose on earth, the true nature of the universe as well as deep insight into how to be the best person they possibly can. This is viewed by many as a spiritual awakening and what is often described as a rebirth. In addition, it is often reported that individuals feel they gain access to higher spiritual dimensions and make contact with various spiritual or extra-dimensional beings who can act as guides or healers.\n\nAuthor Don Jose Campos claims that people may experience profound positive life changes subsequent to consuming ayahuasca. Vomiting can follow ayahuasca ingestion; this purging is considered by many shamans and experienced users of ayahuasca to be an essential part of the experience, as it represents the release of negative energy and emotions built up over the course of one's life. Others report purging in the form of nausea, diarrhea, and hot/cold flashes.\n\nThe ingestion of ayahuasca can also cause significant, but temporary, emotional and psychological distress. Excessive use can lead to serotonin syndrome, with symptoms such as tremors, diarrhea, autonomic instability, hyperthermia, sweating, muscle spasms and possible death. Long-term negative effects are not known. A few deaths due to participation in the consumption of ayahuasca have been reported. Some of the deaths may have been due to unscreened preexisting heart conditions, interaction with drugs, such as antidepressants, recreational drugs, caffeine, or nicotine, or any of the various additional plants that are frequently added to brews.\n\nResearch developed by the Beckley Foundation suggests ayahuasca intake can lead to significant increases in mindfulness abilities and that ayahuasca can promote neurogenesis (the growth of new brain cells) in vitro.\n", "Internationally, DMT is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plants containing it are not subject to international control:\n\nThe cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention. . . . Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principals, mescaline, DMT, and psilocin.\n\n\nA fax from the Secretary of the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) to the Netherlands Ministry of Public Health sent in 2001 goes on to state that \"Consequently, preparations (e.g. decoctions) made of these plants, including ayahuasca, are not under international control and, therefore, not subject to any of the articles of the 1971 Convention.\"\n\nDespite the INCB's 2001 affirmation that ayahuasca is not subject to drug control by international convention, in its 2010 Annual Report the Board recommended that governments consider controlling (i.e. criminalizing) ayahuasca at the national level. This recommendation by the INCB has been criticized as an attempt by the Board to overstep its legitimate mandate and as establishing a reason for governments to violate the human rights (i.e., religious freedom) of ceremonial ayahuasca drinkers.\n\nThe legal status in the United States of DMT-containing plants is somewhat questionable. Ayahuasca plants and preparations are legal, as they contain no scheduled chemicals. However, brews made using DMT containing plants are illegal since DMT is a Schedule I drug. That said, some people are challenging this, using arguments similar to those used by peyotist religious sects, such as the Native American Church. A court case allowing the União do Vegetal to import and use the tea for religious purposes in the United States, ''Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal'', was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court on November 1, 2005; the decision, released February 21, 2006, allows the UDV to use the tea in its ceremonies pursuant to the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. In a similar case an Ashland, Oregon-based Santo Daime church sued for their right to import and consume ayahuasca tea. In March 2009, U.S. District Court Judge Panner ruled in favor of the Santo Daime, acknowledging its protection from prosecution under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.\n\nReligious use in Brazil was legalized after two official inquiries into the tea in the mid-1980s, which concluded that ayahuasca is not a recreational drug and has valid spiritual uses.\n\nIn France, Santo Daime won a court case allowing them to use the tea in early 2005; however, they were not allowed an exception for religious purposes, but rather for the simple reason that they did not perform chemical extractions to end up with pure DMT and harmala and the plants used were not scheduled. Four months after the court victory, the common ingredients of ayahuasca as well as harmala were declared ''stupéfiants'', or narcotic schedule I substances, making the tea and its ingredients illegal to use or possess.\n\n", "\nAyahuasca has also stirred debate regarding intellectual property protection of traditional knowledge. In 1986 the US Patent and Trademarks Office allowed the granting of a patent on the ayahuasca vine B. Caapi. It allowed this patent based on the assumption that ayahuasca's properties had not been previously described in writing. Several public interest groups, including the ''Coordinating Body of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon Basin'' (COICA) and the ''Coalition for Amazonian Peoples and Their Environment (Amazon Coalition)'' objected. In 1999 they brought a legal challenge to this patent which had granted a private US citizen \"ownership\" of the knowledge of a plant that is well-known and sacred to many indigenous peoples of the Amazon, and used by them in religious and healing ceremonies.\n\nLater that year the PTO issued a decision rejecting the patent, on the basis that the petitioners' arguments that the plant was not \"distinctive or novel\" were valid. However, the decision did not acknowledge the argument that the plant's religious or cultural values prohibited a patent. In 2001, after an appeal by the patent holder, the US Patent Office reinstated the patent. The law at the time did not allow a third party such as COICA to participate in that part of the reexamination process. The patent, held by US entrepreneur Loren Miller, expired in 2003.\n", "There have been several reports from people who claim that they have developed various mental health issues, including psychosis, PTSD and DPD, as a result of consuming ayahuasca (or its psychoactive component, DMT). The website ayahuasca-risks.org was set up to educate people about the risks of ayahuasca given the increasing number of people searching for ayahuasca retreats on Google.\n", "Icaro\nMariri\nPsychedelic experience\nShamanism\nThe Yage Letters\nSoma (drink)\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* Burroughs, William S. and Allen Ginsberg. ''The Yage Letters''. San Francisco: City Lights, 1963. \n* Langdon, E. Jean Matteson & Gerhard Baer, eds. ''Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992. \n* Shannon, Benny. ''The Antipodes of the Mind: Charting the Phenomenology of the Ayahuasca Experience''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. \n* Taussig, Michael. ''Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* (a documentary about ayahuasca)\n* (This documentary deals with the increase of 'spiritual tourists' in the Peruvian Amazon, modern shamanic practices and the healing potentials of traditional plant medicine through an anthropological perspective)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Nomenclature ", " History ", " Preparation ", " Traditional usage ", " Non-traditional usage ", " Chemistry and pharmacology ", " Effects ", " Legal status ", " Intellectual property issues ", " Controversy and risks ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Ayahuasca
[ "\n\n'''Alfonso Leng Haygus''' (11 February 1884 – 11 November 1974) was a post-romantic composer of classical music. He was born in Santiago, Chile. He wrote the first important symphonic work in Chilean tradition, \"La Muerte de Alcino\", a symphonic poem inspired by the novel of Pedro Prado. He composed many art songs in different languages and important piano pieces, like the five \"Doloras\" (1914), which he later orchestrated and are normally played in concerts in Chile and Latin America. He won the Nacional Art Prize in 1957.\n\nLeng was also an accomplished dentist in Santiago. As a dentist, he was the main founder of the dentistry faculty of the Universidad de Chile, and he was eventually elected as the first dean.\n\nLeng was the nephew of composer Carmela Mackenna.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References" ]	Alfonso Leng
[ "In optics and lens design, the '''Abbe number''', also known as the '''V-number''' or '''constringence''' of a transparent material, is a measure of the material's dispersion (variation of refractive index versus wavelength), with high values of ''V'' indicating low dispersion. It is named after Ernst Abbe (1840–1905), the German physicist who defined it.\n\nRefractive index variation for SF-11 flint glass (upper graph), BK-7 borosilicate glass (middle curve), and fused quartz (dashed curve).\nThe Abbe number, ''VD'', of a material is defined as\n\n:\n\nwhere ''n''D, ''n''F and ''n''C are the refractive indices of the material at the wavelengths of the Fraunhofer D-, F- and C- spectral lines (589.3 nm, 486.1 nm and 656.3 nm respectively). \n\nAbbe numbers are used to classify glass and other optical materials in terms of their chromaticity. For example, the higher dispersion flint glasses have ''V'' < 55 whereas the lower dispersion crown glasses have larger Abbe numbers. Values of ''V'' range from below 25 for very dense flint glasses, around 34 for polycarbonate plastics, up to 65 for common crown glasses, and 75 to 85 for some fluorite and phosphate crown glasses. \n\nMost of the human eye's wavelength sensitivity curve, shown here, is bracketted by the Abbe number reference wavelengths of 486.1 nm (blue) and 656.3 nm (red)Abbe numbers are used in the design of achromatic lenses, as their ''reciprocal'' is proportional to dispersion (slope of refractive index versus wavelength) in the wavelength region where the human eye is most sensitive (see graph). For different wavelength regions, or for higher precision in characterizing a system's chromaticity (such as in the design of apochromats), the full dispersion relation (refractive index as a function of wavelength) is used.\n", "An Abbe diagram, also known as 'the glass veil', plots the Abbe number against refractive index for a range of different glasses (red dots). Glasses are classified using the Schott Glass letter-number code to reflect their composition and position on the diagram.\nInfluences of selected glass component additions on the Abbe number of a specific base glass.\nAn '''Abbe diagram''', also called 'the glass veil', is produced by plotting the Abbe number ''V''d of a material versus its refractive index ''n''d. Glasses can then be categorised and selected according to their positions on the diagram. This can be a letter-number code, as used in the Schott Glass catalogue, or a 6-digit glass code.\n\nGlasses' Abbe numbers, along with their mean refractive indices, are used in the calculation of the required refractive powers of the elements of achromatic lenses in order to cancel chromatic aberration to first order. Note that these two parameters which enter into the equations for design of achromatic doublets are exactly what is plotted on an Abbe diagram.\n\nDue to the difficulty and inconvenience in producing sodium and hydrogen lines, alternate definitions of the Abbe number are often substituted (ISO 7944). Rather than the standard definition, above, using the refractive index variation between the F and C hydrogen lines, an alternative measure using the subscript \"e\"\n:\ntakes the difference between the refractive indices of the blue and red cadmium lines at 480.0 nm and 643.8 nm (with ''ne'' referring to the wavelength of the mercury e-line, 546.073 nm). Other definitions can similarly be employed; the following table lists standard wavelengths at which n is commonly determined, including the standard subscripts employed.\n\n\n\n λ in nm !! Fraunhofer's symbol !! Light source !! Color\n\n 365.01 \n i \n Hg \n UV-A\n\n 404.66 \n h \n Hg \n violet\n\n 435.84 \n g \n Hg \n blue\n\n 479.99 \n F' \n Cd \n blue\n\n 486.13 \n F \n H \n blue\n\n 546.07 \n e \n Hg \n green\n\n 587.56 \n d \n He \n yellow\n\n 589.3 \n D \n Na \n yellow\n\n 643.85 \n C' \n Cd \n red\n\n 656.27 \n C \n H \n red\n\n 706.52 \n r \n He \n red\n\n 768.2 \n A' \n K \n IR-A\n\n 852.11 \n s \n Cs \n IR-A\n\n 1013.98 \n t \n Hg \n IR-A\n\n", "Abbe prism\nAbbe refractometer\nCalculation of glass properties, including Abbe number\nGlass code\n", "\n", "* Abbe graph and data for 356 glasses from Ohara, Hoya, and Schott \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Abbe diagram ", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Abbe number
[ "'''ACN''' may refer to:\n* Accenture (NYSE: ACN)\n* Acetonitrile\n* Achang language, a Tibeto-Burman language of China\n* Achnasheen railway station, UK, National Rail code\n* ''Acineta'', a genus of orchid\n* ACN Inc., multi-level marketing telecommunications company\n* Acrylonitrile\n* Action Congress of Nigeria, political party of Nigeria\n* Africa Cup of Nations, biennial football tournament\n* Agencia Carabobeña de Noticias, news agency, Valencia, Venezuela\n* Aid to the Church in Need, Catholic charity in Königstein im Taunus, Germany\n* Aircraft Classification Number, pavement load of an aircraft\n* American Collectibles Network, now Jewelry Television, US\n* Andean Community of Nations\n* Anglican Communion Network, Pittsburgh, US\n* ''Ante Christum Natum'', seldom-used Latin equivalent of B.C.\n* Apple Consultants Network\n* Architecture for Control Networks, network protocol for theatrical control\n* Atlantis Cable News, fictional news channel on ''The Newsroom (U.S. TV series)''\n* Australian Company Number\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	ACN
[ "\nAn '''ad''' (advertisement) is a form of marketing communication.\n\n'''AD''' (''Anno Domini'') is a designation used to label years following 1 BC in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.\n\n'''AD''', '''A.D.''' or '''Ad''' may also refer to:\n\n", "* AD, ISO 3166-1 country for Andorra \n* Abu Dhabi\n", "* Ad (name), a given name, and a list of people with the name\n* ‘Ad, great-grandson of Shem, son of Noah\n* A. D. Loganathan, Indian major general\n* A. D. Whitfield, American football player\n* A. D. Winans, American author\n* A.D., nickname of Adrian Peterson, American football player\n", "===Film and television===\n;Films\n* ''A.D.'' (film), a 2010 animated zombie horror film\n;Television\n* ''A.D.'' (miniseries), a 1985 television miniseries set in ancient Rome\n* ''A.D. The Bible Continues'', a television miniseries expected to air in 2015\n* ''American Dad!'', a animated television program\n* Animation Domination, a television programming block\n* ''Arrested Development'' (TV series)\n\n===Music===\n* AD (band), a Christian Rock band\n* ''A.D. (album)'', by Solace\n\n===Publications===\n;Literature\n* ''A.D.: New Orleans After the Deluge'', a nonfiction graphic novel about Hurricane Katrina\n;Periodicals\n* ''Algemeen Dagblad'', a Dutch newspaper\n* ''Architectural Digest''\n\n===Other art, entertainment, and media===\n* Audio description track, a narration track for visually impaired consumers of visual media\n", "* ''Akcionersko društvo'' (aкционерско друштво), Macedonian name for a joint-stock company\n* ''Aktsionerno drujestvo'' (акционерно дружество), a Bulgarian name for a type of company\n* Analog Devices, a semiconductor company\n", "* Accidental discharge, the mistaken firing of a firearm\n* Active duty, a status of full duty or service, usually in the armed forces\n* Air defense, anti-aircraft weaponry and systems\n* Air Department, part of the British Admiralty\n\"Destroyer tender\", a type of support ship (US Navy hull classification symbol AD)\n Douglas Skyraider, a Navy attack aircraft originally designated AD\n", "* Action Directe (terrorist group), in France\n* Democratic Action (Spanish: ''Acción Democrática''), a Venezuelan political party\n* Democratic Alternative (Malta) (Maltese: ''Alternattiva Demokratika''), a Maltese political party\n", "* Art director, for a magazine or newspaper\n* Assistant director, a film or television crew member\n* Athletic director, the administrator of an athletics program\n", "===Biology and medicine===\n* Addison's disease, an endocrine disorder\n* Adenovirus, viruses of the family ''Adenoviridae''\n* Alzheimer's disease, a neural disease\n* Anaerobic digestion, a biological process\n* Anti-diarrheal, a medication\n* Approximate digestibility, an index measure of the digestibility of animal feed\n* Atopic dermatitis, a type of skin disorder\n* Atypical depression, a mood disorder\n* Autosomal dominant, a classification of genetic traits\n* Autonomic dysreflexia, a reaction to overstimulation\n\n===Chemistry===\n* Adamantyl, abbreviated \"Ad\" in organic chemistry\n* Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation, a type of organic chemical reaction\n\n===Computing===\n* .ad, the top level domain for Andorra\n* Active Directory, software by Microsoft for the central management of Windows domains\n* Administrative domain, a computer networking facility\n* Analog-to-digital converter, a type of electronic circuit\n* Automatic differentiation, a set of computer programming techniques to speedily compute derivatives\n* AD16, the hexadecimal number equal to decimal number 173\n\n===Mathematics===\n* Adjoint representation of a Lie group, abbreviated \"Ad\" in mathematics\n* Axiom of determinacy, a set theory axiom\n\n===Physics===\n* Antiproton Decelerator, a device at the CERN physics laboratory\n* Autodynamics, a physics theory\n\n===Other uses in science and technology===\n* Active Disassembly, a technology supporting the cost-effective deconstruction of complex materials\n", "* AD, IATA code for:\nAir Paradise, a defunct Indonesian airline\nAzul Brazilian Airlines \n* Airworthiness Directive, an aircraft maintenance requirement notice\n* Dennis Dragon, a type of bus\n", "* ʿĀd, an ancient Arab tribe, mentioned in the Quran\n* Aggregate demand, in macroeconomics\n* Anno Diocletiani, an alternative year numbering system\n* United States Academic Decathlon, a high school academic competition\n", "* Anno Domini (disambiguation)\nBC (disambiguation)\nDomino (disambiguation)\nDominus (disambiguation)\n \n* \n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Places", "People", "Art, entertainment, and media", "Brands and enterprises", "Military", "Organizations", "Professions", "Science and technology", "Transportation", "Other uses", "See also" ]	AD (disambiguation)
[ "\n\n\n\nThe '''ablative case''' (sometimes abbreviated ) is a grammatical case for nouns, pronouns and adjectives in the grammar of various languages; it is sometimes used to express motion away from something, among other uses. The word \"ablative\" derives from the Latin ''ablatus'', the (irregular) perfect passive participle of ''auferre'' \"to carry away\". There is no ablative case in modern Germanic languages such as German, nor in ancient Greek.\n", "\n===Latin===\n\n\nThe ablative case in Latin (''casus ablativus'') appears in various grammatical constructions, including following various prepositions, in an ablative absolute clause, and adverbially. The ablative case was derived from three Proto-Indo-European cases: ablative (from), instrumental (with), and locative (in/at).\n\n===Greek===\nIn Ancient Greek, there was no ablative case; some of its functions were taken by the genitive and others by the dative; the genitive had functions belonging to the Proto-Indo-European genitive and ablative cases. The genitive case with the prepositions ἀπό ''apó'' \"away from\" and ἐκ/ἐξ ''ek/ex'' \"out of\" is an example.\n\n===German===\nGerman does not have an ablative case (but exceptionally, Latin ablative case-forms were used from the 17th to the 19th century after some prepositions, for example after ''von'' in ''von dem Nomine'': ablative of the Latin loanword ''Nomen''). Grammarians at that time, such as Justus Georg Schottel, Kaspar von Stieler (\"der Spate\"), Johann Balthasar von Antesperg and Johann Christoph Gottsched, listed an ablative case (as the sixth case after nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and vocative) for German words. They arbitrarily considered the dative case after some prepositions to be an ablative, as in ''von dem Manne'' (\"from the man\" or \"of the man\") and ''mit dem Manne'' (\"with the man\"), while they considered the dative case after other prepositions or without a preposition as ''dem Manne'' to be a dative.\n\nThere is some confusion in German culture about the Latin ablative and the German dative.\n\n===Serbo-Croatian===\nAs in Ancient Greek, the functions of the ablative case in the Serbo-Croatian language are performed by the genitive case. Of the three forms of genitive in Serbo-Croatian (partitive, possessive and ablative), the noun in the ablative genitive marks the origin of something: departure or detachment from it.\n\n===Albanian===\nThe ablative case is found in Albanian; it is the fifth case, ''rasa rjedhore''.\n\n===Sanskrit===\nIn Sanskrit, the ablative case is the fifth case (''pañcamī'') and has a similar function to that in Latin. It is bound up with a special semantic condition, ''apādāna'' (अपादान) in Sanskrit. In fact, the fifth case (ablative) is the typical morphological realization of ''apādāna'' (Pāṇini 2.3.28).\n\nSanskrit nouns in this case often refer to a subject \"out of\" which or \"from\" whom something (an action, an object) has arisen or occurred: ''patram '''vṛkṣāt''' patati'' \"the leaf falls '''from the tree'''\".\n\nIt is also used for nouns in several other senses, as for actions occurring \"because of\" or \"without\" a certain noun, indicating distance or direction. When it appears with a comparative adjective, (''śreṣṭhatamam,'' \"the best\"), the ablative is used to refer to what the adjective is comparing: \"better than X\".\n\n===Armenian===\nThe modern Armenian ablative has different markers for each main dialect, both originating from Classical Armenian. The Western Armenian affix -է ''-ē'' (definite -էն ''-ēn'') derives from the classical singular; the Eastern Armenian affix -ից ''-ic’'' (both indefinite and definite) derives from the classical plural. For both dialects, those affixes are singular, with the corresponding plurals being -(ն)երէ(ն) ''-(n)erē(n)'' and -(ն)երից ''-(n)eric’''.\n\n\n\n Western !! Eastern !! Gloss\n\n ''մարդ'''է'''''mart''ē''\n ''մարդ'''ից'''''mard''ic’''\n from (a) man\n\n ''մարդ'''էն'''''mart''ēn''\n ''մարդ'''ից'''''mard''ic’''\n from the man\n\n (տուն) > ''տան'''է'''''(dun) > dan''ē''\n (տուն) > ''տն'''ից'''''(tun) > tn''ic’''\n from a house/from home\n\n (տուն) > ''տան'''էն'''''(dun) > dan''ēn''\n (տուն) > ''տն'''ից'''''(tun) > tn''ic’''\n from the house\n\n\nThe ablative case has several uses.Its principal function is to show \"motion away\" from a location, point in space or time:\n\n\n\n Western !! Eastern !! Gloss\n\n ''քաղաք'''էն''''' եկայ''k’aġak’'''ēn''''' yega \n ''քաղաք'''ից''''' եկա''k’aġak’'''ic’''''' yeka \n I came ''from the city''\n\n ''այստեղ'''էն''''' հեռու կը բնակէի''aysdeġ'''ēn''''' heṙu gě pnagēi. \n ''այստեղ'''ից''''' հեռու բնակում էի''aysteġ'''ic’''''' heṙu bnakvum ēi\n I used to live far ''from here''\n\n\nIt also shows the agent when it is used with the passive voice of the verb:\n\n\n\n Western !! Eastern !! Gloss\n\n ''ինծմէ'' միջտ կը սիրուէիր''incmē'' mišd gě sirvēir\n ''ինձնից'' միջտ սիրում էիր''indznic’'' mišt sirvum ēir\n You were always loved ''by me''\n\n ''ազատիչներիէն'' ազատեցանք''azadič’nerēn'' azadec’ank’\n ''ազատիչներից'' ազատվեցինք''azatič’neric’'' azatvec’ink’\n We were freed ''by the liberators''\n\n\nIt is also used for comparative statements in colloquial Armenian (including infinitives and participles):\n\n\n\n Western !! Eastern !! Gloss\n\n Ի՞նչ ''մեղր'''էն''''' անուջ էInč’ ''meġr'''ēn''''' anuš ē\n Ի՞նչ ''մեղր'''ից''''' է անուջInč’ ''meġr'''ic’''''' ē anuš\n \"What is sweeter ''than honey''?\" (proverb)\n\n Մարիամ ''եղբօր'''մէն''''' պզտիկ էMariam ''yeġpōr'''mēn''''' bzdig ē\n Մարո ''ախպոր'''ից''''' փոքր էMaro ''axpor'''ic’''''' p’ok’r ē\n Mary is younger (lit. smaller) ''than her brother''\n\n թզեր համտեսել ''տեսնել'''է''''' աւելի լաւ էt’ëzer hamdesel ''desnel'''ē''''' aveli lav ē\n թզեր համտեսել ''տեսնել'''ուց''''' ավելի լավ էt’ëzer hamtesel ''tesnel'''uc’''''' aveli lav ē\n Figs are better to taste ''than to see''\n\n\nFinally, it governs certain postpositions:\n\n\n\n Western !! Eastern !! Gloss\n\n ''ինծմէ'' վար''incmē'' var\n ''ինձնից'' վար''indznic’'' var\n below ''me''\n\n ''քեզմէ'' վեր''k’ezmē'' ver\n ''քեզնից'' վեր''k’eznic’'' ver\n above ''you''\n\n ''անոնցմէ'' ետք''anonc’mē'' yedk’\n ''նրանից'' հետո''nranic’'' heto\n after ''them''\n\n ''մեզմէ'' առաջ''mezmē'' aṙač\n ''մեզնից'' առաջ''meznic’'' aṙadž\n before ''us''\n\n", "\n===Finnish===\nIn Finnish, the ablative case is the sixth of the locative cases with the meaning \"from, off, of\": ''pöytä – pöydältä'' \"table – off from the table\". It is an outer locative case, used like the adessive and allative cases, to denote both being on top of something and \"being around the place\" (as opposed to the inner locative case, the elative, which means \"from out of\" or \"from the inside of\"). With the locative, the receding object was near the other place or object, not inside it.\n\nThe Finnish ablative is also used in time expressions to indicate start times (''kymmeneltä'' \"at ten\") as well as with verbs expressing feelings or emotions.\n\nThe Finnish ablative has the ending ''-lta'' or ''-ltä'', depending on vowel harmony.\n\n====Usage====\n\n; away from a place:\n\n''katolta'': off the roof\n''pöydältä'': off the table\n''rannalta'': from the beach\n''maalta'': from the land\n''mereltä'': from the sea\n\n; with the verb ''lähteä'' (stop):\n\n''lähteä tupakalta'': stop smoking (in the sense of putting out the cigarette one is smoking now, lit. 'leave from the tobacco')\n''lähteä hippasilta'': stop playing tag (''hippa''=tag, ''olla hippasilla''=playing tag)\n\n; to smell/taste/feel/look/sound like something:\n\n''haisee pahalta'': smells bad\n''maistuu hyvältä'': tastes good\n''tuntuu kamalalta'': feels awful\n''näyttää tyhmältä'': looks stupid\n''kuulostaa mukavalta'': sounds nice\n\n===Hungarian===\nThe ablative case in Hungarian is used to describe movement away from, as well as a concept, object, act or event originating from an object, person, location or entity. For example, one walking away from a friend who gave him a gift could say the following: \n\n:''a barátom'''tól''' jövök''(I am coming (away) from my friend).\n:''a barátom'''tól''' kaptam egy ajándékot''(I got a gift from my friend).\n\nWhen used to describe movement away from a location, the case may only refer to movement from ''the general vicnity'' of the location and not from inside of it. Thus, ''a postától jövök'' would mean one had been standing ''next to'' the post office before, not inside the building.\n\nWhen the case is used to refer to the origin of a possible act or event, the act/event may be implied while not explicitly stated, such as ''Meg foglak védeni a rabló'''tól''''': I will defend you from the robber. \n\nThe application of vowel harmony gives two different suffixes: ''-tól'' and ''-től''. These are applied to back-vowel and front-vowel words, respectively.\n", "\n===Azeri===\n\nThe ablative in Azeri ('''') is expressed through the suffixes ''-dan'' or ''-dən'':\n\nEv - ev'''dən'''\n''House - from/off the house''\n\nAparmaq - aparmaq'''dan'''\n''To carry - from/off carrying''\n\n===Turkish===\nThe ablative in Turkish (''-den hali'' or ''ayrılma hali'') is expressed through the suffixes ''-den'', ''-dan'', ''-ten'' or ''-tan'':\n\nEv - ev'''den'''\n''House - from/off the house''\n\nAt - at'''tan'''\n''Horse - from/off the horse''\n\nTaşımak - taşımak'''tan'''\n''To carry - from/off carrying''\n\nSes - ses'''ten'''\n''Sound/volume - from/off sound/volume''\n\nIn some situations simple ablative can have a \"because of\" meaning, in these situations ablative can be optionally followed by \"dolayı\" (because of) preposition.\n\nYüksek sesten (dolayı) rahatsız oldum. / ''I was uneasy because of high volume. ''\n", "\n", "\n* What is the ablative case?\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Indo-European languages", "Uralic languages", "Turkic languages", " References ", "External links" ]	Ablative case
[ " \nThe '''Adamic language''' is, according to Jewish tradition (as recorded in the ''midrashim'') and some Christians, the language spoken by Adam (and possibly Eve) in the Garden of Eden. It is variously interpreted as either the language used by God to address Adam (the divine language), or the language invented by Adam with which he named all things (including Eve), as in .\n", "\n\nTraditional Jewish exegesis such as Midrash (Genesis Rabbah 38) says that Adam spoke Hebrew because the names he gives Eve – \"''Isha''\" (Book of Genesis 2:23) and \"''Chava''\" (Genesis 3:20) – only make sense in Hebrew. By contrast, Kabbalism assumed an \"eternal Torah\" which was not identical to the Torah written in Hebrew. Thus, Abulafia in the 13th century assumed that the language spoken in Paradise had been different from Hebrew, and rejected the claim then current also among Christian authors, that a child left unexposed to linguistic stimulus would automatically begin to speak in Hebrew.\n\nEco (1993) notes that Genesis is ambiguous on whether the language of Adam was preserved by Adam's descendants until the confusion of tongues (Genesis 11:1–9), or if it began to evolve naturally even before Babel (Genesis 10:5).\n\nDante addresses the topic in his ''De Vulgari Eloquentia''. He argues that the Adamic language is of divine origin and therefore unchangeable. He also notes that according to Genesis, the first speech act is due to Eve, addressing the serpent, and not to Adam.\n\nIn his ''Divina Commedia'', however, Dante changes his view to another that treats the Adamic language as the product of Adam. This had the consequence that it could not any longer be regarded immutable, and hence Hebrew could not be regarded as identical with the language of Paradise. Dante concludes (''Paradiso'' XXVI) that Hebrew is a derivative of the language of Adam. In particular, the chief Hebrew name for God in scholastic tradition, ''El'', must be derived of a different Adamic name for God, which Dante gives as ''I''.\n", "\nElizabethan scholar John Dee makes references to an occult or angelic language recorded in his private journals and those of spirit medium Edward Kelley. Dee's journals did not describe the language as \"Enochian\", instead preferring \"Angelical\", the \"Celestial Speech\", the \"Language of Angels\", the \"First Language of God-Christ\", the \"Holy Language\", or \"Adamical\" because, according to Dee's Angels, it was used by Adam in Paradise to name all things. The language was later dubbed Enochian, due to Dee's assertion that the Biblical Patriarch Enoch had been the last human (before Dee and Kelley) to know the language.\n", "\n===Latter Day Saint movement===\nJoseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, in his revision of the Bible, declared the Adamic language to have been \"pure and undefiled\". Some Latter Day Saints believe it to be the language of God. Glossolalia, or speaking in tongues, was commonplace in the early years of the movement, and it was commonly believed that the incomprehensible language spoken during these incidents was the language of Adam though this belief seems to have never been formally or officially adopted.\n\nSome other early Latter Day Saint leaders, including Brigham Young, Orson Pratt, and Elizabeth Ann Whitney, claimed to have received several words in the Adamic language by revelation. Some Latter Day Saints believe that the Adamic language is the \"pure language\" spoken of by Zephaniah and that it will be restored as the universal language of humankind at the end of the world.\n\nApostle Orson Pratt declared that \"Ahman\", part of the name of the settlement \"Adam-ondi-Ahman\" in Daviess County, Missouri, was the name of God in the Adamic language. An 1832 handwritten page from the Joseph Smith Papers, titled \"A Sample of the Pure Language\", and reportedly dictated by Smith to \"Br. Johnson\", asserts that the name of God is ''Awmen''.\n\nThe Latter Day Saint endowment prayer circle once included use of the words \"Pay Lay Ale\". These untranslated words are no longer used in temple ordinances and have been replaced by an English version, \"O God, hear the words of my mouth\". Some believe that the \"Pay Lay Ale\" sentence is derived from the Hebrew phrase \"pe le-El\" (), \"mouth to God\".\n\nOther words thought by some Latter Day Saints to derive from the Adamic language include ''deseret'' (\"honey bee\"), see Ether 2:3 and ''Ahman'' (\"God\") see Doctrine and Covenants 78:20 \n\nThe Book of Moses refers to \"a book of remembrance\" written in the language of Adam.\n", "* Divine language\n* History of linguistics\n* Lingua Ignota\n* Mythical origins of language\n* Origin of language\n* Proto-World language\n* Universal language\n", "\n", "* Allison P. Coudert (ed.), ''The Language of Adam = Die Sprache Adams'', Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1999.\n* Angelo Mazzocco, ''Linguistic Theories in Dante and the Humanists'', (chapter 9: \"Dante's Reappraisal of the Adamic language\", 159–181).\n*Umberto Eco, ''The Search for the Perfect Language'' (1993).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Medieval", "Early Modern", "Modern", "See also", "References", "Bibliography" ]	Adamic language
[ "\n\n'''James Avery Hopwood''' (May 28, 1882 – July 1, 1928) was an American playwright of the Jazz Age. He had four plays running simultaneously on Broadway in 1920.\n", "Hopwood was born to James and Jule Hopwood on May 28, 1882, in Cleveland, Ohio. He graduated from Cleveland's West High School in 1900. In 1901, he began attending the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. However, his family experienced financial difficulties, so for his sophomore year he transferred to Adelbert College. He returned to the University of Michigan in the fall of 1903, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1905.\n", "Hopwood started out as a journalist for a Cleveland newspaper as its New York correspondent, but within a year had a play, ''Clothes'' (1906), produced on Broadway. He became known as \"The Playboy Playwright\" and specialized in comedies and farces, some of them with material considered risqué at the time. One play, ''The Demi-Virgin'' in 1921, prompted a court case because of its suggestive subject matter, including a risque game of cards, \"Stripping Cupid\", where a bevy of showgirls teased the audience in their lingerie. The case was dismissed.\n\nHis many plays included ''Nobody's Widow'' (1910), starring Blanche Bates; ''Fair and Warmer'' (1915), starring Madge Kennedy (filmed in 1919); ''The Gold Diggers'' (1919), starring Ina Claire (filmed in 1923 as ''The Gold Diggers'', in 1928 as ''Gold Diggers of Broadway'' and also as ''Gold Diggers of 1933''); ''Ladies' Night'', 1920, starring Charlie Ruggles (filmed in 1928); the famous mystery play ''The Bat'' (with Mary Roberts Rinehart), 1920 (filmed in 1926 as ''The Bat'', in 1930 as ''The Bat Whispers,'' and in 1959 as ''The Bat''); ''Getting Gertie's Garter'' (with Wilson Collison), 1921, starring Hazel Dawn (filmed in 1927 and 1945); ''The Demi-Virgin'', 1921, also starring Dawn; ''The Alarm Clock'', 1923; ''The Best People'' (with David Gray), 1924 (filmed in 1925 and as ''Fast and Loose'' in 1930), the song-farce ''Naughty Cinderella'', 1925, starring Irene Bordoni and ''The Garden of Eden'' in 1927 (filmed in 1928 as ''The Garden of Eden'').\n\nHopwood was asked to write the third act of Mary Roberts Rinehart's play ''The Bat''. Hopwood collaborated with Rinehart to then work on the last act of the play in Sewickley and sometimes in New York.\n\nThe early sound film ''The Bat Whispers'' played an influence on Bob Kane's Batman because the inspiration for Batman's costume came from the \"mysterious Bat\" character portrayed in the movie from 1930.\n", "Avery Hopwood with dancer Rosa Rolanda, 1924\nIn 1906, Hopwood was introduced to writer and photographer Carl Van Vechten. The two became close friends and were sometimes sexual partners. In the 1920s Hopwood had a tumultuous and abusive romantic relationship with fellow Cleveland-born playwright John Floyd. Although Hopwood announced to the press in 1924 that he was engaged to vaudeville dancer and choreographer Rosa Rolanda, Van Vechten confirmed in later years that it was a publicity stunt. Rolanda would later marry caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias.\n\nOn July 1, 1928, while swimming at Juan-les-Pins on the French Riviera, Hopwood had a heart attack and died. He was buried in Riverside Cemetery, Cleveland. His mother, Jule Hopwood, inherited a large trust from him, but he had not made arrangements for the disposition of other items, including literary rights. While she was working through the legal issues with his estate, Jule Hopwood fell ill and died on March 1, 1929. She was buried next to her son.\n", "Hopwood's plays were very successful commercially, but did not have the lasting literary significance he hoped to achieve.\n\n===Hopwood Award===\nThe terms of Hopwood's will left a substantial portion of his estate to his alma mater, the University of Michigan for the establishment of the Avery Hopwood and Jule Hopwood Creative Writing Awards. The bequest stipulated: \"It is especially desired that students competing for prizes shall be allowed the widest possible latitude, and that the new, the unusual, and the radical shall be especially encouraged.\" Famous Hopwood award winners include Robert Hayden, Marge Piercy, Arthur Miller, Betty Smith, Lawrence Kasdan, John Ciardi, Mary Gaitskill, Edmund White, Nancy Willard, Frank O’Hara, and Steve Hamilton.\n\n===''The Great Bordello''===\nThroughout his life, Hopwood worked on a novel that he hoped would \"expose\" the strictures the commercial theater machine imposed on playwrights, but the manuscript was never published. Jack Sharrar recovered the manuscript for this novel in 1982 during his research for ''Avery Hopwood, His Life and Plays''. The novel was published in July 2011 as ''The Great Bordello''.\n", "WPA poster for Hopwood's 1922 play ''Why Men Leave Home''\nWPA poster for Hopwood's 1923 play ''The Alarm Clock''\n* ''Clothes'' (1906) with Channing Pollock\n* ''This Woman and This Man'' (1909)\n* ''Seven Days'' (1909) with Mary Roberts Rinehart\n* ''Judy Forgot'' (1910)\n* ''Nobody's Widow'' (1910)\n* ''Somewhere Else'' (1913)\n* ''Fair and Warmer'' (1915)\n* ''Sadie Love'' (1915)\n* ''Our Little Wife'' (1916)\n* ''Double Exposure'' (1918)\n* ''Tumble In'' (1919, musical version of ''Seven Days'')\n* ''The Gold Diggers'' (1919)\n* ''The Girl in the Limousine'' (1919) with Wilson Collison\n* ''Ladies' Night'' (1920) with Charlton Andrews\n* ''Spanish Love'' (1920, Adaptation of ''María del Carmen'' by Josep Feliu i Codina) with Mary Roberts Rinehart\n* ''The Bat'' (1920) with Mary Roberts Rinehart \n* ''Getting Gertie's Garter'' (1921) with Wilson Collison\n* ''The Demi-Virgin'' (1921)\n* ''Why Men Leave Home'' (1922)\n* ''Little Miss Bluebeard'' (1923, Adaptation of ''Kisasszony férje'' by Gábor Drégely)\n* ''The Alarm Clock'' (1923, Adaptation of ''La Sonnette d'alarme'' by Maurice Hennequin and Romain Coolus)\n* ''The Best People'' (1924) with David Gray \n* ''The Harem'' (1924) with Ernest Vajda\n* ''Naughty Cinderella'' (1925, Adaptation of ''Pouche'' by René Peter and )\n* ''The Garden of Eden'' (1927, Adaptation of ''Der Garten Eden'' by Rudolf Bernauer and Rudolf Österreicher)\n", "* ''Clothes'' (1914, based on ''Clothes'') \n* ''Judy Forgot'' (1915, based on ''Judy Forgot'') \n* ''Our Little Wife'' (1918, based on ''Our Little Wife'') \n* ''Sadie Love'' (1919, based on ''Sadie Love'') \n* ''Fair and Warmer'' (1919, based on ''Fair and Warmer'') \n* ''Guilty of Love'' (1920, based on ''This Woman and This Man'') \n* ''Clothes'' (1920, based on ''Clothes'') \n* ''The Little Clown'' (1921, based on ''The Little Clown'') \n* ''The Gold Diggers'' (1923, based on ''The Gold Diggers'') \n* ''Why Men Leave Home'' (1924, based on ''Why Men Leave Home'') \n* ''The Girl in the Limousine'' (1924, based on ''The Girl in the Limousine'') \n* ''Miss Bluebeard'' (1925, based on ''Little Miss Bluebeard'') \n* ''The Best People'' (1925, based on ''The Best People'') \n* ''The Bat'' (1926, based on ''The Bat'') \n\n* ''Good and Naughty'' (1926, based on ''Naughty Cinderella'') \n\n* ''Nobody's Widow'' (1927, based on ''Nobody's Widow'') \n* ''Getting Gertie's Garter'' (1927, based on ''Getting Gertie's Garter'') \n* ''The Garden of Eden'' (1928, based on ''The Garden of Eden'') \n* ''Ladies' Night in a Turkish Bath'' (1928, based on ''Ladies' Night'') \n* ''Gold Diggers of Broadway'' (1929, based on ''The Gold Diggers'') \n* ''Her Wedding Night'' (1930, based on ''Little Miss Bluebeard'') \n '''' (France, 1931, based on ''Little Miss Bluebeard'') \n ''Su noche de bodas'' (Spain, 1931, based on ''Little Miss Bluebeard'') \n ''Ich heirate meinen Mann'' (Germany, 1931, based on ''Little Miss Bluebeard'') \n ''A Minha Noite de Núpcias'' (Portugal, 1931, based on ''Little Miss Bluebeard'') \n* ''Fast and Loose'' (1930, based on ''The Best People'') \n* ''The Bat Whispers'' (1930, based on ''The Bat'') \n* ''This Is the Night'' (1932, based on ''Naughty Cinderella'') \n* ''Gold Diggers of 1933'' (1933, based on ''The Gold Diggers'') \n* ''Night of the Garter'' (UK, 1933, based on ''Getting Gertie's Garter'') \n* ''The Model Husband'' (Germany, 1937, based on ''Fair and Warmer'') \n* ''Unsere kleine Frau'' (Germany, 1938, based on ''Our Little Wife'') \n** ''Mia moglie si diverte'' (Italy, 1938, based on ''Our Little Wife'') \n* '''' (Sweden, 1944, based on ''Fair and Warmer'') \n* ''Getting Gertie's Garter'' (1945, based on ''Getting Gertie's Garter'') \n* ''Painting the Clouds with Sunshine'' (1951, based on ''The Gold Diggers'') \n* '''' (Sweden, 1952, based on ''Fair and Warmer'') \n* ''The Model Husband'' (West Germany, 1956, based on ''Fair and Warmer'') \n* ''The Bat'' (1959, based on ''The Bat'') \n* ''The Model Husband'' (Switzerland, 1959, based on ''Fair and Warmer'') \n* '''' (Denmark, 1961, based on ''Fair and Warmer'') \n* ''Den grønne heisen'' (Norway, 1981, based on ''Fair and Warmer'') \n", "\n\n===Works cited===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "''Broadway'', by Brooks Atkinson. NY: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1974.\n''Matinee Tomorrow'', by Ward Morehouse. NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1948.\n''Posing a Threat: Flappers, Chorus Girls, and Other Brazen Performers of the American 1920s'', by Angela Latham. Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press, 2000.\n''The Splendid Drunken Twenties: Carl Van Vechten Selections from the Daybooks, 1922-1930''. Edited by Bruce Kellner. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003.\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Mary Roberts Rinehart at University of Pittsburgh digital library - includes material on her collaboration with Hopwood\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Personal life", "Legacy", "Works", "Filmography", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Avery Hopwood
[ "\n\n\n'''Antipope Felix II''', an archdeacon of Rome, was installed as Pope in 355 AD after the Emperor Constantius II banished the reigning Pope, Liberius, for refusing to subscribe to a sentence of condemnation against Saint Athanasius.\n", "In May 357 AD the Roman laity, which had remained faithful to Liberius, demanded that Constantius, who was on a visit to Rome, should recall Liberius. The Emperor planned to have Felix and Liberius rule jointly, but when Liberius returned Felix was forced to retire to Porto, near Rome, where, after making an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself again in Rome, he died on 22 November 365 AD.\n\nThis Felix was later confused with a Roman martyr named Felix, with the result that he was included in lists of the Popes as Felix II and that the succeeding Popes of the same name (Pope Felix III and Pope Felix IV) were given wrong numerals, as was Antipope Felix V.\n\nThe Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) called this confusion a \"distortion of the true facts\" and suggested that it arose because the \"Liber Pontificalis\", which at this point may be registering a reliable tradition, says that this Felix built a church on the Via Aurelia, which is where the Roman martyr of an earlier date was buried. However, a more recent source says that of the martyr Felix nothing is known except his name, that he was a martyr, and that he was buried in the cemetery on the Via Portuensis that bears his name.\n\nThe Catholic Encyclopedia remarked that \"the real story of the antipope was lost and he obtained in local Roman history the status of a saint and a confessor. As such he appears in the Roman Martyrology on 29 July.\" At that time (1909) the Roman Martyrology had the following text: This entry was based on what the Catholic Encyclopedia called later legends that confound the relative positions of Felix and Liberius. More recent editions of the Roman Martyrology have instead: \n\nThe feast day of the Roman martyr Felix is 29 July. The antipope Felix died, as stated above, on a 22 November, and his death was not a martyr's, occurring when the Peace of Constantine had been in force for half a century.\n\nAs well as the Roman Martyrology, the Roman Missal identified the Saint Felix of 29 July with the antipope. This identification, still found in the 1920 typical edition, does not appear in the 1962 typical edition. To judge by the Marietti printing of 1952, which omits the numeral \"II\" and the word \"Papae\", the correction had already been made by then. One Catholic writer excuses this by saying that the antipope \"himself did refuse to accept Arianism, and so his feast has been kept in the past on 29 July\".\n", "\n* List of popes\n* List of tombs of antipopes\n* Papal selection before 1059\n", "\n", "* The Papal Schism between Liberius and Felix (a primary source)\n* Catholic Encyclopedia: ''Felix II''\n* Encyclopædia Britannica: ''Felix (II)''\n* 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: ''Felix II''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Antipope Felix II
[ "\nThe first individual alkaloid, morphine, was isolated in 1804 from the opium poppy (''Papaver somniferum'').\n\n'''Alkaloids''' are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that mostly contain basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure are also termed alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and, more rarely, other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.\n\nAlkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction. Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial (''e.g.'' quinine), antiasthma (''e.g.'' ephedrine), anticancer (''e.g.'' homoharringtonine), cholinomimetic (''e.g.'' galantamine), vasodilatory (''e.g.'' vincamine), antiarrhythmic (''e.g.'' quinidine), analgesic (''e.g.'' morphine), antibacterial (''e.g.'' chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (''e.g.'' piperine). Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine, or as starting points for drug discovery. Other alkaloids possess psychotropic (''e.g.'' psilocin) and stimulant activities (''e.g.'' cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, theobromine), and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs. Alkaloids can be toxic too (''e.g.'' atropine, tubocurarine). Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste.\n\nThe boundary between alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing natural compounds is not clear-cut. Compounds like amino acid peptides, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acid, amines, and antibiotics are usually not called alkaloids. Natural compounds containing nitrogen in the exocyclic position (mescaline, serotonin, dopamine, etc.) are usually classified as amines rather than as alkaloids. Some authors, however, consider alkaloids a special case of amines.\n", "The article that introduced the concept of \"alkaloid\".\n\nThe name \"alkaloids\" () was introduced in 1819 by the German chemist Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meißner, and is derived from late Latin root '''' (which, in turn, comes from the Arabic ''al-qalwī'' – \"ashes of plants\") and the suffix '''' – \"like\". However, the term came into wide use only after the publication of a review article by Oscar Jacobsen in the chemical dictionary of Albert Ladenburg in the 1880s.\n\nThere is no unique method of naming alkaloids. Many individual names are formed by adding the suffix \"ine\" to the species or genus name. For example, atropine is isolated from the plant ''Atropa belladonna'', strychnine is obtained from the seed of Strychnine tree (''Strychnos nux-vomica'' L.). If several alkaloids are extracted from one plant then their names often contain suffixes \"idine\", \"anine\", \"aline\", \"inine\" etc. There are also at least 86 alkaloids whose names contain the root \"vin\" because they are extracted from ''vinca'' plants such as ''Vinca rosea'' (''Catharanthus roseus''); these are called ''vinca'' alkaloids.\n", "Friedrich Sertürner, the German chemist who first isolated morphine from opium.\nAlkaloid-containing plants have been used by humans since ancient times for therapeutic and recreational purposes. For example, medicinal plants have been known in the Mesopotamia at least around 2000 BC. The ''Odyssey'' of Homer referred to a gift given to Helen by the Egyptian queen, a drug bringing oblivion. It is believed that the gift was an opium-containing drug. A Chinese book on houseplants written in 1st–3rd centuries BC mentioned a medical use of Ephedra and opium poppies. Also, coca leaves have been used by South American Indians since ancient times.\n\nExtracts from plants containing toxic alkaloids, such as aconitine and tubocurarine, were used since antiquity for poisoning arrows.\n\nStudies of alkaloids began in the 19th century. In 1804, the German chemist Friedrich Sertürner isolated from opium a \"soporific principle\" (), which he called \"morphium\" in honor of Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams; in German and some other Central-European languages, this is still the name of the drug. The term \"morphine\", used in English and French, was given by the French physicist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac.\n\nA significant contribution to the chemistry of alkaloids in the early years of its development was made by the French researchers Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou, who discovered quinine (1820) and strychnine (1818). Several other alkaloids were discovered around that time, including xanthine (1817), atropine (1819), caffeine (1820), coniine (1827), nicotine (1828), colchicine (1833), sparteine (1851), and cocaine (1860).\n\nThe first complete synthesis of an alkaloid was achieved in 1886 by the German chemist Albert Ladenburg. He produced coniine by reacting 2-methylpyridine with acetaldehyde and reducing the resulting 2-propenyl pyridine with sodium. The development of the chemistry of alkaloids was accelerated by the emergence of spectroscopic and chromatographic methods in the 20th century, so that by 2008 more than 12,000 alkaloids had been identified.\n\nBufotenin, an alkaloid from some toads, contains an indole core and is produced in living organisms from the amino acid tryptophan.\n", "The nicotine molecule contains both pyridine (left) and pyrrolidine rings (right).\n\nCompared with most other classes of natural compounds, alkaloids are characterized by a great structural diversity and there is no uniform classification of alkaloids. First classification methods have historically combined alkaloids by the common natural source, ''e.g.'', a certain type of plants. This classification was justified by the lack of knowledge about the chemical structure of alkaloids and is now considered obsolete.\n\nMore recent classifications are based on similarity of the carbon skeleton (''e.g.'', indole-, isoquinoline-, and pyridine-like) or biochemical precursor (ornithine, lysine, tyrosine, tryptophan, etc.). However, they require compromises in borderline cases; for example, nicotine contains a pyridine fragment from nicotinamide and pyrrolidine part from ornithine and therefore can be assigned to both classes.\n\nAlkaloids are often divided into the following major groups:\n\n# \"True alkaloids\" contain nitrogen in the heterocycle and originate from amino acids. Their characteristic examples are atropine, nicotine, and morphine. This group also includes some alkaloids that besides nitrogen heterocycle contain terpene (''e.g.'', evonine) or peptide fragments (''e.g.'' ergotamine). This group also includes piperidine alkaloids coniine and coniceine although they do not originate from amino acids.\n# \"Protoalkaloids\", which contain nitrogen and also originate from amino acids. Examples include mescaline, adrenaline and ephedrine.\n# Polyamine alkaloids – derivatives of putrescine, spermidine, and spermine.\n# Peptide and cyclopeptide alkaloids.\n# Pseudoalkaloids – alkaloid-like compounds that do not originate from amino acids. This group includes terpene-like and steroid-like alkaloids, as well as purine-like alkaloids such as caffeine, theobromine, theacrine and theophylline. Some authors classify as pseudoalkaloids such compounds such as ephedrine and cathinone. Those originate from the amino acid phenylalanine, but acquire their nitrogen atom not from the amino acid but through transamination.\n\nSome alkaloids do not have the carbon skeleton characteristic of their group. So, galantamine and homoaporphines do not contain isoquinoline fragment, but are, in general, attributed to isoquinoline alkaloids.\n\nMain classes of monomeric alkaloids are listed in the table below:\n\n\n\n Class\nMajor groups\nMain synthesis steps\nExamples\n\n''Alkaloids with nitrogen heterocycles (true alkaloids)''\n\n Pyrrolidine derivatives\ncenter\n\n Ornithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ1-pyrroline \n Cuscohygrine, hygrine, hygroline, stachydrine\n\nTropane derivatives\ncenter\n Atropine groupSubstitution in positions 3, 6 or 7 \nOrnithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ1-pyrroline \n Atropine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine\n\n Cocaine group Substitution in positions 2 and 3 \n Cocaine, ecgonine \n\nPyrrolizidine derivatives\ncenter\n Non-esters\nIn plants: ornithine or arginine → putrescine → homospermidine → retronecine \n Retronecine, heliotridine, laburnine \n\n Complex esters of monocarboxylic acids\n Indicine, lindelophin, sarracine \n\n Macrocyclic diesters\n Platyphylline, trichodesmine\n\n 1-aminopyrrolizidines (lolines)\n In fungi: L-proline + L-homoserine → ''N''-(3-amino-3-carboxypropyl)proline → norloline\nLoline, ''N''-formylloline, ''N''-acetylloline\n\nPiperidine derivatives\ncenter\n\n Lysine → cadaverine → Δ1-piperideine \n Sedamine, lobeline, anaferine, piperine \n\n\n Octanoic acid → coniceine → coniine \n Coniine, coniceine \n\nQuinolizidine derivatives\ncenter\n Lupinine group\nLysine → cadaverine → Δ1-piperideine \n Lupinine, nupharidin \n\n Cytisine group\n Cytisine \n\n Sparteine group\n Sparteine, lupanine, anahygrine\n\n Matrine group\n Matrine, oxymatrine, allomatridine\n\n Ormosanine group\n Ormosanine, piptantine\n\n Indolizidine derivatives\ncenter\n\n Lysine → δ-semialdehyde of α-aminoadipic acid → pipecolic acid → 1 indolizidinone \n Swainsonine, castanospermine \n\nPyridine derivatives\ncenter\n Simple derivatives of pyridine\nNicotinic acid → dihydronicotinic acid → 1,2-dihydropyridine \n Trigonelline, ricinine, arecoline \n\n Polycyclic noncondensing pyridine derivatives\n Nicotine, nornicotine, anabasine, anatabine \n\n Polycyclic condensed pyridine derivatives\n Actinidine, gentianine, pediculinine \n\n Sesquiterpene pyridine derivatives\n Nicotinic acid, isoleucine \n Evonine, hippocrateine, triptonine \n\nIsoquinoline derivatives and related alkaloids \ncenter\n Simple derivatives of isoquinoline \nTyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine or tyramine (for alkaloids Amarillis) \n Salsoline, lophocerine \n\n Derivatives of 1- and 3-isoquinolines \n N-methylcoridaldine, noroxyhydrastinine \n\n Derivatives of 1- and 4-phenyltetrahydroisoquinolines \n Cryptostilin \n\n Derivatives of 5-naftil-isoquinoline \n Ancistrocladine \n\n Derivatives of 1- and 2-benzyl-izoquinolines \n Papaverine, laudanosine, sendaverine\n\n Cularine group\n Cularine, yagonine \n\n Pavines and isopavines \n Argemonine, amurensine \n\n Benzopyrrocolines \n Cryptaustoline \n\n Protoberberines \n Berberine, canadine, ophiocarpine, mecambridine, corydaline \n\n Phthalidisoquinolines \n Hydrastine, narcotine (Noscapine) \n\n Spirobenzylisoquinolines \n Fumaricine \n\n Ipecacuanha alkaloids\n Emetine, protoemetine, ipecoside \n\n Benzophenanthridines \n Sanguinarine, oxynitidine, corynoloxine \n\n Aporphines \n Glaucine, coridine, liriodenine \n\n Proaporphines \n Pronuciferine, glaziovine \n\n Homoaporphines \n Kreysiginine, multifloramine \n\n Homoproaporphines \n Bulbocodine \n\n Morphines\n Morphine, codeine, thebaine, sinomenine \n\n Homomorphines \n Kreysiginine, androcymbine \n\n Tropoloisoquinolines \n Imerubrine \n\n Azofluoranthenes \n Rufescine, imeluteine \n\n Amaryllis alkaloids\n Lycorine, ambelline, tazettine, galantamine, montanine \n\n Erythrina alkaloids\n Erysodine, erythroidine \n\n Phenanthrene derivatives \n Atherosperminine \n\n Protopines \n Protopine, oxomuramine, corycavidine \n\n Aristolactam \n Doriflavin \n\n Oxazole derivatives\ncenter\n\n Tyrosine → tyramine \n Annuloline, halfordinol, texaline, texamine\n\n Isoxazole derivatives\ncenter\n\nIbotenic acid → Muscimol\nIbotenic acid, Muscimol\n\n Thiazole derivatives\ncenter\n\n 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DOXP), tyrosine, cysteine \n Nostocyclamide, thiostreptone \n\nQuinazoline derivatives\ncenter\n 3,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivatives\nAnthranilic acid or phenylalanine or ornithine \n Febrifugine\n\n 1,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivatives\n Glycorine, arborine, glycosminine\n\n Pyrrolidine and piperidine quinazoline derivatives\n Vazicine (peganine) \n\n Acridine derivatives\ncenter\n\n Anthranilic acid \n Rutacridone, acronicine\n\nQuinoline derivatives\ncenter\n Simple derivatives of quinoline derivatives of 2–quinolones and 4-quinolone\nAnthranilic acid → 3-carboxyquinoline \n Cusparine, echinopsine, evocarpine\n\n Tricyclic terpenoids\n Flindersine\n\n Furanoquinoline derivatives\n Dictamnine, fagarine, skimmianine\n\n Quinines\n Tryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) → korinanteal → cinhoninon \n Quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinhonidine \n\nIndole derivatives\ncenter\n\n''Non-isoprene indole alkaloids''\n\n Simple indole derivatives \nTryptophan → tryptamine or 5-hydroxitriptofan \n Serotonin, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), bufotenin \n\n Simple derivatives of β-carboline \n Harman, harmine, harmaline, eleagnine \n\n Pyrroloindole alkaloids \n Physostigmine (eserine), etheramine, physovenine, eptastigmine\n\n''Semiterpenoid indole alkaloids''\n\n Ergot alkaloids\n Tryptophan → chanoclavine → agroclavine → elimoclavine → paspalic acid → lysergic acid \n Ergotamine, ergobasine, ergosine\n\n''Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids''\n\n ''Corynanthe'' type alkaloids\nTryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) \n Ajmalicine, sarpagine, vobasine, ajmaline, yohimbine, reserpine, mitragynine, group strychnine and (Strychnine brucine, aquamicine, vomicine )\n\n Iboga-type alkaloids\n Ibogamine, ibogaine, voacangine\n\n Aspidosperma-type alkaloids\n Vincamine, ''vinca'' alkaloids, vincotine, aspidospermine\n\n Imidazole derivatives\ncenter\n\n Directly from histidine\n Histamine, pilocarpine, pilosine, stevensine\n\n Purine derivatives\ncenter\n\n Xanthosine (formed in purine biosynthesis) → 7 methylxantosine → 7-methyl xanthine → theobromine → caffeine \n Caffeine, theobromine, theophylline, saxitoxin \n\n''Alkaloids with nitrogen in the side chain (protoalkaloids)''\n\n β-Phenylethylamine derivatives\ncenter\n\n Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dioxyphenilalanine → dopamine → adrenaline and mescaline tyrosine → tyramine phenylalanine → 1-phenylpropane-1,2-dione → cathinone → ephedrine and pseudoephedrine \n Tyramine, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, mescaline, cathinone, catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine)\n\n Colchicine alkaloids \ncenter\n\n Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine → autumnaline → colchicine \n Colchicine, colchamine\n\n Muscarine \ncenter\n\n Glutamic acid → 3-ketoglutamic acid → muscarine (with pyruvic acid)\n Muscarine, allomuscarine, epimuscarine, epiallomuscarine\n\n Benzylamine\ncenter\n\n Phenylalanine with valine, leucine or isoleucine\n Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, vanillylamine\n\n''Polyamines alkaloids''\n\n Putrescine derivatives\ncenter\n\nornithine → putrescine → spermidine → spermine\n Paucine \n\n Spermidine derivatives\ncenter\n\n Lunarine, codonocarpine\n\n Spermine derivatives\ncenter\n\n Verbascenine, aphelandrine \n\n''Peptide (cyclopeptide) alkaloids''\n\nPeptide alkaloids with a 13-membered cycle \n Nummularine C type\nFrom different amino acids \n Nummularine C, Nummularine S \n\n Ziziphine type\n Ziziphine A, sativanine H \n\nPeptide alkaloids with a 14-membered cycle \n Frangulanine type\n Frangulanine, scutianine J \n\n Scutianine A type\n Scutianine A \n\n Integerrine type\n Integerrine, discarine D \n\n Amphibine F type\n Amphibine F, spinanine A \n\n Amfibine B type\n Amphibine B, lotusine C \n\n Peptide alkaloids with a 15-membered cycle \n Mucronine A type\n Mucronine A \n\n''Pseudoalkaloids (terpenes and steroids)''\n\n Diterpenes \ncenter\n Lycoctonine type\n Mevalonic acid → izopentenilpyrophosfate → geranyl pyrophosphate \n Aconitine, delphinine \n\n Steroids\ncenter\n\n Cholesterol, arginine\n Solasodine, solanidine, veralkamine, batrachotoxin\n\n", "corn lily plant. The cyclopia in the calf is induced by the alkaloid cyclopamine present in the plant.\nMost alkaloids contain oxygen in their molecular structure; those compounds are usually colorless crystals at ambient conditions. Oxygen-free alkaloids, such as nicotine or coniine, are typically volatile, colorless, oily liquids. Some alkaloids are colored, like berberine (yellow) and sanguinarine (orange).\n\nMost alkaloids are weak bases, but some, such as theobromine and theophylline, are amphoteric. Many alkaloids dissolve poorly in water but readily dissolve in organic solvents, such as diethyl ether, chloroform or 1,2-dichloroethane. Caffeine, cocaine, codeine and nicotine are slightly soluble in water (with a solubility of ≥1g/L), whereas others, including morphine and yohimbine are very slightly water-soluble (0.1–1 g/L). Alkaloids and acids form salts of various strengths. These salts are usually freely soluble in water and ethanol and poorly soluble in most organic solvents. Exceptions include scopolamine hydrobromide, which is soluble in organic solvents, and the water-soluble quinine sulfate.\n\nMost alkaloids have a bitter taste or are poisonous when ingested. Alkaloid production in plants appeared to have evolved in response to feeding by herbivorous animals; however, some animals have evolved the ability to detoxify alkaloids. Some alkaloids can produce developmental defects in the offspring of animals that consume but cannot detoxify the alkaloids. One example is the alkaloid cyclopamine, produced in the leaves of corn lily. During the 1950s, up to 25% of lambs born by sheep that had grazed on corn lily had serious facial deformations. These ranged from deformed jaws to cyclopia (see picture). After decades of research, in the 1980s, the compound responsible for these deformities was identified as the alkaloid 11-deoxyjervine, later renamed to cyclopamine.\n", "Strychnine tree. Its seeds are rich in strychnine and brucine.\n\nAlkaloids are generated by various living organisms, especially by higher plants – about 10 to 25% of those contain alkaloids. Therefore, in the past the term \"alkaloid\" was associated with plants.\n\nThe alkaloids content in plants is usually within a few percent and is inhomogeneous over the plant tissues. Depending on the type of plants, the maximum concentration is observed in the leaves (black henbane), fruits or seeds (Strychnine tree), root (''Rauwolfia serpentina'') or bark (cinchona). Furthermore, different tissues of the same plants may contain different alkaloids.\n\nBeside plants, alkaloids are found in certain types of fungi, such as psilocybin in the fungus of the genus ''Psilocybe'', and in animals, such as bufotenin in the skin of some toads. Many marine organisms also contain alkaloids. Some amines, such as adrenaline and serotonin, which play an important role in higher animals, are similar to alkaloids in their structure and biosynthesis and are sometimes called alkaloids.\n", "Crystals of piperine extracted from black pepper.\n\nBecause of the structural diversity of alkaloids, there is no single method of their extraction from natural raw materials. Most methods exploit the property of most alkaloids to be soluble in organic solvents but not in water, and the opposite tendency of their salts.\n\nMost plants contain several alkaloids. Their mixture is extracted first and then individual alkaloids are separated. Plants are thoroughly ground before extraction. Most alkaloids are present in the raw plants in the form of salts of organic acids. The extracted alkaloids may remain salts or change into bases. Base extraction is achieved by processing the raw material with alkaline solutions and extracting the alkaloid bases with organic solvents, such as 1,2-dichloroethane, chloroform, diethyl ether or benzene. Then, the impurities are dissolved by weak acids; this converts alkaloid bases into salts that are washed away with water. If necessary, an aqueous solution of alkaloid salts is again made alkaline and treated with an organic solvent. The process is repeated until the desired purity is achieved.\n\nIn the acidic extraction, the raw plant material is processed by a weak acidic solution (''e.g.'', acetic acid in water, ethanol, or methanol). A base is then added to convert alkaloids to basic forms that are extracted with organic solvent (if the extraction was performed with alcohol, it is removed first, and the remainder is dissolved in water). The solution is purified as described above.\n\nAlkaloids are separated from their mixture using their different solubility in certain solvents and different reactivity with certain reagents or by distillation.\n", "Biological precursors of most alkaloids are amino acids, such as ornithine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine, aspartic acid, and anthranilic acid. Nicotinic acid can be synthesized from tryptophan or aspartic acid. Ways of alkaloid biosynthesis are too numerous and cannot be easily classified. However, there are a few typical reactions involved in the biosynthesis of various classes of alkaloids, including synthesis of Schiff bases and Mannich reaction.\n\n===Synthesis of Schiff bases===\n\n\nSchiff bases can be obtained by reacting amines with ketones or aldehydes. These reactions are a common method of producing C=N bonds.\n\ncenter\n\nIn the biosynthesis of alkaloids, such reactions may take place within a molecule, such as in the synthesis of piperidine:\n\ncenter\n\n===Mannich reaction===\n\n\nAn integral component of the Mannich reaction, in addition to an amine and a carbonyl compound, is a carbanion, which plays the role of the nucleophile in the nucleophilic addition to the ion formed by the reaction of the amine and the carbonyl.\n\ncenter\n\nThe Mannich reaction can proceed both intermolecularly and intramolecularly:\n\ncenter\n", "In addition to the described above monomeric alkaloids, there are also dimeric, and even trimeric and tetrameric alkaloids formed upon condensation of two, three, and four monomeric alkaloids. Dimeric alkaloids are usually formed from monomers of the same type through the following mechanisms:\n* Mannich reaction, resulting in, ''e.g.'', voacamine\n* Michael reaction (villalstonine)\n* Condensation of aldehydes with amines (toxiferine)\n* Oxidative addition of phenols (dauricine, tubocurarine)\n* Lactonization (carpaine).\n\n\n\nFile:Voacamine chemical structure.png\|Voacamine\nFile:Villalstonine.svg\|Villalstonine\nFile:Toxiferine I.png\|Toxiferine\nFile:Dauricine.svg\|Dauricine\nFile:Tubocurarine.svg\|Tubocurarine\nFile:Carpaine.png\|Carpaine\n\n\n\nThere are also dimeric alkaloids formed from two distinct monomers, such as the ''vinca'' alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine, which are formed from the coupling of catharanthine and vindoline. The newer semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic agent vinorelbine is used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer. It is another derivative dimer of vindoline and catharanthine and is synthesised from anhydrovinblastine, starting either from leurosine or the monomers themselves.\n\n1000px\n", "The role of alkaloids for living organisms that produce them is still unclear. It was initially assumed that the alkaloids are the final products of nitrogen metabolism in plants, as urea in mammals. It was later shown that alkaloid concentrations varies over time, and this hypothesis was refuted.\n\nMost of the known functions of alkaloids are related to protection. For example, aporphine alkaloid liriodenine produced by the tulip tree protects it from parasitic mushrooms. In addition, the presence of alkaloids in the plant prevents insects and chordate animals from eating it. However, some animals are adapted to alkaloids and even use them in their own metabolism. Such alkaloid-related substances as serotonin, dopamine and histamine are important neurotransmitters in animals. Alkaloids are also known to regulate plant growth. Another example of an organism that uses alkaloids for protection is the ''Utetheisa ornatrix'', more commonly known as the ornate moth. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids render these larvae and adult moths unpalatable to many of their natural enemies like coccinelid beetles, green lacewings, insectivorous hemiptera and insectivorous bats.\n", "\n===In medicine===\nMedical use of alkaloid-containing plants has a long history, and, thus, when the first alkaloids were isolated in the 19th century, they immediately found application in clinical practice. Many alkaloids are still used in medicine, usually in the form of salts, including the following:\n\n\n\n Alkaloid\n Action\n\n Ajmaline\n antiarrhythmic\n\n Atropine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine\n anticholinergic\n\n Caffeine\n stimulant, adenosine receptor antagonist\n\n Codeine\n antitussive, analgesic\n\n Colchicine\n remedy for gout\n\n Emetine\n antiprotozoal agent\n\n Ergot alkaloids\n sympathomimetic, vasodilator, antihypertensive\n\n Morphine\n analgesic\n\n Nicotine\n stimulant, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist\n\n Physostigmine\n inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase\n\n Quinidine\n antiarrhythmic\n\n Quinine\n antipyretic, antimalarial\n\n Reserpine\n antihypertensive\n\n Tubocurarine\n muscle relaxant\n\n Vinblastine, vincristine\n antitumor\n\n Vincamine\n vasodilating, antihypertensive\n\n Yohimbine\n stimulant, aphrodisiac\n\n\nMany synthetic and semisynthetic drugs are structural modifications of the alkaloids, which were designed to enhance or change the primary effect of the drug and reduce unwanted side-effects. For example, naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, is a derivative of thebaine that is present in opium.\n\n\n\nFile:Thebaine skeletal.svg\|Thebaine\nFile:Naloxone.svg\|Naloxone\n\n\n\n=== In agriculture ===\nPrior to the development of a wide range of relatively low-toxic synthetic pesticides, some alkaloids, such as salts of nicotine and anabasine, were used as insecticides. Their use was limited by their high toxicity to humans.\n\n=== Use as psychoactive drugs ===\nPreparations of plants containing alkaloids and their extracts, and later pure alkaloids, have long been used as psychoactive substances. Cocaine, caffeine, and cathinone are stimulants of the central nervous system. Mescaline and many of indole alkaloids (such as psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine and ibogaine) have hallucinogenic effect. Morphine and codeine are strong narcotic pain killers.\n\nThere are alkaloids that do not have strong psychoactive effect themselves, but are precursors for semi-synthetic psychoactive drugs. For example, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are used to produce methcathinone and methamphetamine. Thebaine is used in the synthesis of many painkillers such as oxycodone.\n", "\n* Amine\n* Base (chemistry)\n* List of poisonous plants\n* Natural products\n* Palau'amine\n* Secondary metabolite\n* Mayer's reagent\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Naming", " History ", " Classifications ", " Properties ", "Distribution in nature", "Extraction", "Biosynthesis", "Dimer alkaloids", "Biological role", " Applications ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " Bibliography " ]	Alkaloid
[ "\n\n'''Adventism''' is a minor branch of Protestant Christianity which was started by William Miller during the Second Great Awakening in the United States.\n\nThe name refers to belief in the imminent Second Coming (or \"Second Advent\") of Jesus Christ. William Miller started the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known as Millerites.\n\nAlthough the Adventist churches hold much in common, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of refers to the one in heaven or one on earth. The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole Bible, leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the Sabbath. The General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists has compiled that church's core beliefs in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs (1980 and 2005), which use Biblical references as justification.\n\nIn 2010, Adventism claimed some 22 million believers scattered in various independent churches. The largest church within the movement—the Seventh-day Adventist Church—is one of the largest Christian churches in the world, with more than 18 million baptized members.\n", "\n\nAdventism began as an inter-denominational movement. Its most vocal leader was William Miller. Between 50,000 and 100,000 people in the United States supported Miller's predictions of Christ's return. After the \"Great Disappointment\" of October 22, 1844, many people in the movement gave up on Adventism. Of those remaining Adventist, the majority gave up believing in any prophetic (biblical) significance for the October 22 date, yet they remained expectant of the near Advent (second coming of Jesus).\n\nOf those who retained the October 22 date, many maintained that Jesus had come not literally but \"spiritually\", and consequently were known as \"spiritualizers\". A small minority held that something concrete had indeed happened on October 22, but this event had been misinterpreted. This viewpoint later emerged and crystallized with the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the largest remaining body today.\n\n\n\nThe development of branches of Adventism in the 19th century.\n\n===Albany Conference (1845)===\nThe Albany Conference in 1845, attended by 61 delegates, was called to attempt to determine the future course and meaning of the Millerite movement. Following this meeting, the \"Millerites\" then became known as \"Adventists\" or \"Second Adventists\". However, the delegates disagreed on several theological points. Four groups emerged from the conference: The Evangelical Adventists, The Life and Advent Union, the Advent Christian Church, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church.\n\nThe largest group was organized as the American Millennial Association, a portion of which was later known as the Evangelical Adventist Church. Unique among the Adventists, they believed in an eternal hell and consciousness in death. They declined in numbers, and by 1916 their name did not appear in the United States Census of Religious Bodies. It has diminished to almost non-existence today. Their main publication was the ''Advent Herald'', of which Sylvester Bliss was the editor until his death in 1863. It was later called the ''Messiah's Herald''.\n\nThe Life and Advent Union was founded by George Storrs in 1863. He had established ''The Bible Examiner'' in 1842. It merged with the Adventist Christian Church in 1964.\n\nThe Advent Christian Church officially formed in 1861 grew rapidly at first. It declined a little during the 20th century. The Advent Christians publish the four magazines ''The Advent Christian Witness'', ''Advent Christian News'', ''Advent Christian Missions'' and ''Maranatha''. They also operate a liberal arts college at Aurora, Illinois; and a one-year Bible College in Lenox, Massachusetts, called Berkshire Institute for Christian Studies. The Primitive Advent Christian Church later separated from a few congregations in West Virginia.\n\nThe Seventh-day Adventist Church officially formed in 1863. It believes in the sanctity of the seventh-day Sabbath as a holy day for worship. It published the ''Adventist Review, Kids Review, and Sabbath Herald''. It has grown to a large worldwide denomination and has a significant network of medical and educational institutions.\n\nMiller did not join any of the movements, and he spent the last few years of his life working for unity, before dying in 1849.\n", "\n\nThe ''Handbook of Denominations in the United States'', 12th edn., describes the following churches as \"Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches\":\n\n===Christadelphians===\n\nThe Christadelphians were founded in 1844 by John Thomas and had an estimated 25,000 members in 170 ecclesias, or churches, in 2000 in America.\n\n===Advent Christian Church===\n\nThe '''Advent Christian Church''' was founded in 1860 and had 25,277 members in 302 churches in 2002 in America. It is a \"first-day\" body of Adventist Christians founded on the teachings of William Miller. It adopted the \"conditional immortality\" views of Charles F. Hudson and George Storrs who formed the \"Advent Christian Association\" in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1860.\n\n====Primitive Advent Christian Church====\n\nThe '''Primitive Advent Christian Church''' is a small group which separated from the Advent Christian Church. It differs from the parent body mainly on two points. Its members observe foot washing as a rite of the church, and they teach that reclaimed backsliders should be baptized (even though they had formerly been baptized). This is sometimes referred to as rebaptism.\n\n===Seventh-day Adventist===\n\nThe '''Seventh-day Adventist Church''', founded in 1863, had over 19,500,000 baptized members (not counting children of members) worldwide as of June 2016. It is best known for its teaching that Saturday, the seventh day of the week, is the Sabbath and is the appropriate day for worship. However, it is the second coming of Jesus Christ along with the Judgement day, based on the three angels message in Revelation 14:6–13, that is the main doctrine of SDA.\n\n====Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement====\n\nThe '''Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement''' is a small offshoot with an unknown number of members from the Seventh-day Adventist Church caused by disagreement over military service on the Sabbath day during World War I.\n\n====Davidian Seventh-day Adventist Association====\n\nThe '''Davidians''' (originally named '''Shepherd's Rod''') is a small offshoot with an unknown number of members made up primarily of voluntarily disfellowshipped members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. They were originally known as the Shepherd's Rod and are still sometimes referred to as such. The group derives its name from two books on Bible doctrine written by its founder, Victor Houteff, in 1929.\n\n;Branch Davidians\nThe Branch Davidians were a split (\"branch\") from the Davidians. Many of them were killed during the infamous Waco Siege of April 1993.\n\n===Church of God (Seventh Day)===\n\nThe '''Church of God (Seventh-Day)''' was founded in 1863 and it had an estimated 11,000 members in 185 churches in 1999 in America. Its founding members separated in 1858 from those Adventists associated with Ellen G. White who later organized themselves as Seventh-day Adventists in 1863. The Church of God (Seventh Day) split in 1933, creating two bodies: one headquartered in Salem, West Virginia, and known as the Church of God (7th day) – Salem Conference and the other one headquartered in Denver, Colorado and known as the General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh-Day). The Worldwide Church of God splintered from this.\n\n===Church of God and Saints of Christ===\n\nThe '''Church of God and Saints of Christ''' was founded in 1896 and had an estimated 40,000 members in approximately 200 congregations in 1999 in America.\n\n===Church of God General Conference===\nMany denominations known as \"Church of God\" have Adventist origins.\n\n\nThe '''Church of God General Conference''' was founded in 1921 and had 7,634 members in 162 churches in 2004 in America. It is an Adventist Christian body which is also known as the ''Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith'' and the ''Church of God General Conference (Morrow, GA)''.\n\n===Creation Seventh-Day Adventist===\nCreation Seventh Day Adventist Church\n\n====United Seventh-Day Brethren====\n\nThe '''United Seventh-Day Brethren''' is a small Sabbatarian Adventist body.\nIn 1947, several individuals and two independent congregations within the Church of God Adventist movement formed the ''United Seventh-Day Brethren'', seeking to increase fellowship and to combine their efforts in evangelism, publications, and other .\n\n===Other minor Adventist groups===\n* '''True and Free Adventists''', a Soviet Union offshoot\n* At least two denominations and numerous individual churches with a charismatic or Pentecostal-type bent have been influenced by or were offshoots from Seventh-day Adventists – see '''charismatic Adventism''' generally\n* '''United Sabbath-Day Adventist Church''', an African-American offshoot of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in New York City\n* '''Celestia''', a Christian communal town near Laporte in Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, founded by Millerite Peter E. Armstrong. It disintegrated before the end of the 19th century\n\n===Other relationships===\nThe Bible Students movement founded by Charles Taze Russell had in its early development close connections with the Millerite movement and stalwarts of the Adventist faith, including George Storrs and Joseph Seiss. The various groupings of independent Bible Students has currently have a cumulative membership about less than 20,000 worldwide. Although both Jehovah's Witnesses and Bible Students do not categorize themselves as part of the Millerite Adventist movement (or other denominations, in general), some theologians do categorize the group and schisms as Millerite Adventist because of its teachings regarding an imminent Second Coming and use of specific dates. As of January 2014 there are approximately 8 million Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide.\n\nAn adventist church in Jyväskylä, Finland.\n", "* Advent Christian Church\n* Adventist and related churches\n* List of Christian denominations#Millerites and comparable groups\n* Seventh-day Adventist Church\n* Other movements in Adventism\n Great Disappointment\n William Miller (preacher)\n Millennialism\n Millerites\n** Second Great Awakening\n\n'''General:'''\n* Christian revival\n* Christianity in the 19th century\n", "\n", "* Butler, Jonathan. \"From Millerism to Seventh-Day Adventism: Boundlessness to Consolidation\", ''Church History'', Vol. 55, 1986\n* Jordan, Anne Devereaux. ''The Seventh-Day Adventists: A History'' (1988)\n* Land, Gary. ''Adventism in America: A History'' (1998)\n* Land, Gary. ''Historical Dictionary of the Seventh-Day Adventists'' (2005)\n* Morgan, Douglas. ''Adventism and the American Republic: The Public Involvement of a Major Apocalyptic Movement'' (University of Tennessee Press, 2001) \n* \n", "\n* History of the Millerite Movement, a reprint from the ''Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia'' 10:892–898, 1976.\n* Graphical timeline of major Millerite groups from the Worldwide Church of God official website\n* Seventh-day Adventist Beliefs, list of beliefs of the Seventh-day Adventist Church movement.\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Denominations", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Adventism
[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Archbishop of Canterbury''' is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. The current archbishop is Justin Welby. His enthronement took place at Canterbury Cathedral on 21 March 2013. Welby is the 105th in a line which goes back more than 1400 years to Augustine of Canterbury, the \"Apostle to the English\", sent from Rome in the year 597. Welby succeeded Rowan Williams.\n\nFrom the time of St Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century, until Archbishop Reginald Pole in the 16th century, the Archbishops of Canterbury were in full communion with the See of Rome and they usually received the pallium. During the English Reformation, based upon King Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon, the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church.\n\nIn the Middle Ages there was considerable variation in the methods of nomination of the Archbishop of Canterbury and other bishops. At various times the choice was made by the canons of Canterbury Cathedral, the Pope, or the King of England. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has been more explicitly a state church and the choice is legally that of the Crown; today it is made by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister, who receives a shortlist of two names from an ''ad hoc'' committee called the Crown Nominations Commission.\n", "Today the archbishop fills four main roles:\n\n# He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, which covers the eastern parts of the County of Kent. Founded in 597, it is the oldest see in the English church.\n# He is the metropolitan archbishop of the Province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of England.\n# He is the senior primate and chief religious figure of the Church of England (the British sovereign is the supreme governor of the church). Along with his colleague the Archbishop of York he chairs the General Synod and sits on or chairs many of the church's important boards and committees; power in the church is not highly centralised, however, so the two archbishops can often lead only through persuasion. The Archbishop of Canterbury plays a central part in national ceremonies such as coronations; due to his high public profile, his opinions are often in demand by the news media.\n# As spiritual leader of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop, although without legal authority outside England, is recognised by convention as ''primus inter pares'' (\"first among equals\") of all Anglican primates worldwide. Since 1867 he has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the Lambeth Conferences.\n\nIn the last two of these functions, he has an important ecumenical and interfaith role, speaking on behalf of Anglicans in England and worldwide.\n\nThe archbishop's main residence is Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. He also has lodgings in the Old Palace, Canterbury, located beside Canterbury Cathedral, where the Chair of St Augustine sits.\n\nAs holder of one of the \"five great sees\" (the others being York, London, Durham and Winchester), the Archbishop of Canterbury is ''ex officio'' one of the Lords Spiritual of the House of Lords. He is one of the highest-ranking men in England and the highest ranking non-royal in the United Kingdom's order of precedence.\n\nSince Henry VIII broke with Rome, the Archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English (British since the Act of Union in 1707) monarch. Today the choice is made in the name of the monarch by the prime minister, from a shortlist of two selected by an ad-hoc committee called the Crown Nominations Commission. Since the 20th century, the appointment of Archbishops of Canterbury conventionally alternates between more moderate Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals.\n\nThe current archbishop, Justin Welby, the 105th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 4 February 2013. As archbishop he signs himself as ''+ Justin Cantuar''. His predecessor, Rowan Williams, 104th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 27 February 2003. Immediately prior to his appointment to Canterbury, Williams was the Bishop of Monmouth and Archbishop of Wales. On 18 March 2012, Williams announced he would be stepping down as Archbishop of Canterbury at the end of 2012 to become Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge.\n\n===Additional roles===\nIn addition to his office, the archbishop also holds a number of other positions; for example, he is Joint President of the Council of Christians and Jews in the United Kingdom. Some positions he formally holds ''ex officio'' and others virtually so (the incumbent of the day, although appointed personally, is appointed because of his office). Amongst these are:\n* Chancellor of Canterbury Christ Church University\n\n* Visitor for the following academic institutions:\n\n All Souls College, Oxford\n Selwyn College, Cambridge\n Merton College, Oxford\n Keble College, Oxford\n Ridley Hall, Cambridge\n\n The University of Kent (main campus located in Canterbury)\n King's College London\n University of King's College\n Sutton Valence School\n Benenden School\n Cranbrook School\n Haileybury and Imperial Service College\n Harrow School\n King's College School, Wimbledon\n The King's School, Canterbury\n St John's School, Leatherhead\n Marlborough College\n Dauntsey's School\n** Wycliffe Hall, Oxford (also Patron)\n* Governor of Charterhouse School\n* Governor of Wellington College\n* Visitor, The Dulwich Charities\n* Visitor, Whitgift Foundation\n* Visitor, Hospital of the Blessed Trinity, Guildford (Abbot's Fund)\n* Trustee, Bromley College\n* Trustee, Allchurches Trust\n* President, Corporation of Church House, Westminster\n* Director, Canterbury Diocesan Board of Finance\n* Patron, The Worshipful Company of Parish Clerks\n* Patron, Prisoners Abroad\n* Patron, The Kent Savers Credit Union\n\n===Ecumenical and interfaith===\nThe Archbishop of Canterbury is also a president of Churches Together in England (an ecumenical organisation). Geoffrey Fisher, 99th Archbishop of Canterbury, was the first since 1397 to visit Rome, where he held private talks with Pope John XXIII in 1960. In 2005, Rowan Williams became the first Archbishop of Canterbury to attend a papal funeral since the Reformation. He also attended the inauguration of Pope Benedict XVI. The 101st archbishop, Donald Coggan, was the first to attend a papal inauguration, that of Pope John Paul II in 1978.\n\nSince 2002, the Archbishop of Canterbury has co-sponsored the Alexandria Middle East Peace process with the Grand Mufti of Egypt. In July 2008, the archbishop attended a conference of Christians, Jews and Muslims convened by the King of Saudi Arabia at which the notion of the \"clash of civilizations\" was rejected. Delegates agreed \"on international guidelines for dialogue among the followers of religions and cultures.\" Delegates said that \"the deepening of moral values and ethical principles, which are common denominators among such followers, would help strengthen stability and achieve prosperity for all humans.\"\n", "see of Canterbury. Nearly 500 years after the Reformation, the arms still depict the pallium, a symbol of the authority of the Pope and metropolitan archbishops.\nIt has been suggested that the Roman province of Britannia had four archbishops, seated at London, York, Lincoln and Cirencester. However, in the 5th and 6th centuries Britannia began to be overrun by pagan, Germanic peoples who came to be known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons. Of the kingdoms they created, Kent arguably had the closest links with European politics, trade and culture, because it was conveniently situated for communication with continental Europe. In the late 6th century, King Æthelberht of Kent married a Christian Frankish princess named Bertha, possibly before becoming king, and certainly a number of years before the arrival of the first Christian mission to England. He permitted the preaching of Christianity.\n\nThe first Archbishop of Canterbury was St Augustine (not to be confused with St Augustine of Hippo), who arrived in Kent in 597 AD, having been sent by Pope Gregory I on a mission to the English. He was accepted by King Æthelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, about the year 598. It seems that Pope Gregory, ignorant of recent developments in the former Roman province, including the spread of the Pelagian heresy, had intended the new archiepiscopal sees for England to be established in London and York. In the event, Canterbury was chosen instead of London, owing to political circumstances. Since then the Archbishops of Canterbury have been referred to as occupying the Chair of St. Augustine.\n\nA Gospel Book believed to be directly associated with St Augustine's mission survives in the Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge University, England. Catalogued as Cambridge ''Manuscript 286'', it has been positively dated to 6th century Italy and this bound book, the St Augustine Gospels, is still used during the swearing-in ceremony of new archbishops of Canterbury.\n\nBefore the break with papal authority in the 16th century, the Church of England was an integral part of the Western European church. Since the break the Church of England, an established national church, still considers itself part of the broader Western Catholic tradition (although this is not accepted by the Roman Catholic Church which regards Anglicanism as schismatic and does not accept Anglican holy orders as valid) as well as being the \"mother church\" of the worldwide Anglican Communion.\n", "The Archbishop of Canterbury exercises metropolitical (or supervisory) jurisdiction over the Province of Canterbury, which encompasses thirty of the forty-four dioceses of the Church of England, with the rest falling within the Province of York. The four dioceses of Wales were formerly also under the Province of Canterbury until 1920 when they were transferred from the established Church of England to the disestablished Church in Wales.\n\nView of Canterbury Cathedral from the north west \nThe Archbishop of Canterbury has a ceremonial provincial ''curia'', or court, consisting of some of the senior bishops of his province. The Bishop of London—the most senior cleric of the church with the exception of the two archbishops—serves as Canterbury's provincial dean, the Bishop of Winchester as chancellor, the Bishop of Lincoln as vice-chancellor, the Bishop of Salisbury as precentor, the Bishop of Worcester as chaplain and the Bishop of Rochester as cross-bearer.\n\nAlong with primacy over the Archbishop of York, the Archbishop of Canterbury also has a precedence of honour over the other bishops of the Anglican Communion. He is recognised as ''primus inter pares'', or first amongst equals. He does not, however, exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England, except in certain minor roles dictated by Canon in those provinces (for example, he is the judge in the event of an ecclesiastical prosecution against the Archbishop of Wales). He does hold metropolitical authority over several extra-provincial Anglican churches, and he serves as ''ex officio'' Bishop of the Falkland Islands.\n\nAt present the archbishop has three suffragan bishops:\n\n* The Bishop of Dover is given the additional title of \"Bishop in Canterbury\" and empowered to act almost as if he were the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, since the archbishop is so frequently away fulfilling national and international duties.\n* Two further suffragans, the Bishop of Ebbsfleet and the Bishop of Richborough, are provincial episcopal visitors for the whole Province of Canterbury, licensed by the archbishop as \"flying bishops\" to visit parishes throughout the province who are uncomfortable with the ministrations of their local bishop who has participated in the ordination of women.\n\nThe Bishop of Maidstone was previously a second ''actual'' suffragan bishop working in the diocese, until it was decided at the diocesan synod of November 2010 that a new bishop will not be appointed.\n", "The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Archbishop of York are both styled as \"The Most Reverend\"; retired archbishops are styled as \"The Right Reverend\". Archbishops are, by convention, appointed to the Privy Council and may, therefore, also use the style of \"The Right Honourable\" for life (unless they are later removed from the council). In formal documents, the Archbishop of Canterbury is referred to as \"The Most Reverend Father in God, Forenames, by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England and Metropolitan\". In debates in the House of Lords, the archbishop is referred to as \"The Most Reverend Primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury\". \"The Right Honourable\" is not used in either instance. He may also be formally addressed as \"Your Grace\"—or, more often these days, simply as \"Archbishop\", or \"Father\".\n\nThe surname of the Archbishop of Canterbury is not always used in formal documents; often only the first name and see are mentioned. The archbishop is legally entitled to sign his name as \"Cantuar\" (from the Latin for Canterbury). The right to use a title as a legal signature is only permitted to bishops, Peers of the Realm and peers by courtesy. The current Archbishop of Canterbury usually signs as \"''+Justin Cantuar:''\".\n\nIn the English and Welsh order of precedence, the Archbishop of Canterbury is ranked above all individuals in the realm, with the exception of the Sovereign and members of the Royal Family. Immediately below him is the Lord Chancellor and then the Archbishop of York.\n\n===Lambeth degrees===\nThe Archbishop of Canterbury awards academic degrees, commonly called \"Lambeth degrees\".\n", "The Archbishop of Canterbury's official London residence is Lambeth Palace, photographed looking east across the River Thames\nThe Archbishop of Canterbury's official residence in London is Lambeth Palace.\nHe also has a residence, named The Old Palace, next to Canterbury Cathedral on the site of the medieval Archbishop's Palace.\nThe archbishops had palaces on the periphery of London and on the route between London and Canterbury.\n\nFormer palaces of the archbishops include\n* Croydon Palace: the summer residence of the Archbishops from the 15th to the 18th centuries.\n* Addington Palace: purchased as a replacement for Croydon Palace in 1807; sold in 1897.\n* Archbishop's Palace, Maidstone: constructed in the 1390s, the palace was seized by the Crown at the time of the Reformation.\n* Otford Palace: a medieval palace, rebuilt by Archbishop Warham and forfeited to the Crown by Thomas Cranmer in 1537.\n* Archbishop's Palace, Charing: a palace existed from at least the 13th century; seized by the Crown after the Dissolution.\n* Knole House: built by Archbishop Bourchier in the second half of the 15th century, it was forfeited to the Crown by Archbishop Cranmer in 1538.\n* The Old Palace, Bekesbourne, built for Archbishop CranmerTim Tatton Brown, ''Lambeth Palace: A History of the Archbishops of Canterbury and Their Houses'' (2000) p.73-4\n", "\n\nSince 1900, the following have served as Archbishop of Canterbury:\n\n* 1896–1902: Frederick Temple\n* 1903–1928: Randall Davidson\n* 1928–1942: Cosmo Gordon Lang\n* 1942–1944: William Temple\n* 1945–1961: Geoffrey Fisher\n* 1961–1974: Michael Ramsey\n* 1974–1980: Donald Coggan\n* 1980–1991: Robert Runcie\n* 1991–2002: George Carey\n* 2002–2012: Rowan Williams\n* 2013–present: Justin Welby\n", "* Accord of Winchester\n* Religion in the United Kingdom\n* Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople\n", "\n", "\n* Archbishop of Canterbury – official website\n* '' The Archbishopric of Canterbury, from Its Foundation to the Norman Conquest'', by John William Lamb\", Published 1971, Faith Press, from Google Book Search\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Present roles and status", "Origins", "Province and Diocese of Canterbury", "Styles and privileges", "Residences", "List of Archbishops of Canterbury", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Archbishop of Canterbury
[ "\n'''Albion''' is a city in Calhoun County in the south central region of the Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 8,616 at the 2010 census and is part of the Battle Creek Metropolitan Statistical Area. From the time that the earliest English-speaking settlers arrived, the area has also been known as ''The Forks'', because it is situated at the confluence of the north and south branches of the Kalamazoo River. The ''Festival of the Forks'' has been held annually since 1967 to celebrate Albion's ethnic heritage.\n\nThe presence of several major manufacturers since the 19th century has given Albion the reputation of a factory town. This has changed with the closure of several manufacturers, and Albion's culture is changing to that of a college town with a strong interest in technology and sustainability issues. Albion College is a private liberal arts college with a student population of about 1,750. Albion is a sister city with Noisy-le-Roi, France.\n", "The first European-American settler, Tenney Peabody, arrived in 1833 along with his brother-in-law Charles Blanchard, and a young man named Clark Dowling. Peabody's family followed soon after. In 1835, the Albion Company, a land development company formed by Jesse Crowell, platted a village and Peabody's wife was asked to name the settlement. She considered the name \"Peabodyville\", but \"Albion\" was selected instead, after the former residence of Jesse Crowell. Crowell became the first postmaster in 1838. Albion incorporated as a village in 1855 and as a city in 1885.\n\nIn 1835, Methodist Episcopal settlers established Albion College, which was known by a few other names before 1861 when the college was fully authorized to confer four-year degrees on both men and women. The first classes were held in Albion in 1843.\n\nThe forks of the Kalamazoo River provided power for mills, and Albion quickly became a mill town as well as an agricultural market. A railroad line arrived in 1852, fostering the development of other industries.\n\nIn 1973 Albion was named an All-America City by the National Civic League. It celebrated winning the award on May 15, 1974 when the Governor of Michigan, William Milliken, and many dignitaries came to town. However, in 1975 the closure of a major factory cut the celebration short and new challenges were created overnight.\n\nSince that time citizens have mobilized, with support from the Albion Community Foundation founded in 1968, and the Albion Volunteer Service Organization, founded in the 1980s with support from Albion College, to address the challenge of diminishing economic opportunity.\n\n Albion's historic brick main street—first laid in 1903 and\nreconstructed with hand-laid, kiln-fired clay bricks in 1993.\n\nKey to the City Honor Bestowed:\n\n1964: Aunt Jemima visited Albion on January 25.\n1960s: Ann Landers was presented with a key upon her visit to Starr Commonwealth for Boys.\n", "Albion has a Council-Manager form of government. City residents elect a Mayor and City Council members from six districts. The council in turn selects a City Manager to handle day-to-day affairs of the city. The mayor presides over and is a voting member of the council. Council members are elected to four-year terms, staggered every two years. A mayor is elected every two years. The city levies an income tax of 1 percent on residents and 0.5 percent on nonresidents.\n", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Albion is positioned 42.24 degrees north of the equator and 84.75 degrees west of the prime meridian.\n", "\n\n\n\n", "\n\n===2010 population by gender/age===\n\n\n '''Male''' \n 4,013 \n 46.6%\n\n '''Female''' \n 4,603 \n 53.4%\n\n '''Under 18''' \n 1,872 \n 21.7%\n\n '''18 and over''' \n 6,744 \n 78.3%\n\n '''20-24''' \n 1,364 \n 15.8%\n\n '''25-34''' \n 842 \n 9.8%\n\n '''35-49''' \n 1,251 \n 14.5%\n\n '''50-64''' \n 1,368 \n 15.9%\n\n '''65 and over''' \n 1,124 \n 13.0%\n\n\n===2010 population by ethnicity===\n\n\n '''Hispanic or Latino''' \n 500 \n 5.8%\n\n '''Non Hispanic or Latino''' \n 8,116 \n 94.2%\n\n\n===2010 population by race===\n\n\n '''White''' \n 5,477 \n 63.6%\n\n '''African American''' \n 2,579 \n 29.9%\n\n '''Asian''' \n 91 \n 1.1%\n\n '''American Indian and Alaska Native''' \n 29 \n 0.3%\n\n '''Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander''' \n 17 \n 0.2%\n\n '''Other''' \n 90 \n 1.0%\n\n '''Identified by two or more''' \n 333 \n 3.9%\n\n", "\n===Rail===\nAmtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides daily service to Albion, operating its Wolverine both directions between Chicago, Illinois and Pontiac, Michigan via Detroit.\n\n===Bus===\nGreyhound Lines provides daily intercity city bus service to Albion between Chicago, Illinois and Detroit.\n", "\n* M. F. K. Fisher, food writer, born in Albion\n* Ada Iddings Gale, author, lived and buried in Albion\n* Frank Joranko, football player and coach for Albion College\n* LaVall Jordan, head men's basketball coach for Butler University, born in Albion\n* Martin Wells Knapp, American Methodist evangelist who founded the Pilgrim Holiness Church and God's Bible School and College, born in Albion.\n* Bill Laswell, jazz bassist, record producer and record label owner; born in Albion\n* Jerome D. Mack, banker, director of Las Vegas hotels Riviera and Dunes, founder of University of Nevada, Las Vegas; born in Albion\n* Deacon McGuire, professional baseball player for 26 seasons, lived in Albion\n* Gary Lee Nelson, composer, pioneer in electronic and computer music; grew up in Albion Gary Lee Nelson's home page\n* Jack Vaughn, Assistant Secretary of State, Ambassador to Panama and Colombia, and Director of the Peace Corps (1966-1969); grew up in Albion\n", "* Holy Ascension Orthodox Church\n", "\n", "\n\n* Albion City Information Page\n* Albion District Library\n* Albion Michigan Home Page\n* Historical Albion Michigan\n* Festival of the Forks – Albion's annual music and food festival by the forks of the Kalamazoo River\n* The Greater Albion Chamber of Commerce\n* Albion Michigan Community Foundation – For Good. For Ever.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", " Law and government ", "Geography", " Climate ", "Demographics", "Transportation", " Notable people ", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Albion, Michigan
[ "The Seven Sacraments'' (1445) by Rogier van der Weyden showing the sacrament of ''Extreme Unction'' or ''Anointing of the Sick''.\n'''Anointing of the sick''', known also by other names, is a form of religious anointing or \"unction\" (an older term with the same meaning) for the benefit of a sick person. It is practiced by many Christian churches and denominations.\n\nAnointing of the sick was a customary practice in many civilizations, including among the ancient Greeks and early Jewish communities. The use of oil for healing purposes is referred to in the writings of Hippocrates.\n\nAnointing of the sick should be distinguished from other religious anointings that occur in relation to other sacraments, in particular baptism, confirmation and ordination, and also in the coronation of a monarch.\n", "Since 1972, the Roman Catholic Church uses the name \"Anointing of the Sick\" both in the English translations issued by the Holy See of its official documents in Latin and in the English official documents of Episcopal conferences. It does not, of course, forbid the use of other names, for example the more archaic term \"Unction of the Sick\" or the term \"Extreme Unction\". Cardinal Walter Kasper used the latter term in his intervention at the 2005 Assembly of the Synod of Bishops. However, the Church declared that \"'Extreme unction' ... may also ''and more fittingly'' be called 'anointing of the sick'\" (emphasis added), and has itself adopted the latter term, while not outlawing the former. This is to emphasize that the sacrament is available, and recommended, to all those suffering from any serious illness, and to dispel the common misconception that it is exclusively for those at or very near the point of death.\n\n'''Extreme Unction''' was the usual name for the sacrament in the West from the late twelfth century until 1972, and was thus used at the Council of Trent and in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia. Peter Lombard (died 1160) is the first writer known to have used the term, which did not become the usual name in the West till towards the end of the twelfth century, and never became current in the East. The word \"extreme\" (final) indicated either that it was the last of the sacramental unctions (after the anointings at Baptism, Confirmation and, if received, Holy Orders) or because at that time it was normally administered only when a patient was ''in extremis''.\n\nOther names used in the West include '''the unction or blessing of consecrated oil''', '''the unction of God''', and '''the office of the unction'''. Among some Protestant bodies, who do not consider it a sacrament, but instead as a practice suggested rather than commanded by Scripture, it is called '''anointing with oil'''.\n\nIn the Greek Church the sacrament is called '''Euchelaion''' (Greek Εὐχέλαιον, from εὐχή, \"prayer\", and ἔλαιον, \"oil\"). Other names are also used, such as ἅγιον ἔλαιον (holy oil), ἡγιασμένον ἔλαιον (consecrated oil), and χρῖσις or χρῖσμα (anointing).\n\nThe Community of Christ uses the term '''administration to the sick'''.\n\nThe term \"last rites\" refers to administration to a dying person not only of this sacrament but also of Penance and Holy Communion, the last of which, when administered in such circumstances, is known as \"Viaticum\", a word whose original meaning in Latin was \"provision for the journey\". The normal order of administration is: first Penance (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given); next, Anointing; finally, Viaticum (if the person can receive it).\n", "The chief Biblical text concerning the rite is : \"Is any among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up; and if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven.\" (RSV)\n\n, and are also quoted in this regard.\n", "The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Coptic and Old Catholic Churches consider this anointing to be a sacrament. Other Christians too, in particular Anglicans, Lutherans and some Protestant and other Christian communities use a rite of anointing the sick, without necessarily classifying it as a sacrament.\n\nIn the Churches mentioned here by name, the oil used (called \"oil of the sick\" in both West and East) is blessed specifically for this purpose.\n\n=== Roman Catholic Church ===\n\nAn extensive account of the teaching of the Catholic Church on Anointing of the Sick is given in ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 1499–1532.\n\nAnointing of the Sick is one of the seven Sacraments recognized by the Catholic Church, and is associated with not only bodily healing but also forgiveness of sins. Only ordained priests can administer it, and \"any priest may carry the holy oil with him, so that in a case of necessity he can administer the sacrament of anointing of the sick.\"\n\n====Sacramental graces====\n\nThe Catholic Church sees the effects of the sacrament as follows. As the sacrament of Marriage gives grace for the married state, the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick gives grace for the state into which people enter through sickness. Through the sacrament a gift of the Holy Spirit is given, that renews confidence and faith in God and strengthens against temptations to discouragement, despair and anguish at the thought of death and the struggle of death; it prevents from losing Christian hope in God's justice, truth and salvation.\n\nThe special grace of the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick has as its effects:\nthe uniting of the sick person to the passion of Christ, for his own good and that of the whole Church;\nthe strengthening, peace, and courage to endure, in a Christian manner, the sufferings of illness or old age;\nthe forgiveness of sins, if the sick person was not able to obtain it through the sacrament of penance;\nthe restoration of health, if it is conducive to the salvation of his soul;\nthe preparation for passing over to eternal life.\"\n\n====Sacramental oil====\nThe duly blessed oil used in the sacrament is, as laid down in the Apostolic Constitution Sacram unctionem infirmorum, pressed from olives or from other plants. It is blessed by the bishop of the diocese at the Chrism Mass he celebrates on Holy Thursday or on a day close to it. If oil blessed by the bishop is not available, the priest administering the sacrament may bless the oil, but only within the framework of the celebration.\n\n====Current liturgical form (1972)====\nThe Roman Rite Anointing of the Sick, as revised in 1972, puts greater stress than in the immediately preceding centuries on the sacrament's aspect of healing, and points to the place sickness holds in the normal life of Christians and its part in the redemptive work of the Church. Canon law permits its administration to any Catholic who has reached the use of reason and is beginning to be put in danger by illness or old age, unless the person in question obstinately persists in a manifestly grave sin. \"If there is any doubt as to whether the sick person has reached the use of reason, or is dangerously ill, or is dead, this sacrament is to be administered\". There is an obligation to administer it to the sick who, when they were in possession of their faculties, at least implicitly asked for it. A new illness or a renewal or worsening of the first illness enables a person to receive the sacrament a further time.\n\nThe ritual book on pastoral care of the sick provides three rites: anointing outside Mass, anointing within Mass, and anointing in a hospital or institution. The rite of anointing outside Mass begins with a greeting by the priest, followed by sprinkling of all present with holy water, if deemed desirable, and a short instruction. There follows a penitential act, as at the beginning of Mass. If the sick person wishes to receive the sacrament of penance, it is preferable that the priest make himself available for this during a previous visit; but if the sick person must confess during the celebration of the sacrament of anointing, this confession replaces the penitential rite A passage of Scripture is read, and the priest may give a brief explanation of the reading, a short litany is said, and the priest lays his hands on the head of the sick person and then says a prayer of thanksgiving over the already blessed oil or, if necessary, blesses the oil himself.\n\nThe actual anointing of the sick person is done on the forehead, with the prayer \"Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit\", and on the hands, with the prayer \"May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up\". To each prayer the sick person, if able, responds: \"Amen.\" It is permitted, in accordance with local culture and traditions and the condition of the sick person, to anoint other parts of the body in addition, such as the area of pain or injury, but without repeating the sacramental form. In case of emergency, a single anointing, not necessarily on the forehead, is sufficient.\n\n====Historical liturgical form====\nFrom the early Middle Ages until after the Second Vatican Council the sacrament was administered, within the Latin Church, only when death was approaching and, in practice, bodily recovery was not ordinarily looked for, giving rise, as mentioned above to the name \"Extreme Unction\" (i.e. final anointing). The form used in the Roman Rite included anointing of seven parts of the body while saying (in Latin): \"Through this holy unction and His own most tender mercy may the Lord pardon thee whatever sins or faults thou hast committed quidquid deliquisti by sight by hearing, smell, taste, touch, walking, carnal delectation\", the last phrase corresponding to the part of the body that was touched; however, in the words of the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia, \"the unction of the loins is generally, if not universally, omitted in English-speaking countries, and it is of course everywhere forbidden in case of women\". Use of this form is still permitted under the conditions mentioned in article 9 of the 2007 motu proprio ''Summorum Pontificum''.\n\nLiturgical rites of the Catholic Church, both Western and Eastern, other than the Roman, have a variety of other forms for celebrating the sacrament.\n\n===Eastern Orthodox Church===\nService of the Sacrament of Holy Unction served on Great and Holy Wednesday. \nThe teaching of the Eastern Orthodox Church on the Holy Mystery (sacrament) of Unction is similar to that of the Roman Catholic Church. However, the reception of the Mystery is not limited to those who are enduring physical illness. The Mystery is given for healing (both physical and spiritual) and for the forgiveness of sin. For this reason, it is normally required that one go to confession before receiving Unction. Because it is a Sacred Mystery of the Church, only Orthodox Christians may receive it.\n\nThe solemn form of Eastern Christian anointing requires the ministry of seven priests. A table is prepared, upon which is set a vessel containing wheat. Into the wheat has been placed an empty shrine-lamp, seven candles, and seven anointing brushes. Candles are distributed for all to hold during the service. The rite begins with reading Psalm 50 (the great penitential psalm), followed by the chanting of a special canon. After this, the senior priest (or bishop) pours pure olive oil and a small amount of wine into the shrine lamp, and says the \"Prayer of the Oil\", which calls upon God to \"...sanctify this Oil, that it may be effectual for those who shall be anointed therewith, unto healing, and unto relief from every passion, every malady of the flesh and of the spirit, and every ill...\" Then follow seven series of epistles, gospels, long prayers, Ektenias (litanies) and anointings. Each series is served by one of the seven priests in turn. The afflicted one is anointed with the sign of the cross on seven places: the forehead, the nostrils, the cheeks, the lips, the breast, the palms of both hands, and the back of the hands. After the last anointing, the Gospel Book is opened and placed with the writing down upon the head of the one who was anointed, and the senior priest reads the \"Prayer of the Gospel\". At the end, the anointed kisses the Gospel, the Cross and the right hands of the priests, receiving their blessing.\n\nAnointing is considered to be a public rather than a private sacrament, and so as many of the faithful who are able are encouraged to attend. It should be celebrated in the church when possible, but if this is impossible, it may be served in the home or hospital room of the afflicted.\n\nUnction in the Greek Orthodox Church and Churches of Hellenic custom (Antiochian Eastern-Orthodox, Melkite, etc.) is usually given with a minimum of ceremony.\n\nAnointing may also be given during Forgiveness Vespers and Great Week, on Great and Holy Wednesday, to all who are prepared. Those who receive Unction on Holy Wednesday should go to Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday. The significance of receiving Unction on Holy Wednesday is shored up by the hymns in the Triodion for that day, which speak of the sinful woman who anointed the feet of Christ (). Just as her sins were forgiven because of her penitence, so the faithful are exhorted to repent of their sins. In the same narrative, Jesus says, \"in that she hath poured this ointment on my body, she did it for my burial\" (Id., v. 12), linking the unction with Christ's death and resurrection.\n\nIn some dioceses of the Russian Orthodox Church it is customary for the bishop to visit each parish or region of the diocese some time during Great Lent and give Anointing for the faithful, together with the local clergy.\n\n===Anglican churches===\nThe 1552 and later editions of the Book of Common Prayer omitted the form of anointing given in the original (1549) version in its Order for the Visitation of the Sick, but most twentieth-century Anglican prayer books do have anointing of the sick.\n\nSome Anglicans accept that anointing of the sick has a sacramental character and is therefore a channel of God's grace, seeing it as an \"outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace\" which is the definition of a sacrament. The Catechism of the Episcopal Church of the United States of America includes Unction of the Sick as among the \"other sacramental rites\" and it states that unction can be done with oil or simply with laying on of hands. The rite of anointing is included in the Episcopal Church's \"Ministration to the Sick\" \n\nArticle 25 of the Thirty-Nine Articles, which are one of the historical formularies of the Church of England (and as such, the Anglican Communion), speaking of the sacraments, says: \"Those five commonly called Sacraments, that is to say, Confirmation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and extreme Unction, are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the Apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures; but yet have not like nature of Sacraments with Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God.\"\n\n===Lutheran churches===\nAnointing of the sick has been retained in some Lutheran churches since the Reformation. Although it is not considered a sacrament like baptism and the Eucharist, it is known as a ritual in the same respect as confession, confirmation, holy orders, and matrimony.\n\n====Liturgy====\nAfter the penitent has received absolution following confession, the presiding minister recites . He goes on to recite the following:\n\n\nName, you have confessed your sins and received Holy Absolution. In remembrance of the grace of God given by the Holy Spirit in the waters of Holy Baptism, I will anoint you with oil. Confident in our Lord and in love for you, we also pray for you that you will not lose faith. Knowing that in Godly patience the Church endures with you and supports you during this affliction. We firmly believe that this illness is for the glory of God and that the Lord will both hear our prayer and work according to His good and gracious will.\n\nHe anoints the person on the forehead and says this blessing:\n\nAlmighty God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has given you the new birth of water and the Spirit and has forgiven you all your sins, strengthen you with His grace to life everlasting. Amen.\n\n\n===Other Protestant communities===\nAmong Protestants, anointing is provided in a wide variety of formats but, for the most part, however, it has fallen into disuse. Protestant communities generally vary widely on the sacramental character of anointing. Most Mainline Protestants recognize only two sacraments, the Eucharist and baptism, deeming Anointing only a humanly-instituted rite. Non-traditional Protestant communities generally use the term \"ordinance\" rather than \"Sacrament\".\n\n====Mainline beliefs====\nLiturgical or Mainline Protestant communities (e.g. Presbyterian, Congregationalist/United Church of Christ, Methodist, etc.) all have official yet often optional liturgical rites for the anointing of the sick partly on the model of Western pre-Reformation rites. Anointing need not be associated with grave illness or imminent danger of death.\n\n====Charismatic and Pentecostal beliefs====\nIn Charismatic and Pentecostal communities, anointing of the sick is a frequent practice and has been an important ritual in these communities since the respective movements were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries. These communities use extemporaneous forms of administration at the discretion of the minister, who need not be a pastor. There is minimal ceremony attached to its administration. Usually, several people physically touch (laying on of hands) the recipient during the anointing. It may be part of a worship service with the full assembly of the congregation present, but may also be done in more private settings, such as homes or hospital rooms. Some Pentecostals believe that physical healing is within the anointing and so there is often great expectation or at least great hope that a miraculous cure or improvement will occur when someone is being prayed over for healing.\n\n==== Evangelical and fundamentalist beliefs ====\nIn Evangelical and Fundamentalist communities, anointing of the sick is performed with varying degrees of frequency, although laying on of hands may be more common than anointing. The rite would be similar to that of Pentecostals in its simplicity, but would usually not have the same emotionalism attached to it. Unlike some Pentecostals, Evangelicals and Fundamentalists generally do not believe that physical healing is within the anointing. Therefore, God may or may not grant physical healing to the sick. The healing conferred by anointing is thus a spiritual event that may not result in physical recovery.\n\nThe Church of the Brethren practices Anointing with Oil as an ordinance along with Baptism, Communion, Laying on of Hands, and the Love Feast.\n\nEvangelical Protestants who use anointing differ about whether the person doing the anointing must be an ordained member of the clergy, whether the oil must necessarily be olive oil and have been previously specially consecrated, and about other details. Several Evangelical groups reject the practice so as not to be identified with charismatic and Pentecostal groups, which practice it widely.\n\n====Use of Catholic rite among Protestants====\nSome Protestant US military chaplains carry the Roman Rite version of the Anointing of the Sick with them for use if called upon to assist wounded or dying soldiers who are Catholics. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches consider invalid ''as a sacrament'' the administration of Anointing of the Sick by such chaplains, who in the eyes of those Churches are not validly ordained priests. The rite performed by them is thus seen as having the same by no means negligible value of any other form of prayer offered for the sick or dying.\n\n===Latter Day Saint movement===\n\n====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints====\nLatter-day Saints, who consider themselves restorationists, also practice ritual anointing of the sick, as well as other forms of anointing. Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) consider anointing to be an ordinance.\n\nMembers of the LDS Church who hold the Melchizedek priesthood may use consecrated oil in performing the ordinance of blessing of the \"sick or afflicted\", though oil is not required if it is unavailable. The priesthood holder anoints the recipient's head with a drop of oil, then lays hands upon that head and declare their act of anointing. Then another priesthood holder joins in, if available, and pronounces a \"sealing\" of the anointing and other words of blessing, as he feels inspired. Melchizedek priesthood holders are also authorized to consecrate any pure olive oil and often carry a personal supply in case they have need to perform a blessing. Oil is not used in other blessings, such as for people seeking comfort or counsel.\n\nIn addition to the reference, the Doctrine and Covenants contains numerous references to the anointing and healing of the sick by those with authority to do so.\n\n====Community of Christ====\nAdministration to the sick is one of the eight sacraments of the Community of Christ, in which it has also been used for people seeking spiritual, emotional or mental healing.\n", " Anointing of the Sick (Catholic Church)\n* Faith healing\n", "\n", "* Church Fathers on the Anointing of the Sick\n\n'''Western'''\n* The Anointing of the Sick\n* Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick\n* \"Extreme Unction\" in Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)\n* Apostolic Constitution \"Sacram unctionem infirmorum\"\n\n'''Eastern'''\n* Holy Anointing of the Sick article from the Moscow Patriarchate\n* Unction of the Sick article from the Sydney, Australia diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia\n* The Mystery of Unction Russian Orthodox Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, Washington, DC\n* Coptic Unction on Holy Saturday (Photo)\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Names", "Biblical texts", " Sacramental beliefs ", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Anointing of the Sick
[ "\n\n\nIn computer science, an '''abstract data type''' ('''ADT''') is a mathematical model for data types, where a data type is defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a ''user'' of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. This contrasts with data structures, which are concrete representations of data, and are the point of view of an implementer, not a user.\n\nFormally, an ADT may be defined as a \"class of objects whose logical behavior is defined by a set of values and a set of operations\"; this is analogous to an algebraic structure in mathematics. What is meant by \"behavior\" varies by author, with the two main types of formal specifications for behavior being ''axiomatic (algebraic) specification'' and an ''abstract model;'' these correspond to axiomatic semantics and operational semantics of an abstract machine, respectively. Some authors also include the computational complexity (\"cost\"), both in terms of time (for computing operations) and space (for representing values). In practice many common data types are not ADTs, as the abstraction is not perfect, and users must be aware of issues like arithmetic overflow that are due to the representation. For example, integers are often stored as fixed width values (32-bit or 64-bit binary numbers), and thus experience integer overflow if the maximum value is exceeded.\n\nADTs are a theoretical concept in computer science, used in the design and analysis of algorithms, data structures, and software systems, and do not correspond to specific features of computer languages—mainstream computer languages do not directly support formally specified ADTs. However, various language features correspond to certain aspects of ADTs, and are easily confused with ADTs proper; these include abstract types, opaque data types, protocols, and design by contract. ADTs were first proposed by Barbara Liskov and Stephen N. Zilles in 1974, as part of the development of the CLU language.\n", "For example, integers are an ADT, defined as the values …, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, …, and by the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, together with greater than, less than, etc., which behave according to familiar mathematics (with care for integer division), independently of how the integers are represented by the computer. Explicitly, \"behavior\" includes obeying various axioms (associativity and commutativity of addition etc.), and preconditions on operations (cannot divide by zero). Typically integers are represented in a data structure as binary numbers, most often as two's complement, but might be binary-coded decimal or in ones' complement, but the user is abstracted from the concrete choice of representation, and can simply use the data as integers.\n\nAn ADT consists not only of operations, but also of values of the underlying data and of constraints on the operations. An \"interface\" typically refers only to the operations, and perhaps some of the constraints on the operations, notably pre-conditions and post-conditions, but not other constraints, such as relations between the operations.\n\nFor example, an abstract stack, which is a last-in-first-out structure, could be defined by three operations: push, that inserts a data item onto the stack; pop, that removes a data item from it; and peek or top, that accesses a data item on top of the stack without removal. An abstract queue, which is a first-in-first-out structure, would also have three operations: enqueue, that inserts a data item into the queue; dequeue, that removes the first data item from it; and front, that accesses and serves the first data item in the queue. There would be no way of differentiating these two data types, unless a mathematical constraint is introduced that for a stack specifies that each pop always returns the most recently pushed item that has not been popped yet. When analyzing the efficiency of algorithms that use stacks, one may also specify that all operations take the same time no matter how many data items have been pushed into the stack, and that the stack uses a constant amount of storage for each element.\n", "Abstract data types are purely theoretical entities, used (among other things) to simplify the description of abstract algorithms, to classify and evaluate data structures, and to formally describe the type systems of programming languages. However, an ADT may be implemented by specific data types or data structures, in many ways and in many programming languages; or described in a formal specification language. ADTs are often implemented as modules: the module's interface declares procedures that correspond to the ADT operations, sometimes with comments that describe the constraints. This information hiding strategy allows the implementation of the module to be changed without disturbing the client programs.\n\nThe term abstract data type can also be regarded as a generalized approach of a number of algebraic structures, such as lattices, groups, and rings. The notion of abstract data types is related to the concept of data abstraction, important in object-oriented programming and design by contract methodologies for software development.\n", "An abstract data type is defined as a mathematical model of the data objects that make up a data type as well as the functions that operate on these objects.\nThere are no standard conventions for defining them. A broad division may be drawn between \"imperative\" and \"functional\" definition styles.\n\n===Imperative-style definition===\nIn the philosophy of imperative programming languages, an abstract data structure is conceived as an entity that is ''mutable''—meaning that it may be in different ''states'' at different times. Some operations may change the state of the ADT; therefore, the order in which operations are evaluated is important, and the same operation on the same entities may have different effects if executed at different times—just like the instructions of a computer, or the commands and procedures of an imperative language. To underscore this view, it is customary to say that the operations are ''executed'' or ''applied'', rather than ''evaluated''. The imperative style is often used when describing abstract algorithms. (See The Art of Computer Programming by Donald Knuth for more details)\n\n====Abstract variable====\nImperative-style definitions of ADT often depend on the concept of an ''abstract variable'', which may be regarded as the simplest non-trivial ADT. An abstract variable ''V'' is a mutable entity that admits two operations:\n* store(''V'', ''x'') where ''x'' is a ''value'' of unspecified nature;\n* fetch(''V''), that yields a value,\nwith the constraint that\n* fetch(''V'') always returns the value ''x'' used in the most recent store(''V'', ''x'') operation on the same variable ''V''.\n\nAs in so many programming languages, the operation store(''V'', ''x'') is often written ''V'' ← ''x'' (or some similar notation), and fetch(''V'') is implied whenever a variable ''V'' is used in a context where a value is required. Thus, for example, ''V'' ← ''V'' + 1 is commonly understood to be a shorthand for store(''V'',fetch(''V'') + 1).\n\nIn this definition, it is implicitly assumed that storing a value into a variable ''U'' has no effect on the state of a distinct variable ''V''. To make this assumption explicit, one could add the constraint that\n* if ''U'' and ''V'' are distinct variables, the sequence { store(''U'', ''x''); store(''V'', ''y'') } is equivalent to { store(''V'', ''y''); store(''U'', ''x'') }.\n\nMore generally, ADT definitions often assume that any operation that changes the state of one ADT instance has no effect on the state of any other instance (including other instances of the same ADT) — unless the ADT axioms imply that the two instances are connected (aliased) in that sense. For example, when extending the definition of abstract variable to include abstract records, the operation that selects a field from a record variable ''R'' must yield a variable ''V'' that is aliased to that part of ''R''.\n\nThe definition of an abstract variable ''V'' may also restrict the stored values ''x'' to members of a specific set ''X'', called the ''range'' or ''type'' of ''V''. As in programming languages, such restrictions may simplify the description and analysis of algorithms, and improve their readability.\n\nNote that this definition does not imply anything about the result of evaluating fetch(''V'') when ''V'' is ''un-initialized'', that is, before performing any store operation on ''V''. An algorithm that does so is usually considered invalid, because its effect is not defined. (However, there are some important algorithms whose efficiency strongly depends on the assumption that such a fetch is legal, and returns some arbitrary value in the variable's range.)\n\n====Instance creation====\nSome algorithms need to create new instances of some ADT (such as new variables, or new stacks). To describe such algorithms, one usually includes in the ADT definition a create() operation that yields an instance of the ADT, usually with axioms equivalent to\n* the result of create() is distinct from any instance in use by the algorithm.\nThis axiom may be strengthened to exclude also partial aliasing with other instances. On the other hand, this axiom still allows implementations of create() to yield a previously created instance that has become inaccessible to the program.\n\n====Example: abstract stack (imperative)====\nAs another example, an imperative-style definition of an abstract stack could specify that the state of a stack ''S'' can be modified only by the operations\n* push(''S'', ''x''), where ''x'' is some ''value'' of unspecified nature;\n* pop(''S''), that yields a value as a result,\nwith the constraint that\n* For any value ''x'' and any abstract variable ''V'', the sequence of operations { push(''S'', ''x''); ''V'' ← pop(''S'') } is equivalent to ''V'' ← ''x''.\n\nSince the assignment ''V'' ← ''x'', by definition, cannot change the state of ''S'', this condition implies that ''V'' ← pop(''S'') restores ''S'' to the state it had before the push(''S'', ''x''). From this condition and from the properties of abstract variables, it follows, for example, that the sequence\n: { push(''S'', ''x''); push(''S'', ''y''); ''U'' ← pop(''S''); push(''S'', ''z''); ''V'' ← pop(''S''); ''W'' ← pop(''S'') }\nwhere ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' are any values, and ''U'', ''V'', ''W'' are pairwise distinct variables, is equivalent to\n: { ''U'' ← ''y''; ''V'' ← ''z''; ''W'' ← ''x'' }\n\nHere it is implicitly assumed that operations on a stack instance do not modify the state of any other ADT instance, including other stacks; that is,\n* For any values ''x'', ''y'', and any distinct stacks ''S'' and ''T'', the sequence { push(''S'', ''x''); push(''T'', ''y'') } is equivalent to { push(''T'', ''y''); push(''S'', ''x'') }.\n\nAn abstract stack definition usually includes also a Boolean-valued function empty(''S'') and a create() operation that returns a stack instance, with axioms equivalent to\n* create() ≠ ''S'' for any stack ''S'' (a newly created stack is distinct from all previous stacks);\n* empty(create()) (a newly created stack is empty);\n* not empty(push(''S'', ''x'')) (pushing something into a stack makes it non-empty).\n\n====Single-instance style====\nSometimes an ADT is defined as if only one instance of it existed during the execution of the algorithm, and all operations were applied to that instance, which is not explicitly notated. For example, the abstract stack above could have been defined with operations push(''x'') and pop(), that operate on ''the'' only existing stack. ADT definitions in this style can be easily rewritten to admit multiple coexisting instances of the ADT, by adding an explicit instance parameter (like ''S'' in the previous example) to every operation that uses or modifies the implicit instance.\n\nOn the other hand, some ADTs cannot be meaningfully defined without assuming multiple instances. This is the case when a single operation takes two distinct instances of the ADT as parameters. For an example, consider augmenting the definition of the abstract stack with an operation compare(''S'', ''T'') that checks whether the stacks ''S'' and ''T'' contain the same items in the same order.\n\n===Functional-style definition===\nAnother way to define an ADT, closer to the spirit of functional programming, is to consider each state of the structure as a separate entity. In this view, any operation that modifies the ADT is modeled as a mathematical function that takes the old state as an argument, and returns the new state as part of the result. Unlike the imperative operations, these functions have no side effects. Therefore, the order in which they are evaluated is immaterial, and the same operation applied to the same arguments (including the same input states) will always return the same results (and output states).\n\nIn the functional view, in particular, there is no way (or need) to define an \"abstract variable\" with the semantics of imperative variables (namely, with fetch and store operations). Instead of storing values into variables, one passes them as arguments to functions.\n\n====Example: abstract stack (functional)====\nFor example, a complete functional-style definition of an abstract stack could use the three operations:\n* push: takes a stack state and an arbitrary value, returns a stack state;\n* top: takes a stack state, returns a value;\n* pop: takes a stack state, returns a stack state.\n\nIn a functional-style definition there is no need for a create operation. Indeed, there is no notion of \"stack instance\". The stack states can be thought of as being potential states of a single stack structure, and two stack states that contain the same values in the same order are considered to be identical states. This view actually mirrors the behavior of some concrete implementations, such as linked lists with hash cons.\n\nInstead of create(), a functional-style definition of an abstract stack may assume the existence of a special stack state, the ''empty stack'', designated by a special symbol like Λ or \"()\"; or define a bottom() operation that takes no arguments and returns this special stack state. Note that the axioms imply that\n* push(Λ, ''x'') ≠ Λ.\nIn a functional-style definition of a stack one does not need an empty predicate: instead, one can test whether a stack is empty by testing whether it is equal to Λ.\n\nNote that these axioms do not define the effect of top(''s'') or pop(''s''), unless ''s'' is a stack state returned by a push. Since push leaves the stack non-empty, those two operations are undefined (hence invalid) when ''s'' = Λ. On the other hand, the axioms (and the lack of side effects) imply that push(''s'', ''x'') = push(''t'', ''y'') if and only if ''x'' = ''y'' and ''s'' = ''t''.\n\nAs in some other branches of mathematics, it is customary to assume also that the stack states are only those whose existence can be proved from the axioms in a finite number of steps. In the abstract stack example above, this rule means that every stack is a ''finite'' sequence of values, that becomes the empty stack (Λ) after a finite number of pops. By themselves, the axioms above do not exclude the existence of infinite stacks (that can be poped forever, each time yielding a different state) or circular stacks (that return to the same state after a finite number of pops). In particular, they do not exclude states ''s'' such that pop(''s'') = ''s'' or push(''s'', ''x'') = ''s'' for some ''x''. However, since one cannot obtain such stack states with the given operations, they are assumed \"not to exist\".\n\n===Whether to include complexity===\nAside from the behavior in terms of axioms, it is also possible to include, in the definition of an ADT operation, their algorithmic complexity. Alexander Stepanov, designer of the C++ Standard Template Library, included complexity guarantees in the STL specification, arguing:\n\n\n", "\n\n===Encapsulation===\nAbstraction provides a promise that any implementation of the ADT has certain properties and abilities; knowing these is all that is required to make use of an ADT object. The user does not need any technical knowledge of how the implementation works to use the ADT. In this way, the implementation may be complex but will be encapsulated in a simple interface when it is actually used.\n\n===Localization of change===\nCode that uses an ADT object will not need to be edited if the implementation of the ADT is changed. Since any changes to the implementation must still comply with the interface, and since code using an ADT object may only refer to properties and abilities specified in the interface, changes may be made to the implementation without requiring any changes in code where the ADT is used.\n\n===Flexibility===\nDifferent implementations of the ADT, having all the same properties and abilities, are equivalent and may be used somewhat interchangeably in code that uses the ADT. This gives a great deal of flexibility when using ADT objects in different situations. For example, different implementations of the ADT may be more efficient in different situations; it is possible to use each in the situation where they are preferable, thus increasing overall efficiency.\n", "Some operations that are often specified for ADTs (possibly under other names) are\n* compare(''s'', ''t''), that tests whether two instances' states are equivalent in some sense;\n* hash(''s''), that computes some standard hash function from the instance's state;\n* print(''s'') or show(''s''), that produces a human-readable representation of the instance's state.\n\nIn imperative-style ADT definitions, one often finds also\n* create(), that yields a new instance of the ADT;\n* initialize(''s''), that prepares a newly created instance ''s'' for further operations, or resets it to some \"initial state\";\n* copy(''s'', ''t''), that puts instance ''s'' in a state equivalent to that of ''t'';\n* clone(''t''), that performs ''s'' ← create(), copy(''s'', ''t''), and returns ''s'';\n* free(''s'') or destroy(''s''), that reclaims the memory and other resources used by ''s''.\n\nThe free operation is not normally relevant or meaningful, since ADTs are theoretical entities that do not \"use memory\". However, it may be necessary when one needs to analyze the storage used by an algorithm that uses the ADT. In that case one needs additional axioms that specify how much memory each ADT instance uses, as a function of its state, and how much of it is returned to the pool by free.\n", "Some common ADTs, which have proved useful in a great variety of applications, are\n\n* Container\n* List\n* Set\n* Multiset\n* Map\n* Multimap\n* Graph\n* Stack\n* Queue\n* Priority queue\n* Double-ended queue\n* Double-ended priority queue\n\n\nEach of these ADTs may be defined in many ways and variants, not necessarily equivalent. For example, an abstract stack may or may not have a count operation that tells how many items have been pushed and not yet popped. This choice makes a difference not only for its clients but also for the implementation.\n\n; Abstract graphical data type\nAn extension of ADT for computer graphics was proposed in 1979: an abstract graphical data type (AGDT). It was introduced by Nadia Magnenat Thalmann, and Daniel Thalmann. AGDTs provide the advantages of ADTs with facilities to build graphical objects in a structured way.\n", "\nImplementing an ADT means providing one procedure or function for each abstract operation. The ADT instances are represented by some concrete data structure that is manipulated by those procedures, according to the ADT's specifications.\n\nUsually there are many ways to implement the same ADT, using several different concrete data structures. Thus, for example, an abstract stack can be implemented by a linked list or by an array.\n\nIn order to prevent clients from depending on the implementation, an ADT is often packaged as an ''opaque data type'' in one or more modules, whose interface contains only the signature (number and types of the parameters and results) of the operations. The implementation of the module—namely, the bodies of the procedures and the concrete data structure used—can then be hidden from most clients of the module. This makes it possible to change the implementation without affecting the clients. If the implementation is exposed, it is known instead as a ''transparent data type.''\n\nWhen implementing an ADT, each instance (in imperative-style definitions) or each state (in functional-style definitions) is usually represented by a handle of some sort.\n\nModern object-oriented languages, such as C++ and Java, support a form of abstract data types. When a class is used as a type, it is an abstract type that refers to a hidden representation. In this model an ADT is typically implemented as a class, and each instance of the ADT is usually an object of that class. The module's interface typically declares the constructors as ordinary procedures, and most of the other ADT operations as methods of that class. However, such an approach does not easily encapsulate multiple representational variants found in an ADT. It also can undermine the extensibility of object-oriented programs.\nIn a pure object-oriented program that uses interfaces as types, types refer to behaviors not representations.\n\n===Example: implementation of the abstract stack===\n\nAs an example, here is an implementation of the abstract stack above in the C programming language.\n\n\n====Imperative-style interface====\nAn imperative-style interface might be:\n\ntypedef struct stack_Rep stack_Rep; // type: stack instance representation (opaque record)\ntypedef stack_Rep* stack_T; // type: handle to a stack instance (opaque pointer)\ntypedef void* stack_Item; // type: value stored in stack instance (arbitrary address)\n\nstack_T stack_create(void); // creates a new empty stack instance\nvoid stack_push(stack_T s, stack_Item x); // adds an item at the top of the stack\nstack_Item stack_pop(stack_T s); // removes the top item from the stack and returns it\nbool stack_empty(stack_T s); // checks whether stack is empty\n\n\nThis interface could be used in the following manner:\n\n#include // includes the stack interface\n\nstack_T s = stack_create(); // creates a new empty stack instance\nint x = 17;\nstack_push(s, &x); // adds the address of x at the top of the stack\nvoid* y = stack_pop(s); // removes the address of x from the stack and returns it\nif(stack_empty(s)) { } // does something if stack is empty\n\n\nThis interface can be implemented in many ways. The implementation may be arbitrarily inefficient, since the formal definition of the ADT, above, does not specify how much space the stack may use, nor how long each operation should take. It also does not specify whether the stack state ''s'' continues to exist after a call ''x'' ← pop(''s'').\n\nIn practice the formal definition should specify that the space is proportional to the number of items pushed and not yet popped; and that every one of the operations above must finish in a constant amount of time, independently of that number. To comply with these additional specifications, the implementation could use a linked list, or an array (with dynamic resizing) together with two integers (an item count and the array size).\n\n====Functional-style interface====\nFunctional-style ADT definitions are more appropriate for functional programming languages, and vice versa. However, one can provide a functional-style interface even in an imperative language like C. For example:\n\ntypedef struct stack_Rep stack_Rep; // type: stack state representation (opaque record)\ntypedef stack_Rep* stack_T; // type: handle to a stack state (opaque pointer)\ntypedef void* stack_Item; // type: value of a stack state (arbitrary address)\n\nstack_T stack_empty(void); // returns the empty stack state\nstack_T stack_push(stack_T s, stack_Item x); // adds an item at the top of the stack state and returns the resulting stack state\nstack_T stack_pop(stack_T s); // removes the top item from the stack state and returns the resulting stack state\nstack_Item stack_top(stack_T s); // returns the top item of the stack state\n\n\n===ADT libraries===\nMany modern programming languages, such as C++ and Java, come with standard libraries that implement several common ADTs, such as those listed above.\n\n===Built-in abstract data types===\nThe specification of some programming languages is intentionally vague about the representation of certain built-in data types, defining only the operations that can be done on them. Therefore, those types can be viewed as \"built-in ADTs\". Examples are the arrays in many scripting languages, such as Awk, Lua, and Perl, which can be regarded as an implementation of the abstract list.\n", "* Concept (generic programming)\n* Formal methods\n* Functional specification\n* Generalized algebraic data type\n* Initial algebra\n* Liskov substitution principle\n* Type theory\n* Walls and Mirrors\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n\n", "* \n", "* Abstract data type in NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Examples", "Introduction", "Defining an abstract data type", "Advantages of abstract data typing", "Typical operations", "Examples", "Implementation", "See also", "Notes", "Citations", "References", "Further reading ", "External links" ]	Abstract data type
[ "\n\n\nThe '''American Football League''' ('''AFL''') was a major professional American football league that operated from 1960 until 1969, when it merged with the National Football League (NFL). The upstart AFL operated in direct competition with the more established NFL throughout its existence. It was more successful than earlier rivals to the NFL with the same name, the American Football League (1926), American Football League (1936), and American Football League (1940).\n\nThe AFL was created by a number of owners who had been refused NFL expansion franchises or had minor shares of NFL franchises. The AFL's original lineup consisted of an Eastern division of the New York Titans, Boston Patriots, Buffalo Bills, and the Houston Oilers, and a Western division of the Los Angeles Chargers, Denver Broncos, Oakland Raiders, and Dallas Texans. The league first gained attention by signing 75% of the NFL's first-round draft choices in 1960, including Houston's successful signing of Heisman Trophy winner Billy Cannon.\n\nWhile the first years of the AFL saw uneven competition and low attendance, the league was buttressed by a generous television contract with ABC (followed by a contract with NBC for games starting with the 1965 season) that broadcast the more offense-oriented football league nationwide. Continuing to attract top talent from colleges and the NFL by the mid-1960s, as well as successful franchise shifts of the Chargers to San Diego and the Texans to Kansas City, the AFL established a dedicated following. The transformation of the struggling Titans into the New York Jets under new ownership further solidified the league's reputation among the major media.\n\nAs fierce competition made player salaries skyrocket in both leagues, especially after a series of \"raids\", the leagues agreed to a merger in 1966. Among the conditions were a common draft and a championship game played between the two league champions, which would eventually become known as the Super Bowl.\n\nThe AFL and NFL operated as separate leagues until 1970, with separate regular season and playoff schedules except for the championship game. During this time the AFL added the Miami Dolphins and Cincinnati Bengals. After losses by Kansas City and Oakland in the first two AFL-NFL Championship Games to the Green Bay Packers, the New York Jets and Kansas City Chiefs won Super Bowls III and IV respectively, cementing the league's claim to being an equal to the NFL.\n\nIn 1970, the AFL was absorbed into the NFL, and the ten AFL franchises along with the Baltimore Colts, Cleveland Browns, and Pittsburgh Steelers became the American Football Conference.\n", "During the 1950s, the National Football League had grown to rival Major League Baseball as one of the most popular professional sports leagues in the United States. One franchise that did not share in this newfound success of the league was the Chicago Cardinals, owned by the Bidwill family, who had become overshadowed by the more popular Chicago Bears. The Bidwills hoped to relocate their franchise, preferably to St. Louis but could not come to terms with the league on a relocation fee. Needing cash, the Bidwills began entertaining offers from would-be investors, and one of the men who approached the Bidwills was Lamar Hunt, son and heir of millionaire oilman H. L. Hunt. Hunt offered to buy the Cardinals and move them to Dallas, where he had grown up. However, these negotiations came to nothing, since the Bidwills insisted on retaining a controlling interest in the franchise and were unwilling to move their team to a city where a previous NFL franchise had failed in 1952. While Hunt negotiated with the Bidwills, similar offers were made by Bud Adams, Bob Howsam, and Max Winter.\n\nWhen Hunt, Adams, and Howsam were unable to secure a controlling interest in the Cardinals, they approached NFL commissioner Bert Bell and proposed the addition of expansion teams. Bell, wary of expanding the 12-team league and risking its newfound success, rejected the offer. On his return flight to Dallas, Hunt conceived the idea of an entirely new league and decided to contact the others who had shown interest in purchasing the Cardinals. He contacted Adams, Howsam, and Winter (as well as Winter's business partner, Bill Boyer) to gauge their interest in starting a new league. Hunt's first meeting with Adams was held in March 1959. Hunt, who felt a regional rivalry would be critical for the success of the new league, convinced Adams to join and found his team in Houston. Hunt next secured an agreement from Howsam to bring a team to Denver.\n\nAfter Winter and Boyer agreed to start a team in Minneapolis-Saint Paul, the new league had its first four teams. Hunt then approached Willard Rhodes, who hoped to bring pro football to Seattle. However, the University of Washington was unwilling to let the fledgling league use Husky Stadium, probably due to the excessive wear and tear that would have been caused to the facility's grass surface. With no place for his team to play, Rhodes' effort came to nothing. Hunt also sought franchises in Los Angeles, Buffalo and New York City. During the summer of 1959, he sought the blessings of the NFL for his nascent league, as he did not seek a potentially costly rivalry. Within weeks of the July 1959 announcement of the league's formation, Hunt received commitments from Barron Hilton and Harry Wismer to bring teams to Los Angeles and New York, respectively. His initial efforts for Buffalo, however, were rebuffed, when Hunt's first choice of owner, Pat McGroder, declined to take part; McGroder had hoped that the threat of the AFL would be enough to prompt the NFL to expand to Buffalo.\n\nOn August 14, 1959, the first league meeting was held in Chicago, and charter memberships were given to Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles, and Minneapolis-Saint Paul. On August 22 the league officially was named the American Football League at a meeting in Dallas. The NFL's initial reaction was not as openly hostile as it had been with the earlier All-America Football Conference (Bell had even given his public approval), yet individual NFL owners soon began a campaign to undermine the new league. AFL owners were approached with promises of new NFL franchises or ownership stakes in existing ones. Only the party from Minneapolis accepted, and the Minnesota group joined the NFL the next year in 1961; the Minneapolis group were joined by Ole Haugsrud and Bernie Ridder in the new NFL team's ownership group, which was named the Minnesota Vikings. The older league also announced on August 29 that it had conveniently reversed its position against expansion, and planned to bring NFL expansion teams to Houston and Dallas, to start play in 1961. (The NFL did not expand to Houston at that time, the promised Dallas team – the Dallas Cowboys – actually started play in 1960, and the Vikings began play in 1961.) Finally, the NFL quickly came to terms with the Bidwills and allowed them to relocate the struggling Cardinals to St. Louis, eliminating that city as a potential AFL market.\n\nRalph Wilson, who owned a minority interest in the NFL's Detroit Lions at the time, initially announced he was placing a team in Miami, but like the Seattle situation, was also rebuffed by local ownership; given five other choices, Wilson negotiated with McGroder and brought the team that would become the Bills to Buffalo. Buffalo was officially awarded its franchise on October 28. During a league meeting on November 22, a 10-man ownership group from Boston (led by Billy Sullivan) was awarded the AFL's eighth team. On November 30, 1959, Joe Foss, a World War II Marine fighter ace and former governor of South Dakota, was named the AFL's first commissioner. Foss commissioned a friend of Harry Wismer's to develop the AFL's eagle-on-football logo. Hunt was elected President of the AFL on January 26, 1960.\n\n===The AFL draft===\n\n\nThe AFL's first draft took place the same day Boston was awarded its franchise, and lasted 33 rounds. The league held a second draft on December 2, which lasted for 20 rounds. Because the Raiders joined after the AFL draft, they inherited Minnesota's selections. A special ''allocation draft'' was held in January 1960, to allow the Raiders to stock their team, as some of the other AFL teams had already signed some of Minneapolis' original draft choices.\n\n===Crisis and success (1960–61)===\nIn November 1959, Minneapolis owner Max Winter announced his intent to leave the AFL to accept a franchise offer from the NFL. In 1961, his team began play in the NFL as the Minnesota Vikings. Los Angeles Chargers owner Barron Hilton demanded that a replacement for Minnesota be placed in California, to reduce his team's operating costs and to create a rivalry. After a brief search, Oakland was chosen and an ownership group led by F. Wayne Valley and local real estate developer Chet Soda was formed. After initially being called the Oakland ''\"Señores\"'', the Oakland Raiders officially joined the AFL on January 30, 1960.\n\nThe AFL's first major success came when the Houston Oilers signed Billy Cannon, the All-American and 1959 Heisman Trophy winner from LSU. Cannon signed a $100,000 contract to play for the Oilers, despite having already signed a $50,000 contract with the NFL's Los Angeles Rams. The Oilers filed suit and claimed that Rams general manager Pete Rozelle had unduly manipulated Cannon. The court upheld the Houston contract, and with Cannon the Oilers appeared in the AFL's first three championship games (winning two).\n\nOn June 9, 1960, the league signed a five-year television contract with ABC, which brought in revenues of approximately US$2,125,000 per year for the entire league. On June 17, the AFL filed an antitrust lawsuit against the NFL, which was dismissed in 1962 after a two-month trial. The AFL began regular-season play (a night game on Friday, September 9, 1960) with eight teams in the league — the Boston Patriots, Buffalo Bills, Dallas Texans, Denver Broncos, Houston Oilers, Los Angeles Chargers, New York Titans, and Oakland Raiders. Raiders' co-owner Wayne Valley dubbed the AFL ownership \"The Foolish Club\", a term Lamar Hunt subsequently used on team photographs he sent as Christmas gifts.\n\nThe Oilers became the first-ever league champions by defeating the Chargers, 24–16, in the AFL Championship on January 1, 1961. Attendance for the 1960 season was respectable for a new league, but not nearly that of the NFL. In 1960, the NFL averaged attendance of more than 40,000 fans per game and more popular NFL teams in 1960 regularly saw attendance figures in excess of 50,000 per game, while CFL attendances averaged approximately 20,000 per game. By comparison, AFL attendance averaged about 16,500 per game and generally hovered between 10,000-20,000 per game. Professional football was still primarily a gate-driven business in 1960, so low attendance meant financial losses. The Raiders, with a league-worst average attendance of just 9,612, lost $500,000 in their first year and only survived after receiving a $400,000 loan from Bills owner Ralph Wilson. In an early sign of stability, however, the AFL did not lose any teams after its first year of operation. In fact, the only major change was the relocation of the Chargers from Los Angeles to nearby San Diego.\n\nOn August 8, 1961, the AFL challenged the Canadian Football League to an exhibition game that would feature the Hamilton Tiger-Cats and the Buffalo Bills, which was attended by 24,376 spectators. Playing at Civic Stadium in Hamilton, Ontario, the Tiger-Cats defeated the Bills 38–21 playing a mix of AFL and CFL rules.\n\n===Movement and instability (1962–63)===\nWhile the Oilers found instant success in the AFL, other teams did not fare as well. The Oakland Raiders and New York Titans struggled on and off the field during their first few seasons in the league. Oakland's eight-man ownership group was reduced to just three in 1961, after heavy financial losses in their first season. Attendance for home games was poor, partly due to the team playing in the San Francisco Bay Area—which already had an established NFL team (the San Francisco 49ers)—but the product on the field was also to blame. After winning six games in their debut season, the Raiders won a total of three times in the 1961 and 1962 seasons. Oakland took part in a 1961 supplemental draft meant to boost the weaker teams in the league, but it did little good. They participated in another such draft in 1962.\n\nThe Titans fared a little better on the field but had their own financial troubles. Attendance was so low for home games that team owner Harry Wismer had fans move to seats closer to the field to give the illusion of a fuller stadium on television. Eventually Wismer could no longer afford to meet his payroll, and on November 8, 1962 the AFL took over operations of the team. The Titans were sold to a five-person ownership group headed by Sonny Werblin on March 28, 1963, and in April the new owners changed the team's name to the New York Jets.\n\nThe Raiders and Titans both finished last in their respective divisions in the 1962 season. The Texans and Oilers, winners of their divisions, faced each other for the 1962 AFL Championship on December 23. The Texans dethroned the two-time champion Oilers, 20–17, in a double-overtime contest that was, at the time, professional football's longest-ever game.\n\nIn 1963, the Texans became the second AFL team to relocate. Lamar Hunt felt that despite winning the league championship in 1962, the Texans could not succeed financially competing in the same market as the Dallas Cowboys, which entered the NFL as an expansion franchise in 1960. After meetings with New Orleans, Atlanta, and Miami, Hunt announced on May 22 that the Texans' new home would be Kansas City, Missouri. Kansas City mayor Harold Roe Bartle (nicknamed \"Chief\") was instrumental in his city's success in attracting the team. Partly to honor Bartle, the franchise officially became the Kansas City Chiefs on May 26.\n\nThe San Diego Chargers, under head coach Sid Gillman, won a decisive 51–10 victory over the Boston Patriots for the 1963 AFL Championship. Confident that his team was capable of beating the NFL-champion Chicago Bears (he had the Chargers' rings inscribed with the phrase \"World Champions\"), Gillman approached NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle and proposed a final championship game between the two teams. Rozelle declined the offer; however, the game would be instituted three seasons later.\n\n===Watershed years (1964–65)===\nA series of events throughout the next few years demonstrated the AFL's ability to achieve a greater level of equality with the NFL. On January 29, 1964, the AFL signed a lucrative $36 million television contract with NBC (beginning in the 1965 season), which gave the league money it needed to compete with the NFL for players. Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney was quoted as saying to NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle that \"They don't have to call us 'Mister' anymore\". A single-game attendance record was set on November 8, 1964, when 61,929 fans packed Shea Stadium to watch the New York Jets and Buffalo Bills.\n\nThe bidding war for players between the AFL and NFL escalated in 1965. The Chiefs drafted University of Kansas star Gale Sayers in the first round of the 1965 AFL draft (held November 28, 1964), while the Chicago Bears did the same in the NFL draft. Sayers eventually signed with the Bears. A similar situation occurred when the New York Jets and the NFL's St. Louis Cardinals both drafted University of Alabama quarterback Joe Namath. In what was viewed as a key victory for the AFL, Namath signed a $427,000 contract with the Jets on January 2, 1965 (the deal included a new car). It was the highest amount of money ever paid to a collegiate football player, and is cited as the strongest contributing factor to the eventual merger between the two leagues.\n\nAfter the 1963 season, the Newark Bears of the Atlantic Coast Football League expressed interest in joining the AFL; concerns over having to split the New York metro area with the still-uncertain Jets were a factor in the Bears bid being rejected. In early 1965, the AFL awarded its first expansion team to Rankin Smith of Atlanta. The NFL quickly counteroffered Smith a franchise, which Smith accepted; the Atlanta Falcons began play as an NFL franchise. In March 1965, Joe Robbie had met with Commissioner Foss to inquire about an expansion franchise for Miami. On May 6, after Atlanta's exit, Robbie secured an agreement with Miami mayor Robert King High to bring a team to Miami. League expansion was approved at a meeting held on June 7, and on August 16 the AFL's ninth franchise was officially awarded to Robbie and television star Danny Thomas. The Miami Dolphins joined the league for a fee of $7.5 million and started play in the AFL's Eastern Division in 1966.\n\n===Escalation and merger (1966–67)===\n\nIn 1966, the rivalry between the AFL and NFL reached an all-time peak. On April 7, Joe Foss resigned as AFL commissioner. His successor was Oakland Raiders head coach and general manager Al Davis, who had been instrumental in turning around the fortunes of that franchise. No longer content with trying to outbid the NFL for college talent, the AFL under Davis started to recruit players already on NFL squads. Davis's strategy focused on quarterbacks in particular, and in two months he persuaded seven NFL quarterbacks to sign with the AFL. Although Davis's intention was to help the AFL win the bidding war, some AFL and NFL owners saw the escalation as detrimental to both leagues. Alarmed with the rate of spending in the league, Hilton Hotels forced Barron Hilton to relinquish his stake in the Chargers as a condition of maintaining his leadership role with the hotel chain.\n\nThe same month Davis was named commissioner, several NFL owners, along with Dallas Cowboys general manager Tex Schramm, secretly approached Lamar Hunt and other AFL owners and asked the AFL to merge. They held a series of secret meetings in Dallas to discuss their concerns over rapidly increasing player salaries, as well as the practice of player poaching. Hunt and Schramm completed the basic groundwork for a merger of the two leagues by the end of May, and on June 8, 1966, the merger was officially announced. Under the terms of the agreement, the two leagues would hold a common player draft. The agreement also called for a title game to be played between the champions of the respective leagues. The two leagues would be fully merged by 1970, NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle would remain as commissioner of the merged league, and additional expansion teams would eventually be awarded by 1970 or soon thereafter to bring it to a 28-team league. The AFL also agreed to pay indemnities of $18 million to the NFL over 20 years. In protest, Davis resigned as AFL commissioner on July 25 rather than remain until the completion of the merger, and Milt Woodard was named President of the AFL.\n\nOn January 15, 1967, the first-ever World Championship Game between the champions of the two separate professional football leagues, the AFL-NFL Championship Game (retroactively referred to as Super Bowl I), was played in Los Angeles. After a close first half, the NFL champion Green Bay Packers overwhelmed the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs, 35–10. The loss reinforced for many the notion that the AFL was an inferior league. Packers head coach Vince Lombardi stated after the game, \"I do not think they are as good as the top teams in the National Football League.\"\n\nThe second AFL-NFL Championship (Super Bowl II) yielded a similar result. The Oakland Raiders—who had easily beaten the Houston Oilers to win their first AFL championship—were overmatched by the Packers, 33–14. The more experienced Packers capitalized on a number of Raiders miscues and never trailed. Green Bay defensive tackle Henry Jordan offered a compliment to Oakland and the AFL, when he said, \"... the AFL is becoming much more sophisticated on offense. I think the league has always had good personnel, but the blocks were subtler and better conceived in this game.\"\n\nThe AFL added its tenth and final team on May 24, 1967, when it awarded the league's second expansion franchise to an ownership group from Cincinnati, Ohio, headed by NFL legend Paul Brown. Although Brown had intended to join the NFL, he agreed to join the AFL when he learned that his team would be included in the NFL once the merger was completed. The Cincinnati Bengals began play in the 1968 season, finishing last in the Western Division.\n\n===Legitimacy and the end of an era (1968–70)===\nWhile many AFL players and observers believed their league was the equal of the NFL, their first two Super Bowl performances did nothing to prove it. However, on November 17, 1968, when NBC cut away from a game between the Jets and Raiders to air the children's movie ''Heidi'', the ensuing uproar helped disprove the notion that fans still considered the AFL an inferior product. The perception of AFL inferiority forever changed on January 12, 1969, when the AFL Champion New York Jets shocked the heavily favored NFL Champion Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III. The Colts, who entered the contest favored by as many as 18 points, had completed the 1968 NFL season with a 13–1 record, and won the NFL title with a convincing 34–0 win over the Cleveland Browns. Led by their stalwart defense—which allowed a record-low 144 points—the 1968 Colts were considered one of the best-ever NFL teams.\n\nBy contrast, the Jets had allowed 280 points, the highest total for any division winner in the two leagues. They had also only narrowly beaten the favored Oakland Raiders 27–23 in the AFL championship game. Jets quarterback Joe Namath recalled that in the days leading up to the game, he grew increasingly angry when told New York had no chance to beat Baltimore. Three days before the game, a frustrated Namath responded to a heckler at the Touchdown Club in Miami by declaring, \"We're going to win Sunday, I'll guarantee you.\"\n\nNamath and the Jets made good on his guarantee as they held the Colts scoreless until late in the fourth quarter. The Jets won, 16–7, in what is considered one of the greatest upsets in American sports history. With the win, the AFL finally achieved parity with the NFL and legitimized the merger of the two leagues. That notion was reinforced one year later in Super Bowl IV, when the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs upset the NFL champion Minnesota Vikings, 23–7, in the last championship game to be played between the two leagues. The Vikings, favored by 12½ points, were held to just 67 rushing yards.\n\nThe last game in AFL history was the AFL All-Star Game, held in Houston's Astrodome on January 17, 1970. The Western All-Stars, led by Chargers quarterback John Hadl, defeated the Eastern All-Stars, 26–3. Buffalo rookie back O.J. Simpson carried the ball for the last play in AFL history. Hadl was named the game's Most Valuable Player. Prior to the start of the 1970 NFL season, the merged league was organized into two conferences of three divisions each. All ten AFL teams made up the bulk of the new American Football Conference. To avoid having an inequitable number of teams in each conference, the leagues voted to move three NFL teams to the AFC. Motivated by the prospect of an intrastate rivalry with the Bengals as well as by personal animosity toward Paul Brown, Cleveland Browns owner Art Modell quickly offered to include his team in the AFC. He helped persuade the Pittsburgh Steelers (the Browns' archrivals) and Baltimore Colts (who shared the Baltimore/Washington, D.C. market with the Washington Redskins) to follow suit, and each team received US $3 million to make the switch. All the other NFL squads became part of the National Football Conference.\n\nPro Football Hall of Fame receiver Charlie Joiner, who started his career with the Houston Oilers (1969), was the last AFL player active in professional football, retiring after the 1986 season, when he played for the San Diego Chargers.\n", "\n===Overview===\nThe American Football League stands as the only professional football league to successfully compete against the NFL. When the two leagues merged in 1970, all ten AFL franchises and their statistics became part of the new NFL. Every other professional league that had competed against the NFL before the AFL–NFL merger had folded completely: the three previous leagues named \"American Football League\" and the All-America Football Conference. From an earlier AFL (1936–1937), only the Cleveland Rams (now the Los Angeles Rams) joined the NFL and are currently operating, as are the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers from the AAFC. A third AAFC team, the Baltimore Colts (not related to the 1953–1983 Baltimore Colts or to the current Indianapolis Colts franchise), played only one year in the NFL, disbanding at the end of the 1950 season. The league resulting from the merger was a 26-team juggernaut (since expanded to 32) with television rights covering all of the Big Three television networks and teams in close proximity to almost all of the top 40 metropolitan areas, a fact that has precluded any other competing league from gaining traction since the merger; failed attempts to mimic the AFL's success included the World Football League (1974–75), United States Football League (1983–85), XFL (2001) and United Football League (2009–2012).\n\nThe AFL was also the most successful of numerous upstart leagues of the 1960s and 1970s that attempted to challenge a major professional league's dominance. All nine teams that were in the AFL at the time the merger was agreed upon were accepted into the league intact (as was the tenth team added between the time of the merger's agreement and finalization), and none of the AFL's teams have ever folded. For comparison, the World Hockey Association (1972–79) managed to have four of its six remaining teams merged into the National Hockey League, which actually caused the older league to contract a franchise, but WHA teams were forced to disperse the majority of their rosters and restart as expansion teams. The merged WHA teams were also not financially sound (in large part from the expansion fees the NHL imposed on them), and three of the four were forced to relocate within 20 years. The American Basketball Association (1967–76) managed to have only four of its teams merged into the National Basketball Association, and the rest of the league was forced to fold. Both the WHA and ABA lost several teams to financial insolvency over the course of their existences. The Continental League, a proposed third league for Major League Baseball that was to begin play in 1961, never played a single game, largely because MLB responded to the proposal by expanding to four of that league's proposed cities. Historically, the only other professional sports league in the United States to exhibit a comparable level of franchise stability from its inception was the American League of Major League Baseball.\n\n===Rule changes===\nThe NFL adopted some of the innovations introduced by the AFL immediately and a few others in the years following the merger. One was including the names on player jerseys. The older league also adopted the practice of using the stadium scoreboard clocks to keep track of the official game time, instead of just having a stopwatch used by the referee. The AFL played a 14-game schedule for its entire existence, starting in 1960. The NFL, which had played a 12-game schedule since 1947, changed to a 14-game schedule in 1961, a year after the American Football League instituted it. The AFL also introduced the two-point conversion to professional football thirty-four years before the NFL instituted it in 1994 (college football had adopted the two-point conversion in the late 1950s). All of these innovations pioneered by the AFL, including its more exciting style of play and colorful uniforms, have essentially made today's professional football more like the ''AFL'' than like the old-line NFL. The AFL's challenge to the NFL also laid the groundwork for the Super Bowl, which has become the standard for championship contests in the United States of America.\n\n===Television===\nThe NFL also adapted how the AFL used the growing power of televised football games, which were bolstered with the help of major network contracts (first with ABC and later with NBC). With that first contract with ABC, the AFL adopted the first-ever cooperative television plan for professional football, in which the proceeds were divided equally among member clubs. It featured many outstanding games, such as the classic 1962 double-overtime American Football League championship game between the Dallas Texans and the defending champion Houston Oilers. At the time it was the longest professional football championship game ever played. The AFL also appealed to fans by offering a flashier style of play (just like the ABA in basketball), compared to the more conservative game of the NFL. Long passes (\"bombs\") were commonplace in AFL offenses, led by such talented quarterbacks as John Hadl, Daryle Lamonica and Len Dawson.\n\nDespite having a national television contract, the AFL often found itself trying to gain a foothold, only to come up against roadblocks. For example, CBS-TV, which broadcast NFL games, ignored and did not report scores from the innovative AFL, on orders from the NFL. It was only after the merger agreement was announced that CBS began to give AFL scores.\n\n===Expanding and reintroducing the sport to more cities===\nThe AFL took advantage of the burgeoning popularity of football by locating teams in major cities that lacked NFL franchises. Hunt's vision not only brought a new professional football league to California and New York, but introduced the sport to Colorado, restored it to Texas and later to fast-growing Florida, as well as bringing it to New England for the first time in 12 years. Buffalo, having lost its original NFL franchise in 1929 and turned down by the NFL at least twice (1940 and 1950) for a replacement, returned to the NFL with the merger. The return of football to Kansas City was the first time that city had seen professional football since the NFL's Kansas City Blues/Cowboys of the 1920s; the arrival of the Chiefs, and the contemporary arrival of the St. Louis Football Cardinals, brought professional football back to Missouri for the first time since the temporary St. Louis Gunners of 1934.\n\nIf not for the AFL, at least 17 of today's NFL teams would probably never have existed: the ten teams from the AFL, and seven clubs that were instigated by the AFL's presence to some degree. Three NFL franchises were awarded as a direct result of the AFL's competition with the older league: the Minnesota Vikings, who were awarded to Max Winter in exchange for dropping his bid to join the AFL; the Atlanta Falcons, whose franchise went to Rankin Smith to dissuade him from purchasing the AFL's Miami Dolphins; and the New Orleans Saints, because of successful anti-trust legislation which let the two leagues merge, and was supported by several Louisiana politicians.\n\nIn the case of the Dallas Cowboys, the NFL had long sought to return to the Dallas area after the Dallas Texans folded in 1952, but was originally met with strong opposition by Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall, who had enjoyed a monopoly as the only NFL team to represent the American South. Marshall later changed his position after future-Cowboys owner Clint Murchison bought the rights to Washington's fight song \"Hail to the Redskins\" and threatened to prevent Marshall from playing it at games. By then, the NFL wanted to quickly award the new Dallas franchise to Murchison so the team could immediately begin play and complete with the AFL's Texans. As a result, the Cowboys played its inaugural season in 1960 without the benefit of the NFL draft.\n\nAs part of the merger agreement, additional expansion teams would be awarded by 1970 or soon thereafter to bring the league to 28 franchises; this requirement was fulfilled when the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers began play in 1976. In addition, had it not been for the existence of the Oilers from 1960 to 1996, the Houston Texans also would likely not exist today; the 2002 expansion team restored professional football in Houston after the original charter AFL member Oilers relocated to become the Tennessee Titans.\n\nKevin Sherrington of ''The Dallas Morning News'' has argued that the presence of AFL and the subsequent merger radically altered the fortunes of the Pittsburgh Steelers, saving the team \"from stinking\". Before the merger, the Steelers had long been one of the NFL's worst teams. Constantly lacking the money to build a quality team, the Steelers had only posted eight winning seasons, and just one playoff appearance, since their first year of existence in 1933. They also finished with a 1-13 record in 1969, tied with the Chicago Bears for the worst record in the NFL. The $3 million indemnity that the Steelers received for joining the AFC with the rest of the former AFL teams after the merger helped them rebuild into a contender, drafting eventual-Pro Football Hall of Famers like Terry Bradshaw and Joe Greene, and ultimately winning four Super Bowls in the 1970s. Since the 1970 merger, the Steelers have the NFL's highest winning percentage, the most total victories, the most trips to either conference championship game, are tied for the second most trips to the Super Bowl (with the Dallas Cowboys and Denver Broncos, trailing only the New England Patriots), and have won an NFL-record six Super Bowl championships.\n\n===Effects on players===\nPerhaps the greatest social legacy of the AFL was the domino effect of its policy of being more liberal than the entrenched NFL in offering opportunity for black players. While the NFL was still emerging from thirty years of segregation influenced by Washington Redskins' owner George Preston Marshall, the AFL actively recruited from small and predominantly black colleges. The AFL's color-blindness led not only to the explosion of black talent on the field, but to the eventual entry of blacks into scouting, coordinating, and ultimately head coaching positions, long after the league ceased to exist.\n\nThe AFL's free agents came from several sources. Some were players who could not find success playing in the NFL, while another source was the Canadian Football League. In the late 1950s, many players released by the NFL, or un-drafted and unsigned out of college by the NFL, went North to try their luck with the CFL, and later returned to the states to play in the AFL.\n\nIn the league's first years, players such as Oilers' George Blanda, Chargers/Bills' Jack Kemp, Texans' Len Dawson, the NY Titans' Don Maynard, Raiders/Patriots/Jets' Babe Parilli, Pats' Bob Dee proved to be AFL standouts. Other players such as the Broncos' Frank Tripucka, the Pats' Gino Cappelletti, the Bills' Cookie Gilchrist and the Chargers' Tobin Rote, Sam DeLuca and Dave Kocourek also made their mark to give the fledgling league badly needed credibility. Rounding out this mix of potential talent were the true \"free agents\", the walk-ons and the \"wanna-be's\", who tried out in droves for the chance to play professional American football.\n\nAfter the AFL–NFL merger agreement in 1966, and after the AFL's Jets defeated the \"best team in the history of the NFL\", the Colts, a popular misconception fostered by the NFL and spread by media reports was that the AFL defeated the NFL because of the Common Draft instituted in 1967. This apparently was meant to assert that the AFL could not achieve parity as long as it had to compete with the NFL in the draft. But the 1968 Jets had less than a handful of \"common draftees\". Their stars were honed in the AFL, many of them since the Titans days. As noted below, the AFL got its share of stars long before the \"common draft\".\n\nPlayers who chose the AFL to develop their talent included Lance Alworth and Ron Mix of the Chargers, who had also been drafted by the NFL's San Francisco 49ers and Baltimore Colts respectively. Both eventually were elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame after earning recognition during their careers as being among the best at their positions. Among specific teams, the 1964 Buffalo Bills stood out by holding their opponents to a pro football record 913 yards rushing on 300 attempts, while also recording fifty quarterback sacks in a 14-game schedule.\n\nAnother example is cited by the University of Kansas website, which describes the 1961 Bluebonnet Bowl, won by KU, and goes on to say ''\"Two Kansas players, quarterback John Hadl and fullback Curtis McClinton, signed professional contracts on the field immediately after the conclusion of the game. Hadl inked a deal with the ''AFL'' San Diego Chargers, and McClinton went to the ''AFL'' Dallas Texans.\"'' Between them, in their careers Hadl and McClinton combined for an American Football League Rookie of the Year award, seven AFL All-Star selections, two Pro Bowl selections, a team MVP award, two AFL All-Star Game MVP awards, two AFL championships, and a World Championship. And these were players selected by the AFL long ''before'' the \"Common Draft\".\n\nIn 2009, a five-part series, ''Full Color Football: The History of the American Football League'', on the ''Showtime Network'', refuted many of the long-held misconceptions about the AFL. In it, Abner Haynes tells of how his father forbade him to accept being drafted by the NFL, after drunken scouts from that league had visited the Haynes home; the NFL Cowboys' Tex Schramm is quoted as saying that if his team had ever agreed to play the AFL's Dallas Texans, they would very likely have lost; George Blanda makes a case for more AFL players being inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame by pointing out that Hall of Famer Willie Brown was cut by the Houston Oilers because he couldn't cover Oilers flanker Charlie Hennigan in practice. Later, when Brown was with the Broncos, Hennigan needed nine catches in one game against the Broncos to break Lionel Taylor's Professional Football record of 100 catches in one season. Hennigan caught the nine passes and broke the record, even though he was covered by Brown, Blanda's point being that if Hennigan could do so well against a Hall of Fame DB, he deserves induction, as well.\n\n===Influence on professional football coaching===\nThe AFL also spawned coaches whose style and techniques have profoundly affected the play of professional football to this day. In addition to AFL greats like Hank Stram, Lou Saban, Sid Gillman and Al Davis were eventual hall of fame coaches such as Bill Walsh, a protégé of Davis with the AFL Oakland Raiders for one season; and Chuck Noll, who worked for Gillman and the AFL LA/San Diego Chargers from 1960 through 1965. Others include Buddy Ryan (AFL's New York Jets), Chuck Knox (Jets), Walt Michaels (Jets), and John Madden (AFL's Oakland Raiders). Additionally, many prominent coaches began their pro football careers as players in the AFL, including Sam Wyche (Cincinnati Bengals), Marty Schottenheimer (Buffalo Bills), Wayne Fontes (Jets), and two-time Super Bowl winner Tom Flores (Oakland Raiders). Flores also has a Super Bowl ring as a player (1969 Kansas City Chiefs).\n", "AFL 50th Anniversary Logo\n\nAs the influence of the AFL continues through the present, the 50th anniversary of its launch was celebrated during 2009. The season-long celebration began in August with the 2009 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game in Canton, Ohio between two AFC teams (as opposed to the AFC-vs-NFC format the game first adopted in 1971). The opponents were two of the original AFL franchises, the Buffalo Bills and Tennessee Titans (the former Houston Oilers). Bills' owner Ralph C. Wilson Jr. (a 2009 Hall of Fame inductee) and Titans' owner Bud Adams were the only surviving members of the Foolish Club, the eight original owners of AFL franchises.\n\nThe Hall of Fame Game was the first of several \"Legacy Weekends\", during which each of the \"original eight\" AFL teams sported uniforms from their AFL era. Each of the 8 teams took part in at least two such \"legacy\" games. On-field officials also wore red-and-white-striped AFL uniforms during these games.\n\nIn the fall of 2009, the Showtime pay-cable network premiered ''Full Color Football: The History of the American Football League'', a 5-part documentary series produced by NFL Films that features vintage game film and interviews as well as more recent interviews with those associated with the AFL.\n\nThe NFL sanctioned a variety of ''\"Legacy\"'' gear to celebrate the AFL anniversary, such as \"throwback\" jerseys, T-shirts, signs, pennants and banners, including items with the logos and colors of the Dallas Texans, Houston Oilers, and New York Titans, the three of the Original Eight AFL teams which have changed names or venues. A December 5, 2009 story by Ken Belson in the ''New York Times'' quotes league officials as stating that AFL ''\"Legacy\"'' gear made up twenty to thirty percent of the league's annual $3 billion merchandise income. Fan favorites were the Denver Broncos' vertically striped socks, which could not be re-stocked quickly enough.\n", "{\|class=\"navbox wikitable sortable\" style=\"text-align:left\"\nDivision\nTeam\nFirst Season\nHome Stadium\nAFL Record (W-L-T)\nAFL Titles\n Destiny after the merger\n\nEastern\nBoston Patriots\n1960\nNickerson Field (1960–1962), Fenway Park (1963–1968), Alumni Stadium (1969)\n64-69-9\n0\nStill active in the Greater Boston area. Moved to Foxborough, MA as the New England Patriots in 1971.\n\nBuffalo Bills\n1960\nWar Memorial Stadium (1960–1969)\n67-71-6\n2\nStill active in the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area. Moved to Orchard Park, NY in 1973.\n\nHouston Oilers\n1960\nJeppesen Stadium (1960–1964), Rice Stadium (1965–1967), Houston Astrodome (1968–1969)\n72-69-4\n2\nRelocated to Memphis, Tennessee as the Tennessee Oilers in 1997, moved to Nashville, Tennessee in 1998, and renamed as the Tennessee Titans in 1999.\n\nMiami Dolphins\n1966\nMiami Orange Bowl (1966–1969)\n15-39-2\n0\nStill active in the Miami metropolitan area. In 2003, their home stadium, which previously had a Miami address, became part of Miami Gardens, FL. \n\nNew York Titans/Jets\n1960\nPolo Grounds (1960–1963), Shea Stadium (1964–1969)\n71-67-6\n1\nStill active in the New York metropolitan area. Moved to East Rutherford, NJ in 1984.\n\nWestern\nCincinnati Bengals\n1968\nNippert Stadium (1968–1969)\n7-20-1\n0\nStill active in Cincinnati.\n\nDallas Texans/Kansas City Chiefs\n1960\nCotton Bowl (1960–1962), Municipal Stadium (1963–1969)\n92-50-5\n3\nStill active in Kansas City.\n\nDenver Broncos\n1960\nBears Stadium/Mile High Stadium (1960–1969)\n39-97-4\n0\nStill active in Denver.\n\nLos Angeles/San Diego Chargers\n1960\nLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum (1960), Balboa Stadium (1961–1966), San Diego Stadium (1967–1969)\n88-51-6\n1\nReturned to Los Angeles in 2017.\n\nOakland Raiders\n1960\nKezar Stadium (1960), Candlestick Park (1961), Frank Youell Field (1962–1965), Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum (1966–1969)\n80-61-5\n1\nRelocated to Los Angeles in 1982, then returned to Oakland in 1995. Planning to relocate to Las Vegas in 2020.\n\n\nToday, two of the NFL's eight divisions are composed entirely of former AFL teams, the AFC West (Broncos, Chargers, Chiefs, and Raiders) and the AFC East (Bills, Dolphins, Jets, and Patriots). Additionally, the Bengals now play in the AFC North and the Tennessee Titans (formerly the Oilers) play in the AFC South.\n", "\nFrom 1960 to 1968, the AFL determined its champion via a single-elimination playoff game between the winners of its two divisions. The home teams alternated each year by division, so in 1968 the Jets hosted the Raiders, even though Oakland had a better record (this was changed in 1969). In 1963, the Buffalo Bills and Boston Patriots finished tied with identical records of 7–6–1 in the AFL East Division. There was no tie-breaker protocol in place, so a one-game playoff was held in War Memorial Stadium in December. The visiting Patriots defeated the host Bills 26–8. The Patriots traveled to San Diego as the Chargers completed a three-game season sweep over the weary Patriots with a 51–10 victory. A similar situation occurred in the 1968 season, when the Oakland Raiders and the Kansas City Chiefs finished the regular season tied with identical records of 12–2 in the AFL West Division. The Raiders beat the Chiefs 41–6 in a division playoff to qualify for the AFL Championship Game. In 1969, the final year of the independent AFL, Professional Football's first \"wild card\" playoffs were conducted. A four-team playoff was held, with the second-place teams in each division playing the winner of the other division. The Chiefs upset the Raiders in Oakland 17–7 in the league's Championship, the final AFL game played. The Kansas City Chiefs were the first Super Bowl champion to win two road playoff games and the first wildcard team to win the Super Bowl, although the term \"wildcard\" was coined by the media, and not used officially until several years later.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"font-size: 95%\"\n'''Eastern Division'''\n'''Western Division'''\n\n\n\n\nSeason\nDate\nWinning Team\nScore\nLosing Team\nMVP\nVenue\nAttendance\n\n1960\nJanuary 1, 1961\nHouston Oilers\n24–16\nLos Angeles Chargers\nBilly Cannon\nJeppesen Stadium\n32,183\n\n1961\nDecember 24, 1961\nHouston Oilers (2)\n10–3\nSan Diego Chargers\nBilly Cannon\nBalboa Stadium\n29,556\n\n1962\nDecember 23, 1962\nDallas Texans\n20–17 (2OT)\nHouston Oilers\nJack Spikes\nJeppesen Stadium (2)\n37,981\n\n1963\nJanuary 5, 1964\nSan Diego Chargers\n51–10\nBoston Patriots\nKeith Lincoln\nBalboa Stadium (2)\n30,127\n\n1964\nDecember 26, 1964\nBuffalo Bills\n20–7\nSan Diego Chargers\nJack Kemp\nWar Memorial Stadium\n40,242\n\n1965\n December 26, 1965\nBuffalo Bills (2)\n23–0\nSan Diego Chargers\nJack Kemp\nBalboa Stadium (3)\n30,361\n\n1966\nJanuary 1, 1967\n''Kansas City Chiefs'' (2)\n31–7\nBuffalo Bills\nLen Dawson\nWar Memorial Stadium (2)\n42,080\n\n1967\nDecember 31, 1967\n''Oakland Raiders''\n40–7\nHouston Oilers\nDaryle Lamonica\nOakland–Alameda County Coliseum\n53,330\n\n1968\n December 29, 1968\n'''''New York Jets'''''\n27–23\nOakland Raiders\nJoe Namath\nShea Stadium\n62,627\n\n1969\nJanuary 4, 1970\n'''''Kansas City Chiefs''''' (3)\n17–7\nOakland Raiders\nOtis Taylor\nOakland–Alameda County Coliseum (2)\n53,561\n\n\n\n''Italics'' – Super Bowl Appearance, '''Bold''' – Super Bowl Victory\n", "\n\nThe AFL did not play an All-Star game after its first season in 1960, but did stage All-Star games for the 1961 through 1969 seasons. All-Star teams from the Eastern and Western divisions played each other after every season except 1965. That season, the league champion Buffalo Bills played all-stars from the other teams.\n\nAfter the 1964 season, the AFL All-Star game had been scheduled for early 1965 in New Orleans' Tulane Stadium. After numerous black players were refused service by a number of area hotels and businesses, black and white players alike called for a boycott. Led by Bills players such as Cookie Gilchrist, the players successfully lobbied to have the game moved to Houston's Jeppesen Stadium.\n", "\nAs chosen by 1969 AFL Hall of Fame Selection Committee Members:\n\n\n'''All-Time AFL Team'''\n\n '''Offense''' \n '''Defense''' \n '''Special Teams'''\n\nPosition\nPlayer\nPosition\nPlayer\nPosition\nPlayer\n\nWR\nLance Alworth\nEnd\nJerry Mays\nK\nGeorge Blanda\n\nEnd\nDon Maynard\nGerry Philbin\n\nTE\nFred Arbanas\nT\nHouston Antwine\n\nT\nRon Mix\nTom Sestak\n\nJim Tyrer\nLB\nBobby Bell\n\nC\nJim Otto\nGeorge Webster\n\nG\nEd Budde\nNick Buoniconti\nP\nJerrel Wilson\n\nBilly Shaw\nCB\nWillie Brown\n\nQB\nJoe Namath\nDave Grayson\n\nRB\nClem Daniels\nS\nJohnny Robinson\n\nPaul Lowe\nGeorge Saimes\n\n", "The following is a sample of some records set during the existence of the league. The NFL considers AFL statistics and records equivalent to its own.\nYards passing, game – 464, George Blanda (Oilers, October 29, 1961)\nYards passing, season – 4,007, Joe Namath (Jets, 1967)\nYards passing, career – 21,130, Jack Kemp (Chargers, Bills)\nYards rushing, game – 243, Cookie Gilchrist (Bills, December 8, 1963)\nYards rushing, season – 1,458, Jim Nance (Patriots, 1966)\nYards rushing, career – 5,101, Clem Daniels (Texans, Raiders)\nReceptions, season – 101, Charlie Hennigan (Oilers, 1964)\nReceptions, career – 567, Lionel Taylor (Broncos)\nPoints scored, season – 155, Gino Cappelletti (Patriots, 1964)\nPoints scored, career – 1,100, Gino Cappelletti (Patriots)\n", "List of American Football League players\nAmerican Football League Most Valuable Players\nAmerican Football League Rookies of the Year\nAmerican Football League Draft\nAmerican Football League Officials\n\n===Commissioners/Presidents of the American Football League===\n\n Joe Foss, commissioner (November 30, 1959 – April 7, 1966)\n* Al Davis, commissioner (April 8, 1966 – July 25, 1966)\n* Milt Woodard, president (July 25, 1966 – March 12, 1970)\n", "American Football League Draft\nAmerican Football League win-loss records\nAmerican Football League seasons\nAmerican Football League playoffs\nAmerican Football League Most Valuable Players\nAmerican Football League Rookies of the Year\nAmerican Football League Officials\nAFL–NFL merger\nList of leagues of American football\nAmerican Basketball Association\nWorld Hockey Association\n", "\n", " \n* \n* \n* History: The AFL – Pro Football Hall of Fame ( link).\n* \n* \n* \n", "* RemembertheAFL.com Website\n* afl-football.50webs.com\n* American Football League week-by-week box scores, 1960–1969\n* The Summer of the Little Super Bowls\n* KU story on Hadl and McClinton signings with the AFL\n* PFRA article about the 1926 seasons of both the NFL and AFL\n* PFRA article about the 1930s and 40s AFL\n* Pro Football Hall of Fame American Football League Legacy Game\n* Official Titans website story on the AFL's 50th Anniversary Celebration\n* Schedule of '''American Football League Legacy Games'''\n* ESPN.com article on '''AFL Legacy Games'''\n* ''New York Times'' article on AFL ''\"Legacy\"'' gear\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "League history", "Legacy", "AFL 50th Anniversary Celebration", "AFL franchises", "AFL playoffs", "AFL Championship Games", "AFL All-Star games", "All-Time AFL Team", "AFL records", "Players, coaches, and contributors", "See also", "Footnotes", "References", "External links" ]	American Football League
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Abu Nidal Organization''' ('''ANO''') is the most common name for the Palestinian group '''Fatah–The Revolutionary Council''' (''Fatah al-Majles al-Thawry'').\nThe ANO is named after its founder Abu Nidal. It was created by a split from Yasser Arafat's Fatah faction of the PLO in 1974. The group has been designated as a terrorist organization by the United States, the United Kingdom, Israel and the European Union.\n", "\nThe ANO was originally formed as a result of the 1974 Rejectionist Front split in the PLO, after Arafat's Fatah had pushed through amendments of the PLO's goals, which were seen as a step towards compromise with Israel. Abu Nidal then moved to Ba'athist Iraq where he set up the ANO, which soon began a vicious string of terrorist attacks.\n\nIt hasn't clearly defined its ideological position, but was clearly opposed to any form of compromise or negotiation with Israel. It is known as one of the most uncompromisingly militant Palestinian groups ever. It had an estimated membership of several hundred, but its strength today is not known.\n", "\nThe ANO carried out attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring almost 1650 persons. Targets include the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Israel, moderate Palestinians, the PLO, and various Arab and European countries. The group has not attacked Western targets since the late 1980s.\n\nMajor attacks included the Rome and Vienna Airport Attacks in December 1985, the Neve Shalom synagogue in Istanbul and the Pan Am Flight 73 hijacking in Karachi in September 1986, and the ''City of Poros'' day-excursion ship attack in Greece in July 1988.\n\nThe ANO has been especially noted for its uncompromising stance on negotiation with Israel, treating anything less than all-out military struggle against Israel as treachery. This led the group to perform numerous attacks against the PLO, which had made clear it accepted a negotiated solution to the conflict. Fatah-RC is believed to have assassinated PLO deputy chief Abu Iyad and PLO security chief Abu Hul in Tunis in January 1991. It assassinated a Jordanian diplomat in Lebanon in January 1994 and has been linked to the killing of the PLO representative there. Noted PLO moderate Issam Sartawi was killed by the Fatah-RC in 1983. In the late 1970s, the group also made failed assassination attempt on the present Palestinian president and PLO chairman, Mahmoud Abbas. These attacks, and numerous others, led to the PLO issuing a death sentence ''in absentia'' against Abu Nidal. In the early 1990s, it made an attempt to gain control of a refugee camp in Lebanon, but this was thwarted by PLO organizations.\n", "Abu Nidal\nArab People's Movement\n", "\n", "* Abu Nidal: Ruthless maverick\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Formation and background", "ANO attacks", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ]	Abu Nidal Organization
[ "\n\n'''Pietro Alessandro Gaspare Scarlatti''' (2 May 1660 – 22 October 1725) was an Italian Baroque composer, especially famous for his operas and chamber cantatas. He is considered the founder of the Neapolitan school of opera. He was the father of two other composers, Domenico Scarlatti and Pietro Filippo Scarlatti.\n", "Scarlatti was born in Palermo (or in Trapani), then part of the Kingdom of Sicily. He is generally said to have been a pupil of Giacomo Carissimi in Rome, and some theorize that he had some connection with northern Italy because his early works seem to show the influence of Stradella and Legrenzi. The production at Rome of his opera ''Gli Equivoci nell sembiante'' (1679) gained him the support of Queen Christina of Sweden (who at the time was living in Rome), and he became her ''Maestro di Cappella''. In February 1684 he became ''Maestro di Cappella'' to the viceroy of Naples, perhaps through the influence of his sister, an opera singer, who might have been the mistress of an influential Neapolitan noble. Here he produced a long series of operas, remarkable chiefly for their fluency and expressiveness, as well as other music for state occasions.\n\nIn 1702 Scarlatti left Naples and did not return until the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of Ferdinando de' Medici, for whose private theatre near Florence he composed operas, and of Cardinal Ottoboni, who made him his ''maestro di cappella'', and procured him a similar post at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome in 1703.\n\nAfter visiting Venice and Urbino in 1707, Scarlatti took up his duties in Naples again in 1708, and remained there until 1717. By this time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the Teatro Capranica in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas (''Telemaco'', 1718; ''Marco Attilio Regolò'', 1719; ''La Griselda'', 1721), as well as some noble specimens of church music, including a mass for chorus and orchestra, composed in honor of Saint Cecilia for Cardinal Acquaviva in 1721. His last work on a large scale appears to have been the unfinished serenata for the marriage of the prince of Stigliano in 1723. He died in Naples in 1725.\nScarlatti as a young man.\n", "Scarlatti's music forms an important link between the early Baroque Italian vocal styles of the 17th century, with their centers in Florence, Venice and Rome, and the classical school of the 18th century. Scarlatti's style, however, is more than a transitional element in Western music; like most of his Naples colleagues he shows an almost modern understanding of the psychology of modulation and also frequently makes use of the ever-changing phrase lengths so typical of the Napoli school. His early operas (''Gli equivoci nel sembiante'' 1679; ''L'honestà negli amori'' 1680, containing the famous aria \"Già il sole dal Gange\"; ''Il Pompeo'' 1683, containing the well-known airs \"O cessate di piagarmi\" and \"Toglietemi la vita ancor,\" and others down to about 1685) retain the older cadences in their recitatives, and a considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated with careful elaboration, sometimes with the continuo alone. By 1686 he had definitely established the \"Italian overture\" form (second edition of ''Dal male il bene''), and had abandoned the ground bass and the binary form air in two stanzas in favour of the ternary form or da capo type of air. His best operas of this period are ''La Rosaura'' (1690, printed by the Gesellschaft für Musikforschung), and ''Pirro e Demetrio'' (1694), in which occur the arias \"Le Violette\", and \"Ben ti sta, traditor\".\n\nFrom about 1697 onwards (''La caduta del Decemviri''), influenced partly perhaps by the style of Giovanni Bononcini and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera arias become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm, while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliance (''L'Eraclea'', 1700), the oboes and trumpets being frequently used, and the violins often playing in unison. The operas composed for Ferdinando de' Medici are lost; they might have given a more favourable idea of his style as his correspondence with the prince shows that they were composed with a very sincere sense of inspiration.\n\n''Mitridate Eupatore'', accounted his masterpiece, composed for Venice in 1707, contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later Neapolitan operas (''L'amor volubile e tiranno'' 1709; ''La principessa fedele'' 1710; ''Tigrane'', 1714, &c.) are showy and effective rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompanying the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental ritornelli. In his opera ''Teodora'' (1697) he originated the use of the orchestral ''ritornello''.\n\nGriselda''\nHis last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which he himself had been the first to use as early as 1686 (''Olimpia vendicata'') and a much more modern style of orchestration, the horns appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect.\n\nBesides the operas, oratorios (''Agar et Ismaele esiliati'', 1684; ''La Maddalena'', 1685; ''La Giuditta'', 1693; ''Christmas Oratorio'', c. 1705; ''S. Filippo Neri'', 1714; and others) and serenatas, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for solo voice. These represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period, and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in manuscript, since a careful study of them is indispensable to anyone who wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti's development.\n\n\nHis few remaining Masses (the story of his having composed two hundred is hardly credible) and church music in general are comparatively unimportant, except the great ''St Cecilia Mass'' (1721), which is one of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the great Masses of Johann Sebastian Bach and Beethoven. His instrumental music, though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared with his vocal works.\n", "\n", "Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra, Nicholas McGegan. (2016). ''La Gloria di Primavera''. Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra. Diana Moore, Suzana Ograjensek, Nicholas Phan, Clint van der Linde, Douglas Williams, Philharmonia Chorale.\nAkademie für alte Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (2007). ''Griselda''. Harmonia Mundi HMC 901805.07. Dorothea Röschmann, Lawrence Zazzo, Veronica Cangemi, Bernarda Fink, Silvia Tro Santafe, Kobie van Rensburg.\nLe Consert de l'Hostel Dieu. (2006). ''Il martirio di Sant'Orsola''. Ligia digital: 0202176-07\nLe parlement de musique. (2005). ''La Giuditta''. Ambronay editions: AMY004\nEnsemble Europa Galante. (2004). ''Oratorio per la Santissima Trinità''. Virgin Classics: 5 45666 2\nAcademia Bizantina. (2004). ''Il Giardino di Rose''. Decca: 470 650-2 DSA.\nOrqestra barocca di Sevilla . (2003). ''Colpa, Pentimento e Grazia''. Harmonia Mundi: HMI 987045.46\nSeattle Baroque. (2001). ''Agar et Ismaele Esiliati''. Centaur: CRC 2664\nCapella Palatina. (2000). ''Davidis pugna et victoria''. Agora: AG 249.1\nAkademie für alten Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (1998). ''Il Primo Omicidio''. Harmonia Mundi Fr. Dorothea Röschmann, Graciela Oddone, Richard Croft, René Jacobs, Bernarda Fink, Antonio Abete\nEnsemble Europa Galante. (1995). ''Humanita e Lucifero''. Opus 111: OPS 30–129\nEnsemble Europa Galante. (1993). ''La Maddalena''. Opus 111: OPS 30–96\nAllesandro Stradella Consort. (1992). Cantata natalizia ''Abramo, il tuo sembiante''. Nuova era: 7117\nI Musici. (1991). ''Concerto Grosso''. Philips Classics Productions: 434 160-2\nI Musici. William Bennett (Flute), Lenore Smith (Flute), Bernard Soustrot (Trumpet), Hans Elhorst (Oboe). (1961). \"12 Sinfonie di Concerto Grosso\" Philips Box 6769 066 9500 959 & 9500 960 – 2 vinyl discs\nEmma Kirkby, soprano and Daniel Taylor, countertenor, with the Theatre of Early Music. (2005). ''Stabat Mater''. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2237\nFrancis Colpron, recorder, with Les Boréades. (2007). ''Concertos for flute''. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2521\nNederlands Kamerkoor, with Harry van der Kamp, conductor. (2008). ''Vespro della Beata Vergine'' for 5 voices and continuo. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2533\n", "* Santa Maria di Montesanto, Naples, for his tomb\n", "\n", "\n* Associazione Domenico Scarlatti. Italian language (some material in English).\n* Free scores by Alessandro Scarlatti at the International Music Score Library Project \n* \n* The Madrigals of Alessandro Scarlatti: A lecture/recital by Garrick Comeaux and Consortium Carissimi, with Kelley Harness, February 12, 2009. University of Minnesota Institute for Advanced Studies. Audio and video available.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Scarlatti's music", "Operas", "Recordings", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alessandro Scarlatti
[ "\n\n'''Albert Pike''' (December 29, 1809 – April 2, 1891) was an attorney, soldier, writer, and Freemason. \n", "Pike was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Ben and Sarah (Andrews) Pike, and spent his childhood in Byfield and Newburyport, Massachusetts. His colonial ancestors settled the area in 1635, and included John Pike (1613–1688/1689), the founder of Woodbridge, New Jersey. He attended school in Newburyport and Framingham until he was 15. In August 1825, he passed entrance exams at Harvard University, though when the college requested payment of tuition fees for the first two years he chose not to attend. He began a program of self-education, later becoming a schoolteacher in Gloucester, North Bedford, Fairhaven and Newburyport.\n\nPike was an imposing figure; six feet tall and 300 pounds with hair that reached his shoulders and a long beard. In 1831, he left Massachusetts to travel west, first stopping in Nashville, Tennessee and later moving on to St. Louis, Missouri. There he joined an expedition to Taos, New Mexico, hunting and trading. During the excursion his horse broke and ran, forcing Pike to walk the remaining 500 miles to Taos. After this he joined a trapping expedition to the Llano Estacado in New Mexico and Texas. Trapping was minimal and, after traveling about 1,300 miles (650 on foot), he finally arrived at Fort Smith, Arkansas.\n", "Signed ''Carte de visite''\nSettling in Arkansas in 1833, Pike taught in a school and wrote a series of articles for the Little Rock ''Arkansas Advocate'' under the pen name of \"Casca.\" The articles were popular enough that he was asked to join the newspaper's staff. After marrying Mary Ann Hamilton in 1834, he purchased the newspaper. Under Pike's administration the ''Advocate'' promoted the viewpoint of the Whig Party in a politically volatile and divided Arkansas December 1832.\n\nHe was the first reporter for the Arkansas Supreme Court and also wrote a book (published anonymously), titled ''The Arkansas Form Book'', which was a guidebook for lawyers. Pike then began to study law and was admitted to the bar in 1837, selling the ''Advocate'' the same year. He also made several contacts among the Native American tribes in the area. He specialized in claims on behalf of Native Americans against the federal government. In 1852 he represented Creek Nation before the Supreme Court in a claim regarding ceded tribal land. In 1854 he advocated for the Choctaw and Chickasaw although compensation later awarded to the tribes in 1856 and 1857 was insufficient. These relationships were to influence the course of his Civil War service.\n\nAdditionally, Pike wrote on several legal subjects and continued producing poetry, a hobby he had begun in his youth in Massachusetts. His poems were highly regarded in his day, but are now mostly forgotten. Several volumes of his works were privately published posthumously by his daughter. In 1859, he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from Harvard.\n", "''Brigadier General Albert Pike'' statue, Washington, D.C.\n\n===Mexican-American War===\nWhen the Mexican–American War started, Pike joined the Regiment of Arkansas Mounted Volunteers (a cavalry regiment) and was commissioned as a troop commander with the rank of captain in June 1846. With his regiment, he fought in the Battle of Buena Vista. Pike was discharged in June 1847. He and his commander, Colonel John Selden Roane, had several differences of opinion. This situation led finally to an \"inconclusive\" duel between Pike and Roane on July 29, 1847 near Fort Smith, Arkansas. Although several shots were fired in the duel, nobody was injured, and the two were persuaded by their seconds to discontinue it.\n\nAfter the war, Pike returned to the practice of law, moving to New Orleans for a time beginning in 1853. He wrote another book, ''Maxims of the Roman Law and some of the Ancient French Law, as Expounded and Applied in Doctrine and Jurisprudence''. Although unpublished, this book increased his reputation among his associates in law. He returned to Arkansas in 1857, gaining some amount of prominence in the legal field.\n\nAt the Southern Commercial Convention of 1854, Pike said the South should remain in the Union and seek equality with the North, but if the South \"were forced into an inferior status, she would be better out of the Union than in it.\" His stand was that state's rights superseded national law and supported the idea of a Southern secession. This stand is made clear in his pamphlet of 1861, \"State or Province, Bond or Free?\"\n\n===Civil War===\nIn 1861, Pike penned the lyrics to ''Dixie to Arms!''. At the beginning of the war, Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to the Native Americans. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one of the most important being with Cherokee chief John Ross, which was concluded in 1861.\n\nPike was commissioned as a brigadier general on November 22, 1861, and given a command in the Indian Territory. With Gen. Ben McCulloch, Pike trained three Confederate regiments of Indian cavalry, most of whom belonged to the \"civilized tribes\", whose loyalty to the Confederacy was variable. Although initially victorious at the Battle of Pea Ridge (Elkhorn Tavern) in March 1862, Pike's unit was defeated later in a counterattack, after falling into disarray. When Pike was ordered to send troops to Arkansas in May 1862, he resigned in protest. As in the previous war, Pike came into conflict with his superior officers, at one time drafting a letter to Jefferson Davis complaining about his direct superior.\n\nAfter Pea Ridge, Pike was faced with charges that his troops had scalped soldiers in the field. Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman also charged Pike with mishandling of money and material, ordering his arrest. Both these charges were later found to be considerably lacking in evidence; nevertheless Pike, facing arrest, escaped into the hills of Arkansas, sending his resignation from the Confederate States Army on July 12. He was at length arrested on November 3 under charges of insubordination and treason, and held briefly in Warren, Texas, but his resignation was accepted on November 11 and he was allowed to return to Arkansas.\n", "\nPike first joined the Independent Order of Odd Fellows in 1840, and he had then joined a Masonic Lodge, where he became extremely active in the affairs of the organization, being elected Sovereign Grand Commander of the Scottish Rite's Southern Jurisdiction in 1859. He remained Sovereign Grand Commander for the remainder of his life (a total of thirty-two years), devoting a large amount of his time to developing the rituals of the order. Notably, he published a book called ''Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry'' in 1871, of which there were several subsequent editions.\n\nIn America, Pike is still considered an eminent and influential Freemason, primarily in the Scottish Rite Southern Jurisdiction.\n", "Pike died in Washington, D.C., at the age of 81, and was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery. Burial was against his wishes; he had left instructions for his body to be cremated. In 1944, his remains were moved to the House of the Temple, headquarters of the Southern Jurisdiction of the Scottish Rite. A memorial to Pike is located in the Judiciary Square neighborhood of Washington, D.C.\n\nThe Albert Pike Memorial Temple is an historic Masonic lodge in Little Rock, Arkansas listed on the National Register of Historic Places.\n\n\nFile:Albert Pike Morals and dogma.jpg\|''Morals and Dogma'' (1871)\nFile:Albert Pike portrait.jpg\|Pike in Masonic regalia\n\n", "As a young man, Pike wrote poetry and he continued to do so for the rest of his life. At 23, he published his first poem, “Hymns to the Gods.” Later work was printed in literary journals like Blackwood’s ''Edinburgh Magazine'' and local newspapers. His first collection of poetry, ''Prose Sketches and Poems Written in the Western Country'', appeared in 1834. He later gathered many of his poems and republished them in ''Hymns to the Gods and Other Poems'' (1872). After his death these appeared again in ''Gen. Albert Pike’s Poems'' (1900) and ''Lyrics and Love Songs'' (1916). It was suggested that the authorship of the \"The Old Canoe\" was attributed to Pike. It was fastened upon Pike because about the time of its publication, when it was going the rounds of the press, probably without any credit, a doggerel called \"The Old Canoe\" was composed about Pike by one of his political foes, the subject of it being a canoe in which he left Columbia, Tennessee, when a young man practicing law in that place. Pike himself stated to Senator Edward W. Carmack that he was not the author of \"The Old Canoe,\" and could not imagine how he ever got the credit for it. The rightful author was Emily Rebecca Page.\n", "* ''Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda'' (1872)\n* ''Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite'' (1872)\n* ''Book of the Words'' (1874)\n* ''Reprints of Old Rituals'' (1879)\n", "\n* List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)\n* List of Freemasons\n* Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\nMy Personal Views On Pike's Morals and Dogma masonicme.com\n \n* \n* Pike's Masonic philosophy\n* About Pike's famous Luciferian quote\n* \n* Albert Pike commemorative Masonic Lodge – Located in Denver CO\n* \n* Pike's words for Dixie (\"Everybody's Dixie\", also known as \"To Arms in Dixie\")\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Journalist and lawyer", "Military career", "Freemasonry", "Death and legacy", "Poetry", "Selected works", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Albert Pike
[ "\n\n\n\n'''''ALF Tales''''' is a 30-minute Saturday morning animated series that aired on NBC from September 10, 1988 to December 9, 1989. The show is a spin-off of ''ALF: The Animated Series'' which featured characters from that series play various characters from fairy tales. The fairy tale was usually altered for comedic effect in a manner akin to Fractured Fairy Tales.\n\nEach story typically spoofs a film genre, such as the \"Cinderella\" episode done as an Elvis movie. Some episodes featured a \"fourth wall\" effect where ALF is backstage preparing for the episode, and Rob Cowan would appear drawn as a TV executive (who introduced himself as \"Roger Cowan, network executive\") to try to brief ALF on how to improve this episode. For instance Cowan once told ALF who was readying for a medieval themed episode that \"less than 2% of our audience lives in the Dark Ages\".\n", "Paul Fusco - ALF (Gordon Shumway)/Rick Fusterman\nTabitha St. Germain (as Paulina Gillis) - Augie/Rhonda\nPeggy Mahon - Flo\nThick Wilson - Larson Petty/Bob\nDan Hennessey - Sloop\nRob Cowan - Skip\nEllen-Ray Hennessy - Stella the Waitress\nNoam Zylberman - Curtis (1988)\nMichael Fantini - Curtis (1989)\n", "===Season 1 (1988–89)===\n\n\n \n \n Title\n Air date\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Season 2 (1989)===\n\n \n \n Title\n Air date\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "The first seven episodes were released on DVD on May 30, 2006 in Region 1 from Lions Gate Home Entertainment in a single-disc release entitled ''ALF and The Beanstalk and Other Classic Fairy Tales''.\n", "List of animated spinoffs from prime time shows\n", "\n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Cast", "Episodes", "DVD release", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	ALF Tales
[ "\n\n'''Abdul Rashid Dostum''' ( ; عبدالرشید دوستم) (born 1954) is an Afghan politician who has served as Vice President of Afghanistan since 2014. He is an ethnic Uzbek, former warlord and general, previously part of the leadership council of the National Front of Afghanistan along with Ahmad Zia Massoud and Mohammad Mohaqiq, as well as chairman of his own political party, Junbish-e Milli-yi Islami-yi Afghanistan (National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan). He also served in the past as Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff of the Afghan National Army, a role often viewed as ceremonial.\n\nDuring the Soviet war in Afghanistan, Dostum was a general in the Afghan army. He later became an independent warlord and leader of Afghanistan's Uzbek community. He participated in battles against the Mujahideen fighters in the 1980s as well as against the Taliban in the 1990s. After the fall of the Taliban, he mainly resided in Turkey before returning to the country. In 2013 he made a public apology for his role in the civil war. He subsequently entered parliament, and later joined Ashraf Ghani's presidential administration as a vice president.\n", "\nDostum was born in 1954 in Khwaja du koh, Jowzjan Province, Afghanistan. Coming from an impoverished family, he received a very basic traditional education as he was forced to drop out of school at a young age. From there, he took up work in the gas fields.\n", "Dostum began working in 1970 in a state-owned gas refinery in Sheberghan, participating in union politics, as the new government started to arm the staff of the workers in the oil and gas refineries. The reason for this was to create \"groups for the defense of the revolution\". Because of the new communist ideas entering Afghanistan in the 1970s, he enlisted in the army in 1978. Dostum received his basic military training in Jalalabad. His squadron was deployed in the rural areas around Sheberghan, under the auspices of the Ministry of National Security.\n\n=== Soviet war in Afghanistan ===\n\nBy the mid-1980s he commanded around 20,000 militia men and controlled the northern provinces of Afghanistan. While the unit recruited throughout Jowzjan and had a relatively broad base, many of its early troops and commanders came from Dostum's home village. He left the army after the purge of Parchamis, but returned after the Soviet occupation began.\n\nDuring the Soviet war in Afghanistan, Dostum was commanding a militia battalion to fight and rout mujahideen forces; he had been appointed an officer due to prior military experience. This eventually became a regiment and later became incorporated into the defense forces as the 53rd Infantry Division. Dostum and his new division reported directly to President Mohammad Najibullah. Later on he became the commander of the military unit 374 in Jowzjan. He defended the Soviet-backed Afghan government against the mujahideen forces throughout the 1980s. While he was only a regional commander, he had largely raised his forces by himself. The Jowzjani militia Dostum controlled was one of the few in the country which was able to be deployed outside its own region. They were deployed in Kandahar in 1988 when Soviet forces were withdrawing from Afghanistan.\n\n=== Civil war ===\n\nDostum's men would become an important force in the fall of Kabul in 1992. In April 1992, the opposition forces began their march to Kabul against the government of Najibullah. Dostum had allied himself with the opposition commanders Ahmad Shah Massoud and Sayed Jafar Naderi, the head of the Isma'ili community, and together they captured the capital city. He and Massoud fought in a coalition against Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. Massoud and Dostum's forces joined together to defend Kabul against Hekmatyar, with some 4000-5000 of his troops, units of his Shiberghan-based 53rd Division and Balkh-based Guards Division, garrisoning Bala Hissar fort, Maranjan Hill, and Khwaja Rawash International Airport. In 1994, Dostum allied himself with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar against the government of Burhanuddin Rabbani and Ahmad Shah Massoud.\n\n=== Taliban and Northern Alliance era ===\nFollowing the rise of the Taliban and their capture of Kabul, Dostum aligned himself with the Northern Alliance (United Front) against the Taliban. He stationed his troops in the city of Mazar-e-Sharif. The Northern Alliance was assembled in late 1996 by Dostum, Massoud and Karim Khalili against the Taliban. At this point he is said to have had a force of some 50,000 men supported by both aircraft and tanks. He ruled what was, in effect, an independent region. He printed his own Afghan currency and ran a small airline named Balkh Air.\n\nMuch like other northern alliance leaders, Dostum also faced infighting within his group and was later forced to surrender his power to General Abdul Malik Pahlawan. Malik entered into secret negotiations with the Taliban, who promised to respect his authority over much of northern Afghanistan, in exchange for the apprehension of Ismail Khan, one of their enemies. Accordingly, on 25 May 1997 Malik arrested Khan, handed him over and let the Taliban enter Mazar-e-Sharif, giving them control over most of northern Afghanistan. Because of this, Dostum was forced to flee to Turkey. However, Malik soon realized that the Taliban were not sincere with their promises as he saw his men being disarmed. He then rejoined the Northern Alliance, and turned against his erstwhile allies, driving them from Mazar-e-Sharif. In October 1997, Dostum returned from exile and retook charge. After Dostum briefly regained control of Mazar-e-Sharif, the Taliban returned in 1998 and he again fled to Turkey.\n\n=== Operation Enduring Freedom ===\n\nDostum in early 2002\nDostum returned to Afghanistan in October 2001 to join the U.S.-led campaign against the Taliban. Along with General Fahim, Ismail Khan and Mohammad Mohaqiq. In November 2001, with the beginning of the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, and against the wishes of the CIA who distrusted Dostum, a team including Johnny Micheal Spann landed to set up communications in the Dar-e-Suf. A few hours later 23 men of Operational Detachment Alpha (ODA) 595 landed to begin the war.\n\nOn 24 November 2001, 300 Taliban soldiers retreated after the Siege of Kunduz by American and Northern Alliance. The Taliban laid down their weapons a few miles from the city of Mazar-i-Sharif. They eventually surrendered to Dostum. A small group of armed foreign fighters were transferred to the 19th century prison fortress, Qala-i-Jangi. The Taliban used concealed weapons to start the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi against the opposition forces. The uprising was eventually brought under control.\n\n===Dasht-i-Leili massacre===\n\nIn late 2001, Carlotta Gall, Jamie Doran and Newsweek began reporting rumors that Dostum's forces, who were fighting the Taliban alongside the US Special Forces, intentionally suffocated as many as 2,000 Taliban prisoners in container trucks in an ill-defined incident that has become known as the Dasht-i-Leili massacre. In July 2009, ''The New York Times'' reported that according to anonymous witnesses they interviewed, \"over a three-day period, Taliban prisoners were stuffed into closed metal shipping containers and given no food or water; many suffocated while being trucked to the prison. Other prisoners were killed when guards shot into the containers. The bodies were said to have been buried in a mass grave in Dasht-i-Leili, a stretch of desert just outside Sheberghan. A 2002 declassified U.S. State Department intelligence report quoting a news source states that another anonymous source concluded that about 1,500 Taliban prisoners died. Estimates from other anonymous witnesses or from a report by Physicians for Human Rights range from several hundred to several thousand. The report also says that several Afghan witnesses were later tortured or killed.\" Dostum, the Red Cross and eyewitnesses in the prison claimed that only 200 taliban prisoners died from wounds or sickness. Physicians for Human Rights claims there is satellite evidence that graves had been dug up but no investigation was done despite Dostum inviting the UN to investigate. No formal investigation was conducted and an official website of General Dostum using eyewitnesses who go on the record lays out a timeline of events that debunk the allegations. The foundation of the controversy lay in confusion in estimating the number of Taliban that possibly joined the Northern Alliance or simply returned to their villages after the Kunduz surrender. According to the biography \"The Last Warlord, The Life and Times of General Dostum written by Professor Brian Williams, General Dostum has been the target of a number of sensational claims that were later debunked. Among them was the famous claim in Ahmed Rashid's book \"The Taliban\" that describes a tank was used to crush a thief. Ahmed Rashid corrects what turns out to be a second hand story in William's book and provides first person description of events that directly contradict the rumors.\n\n=== Karzai administration ===\n\nIn the aftermath of Taliban's removal from northern Afghanistan, forces loyal to Dostum frequently clashed with Tajik forces loyal to Atta Muhammad Nur. Atta's men kidnapped and killed a number of Dostum's men, and constantly agitated to gain control of Mazar-e-Sharif. Through the political mediations of the Karzai administration, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and the United Nations, the Dostum-Atta feud has gradually declined.\n\nDostum served as deputy defense minister the early period of the Karzai administration. In March 2003, he established a North Zone of Afghanistan. On 20 May 2003, Dostum narrowly escaped an assassination attempt. He was often residing outside Afghanistan, mainly in Turkey.\n\nOn 16 August 2009, Dostum made a requested return from exile to Afghanistan to support President Hamid Karzai in his bid for re-election. He later flew by helicopter to his northern stronghold of Sheberghan, where he was greeted by thousands of his supporters in the local stadium. He subsequently made overtures to the United States, promising he could \"destroy the Taliban and al Qaeda\" if supported by the U.S., saying that \"the U.S. needs strong friends like Dostum.\"\n\n=== Ghani administration ===\n\n\nDostum became Vice President of Afghanistan in the 2014 Afghan presidential election. His running mates were Ashraf Ghani and Sarwar Danish.\n\nIn July 2016 Human Rights Watch accused Abdul Rashid Dostum's National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan of killing, abusing and looting civilians in the northern Faryab Province during June. Militia forces loyal to Dostum stated that the civilians they targeted - at least 13 killed and 32 wounded - were supporters of the Taliban.\n", "Some media reports stated earlier that Dostum was \"seeking political asylum\" in Turkey while others said he was exiled. One Turkish media outlet said Dostum was visiting after flying there with then Turkey's Foreign Minister Ali Babacan during a meeting of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).\n", "While Dostum was ruling northern Afghanistan before the Taliban took over in 1998, women were able to go about unveiled, girls were allowed to go to school and study at the University of Balkh in Mazar-e-Sharif, cinemas showed Indian films and music played on television, activities which were all banned by the Taliban.\n\nHe viewed the ISAF forces attempt to crush the Taliban as ineffective and has gone on record saying that he could mop up the Taliban \"in six months\" if allowed to raise a 10,000 strong army of Afghan veterans. Senior Afghan government officials do not trust Dostum as they are concerned that he might be secretly rearming his forces.\n\nDostum is currently barred from entering the U.S. because of his human rights record and of his involvement in the Dasht-i-Leili massacre.\n", "\n", "* Vogelsang, Willem. (2002). ''The Afghans''. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. .\n", "* General Abdul Rashid Dostum's Official Website\n* Article on Abdul Rashid Dostum on Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan (.com)\n* BBC online profile\n* Biography about Dostum\n* CNN Presents: House of War\n* Afghanistan Mass Grave: The Dasht-e Leili War Crimes Investigation\n* As possible Afghan war-crimes evidence removed, U.S. silent\n* Obama Calls for Probe into 2001 Massacre of Suspected Taliban POWs by US-Backed Afghan Warlord - video by ''Democracy Now!''\n* Eyewitness account from National Geographic war reporter Robert Young Pelton\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life ", " Careers ", " Time in Turkey ", " Political and social views ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]	Abdul Rashid Dostum
[ "\n\n'''Andhra Pradesh''' () () is one of the 29 states of India, situated on the southeastern coast of the country. The state is the seventh-largest state in India covering an area of . As per 2011 Census of India, the state is tenth-largest by population with 49,386,799 inhabitants.\n\nOn 2 June 2014, the north-western portion of the state was bifurcated to form a new state of Telangana. Andhra Pradesh's longtime capital, Hyderabad, was transferred to Telangana as part of the division. However, in accordance with the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, Hyderabad will remain the ''de jure'' capital of both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states for a period of time not exceeding 10 years. The new riverfront proposed capital in Guntur district is Amaravati, which is under the jurisdiction of APCRDA. The Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of the state in the 2016–2017 financial year at current prices stood at .\n\nThe state has a coastline of with jurisdiction over nearly 15,000 km2 territorial waters, the second longest among all the states of India after Gujarat. It is bordered by Telangana in the north-west, Odisha in the north-east, Karnataka in the west, Tamil Nadu in the south and the water body of Bay of Bengal in the east. A small enclave of of Yanam, a district of Puducherry, lies south of Kakinada in the Godavari delta to the east of the state.\n\nAndhra Pradesh is composed of two regions: Coastal Andhra, located along the Bay of Bengal, and Rayalaseema, in the inland southwestern part of the state. These two regions comprise 13 districts, with 9 in Coastal Andhra and 4 in Rayalaseema. Visakhapatnam, located on the Bay of Bengal in North Coastal Andhra is the largest city and commercial hub of the state with a GDP of $43.5 billion, followed in population and GDP by Vijayawada, which is located on the Krishna River and which has a GDP of $3 billion as of 2010.\n\nAndhra Pradesh hosted 121.8 million visitors in 2015, a 30% growth in tourist arrivals over the previous year. The Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Tirupati is one of the world's most visited religious sites, with 18.25 million visitors per year. Other pilgrimage centers in Andhra Pradesh include the Ameen Peer Dargah in Kadapa, the Mahachaitya at Amaravathi, and the Kanaka Durga Temple in Vijayawada, while the state's natural attractions include the beaches of Visakhapatnam, hill stations such as the Araku Valley and Horsley Hills, and the island of Konaseema in the Godavari River delta.\n", "\n\n=== Toponomy ===\n\nA tribe named Andhra was mentioned in Sanskrit texts such as Aitareya Brahmana (800-500 BCE). According to ''Aitareya Brahmana'' of the Rig Veda, the Andhras left north India and settled in south India. The Satavahanas have been mentioned by the names ''Andhra'', ''Andhrara-jatiya'' and ''Andhrabhrtya'' in the Puranic literature. They did not refer themselves as ''Andhra'' in any of their coins or inscriptions; it is possible that they were termed as ''Andhras'' because of their ethnicity or because their territory included the Andhra region.\n\n=== Early and medieval history ===\nTelugu Thalli\n\nArchaeological evidence from places such as Amaravati, Dharanikota and Vaddamanu suggests that the Andhra region was part of the Mauryan Empire. Amaravati might have been a regional centre for Mauryan rule. After the death of Emperor Ashoka, Mauryan rule weakened around 200 BCE, and was replaced by several smaller kingdoms in the Andhra region.\n\nThe Satavahana dynasty dominated the Deccan region from the 1st century BC to the 3rd century. The later Satavahanas made Dharanikota and Amaravathi their capital, which according to the Buddhists is the place where Nagarjuna, the philosopher of Mahayana lived in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The Andhra Ikshvakus, with their capital at Vijayapuri, succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna River valley in the later half of the 2nd century. Pallavas, who were originally executive officers under the Satavahana kings, were not a recognised political power before the 2nd century AD and were swept away by the Western Chalukyan invasion, led by Pulakesin II in the first quarter of the 7th century CE. After the downfall of the Ikshvakus, the Vishnukundinas were the first great dynasty in the 5th and 6th centuries, and held sway over the entire Andhra country, including Kalinga and parts of Telangana. They played an important role in the history of Deccan during the 5th and 6th century CE, with Eluru, Amaravathi and Puranisangam.\n\nThe Salankayanas were an ancient dynasty that ruled the Andhra region between Godavari and Krishna with their capital at Vengi (modern Pedavegi) from 300 to 440 CE. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, whose dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until 1130 C.E., eventually merged with the Chola empire. They continued to rule under the protection of the Chola empire until 1189 C.E., when the kingdom succumbed to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas. The roots of the Telugu language have been seen on inscriptions found near the Guntur district and from others dating to the rule of Renati Cholas in the fifth century CE.\n\nKakatiyas ruled Andhra Pradesh state for nearly 200 years. They constructed several forts here. Their legacy was carried forward by their family members the Musunuri Nayaks.\n\nMusunuri Nayaks, the south Indian empire who are the first kings in India to win against Delhi sultanates ruled the present day Andhra Pradesh State. Musunuri Nayaks are family members belonging to same Vamsha of Kakatiyas which made them to be Nayak leaders of group of Nayaks against rebellion against Turks. Musunuri Nayaks were assisted by 75 Nayaks in the revolt against Delhi sultanates. Musunuri Prolaa Naidu is the first king of Modern day Andhra Pradesh state after the fall of Kakatiyas and the first Indian king who won against Delhi sultanates. He is succeeded by his cousin Musunuri Kaapaa Naidu who assumed titles \"Andhradesadeswara\" and \"Andhra Suratrana\"\nand ruled for nearly 40 years.\n\nThe Reddy dynasty (1325–1448 CE) was established by Prolaya Vema Reddi in the early 14th century, who ruled from present day Kondaveedu. Prolaya Vema Reddi was part of the confederation of states that started a movement against the invading Turkic Muslim armies of the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE and succeeded in repulsing them from Warangal. They constructed Kondaveedu Fort which they ruled between 1328–1428, before it was taken over by the Gajpathis of Orissa, and later ravaged by the Muslim rulers of the Bahmani kingdom in 1458. The Vijayanagara emperor Krishnadevaraya captured it in 1516. The Golconda Sultans fought for the fort in 1531, 1536 and 1579, and Sultan Quli Qutb Shah captured it in 1579, renaming it ''Murtuzanagar''. Again it was reconquered by Vijayanagarans who overthrew sultunate rule across the entirety of modern day Andhra Pradesh (excluding Telangana). After this rebellion, the Bahmani sultans launched no further military compaigns outside their kingdoms, because the Marathas soon emerged as the strongest power in India. Efforts are in progress to classify Kondaveedu Fort as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\n\nPemmasani Nayaks, the greatest kings during Vijayanagara times ruled parts of Andhra Pradesh state with Gandikota as capital for nearly 300 years.\n\nThe signature Lepakshi Nandi Bull\nRajmahal of Chandragiri Fort\nThe Vijayanagara Empire originated in the Deccan Plateau region in the early 14th century. It was established in 1336 by Harihara Raya I and his brother Bukka Raya I of the Sangama Dynasty. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.\n\n=== Modern history ===\nHarihara and Bukka, who served as treasury officers of the Kakatiyas of Warangal, founded the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1347 CE, an independent Muslim state, the Bahmani Sultanate, was established in south India by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah in a revolt against the Delhi Sultanate. The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the sixteenth century to the end of the seventeenth century.\n\nIn the early nineteenth century Northern Circars was ceded to the British East India Company and became part of the Madras Presidency. Eventually this region emerged as the Coastal Andhra region. Later the Nizam rulers of Hyderabad ceded five territories to the British that eventually became the Rayalaseema region. The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as the princely state of Hyderabad, acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. However, Komaram Bheem, a tribal leader, started his fight against the erstwhile Asaf Jahi Dynasty for the liberation of Hyderabad State. Meanwhile, the French occupied Yanam, in the Godavari delta, and (save for periods of British control) would hold it until 1954. In 1947 Vizianagaram was the largest Hindu princely state in Andhra Pradesh.\n\nIndia became independent from the United Kingdom in 1947. The Nizam wanted to retain the independence of the Princely Hyderabad State from India, but the people of the region launched a movement to join the Indian Union. The state of Hyderabad was forcibly joined to the Republic of India with Operation Polo in 1948.\n\n=== Post independence ===\n\n\nIn an effort to gain an independent state based on linguistic identity, and to protect the interests of the Telugu-speaking people of Madras State, Potti Sreeramulu fasted to death in 1952. As Madras became a bone of contention, in 1949 a JVP committee report stated \"Andhra Province could be formed provided the Andhras give up their claim on the city of Madras (now Chennai)\". After Potti Sreeramulu's death, the Telugu-speaking area of Andhra State was carved out of Madras State on 1 October 1953, with Kurnool as its capital city. On the basis of a gentlemen's agreement of 1 November 1956, the States Reorganisation Act formed Andhra Pradesh by merging Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking areas of the already existing Hyderabad State. Hyderabad was made the capital of the new state. The Marathi-speaking areas of Hyderabad State merged with Bombay State and the Kannada-speaking areas were merged with Mysore state.\n\nIn February 2014, the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 bill was passed by the Parliament of India for the formation of Telangana state comprising ten districts. Hyderabad will remain as a joint capital for not exceeding ten years. The new state of Telangana came into existence on 2 June 2014 after approval from the President of India.\n", "\nAndhra Pradesh Topo Map\nMap of Andhra Pradesh\nKrishna River at Srisailam\n\nThe state has varied topography ranging from the hills of Eastern Ghats and Nallamala Hills to the shores of Bay of Bengal that supports varied ecosystems, rich diversity of flora and fauna. There are two main rivers namely, Krishna and Godavari, that flow through the state. The seacoast of the state extends along the Bay of Bengal from Srikakulam to Nellore district. The plains to the east of Eastern Ghats form the Eastern coastal plains. The coastal plains are for the most part of delta regions formed by the Godavari, Krishna, and Penner Rivers. The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and individual sections have local names. The Eastern Ghats are a major dividing line in the state's geography. The Kadapa Basin formed by two arching branches of the Eastern Ghats is a mineral-rich area. The Ghats become more pronounced towards the south and extreme north of the coast. Most of the coastal plains are put to intense agricultural use. The Rayalaseema region has semi-arid conditions.\n\n=== Natural vegetation and conservation ===\n\nKambalakonda Wildlife Sanctuary, Visakhapatnam\n\n''Andhra Pradesh Forest Department'' deals with protection, conservation and management of forests. The total forest cover of the state after the bifurcation is left with an area of 22,862 km2. The forest in the state can be broadly divided into four major biotic provinces. They are:\n# Deccan Plateau\n# Central Plateau\n# Eastern Highland\n# East Coastal Plains\n\nEastern Ghats region is home to dense tropical forests, while the vegetation becomes sparse as the Ghats give way to the Deccan Plateau, where shrub vegetation is more common. The vegetation found in the state is largely of dry deciduous types with a mixture of teak, ''Terminalia'', ''Dalbergia'', ''Pterocarpus'', ''Anogeissus'', etc.\n\nThe state has many Sanctuaries, National Parks and Zoological Parks such as, Coringa, Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Kambalakonda Wildlife Sanctuary, Sri Venkateswara Zoological Park, Indira Gandhi Zoological Park etc. Atapaka Bird Sanctuary, Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary and Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary attracts many migratory birds.\nThe state possesses some rare and endemic plants like ''Cycas beddomei'', ''Pterocarpus santalinus'', ''Terminalia pallida'', ''Syzygium alternifolium'', ''Shorea talura'', ''Shorea tumburgia'', ''Psilotum nudum'', etc. The diversity of fauna includes tigers, panthers, hyenas, black bucks, cheetals, sambars, sea turtles and a number of birds and reptiles. The estuaries of river Godavari and Krishna support rich mangrove forests with fishing cats and otters as keystone species.\n\n=== Climate ===\nThe climate of Andhra Pradesh varies considerably, depending on the geographical region. Summers last from March to June. In the coastal plain, the summer temperatures are generally higher than the rest of the state, with temperature ranging between 20 °C and 41 °C. July to September is the season for tropical rains. About one third of the total rainfall is brought by the northeast monsoon. October and November see low-pressure systems and tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal which, along with the northeast monsoon, bring rains to the southern and coastal regions of the state.\n\nNovember, December, January, and February are the winter months in Andhra Pradesh. Since the state has a long coastal belt the winters are not very cold. The range of winter temperature is generally 12 °C to 30 °C. Lambasingi in Visakhapatnam district is the only place in South India which receives snowfall because of its location as at above the sea level. It is also nicknamed as the ''Kashmir of Andhra Pradesh'' and the temperature ranges from 0 °C to 10 °C.\n", "\n\n\n\n Census of India, the state had a population of with a population density of .\n\nAccording to Polavaram ordinance bill 2014 , 7 mandals of Khammam district in Telangana state merged with Andhra Pradesh to facilitate polavaram project, due to which population of 2,47,515 added to Andhra Pradesh. Thus final population of Andhra Pradesh in the year 2014 ,as per census 2011 is 4,96,34,314 ; with a density of 304.5/sqkm .\n\nThe total population constitute, 70.4% of rural population with inhabitants and 29.6% of urban population with inhabitants. Children in the age group of 0–6 years are , constituting 10.6% of the total population, among them are boys and are girls. Visakhapatnam district has the largest urban population of 47.5% and Srikakulam district with 83.8%, has the largest rural population, among others districts in the state. The overall population of the state comprises 17.1% of Scheduled Caste and 5.3% of Scheduled Tribe population.\n\nThere are male and female citizens—a sex ratio of 996 females per 1000 males, higher than the national average of 926 per 1000. The literacy rate of the state stands at 67.41%. West Godavari district has the highest literacy rate of 74.6% and Vizianagaram district has the least with 58.9%.\n\nVisakhapatnam is the most populous city in Andhra Pradesh, and the 14th-largest city in India\n\nSrikalahasti Temple\nChrist Lutheran Church, Narsapur\n\nAndhra Pradesh ranks tenth of all Indian States in the Human Development Index scores with a score of 0.416. The National Council of Applied Economic Research district analysis in 2001 reveals that Krishna, West Godavari and Chittoor are the three districts in rural AP with the highest Human Development Index scores in ascending order.\n\n=== Languages ===\n\nThe official language of Andhra Pradesh is Telugu. The Minister of Tourism and Culture has issued a declaration of the Telugu language as a Classical Language.\n\n=== Religions ===\nMajority of the people in Andhra Pradesh are Hindus while Muslims constitute a sizeable minority. According to the 2011 census, the major religious groups in the state are Hindus (90.87%), Muslims (7.32%) and Christians (1.38%). Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains and the people who declined to state their religion make up the remaining portion of population.\n;Hinduism\nAndhra Pradesh is home to Shankaracharya of Pushpagiri Peetham. Other Hindu saints include Sadasiva Brahmendra, Bhaktha Kannappa, Yogi Vemana, Yogi Sri Potuluri Virabrahmendra Swami.\n\n;Mahayana-Buddhism\nRock-cut Buddha statue at Bojjannakonda near Anakapalle, Visakhapatnam\nBuddhism spread to Andhra Pradesh early in its history. The Krishna River valley was \"a site of extraordinary Buddhist activity for almost a thousand years.\" The ancient Buddhist sites in the lower Krishna Valley, including Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda and Jaggayyapeta \"can be traced to at least the third century BCE, if not earlier.\"\n\nThe region played a central role in the development of Mahayana-buddhism, along with the Magadha-area in northeastern India. A.K. Warder holds that \"the Mahāyāna originated in the south of India and almost certainly in the Andhra country.\" According to Xing, \"Several scholars have suggested that the Prajnaparamita probably developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India probably in the Andhra country, on the Krishna River.\" The Prajñāpāramitā Sutras belong to the earliest Mahayana Sutras.\n", "'''Regions''':\n\nHitherto, it comprised two regions: Northern Circars and Ceded districts. Now, the state comprises two regions:\n* Kosta\n* Rayalaseema\n\n'''Districts''':\n\nIt has a total of 13 districts, nine in Kosta and four in Rayalaseema.\n\n* Anantapur\n* Chittoor\n* East Godavari\n* Guntur\n* Kadapa\n* Krishna\n* Kurnool\n* Prakasam\n* Nellore\n* Srikakulam\n* Visakhapatnam\n* Vizianagaram\n* West Godavari\n\n\n'''Revenue divisions''':\n\nThese 13 districts are further divided into 50 revenue divisions\nThere are as many as 7 revenue divisions in East Godavari district and only 2 in Vizianagaram district.\n\n'''Mandals''':\n\nThe 50 revenue divisions are in turn divided into 670 mandals. Chittoor district has the most number of mandals with 66 and Vizianagaram district has the least with 34.\n\n'''Cities''':\n\nThere are a total of 31 cities which include, 16 municipal corporations and 14 municipalities. There are two million plus cities namely, Visakhapatnam and Vijayawada.\n", "\nDistrict Court, Guntur\nKadapa district Collectorate Complex\n\nLegislative Assembly of Andhra Pradesh is the lower house of the state and legislative council of andhra pradesh is the upper house. with 58 members. In the Parliament of India, Andhra Pradesh has 11 seats in the Rajya Sabha, and 25 seats in the Lok Sabha. There are a total of 175 Assembly constituencies in the state. East Godavari district has the most number of constituencies with 19 and Vizianagaram district has the least with 9 assembly seats. Whereas, the legislative council of the state has 58 seats, which is one-third of total assembly seats.\n\nUntil 1962, the CPI, along with socialist parties namely Praja Socialist Party and Krishi Lok Party played an important role in the 1950s. In the 1967 state assembly elections, all socialist parties were eliminated and CPI lost opposition party status. The first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh was Neelam Sanjiva Reddy who later served as President of India.\n\nIn 1983, the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) won the state elections and N.T. Rama Rao became the chief minister of the state for the first time. This broke the long time single party monopoly enjoyed by the INC from 1956 until 1982. Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao is the founder of Telugu Desam party and served as the first chief minister from the party. The 1989 elections ended the rule of NTR, with the INC party returning to power with Marri Chenna Reddy at the helm. He was replaced by Janardhan Reddy in 1990, who was replaced by Kotla Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy in 1992.\n\nN. Chandrababu Naidu held the record for the longest serving chief minister (1995 to 2004). In 1994, Andhra Pradesh gave a mandate to the Telugu Desam Party again, and NTR became the chief minister again. Nara Chandrababu Naidu, the son-in-law of NTR, came to power with the backing of a majority of the MLAs. The Telugu Desam Party won both the assembly and Lok Sabha election in 1999 under the leadership of Chandrababu Naidu.\n\nIn what would be the last elections held in the unified state, Telugu Desam Party got a mandate in their favour in the residuary (new)state. Nara Chandrababu Naidu, the chief of Telugu Desam Party became Chief Minister on 8 June 2014, for the new state of Andhra Pradesh.\n", "\nVisakhapatnam is an important commercial hub of the state\nalt=seaport distance view\n\nAndhra Pradesh was ranked eighth among other Indian states in terms of GSDP for the financial year 2014–2015. The GSDP at current prices was and at constant prices was . The domestic product of agriculture sector accounts for and Industrial sector for . The service sector of the state accounts more percentage of the GSDP with a total of . In the 2010 list by ''Forbes'' magazine, there were several from Andhra Pradesh among the top 100 richest Indians.\n\n=== Agriculture ===\nLush green farms in Konaseema, East Godavari\n\nAndhra Pradesh economy is mainly based on agriculture and livestock. Four important rivers of India, the Godavari, Krishna, Penna, and Thungabhadra flow through the state and provide irrigation. 60 percent of population is engaged in agriculture and related activities. Rice is the major food crop and staple food of the state. It is an exporter of many agricultural products and is also known as \"Rice Bowl of India\". The state has three Agricultural Economic Zones in Chittoor district for mango pulp and vegetables, Krishna district for mangoes, Guntur district for chilies.\n\nBesides rice, farmers also grow jowar, bajra, maize, minor millet, coarse grain, many varieties of pulses, oil seeds, sugarcane, cotton, chili pepper, mango nuts and tobacco. Crops used for vegetable oil production such as sunflower and peanuts are popular. There are many multi-state irrigation projects under development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam.\n\nLivestock and poultry is also another profitable business, which involves rearing cattle in enclosed areas for commercial purposes. The state is also a largest producer of eggs in the country and hence, it is nicknamed as \"''Egg Bowl of Asia\"''.\n\nFisheries contribute 10% of total fish and over 70% of the shrimp production of India. The geographical location of the state allows marine fishing as well as inland fish production. The most exported marine exports include ''Vannamei shrimp'' and are expected to cross $1 billion in 2013–2014.\n\n=== Industrial sector ===\nTech Mahindra Development Centre, Visakhapatnam\|alt=Front of large round building, with street and trees in front\n\nThe industrial sector of the state includes some of the key sectors like Pharma, Automobile, Textiles etc. Sricity located in Chittoor district is an integrated business city which is home to many renowned firms like PepsiCo, Isuzu Motors, Cadbury India, Kellogg's, Colgate-Palmolive, Kobelco etc. The PepsiCo firm has its largest plant in India at Sri City.\n\nThe state is also emerging in information technology and biotechnology. The IT/ITES revenues of Visakhapatnam is at in 2012–2013. The development of IT in Tier-II and Tier-III cities like Vijayawada, Kakinada and Tirupati is also improving. In the fiscal year 2012–2013, Vijayawada's IT/ITeS revenues were crore. Tirupati with and Kakinada with stand next. For the benefit of state i.e., After separating Telangana from andhra, people of andhra protested for special status during the month of January in 2017\n\n=== Resources ===\nAndhra Pradesh is one of the storehouses of mineral resources in India. Andhra Pradesh with varied geological formations, contain rich and variety of industrial minerals and building stones.\n\nAndhra Pradesh is listed top in the deposit and production of mica in India. Minerals found in the state include limestone, reserves of oil and natural gas, manganese, asbestos, iron ore, ball clay, fire clay, gold diamonds, graphite, dolomite, quartz, tungsten, steatitic, feldspar, silica sand. It has about one third of India's limestone reserves and is known for large exclusive deposits of barytes and galaxy granite in the international market.\n\n'''Mining'''\n\nMining is identified as one of the growth engines for the overall development of industry and infrastructure. The Tummalapalle Uranium mine in Andhra has confirmed 49,000 tonnes of ore and there are indications that it could hold reserves totalling three times its current size. 700 million tonnes of metal grade Bauxite deposits in proximity to Visakhapatnam Port.\n\nReliance Industries Limited struck nine trillion cubic feet of gas reserves in the KG basin, off the Andhra Pradesh coast near Kakinada. Discovery of large quantity of natural gas in KG Basin is expected to provide rapid economic growth. During the year 2016, nearly 134 trillion cubic feet of methane hydrate deposits were explored in KG basin whose extraction is adequate to impart energy security for many decades to India.\n\n'''Power plants'''\n\nThe state is a pioneer nationwide in solar power generation. APGENCO is the power generating company owned by the state. The state has become power surplus with excess power generation being exported to other states.\nRayalaseema Thermal Power Station\n\nThermal (natural gas and coal based) and renewable power plants totalling to 21,000 MW were installed in the state by the year 2015. Local power plants of 9,600 MW capacity only are supplying electricity in the state which includes Simhadri Super Thermal Power Plant (2000 MW) of NTPC, Vizag Thermal Power Station (1040 MW), Rayalaseema Thermal Power Station (1050 MW), Sri Damodaram Sanjeevaiah Thermal Power Station (1600 MW), Vijayawada Thermal Power Plant (1760 MW), etc. Hydel power plants are having a capacity of 1671 MW.\n", "\n\nAndhra Pradesh has rich culture and heritage. Kuchipudi, the state dance originated in the village of Kuchipudi in Krishna district, had entered the Guinness World Records for performing ''Mahabrinda Natyam'' with a total of 6,117\ndancers in Vijayawada. It had thirteen geographical indications in categories of agricultural handicrafts, foodstuff and textiles as per ''Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999''. It increased to fifteen with the addition of Banaganapalle Mangoes and Bandar laddu. The other GI tagged goods are, Bobbili Veena, Budithi Bell and Brass Craft, Dharmavaram Handloom Pattu Sarees and Paavadas, Guntur Sannam, Kondapalli Toys, Machilipatnam Kalamkari, Mangalagiri Sarees and Fabrics, Srikalahasti Kalamkari, Tirupati Laddu, Uppada Jamdani Sari and Venkatagiri Sari.\n\n=== Arts, crafts and artifacts ===\nKondapalli Toys at a house in Vijayawada\n\nMachilipatnam and Srikalahasti Kalamkari are the two unique textile art forms practised in India. There are also other notable handicrafts present in the state, like the soft limestone idol carvings of Durgi. Etikoppaka in Visakhapatnam district is notable for its Lac industry, producing lacquered wooden.\n\nThe state has many museums, which features a varied collection of ancient sculptures, paintings, idols, weapons, cutlery and inscriptions, and religious artifacts such as the Amaravati Archaeological Museum, Visakha Museum and Telugu Cultural Museum in Visakhapatnam displays the history of the pre-Independence and the Victoria Jubilee Museum in Vijayawada with large collection of artifacts.\n\n=== Literature ===\n\n\nNannayya, Tikkana and Yerrapragada form the trinity who translated the Sanskrit epic ''Mahabharata'' into Telugu language. Nannayya wrote the first treatise on Telugu grammar called ''Andhra Shabda Chintamani'' in Sanskrit, as there was no grammatical work in Telugu prior to that. Pothana is the poet who composed the classic ''Srimad Maha Bhagavatamu'', a Telugu translation of ''Sri Bhagavatam''. Vemana is notable for his philosophical poems. The Vijayanagara emperor Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada. Telugu literature after Kandukuri Veeresalingam is termed as Adhunika Sahityam. He is known as ''Gadya Tikkana'' and was the author of Telugu social novel, ''Satyavati Charitam''. Jnanpith Award winners include Sri Viswanatha Satya Narayana. The Andhra Pradesh native and revolutionary poet Sri Sri brought new forms of expressionism into Telugu literature.\n\n=== Music and films ===\n\n\nKuchipudi dance\n\nMany composers of Carnatic music like Annamacharya, Kshetrayya, and Bhadrachala Ramadas were of Telugu descent. Modern Carnatic music composers and singers like Ghantasala, Sujatha Puligella and M. Balamuralikrishna are also of Telugu descent. The Telugu film industry hosts many music composers and playback singers such as S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, P. Susheela, S. Janaki, P B Srinivas. Folk songs are popular in the many rural areas of the state. Forms such as the ''Burra katha'' and ''Poli'' are still performed today. ''Harikathaa Kalakshepam (or Harikatha)'' involves the narration of a story, intermingled with various songs relating to the story. Harikatha was originated in Andhra. ''Burra katha'' is an oral storytelling technique with the topic be either a Hindu mythological story or a contemporary social issue. ''Rangasthalam'' is an Indian theatre in the Telugu language, based predominantly in Andhra Pradesh. Gurazada Apparao wrote the play, ''Kanyasulkam'' in 1892, which is often considered the greatest play in the Telugu language. C. Pullaiah is cited as the father of Telugu theatre movement.\n\nThe Telugu film industry had largely shifted from Chennai to Hyderabad. The Telugu film culture (or, \"Tollywood\") is the second -largest film industry in India next to Bollywood Film Industry. Prolific film producer from the state, D. Ramanaidu holds a Guinness Record for the most number of films produced by a person. In the years 2005, 2006 and 2008 the Telugu film industry produced the largest number of films in India, exceeding the number of films produced in Bollywood. The industry holds the Guinness World Record for the largest film production facility in the world.\n\n=== Cuisine ===\n\nTelugu people's adorable traditional sweet Pootharekulu originated from Atryapuram village, Andhra Pradesh.\nA Vegetarian Andhra Meal served on important occasions\n\n'''Tourism'''\n\nThe state has several beaches in its coastal districts such as, Rushikonda, Mypadu, Suryalanka etc.; caves such as, Borra Caves, Indian rock-cut architecture depicting Undavalli caves and the country's second longest caves named as Belum Caves. The valleys and hills include, Araku Valley, Horsley Hills, Papi Hills etc Arma Konda peak located in Visakhapatnam district is the highest peak in Eastern Ghats.\n\nThe state is home to various religious pilgrim destinations such as, Tirumala Temple, Simhachalam Temple, Annavaram, Srisailam temple, Kanaka Durga Temple, Amaravati, Srikalahasti temple, Shahi jamia masjid in Adoni, Gunadala Church in Vijayawada, ''Buddhist centres'' at Amaravati, Nagarjuna Konda etc., and many more as well.\n", "\n\nThe state is well connected to other states through road and rail networks. It is also connected to other countries by means of airways and seaports as well. With a long seacoast along the Bay of Bengal, it also has many ports for sea trade. The state has one of the largest railway junctions at Vijayawada and one of the largest seaports at Visakhapatnam.\n\n=== Roads ===\n\nGaruda Plus bus service of the APSRTC\nVijayawada-Guntur Expressway section of NH-16\nRoads in Andhra Pradesh consist of National Highways and state highways with district roads as well. NH 5, with a highway network of around in the state, is a part of Golden Quadrilateral Project undertaken by National Highways Development Project. It also forms part of AH 45 which comes under the Asian Highway Network.\n\nThe Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (APSRTC) is the major public bus transport owned by the state government which runs thousands of buses connecting different parts of the state. Pandit Nehru Bus Station (PNBS) in Vijayawada is one of the largest bus terminals in Asia.\n\n=== Railways ===\n\nVijayawada railway station\n is one of the Major Junction in Andhra Pradesh\n\nAndhra Pradesh has a railway network of . One of the highest broad gauge tracks in the world is in Eastern Ghats route that runs from Visakhapatnam to Anantagiri. Most of Andhra Pradesh falls under Guntur, Vijayawada, Guntakal (South Central Railway zone and Waltair (East Coast Railway zone) divisions.\n\nWaltair Railway Division under ECoR zone is fourth-largest revenue earning division in India. Vijayawada railway station is the highest grosser in the SCR zone and one of busiest railway junctions in India.\n\n=== Airports ===\n\nMap of airports and airstrips of Andhra Pradesh\nVijayawada Airport\nVisakhapatnam Airport, is the only airport in the state with international connectivity. The state has five domestic airports, Vijayawada Airport at Gannavaram, Rajahmundry Airport at Madhurapudi, Tirupati Airport at Renigunta, Cuddapah Airport and a privately owned, public use airport at Puttaparthi. There are also 16 small air strips located in the state.\n\n=== Sea ports ===\n\nA view of Visakhapatnam Harbour\n\nAndhra Pradesh has one of the country's largest port at Visakhapatnam in terms of cargo handling. The other famous ports are Krishnapatnam Port (Nellore), Gangavaram Port and Kakinada Port. Gangavaram Port is a deep seaport which can accommodate ocean liners up to 200,000–250,000 DWT. There are 14 notified non-major ports at Bheemunipatnam, S.Yanam, Machilipatnam, Nizampatnam, Vadarevu etc.\n\n \n", "\n\nAndhra Pradesh has an overall literacy rate of 67.41% as per the 2011 Indian census. The primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided and private schools, under the administration of ''School Education Department'' of the state. These schools include, Municipal, Andhra Pradesh Residential, Andhra Pradesh Social Welfare Residential, Zilla Parishad, aided and unaided private schools. There a total of 6,864,201 students enrolled in 61,529 schools in the state. The mediums of instruction followed by the schools are Telugu, English, Urdu, Hindi, Kannada, Odia and Tamil. The ''Directorate of Government Examinations'' of the state administers the conduct of Secondary School Certificate examination. 652,374 candidates took the 2016 Secondary School Certificate exam and recorded a pass percentage of 94.52% for regular and 55.47% by private candidates.\n\nThe higher education in the state is administered by the ''Department of Higher Education''. The central universities in the state are, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, IIM Visakhapatnam, IIT Tirupati, NIT Tadepalligudem and IIITDM Kurnool, Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy. The Government of Andhra Pradesh has established Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies (RGUKT) in 2008 to cater to the educational needs of the rural youth of Andhra Pradesh. As per the University Grants Commission,\nGITAM, K L University and Vignan University are the Deemed Universities in the state. There are eighteen state universities in different districts providing higher education in the fields of horticulture, law, medical, techonology, vedic and veterinary. Andhra University is the oldest of all the universities in the state, established in 1926.\n\n''' Research '''\n\nResearch institutes have been set up by the central government in the state. NSTL Naval Science & Technological Laboratory, NIO National Institute of Oceanography, Visakhapatnam, School of Planning and Architecture at Vijayawada is an autonomous research institute under Ministry of Human Resource Development of Government of India, National Atmospheric Research Laboratory carry out fundamental and applied research in Atmospheric and Space Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Tirupati, Society For Applied Microwave Electronics Engineering and Research, Visakhapatnam Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry under control of ICAR (Indian Council of Agriculture Research) conducts fundamental and applied research on Tobacco for the benefit of the farming community, Indian Institute of Oil Palm Research (IIOPR) at Pedavegi near Eluru in West Godavari district serves as a centre for conducting and co-ordinating research on all aspects of oil palm conservation, improvement, production, protection, post-harvest technology and transfer of technology, CCRH Regional Research Institute at Gudivada, Clinical Research Institute at Tirupati and National Institute of Oceanography at Visakhapatnam are some of them.\n\n'''Space research organisation'''\n\nIndian Space Research Organisation (or Sriharikota Range (SHAR)) at barrier island of Sriharikota in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh is a satellite launching station. It is India's primary orbital launch site. India's lunar orbiter Chandrayaan-1 was launched from the centre at 6:22 AM IST on 22 October 2008.\n", "\n\nThe Sports Authority of Andhra Pradesh, is the governing body which looks after the infrastructure development in cricket, field hockey, association football, Olympic weightlifting, chess, water sports, tennis, badminton, table tennis, cycling, etc.\n\nCricket is one of the most popular sports in the state. The ACA-VDCA Stadium in Visakhapatnam is the home to Andhra Pradesh cricket team. The venue regularly hosts international as well as domestic matches. Notable cricketers from Andhra Pradesh, include Maharajkumar of Vizianagram, M. V. Narasimha Rao, M. S. K. Prasad, V.V.S. Laxman, Tirumalasetti Suman, Arshad Ayub, Ambati Rayudu, Venkatapathy Raju, Sravanthi Naidu, Yalaka Venugopal Rao etc. Humpy Koneru, from Gudivada of Krishna district of the state, is an Indian chess Grandmaster.\n\nKarnam Malleswari, the first female Indian to win an Olympic medal, hails from Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. She won the bronze medal on 19 September 2000, in the 69 kg category with a lift of 240 kg.\n\nPullela Gopichand, is a former Indian badminton player. He won the All England Open Badminton Championships (2001), to becoming the second Indian to achieve it after Prakash Padukone.\n\nCherukuri Lenin 1985 or 1986 – 24 October 2010) was an Indian archer and coach who won a silver medal at the Asian Grand Prix in Malaysia, and was a National Archery Coach.\n", "* \n* Index of Andhra Pradesh-related articles\n* Middle kingdoms of India\n* Part One of the Constitution of India\n* List of people from Andhra Pradesh\n\n\n\n", "\n", "\n; Government\n* Andhra Pradesh Government Website\n* Department of Tourism\n\n; General information\n* Andhra Pradesh ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' entry\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Geography ", " Demographics ", " Administrative divisions ", " Government and politics ", " Economy ", " Culture ", " Transport ", " Education and research ", " Sports ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Andhra Pradesh
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Accelerated Graphics Port''' ('''AGP''') is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a video card to a computer system, primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. It was originally designed as a successor to PCI-type connections for video cards. Since 2004, AGP has been progressively phased out in favor of PCI Express (PCIe); by mid-2008, PCI Express cards dominated the market and only a few AGP models were available.\n", "As computers increasingly became graphically oriented, successive generations of graphics adapters began to push the limits of PCI, a bus with shared bandwidth. This led to the development of AGP, a \"bus\" dedicated to graphics adapters.\n\nAGP is heavily based on PCI, and in fact the AGP bus is a superset of the conventional PCI bus, and AGP cards must act as PCI cards.\n\nThe primary advantage of AGP over PCI is that it provides a dedicated pathway between the slot and the processor rather than sharing the PCI bus. In addition to a lack of contention for the bus, the direct connection allows for higher clock speeds.\n\nThe second major change is that AGP uses split transactions, where the address and data phases of a PCI transaction are separated. The card may send many address phases, and the host processes them in order. This avoids long delays, with the bus idle, during read operations.\n\nThird, PCI bus handshaking is simplified. Unlike PCI bus transactions whose length is negotiated on a cycle-by-cycle basis using the FRAME# and STOP# signals, AGP transfers are always a multiple of 8 bytes long, and the total length is included in the request. Further, rather than using the IRDY# and TRDY# signals for each word, data is transferred in blocks of four clock cycles (32 words at AGP 8× speed), and pauses are allowed only between blocks.\n\nFinally, AGP allows (optional in AGP 1.0 and 2.0, mandatory in AGP 3.0) ''sideband addressing'', meaning that the address and data buses are separated so the address phase does not use the main address/data (AD) lines at all. This is done by adding an extra 8-bit \"SideBand Address\" bus over which the graphics controller can issue new AGP requests while other AGP data is flowing over the main 32 address/data (AD) lines. This results in improved overall AGP data throughput.\n\nThis great improvement in memory read performance makes it practical for an AGP card to read textures directly from system RAM, while a PCI graphics card must copy it from system RAM to the card's video memory. System memory is made available using the graphics address remapping table (GART), which apportions main memory as needed for texture storage. The maximum amount of system memory available to AGP is defined as the ''AGP aperture''.\n", "An AGP card\n\nThe AGP slot first appeared on x86-compatible system boards based on Socket 7 Intel P5 Pentium and Slot 1 P6 Pentium II processors. Intel introduced AGP support with the i440LX Slot 1 chipset on August 26, 1997, and a flood of products followed from all the major system board vendors.\n\nThe first Socket 7 chipsets to support AGP were the VIA Apollo VP3, SiS 5591/5592, and the ALI Aladdin V. Intel never released an AGP-equipped Socket 7 chipset. FIC demonstrated the first Socket 7 AGP system board in November 1997 as the ''FIC PA-2012'' based on the VIA Apollo VP3 chipset, followed very quickly by the ''EPoX P55-VP3'' also based on the VIA VP3 chipset which was first to market.\n\nEarly video chipsets featuring AGP support included the Rendition Vérité V2200, 3dfx Voodoo Banshee, Nvidia RIVA 128, 3Dlabs PERMEDIA 2, Intel i740, ATI Rage series, Matrox Millennium II, and S3 ViRGE GX/2. Some early AGP boards used graphics processors built around PCI and were simply bridged to AGP. This resulted in the cards benefiting little from the new bus, with the only improvement used being the 66 MHz bus clock, with its resulting doubled bandwidth over PCI, and bus exclusivity. Examples of such cards were the Voodoo Banshee, Vérité V2200, Millennium II, and S3 ViRGE GX/2. Intel's i740 was explicitly designed to exploit the new AGP feature set; in fact it was designed to texture only from AGP memory, making PCI versions of the board difficult to implement (local board RAM had to emulate AGP memory.)\n\nMicrosoft first introduced AGP support into ''Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2'' (OSR2 version 1111 or 950B) via the ''USB SUPPLEMENT to OSR2'' patch. After applying the patch the Windows 95 system became ''Windows 95 version 4.00.950 B''. The first Windows NT-based operating system to receive AGP support was Windows NT 4.0 with Service Pack 3, introduced in 1997. Linux support for AGP enhanced fast data transfers was first added in 1999 with the implementation of the AGPgart kernel module.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable floatright\" style=\"text-align: left; margin-left: 1.5em;\"\n+ AGP and PCI: 32-bit buses operating at 66 and 33 MHz respectively\n\nSpecification \n Voltage \n Clock \n Speed \n Transfers/clock \n Rate (MB/s)\n\nPCI \n 3.3/5 V \n 33 MHz \n — \n 1 \n 133\n\nPCI 2.1 \n 3.3/5 V \n 33/66 MHz \n — \n 1 \n 266\n\nAGP 1.0 \n 3.3 V \n 66 MHz \n 1× \n 1 \n 266\n\nAGP 1.0 \n 3.3 V \n 66 MHz \n 2× \n 2 \n 533\n\nAGP 2.0 \n 1.5 V \n 66 MHz \n 4× \n 4 \n 1066\n\nAGP 3.0 \n 0.8 V \n 66 MHz \n 8× \n 8 \n 2133\n\nAGP 3.5* \n 0.8 V \n 66 MHz \n 8× \n 8 \n 2133\n\n\nIntel released \"AGP specification 1.0\" in 1997. It specified 3.3 V signals and 1× and 2× speeds. Specification 2.0 documented 1.5 V signaling, which could be used at 1×, 2× and the additional 4× speed and 3.0 added 0.8 V signaling, which could be operated at 4× and 8× speeds. (1× and 2× speeds are physically possible, but were not specified.)\n\nAvailable versions are listed in the table on the right.\n\nAGP version 3.5 is only publicly mentioned by Microsoft under ''Universal Accelerated Graphics Port (UAGP)'', which specifies mandatory supports of extra registers once marked optional under AGP 3.0. Upgraded registers include PCISTS, CAPPTR, NCAPID, AGPSTAT, AGPCMD, NISTAT, NICMD. New required registers include APBASELO, APBASEHI, AGPCTRL, APSIZE, NEPG, GARTLO, GARTHI.\n\nThere are various physical interfaces (connectors); see the Compatibility section.\n\n===Official extensions===\nApple Macintosh)\nAGP Pro graphics card\n\n====AGP Pro====\nAn official extension for cards that required more electrical power, with a longer slot with additional pins for that purpose. AGP Pro cards were usually workstation-class cards used to accelerate professional computer-aided design applications employed in the fields of architecture, machining, engineering, simulations, and similar fields.\n\n====64-bit AGP====\nA 64-bit channel was once proposed as an optional standard for AGP 3.0 in draft documents, but it was dropped in the final version of the standard.\n\nThe standard allows 64-bit transfer for AGP8× reads, writes, and fast writes; 32-bit transfer for PCI operations.\n\n===Unofficial variations===\nA number of non-standard variations of the AGP interface have been produced by manufacturers.\n\n====Internal AGP interface====\n;Ultra-AGP, Ultra-AGPII: It is an internal AGP interface standard used by SiS for the north bridge controllers with integrated graphics. The original version supports same bandwidth as AGP 8×, while Ultra-AGPII has maximum 3.2GB/s bandwidth.\n\n====PCI-based AGP ports====\n:;AGP Express: Not a true AGP interface, but allows an AGP card to be connected over the legacy PCI bus on a PCI Express motherboard. It is a technology used on motherboards made by ECS, intended to allow an existing AGP card to be used in a new motherboard instead of requiring a PCIe card to be obtained (since the introduction of PCIe graphics cards few motherboards provide AGP slots). An \"AGP Express\" slot is basically a PCI slot (with twice the electrical power) with an AGP connector. It offers backward compatibility with AGP cards, but provides incomplete support (some AGP cards do not work with AGP Express) and reduced performance—the card is forced to use the shared PCI bus at its lower bandwidth, rather than having exclusive use of the faster AGP.\n:;AGI: The ASRock Graphics Interface (AGI) is a proprietary variant of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) standard. Its purpose is to provide AGP-support for ASRock motherboards that use chipsets lacking native AGP support. However, it is not fully compatible with AGP, and several video card chipsets are known not to be supported.\n:;AGX: The EpoX Advanced Graphics eXtended (AGX) is another proprietary AGP variant with the same advantages and disadvantages as AGI. User manuals recommend not using AGP 8× ATI cards with AGX slots.\n:;XGP: The Biostar Xtreme Graphics Port is another AGP variant, also with the same advantages and disadvantages as AGI and AGX.\n\n====PCIe based AGP ports====\n:;AGR: The Advanced Graphics Riser is a variation of the AGP port used in some PCIe motherboards made by MSI to offer limited backwards compatibility with AGP. It is, effectively, a modified PCIe slot allowing for performance comparable to an AGP 4×/8× slot, but does not support all AGP cards; the manufacturer published a list of some cards and chipsets that work with the modified slot.\n", "Compatibility, AGP Keys on card (top), on slot (bottom)\n\nAGP cards are backward and forward compatible within limits. 1.5 V-only keyed cards will not go into 3.3 V slots and vice versa, though \"Universal\" cards exist which will fit into either type of slot. There are also unkeyed \"Universal\" slots that will accept either type of card. When an AGP Universal card is plugged-into an AGP Universal slot, only the 1.5 V portion of the card is used. Some cards, like Nvidia's GeForce 6 series (except the 6200) or ATI's Radeon X800 series, only have keys for 1.5 V to prevent them from being installed in older mainboards without 1.5 V support. Some of the last modern cards with 3.3 V support were the Nvidia GeForce FX series (FX 5200, FX 5500, FX 5700, some FX 5800, FX 5900 and some FX 5950), Geforce 6 Series (6200, 6600/6600 LE/6600 GT only) and the ATI Radeon 9500/9700/9800(R350) (but not 9600/9800(R360)). Some Geforce 6200 and Geforce 6600 cards will function with AGP 1.0 (3.3v) slots.\n\nAGP Pro cards will not fit into standard slots, but standard AGP cards will work in a Pro slot. Motherboards equipped with a Universal AGP Pro slot will accept a 1.5 V or 3.3 V card in either the AGP Pro or standard AGP configuration, a Universal AGP card, or a Universal AGP Pro card.\n\nSome cards incorrectly have dual notches, and some motherboards incorrectly have fully open slots, allowing a card to be plugged into a slot that does not support the correct signaling voltage, which may damage card or motherboard. Some incorrectly designed older 3.3 V cards have the 1.5 V key.\n\nThere are some proprietary systems incompatible with standard AGP; for example, Apple Power Macintosh computers with the Apple Display Connector (ADC) have an extra connector which delivers power to the attached display. Some cards designed to work with a specific CPU architecture (e.g., PC, Apple) may not work with others due to firmware issues.\n\nMark Allen of Playtools.com made the following comments regarding Practical AGP Compatibility for AGP 3.0 and AGP 2.0:\n\n\"...nobody makes AGP 3.0 cards, and nobody makes AGP 3.0 motherboards. At least not any manufacturers I can find. Every single video card I could find which claimed to be an AGP 3.0 card was actually a universal 1.5V AGP 3.0 card. And every motherboard which claimed to be an AGP 3.0 motherboard turned out to be a universal 1.5V AGP 3.0 motherboard. It makes sense, if you think about it, because if anyone actually shipped a consumer-oriented product which supported only 0.8 volts, they would end up with lots of confused customers and a support nightmare. In the consumer market, you'd have to be crazy to ship a 0.8 volt only product.\"\n", "\n\n\n+ AGP power provisioning\n\n Slot Type !! 3.3 V !! 5 V !! 12 V !! 3.3 V Aux !! 1.5 V !! 3.3 V !! 12 V !! Total power\n\nAGP \n 6 A \n 2 A \n 1 A \n 0.375 mA \n 2 A \n - \n - \n 48.25 W\n\nAGP Pro110 \n \n \n \n \n \n 7.6 A \n 9.2 A \n 50 to 110 W\n\nAGP Pro50 \n \n \n \n \n \n 7.6 A \n 4.17 A \n 25 to 50 W\n\n\nActual power supplied by an AGP slot depends upon the card used. The maximum current drawn from the various rails is given in the specifications for the various versions. For example, if maximum current is drawn from all supplies and all voltages are at their specified upper limits, an AGP 3.0 slot can supply up to 48.25 watts; this figure can be used to specify a power supply conservatively, but in practice a card is unlikely ever to draw more than 40 W from the slot, with many using less. AGP Pro provides additional power up to 110 W. Many AGP cards had additional power connectors to supply them with more power than the slot could provide.\n\n\n", "By 2010 few new motherboards had AGP slots. No new motherboard chipsets were equipped with AGP support, but motherboards continued to be produced with older chipsets with support for AGP.\n\nGraphics processors of this period use PCI-Express, a general-purpose (not restricted to graphics) standard that supports higher data transfer rates and full-duplex. To create AGP-compatible graphics cards, those chips require an additional PCIe-to-AGP bridge-chip to convert PCIe signals to and from AGP signals. This incurs additional board costs due to the need for the additional bridge chip and for a separate AGP-designed circuit board.\n\nVarious manufacturers of graphics cards continued to produce AGP cards for the shrinking AGP user-base. The first bridged cards were the GeForce 6600 and ATI Radeon X800 XL boards, released during 2004-5. In 2009 AGP cards from Nvidia had a ceiling of the GeForce 7 Series. In 2011 DirectX 10-capable AGP cards from AMD vendors (Club 3D, HIS, Sapphire, Jaton, Visiontek, Diamond, etc.) included the Radeon HD 2400, 3450, 3650, 3850, 4350, 4650, and 4670. The HD 5000 AGP series mentioned in the catalyst software was never available. There were many problems with the AMD Catalyst 11.2 - 11.6 AGP hotfix drivers under Windows 7 with the HD 4000 series AGP video cards; use of 10.12 or 11.1 AGP hotfix drivers is the recommended workaround. Several of the vendors listed above make available past versions of the AGP drivers.\n", "An AGP bus is a superset of a 66 MHz conventional PCI bus and, immediately after reset, follows the same protocol. The card must act as a PCI target, and optionally may act as a PCI master. (AGP 2.0 added a \"fast writes\" extension which allows PCI writes from the motherboard to the card to transfer data at higher speed.)\n\nAfter the card is initialized using PCI transactions, AGP transactions are permitted. For these, the card is always the AGP master and the motherboard is always the AGP target. The card queues multiple requests which correspond to the PCI address phase, and the motherboard schedules the corresponding data phases later. An important part of initialization is telling the card the maximum number of outstanding AGP requests which may be queued at a given time.\n\nAGP requests are similar to PCI memory read and write requests, but use a different encoding on command lines C/BE3:0 and are always 8-byte aligned; their starting address and length are always multiples of 8 bytes (64 bits). The three low-order bits of the address are used instead to communicate the length of the request.\n\nWhenever the PCI GNT# signal is asserted, granting the bus to the card, three additional status bits ST2:0 indicate the type of transfer to be performed next. If the bits are 0xx, a previously queued AGP transaction's data is to be transferred; if the three bits are 111, the card may begin a PCI transaction or (if sideband addressing is not in use) queue a request in-band using PIPE#.\n\n===AGP command codes===\nLike PCI, each AGP transaction begins with an address phase, communicating an address and 4-bit command code. The possible commands are different from PCI, however:\n\n; 000p: Read\n: Read 8×(AD2:0+1) = 8, 16, 24, ..., 64 bytes. The least significant bit p is 0 for low-priority, 1 for high.\n; 001x: (reserved):\n; 010p: Write\n: Write 8×(AD2:0+1) = 8–64 bytes.\n; 011x: (reserved):\n; 100p: Long read\n: Read 32×(AD2:0+1) = 32, 64, 96, ..., 256 bytes. This is the same as a read request, but the length is multiplied by four.\n; 1010: Flush\n: Force previously written data to memory, for synchronization. This acts as a low-priority read, taking a queue slot and returning 8 bytes of random data to indicate completion. The address and length supplied with this command are ignored.\n; 1011: (reserved):\n; 1100: Fence\n: This acts as a memory fence, requiring that all earlier AGP requests complete before any following requests. Ordinarily, for increased performance, AGP uses a very weak consistency model, and allows a later write to pass an earlier read. (E.g. after sending \"write 1, write 2, read, write 3, write 4\" requests, all to the same address, the read may return any value from 2 to 4. Only returning 1 is forbidden, as writes must complete before following reads.) This operation does not require any queue slots.\n; 1101: Dual address cycle\n: When making a request to an address above 232, this is used to indicate that a second address cycle will follow with additional address bits. This operates like a regular PCI dual address cycle; it is accompanied by the low-order 32 bits of the address (and the length), and the following cycle includes the high 32 address bits and the desired command. The two cycles make one request, and take only one slot in the request queue. This request code is not used with side-band addressing.\n; 111x: (reserved):\n\nAGP 3.0 dropped high-priority requests and the long read commands, as they were little used. It also mandated side-band addressing, thus dropping the dual address cycle, leaving only four request types: low-priority read (0000), low-priority write (0100), flush (1010) and fence (1100).\n\n===In-band AGP requests using PIPE#===\nTo queue a request in-band, the card must request the bus using the standard PCI REQ# signal, and receive GNT# plus bus status ST2:0 equal to 111. Then, instead of asserting FRAME# to begin a PCI transaction, the card asserts the PIPE# signal while driving the AGP command, address, and length on the C/BE3:0, AD31:3 and AD2:0 lines, respectively. (If the address is 64 bits, a dual address cycle similar to PCI is used.) For every cycle that PIPE# is asserted, the card sends another request without waiting for acknowledgement from the motherboard, up to the configured maximum queue depth. The last cycle is marked by deasserting REQ#, and PIPE# is deasserted on the following idle cycle.\n\n===Side-band AGP requests using SBA7:0===\nIf side-band addressing is supported and configured, the PIPE# signal is not used. (And the signal is re-used for another purpose in the AGP 3.0 protocol, which requires side-band addressing.) Instead, requests are broken into 16-bit pieces which are sent as two bytes across the SBA bus. There is no need for the card to ask permission from the motherboard; a new request may be sent at any time as long as the number of outstanding requests is within the configured maximum queue depth. The possible values are:\n\n; 0aaa aaaa aaaa alll\n: Queue a request with the given low-order address bits A14:3 and length 8×(L2:0+1). The command and high-order bits are as previously specified. Any number of requests may be queued by sending only this pattern, as long as the command and higher address bits remain the same.\n; 10cc ccra aaaa aaaa\n: Use command C3:0 and address bits A23:15 for future requests. (Bit R is reserved.) This does not queue a request, but sets values that will be used in all future queued requests.\n; 110r aaaa aaaa aaaa\n: Use address bits A35:24 for future requests.\n; 1110 aaaa aaaa aaaa\n: Use address bits A47:36 for future requests.\n; 1111 0xxx, 1111 10xx, 1111 110x\n: ''Reserved, do not use.''\n; 1111 1110\n: Synchronization pattern used when starting the SBA bus after an idle period.\n; 1111 1111\n: No operation; no request. At AGP 1× speed, this may be sent as a single byte and a following 16-bit side-band request started one cycle later. At AGP 2× and higher speeds, all side-band requests, including this NOP, are 16 bits long.\n\nSideband address bytes are sent at the same rate as data transfers, up to 8× the 66 MHz basic bus clock. Sideband addressing has the advantage that it mostly eliminates the need for turnaround cycles on the AD bus between transfers, in the usual case when read operations greatly outnumber writes.\n\n===AGP responses===\nWhile asserting GNT#, the motherboard may instead indicate via the ST bits that a data phase for a queued request will be performed next. There are four queues: two priorities (low- and high-priority) for each of reads and writes, and each is processed in order. Obviously, the motherboard will attempt to complete high-priority requests first, but there is no limit on the number of low-priority responses which may be delivered while the high-priority request is processed.\n\nFor each cycle when the GNT# is asserted and the status bits have the value 00p, a read response of the indicated priority is scheduled to be returned. At the next available opportunity (typically the next clock cycle), the motherboard will assert TRDY# (target ready) and begin transferring the response to the oldest request in the indicated read queue. (Other PCI bus signals like FRAME#, DEVSEL# and IRDY# remain deasserted.) Up to four clock cycles worth of data (16 bytes at AGP 1× or 128 bytes at AGP 8×) are transferred without waiting for acknowledgement from the card. If the response is longer than that, both the card and motherboard must indicate their ability to continue on the third cycle by asserting IRDY# (initiator ready) and TRDY#, respectively. If either one does not, wait states will be inserted until two cycles after they both do. (The value of IRDY# and TRDY# at other times is irrelevant and they are usually deasserted.)\n\nThe C/BE# byte enable lines may be ignored during read responses, but are held asserted (all bytes valid) by the motherboard.\n\nThe card may also assert the RBF# (read buffer full) signal to indicate that it is temporarily unable to receive more low-priority read responses. The motherboard will refrain from scheduling any more low-priority read responses. The card must still be able to receive the end of the current response, and the first four-cycle block of the following one if scheduled, plus any high-priority responses it has requested.\n\nFor each cycle when GNT# is asserted and the status bits have the value 01p, write data is scheduled to be sent across the bus. At the next available opportunity (typically the next clock cycle), the card will assert IRDY# (initiator ready) and begin transferring the data portion of the oldest request in the indicated write queue. If the data is longer than four clock cycles, the motherboard will indicate its ability to continue by asserting TRDY# on the third cycle. Unlike reads, there is no provision for the card to delay the write; if it didn't have the data ready to send, it shouldn't have queued the request.\n\nThe C/BE# lines ''are'' used with write data, and may be used by the card to select which bytes should be written to memory.\n\nThe multiplier in AGP 2×, 4× and 8× indicates the number of data transfers across the bus during each 66 MHz clock cycle. Such transfers use source synchronous clocking with a \"strobe\" signal (AD_STB0, AD_STB1, and SB_STB) generated by the data source. AGP 4× adds complementary strobe signals.\n\nBecause AGP transactions may be as short as two transfers, at AGP 4× and 8× speeds it is possible for a request to complete in the middle of a clock cycle. In such a case, the cycle is padded with dummy data transfers (with the C/BE# byte enable lines held deasserted).\n", "The AGP connector contains almost all PCI signals, plus several additions. The connector has 66 contacts on each side, although 4 are removed for each keying notch. Pin 1 is closest to the I/O bracket, and the B and A sides are as in the table, looking down at the motherboard connector.\n\nContacts are spaced at 1 mm intervals, however they are arranged in two staggered vertical rows so that there is 2 mm space between pins in each row. Odd-numbered A-side contacts, and even-numbered B-side contacts are in the lower row (1.0 to 3.5 mm from the card edge). The others are in the upper row (3.7 to 6.0 mm from the card edge).\n\n\n+ Accelerated Graphics Port connector pinout\n\n Side A !! Comments\n\n 1\n OVERCNT# \n +12 V \n USB port overcurrent warning\n\n 2\n +5 V \n TYPEDET# \n Pulled low by card to indicate 1.5 V (AGP 2.0 4x) ability\n\n 3\n +5 V \n GC_DET# \n Pulled low by card to indicate 0.8 V (AGP 3.0 8x) ability\n\n 4\n USB+ \n USB− \n USB pins for pass through to monitor\n\n 5\n Ground \n Ground \n\n\n 6\n INTB# \n INTA# \n Interrupt lines (open-drain)\n\n 7\n CLK \n RST# \n 66 MHz clock, Bus reset\n\n 8\n REQ# \n GNT# \n Bus request from card, and grant from motherboard\n\n 9\n +3.3 V \n +3.3 V \n\n\n 10\n ST0 \n ST1 \n AGP status (valid while GNT# low)\n\n 11\n ST2 \n MB_DET# \n Pulled low by motherboard to indicate 0.8 V (AGP 3.0 8x) ability\n\n 12\n RBF# \n PIPE# \n DBI_HI \n Read buffer full, Pipeline request, Data bus inversion31:16\n\n 13\n Ground \n Ground \n\n\n 14\n DBI_LO \n WBF# \n Data bus inversion 15:0, Write buffer full\n\n 15\n SBA0 \n SBA1 \n Sideband address bus\n\n 16\n +3.3 V \n +3.3 V\n\n 17\n SBA2 \n SBA3\n\n 18\n SB_STB \n SB_STB#\n\n 19\n Ground \n Ground\n\n 20\n SBA4 \n SBA5\n\n 21\n SBA6 \n SBA7\n\n 22\n Reserved \n Reserved \n Key notch for 3.3 V AGP cards\n\n 23\n Ground \n Ground\n\n 24\n +3.3 V aux \n Reserved\n\n 25\n +3.3 V \n +3.3 V\n\n 26\n AD31 \n AD30 \n Address/data bus (upper half)\n\n 27\n AD29 \n AD28\n\n 28\n +3.3 V \n +3.3 V\n\n 29\n AD27 \n AD26\n\n 30\n AD25 \n AD24\n\n 31\n Ground \n Ground\n\n 32\n AD_STB1 \n AD_STB1#\n\n 33\n AD23 \n C/BE3#\n\n 34\n Vddq \n Vddq\n\n 35\n AD21 \n AD22\n\n 36\n AD19 \n AD20\n\n 37\n Ground \n Ground\n\n 38\n AD17 \n AD18\n\n 39\n C/BE2# \n AD16\n\n 40\n Vddq \n Vddq \n 3.3 or 1.5 V\n\n 41\n IRDY# \n FRAME# \n Initiator ready, Transfer in progress\n\n 42\n +3.3 V aux \n Reserved \n Key notch for 1.5 V AGP cards\n\n 43\n Ground \n Ground\n\n 44\n Reserved \n Reserved\n\n 45\n +3.3 V \n +3.3 V\n\n 46\n DEVSEL# \n TRDY# \n Target selected, Target ready\n\n 47\n Vddq \n STOP# \n Target requests halt\n\n 48\n PERR# \n PME# \n Parity error, Power management event (optional)\n\n 49\n Ground \n Ground \n\n\n 50\n SERR# \n PAR \n System error, Even parity for (1x) PCI transactions only\n\n 51\n C/BE1# \n AD15 \n Address/data bus (lower half)\n\n 52\n Vddq \n Vddq\n\n 53\n AD14 \n AD13\n\n 54\n AD12 \n AD11\n\n 55\n Ground \n Ground\n\n 56\n AD10 \n AD9\n\n 57\n AD8 \n C/BE0#\n\n 58\n Vddq \n Vddq\n\n 59\n AD_STB0 \n AD_STB0#\n\n 60\n AD7 \n AD6 \n\n 61\n Ground \n Ground\n\n 62\n AD5 \n AD4 \n\n 63\n AD3 \n AD2 \n\n 64\n Vddq \n Vddq\n\n 65\n AD1 \n AD0 \n\n 66\n Vregcg \n Vrefgc \n I/O reference voltages\n\n\n\n+Legend\n Ground pin\n Zero volt reference\n\n Power pin\n Supplies power to the AGP card\n\n Output pin\n Driven by the AGP card, received by the motherboard\n\n Initiator output\n Driven by the master/initiator, received by the target\n\nI/O signal\n May be driven by initiator or target, depending on operation\n\n Target output\n Driven by the target, received by the initiator/master\n\n Input\n Driven by the motherboard, received by the AGP card\n\n Open drain\n May be pulled low and/or sensed by card or motherboard\n\n Reserved\n Not presently used, do not connect\n\n\nPCI signals omitted are:\n* The −12 V supply\n* The third and fourth interrupt requests (INTC#, INTD#)\n* The JTAG pins (TRST#, TCK, TMS, TDI, TDO)\n* The SMBus pins (SMBCLK, SMBDAT)\n* The IDSEL pin; an AGP card connects AD16 to IDSEL internally\n* The 64-bit extension (REQ64#, ACK64#) and 66 MHz (M66EN) pins\n* The LOCK# pin for locked transaction support\n\nSignals added are:\n* Data strobes AD_STB1:0 (and AD_STB1:0# in AGP 2.0)\n* The sideband address bus SBA7:0 and SB_STB (and SB_STB# in AGP 2.0)\n* The ST2:0 status signals\n* USB+ and USB− (and OVERCNT# in AGP 2.0)\n* The PIPE# signal (removed in AGP 3.0 for 0.8 V signaling)\n* The RBF# signal\n* The TYPEDET#, Vregcg and Vreggc pins (AGP 2.0 for 1.5V signaling)\n* The DBI_HI and DBI_LO signals (AGP 3.0 for 0.8 V signaling only)\n* The GC_DET# and MB_DET# pins (AGP 3.0 for 0.8V signaling)\n* The WBF# signal (AGP 3.0 fast write extension)\n", "\n\n* List of device bandwidths\n* Serial Digital Video Out for ADD DVI adapter cards\n", "\n", "\n\n", "\n* Archived AGP Implementors Forum\n* AGP specifications: 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, Pro 1.0, Pro 1.1a\n* AGP Compatibility For Sticklers\n* AGP pinout\n* AGP expansion slots\n* AGP compatibility (with pictures)\n* PCI Specifications Documents contains AGP specs.\n* Universal Accelerated Graphics Port (UAGP)\n* How Stuff Works - AGP\n* A discussion from 2003 of what AGP aperture is, how it works, and how much memory should be allocated to it.\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " {{Anchor\|APERTURE}}Advantages over PCI ", "History", "Versions", "Compatibility", "Power consumption", "Legacy use", "Protocol", "Connector pinout", "See also", "Notes", " References ", "External links" ]	Accelerated Graphics Port
[ "Andreas Aagesen\n'''Andreas Aagesen''' (5 August 1826 – 26 October 1879) was a Danish jurist.\n", "Aagesen was educated for the law at Christianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take part in the First Schleswig War, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion.\n\nIn 1855 Aagesen became a professor of jurisprudence at the University of Copenhagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Landsting (one of two chambers of the Danish Parliament, the Rigsdagen); but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Aagesen was Carl Christian Hall's successor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this department his research was epoch-making.\n", "Among his numerous juridical works may be mentioned:\n''Bidrag til Læren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, Bemærkinger om Rettigheder over Ting'' (Copenhagen, 1866, 1871-1872);\n''Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige'' (Copenhagen, 1876).\n", "\n", ";Attribution\n* This source cites:\nJohan Henrik Deuntzer, ''Dansk biografisk leksikon'', vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887) ( online);\n''Samlede Skrifter,'' edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1883)\n", "* Obituary\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Bibliography", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Andreas Aagesen
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Aalen''' () is a former Free Imperial City located in the eastern part of the German state of Baden-Württemberg, about east of Stuttgart and north of Ulm. It is the seat of the Ostalbkreis district and is its largest town. It is also the largest town in the Ostwürttemberg region. Since 1956, Aalen has had the status of Große Kreisstadt (major district town). It is noted for its many half-timbered houses constructed from the 16th century through the 18th century.\n\nWith an area of 146.63 km2, Aalen is ranked 7th in Baden-Württemberg and 2nd within the Government Region of Stuttgart, after Stuttgart. With a population of about 66,000, Aalen is the 15th most-populated settlement in Baden-Württemberg.\n\n", "=== Situation ===\nAerial view of the district of Unterkochen (the town centre is partly covered and in the background), the Aalen lowlands well perceptible in the back\nAalen is situated on the upper reaches of the river Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Jura which lies to the south and south-east, and close to the hilly landscapes of the Ellwangen Hills to the north and the ''Welland'' to the north-west.\n\nThe west of Aalen's territory is on the foreland of the eastern Swabian Jura, and the north and north-west is on the Swabian-Franconian Forest, both being part of the Swabian Keuper-Lias Plains. The south-west is part of the Albuch, the east is part of the Härtsfeld, these two both being parts of the Swabian Jura.\n\nThe Kocher enters the town's territory from Oberkochen to the south, crosses the district of Unterkochen, then enters the town centre, where the ''Aal'' flows into it. The ''Aal'' is a small river located only within the town's territory. Next, the Kocher crosses the district of Wasseralfingen, then leaves the town for Hüttlingen. Rivers originating near Aalen are the Rems (near Essingen, west of Aalen) and the Jagst (near Unterschneidheim, east of Aalen), both being tributaries of the Neckar, just like the Kocher.\n\nThe elevation in the centre of the market square is relative to Normalhöhennull. The territory's lowest point is at the Lein river near Rodamsdörfle, the highest point is the Grünberg's peak near Unterkochen at .\n\n=== Geology ===\nAalen's territory ranges over all lithostratigraphic groups of the South German Jurassic: Aalen's south and the ''Flexner'' massif are on top of the White Jurassic, the town centre is on the Brown Jurassic, and a part of Wasseralfingen is on the Black Jurassic. As a result, the town advertises itself as a \"Geologist's Mecca\".\n\nMost parts of the territory are on the ''Opalinuston-Formation'' (Opalinum Clay Formation) of the Aalenian subdivision of the Jurassic Period, which is named after Aalen. On the ''Sandberg'', the ''Schnaitberg'' and the ''Schradenberg'' hills, all in the west of Aalen, the ''Eisensandstein'' (Iron Sandstone) formation emerges to the surface. On the other hills of the city, sands ''(Goldshöfer Sande)'', gravel and residual rubble prevail.\nThe historic centre of Aalen and the other areas in the Kocher valley are founded completely on holocenic floodplain loam ''(Auelehm)'' and riverbed gravel that have filled in the valley.\n\nMost parts of Dewangen and Fachsenfeld are founded on formations of ''Jurensismergel'' (Jurensis Marl), ''Posidonienschiefer'' (cf. Posidonia Shale), ''Amaltheenton'' (Amalthean Clay), ''Numismalismergel'' (Numismalis Marl) and ''Obtususton'' (Obtusus Clay, named after Asteroceras obtusum ammonites) moving from south to north, all belonging to the Jurassic and being rich in fossils. They are at last followed by the ''Trossingen Formation'' already belonging to the Late Triassic.\n\nUntil 1939 iron ore was mined on the ''Braunenberg'' hill. (see Tiefer Stollen section).\n\n=== Extent of the borough ===\nThe maximum extent of the town's territory amounts to in a north-south dimension and in an east-west dimension. The area is , which includes 42.2% agriculturally used area and 37.7% of forest. 11.5% are built up or vacant, 6.4% is used by traffic infrastructure. Sporting and recreation grounds and parks comprise 1% , other areas 1.1% .\n\n=== Adjacent towns ===\nThe following municipalities border on Aalen. They are listed clockwise, beginning south, with their respective linear distances to Aalen town centre given in brackets:\n\nOberkochen (), Essingen (), Heuchlingen (), Abtsgmünd (), Neuler (), Hüttlingen (), Rainau (), Westhausen (), Lauchheim (), Bopfingen () and Neresheim (), all in the Ostalbkreis district, furthermore Heidenheim an der Brenz () and Königsbronn (), both in Heidenheim district.\n\n=== Boroughs ===\nMap of Aalen's boroughs ''(Stadtbezirke)''\nAalen's territory consists of the town centre ''(Kernstadt)'' and the municipalities\nmerged from between 1938 (Unterrombach) and 1975 (Wasseralfingen, see mergings section).\nThe municipalities merged in the course of the latest municipal reform of the 1970s are also called ''Stadtbezirke'' (quarters or districts), and are ''Ortschaften'' (\"settlements\") in terms of Baden-Württemberg's ''Gemeindeordnung'' (municipal code), which means, each of them has its own council elected by its respective residents ''(Ortschaftsrat)'' and is presided by a spokesperson ''(Ortsvorsteher)''.\n\nThe town centre itself and the merged former municipalities consist of numerous villages ''(Teilorte)'', mostly separated by open ground from each other and having their own independent and long-standing history. Some however have been created as planned communities, which were given proper names, but no well-defined borders.\n\nList of villages:\n\n\n Villages\n\n Town centre\n Coat of arms of Aalen\n 30,62\n 34.466\nHammerstadt, Hofherrnweiler, Mädle, Mantelhof, Neßlau, Oberrombach, Unterrombach, the latter also known as ''Weststadt'' (\"West Town\")\n\n Dewangen\n Coat of arms of Dewangen\n 16,53\n 3.183\nAushof, Bernhardsdorf, Bronnenhäusle, Degenhof, Dreherhof, Faulherrnhof, Freudenhöfle, Gobühl, Großdölzerhof, Haldenhaus, Hüttenhöfe, Kleindölzerhof, Kohlhöfle, Langenhalde, Lusthof, Neuhof, Rauburr, Reichenbach, Riegelhof, Rodamsdörfle, Rotsold, Schafhof, Schultheißenhöfle, Streithöfle, Tannenhof, Trübenreute\n\n Ebnat\n Coat of arms of Ebnat\n 21,16\n 3.327\nAffalterwang, Diepertsbuch, Niesitz\n\n Fachsenfeld\n Coat of arms of Fachsenfeld\n 3,95\n 3.605\nBodenbach, Hangendenbuch, Himmlingsweiler, Mühlhäusle, Scherrenmühle, Waiblingen\n\n Hofen\n Coat of arms of Hofen\n 12,58\n 2.080\nAttenhofen, Fürsitz, Goldshöfe, Heimatsmühle, Oberalfingen, Wagenrain\n\n Unterkochen\n Coat of arms of Unterkochen\n 21,44\n 4.927\nBirkhöfe, Glashütte, Neukochen, Neuziegelhütte, Stefansweilermühle\n\n Waldhausen\n Coat of arms of Waldhausen\n 24,38\n 2.335\nArlesberg, Bernlohe, Beuren, Brastelburg, Geiselwang, Hohenberg, Neubau, Simmisweiler\n\n Wasseralfingen\n Coat of arms of Wasseralfingen\n 15,97\n 11.767\nAffalterried, Brausenried, Bürgle, Erzhäusle, Heisenberg, Mäderhof, Onatsfeld, Rötenberg, Röthardt, Salchenhof, Treppach, Weidenfeld\n\n\n=== Spatial planning ===\nAalen forms a ''Mittelzentrum'' (\"medium-level centre\") within the Ostwürttemberg region. Its designated catchment area includes the following municipalities of the central and eastern Ostalbkreis district: Abtsgmünd, Bopfingen, Essingen, Hüttlingen, Kirchheim am Ries, Lauchheim, Neresheim, Oberkochen, Riesbürg and Westhausen, and is interwoven with the catchment area of Nördlingen, situated in Bavaria, east of Aalen.\n\n=== Climate ===\nAs Aalen's territory sprawls on escarpments of the Swabian Jura, on the Albuch and the Härtsfeld landscapes, and its elevation has a range of , the climate varies from district to district.\n\nThe weather station the following data originate from is located between the town centre and Wasseralfingen at about and has been in operation since 1991.\n\nThe sunshine duration is about 1800 hours per year, which averages 4.93 hours per day. So Aalen is above the German average of 1550 hours per year. However, with 167 days of precipitation, Aalen's region also ranks above the German average of 138. The annual rainfall is , which places Aalen in the middle within Baden-Württemberg.\nThe annual mean temperature is . Here Aalen ranks above the German average of and the Baden-Württemberg average of .\n\n\n", "=== Civic history ===\n\n==== First settlements ====\nNumerous remains of early civilization have been found in the area. Tools made of flint and traces of Mesolithic human settlement dated between the 8th and 5th millennium BC were found on several sites on the margins of the Kocher and Jagst valleys. On the ''Schloßbaufeld'' plateau (appr. ), situated behind ''Kocherburg'' castle near Unterkochen, a hill-top settlement was found, with the core being dated to the Bronze Age. In the ''Appenwang'' forest near Wasseralfingen, in Goldshöfe, and in Ebnat, tumuli of the Hallstatt culture were found. In Aalen and Wasseralfingen, gold and silver coins left by the Celts were found. The Celts were responsible for the fortifications in the Schloßbaufeld settlement consisting of sectional embankments and a stone wall. Also, Near Heisenberg (Wasseralfingen), a Celtic nemeton has been identified; however it is no longer readily apparent.\n\n==== Roman era ====\nThe Roman fort's excavated foundation walls\nAfter abandoning the Alb Limes (a ''limes'' generally following the ridgeline of the Swabian Jura) around 150 AD, Aalen's territory became part of the Roman Empire, in direct vicinity of the then newly erected Rhaetian Limes. The Romans erected a castrum to house the cavalry unit ''Ala II Flavia milliaria''; its remains are known today as ''Kastell Aalen'' (\"Aalen Roman fort\"). The site is west of today's town centre at the bottom of the ''Schillerhöhe'' hill. With about 1,000 horsemen and nearly as many grooms, it was the greatest fort of auxiliaries along the Rhaetian Limes. There were Civilian settlements adjacent along the south and the east. Around 260 AD, the Romans gave up the fort as they withdrew their presence in unoccupied Germania back to the Rhine and Danube rivers, and the Alamanni took over the region. Based on 3rd- and 4th-century coins found, the civilian settlement continued to exist for the time being. However, there is no evidence of continued civilization between the Roman era and the Middle Ages.\n\n==== Foundation ====\nBased on discovery of alamannic graves, archaeologists have established the 7th century as the origination of Aalen. In the northern and western walls of St. John's church, which is located directly adjacent to the eastern gate of the Roman fort, Roman stones were incorporated. The building that exists today probably dates to the 9th century.\n\nThe first mention of Aalen was in 839, when emperor Louis the Pious reportedly permitted the Fulda monastery to exchange land with the Hammerstadt village, then known as ''Hamarstat''.\nAalen itself was first mentioned in an inventory list of Ellwangen Abbey, dated ca. 1136, as the village ''Alon'', along with a lower nobleman named Conrad of Aalen. This nobleman probably had his ancestral castle at a site south of today's town centre and was subject first to Ellwangen abbey, later to the House of Hohenstaufen, and eventually to the House of Oettingen. 1426 was the last time a member of that house was mentioned in connection with Aalen.\nDocuments, from the Middle Ages, indicate that the town of Aalen was founded by the Hohenstaufen some time between 1241 and 1246, but at a different location than the earlier village, which was supposedly destroyed in 1388 during the war between the Alliance of Swabian Cities and the Dukes of Bavaria.\nLater, it is documented that the counts of Oettingen ruled the town in 1340. They are reported to have pawned the town to Count Eberhard II and subsequently to the House of Württemberg in 1358 or 1359 in exchange for an amount of money.\n\n==== Imperial City ====\n\n\n===== Designation as Imperial City =====\nDuring the war against Württemberg, Emperor Charles IV took the town without a fight after a siege. On 3 December 1360, he declared Aalen an Imperial City, that is, a city or town responsible only to the emperor, a status that made it a quasi-sovereign city-state and that it kept until 1803. In 1377, Aalen joined the Alliance of Swabian Cities, and in 1385, the term ''civitas'' appears in the town's seal for the first time. In 1398, Aalen was granted the right to hold markets, and in 1401 Aalen obtained proper jurisdiction.\n\nTown view of 1528\nThe oldest artistic representation of Aalen was made in 1528. It was made as the basis of a lawsuit between the town and the Counts of Oettingen at the Reichskammergericht in Speyer. It shows Aalen surrounded by walls, towers, and double moats. The layout of the moats, which had an embankment built between them, is recognizable by the present streets named ''Nördlicher, Östlicher, Südlicher'' and ''Westlicher Stadtgraben'' (Northern, Eastern, Southern and Western Moat respectively). The wall was about tall, 1518 single paces () long and enclosed an area of . During its early years, the town had two town gates: The ''Upper'' or ''Ellwangen Gate'' in the east, and St. Martin's gate in the south; however due to frequent floods, St. Martin's gate was bricked up in the 14th century and replaced by the ''Lower'' or ''Gmünd Gate'' built in the west before 1400. Later, several minor side gates were added. The central street market took place on the ''Wettegasse'' (today called ''Marktplatz'', \"market square\") and the ''Reichsstädter Straße''. So the market district stretched from one gate to the other, however in Aalen it was not straight, but with a 90-degree curve between southern (St. Martin's) gate and eastern (Ellwangen) gate.\n\nAround 1500, the civic graveyard was relocated from the town church to St. John's Church, and in 1514, the ''Vierundzwanziger'' (\"Group of 24\") was the first assembly constituted by the citizens.\n\n===== Reformation =====\nDelegated by Württemberg's Duke Louis III, on 28 June 1575, nearly 30 years after Martin Luther's death, Jakob Andreae, professor and chancellor of the University of Tübingen, arrived in Aalen. The sermon he gave the following day convinced the mayor, the council, and the citizens to adopt the Reformation in the town. Andreae stayed in Aalen for four weeks to help with the change. This brought along enormous changes, as the council forbade the Roman Catholic priests to celebrate masses and give sermons. However, after victories of the imperial armies at the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, the Prince-Provostry of Ellwangen, which still held the right of patronage in Aalen, were able to temporarily bring Catholicism back to Aalen; however after the military successes of the Protestant Union, Protestant church practices were instituted again.\n\n===== Fire of 1634 =====\nOn the night of 5 September 1634, two ensigns of the army of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar who were fighting with the Swedes and retreating after the Battle of Nördlingen set fire to two powder carriages, to prevent the war material to fall into Croatian hands and to prevent their advance. The result was a conflagration, that some say destroyed portions of the town. There are differing stories regarding this fire. According to 17th-century accounts, the church and all the buildings, except of the ''Schwörturm'' tower, were casualties of the fire, and only nine families survived. 19th century research by Hermann Bauer, Lutheran pastor and local historian, discovered that the 17th-century account is exaggerated, but he does agree that the town church and buildings in a \"rather large\" semicircle around it were destroyed. The fire also destroyed the town archive housed in an addition to the church, with all of its documents. After the fire, soldiers of both armies went through the town looting. It took nearly 100 years for the town to reach its population of 2,000.\n\nTerritory of the Imperial City of Aalen\n\nFrench troops marched through Aalen in 1688 during the Nine Years' War; however, unlike other places, they left without leaving severe damages. The French came through again in 1702 during the War of the Spanish Succession and in 1741 during the War of the Austrian Succession, the latter also caused imperial troops to move through in 1743.\n\nThe town church's tower collapsed in 1765, presumably because proper building techniques were not utilized during the reconstruction after the fire of 1634. The collapsing tower struck two children of the tower watchman who died of their injuries, and destroyed the nave, leaving only the altar cross intact. The remaining walls had to be knocked down due to the damage. Reconstruction began the same year, creating the building that exists today.\n\nOn 22 November 1749, the so-called ''Aalen protocol'' regulating the cohabitation of Lutherans and Roman Catholics in the jointly ruled territory of Oberkochen was signed in Aalen by the Duchy of Württemberg and the Prince-Provostry of Ellwangen. Aalen had been chosen because of its neutral status as a Free Imperial City.\n\n===== Napoleonic era and end of the Imperial City of Aalen =====\nFrench attack on Aalen of 1796\nDuring the War of the First Coalition (1796), Aalen was looted. The War of the Second Coalition concluded in 1801 with the signing of the Treaty of Lunéville, which led to the German Mediatisation of 1803 that assigned most Imperial Cities to the neighbouring principalities. Aalen was assigned to the electorate of Württemberg, which later became the Kingdom of Württemberg, and became seat of the District (\"Oberamt\") of Aalen. During the War of the Third Coalition, on 6 October 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Aalen, with an army of 40,000. This event, along with Bavarian and Austrian troops moving in some days later, caused miseries that according to the town clerk \"no feather could describe\".\n\nIn 1811, the municipality of Unterrombach was formed out of some villages previously belonging to Aalen, some to the Barons of Wöllwarth, and the eastern villages were assigned to the municipality of Unterkochen.\n\nIn the age of the Napoleonic wars, the town walls were no longer of use, and in the 18th century, with the maintenance of walls, gates and towers becoming more neglected Finally, due to the fact that the funds were lacking, starting in 1800, most towers were demolished, the other buildings followed soon.\n\n==== Industrial revolution ====\nRailway station and town after 1861\nBefore the industrial revolution, Aalen's economy was shaped by its rural setting. Many citizens were pursuing farming besides their craft, such as tanning. In the mid 19th century, there were twelve tanneries in Aalen, due to the proximity of Ulm, an important sales market. Other crafts that added to the economy were weaving mills, which produced linen and woolen goods, and baking of sweet pastry and gingerbread.\n\nIn Aalen, industrialisation was a slow process. The first major increase was in the 1840s, when three factories for nails and some other factories emerged. It was the link with the railway network, by the opening of the Rems Railway from Cannstatt to Wasseralfingen in 1861, that brought more industry to Aalen, along with the royal steel mill (later ''Schwäbische Hüttenwerke'') in Wasseralfingen. The Rems Railway's extension to Nördlingen in 1863, the opening of the Brenz Railway in 1864 and of the Upper Jagst Railway in 1866 turned Aalen into a railway hub. Furthermore, between 1901 and its shutdown in 1972, the Härtsfeld Railway connected Aalen with Dillingen an der Donau via Neresheim. Part of becoming a rail hub entailed more jobs based on the rail industry. These included, a maintenance facility, a roundhouse, an administrative office, two track maintenance shops, and a freight station with an industrial branch line. This helped shape Aalen into what today's historians call a \"railwayman's town\". Starting in 1866, the utilities in town all began to be upgraded. Starting with the Aalen gasworks which were opened and gas lighting was introduced. Then in 1870, a modern water supply system was started and in 1912 the mains electricity. Finally, in 1935, the first electrically powered street lights were installed.\n\nAalen by 1900\nTo fight housing shortage during and immediately after World War I, the town set up barracks settlement areas at the ''Schlauch'' and ''Alter Turnplatz'' grounds. In spite of the industry being crippled by the Great Depression of 1929, the public baths at the Hirschbach creek where modernized, extended and re-opened in 1931.\n\n==== Nazi era ====\nIn the federal election of 1932, the Nazi Party performed below average in Aalen with 25.8% of votes compared to 33.1% on the national level, thus finishing second to the Centre Party which had 26.6% (11.9% nationwide) of the votes, and ahead of the Social Democratic Party of Germany with 19.8% (20.4%). However, the March 1933 federal elections showed that the sentiment had changed as the Nazi Party received 34.1% (still below German average 43.9% nationwide), but by far the leading vote-getter in Aalen, followed by the Centre party at 26.6% (11.3% nationwide) and the Social Democrats 18.6% (18.3% nationwide).\n\nThe democratically elected mayor Friedrich Schwarz remained in office until the Nazis removed him from office, in 1934, and replaced him by chairman of the Nazi Party town council head and brewery owner Karl Barth. Karl Barth was a provisional mayor until the more permanent solution of Karl Schübel. In August 1934, the Nazi consumer fair Braune Messe (\"brown fair\") was held in Aalen.\n\nDuring Nazi rule in Germany, there were many military offices constructed in Aalen, starting with, in 1936, a military district riding and driving school. The Nazis also built an army replenishment office ''(Heeresverpflegungsamt)'', a branch arsenal office ''(Heeresnebenzeugamt)'' and a branch army ammunitions institute ''(Heeresnebenmunitionsanstalt)''.\n\nStarting in 1935, mergers of neighbouring towns began. In 1938, the Oberamt was transformed into the Landkreis of Aalen and the municipality of Unterrombach was disbanded. Its territory was mostly added to Aalen, with the exception of Hammerstadt, which was added to the municipality of Dewangen. Forst, Rauental and Vogelsang were added to Essingen (in 1952 the entire former municipality of Unterrombach was merged into Aalen, with the exception of Forst, which is part of Essingen until present).\n\nIn September 1944, the ''Wiesendorf'' concentration camp, a subcamp of Natzweiler-Struthof, was constructed nearby. It was designated for between 200 and 300 prisoners who were utilized for forced labor in industrial businesses nearby. Until the camp's dissolution in February 1945, 60 prisoners died. Between 1946 and 1957, the camp buildings were torn down; however, its foundations are still in place in house ''Moltkestraße 44/46''. Also, there were several other labour camps which existed where prisoners of war along with women and men from occupied countries occupied by Germany were pooled. The prisoners at these other camps had to work for the arms industry in major businesses like ''Schwäbische Hüttenwerke'' and the ''Alfing Keßler'' machine factory.\n\nIn the civic hospital, the deaconesses on duty were gradually replaced by National Socialist People's Welfare nurses. Nazi eugenics led to compulsory sterilization of some 200 persons there.\n\nFortunately, Aalen avoided most of the combat activity during World War II. It was only during the last weeks of the war that Aalen became a target of air warfare, which led to the destruction and severe damage of parts of the town, the train station, and other railway installations. A series of air attacks lasting for more than three weeks reached its peak on 17 April 1945, when United States Army Air Forces planes bombed the branch arsenal office and the train station. During this raid, 59 people were killed, more than half of them buried by debris, and more than 500 lost their homes. Also, 33 residential buildings, 12 other buildings and 2 bridges were destroyed, and 163 buildings, including 2 churches, were damaged. Five days later, the Nazi rulers of Aalen were unseated by the US forces.\n\n==== Post-war era ====\nAalen became part of the State of Baden-Württemberg, upon its creation in 1952. Then, with the Baden-Württemberg territorial reform of 1973, the District of Aalen was merged into the Ostalbkreis district. Subsequently, Aalen became seat of that district, and in 1975, the town's borough attained its present size (see below).\n\nThe population of Aalen exceeded the limit of 20,000, which was the requirement for to gain the status of Große Kreisstadt (\"major district town\") in 1946. On 1 August 1947, Aalen was declared ''Unmittelbare Kreisstadt'' (\"immediate district town\"), and with the creation of the Gemeindeordnung (municipal code) of Baden-Württemberg on 1 April 1956, it was declared ''Große Kreisstadt''.\n\n=== Religions ===\nOn 31 December 2008, 51.1 percent of Aalen were members of the Catholic Church, 23.9 percent were members of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church. About 25 percent belong to other or no religious community or gave no information. The district of Waldhausen was the district with the highest percentage of Roman Catholic inhabitants at 75.6 percent, and the central district was the one with the highest percentage of Evangelical-Lutheran inhabitants at 25.6 percent, as well as those claiming no religious preference at 32.5 percent.\n\n==== Protestantism ====\nAalen's population originally was subject to the jus patronatus of Ellwangen Abbey, and thus subject to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Augsburg.\n\nWith the assistance of the Duke of Württemberg, in 1575, the reformation was implemented in Aalen. Subsequently, Aalen has been a predominantly Protestant town for centuries, with the exception of the years from 1628 until 1632 (see reformation section). Being an Imperial City, Aalen could govern its clerical matters on its own, so Clerics, organists and choir masters were direct subjects to the council, which thus exerted bishop-like power. There was even a proper hymn book for Aalen. After the transition to Württemberg, in 1803, Aalen became seat of a deanery, with the dean church being the Town Church (with the building constructed from 1765 to 1767 and existing until present). Another popular church is St. John's Church, located on the cemetery and refurbished in 1561.\n\nAs Aalen's population grew in the 20th century, more parishes were founded: St. Mark's parish with its church building of 1967 and St. Martin's parish with its church of 1974. In the borough of Unterrombach, Aalen had implemented the reformation as well, but the community remained a chapel-of-ease of Aalen. A proper church, the Christ Church, was erected in 1912 and a proper parish was established in 1947. In Fachsenfeld, the ruling family of Woellwarth resp. of Leinroden implemented the reformation. A parish church was built in 1591, however with an influx of Catholics in the 18th century, a Catholic majority was established. The other districts of present-day Aalen remained mostly catholic after the reformation, however Wasseralfingen established a Lutheran parish in 1891 and a church, St. Magdalene's Church, in 1893. In Unterkochen, after World War II, a parish was established and a church was built in 1960. All four parishes belong to the deanery of Aalen within the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg. Furthermore, in Aalen there are Old Pietistic communities.\n\n==== Catholicism ====\nSalvator's Church\nThe few Catholics of today's central district were covered by the parish of Unterkochen until the 19th century, a situation which continued for some years even after completion of St. Mary's Church in 1868, which was constructed by Georg Morlok. However, in 1872 Aalen got its proper parish again, and in 1913, a second Catholic church, Salvator's Church, was completed, and in 1969 the Holy Cross Church was also finished. In 1963, a second parish was set up, and in 1972 it got a new Church, the new St. Mary's Church, which has been erected in place of the old St. Mary's church, which had been torn down in 1968. Another church of the second parish was St. Augustine's Church, which was completed in 1970. Finally, in 1976 and 1988, St. Elizabeth's Church and St. Thomas' Church were completed. Furthermore, in 1963, the St. Michael pastoral care office was built.\n\nHofherrnweiler has its own Catholic church, St. Boniface's, since 1904. The villages of Dewangen, Ebnat, Hofen, Waldhausen and Wasseralfingen had remained Catholic after reformation, so old parishes and churches persist there. The ''Assumption of Mary'' Church in Dewangen has an early Gothic tower and a newly built nave (1875). Mary's Immaculate Conception Church in Ebnat was constructed in 1723; however the church was first mentioned in 1298.\n\nSt. Mary, Unterkochen\nHofen's Saint George's Church is a fortified church, whose current nave was built between 1762 and 1775. Alongside the church, the Late Gothic St. Odile's Chapel is standing, whose entrance has the year 1462 engraved upon it. Foundations of prior buildings have been dated to the 11th and 13th century.\n\nSt. Mary's Church of Unterkochen was first mentioned in 1248, and has served the Catholics of Aalen for a long time. Waldhausen's parish church of St. Nicholas was built between 1699 and 1716. Wasseralfingen at first was a chapel of ease for Hofen, but has since had its own chapel, St. Stephen, built. It was presumably built in 1353 and remodeled in 1832. In 1834, a proper parish was established, which built a new St. Stephen's Church. This new building utilized the Romanesque Revival architecture style and was built between 1881 and 1883, and has since remained the parish's landmark. Also, Fachsenfeld received its own church, named Sacred Heart in 1895. All Catholic parishes within Aalen are today incorporated into four pastoral care units within the ''Ostalb'' Deanery of the Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart; however these units also comprise some parishes outside of Aalen. Pastoral Care Unit two comprises the parishes of Essingen, Dewangen and Fachsenfeld, unit four comprises Hofen and Wasseralfingen, unit five comprises both parishes of Aalen's centre and Hofherrnweiler, unit five comprises Waldhausen, Ebnat, Oberkochen and Unterkochen.\n\n==== Other christian communities ====\nIn addition to the two major religions within Aalen, there are also free churches and other communities, including the United Methodist Church, the Baptists, the Seventh-day Adventist Church and the New Apostolic Church.\n\n==== Other religions ====\nUntil the late 19th century, no Jews were documented within Aalen. In 1886 there were four Jews were living in Aalen, a number that rose to ten in 1900, fell to seven in 1905, and remained so until 1925. Upon the Nazis' rise to power in 1933, seven Jews, including two children, lived in Aalen. During the Kristallnacht in 1938, the vitrines of the three Jewish shops in the town were smashed and their proprietors imprisoned for several weeks. After their release, most Aalen Jews emigrated. The last Jews of Aalen, Fanny Kahn, was forcibly resettled to Oberdorf am Ipf, which had a large Jewish community. Today, a street of Aalen is named after her. The Jew Max Pfeffer returned from Brussels to Aalen in 1948 to continue his shop, but emigrated to Italy in 1967.\n\nIn Aalen, there is an Islamic Ditib community, which maintains the ''D.I.T.I.B. Mosque of Aalen (Central Mosque)'' located at Ulmer Straße. The mosque's construction started on 30 August 2008. The Millî Görüş organisation maintains the Fatih Mosque, as well at Ulmer Straße.\n\n==== Mergings ====\nThe present-day make up of Aalen was created on 21 June 1975 by the unification of the cities of Aalen and Wasseralfingen, with the initial name of ''Aalen-Wasseralfingen''. This annexation made Aalen's territory one third larger than its prior size. On 1 July 1975, the name ''Aalen'' was revived. Prior to this merger, the town of Aalen had already annexed the following municipalities:\n* 1938: Unterrombach\n* 1 January 1970: Waldhausen\n* 1 July 1972: Ebnat\n* 1 January 1973: Dewangen, Fachsenfeld (including the village of Hangendenbach, which was transferred from Abtsgmünd in 1954) and Unterkochen. The merging of Dewangen nearly doubled the territory of Aalen.\n\n=== Population’s progression and structure ===\nProgression of Aalen's population\nDuring the Middle Ages and the early modern period, Aalen was just a small town with a few hundred inhabitants. The population grew slowly due to numerous wars, famines and epidemics. It was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century where Aalen's growth accelerated. Whereas in 1803, only 1,932 people inhabited the town, in 1905 it had already increased to 10,442. The number continued to rise and reached 15,890 in 1939.\n\nThe influx of refugees and ethnic Germans from Germany's former eastern territories after World War II pushed the population to 31,814 in 1961. The merger with Wasseralfingen on 21 June 1975 added 14,597 persons and resulted in a total population of 65,165 people. On 30 June 2005, the population, which was officially determined by the Statistical Office of Baden-Württemberg, was 67,125.\n\nThe following overview shows how the population figures of the borough were ascertained. Until 1823, the figures are mostly estimates, thereafter census results or official updates by the state statistical office. Starting in 1871, the figures were determined by non-uniform method of tabulation using extrapolation.\n\n\n\n\n\n Year\n Inhabitants\n\n 1634 \n 2,000\n\n 1803 \n 1,932\n\n 1823 \n 2,486\n\n 3 December 1843 ¹ \n 3,319\n\n 3 December 1855 ¹ \n 3,720\n\n 3 December 1861 ¹ \n 4,272\n\n 1 December 1871 ¹ \n 5,552\n\n 1 December 1880 ¹ \n 6,659\n\n 1 December 1890 ¹ \n 7,155\n\n 1 December 1900 ¹ \n 9,058\n\n 1 December 1905 ¹ \n 10,442\n\n\n\n\n Year\n Inhabitants\n\n 1 December 1910 ¹ \n 11,347\n\n 1 December 1916 ¹ \n 10,655\n\n 5 December 1917 ¹ \n 10,551\n\n 8 October 1919 ¹ \n 11,978\n\n 16 June 1925 ¹ \n 12,171\n\n 16 June 1933 ¹ \n 12,703\n\n 17 May 1939 ¹ \n 15,890\n\n 31 December 1945 \n 19,552\n\n 29 October 1946 ¹ \n 21,941\n\n 13 September 1950 ¹ \n 25,375\n\n 25 September 1956 ¹ \n 29,360\n\n\n\n\n Year\n Inhabitants\n\n 6 June 1961 ¹ \n 31,814\n\n 31 December 1965 \n 34,373\n\n 27 May 1970 ¹ \n 37,366\n\n 31 December 1975 \n 64,735\n\n 31 December 1980 \n 63,030\n\n 31 December 1985 \n 63,195\n\n 31 December 1990 \n 64,781\n\n 1994 \n 66,330\n\n 31 December 1995 \n 66,234\n\n 31 December 2000 \n 66,373\n\n 31 December 2005 \n 67,066\n\n 31 December 2010 \n 66,113\n\n\n¹ Census result\n\nOn 31 December 2008, Aalen had precisely 66,058 inhabitants, of which 33,579 were female and 32,479 were male. The average age of Aalen's inhabitants rose from 40.5 years in 2000 to 42.4 in 2008. Within the borough, 6,312 foreigners resided, which is 9.56 percent. Of them, the largest percentage are from Turkey (38 percent of all foreigners), the second largest group are from Italy (13 percent), followed by Croatians (6 percent) and Serbs (5 percent).\n\nThe number of married residents fell from 32,948 in 1996 to 31,357 in 2007, while the number of divorced residents rose in the same period from 2,625 to 3,859. The number of single residents slightly increased between 1996 and 2004 from 25,902 to 26,268 and fell slightly until 2007 to 26,147. The number of widowed residents fell from 5,036 in 1996 to 4,783 in 2007.\n\n\nFile:Durchschnittsalter Aalen.png\|Average age of Aalen's inhabitants\nFile:Familienstand Aalen.png\|Ratio of married inhabitants contrasted to unmarried\n\n", "Aalen has arranged a municipal association with Essingen and Hüttlingen.\n\n=== Council ===\nSince the local election of 25 May 2014, the town council consists of 51 representatives having a term of five years. The seats are distributed as follows on parties and groups (changes refer to the second last election of 2004):\n\nDistribution of seats in the council since 2014\n\n+ Town council since 2014\n\n Parliamentary group !! Election result !! ± !! Strength !! ±\n\n CDU\n 37,4 %\n +1,2 Pp.\n 19 Sitze\n −2\n\n SPD\n 22,9 %\n −0,5 Pp.\n 11 Sitze\n –2\n\n Alliance 90/The Greens\n 15,6 %\n –0,1 Pp.\n 8 Sitze\n –1\n\n Free Voters Aalen\n 11,5 %\n +11,5 Pp.\n 6 Sitze\n +6\n\n The Left/Pro Aalen\n 7,3 %\n –0,3 Pp.\n 4 Sitze\n +1\n\n FDP/FW\n 3,4 %\n –10,4 Pp.\n 2 Sitze\n –5\n\n Active Citizens ''(Aktive Bürger)''\n 1,9 %\n −1,5 Pp.\n 1 Sitz\n 0\n\n\n=== Mayors ===\nSince 1374, the mayor and the council maintain the government of the town. In the 16th century, the town had two, sometimes three mayors, and in 1552, the council had 13 members. Later, the head of the administration was reorganized several times. In the Württemberg era, the mayor's title was initially called ''Bürgermeister'', then from 1819 it was Schultheiß, and since 1947 it is ''Oberbürgermeister''. The mayor is elected for a term of eight years, and he is chairman and a voting member of the council. He has one deputy with the official title of ''Erster Bürgermeister'' (\"first mayor\") and one with the official title of ''Bürgermeister'' (\"mayor\").\nFlag of Aalen\n'''Heads of town in Aalen since 1802'''\n* 1802–: Theodor Betzler\n* 1812–1819: Ludwig Hölder\n* 1819–1829: Theodor Betzler\n* 1829: Palm\n* 1829–1848: Philipp Ehmann\n* 1848–1873: Gustav Oesterlein\n* 1873–1900: Julius Bausch\n* 1900–1902: Paul Maier\n* 1903–1934: Friedrich Schwarz\n* 1935–1945: Karl Schübel\n* 1945–1950: Otto Balluff\n* 1950–1975: Karl Schübel\n* 1976–2005: Ulrich Pfeifle (SPD)\n* 2005–2013: Martin Gerlach (independent)\n* 2013-: Thilo Rentschler (SPD)\n\n=== Coat of arms and flag ===\nCoat of arms of 1766 with eagle and eel\nAalen's coat of arms depicts a black eagle with a red tongue on golden background, having a red shield on its breast with a bent silver eel on it. Eagle and eel were first acknowledged as Aalen's heraldic animals in the seal of 1385, with the eagle representing the town's imperial immediacy. After the territorial reform, it was bestowed again by the Administrative District of Stuttgart on 16 November 1976.\n\nThe coat of arms' blazon reads: “In gold, the black imperial eagle, with a red breast shield applied to it, therein a bent silver eel” ''(In Gold der schwarze Reichsadler, belegt mit einem roten Brustschild, darin ein gekrümmter silberner Aal)''.\n\nAalen’s flag is striped in red and white and contains the coat of arms.\n\nThe origin of the town’s name is uncertain. Matthäus Merian (1593–1650) presumed the name to originate from its location at the Kocher river, where \"frequently eels are caught\", while ''Aal'' is German for \"eel\". Other explanations point to Aalen as the garrison of an ala during the Roman empire, respectively to an abridgement of the Roman name \"Aquileia\" as a potential name of the Roman fort, a name that nearby Heidenheim an der Brenz bore as well. Another interpretation points to a Celtic word '''aa''' meaning \"water\".\n\n\n=== Twinned cities ===\n\nThe \"Twin Cities Society of Aalen\" ''(Städtepartnerschaftsverein Aalen e. V.)'' promotes \"friendly relations\" between Aalen and its twin cities, which comprises mutual exchanges of sports and cultural clubs, schools and other civic institutions. On the occasion of the Reichsstädter Tage, from 11 until 13 September 2009 the first conference of twinned cities was held.\n\nAalen has five twin cities:\n* Saint-Lô (France), since 1978\n* Christchurch (United Kingdom), since 1981\n* Tatabánya (Hungary), since 1987\n* Antakya (Turkey), since 1995. This twinning arrangement was initiated by Ismail Demirtas, who emigrated in 1962 from Turkey to Aalen and was social adviser for foreign employees.\n* Cervia (Italy), since 2011\n\n=== Godparenthood ===\nOn the occasion of the 1980 ''Reichsstädter Tage'', Aalen took over godparenthood for the more than 3000 ethnic Germans displaced from the Wischau linguistic enclave. 972 of them settled in Aalen in 1946. The \"Wischau Linguistic Enclave Society\" ''(Gemeinschaft Wischauer Sprachinsel)'' regularly organises commemorative meetings in Aalen. Their traditional costumes are stored in the Old Town Hall.\n\n=== Municipal finances ===\nAccording to the 2007 municipal poll by the Baden-Württemberg chapter of the German Taxpayers Federation, municipal tax revenues totalling to 54,755 million Euros (2006) resp. 62,148 million Euros (2007) face the following debts:\n* 2006 total: 109.9 million Euros debts (64.639 millions of the finance department and 48.508 millions of the municipal enterprises and fund assets)\n* 2007 total: 114.5 million Euros debts (69.448 millions of the finance department and 45.052 millions of the municipal enterprises and fund assets)\n", "=== Theatre ===\nThe town operates the “Theatre of the Town of Aalen” ''(Theater der Stadt Aalen)''. Having been founded in 1991 and featuring six salaried actors, it is the newest as well as the smallest civic theatre in Germany. In addition to regular plays, it also offers four theatre clubs for all age levels. During the 2008/2009 season, 400 performances of ten productions attracted more than 21,000 visitors.\n\n=== Schubart Literary Award ===\nThe town endowed the \"Schubart Literary Award\" ''(Schubart-Literaturpreis)'' in 1955 in tribute to Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, who spent his childhood and youth in Aalen. It is one of the earliest literary awards in Baden-Württemberg and is awarded biennially to German-language writers whose work coincide with Schubart's \"liberal and enlightened reasoning\". It is compensated with 12,000 Euros.\n\n=== Music ===\nFounded in 1958, the \"Music School of the Town of Aalen\" today has about 1,500 students taught by 27 music instructors in 30 subjects. In 1977, a symphony orchestra was founde in Aalen, which today is called ''Aalener Sinfonieorchester'', and consists mostly of instructors and students of the music school. It performs three public concerts annually: The “New Year’s Concert” in January, the “Symphony Concert” in July and a “Christmas Concert” in December. Beyond that, music festivals regularly take place in Aalen, like the Aalen Jazzfest.\n\nThe Aalen volunteer fire department has had a marching band since 1952, whose roots date back to 1883. In 1959, the band received its first glockenspiel from TV host Peter Frankenfeld on the occasion of a TV appearance.\n\nA famous German rapper, designer and singer, that goes under the name of Cro, was born in Aalen and lived his early years here.\n\n=== Museums and memorial sites ===\n==== Museums ====\nAalen Limes Museum, exterior view\nIn the central district of Aalen, there are two museums: The “Aalen Limes Museum\" ''(Limesmuseum Aalen)'' is located at the place of the largest Roman cavalry fort north of the Alps until about 200 AD. It opened in 1964. The museum exhibits numerous objects from the Roman era. The ruins of the cavalry fort located beside the museum is open to museum visitors. Every other year, a Roman festival is held in the area of the museum (see below).\n\nIn the Geological-Paleontological Museum located in the historic town hall, there are more than 1500 fossils from the Swabian Jura, including ammonites, ichthyosaurs and corals, displayed.\n\nIn the Waldhausen district the ''Heimatstüble'' museum of local history has an exhibition on agriculture and rural living.\n\nIn the Wasseralfingen district, there are two more museums: The ''Museum Wasseralfingen'' comprises a local history exhibition and an art gallery including works of Hermann Plock, Helmut Schuster and Sieger Köder. Also, the stove plate collection of the ''Schwäbische Hüttenwerke'' steel mill is exhibited, with artists, modellers and the production sequence of a cast plate from design to final product being presented.\n\n==== Memorial sites ====\nMemorial stone at ''Schillerlinde''\nThere is memorial stone at the ''Schillerlinde'' tree above Wasseralfingen's ore pit dedicated to four prisoners of the subcamp of Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp killed there. Also in Wasseralfingen, in the cemetery a memorial with the Polish inscription \"To the victims of Hitler\" which commemorates the deceased forced labourers buried there.\n\nIn 1954, on the ''Schillerhöhe'' hill the town erected a bell tower as a memorial to Aalen's victims of both world wars and to the displacement of ethnic Germans. The tower was planned by Emil Leo, the bell was endowed by Carl Schneider. The tower is open on request. Every evening at 18:45 (before 2003: at 19:45), the memorial's bell rings.\n\n=== Buildings ===\n==== Churches ====\nSt. John's Church\nSt. Stephen's Church, Wasseralfingen\nThe town centre is dominated by the Evangelical-Lutheran St. Nicholas' Church in the heart of the pedestrian area. The church, in its present shape being built between 1765 and 1767, is the only major Late Baroque building in Aalen and is the main church of the Evangelical-Lutheran parish of Aalen.\n\n''St. John's Church'' is located inside of St. John's cemetery in the western centre. The building presumably is from the 9th century and thus is one of Württemberg's oldest existing churches. The interior features frescos from the early 13th century.\n\nFor other churches in Aalen, see the Religions section.\n\n==== Historic Town Hall with \"Spy\" ====\n\"Spy's Tower\"\nThe Historic Town Hall was originally built in the 14th century. After the fire of 1634, it was re-constructed in 1636. This building received a clock from Lauterburg, and the Imperial City of Nuremberg donated a Carillon. It features a figurine of the \"Spy of Aalen\" and historically displayed other figurines, however the latter ones were lost by a fire in 1884. Since then, the Spy resides inside the reconstructed tower and has become a symbol of the town. The building was used as the town hall until 1907. Since 1977, the Geological-Paleontological Museum resides in the Historic Town Hall.\n\nAccording to legend, the citizens of Aalen owe the \"Spy of Aalen\" ''(Spion von Aalen)'' their town having been spared from destruction by the emperor's army:\n\nThe Imperial City of Aalen once was were in quarrel with the emperor, and his army was shortly before the gates to take the town. The people of Aalen got scared and thus dispatched their “most cunning” one out into the enemy’s camp to spy out the strength of their troops. Without any digression, he went straight into the middle of the enemy camp, which inescapably led to him being seized and presented to the emperor. When the emperor asked him what he had lost here, he answered in Swabian German: \"Don't frighten, high lords, I just want to peek how many cannons and other war things you've got, since I am the spy of Aalen\". The emperor laughed upon such a blatancy and ''acted'' naïvety, steered him all through the camp and then sent him back home. Soon the emperor withdrew with his army as he thought a town such ''wise guys'' reside in deserved being spared.\n\n==== Old Town Hall ====\nThe earliest record of the Old Town Hall was in 1575. Its outside wall features the oldest known coat of arms, which is of 1664. Until 1851, the building also housed the ''Krone-Post'' hotel, which coincided with being a station of the Thurn und Taxis postal company. It has housed many notable persons. Thus the so-called \"Napoleon Window\" with its \"N\" painted on reminds of the stay of French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in 1805. According to legend, he rammed his head so hard it bled on this window, when he was startled by the noise of his soldiers ridiculing the \"Spy of Aalen\". The building was used as Aalen's town hall from 1907 until 1975. Today it houses a cabaret café and the stage of the Theatre of the Town of Aalen. The town has adopted the ''Wischau Linguistic Enclave Society'' due to their godparenthood and stores their traditional constumes in the building.\n\n==== Bürgerspital ====\nThe ''Bürgerspital'' (\"Civic Asylum\") is a timber-frame house erected on ''Spritzenhausplatz'' (\"Fire Engine House Square\") in 1702. Until 1873, it was used as civic hospital, then, later as a retirement home. After a comprehensive renovation in 1980 it was turned into a senior citizen's community centre.\n\n==== Limes-Thermen ====\nOn a slope of the ''Langert'' mountain, south of the town, the ''Limes-Thermen'' (\"Limes Thermae\") hot springs are located. They were built in ancient Roman style and opened in 1985. The health spa is supplied with water about .\n\n==== Market square ====\nThe market square is the historic hub of Aalen and runs along about from the town hall in the south to the Historic Town Hall and the Old Town Hall in the north, where it empties into ''Radgasse'' alley. Since 1809, it is site of the weekly market on Wednesday and Saturday. About in front of the ''Reichsstädter Brunnen'' fountain at the town hall, the coats of arms of Aalen, its twinned cities and of the Wischau linguistic enclave are paved into the street as mosaic.\n\n===== Market fountain =====\nJoseph I at the market fountain\nIn 1705, for the water supply of Aalen a well casing was erected at the northern point of the market square, in front of the Historic Town Hall. It was a present of duke Eberhard Louis. The fountain bore a statue of emperor Joseph I., who was enthroned in 1705 and in 1707 renewed Aalen's Imperial City privileges. The fountain was supplied via a wooden pipe. Excessive water was dissipated through ditches branched from Kocher river. When in the early 1870s Aalen's water network was constructed, the fountain was replaced by a smaller fountain about distant. In 1975, the old market fountain was re-erected in baroque style. It bears a replica of the emperor's statue, with the original statue exhibited in the new town hall's lobby. The cast iron casing plates depict the 1718 coat of arms of the Duchy of Württemberg and the coats of arms of Aalen and of the merged municipalities.\n\n===== Reichsstädter Brunnen =====\nThe ''Reichsstädter Brunnen'' fountain (\"Imperial Civic Fountain\") is located in front of the town hall at the southern point of the market square. It was created by sculptor Fritz Nuss in 1977 to commemorate Aalen's time as an Imperial City (1360–1803). On its circumference is a frieze showing bronze figurines illustrating the town's history.\n\n==== Radgasse ====\nThe ''Radgasse'' (\"Wheel Alley\") features Aalen's oldest façade. Originally a small pond was on its side. The buildings were erected between 1659 and 1662 for peasants with citizenry privileges and renovated in the mid-1980s. The namesake for the alley was the \"Wheel\" tavern, which was to be found at the site of today's address ''Radgasse 15''.\n\n==== Tiefer Stollen ====\n''Tiefer Stollen'' tourist mine\nThe former iron ore pit ''Wilhelm'' at Braunenberg hill was converted into the ''Tiefer Stollen'' tourist mine in order to remind of the old-day miners' efforts and to maintain it as a memorial of early industrialisation in the Aalen area. It has a mining museum open for visitors, and a mine railway takes visitors deep into the mountain. The Town of Aalen, a sponsorship association, and many citizens volunteered several thousand hours of labour to put the mine into its current state. As far as possible, things were left in the original state. In 1989, a sanitary gallery was established where respiratory diseases are treated within rest cures. Thus the Aalen village of Röthard, where the gallery is located, was awarded the title of \"Place with sanitary gallery service\" in 2004.\n\n==== Observatory ====\nThe Aalen Observatory was built in 1969 as school observatory for the Schubart Gymnasium. In 2001, it was converted to a public observatory. Since then, it has been managed by the ''Astronomische Arbeitsgemeinschaft Aalen'' (\"Aalen Astronomical Society\"). It is located on Schillerhöhe hill and features two refractive telescopes. They were manufactured by Carl Zeiss AG which has its headquarters in nearby Oberkochen and operates a manufacturing works in Aalen (see below). In the observatory, guided tours and lectures are held regularly.\n\n==== Windpark Waldhausen ====\nWind turbine at Windpark Waldhausen\nThe ''Windpark Waldhausen'' wind farm began operations in early 2007. It consists of seven REpower MM92 wind turbines with a nameplate capacity of 2 MW each. The hub height of each wind turbine is , with a rotor diameter of .\n\n==== Aalbäumle observation tower ====\n''Aalbäumle'' observation tower\nThe tall ''Aalbäumle'' observation tower is built atop ''Langert'' mountain. This popular hiking destination was built in 1898 and was remodelled in 1992. It features a good view over Aalen and the Welland region, up to the Rosenstein mountain and Ellwangen. Beneath the tower, an adventure playground and a cabin is located. A flag on the tower signals whether the cabin's restaurant is open.\n\n=== Natural monuments ===\nThe Baden-Württemberg State Institute for Environment, Measurements and Natural Conservation has laid out six protected landscapes in Aalen (the ''Swabian Jura escarpment between Lautern and Aalen with adjacent territories'', the ''Swabian Jura escarpment between Unterkochen and Baiershofen'', the ''Hilllands around Hofen'', the ''Kugeltal and Ebnater Tal valleys with parts of Heiligental valley and adjacent territories'', ''Laubachtal valley'' and ''Lower Lein Valley with side valleys''), two sanctuary forests (''Glashütte'' and ''Kocher Origin''), 65 extensive natural monuments, 30 individual natural monuments and the following two protected areas:\n\nThe large ''Dellenhäule'' protected area between Aalen's Waldhausen district and Neresheim's Elchingen district, created in 1969, is a sheep pasture with juniper and wood pasture of old willow oaks.\n\nThe large ''Goldshöfer Sande'' protected area was established in 2000 and is situated between Aalen's Hofen district and Hüttlingen. The sands on the hill originated from the Early Pleistocene are of geological importance, and the various grove structures offer habitat to severely endangered bird species.\n\n=== Sports ===\nScholz Arena\nThe football team, VfR Aalen, was founded in 1921 and played in the 2nd German League between 2012 and 2015, after which they were relegated to 3. Liga. Its playing venue is the Scholz-Arena situated in the west of the town, which bore the name ''Städtisches Waldstadion Aalen'' (\"Civic Forest Stadium of Aalen\") until 2008. From 1939 until 1945, the VfR played in the Gauliga Württemberg, then one of several parallel top-ranking soccer leagues of Germany.\n\nThe KSV Aalen wrestles in the Wrestling Federal League. It was German champion in team wrestling in 2010. Its predecessor, the ''KSV Germania Aalen'' disbanded in 2005, was German champion eight times and runner-up five times since 1976. Another Aalen club, the TSV Dewangen, wrestled in the Federal League until 2009.\n\nTwo American sports, American Football and Baseball, are pursued by the ''MTV Aalen''. Volleyball has been gaining in popularity in Aalen for years. The first men's team of ''DJK Aalen'' accomplished qualification for regional league in the season of 2008/09.\n\nThe ''Ostalb'' ski lifts are located south of the town centre, at the northern slope of the Swabian Jura. The skiing area comprises two platter lifts that have a vertical rise of , with two runs with lengths of and a beginners' run.\n\n=== Regular events ===\n==== Reichsstädter Tage ====\nSince 1975, ''Reichsstädter Tage'' (\"Imperial City days\") festival is held annually in the town centre on the second weekend in September. It is deemed the largest festival of the Ostwürttemberg region, and is associated with a shopping Sunday in accordance with the Ladenschlussgesetz code. The festival is also attended by delegations from the twinned cities. On the town hall square, on Sunday an ecumenical service is held.\n\n==== Roman Festival ====\nThe international Roman Festival ''(Römertage)'' are held biannially on the site of the former Roman fort and the modern Limes museum. The festival's ninth event in 2008 was attended by around 11,000 people.\n\n==== Aalen Jazz Festival ====\nAnnually during the second week of November, the Aalen Jazz Festival brings known and unknown artists to Aalen. It has already featured musicians like Miles Davis, B. B. King, Ray Charles, David Murray, McCoy Tyner, Al Jarreau, Esbjörn Svensson and Albert Mangelsdorff. The festival is complemented by individual concerts in spring and summer, and, including the individual concerts, comprises around 25 concerts with a total of about 13,000 visitors.\n", "In 2008 there were 30,008 employees liable to social insurance living in Aalen. 13,946 (46.5 percent) were employed in the manufacturing sector, 4,715 (15.7 percent) in commerce, catering, hotels and transport, and 11,306 (37.7 percent) in other services. Annually 16,000 employees commute to work, with about 9,000 living in the town and commuting out.\n\nAltogether in Aalen there are about 4,700 business enterprises, 1,100 of them being registered in the trade register. The others comprise 2,865 small enterprises and 701 craft enterprises.\n\nIn Aalen, metalworking is the predominant industry, along with machine-building. Other industries include optics, paper, information technology, chemicals, textiles, medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, and food.\n\nNotable enterprises include ''SHW Automotive'' (originating from the former ''Schwäbische Hüttenwerke'' steel mills and a mill of 1671 in Wasseralfingen), the ''Alfing Kessler'' engineering works, the precision tools manufacturer ''MAPAL Dr. Kress'', the snow chain manufacturer ''RUD Ketten Rieger & Dietz'' and its subsidiary ''Erlau'', the ''Gesenkschmiede Schneider'' forging die smithery, the ''SDZ Druck und Medien'' media company, the ''Papierfabrik Palm'' paper mill, the alarm system manufacturer ''Telenot'', the laser show provider ''LOBO electronic'' and the textile finisher ''Lindenfarb'', which all have their seat in Aalen. A branch in Aalen is maintained by optical systems manufacturer Carl Zeiss headquartered in nearby Oberkochen.\n\n===Transport===\nAalen station\n\n==== Rail ====\nAalen station is a regional railway hub on the Rems Railway from Stuttgart, the Brenz Railway from Ulm, the Upper Jagst Railway to Crailsheim and the Ries Railway to Donauwörth. Until 1972, the Härtsfeld Railway connected Aalen with Dillingen an der Donau via Neresheim. Other railway stations within the town limits are ''Hofen (b Aalen)'', ''Unterkochen'', ''Wasseralfingen'' and Goldshöfe station. The ''Aalen-Erlau'' stop situated in the south is no longer operational.\n\nAalen station is served at two-hour intervals by trains of Intercity line 61 Karlsruhe–Stuttgart–Aalen–Nuremberg. For regional rail travel, Aalen is served by various lines of the Interregio-Express, Regional-Express and Regionalbahn categories. The town also operates the Aalen industrial railway ''(Industriebahn Aalen)'', which carries about 250 carloads per year.\n\n==== Street ====\nThe junctions of ''Aalen/Westhausen'' and ''Aalen/Oberkochen'' connect Aalen with the Autobahn A7 (Würzburg–Füssen). Federal roads (''Bundesstraßen'') connecting with Aalen are B 19 (Würzburg–Ulm), B 29 (Waiblingen–Nördlingen) and B 290 (Tauberbischofsheim–Westhausen). The Schwäbische Dichterstraße (\"Swabian Poets' Route\") tourist route established in 1977/78 leads through Aalen.\n\nSeveral bus lines operate within the borough. The ''Omnibus-Verkehr Aalen'' company is one of the few in Germany that use double-decker buses, it has done so since 1966. A district-wide fare system, ''OstalbMobil'', has been in effect since 2007.\n\n==== Air transport ====\nStuttgart Airport, offering international connections, is about away, the travel time by train is about 100 Minutes. At Aalen-Heidenheim Airport, located south-east of Aalen, small aircraft are permitted. Gliding airfields nearby are in Heubach and Bartholomä.\n\n==== Bicycle ====\nBicycle routes stretching through Aalen are the ''Deutscher Limes-Radweg'' (\"German Limes Bicycle Route\") and the ''Kocher-Jagst'' Bicycle Route.\n\n=== Public facilities ===\nAalen houses an Amtsgericht (local district court), chambers of the Stuttgart Labour Court, a notary's office, a tax office and an employment agency. It is the seat of the Ostalbkreis district office, of the Aalen Deanery of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church and of the ''Ostalb'' deanery of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart.\n\nThe Stuttgart administrative court, the Stuttgart Labour Court and the Ulm Social Welfare Court are in charge for Aalen.\n\nAalen had a civic hospital, which resided in the ''Bürgerspital'' building until 1873, then in a building at ''Alte Heidenheimer Straße''. In 1942, the hospital was taken over by the district. The district hospital at the present site of ''Kälblesrain'', known today as ''Ostalb-Klinikum'', was opened in 1955.\n\n=== Media ===\nThe first local newspaper, ''Der Bote von Aalen'' (\"The Herald of Aalen\"), has been published on Wednesdays and Saturdays since 1837.\n\nCurrently, local newspapers published in Aalen are the ''Schwäbische Post'', which obtains its supra-regional pages from the Ulm-based Südwestpresse, and the ''Aalener Nachrichten'' (erstwhile ''Aalener Volkszeitung''), a local edition of Schwäbische Zeitung in Leutkirch im Allgäu.\n\nTwo of Germany's biggest Lesezirkels (magazine rental services) are headquartered in Aalen: ''Brabandt LZ Plus Media'' and ''Lesezirkel Portal''.\n\nRegional event magazines are ''Xaver'', ''åla'', ''ålakultur''.\n\nThe commercial broadcasters ''Radio Ton'' and ''Radio 7'' have studios in Aalen.\n\n=== Education ===\nA Latin school was first recorded in Aalen in 1447; it was remodeled in 1616 and also later in various buildings that were all situated near the town church, and continued up through the 19th century. In the course of the reformation, a \"German school\" was established in tandem, being a predecessor of the latter Volksschule school type. In 1860, the ''Ritterschule'' was built as a ''Volksschule'' for girls; the building today houses the ''Pestalozzischule''. In 1866, a new building was erected for the Latin school and for the Realschule established in 1840. This building, later known as the ''Alte Gewerbeschule'', was torn down in 1975 to free up land for the new town hall. In 1912, the ''Parkschule'' building was opened. It was designed by Paul Bonatz and today houses the ''Schubart-Gymnasium''\n\nThe biggest educational institution in the town is the ''Hochschule Aalen'', which was founded in 1962 and focuses on engineering and economics. It is attended by 5000 students on five campuses and employs 129 professors and 130 other lecturers.\n\nThe town provides three Gymnasiums, four Realschulen, two ''Förderschulen'' (special schools), six combined Grundschulen and Hauptschulen and eight standalone Grundschulen. The Ostalbkreis district provides three vocational schools and three additional special schools. Finally, six non-state schools of various types exist.\n\nThe German Esperanto Library (German: ''Deutsche Esperanto-Bibliothek'', Esperanto: ''Germana Esperanto-Biblioteko'') has been located in the building of the town library since 1989.\n\n=== TV and radio transmission tower ===\nThe Südwestrundfunk broadcasting company operates the Aalen transmission tower on the ''Braunenberg'' hill. The tower was erected in 1956, it is tall and made of reinforced concrete.\n\n=== Things named after Aalen ===\nThe following vehicles are named \"Aalen\":\n* The Lufthansa Boeing 737-500 ''D-ABJF''\n* The Deutsche Bahn ICE 3 ''Tz309'' (since 2 June 2008)\n\n\nFile:Lufthansa.b737-500.d-abjf.arp.jpg\|Boeing 737-500 \"Aalen”\nFile:ICE Aalen.jpg\|ICE \"Aalen\" at Aalen station\n\n", "=== Honorary citizens ===\n* Ruland Ayßlinger, composer\n* Erwin Rommel (1891–1944), Field Marshal of World War II, grew up in Aalen\n* Paul Edel\n* Wilhelm Jakob Schweiker (1859–1927), founder of the Aalen Historical Society ''(Geschichts- und Altertumsverein Aalen'') and name giver of the Wilhelm Jakob Schweiker Award\n* Ulrich Pfeifle, Mayor of Aalen from 1976 until 2005\n\n=== Persons born in Aalen ===\nKarl Joseph von Hefele 1869\n* Johann Christoph von Westerstetten (1563-1637), Bishop of Eichstaett and counter-reformer\n* Karl Joseph von Hefele (1809–1893), Roman Catholic theologian, clerical historian and bishop\n* Karl Wahl (1892-1981), Gauleiter of Swabia, Obergruppenführer\nKurt Jooss 1971\n* Kurt Jooss (1901-1979), born in Wasseralfingen; dancer, choreographer and dance educator\n* August Zehender (1903-1945), SS Brigade Commander and Major General of the Waffen-SS\n* Paul Buck (1911-2006), piano teacher\n* Bruno Heck (1917–1989), politician of the CDU, former minister of the federal government and CDU secretary general\nAlfred Bachofer (born 1942), former Lord Mayor of Nürtingen\nWalter Adams (born 1945 in Wasseralfingen), middle distance runner\nIvo Holzinger (born 1948), politician (SPD), Lord Mayor of Memmingen (since 1980)\nWerner Sobek (born 1953), architect and structural engineer\nLudwig Leinhos (born 1956), major general of the Bundesluftwaffe\nBernd Hitzler (born 1957), politician, (CDU), Member of Landtag\nMartin Gerlach (born 1965), independent politician, mayor of Aalen (since 2005)\nThomas Zander (born 1967), wrestler, winner of Olympic silver medal and world champion (1994)\nCarl-Uwe Steeb (born 1967), retired tennis player\nKatrin Bauerfeind (born 1982), radio and TV-presenter\nManuel Fischer (born 1989), footballer\nPatrick Funk (born 1990), footballer\nCro (born 1990), Carlo Waibel), singer\n\n=== Other ===\nChristian Friedrich Daniel Schubart\n Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart (1739–1791), poet, organ player, composer and journalist; lived in Aalen as a child and adolescent\n* Rudolf Duala Manga Bell (1873–1914), King of Duala and resistance leader in the German colony of Kamerun, lived in Aalen from 1891 until 1896.\n* Georg Elser (1903–1945), opponent of Nazism, worked in 1923 as an apprentice carpenter in Aalen.\n* Werner Bickelhaupt (born 1939), football coach, lives in Aalen since 2004.\n* Gerhard Thiele (born 1953 in Heidenheim), physicist and former astronaut, attended school in Aalen.\n* Andreas Beck (born 1987 in Kemerovo/Soviet Union), German footballer, grew up in Aalen.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n", "* \n* \n", "\n* Town of Aalen’s website\n* Geographical information system of the town of Aalen (in German)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Geography ", " History ", " Politics ", " Culture and sights ", " Economy and infrastructure ", " Persons connected to Aalen ", "Notes", "References", " Further reading ", "External links" ]	Aalen
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Aloysius Alzheimer''' (; ; 14 June 1864 – 19 December 1915), known as '''Alois Alzheimer''', was a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist and a colleague of Emil Kraepelin. Alzheimer is credited with identifying the first published case of \"presenile dementia\", which Kraepelin would later identify as Alzheimer's disease.\n", "Aloysius Alzheimer was born in Marktbreit, Bavaria on 14 June 1864. His father served in the office of notary public in the family's hometown. \n\nThe Alzheimers moved when Alois was still young in order to give their children an opportunity to attend the Royal Humanistic Gymnasium. Later, Alois studied medicine at Aschaffenburg and at the universities of Tübingen, Berlin, and Würzburg. In his final year of school he was on the fencing team and a member of a fraternity, and even received a fine for disturbing the peace while out with his team. \n\nIn April 1884, he married Cecille Simonette Nathalie Geisenheimer, with whom he had three children. Cecille died in 1901. In 1887, Alois Alzheimer graduated from Würzburg with a degree in medicine.\n", "The following year, he spent five months assisting mentally ill women before he took an office in the city mental asylum in Frankfurt am Main, the Städtische Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische (Asylum for Lunatics and Epileptics). Emil Sioli, a noted psychiatrist, was the dean of the asylum. Another neurologist, Franz Nissl, began to work in the same asylum with Alzheimer. Together, they conducted research on the pathology of the nervous system, specifically the normal and pathological anatomy of the cerebral cortex. Alzheimer was the co-founder and co-publisher of the journal ''Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie'', though he never wrote a book that he could call his own.\n\nWhile at the Frankfurt asylum, Alzheimer also met Emil Kraepelin, one of the best-known German psychiatrists of the time. Kraepelin became a mentor to Alzheimer, and the two worked very closely for the next several years. When Kraepelin moved to Munich to work at the Royal Psychiatric Hospital in 1903, he invited Alzheimer to join him. \n\nAt the time, Kraepelin was doing clinical research on psychosis in senile patients; Alzheimer, on the other hand, was more interested in the lab work of senile illnesses. The two men would face many challenges involving the politics of the psychiatric community. For example, both formal and informal arrangements would be made among psychiatrists at asylums and universities to receive cadavers. In 1908 he was a professor at the Ludwig Maximilian University and the Neurological and Psychiatric Clinic of the Friedrich-Wilhelm University from 1912 until he fell ill.\n", "In 1901, Alzheimer observed a patient at the Frankfurt Asylum named Auguste Deter. The 51-year-old patient had strange behavioral symptoms, including a loss of short-term memory; she became his obsession over the coming years. Auguste Deter was a victim of the politics of the time in the psychiatric community; the Frankfurt asylum was too expensive for her husband. Herr Deter made several requests to have his wife moved to a less expensive facility, but Alzheimer intervened in these requests. Ms. Deter remained at the Frankfurt asylum, where Alzheimer had made a deal to receive her records and brain upon her death. \n\nOn 8 April 1906, Frau Deter died, and Alzheimer had her medical records and brain brought to Munich where he was working in Kraepelin's laboratory. With two Italian physicians, he used the staining techniques of Bielschowsky to identify amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. These brain anomalies would become identifiers of what later became known as Alzheimer's disease.\n", "Alzheimer discussed his findings on the brain pathology and symptoms of presenile dementia publicly on 3November 1906, at the Tübingen meeting of the Southwest German Psychiatrists. The attendees at this lecture seemed uninterested in what he had to say. The lecturer that followed Alzheimer was to speak on the topic of \"compulsive masturbation\", which the audience was so eagerly awaiting that they sent Alzheimer away without any questions or comments on his discovery of the pathology of a type of senile dementia. \n\nFollowing the lecture, Alzheimer published a short paper summarizing his lecture; in 1907 he wrote a larger paper detailing the disease and his findings. The disease would not become known as Alzheimer's disease until 1910, when Kraepelin named it so in the chapter on \"Presenile and Senile Dementia\" in the 8th edition of his ''Handbook of Psychiatry''. By 1911, his description of the disease was being used by European physicians to diagnose patients in the US.\n", "American Solomon Carter Fuller gave a report similar to that of Alzheimer at a lecture five months before Alzheimer. Oskar Fischer was a fellow German psychiatrist, 12 years Alzheimer's junior, who reported 12 cases of senile dementia in 1907 around the time that Alzheimer published his short paper summarizing his lecture.\n\nThe two men had different interpretations of the disease, but due to Alzheimer's short life, they never had the opportunity to meet and discuss their ideas.\n", "Alzheimer's grave in Frankfurt\nIn August 1912, Alzheimer fell ill on the train on his way to the University of Breslau, where he had been appointed professor of psychiatry in July 1912. Most probably he had a streptococcal infection and subsequent rheumatic fever leading to valvular heart disease, heart failure and kidney failure. He never recovered completely from this illness. \n\nHe died of heart failure on 19December 1915, aged 51, in Breslau, Silesia (present-day Wrocław, Poland). He was buried on 23 December 1915 next to his wife in the Hauptfriedhof in Frankfurt am Main.\n", "In the early 1990s, critics began to question Alzheimer's findings and form their own hypotheses based on Alzheimer's notes and papers. Amaducci and colleagues hypothesized that Auguste Deter had metachromatic leukodystrophy, a rare condition in which accumulations of fats affect the cells that produce myelin. \n\nAnother hypothesis offered by Claire O'Brien was that Auguste Deter actually had a vascular dementing disease. Through extremely fortunate circumstances the original microscope preparations on which Alzheimer based his description of the disease were rediscovered in 1998 in Munich, and his findings could thus be reevaluated. The slides confirmed that Auguste Deter did in fact have what is now known as Alzheimer's disease.\n", "Alzheimer was known for having a variety of medical interests including vascular diseases of the brain, early dementia, brain tumors, forensic psychiatry and epilepsy. Alzheimer was a leading specialist in histopathology in Europe. His colleagues knew him to be a dedicated professor and cigar smoker.\n", "* Gaetano Perusini\n* German inventors and discoverers\n", "\n", "\n* Alzheimer's: 100 years on\n* Alois Alzheimer's Biography, International Brain Research Organization\n* Bibliography of secondary sources on Alois Alzheimer and Alzheimer's disease, selected from peer-reviewed journals.\n* Graeber Manuel B. \"Alois Alzheimer (1864-1915)\" International Brain Research Organization\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life and education", "Career", "Auguste Deter", "Findings", " Contemporaries ", "Death", "Critics and rediscovery", "Other interests", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Alois Alzheimer
[ "\n'''Aedile''' ( , from ''aedes,'' \"temple edifice\") was an office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings (''aedēs'') and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order.\n\nThere were two pairs of aediles: the first were the \"plebeian aediles\" (Latin ''aediles plebis'') and possession of this office was limited to plebeians; the other two were \"curule aediles\" (Latin ''aediles curules''), open to both plebeians and patricians, in alternating years. An ''aedilis curulis'' was classified as a ''magister curulis''.\n\nThe office of the aedilis was generally held by young men intending to follow the cursus honorum to high political office, traditionally after their quaestorship but before their praetorship. It was not a compulsory part of the cursus, and hence a former quaestor could be elected to the praetorship without having held the position of aedile. However, it was an advantageous position to hold because it demonstrated the aspiring politician's commitment to public service, as well as giving him the opportunity to hold public festivals and games, an excellent way to increase his name recognition and popularity.\n", "===Plebeian aediles===\nThe plebeian aediles were created in the same year as the Tribunes of the People (494 BC). Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they guarded the rights of the plebs with respect to their headquarters, the Temple of Ceres. Subsequently, they assumed responsibility for maintenance of the city's buildings as a whole. Their duties at first were simply ministerial. They were the assistants to the tribunes in whatever matters that the tribunes might entrust to them, although most matters with which they were entrusted were of minimal importance. Around 446 BC, they were given the authority to care for the decrees of the senate (''senatus consulta''). When a ''senatus consultum'' was passed, it would be transcribed into a document, and deposited in the public treasury, the ''Aerarium''. They were given this power because the Roman Consuls, who had held this power before, arbitrarily suppressed and altered the documents. They also maintained the acts of the Plebeian Council (popular assembly), the \"plebiscites\". Plebiscites, once passed, were also transcribed into a physical document for storage. While their powers grew over time, it is not always easy to distinguish the difference between their powers, and those of the Roman Censors. Occasionally, if a Censor was unable to carry out one of his tasks, an Aedile would perform the task instead.\n\n===Curule aediles===\nAccording to Livy (vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations in 367 BC, an extra day was added to the Roman games; the plebeian aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedileship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two ''curule'' aediles were appointed—at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either—at the Tribal Assembly under the presidency of the consul. Curule Aediles, as formal magistrates, held certain honors that Plebeian Aediles (who were not technically magistrates), did not hold. Besides having the right to sit on a Curule Chair (''sella curulis'') and to wear a toga praetexta, the Curule Aediles also held the power to issue edicts (''jus edicendi''). These edicts often pertained to matters such as the regulation of the public markets, or what we might call \"economic regulation\". Livy suggests, perhaps incorrectly, that both Curule as well as Plebeian Aediles were sacrosanct. Although the curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions gradually approximated and became practically identical. Within five days after the beginning of their terms, the four Aediles (two Plebeian, two Curule) were required to determine, by lot or by agreement among themselves, what parts of the city each should hold jurisdiction over.\n\n===Differences between the two===\nThere was a distinction between the two sets of Aediles when it came to public festivals. Some festivals were Plebeian in nature, and thus were under the superintendence of Plebeian Aediles. Other festivals were supervised exclusively by the Curule Aediles, and it was often with these festivals that the Aediles would spend lavishly. This was often done so as to secure the support of voters in future elections. Because Aediles were not reimbursed for any of their public expenditures, most individuals who sought the office were independently wealthy. Since this office was a stepping stone to higher office and the Senate, it helped to ensure that only wealthy individuals (mostly landowners) would win election to high office. These extravagant expenditures began shortly after the end of Second Punic War, and increased as the spoils returned from Rome's new eastern conquests. Even the decadence of the emperors rarely surpassed that of the Aediles under the Republic, as could have been seen during Julius Caesar's Aedileship.\n", "Plebeian Aediles were elected by the Plebeian Council (popular assembly), usually while under the presidency of a Plebeian Tribune. Curule Aediles were elected by the Tribal Assembly, usually while under the presidency of a Roman Consul. Since the Plebeian Aediles were elected by the Plebeians (commoners), rather than by all of the People of Rome (Plebeians as well as members of the Patrician aristocracy), they were not technically magistrates. Before the passage of the ''lex annalis'', individuals could run for the Aedileship by the time they turned twenty-seven. After the passage of this law in 180 BC, a higher age was set, probably thirty-five. By the 1st century BC, Aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January.\n", "Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three heads:\n\n(1) Care of the city:\nthe repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions and the registration of meretrices. They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures.\n\n(2) Care of provisions:\ninvestigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of grain for disposal at a low price in case of necessity.\n\n(3) Care of the games: \nsuperintendence and organization of the public games, as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. \nAmbitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favor with a view to official advancement.\n", "In 44 BC Julius Caesar added two plebeian aediles, called ''Cereales'', whose special duty was the care of the cereal (grain) supply. Under Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its judicial functions and the care of the games being transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the appointment of a praefectus urbi. Augustus took for himself its powers over various religious duties. By stripping it of its powers over temples, Augustus effectively destroyed the office, by taking from it its original function. After this point, few people were willing to hold such a powerless office, and Augustus was even known to compel individuals into holding the office. Augustus accomplished this by randomly selecting former tribunes and quaestors for the office. Future emperors would continue to dilute the power of the office by transferring its powers to newly created offices. However, the office did retain some powers over licentiousness and disorder, in particular over the baths and brothels, as well as the registration of prostitutes. In the 3rd century, it disappeared altogether.\n\nUnder the Empire, Roman colonies and cities often had officials with powers similar to those of the republican aediles, although their powers widely varied. It seems as though they were usually chosen annually. Today in Portugal the county mayor can still be referred to as 'edil' (e.g. 'O edil de Coimbra', meaning 'the mayor of Coimbra'), a way of reference used also in Romania for any mayors (ex. 'Edil al Bucureștiului', meaning 'mayor of Bucharest'). In Spain (and Latin America) the members of municipal councils are called concejales or ediles.\n", "In his play ''Coriolanus'', Shakespeare references the aediles. However, they are minor characters, and their chief role is to serve as policemen.\n", "* Aetheling\n* Agoranomi\n* Constitution of the Roman Republic\n", "\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History of the office", "Election to the office", "Powers of the office", "Under the Empire", " Shakespeare ", "See also", "References", "Books" ]	Aedile
[ "\n\n\n'''American Airlines, Inc.''' ('''AA''') is an American airline headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, within the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex. It is the world's largest airline when measured by fleet size, revenue, scheduled passenger-kilometers flown, and number of destinations served. American together with its regional partners operates an extensive international and domestic network with an average of nearly 6,700 flights per day to nearly 350 destinations in more than 50 countries.\n\nAmerican Airlines is a founding member of Oneworld alliance, the third largest airline alliance in the world and coordinates fares, services, and scheduling with alliance partners British Airways, Iberia, and Finnair in the transatlantic market and with Cathay Pacific and Japan Airlines in the transpacific market. Regional service is operated by independent and subsidiary carriers under the brand name of American Eagle.\n\nAmerican operates out of ten hubs located in Dallas/Fort Worth, Charlotte, Chicago-O'Hare, Philadelphia, Miami, Phoenix, Washington, DC-National, Los Angeles, New York-JFK, and New York-LaGuardia. American operates its primary maintenance base at Tulsa International Airport in addition to the maintenance locations located at its hubs. Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is American's largest passenger carrying hub handling 51.1 million passengers annually with an average of 140,000 passengers daily. The company as of 2015 employs over 113,300 people. Through the airline's parent company, American Airlines Group, it is publicly traded under NASDAQ: AAL with a market capitalization of about $25 billion as of 2017.\n", "\nAmerican Airlines was started in 1930 via a union of more than eighty small airlines.\n\nThe two organizations from which American Airlines was originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first formed in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation. This in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system, and was renamed American Airlines. Between 1970 and 2000, the company grew into being an international carrier, purchasing Trans World Airlines in 2001.\n\nIn 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, American Airlines' parent company AMR Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection. In 2013, US Airways and American Airlines merged. Eventually operations were merged under one operating certificate to create the largest United States airline which kept the American Airlines brand name.\n", "\n===Headquarters===\nAmerican Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The headquarters is located in two office buildings in the CentrePort office complex and these buildings together have about of space. over 4,300 employees work at this complex.\n\nBefore it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979 American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, which affected up to 1,300 jobs. Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a \"betrayal\" of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas. On January 17, 1983, the airline finished moving into a $150 million ($ when adjusted for inflation), facility in Fort Worth; $147 million (about $ when adjusted for inflation) in Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport bonds financed the headquarters. The airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility.\n\nAs of 2015 American Airlines is the corporation with the largest presence in Fort Worth.\n\n===New headquarters===\nIn 2015, the airline announced it will build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016 and occupancy is scheduled for summer 2019. The airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building.\n\nIt will be located on a property adjacent to the airline's flight academy and conference and training center, west of Texas State Highway 360, west from the current headquarters. The airline will lease a total of from Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport and this area will include the headquarters.Construction of the new headquarters is scheduled to occur after the demolition of the Sabre facility.\n\nThe airline considered developing a new headquarters in Irving, on the Texas Stadium site, before deciding to keep the headquarters in Fort Worth.\n\n===U.S. federal government subsidies===\nAs of November 2013 American Airlines and American Eagle received $10,011,836 in annual federal subsidies for Essential Air Services. These subsidies are awarded by public tender and ensure that small, rural airports can be connected to the national air network.\n\n===Labor unions===\n* The Allied Pilots Association (APA) is an in-house union which represents the nearly 15,000 American Airlines pilots; it was created in 1963 after the pilots left the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA). The majority of American Eagle pilots are ALPA members.\n* The Association of Professional Flight Attendants (APFA) represents American Airlines flight attendants, including former USAirways flight attendants. \n* Flight Attendants at American wholly owned Regional Carriers (Envoy - former American Eagle), Piedmont and PSA are all represented by Association of Flight Attendants - Communications Workers of America (AFA-CWA). USAirways Flight Attendants were active members of AFA-CWA prior to the merger. They are honorary lifetime members. AFA-CWA is the largest Flight Attendant Union in the industry and is operated by Flight Attendants.\n* The Transport Workers Union-International Association of Machinists alliance (TWU-IAM) represents the majority of American Airlines employed fleet service clerks, mechanics and other ground workers.\n* American's customer service and gate employees belong to the Communications Workers of America/International Brotherhood of Teamsters Passenger Service Association.\n\n===Environmental record===\nViolations occurring over a 4½ year period—from October 1993 to July 1998—targeted American Airlines for using high-sulfur fuel in motor vehicles at 10 major airports around the country. Under the federal Clean Air Act high sulfur fuel cannot be used in motor vehicles. American Airlines promptly identified and corrected these violations of the Clean Air Act.\n\nAmerican Airlines' wastewater treatment plant recycles water used at the base to wash aircraft, process rinse water tanks, and irrigate landscape. That alone has saved almost $1 million since 2002. In addition to that, American Airlines has also won the award for the reduction of hazardous waste that saved them $229,000 after a $2,000 investment. A bar code system is used to track hazardous waste. It has led to reduction of waste by 50 percent since 2000.\n\n===Sponsorships===\n\n\nAmerican Airlines is title sponsor of two basketball venues: American Airlines Center (Dallas Mavericks), (Dallas Stars) and American Airlines Arena (Miami Heat).\n\nThe company sponsors several professional sports teams:\n\n* Carolina Panthers\n* Charlotte Hornets\n* Chicago Cubs\n* Dallas Cowboys\n* Dallas Mavericks\n* Dallas Stars\n* Dallas Wings\n* Los Angeles Clippers\n* Los Angeles Rams\n* Miami Heat\n* New England Patriots\n* New England Revolution\n* Philadelphia Eagles\n\n", "\n===Logo===\nAmerican Airlines' fourth logo, used from 1967 until 2013\nIn 1931, Goodrich Murphy, an American employee, designed the AA logo. The logo was redesigned by Massimo Vignelli in 1967. Thirty years later, in 1997, American Airlines was able to make its logo Internet-compatible by buying the domain AA.com. ''AA'' is also American's two-letter IATA airline designator.\n\nOn January 16, 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign with FutureBrand dubbed, \"A New American\". This included a new logo replacing the logo used since 1967. American Airlines calls the new logo the \"Flight Symbol, incorporating the eagle, star, and the letter “A” of the classic logo.\n\n===Livery===\n\nAmerican's early liveries varied widely, but a common livery was adopted in the 1930s, featuring an eagle painted on the fuselage. The eagle became a symbol of the company and inspired the name of American Eagle Airlines. Propeller aircraft featured an international orange lightning bolt running down the length of the fuselage, which was replaced by a simpler orange stripe with the introduction of jets.\n\nA Boeing 737 in the Astrojet livery\n\nIn the late 1960s, American commissioned designer Massimo Vignelli to develop a new livery. The original design called for a red, white, and blue stripe on the fuselage, and a simple \"AA\" logo, without an eagle, on the tail; instead, Vignelli created a highly stylized eagle, which remained the company's logo until 2013. In 1999, American painted a new Boeing 757 (N679AN) in its 1959 international orange livery. One Boeing 777 and one Boeing 757 were painted in standard livery with a pink ribbon on the sides and on the tail, in support of Susan G. Komen for the Cure. One Boeing 757 is painted with a yellow ribbon on the tailfin on the aircraft and on the side of the body says \"Flagship Freedom\". American Eagle, the airline's regional airline has the same special livery on ERJ-145 aircraft.\n\nAA \"Flagship Freedom\" Boeing 757-200, labeled with a \"yellow awareness ribbon\" symbol, representing support of the United States Armed Forces overseas operations.\nOn January 17, 2013, American unveiled a new livery. Before then, American had been the only major U.S. airline to leave most of its aircraft surfaces unpainted. This was because C. R. Smith hated painted aircraft, and refused to use any liveries that involved painting the entire plane. Robert \"Bob\" Crandall later justified the distinctive natural metal finish by noting that less paint reduced the aircraft's weight, thus saving on fuel costs.\n\nAirbus A319 of US Airways wearing Carolina Panthers livery\n\nIn January 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign dubbed, \"The New American\". In addition to a new logo, American Airlines introduced a new livery for its fleet. The airline calls the new livery and branding \"a clean and modern update\". The current design features an abstract American flag on the tail, along with a silver-painted fuselage, as a throw-back to the old livery. The new design was painted by Leading Edge Aviation Services in California. Doug Parker, the incoming CEO indicated that the new livery could be short-lived, stating that \"maybe we need to do something slightly different than that ... The only reason this is an issue now is because they just did it right in the middle, which kind of makes it confusing, so that gives us an opportunity, actually, to decide if we are going to do something different because we have so many airplanes to paint\".\n\nIn the end, American let its employees decide the new livery's fate. On an internal website for employees, American posted two options, one the new livery and one a modified version of the old livery. All of the American Airlines Group employees (including US Airways and other affiliates) were able to vote. American ultimately decided to keep the new look. Parker announced that American would keep a US Airways heritage aircraft in the fleet, with plans to add a heritage TWA aircraft and a heritage American plane with the old livery.\n\n===Slogans===\n* Current: \"The World's Greatest Flyers Fly American\" \n* 2015-2016: \"Going for great.\"\n* 2013–2014: AA/US merger (With the introduction of new logo and branding in 2013.) – \"The new American is arriving.\" (Spanish: \"El nuevo American está llegando.\")\n* 2011–13: – \"Be yourself. Nonstop.\"\n* 2000s–13: – \"We know why you fly.\" (Spanish: \"Sabemos por qué vuelas\")\n* AA/TWA merger – \"Two great airlines, one great future.\"\n* 2001 (post-9/11) – \"We are an airline that is proud to bear the name: American.\"\n* 1998 – early 2000s - \"New York's Bridge To The World\" (Used for marketing in the New York metropolitan area.)\n* Early – mid-1990s – \"We Mean Business In Chicago.\" (Used for marketing in the Chicago market.)\n* 1988 – mid-1990s – \"Based Here. Best Here.\" (Used for marketing in the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex.)\n* 1988 – \"The On-Time Machine.\"\n* Late 1980s – \"No other Airline gives you more of America, than American.\"\n* 1984–2000 – \"Something special in the air.\" (Several variants of this slogan existed. Variant used on the website: \"Something special online.\", Spanish variant: \"Todo es especial, tú eres especial.\", Variant used to market European routes: \"Something special to Europe.\" Variant used with the previous tune: \"We're American Airlines. Something special in the air.\")\n* 1982 – late 1980s – \"En American, tenemos lo que tú buscas.\" (Spanish slogan, translated to \"At American, we've got what you're looking for\").\n* 1975 – 1984 – \"We're American Airlines. Doing what we do best.\" (The tune used for the campaign would be retained for several years with the \"Something special in the air\" slogan).\n* 1971 – 1975 – \"Our passengers get the best of everything.\" (also known as \"You get the best of everything.\")\n* 1969 – 1971 – \"It's good to know you're on American Airlines.\"\n* 1967 – 1969 – \"Fly the American Way.\", resurrected in 2017\n* 1964 – 1967 – \"American built an airline for professional travelers.\" (also known as \"You'll love it.\")\n* 1950s – 1964 – \"America's Leading Airline.\"\n", "\n===Current hubs===\nAmerican currently operates ten hubs across the continental U.S.\n* Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport – American's primary hub, and its largest hub in terms of daily flights and number of destinations and American's primary hub for the South. American currently has about 85% of the market share and flies approximately 56 million passengers through DFW every year, which is about 153,000 people per day making it the busiest airline at the airport. American's corporate headquarters are also in Fort Worth near the airport. Dallas/Fort Worth remains the largest hub for American, in terms of passenger traffic since the American-US Airways merger. DFW serves as American's primary gateway to Mexico, and secondary gateway to Latin America. \n* Charlotte Douglas International Airport – American's second-largest hub in terms of number of destinations and daily flights. It is American's primary hub for the Southeastern United States. About 42 million passengers fly through CLT on American every year, or about 115,000 people per day. As of 2013 American has about 90% of the market share at CLT, making it the airport's largest airline. Charlotte was previously US Airways' largest hub before the American-US Airways merger.\n* O'Hare International Airport – The third-largest hub for American in terms of number of flights and American's primary hub for the Midwest. About 27 million passengers fly on American through O'Hare every year, or about 74,000 people per day. As of 2013 American has about 40% of the market share at O'Hare making it the airport's second-largest airline after United. O'Hare was American's second-largest hub before the American-US Airways merger.\n* Philadelphia International Airport – The fourth-largest hub in terms of number of daily flights and American's primary East Coast hub. American flies approximately 23 million passengers a year through PHL, which is about 63,000 people per day. As of 2013 American has about 70% of the market share at PHL, making it the airport's largest airline. PHL was US Airways' second-largest hub before the American-US Airways merger. Philadelphia is American Airlines' primary European and transatlantic gateway.\n* Miami International Airport – The fifth-largest hub in terms of number of flights. About 30 million passengers fly through MIA every year on American, which is about 82,000 people per day. American has about 70% of the market share at Miami International, making it the largest airline at the airport. Miami was previously American's third-largest hub before the American-US Airways merger. Miami is American's primary South American and Caribbean gateway.\n* Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport – The sixth-largest hub in terms of number of flights and destinations and American's primary western hub. American flies approximately 23 million passengers a year through PHX, which is about 63,000 people per day. Currently American has about 52.6% of the market share at PHX, making it the airport's largest airline. PHX was previously US Airways' third-largest hub before the American-US Airways merger. Phoenix is American Airlines' only major domestic hub without service to Asia or Europe (service to Europe is currently operated by Oneworld partner British Airways operating a Phoenix to Heathrow flight, however, no transoceanic flights currently exist on AA metal).\n* Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport – The seventh-largest hub for American in terms of number of destinations and flights and American's third hub for the East Coast. The airport also serves as a base for American Airlines Shuttle. About 12 million passengers fly through DCA on American every year, or about 33,000 people per day. American has about 23.7% of the market share at DCA, making it the largest carrier at the airport. DCA was US Airways' fourth-largest hub before the American-US Airways merger.\n* Los Angeles International Airport – The eighth-largest hub in terms of number of destinations and flights and American's hub for the West Coast. About 15 million passengers fly through LAX on American every year, or about 41,000 people per day. American has about 18.9% of the market share at LAX, making it the largest carrier at the airport. LAX was American's fourth-largest hub before the American-US Airways merger. LAX is American's primary transpacific gateway.\n* John F. Kennedy International Airport – The ninth-largest hub for American in terms of number of destinations and flights and American's secondary East Coast hub. About 9.4 million passengers fly through JFK on American every year, or about 26,000 people per day. American has about 11% of the market share at JFK, making it the third-largest carrier at the airport behind Delta and JetBlue. JFK was American's fifth-largest hub before the American-US Airways merger. JFK is American's secondary European and transatlantic gateway.\n* LaGuardia Airport – The tenth-largest hub for American in terms of number of destinations and flights and American's fourth hub for the East Coast. About 7.5 million passengers fly through LGA on American every year, or about 21,000 people per day. The airport also serves as a base for American Airlines Shuttle. American has about 28% of the market share at LGA, and is the second-largest carrier behind Delta.\n\n===Former hubs===\n* Lambert–St. Louis International Airport – American closed its St. Louis hub in 2009 because of the declining need for a second Midwestern hub. The St. Louis hub was inherited from Trans World Airlines.\n* Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport – American closed its San Juan hub in 2012. American used San Juan as a connection point for Caribbean destinations using ATR-72 commuter aircraft. American has since removed the ATR-72 series aircraft from its regional fleet and closed its hub at San Juan.\n* Nashville International Airport – American saw a decrease in passenger traffic and closed its Nashville hub in the mid 1990s to cut costs. Former AA CEO, Bob Crandall, stated in a 2006 interview that he wished American never closed their Nashville hub. As of 2017, BNA is one of American's largest non hub stations. \n* Raleigh–Durham International Airport – American closed its Raleigh-Durham hub in the mid-1990s after it was deemed not profitable.\n* San Jose International Airport – American closed its San Jose hub in the early 2000s. The hub was begun on December 2, 1988 with planned growth to 1991, soon after American acquired Air Cal and was seeking a Northern California hub either in San Jose or San Francisco. The San Jose hub was inherited with the acquisition of Reno Air. Reno Air had made San Jose a hub in the mid-1990s after American had decided that the competition on the West Coast made the hub unprofitable and closed it.\n\n===Maintenance bases===\n* Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport - Primary base for Airbus A319, and A321 aircraft, Boeing 777 and 787 aircraft, secondary base for Boeing 737, 757, 767, and McDonnell Douglas MD-80 aircraft.\n* LaGuardia Airport - American operates a small maintenance base for Boeing 737 and ERJ-145 aircraft.\n* Pittsburgh International Airport - Primary base for all legacy US Airways Airbus aircraft.\n* Tulsa International Airport - Primary base for all of American's Boeing fleet (with the exception of the 777 and 787), as well as American Eagle aircraft.\n", "\n\nAA aircraft at Concourse D of Miami International Airport in April 2005.\n AA Boeing 737-800 with the new (2013) livery at Augusto C. Sandino International Airport, Managua in January 2015\nAA Boeing 777 at Galeão International Airport, Rio de Janeiro in November 2003\n\nAmerican operated interchange flight services in conjunction with Alaska Airlines during the 1970s between Texas and Alaska during the construction of the Trans-Alaska oil pipeline. This interchange agreement allowed for single, no change of aircraft service between Houston, Texas and Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas, and Anchorage, Alaska and Fairbanks, Alaska. The round trip routing of this interchange flight was Houston-Dallas/Fort Worth-Seattle-Anchorage-Fairbanks with Seattle, Washington serving as the interchange point where flight and cabin crews were changed from one airline to the other. Boeing 727-200 jetliners provided by both American and Alaska Airlines were utilized to provide this interchange service.\n\nAmerican Airlines is the only US carrier that flies to Barranquilla, Belo Horizonte, Brasilia, Cali, Cap-Haitien, Caracas, Cienfuegos, Fort-de-France, Guayaquil, La Paz, Manaus, Maracaibo, Montevideo, Pointe-a-Pitre, San Salvador (Bahamas), Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Varadero. It is also the leading U.S. carrier to Cuba in terms of passenger volume.\n\n\n+ AA hubs listed by departures (Winter 2017)\n Rank\n Airport\n Flights\n Destinations\n\n 1\n Dallas–Fort-Worth, Texas\n 804\n 197\n\n 2\n Charlotte, North Carolina\n 664\n 150\n\n 3\n Chicago–O'Hare, Illinois\n 498\n 122\n\n 4\n Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\n 400\n 112\n\n 5\n Miami, Florida\n 350\n 130\n\n 6\n Phoenix, Arizona\n 299\n 91\n\n 7\n Washington-National, Virginia\n 250\n 60\n\n 8\n Los Angeles, California\n 225\n 70\n\n 9\n New York-LaGuardia, New York\n 173\n 38\n\n 10\n New York-JFK, New York\n 105\n 49\n\n", "American Airlines codeshares with the following airlines:\n\n* Air Tahiti Nui\n* Alaska Airlines\n* British Airways\n* Caribbean Airlines\n* Cape Air\n* Cathay Pacific\n* China Southern Airlines\n* El Al\n* Etihad Airways (ends 25 March 2018)\n* Fiji Airways\n* Finnair\n* Gulf Air\n* Hainan Airlines\n* Hawaiian Airlines\n* Iberia\n* Interjet\n* Japan Airlines\n* Jetstar Airways\n* Jetstar Japan\n* Korean Air \n* LATAM Argentina\n* LATAM Brasil\n* LATAM Chile\n* LATAM Ecuador\n* Malaysia Airlines\n* Niki\n* Qantas\n* Qatar Airways (ends 25 March 2018)\n* Royal Jordanian\n* Seaborne Airlines\n* SriLankan Airlines\n* WestJet\n\n\n===Joint ventures===\nIn particular, American has joint ventures with British Airways, Iberia, and Finnair on transatlantic routes and with Japan Airlines and Qantas on transpacific routes.\n", "\n\nAn American Airlines Boeing 777-200ER with the new livery departing Shanghai Pudong Airport in 2013.\nAn American Airlines Boeing 777-300ER in the new livery landing at London Heathrow Airport in 2013.\n\nAs of February 2017, American Airlines operates a fleet of 939 aircraft, making it the largest commercial fleet in the world. It operates a mix of Airbus, Boeing, Embraer, and McDonnell Douglas aircraft.\n\nOver two thirds of American's aircraft are narrow-bodies, mainly Airbus A320 series and Boeing 737-800. It also operates Boeing 757, Embraer 190 and McDonnell Douglas MD-82/83, but most of them are planned to be phased out within five years.\n\nIts wide-body aircraft are mainly Boeing airliners. It is the third-largest operator of the Boeing 767 series and the fifth-largest operator of the Boeing 777 series. It also operates the Airbus A330.\n", "\n\n===International Flagship Suite===\nThe Flagship Suite is American's international first class product. It is exclusively offered on all Boeing 777-300ERs in the fleet. \n\n'''• Boeing 777-300ER:''' Fully lie-flat seats with direct aisle access in a 1-2-1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 82 inches (208 cm). Equipped with a 17-inch (43 cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, two universal AC power outlets, and USB ports.\n\n'''Amenities Include:'''\n\n• Flagship check-in privileges\n\n• 3 complimentary checked bags\n\n• Access to the Flagship Lounge (International First Class Lounge while the Flagship Lounges are being refurbished)\n\n• Early boarding\n\n• First Class amenity kit\n\n• Turndown service with pajamas\n\n• A pair of Bose QuietComfort Acoustic Noise Canceling Headsets to use during flight\n\n• Inflight wine tasting\n\n• Premium alcoholic beverages and wine selections (including pre-departure champagne service)\n\n• Chef-inspired dining options\n\n• Access to the premium cabin walk-up bar, which features assorted snacks and beverages throughout the duration of the flight.\n\n===International Business Class===\nInternational Business Class is offered on some Boeing 757-200s and all Airbus A330s, Boeing 767-300ERs, Boeing 777-200ERs, Boeing 777-300ERs, Boeing 787-8s, and Boeing 787-9s.Sky Club boarding pass\n• '''Airbus A330:''' Fully lie-flat Cirrus seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats France and designed by JPA Design for US Airways with direct aisle access in a 1-2-1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 76-80 inches (193–203 cm). Equipped with a 12.1 inch (31 cm) touchscreen monitor, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.American Airlines#cite note-78\|1\n\n• '''Boeing 757-200''' Post-Retrofit: Fully lie-flat Diamond seats manufactured by B/E Aerospace and designed for American Airlines in a 2-2 configuration. Seat length: 75–78 inches (191–198cm). Equipped with Samsung Galaxy Tab™ 10.1 inch (26 cm) tablets, and two universal AC power outlets (one to power the tablet).\n\n• '''Boeing 757-200''' Pre-Retrofit (Version 1): Angled lie-flat seats manufactured by Recaro and designed for American Airlines in a 2-2 configuration equipped on legacy American Airlines aircraft. Seat length: 58-61 inches (147–155 cm). Equipped with a 10.6 inch touchscreen and a DC power outlet. These seats are currently in the process of being replaced.\n\n• '''Boeing 757-200''' Pre-Retrofit (Version 2): Recliner seats designed for US Airways in 2-2 configuration. Seat length: 60 inches (152 cm). Equipped with Samsung Galaxy Tab™ 10.1 inch (26 cm) tablets, and a DC power outlet. These seats are currently in the process of being replaced.\n\n• '''Boeing 767-300ER''' Post-Retrofit: Fully lie-flat seats manufactured by Thompson Aero Seating with direct aisle access in a 1-2-1 staggered configuration. Equipped with Samsung Galaxy Tab™ 10.1 inch (26 cm) tablets, two universal AC power outlets (one to power the tablet), and USB ports.\n\n• '''Boeing 767-300ER''' Pre-Retrofit: Angled lie-flat seats manufactured by Recaro and designed for American Airlines in a 2-2-2 configuration. Seat length: 58-61 inches (147–155 cm). Equipped with Samsung Galaxy Tab™ 10.1 inch (26 cm) tablets, and two DC power outlets (one to power the tablet).These seats are currently in the process of being replaced.American Airlines#cite note-81\|5\n\n• '''Boeing 777-200ER''' Version 1: Fully lie-flat seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats France, designed for American Airlines, with direct aisle access in a 1-2-1 reverse herringbone configuration with front-facing and rear-facing seats. Seat length: 77 inches (196cm). Equipped with a 16-inch (41 cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, two universal AC power outlets, and USB ports.\n\n• '''Boeing 777-200ER''' Version 2: Fully lie-flat Super Diamond seats manufactured by B/E Aerospace and designed for American Airlines with direct aisle access in a 1-2-1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 77 inches (196cm). Equipped with a UNKNOWN-inch (UNKNOWN cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.\n\n• '''Boeing 777-300ER:''' Fully lie-flat Cirrus seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats UK, designed by JPA Design for Cathay Pacific, and licensed from Cathay Pacific with direct aisle access in a 1-2-1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 76-80 inches (193–203 cm). Equipped with a 15.4-inch(39 cm) inch touchscreen monitor, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.American Airlines#cite note-777300ER-76\|2\n\n'''• Boeing 787-8:''' Fully lie-flat seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats France and designed for American Airlines with direct aisle access in a 1-2-1 reverse herringbone configuration with front-facing and rear-facing seats. Seat length: 77 inches (196cm). Equipped with a 16-inch (41 cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, two universal AC power outlets, and USB ports.\n\n'''• Boeing 787-9:''' Fully lie-flat Super Diamond seats manufactured by B/E Aerospace and designed for American Airlines with direct aisle access in a 1-2-1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: 77 inches (196cm). Equipped with a UNKNOWN-inch (UNKNOWN cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.\n\n'''Amenities Include:'''\n\n• Priority check-in privileges\n\n• 2 complimentary checked bags\n\n• Access to the Admirals Club\n\n• Early boarding\n\n• Business Class amenity kit\n\n• A pair of Bose QuietComfort Acoustic Noise Canceling Headsets to use during flight\n\n• Premium alcoholic beverages and wine selections (including pre-departure beverage service)\n\n• Chef-inspired dining options\n\n• Access to the premium cabin walk-up bar, which features assorted snacks and beverages throughout the duration of the flight (available on the Boeing 777-300ER, Boeing 777-200, Boeing 787-8, and Boeing 787-9)\n\n• On flights from Los Angeles to Hong Kong and Sydney and Dallas to Hong Kong, turndown service and pajamas are also provided\n\n===Transcontinental===\nAmerican has dedicated 17 Airbus A321s (A321T) in its fleet for the specific use of flying transcontinental routes between New York JFK - Los Angeles LAX and New York JFK - San Francisco SFO. These aircraft offer two premium cabins, First Class and Business Class, which are unique among domestic mainline aircraft in American's fleet:\n\n• '''First Class:''' Fully lie-flat seats manufactured by Zodiac Seats France and designed for and designed for American Airlines with direct aisle access in a 1-1 reverse herringbone configuration. Seat length: UNKNOWN inches (UNKNOWN cm). Equipped with a 15.4-inch (39 cm) inch touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.\n\n• '''Business Class:''' Fully lie-flat Diamond seats manufactured by B/E Aerospace and designed for American Airlines in a 2-2 configuration. Seat length: 75–78 inches (191–198cm). Equipped with a 15.4-inch (39 cm) touchscreen monitor and touchscreen handset, one universal AC power outlet, and USB ports.\n\n'''Amenities Include:'''\n\n• Priority check-in privileges\n\n• 2 / 3(First Class) complimentary checked bags\n\n• Access to the Admirals Club / Flagship Lounge(First Class)\n\n• Early boarding\n\n• Business Class / First Class amenity kit\n\n• A pair of Bose QuietComfort Acoustic Noise Canceling Headsets to use during flight\n\n• Premium alcoholic beverages and wine selections (including pre-departure beverage service)\n\n• Chef-inspired dining options\n\n===Domestic First Class===\nFirst Class is offered on all domestic mainline aircraft, as well as regional aircraft with more than 50 seats. When such aircraft are used on flights to international destinations including Canada, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, the First Class cabin is branded as Business Class. Seats range from 19–21 inches (48–53 cm) in width and have 37–42 inches (94–106 cm) of pitch. Dining options include free snacks, beverages, and alcohol on all flights, with three-course meals offered on flights 900 miles (1,448 km) or longer (select routes under 900 miles offer meal service).\n\n===Premium Economy===\nOn December 9, 2015, American announced a new Premium Economy product for most long-haul widebody aircraft. This new product will debut on the new 787-9s in late 2016 and will be available on the new A350s in 2018. It will also be retrofitted to all other widebody aircraft within the next three years, excluding 767s due to their upcoming retirement. The seats will be wider than standard Main Cabin seats and will offer 38\" of pitch, 2\" more than Main Cabin Extra seats, as well as a footrest. Premium Economy customers will also get two free checked bags, priority boarding, and enhanced food and drink service including free alcohol. This product will make American Airlines the first U.S. carrier to offer a four-cabin aircraft.\n\n===Main Cabin Extra===\nAmerican's economy plus product (not to be confused with premium economy), Main Cabin Extra, is available on most of the mainline fleet and American Eagle regional aircraft with more than 50 seats. Exceptions include a majority of former US Airways aircraft (as of May 2015), US Airways Express regional aircraft, and a handful of 777-200ERs that have yet to be retrofitted. Seats range from 17.2–18.5 inches (44–47 cm) in width and have 34–38 inches (86–97 cm) of pitch, which is 4–6 more inches of pitch offered in regular economy seating. American will retain Main Cabin Extra when the new Premium Economy product enters service in late 2016.\n\n===Main Cabin===\nMain Cabin is American's economy product, and is found on all mainline and regional aircraft in its fleet. Seats range from 17–18.5 inches (43–47 cm) in width and have 30–32 inches (76–81 cm) of pitch. Newer aircraft, including all Boeing 777-300ER, refurbished Boeing 777-200ER's, all Boeing 787 Dreamliners, all Airbus A330s, all newly delivered Airbus A319s and Boeing 737s, and most newly delivered Airbus A321s, include seatback TVs, featuring AVOD in each seat.\n\n===Basic Economy===\nAmerican's basic economy product, Basic Economy, is available on select routes. It is American's lowest main cabin fare. Basic economy is located in main cabin, but comes with restrictions. These restrictions include assigned seat at check in, no access to overhead bins, no upgrades or refunds, and boarding in the last group.\n\nAmerican Airlines marketed increased legroom in economy class as \"More Room Throughout Coach\", also referred to as \"MRTC\" starting in February 2000. Two rows of economy class seats were removed on Boeing 737 and McDonnell Douglas MD-80 aircraft. Amid financial losses, this scheme was discontinued in 2004.\n\nIn May 2017, American announced they would be adding more seats to some of its Boeing 737 Max jetliners and reducing overall legroom in the basic economy class. The last three rows will lose two inches; going from the current 31 to 29 inches. The remainder of the economy cabin will have 30 inches of legroom. This compares to Jet Blue with 34 inches of legroom and Spirit with 28 inches.\n", "\n\nAAdvantage logo (2013-present)\nAAdvantage is the frequent flyer program for American Airlines. It was launched on May 1, 1981, and it remains the largest frequent flyer program with over 67 million members as of 2011.\n", "\n\n===Admirals Club===\n\nThe Admirals Club was conceived by AA president C.R. Smith as a marketing promotion shortly after he was made an honorary Texas Ranger. Inspired by the Kentucky colonels and other honorary organizations, Smith decided to make particularly valued passengers \"admirals\" of the \"Flagship fleet\" (AA called its aircraft \"Flagships\" at the time). The list of Admirals included many celebrities, politicians, and other VIPs, as well as more \"ordinary\" customers who had been particularly loyal to the airline.\n\nThere was no physical Admirals Club until shortly after the opening of LaGuardia Airport. During the airport's construction, New York Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia had an upper-level lounge set aside for press conferences and business meetings. At one such press conference, he noted that the entire terminal was being offered for lease to airline tenants; after a reporter asked whether the lounge would be leased as well, LaGuardia replied that it would, and a vice president of AA immediately offered to lease the premises. The airline then procured a liquor license and began operating the lounge as the \"Admirals Club\" in 1939.\n\nThe second Admirals Club opened at Washington National Airport. Because it was illegal to sell alcohol in Virginia at the time, the club contained refrigerators for the use of its members, so they could store their own liquor at the airport. For many years, membership in the Admirals Club (and most other airline lounges) was by the airline's invitation. After a passenger sued for discrimination, the Club (and most other airline lounges) switched to a paid membership program.\n\n===Flagship Lounge===\nThough affiliated with the Admirals Club and staffed by many of the same employees, the Flagship Lounge is a separate lounge specifically designed for customers flying in First Class on transcontinental domestic flights and international flights, as well as AAdvantage Executive Platinum and Oneworld Emerald frequent flyers. Flagship Lounges are now available at four airports: Chicago-O'Hare, London-Heathrow, Los Angeles, and New York-JFK. American also previously offered a Flagship Lounge in Miami from 2000 to 2002, and again from 2009. It plans to open again in 2017.\n", "\n\n", "* In the 1960s, Mattel released a series of American Airlines Stewardess Barbie dolls.\n* Throughout the 1990s, American Airlines was featured in John Hughes' ''Home Alone'' trilogy of movies.\n* In August 2008, in a Season 2 episode of ''Mad Men'' (Episode 2, titled \"Flight 1\"), Pete Campbell's father is a passenger on American Airlines Flight 1 which crashes shortly after takeoff from Idlewild Airport (now John F. Kennedy International Airport), killing all the passengers and crew on board.\n* American Airlines was a sponsor of a travelogue segment of the Univision show ''Sábado Gigante'' titled ''La Cámara Viajera''.\n* American Airlines was extensively featured in the 2009 movie ''Up in the Air'' as part of a marketing tie-in between the airline and Paramount Pictures.\n* In 2013, American Airlines collaborated with Disney to promote ''Planes'' by featuring a cameo appearance of a passenger airliner named Tripp, with the American Airlines livery to promote its new image.\n* ''Airport 1975'' used a Boeing 747-123 Freighter (cargo variant) s/n 20390 (registration N9675), leased from American Airlines.\n", "\n* AAirpass\n* Air transportation in the United States\n* List of airlines of the United States\n* List of airports in the United States\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Hieger, Linda H. (2010) ''With Wings of Silver and Gold'' \n\n", "\n\n* \n** \" American Airlines is Social\" – Links to official Facebook, Google+ and Twitter\n* Official American Airlines Vacations website\n* ''American Way'' inflight magazine\n* Timetableimages.com has many timetables from the 1930s until 1967, showing where American flew, how often, how long it took and how much it cost.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", "Corporate affairs", "Corporate identity", "Hubs", "Destinations", "Codeshare agreements", "Fleet", "Cabin", "AAdvantage", "Lounges", "Accidents and incidents", "In popular culture", "See also", "References", "Further reading", " External links " ]	American Airlines
[ "\n\n'''Antidepressants''' are drugs used for the treatment of major depressive disorder and other conditions, including dysthymia, anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, eating disorders, chronic pain, neuropathic pain and, in some cases, dysmenorrhoea, snoring, migraine, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), addiction, dependence, and sleep disorders. They may be prescribed alone or in combination with other medications.\n\nThe most important classes of antidepressants are the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (RIMAs), tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs), and noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant (NaSSAs). St John's wort is also used in the treatment of depression.\n\nOne theory regarding the cause of depression is that it is characterized by an overactive hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis) that resembles the neuro-endocrine response to stress. These HPA axis abnormalities participate in the development of depressive symptoms, and antidepressants may serve to regulate HPA axis function.\n\n", "\nFor depression, the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) is often used to measure the severity of depression. The maximum score for the 17-item HAM-D questionnaire is 52; the higher the score, the more severe the depression.\n\n===Major depressive disorder===\n\n====Clinical guidelines====\n\nThe UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2009 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor. The guidelines recommend that antidepressant treatment should be considered for:\n* People with a history of moderate or severe depression,\n* Those with mild depression that has been present for a long period,\n* As a second-line treatment for mild depression that persists after other interventions,\n* As a first-line treatment for moderate or severe depression.\n\nThe guidelines further note that antidepressant treatment should be used in combination with psychosocial interventions in most cases, should be continued for at least six months to reduce the risk of relapse, and that SSRIs are typically better tolerated than other antidepressants.\n\nAmerican Psychiatric Association treatment guidelines recommend that initial treatment should be individually tailored based on factors that include severity of symptoms, co-existing disorders, prior treatment experience, and patient preference. Options may include pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or light therapy. Antidepressant medication is recommended as an initial treatment choice in people with mild, moderate, or severe major depression, and should be given to all patients with severe depression unless ECT is planned.\n\n====Systematic reviews====\n\nConflicting results have arisen from studies analyzing the efficacy of antidepressants by comparisons to placebo in people with acute mild to moderate depression. Stronger evidence supports the usefulness of antidepressants in the treatment of depression that is chronic (dysthymia) or severe.\n\nResearchers Irving Kirsch and Thomas Moore have contested the pharmacological activity of antidepressants in the relief of depression, and state that the evidence is most consistent a role as active placebos. Their study consisted of a meta analysis incorporating data from both published studies and unpublished data obtained from the FDA via a Freedom of Information Act request. Overall, antidepressant pills worked 18% better than placebos, a statistically significant difference, but not one that is clinically significant. In a later publication, Kirsch concluded that the overall effect of new-generation antidepressant medication is below recommended criteria for clinical significance.\n\nA 2017 meta analysis comparing the efficacy of SSRIs against placebo found the mean reduction in Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression to be -1.94 points over 49 studies. This was statistically significant, but failed to meet the clinical significance threshold, predefined according to the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommended standard mean difference of 0.5, equivalent to a 3 point reduction in HDRS. A high risk of bias was found, which could possibly explain the statistically significant effect of SSRI, and the authors concluded that the frequency of adverse events outweighed the small clinical improvements.\n \t\nThe efficacy of antidepressants was observed in one meta analysis to be dependent upon the baseline severity, as measured by the HDRS. Antidepressants in patients with a score less than 23(indicating mild to moderate depression) demonstrated a small benefit over placebo. However, antidepressants in those with a score >25 exhibited an advantage over placebo that cross the NICE threshold for clinical significance.\n\nAnother study focusing on paroxetine (Paxil) and imipramine found that antidepressant drugs were only slightly better than placebo in cases of mild or moderate depression they surveyed but offered \"substantial\" benefit in those with severe depression.\n\nIn 2014 the U.S. FDA published a systematic review of all antidepressant maintenance trials submitted to the agency between 1985 and 2012. The authors concluded that maintenance treatment reduced the risk of relapse by 52% compared to placebo, and that this effect was primarily due to recurrent depression in the placebo group rather than a drug withdrawal effect.\n\nA review commissioned by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence concluded that there is strong evidence that SSRIs have greater efficacy than placebo on achieving a 50% reduction in depression scores in moderate and severe major depression, and that there is some evidence for a similar effect in mild depression. The treatment guidelines developed in conjunction with this review suggest that antidepressants should be considered in patients with moderate to severe depression and those with mild depression that is persistent or resistant to other treatment modalities.\n\nThe Cochrane Collaboration recently performed a systematic review of clinical trials of the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline. The study concluded that in spite of moderate evidence for publication bias, there is strong evidence that the efficacy of amitriptyline is superior to placebo.\n\nA 2015 systematic review of add-on therapies for treatment-resistant depression concluded that quetiapine and aripiprazole have the strongest evidence-base supporting their efficacy, but they are associated with additional treatment-related side effects when used as an add-on therapy.\n\nA 2008 Cochrane Collaboration review on St John's wort (specifically, any extracts which contain ''Hypericum perforatum''), and a 2015 meta-analytic systematic review by some of the same authors, both concluded that it: has superior efficacy to placebo in treating depression; is as effective as standard antidepressant pharmaceuticals for treating depression; and has fewer adverse effects than other antidepressants. The 2015 meta analysis concluded that it is difficult to assign a place for St. John's wort in the treatment of depression owing to limitations in the available evidence base, including large variations in efficacy seen in trials performed in German-speaking relative to other countries. Reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (RIMAs) have also been shown to be an effective drug therapy with greater tolerability than other antidepressants; however, the efficacy of SSRIs, tricyclic, and tetracyclic antidepressants in treating depression is supported by a much larger evidence base compared to other antidepressant drug therapies (i.e., St John's wort, rMAO-A inhibitors, serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors, noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, and noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants).\n\nA study published in the ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' (''JAMA'') demonstrated that the magnitude of the placebo effect in clinical trials of depression have been growing over time, while the effect size of tested drugs has remained relatively constant. The authors suggest that one possible explanation for the growing placebo effect in clinical trials is the inclusion of larger number of participants with shorter term, mild, or spontaneously remitting depression as a result of decreasing stigma associated with antidepressant use. Placebo response rates in clinical trials of complementary and alternative (CAM) therapies are significantly lower than those in clinical trials of traditional antidepressants.\n\nA 2004 review concluded that antidepressant studies that failed to support efficacy claims were dramatically less likely to be published than those that did support favorable efficacy claims. Similar results were obtained for a study of publication of clinical trials of antidepressants in children. A 2015 investigation of meta-analyses of antidepressant studies found that 79% of them had \"sponsorship or authors who were (pharmaceutical) industry employees and/or had conflicts of interest\".\n\nA 2012 meta-analysis found that fluoxetine and venlafaxine were effective for major depression in all age groups. The authors also found no evidence of a relationship between baseline severity of depression and degree of benefit of antidepressants over placebo.\n\nA review published in 2012 found a negative correlation between study year and efficacy of antidepressants as measured by response rate. The change in response rate was largely driven by increase in placebo response. However the authors still concluded that antidepressants were effective in treating depression. The authors found that TCAs were the most effective drug, followed by SNRIs, MAOIs, SSRIs and atypical antidepressants.\n\n====The STARD Trial====\n\nThe largest and most expensive study conducted to date, on the effectiveness of pharmacological treatment for depression, was commissioned by the National Institute of Mental Health. The study was dubbed \"The Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression\" (STARD) Study. The results are summarized here.\nParticipants in the trial were recruited when they sought medical care at general medical or psychiatric clinics. No advertising was used to recruit subjects in order to maximize the generalizability of the study results. Participants were required to have a minimum score of 14 point on the Hamilton Depression Scale (HAM-D17) in order to be enrolled in the trial. Generally accepted cutoffs are 7–17 points for mild depression, 18–24 points for moderate depression, and ≥ 24 for severe depression. The average participant baseline HAM-D17 score was 22. The pre-specified primary endpoint of this trial was remission as determined by the HAM-D score, with all patients with missing scores rated as non-responders. In the aftermath of the trial, the investigators have presented the results mainly using the secondary endpoint of remission according to the QIDS-SR16 Score, which tend to be somewhat higher.\n* After the first course of treatment, 27.5% of the 2,876 participants reached remission with a HAM-D score of 7 or less and 33% achieved remission according to the QIDS-SR scale. The response rate according to the QIDS-SR16 score was 47%. Twenty-six percent dropped out.\n* After the second course of treatment, 21 to 30% of the remaining 1,439 participants remitted. Switching medications can achieve remission in about 25% of patients.\n* After the third course of treatment, 17.8% of the remaining 310 participants remitted.\n* After the fourth and last course of treatment, 10.1% of the remaining 109 participants remitted.\n* Relapse within 12 months was 33% in those who achieved remission in the first stage, and 42% to 50% in those achieving remission in later stages. Relapse was higher in those who responded to medication but did not achieve remission (59–83%) than in those who achieved remission.\nThere were no statistical or meaningful clinical differences in remission rates, response rates, or times to remission or response among any of the medications compared in this study. These included bupropion sustained release, bupropion, citalopram, lithium, mirtazapine, nortriptyline, sertraline, triiodothyronine, tranylcypromine, and venlafaxine extended release.\n\nA 2008 review of randomized controlled trials concluded that symptomatic improvement with SSRIs was greatest by the end of the first week of use, but that some improvement continued for at least 6 weeks.\n\n====Limitations and strategies====\n\nBetween 30% and 50% of individuals treated with a given antidepressant do not show a response. In clinical studies, approximately one-third of patients achieve a full remission, one-third experience a response and one-third are nonresponders. Partial remission is characterized by the presence of poorly defined residual symptoms. These symptoms typically include depressed mood, psychic anxiety, sleep disturbance, fatigue and diminished interest or pleasure. It is currently unclear which factors predict partial remission. However, it is clear that residual symptoms are powerful predictors of relapse, with relapse rates 3–6 times higher in patients with residual symptoms than in those who experience full remission. In addition, antidepressant drugs tend to lose efficacy over the course of treatment. According to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, less than one-third of Americans taking one antidepressant medication have seen a mental health professional in the previous year. A number of strategies are used in clinical practice to try to overcome these limits and variations. They include switching medication, augmentation, and combination.\n\n====\"Trial and error\" switching====\n\nThe American Psychiatric Association 2000 Practice Guideline advises that where no response is achieved following six to eight weeks of treatment with an antidepressant, to switch to an antidepressant in the same class, then to a different class of antidepressant.\nA 2006 meta-analysis review found wide variation in the findings of prior studies; for patients who had failed to respond to an SSRI antidepressant, between 12% and 86% showed a response to a new drug. However, the more antidepressants an individual had already tried, the less likely they were to benefit from a new antidepressant trial. However, a later meta-analysis found no difference between switching to a new drug and staying on the old medication; although 34% of treatment resistant patients responded when switched to the new drug, 40% responded without being switched.\n\n====Augmentation and combination====\n\nFor a partial response, the American Psychiatric Association guidelines suggest augmentation, or adding a drug from a different class. These include lithium and thyroid augmentation, dopamine agonists, sex steroids, NRIs, glucocorticoid-specific agents, or the newer anticonvulsants.\n\nA combination strategy involves adding another antidepressant, usually from a different class so as to have effect on other mechanisms. Although this may be used in clinical practice, there is little evidence for the relative efficacy or adverse effects of this strategy. Other tests recently conducted include the use of psychostimulants as an augmentation therapy. Several studies have shown the efficacy of combining modafinil to treatment-resistant patients. It has been used to help combat SSRI-associated fatigue.\n\n====Long-term use====\n\nThe therapeutic effects of antidepressants typically do not continue once the course of medication ends, resulting in a high rate of relapse. A 2003 meta-analysis of 31 placebo-controlled antidepressant trials, mostly limited to studies covering a period of one year, found that 18% of patients who had responded to an antidepressant relapsed while still taking it, compared to 41% whose antidepressant was switched for a placebo.\n\nA gradual loss of therapeutic benefit occurs in a minority of people during the course of treatment. A strategy involving the use of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of the acute episode, followed by psychotherapy in its residual phase, has been suggested by some studies.\n\n====Comparative efficacy and tolerability====\n\n\nComparative efficacy and tolerability table\n\n\n\n Drug\n Relative efficacy\n Tolerability\n Dangerin overdose\n Weight gain\n Ortho hypot\n Inactivating effects\n Activating effects\n Anti-ACh\n QTc i. p.\n GItoxicity\n SD\n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n\n '''Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)'''\n\n Drug\n Relative efficacy\n Tolerability\n Dangerin overdose\n Weight gain\n Ortho hypot\n Inactivating effects\n Activating effects\n Anti-ACh\n QTc i. p.\n GItoxicity\n SD\n\n Amitriptyline\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n 4\n\n 3\n\n 4\n\n v\n\n 4\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 4/3\n\n Amoxapine\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 4\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n ND\n\n Clomipramine\n\n 3\n\n 2/1\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 4/3\n\n v\n\n 4\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 4\n\n Desipramine\n\n 2\n\n 2/1\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1/v\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n 1/v\n\n ND\n\n Dosulepin (Dothiepin)\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 4\n\n ?\n\n 3/2\n\n 3/2\n\n v\n\n 3/2\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n 3/2\n\n Doxepin\n\n 2\n\n 2/1\n\n 3\n\n 3\n\n 4\n\n 3\n\n v\n\n 3\n\n 3\n\n v\n\n 3\n\n Imipramine\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n 4\n\n 4/3\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n Lofepramine\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n ?\n\n ?\n\n Maprotiline\n\n 2\n\n 2/1\n\n 4\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n v\n\n ND\n\n Nortriptyline\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n ND\n\n Protriptyline\n\n 2\n\n 2/1\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 4/3\n\n Tianeptine\n\n 2\n\n 4\n\n ?\n\n ?\n\n ?\n\n ?\n\n ?\n\n ?\n\n ?\n\n ?\n\n ?\n\n Trimipramine\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n 4\n\n 3\n\n 4\n\n 1\n\n 4\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n '''Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)'''\n\n Drug\n Relative efficacy\n Tolerability\n Dangerin overdose\n Weight gain\n Ortho hypot\n Inactivating effects\n Activating effects\n Anti-ACh\n QTc i. p.\n GI toxicity\n SD\n\n Isocarboxazid\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 4\n\n Moclobemide\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n ?\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 1/v\n\n Phenelzine\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 4\n\n Seligiline\n\n ?\n\n 3\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n Tranylcypromine\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 4\n\n '''Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)'''\n\n Drug\n Relative efficacy\n Tolerability\n Dangerin overdose\n Weight gain\n Ortho hypot\n Inactivating effects\n Activating effects\n Anti-ACh\n QTc i. p.\n GItoxicity\n SD\n\n Citalopram\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n Escitalopram\n\n 3\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n Fluoxetine\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n Fluvoxamine\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1/v\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n Paroxetine\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1/v\n\n 1\n\n 4\n\n Sertraline\n\n 3\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n 1/v\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n '''Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)'''\n\n Drug\n Relative efficacy\n Tolerability\n Dangerin overdose\n Weight gain\n Ortho hypot\n Inactivating effects\n Activating effects\n Anti-ACh\n QTc i. p.\n GItoxicity\n SD\n\n Desvenlafaxine\n\n 2\n\n 3/2\n\n 1/2\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2/1\n\n 3\n\n Duloxetine\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n Milnacipran\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n ?\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n Venlafaxine\n\n 3\n\n 2\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 2 (IR)1 (XR)\n\n 3\n\n '''Noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants (NaSSAs)'''\n\n Drug\n Relative efficacy\n Tolerability\n Dangerin overdose\n Weight gain\n Ortho hypot\n Inactivating effects\n Activating effects\n Anti-ACh\n QTc i. p.\n GItoxicity\n SD\n\n Mianserin\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n ?\n\n 4\n\n v\n\n 4\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n Mirtazapine\n\n 3\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 4\n\n v\n\n 4\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n '''Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs)'''\n\n Drug\n Relative efficacy\n Tolerability\n Dangerin overdose\n Weight gain\n Ortho hypot\n Inactivating effects\n Activating effects\n Anti-ACh\n QTc i. p.\n GItoxicity\n SD\n\n Nefazodone\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 2/1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n Trazodone\n\n 2 \n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n 4\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n '''Serotonin modulator and stimulators (SMSs)'''\n\n Drug\n Relative efficacy\n Tolerability\n Dangerin overdose\n Weight gain\n Ortho hypot\n Inactivating effects\n Activating effects\n Anti-ACh\n QTc i. p.\n GItoxicity\n SD\n\n Vilazodone\n\n 2\n\n 3/2\n\n ?\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 4\n\n 2\n\n Vortioxetine\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n ?\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 1/v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n '''Other'''\n\n Drug\n Relative efficacy\n Tolerability\n Dangerin overdose\n Weight gain\n Ortho hypot\n Inactivating effects\n Activating effects\n Anti-ACh\n QTc i. p.\n GItoxicity\n SD\n\n Agomelatine\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 1/v\n\n Bupropion\n\n 2\n\n 3\n\n 3/2\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2/1\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n Reboxetine\n\n 1\n\n 3\n\n 1\n\n v\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 2\n\n v\n\n v\n\n 1\n\n 1\n\n St John's wort\n\n 3/2\n\n 4\n\n 1\n\n 1/v\n\n 1/v\n\n 1/v\n\n 1/v\n\n 1/v\n\n 1/v\n\n 1/v\n\n 1/v\n\n\n'''Where:'''\n\n''For adverse effects/overdose toxicity''\n\n4 means very strong effect/extreme toxicity.\n\n3 strong effect; efficacious/high toxicity.\n\n2 moderate effect/moderately toxic.\n\n1 weak effect/weakly toxic.\n\nv very weak/negligible effect\n\n''For tolerability''\n\n4 extremely tolerable. These drugs have proven to be better tolerated than the SSRIs.\n\n3 very tolerable ? few, mild and transient side effects. These are drugs such as the SSRIs.\n\n2 moderately tolerable. Some of the more tolerable of TCAs.\n\n1 poor tolerability. TCAs and MAOIs mostly.\n\n''For efficacy''\n\n3 Superior efficacy drug, according to at least one review article.\n\n2 Ordinary efficacy drug. Maybe some primary sources indicate superior efficacy relative to superior efficacy agents (e.g. agomelatine has shown superior efficacy to venlafaxine in one clinical trial) but insufficient data to say with much confidence.\n\n1 Inferior efficacy compared to ordinary efficacy drugs, according to at least one review article.\n\n'''Acronyms/terms used in the above table:'''\n\nActivating effects – adverse effects such as agitation, anxiety, insomnia and tremor.\n\nAMH – Australian Medicines Handbook.\n\nGI – Gastrointestinal.\n\nInactivating effects – sedating effects such as drowsiness, somnolence and sedation.\n\nIR – Immediate release tablets.\n\nND – No data.\n\nOrtho hypot – Orthostatic hypotension\n\nQTc i. p. – QTc interval prolongation\n\nSD – Sexual dysfunction.\n\nXR – Extended release tablets.\n\n'''PER DRUG NOTES:''' \n\n'''Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)'''\n\nAmitriptyline:\nPreferentially (8x over norepinephrine) inhibits the reuptake of serotonin but norepinephrine reuptake inhibition is clinically significant. Listed as a more hepatotoxic antidepressant in a recent review article.\n\nAmoxapine:\nSometimes classed with the tetracyclic antidepressants. Has atypical antipsychotic actions too. Not available in Australia, Canada or the UK but available in the US. May be faster acting. Antidopaminergic, which means that it can cause extrapyramidal side effects, tardive dyskinesia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Causes kidney failure and seizures in overdose, although it usually does not cause cardiotoxic effects in overdose.\n\nClomipramine:\nHighly selective (~120x) for serotonin reuptake inhibition. More epileptogenic than other TCAs.\n\nDesipramine:\nPreferentially inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine (22x over serotonin).\n\nDosulepin (Dothiepin):\nNot available in the US. Available in Australia (where it is still commonly referred to as dothiepin) and the UK.\nWeight gain: probably 2\nDanger in overdose: 4 \n\nDoxepin:\nSomewhat selective for inhibiting norepinephrine reuptake (2.3x over serotonin).\n\nImipramine:\nFirst marketed TCA. Somewhat selective for serotonin reuptake (26x over norepinephrine).\nRelative efficacy: 3 More hepatotoxic than most other antidepressants.\n\nLofepramine:\nNot licensed in Australia, US or Canada. Licensed in the UK and other European countries.\nQTc i. p.: 1 (dose-dependent)\n\nMaprotiline:\nFairly selective (~90x over dopamine) norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor.\n\nNortriptyline:\nActive metabolite of amitriptyline. Somewhat selective (4.2x) for norepinephrine reuptake inhibition.\n\nProtriptyline:\nRelatively (14x over serotonin) selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibition.\n\nTianeptine:\nEnhances the reuptake of serotonin and increases dopaminergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission. Not approved for clinical use in Australia, Canada, the UK, the US and Ireland. More hepatotoxic than most other antidepressants.\n\nTrimipramine:\nHas antidopaminergic effects and hence can cause extrapyramidal side effects, tardive dyskinesia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome.\n\n'''Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)'''\n\nIsocarboxazid:\nNot licensed for use in Australia.\n\nMoclobemide:\nOnly clinically utilized reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA). Not approved for use in the US. Approved for clinical use in Australia, Canada, most European countries (including the Czech Republic, Finland and Ireland), New Zealand, Singapore, South Africa and the UK.\nActivating effects: ? (insomnia common according to the AMH)\n\nPhenelzine:\nPhenelzine is more prone than tranylcypromine and most other antidepressant to causing liver damage.\n\nSeligiline:\nOriginally used a treatment for Parkinson's disease due to its selective, irreversible inhibition of MAO-B but at higher doses MAO-A inhibition occurs.\n\nTranylcypromine:\nMetabolized into amphetamine analogues ''in vivo''. Can cause liver damage.\n\n'''Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)'''\n\nCitalopram:\nMost likely of the SSRIs to prolong the QT interval. Also the most toxic SSRI in overdose. Less hepatotoxic than most other antidepressants.\nQTc i. p.: 2 (dose dependent; doses >40 mg/day are particularly dangerous)\n\nEscitalopram:\nThe more active S-enantiomer of citalopram. May be the most efficacious of the SSRIs (although no statistically significant difference between the efficacy of sertraline and escitalopram have been teased out to date). Based on the available evidence it is less toxic than its racemic counterpart, (R,S)-citalopram, in overdose. Less hepatotoxic than most other antidepressants.\n\nFluoxetine:\nFirst SSRI to receive FDA approval in 1987. Some studies have shown slight (often statistically insignificant) weight reductions in those on fluoxetine. Has the longest net half-life (taking into account the effects of its active metabolite, norfluoxetine) of any antidepressant clinically used, and consequently, when abruptly stopped, withdrawal effects are usually mild and rare. Dermatologic reactions are more common than with sertraline.\n\nFluvoxamine:\nNot FDA approved for major depression; FDA approved for OCD. Has the highest affinity of any SSRI towards the sigma-1 receptor at which it serves as an agonist. Less hepatotoxic than most other antidepressants.\n\nParoxetine:\nOnly SSRI that's not Australian pregnancy category C but is rather category D due to an increased risk of Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn. The FDA of the US has placed it in category D. It is associated with a higher risk of sexual dysfunction, weight gain, anticholinergic side effects and drowsiness than the other SSRIs. Has a short half life compared to other SSRIs and hence is the most prone to causing withdrawal effects whenever a dose is missed. Paroxetine has the lowest affinity for the sigma-1 receptors of all the SSRIs. It also possesses the highest propensity of any SSRI for causing extrapyramidal symptoms. Less hepatotoxic than most other antidepressants.\n\nSertraline:\nHighest risk of psychiatric side effects (e.g. mania, suicidal behavior/ideation, psychosis, etc.) Has slight (but clinically significant) inhibitory effects on dopamine reuptake. Has the second highest affinity of the SSRIs towards the sigma-1 receptor where it may serve as a sigma-1 receptor antagonist.\nGI toxicity: 2 (mostly diarrhoea)\n\n'''Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)'''\n\nDesvenlafaxine:\nActive metabolite of venlafaxine.\n\nDuloxetine:\nUnlike the other SNRIs listed here duloxetine does not cause dose-dependent hypertension as a common adverse effect. Used to relieve neuropathic pain too. More hepatotoxic than most other antidepressants.\n\nMilnacipran:\nPrimarily used as a treatment for neuropathic pain.\nDanger in overdose: ? (No single-drug fatal overdoses reported yet)\n\nVenlafaxine:\nRelatively selective (116x) for serotonin reuptake inhibition over norepinephrine.\nGI toxicity: 2 (IR) / 1 (XR)\n\n'''Noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants (NaSSAs)'''\n\nMianserin:\nNot licensed for use in the US and Canada. Licensed for use in Australia and the UK. Can cause blood dyscrasias (including agranulocytosis) and consequently both the BNF and AMH recommend regular complete blood count monitoring.\n\nMirtazapine:\nLicensed for use in the US, UK, Australia and Canada. Mianserin's successor and analogue.\n\n'''Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs)'''\n\nNefazodone:\nRisk of hepatotoxicity. Available in the US but not in Canada, Australia or Europe.\n\nTrazodone:\nNot available in Australia. More hepatotoxic than other antidepressants.\nRelative efficacy: 2 \n\n'''Serotonin modulator and stimulators (SMSs)'''\n\nVilazodone:\nPotential for serotonin syndrome as an adverse effect.\nDanger in overdose: ? (probably low aside from an increased risk of serotonin syndrome)\n\nVortioxetine:\nIntroduced to the US market in September 2013 and hence data on its adverse effects may be lagging behind. Serotonin syndrome is a possible (rare) adverse effect.\n\n'''Other'''\n\nAgomelatine:\nNot licensed in the US or Canada. Licensed in Australia and the UK.\nRelative efficacy: 2 \n\nBupropion:\nOnly licensed in the UK and Australia as a smoking cessation aid, but in the US it is licensed for the treatment of major depressive disorder. More hepatotoxic than most other antidepressants.\n\nReboxetine:\nNot licensed in the US or Canada. Licensed in Australia and the UK.\n\nSt John's wort:\nNot a prescription drug in most countries; available as an over-the-counter herbal supplement.\n\n\n\n\n===Anxiety disorders===\n\n====Generalized anxiety disorder====\nAntidepressants are recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) that has failed to respond to conservative measures such as education and self-help activities. GAD is a common disorder of which the central feature is excessive worry about a number of different events. Key symptoms include excessive anxiety about multiple events and issues, and difficulty controlling worrisome thoughts that persists for at least 6 months.\n\nAntidepressants provide a modest-to-moderate reduction in anxiety in GAD, and are superior to placebo in treating GAD. The efficacy of different antidepressants is similar.\n\n====Obsessive–compulsive disorder====\nSSRIs are a second-line treatment of adult obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) with mild functional impairment and as first-line treatment for those with moderate or severe impairment. In children, SSRIs can be considered as a second-line therapy in those with moderate-to-severe impairment, with close monitoring for psychiatric adverse effects. SSRIs are efficacious in the treatment of OCD; patients treated with SSRIs are about twice as likely to respond to treatment as those treated with placebo. Efficacy has been demonstrated both in short-term treatment trials of 6 to 24 weeks and in discontinuation trials of 28 to 52 weeks duration.\n\n===Eating disorders===\nAntidepressants are recommended as an alternative or additional first step to self-help programs in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. SSRIs (fluoxetine in particular) are preferred over other antidepressants due to their acceptability, tolerability, and superior reduction of symptoms in short-term trials. Long-term efficacy remains poorly characterized. Bupropion is not recommended for the treatment of eating disorders due to an increased risk of seizure.\n\nSimilar recommendations apply to binge eating disorder. SSRIs provide short-term reductions in binge eating behavior, but have not been associated with significant weight loss.\n\nClinical trials have generated mostly negative results for the use of SSRIs in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Treatment guidelines from the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence recommend against the use of SSRIs in this disorder. Those from the American Psychiatric Association note that SSRIs confer no advantage regarding weight gain, but that they may be used for the treatment of co-existing depressive, anxiety, or obsessive–compulsive disorders.\n\n===Pain===\n\n====Fibromyalgia====\n\nA 2012 meta-analysis concluded that antidepressants treatment favorably affects pain, health-related quality of life, depression, and sleep in fibromyalgia syndrome. Tricyclics appear to be the most effective class, with moderate effects on pain and sleep and small effects on fatigue and health-related quality of life. The fraction of people experiencing a 30% pain reduction on tricyclics was 48% versus 28% for placebo. For SSRIs and SNRIs the fraction of people experiencing a 30% pain reduction was 36% (20% in the placebo comparator arms) and 42% (32% in the corresponding placebo comparator arms). Discontinuation of treatment due to side effects was common. Antidepressants including amitriptyline, fluoxetine, duloxetine, milnacipran, moclobemide, and pirlindole are recommended by the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) for the treatment of fibromyalgia based on \"limited evidence\".\n\n====Neuropathic pain====\n\nA 2014 meta-analysis from the Cochrane Collaboration found the antidepressant duloxetine to be effective for the treatment of pain resulting from diabetic neuropathy. The same group reviewed data for amitriptyline in the treatment of neuropathic pain and found limited useful randomized clinical trial data. They concluded that the long history of successful use in the community for the treatment of fibromyalgia and neuropathic pain justified its continued use. The group was concerned about the potential for overestimating the amount of pain relief provided by amitriptyline, and highlighted that only a small number of people will experience significant pain relief by taking this medication.\n", "Difficulty tolerating adverse effects is the most common reason for antidepressant discontinuation.\n\n===General===\n\nAlmost any medication involved with serotonin regulation has the potential to cause serotonin toxicity (also known as ''serotonin syndrome'') an excess of serotonin that can induce mania, restlessness, agitation, emotional lability, insomnia and confusion as its primary symptoms. Although the condition is serious, it is not particularly common, generally only appearing at high doses or while on other medications. Assuming proper medical intervention has been taken (within about 24 hours) it is rarely fatal.\n\nMAOIs tend to have pronounced (sometimes fatal) interactions with a wide variety of medications and over-the-counter drugs. If taken with foods that contain very high levels of tyramine (e.g., mature cheese, cured meats, or yeast extracts), they may cause a potentially lethal hypertensive crisis. At lower doses the person may be bothered by only a headache due to an increase in blood pressure.\n\nIn response to these adverse effects, a different type of MAOI has been developed: the reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA) class of drugs. Their primary advantage is that they do not require the person to follow a special diet, while being purportedly effective as SSRIs and tricyclics in treating depressive disorders.\n\n===Pregnancy===\n\nSSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflects a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases. In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear.\n\nSSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold, and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight.\n\nA systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant-exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3% to 24%) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies. A study of fluoxetine-exposed pregnancies found a 12% increase in the risk of major malformations that just missed statistical significance. Other studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular birth defects among depressed mothers not undergoing SSRI treatment, suggesting the possibility of ascertainment bias, e.g. that worried mothers may pursue more aggressive testing of their infants. Another study found no increase in cardiovascular birth defects and a 27% increased risk of major malformations in SSRI exposed pregnancies. The FDA advises for the risk of birth defects with the use of paroxetine and the MAOI should be avoided.\n\nA 2013 systematic review and meta-analysis found that antidepressant use during pregnancy was statistically significantly associated with some pregnancy outcomes, such as gestational age and preterm birth, but not with other outcomes. The same review cautioned that because differences between the exposed and unexposed groups were small, it was doubtful whether they were clinically significant.\n\nA neonate (infant less than 28 days old) may experience a withdrawal syndrome from abrupt discontinuation of the antidepressant at birth. Antidepressants have been shown to be present in varying amounts in breast milk, but their effects on infants are currently unknown.\n\nMoreover, SSRIs inhibit nitric oxide synthesis, which plays an important role in setting vascular tone. Several studies have pointed to an increased risk of prematurity associated with SSRI use, and this association may be due to an increase risk of pre-eclampsia of pregnancy.\n\n===Antidepressant-induced mania===\nAnother possible problem with antidepressants is the chance of antidepressant-induced mania in patients with bipolar disorder. Many cases of bipolar depression are very similar to those of unipolar depression. Therefore, the patient can be misdiagnosed with unipolar depression and be given antidepressants. Studies have shown that antidepressant-induced mania can occur in 20–40% of bipolar patients. For bipolar depression, antidepressants (most frequently SSRIs) can exacerbate or trigger symptoms of hypomania and mania.\n\n===Suicide===\n\n\nStudies have shown that the use of antidepressants is correlated with an increased risk of suicidal behaviour and thinking (suicidality) in those aged under 25. This problem has been serious enough to warrant government intervention by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to warn of the increased risk of suicidality during antidepressant treatment. According to the FDA, the heightened risk of suicidality is within the first one to two months of treatment. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) places the excess risk in the \"early stages of treatment\". A meta-analysis suggests that the relationship between antidepressant use and suicidal behavior or thoughts is age-dependent. Compared to placebo the use of antidepressants is associated with an increase in suicidal behavior or thoughts among those aged under 25 (OR=1.62). This increase in suicidality approaches that observed in children and adolescents. There is no effect or possibly a mild protective effect among those aged 25 to 64 (OR=0.79). Antidepressant treatment has a protective effect against suicidality among those aged 65 and over (OR=0.37).\n\n===Sexual===\n\nSexual side-effects are also common with SSRIs, such as loss of sexual drive, failure to reach orgasm, and erectile dysfunction. Although usually reversible, these sexual side-effects can, in rare cases, last for months or years after the drug has been completely withdrawn.\n\nIn a study of 1022 outpatients, overall sexual dysfunction with all antidepressants averaged 59.1% with SSRIs values between 57 and 73%, mirtazapine 24%, nefazodone 8%, amineptine 7% and moclobemide 4%. Moclobemide, a selective reversible MAO-A inhibitor, does not cause sexual dysfunction, and can actually lead to an improvement in all aspects of sexual function.\n\nBiochemical mechanisms suggested as causative include increased serotonin, particularly affecting 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors; decreased dopamine; decreased norepinephrine; blockade of cholinergic and α1adrenergic receptors; inhibition of nitric oxide synthetase; and elevation of prolactin levels. Mirtazapine is reported to have fewer sexual side-effects, most likely because it antagonizes 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors and may, in some cases, reverse sexual dysfunction induced by SSRIs by the same mechanism.\n\nBupropion, a weak NDRI and nicotinic antagonist, may be useful in treating reduced libido as a result of SSRI treatment.\n\n===Changes in weight===\nChanges in appetite or weight are common among antidepressants, but largely drug-dependent and are related to which neurotransmitters they affect. Mirtazapine and paroxetine, for example, have the effect of weight gain and/or increased appetite, while others (such as bupropion and venlafaxine) achieve the opposite effect.\n\nThe antihistaminic properties of certain TCA- and TeCA-class antidepressants have been shown to contribute to the common side-effects of increased appetite and weight gain associated with these classes of medication.\n\n===Discontinuation syndrome===\n\n\nAntidepressant discontinuation symptoms were first reported with imipramine, the first tricyclic antidepressant (TCA), in the late 1950s, and each new class of antidepressants has brought reports of similar conditions, including monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), SSRIs, and SNRIs. As of 2001, at least 21 different antidepressants, covering all the major classes, were known to cause discontinuation syndromes. The problem has been poorly studied, and most of the literature has been case reports or small clinical studies; incidence is hard to determine and controversial.\n\nPeople with discontinuation syndrome have been on an antidepressant for at least four weeks and have recently stopped taking the medication, either abruptly or after a fast taper. Common symptoms include flu-like symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, sweating), sleep disturbances (insomnia, nightmares, constant sleepiness), sensory/movement disturbances (imbalance, tremors, vertigo, dizziness, electric-shock-like experiences), mood disturbances (dysphoria, anxiety, agitation) and cognitive disturbances (confusion and hyperarousal). Over fifty symptoms have been reported.\n\nMost cases of discontinuation syndrome last between one and four weeks, are relatively mild, and resolve on their own; in rare cases symptoms can be severe or extended. Paroxetine and venlafaxine seem to be particularly difficult to discontinue and prolonged withdrawal syndrome lasting over 18 months have been reported with paroxetine.\n\nWith the explosion of use and interest in SSRIs in the late 1980s and early 1990s, focused especially on Prozac, interest grew as well in discontinuation syndromes. In the late 1990s, some investigators thought that symptoms that emerged when antidepressants were discontinued, might mean that antidepressants were causing addiction, and some used the term \"withdrawal syndrome\" to describe the symptoms. Addictive substances cause physiological dependence, so that drug withdrawal causes suffering. These theories were abandoned, since addiction leads to drug-seeking behavior, and people taking antidepressants do not exhibit drug-seeking behavior. The term \"withdrawal syndrome\" is no longer used with respect to antidepressants, to avoid confusion with problems that arise from addiction. There are case reports of antidepressants being abused, but these are rare and are mostly limited to antidepressants with stimulant effects and to people who already had a substance use disorder. A 2012 comparison of the effects of stopping therapy with benzodiazepines and SSRIs argued that because the symptoms are similar, it makes no sense to say that benzodiazepines are addictive while SSRIs are not. Responses to that review noted that there is no evidence that people who stop taking SSRIs exhibit drug-seeking behavior while people who stop taking benzodiazepines do, and that the drug classes should be considered differently.\n\n===Emotional blunting===\nAntidepressants can cause emotional blunting, or numbness. This is a reduction in extremes of emotion, both positive and negative. While the patient may feel less depressed, they may also feel less happiness or empathy in some situations. This may be cause for a dose reduction or medication change. The exact mechanism is unknown.\n", "\nThe earliest and probably most widely accepted scientific theory of antidepressant action is the monoamine hypothesis (which can be traced back to the 1950s), which states that depression is due to an imbalance (most often a deficiency) of the monoamine neurotransmitters (namely serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine). It was originally proposed based on the observation that certain hydrazine anti-tuberculosis agents produce antidepressant effects, which was later linked to their inhibitory effects on monoamine oxidase, the enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of the monoamine neurotransmitters. All currently marketed antidepressants have the monoamine hypothesis as their theoretical basis, with the possible exception of agomelatine which acts on a dual melatonergic-serotonergic pathway. Despite the success of the monoamine hypothesis it has a number of limitations: for one, all monoaminergic antidepressants have a delayed onset of action of at least a week; and secondly, there are a sizeable portion (>40%) of depressed patients that do not adequately respond to monoaminergic antidepressants. A number of alternative hypotheses have been proposed, including the glutamate, neurogenic, epigenetic, cortisol hypersecretion and inflammatory hypotheses.\n", "\n\n===Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors===\nBlister pack of Prozac (fluoxetine), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor\n\nSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are believed to increase the extracellular level of the neurotransmitter serotonin by limiting its reabsorption into the presynaptic cell, increasing the level of serotonin in the synaptic cleft available to bind to the postsynaptic receptor. They have varying degrees of selectivity for the other monoamine transporters, with pure SSRIs having only weak affinity for the norepinephrine and dopamine transporters.\n\nSSRIs are the most widely prescribed antidepressants in many countries. The efficacy of SSRIs in mild or moderate cases of depression has been disputed.\n\n===Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors===\nThe chemical structure of venlafaxine (Effexor), an SNRI\n\nSerotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are potent inhibitors of the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. These neurotransmitters are known to play an important role in mood. SNRIs can be contrasted with the more widely used selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which act mostly upon serotonin alone.\n\nThe human serotonin transporter (SERT) and norepinephrine transporter (NET) are membrane proteins that are responsible for the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. Balanced dual inhibition of monoamine reuptake can possibly offer advantages over other antidepressants drugs by treating a wider range of symptoms.\n\nSNRIs are sometimes also used to treat anxiety disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), chronic neuropathic pain, and fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS), and for the relief of menopausal symptoms.\n\n===Serotonin modulators and stimulators===\n\nSerotonin modulator and stimulators (SMSs), sometimes referred to more simply as '''serotonin modulators''', are a type of drug with a multimodal action specific to the serotonin neurotransmitter system. To be precise, SMSs simultaneously modulate one or more serotonin receptors and inhibit the reuptake of serotonin. The term was created to describe the mechanism of action of the serotonergic antidepressant vortioxetine ('''Brintellix/Trintellix'''), which acts as a serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI), partial agonist of the 5-HT1A receptor, and antagonist of the 5-HT3 and 5-HT7 receptors. However, it can also technically be applied to vilazodone ('''Viibryd'''), which is an antidepressant as well and acts as an SRI and 5-HT1A receptor partial agonist.\n\nAn alternative term is '''serotonin partial agonist/reuptake inhibitor''' ('''SPARI'''), which can be applied only to vilazodone.\n\n===Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors===\n\nSerotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs) while mainly used as antidepressants, are also anxiolytics and hypnotics. They act by antagonizing serotonin receptors such as 5-HT2A and inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine. Additionally, most also act as α1-adrenergic receptor antagonists. The majority of the currently marketed SARIs belong to the phenylpiperazine class of compounds. They include trazodone and nefazodone.\n\n===Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors===\n\nNorepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs or NERIs) are a type of drug that acts as a reuptake inhibitor for the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (noradrenaline) by blocking the action of the norepinephrine transporter (NET). This in turn leads to increased extracellular concentrations of norepinephrine.\n\nNRIs are commonly used in the treatment of conditions like ADHD and narcolepsy due to their psychostimulant effects and in obesity due to their appetite suppressant effects. They are also frequently used as antidepressants for the treatment of major depressive disorder, anxiety and panic disorder. Additionally, many drugs of abuse such as cocaine and methylphenidate possess NRI activity, though it is important to mention that NRIs without combined dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI) properties are not significantly rewarding and hence are considered to have a negligible abuse potential. However, norepinephrine has been implicated as acting synergistically with dopamine when actions on the two neurotransmitters are combined (e.g., in the case of NDRIs) to produce rewarding effects in psychostimulant drugs of abuse.\n\n===Tricyclic antidepressants===\nThe majority of the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) act primarily as serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) by blocking the serotonin transporter (SERT) and the norepinephrine transporter (NET), respectively, which results in an elevation of the synaptic concentrations of these neurotransmitters, and therefore an enhancement of neurotransmission. Notably, with the sole exception of amineptine, the TCAs have negligible affinity for the dopamine transporter (DAT), and therefore have no efficacy as dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs).\n\nAlthough TCAs are sometimes prescribed for depressive disorders, they have been largely replaced in clinical use in most parts of the world by newer antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs). Adverse effects have been found to be of a similar level between TCAs and SSRIs.\n\n===Tetracyclic antidepressants===\n\nTetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs) are a class of antidepressants that were first introduced in the 1970s. They are named after their chemical structure, which contains four rings of atoms, and are closely related to the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), which contain three rings of atoms.\n\n===Monoamine oxidase inhibitors===\n\nMonoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are chemicals which inhibit the activity of the monoamine oxidase enzyme family. They have a long history of use as medications prescribed for the treatment of depression. They are particularly effective in treating atypical depression. They are also used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and several other disorders.\n\nBecause of potentially lethal dietary and drug interactions, monoamine oxidase inhibitors have historically been reserved as a last line of treatment, used only when other classes of antidepressant drugs (for example selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants) have failed.\n\nMAOIs have been found to be effective in the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia, social phobia, atypical depression or mixed anxiety and depression, bulimia, and post-traumatic stress disorder, as well as borderline personality disorder. MAOIs appear to be particularly effective in the management of bipolar depression according to a recent retrospective-analysis. There are reports of MAOI efficacy in obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), trichotillomania, dysmorphophobia, and avoidant personality disorder, but these reports are from uncontrolled case reports.\n\nMAOIs can also be used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease by targeting MAO-B in particular (therefore affecting dopaminergic neurons), as well as providing an alternative for migraine prophylaxis. Inhibition of both MAO-A and MAO-B is used in the treatment of clinical depression and anxiety disorders.\n\n===Others===\n\nSee the list of antidepressants for other drugs which are not specifically characterized.\n", "\nAdjunct medications are an umbrella term used to describe substances that increase the potency or \"enhance\" antidepressants. They work by affecting variables very close to the antidepressant, sometimes affecting a completely different mechanism of action. This may be attempted when depression treatments have not been successful in the past.\n\nCommon types of adjunct medication techniques generally fall into the following categories:\n* Two or more antidepressants taken together\n From the same class (affecting the same area of the brain, often at a much higher level)\n From different classes (affecting multiple parts of the brain not covered simultaneously by either drug alone)\n* An antipsychotic combined with an antidepressant, particularly atypical antipsychotics such as aripiprazole (Abilify), quetiapine (Seroquel), olanzapine (Zyprexa), and risperidone (Risperdal).\nIt is unknown if undergoing psychological therapy at the same time as taking anti-depressants enhances the anti-depressive effect of the medication.\n\n===Less common adjunct medication===\n\nLithium has been used to augment antidepressant therapy in those who have failed to respond to antidepressants alone. Furthermore, lithium dramatically decreases the suicide risk in recurrent depression. There is some evidence for the addition of a thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine, in patients with normal thyroid function.\n\nPsychopharmacologists have also tried adding a stimulant, in particular, d-amphetamine. However, the use of stimulants in cases of treatment-resistant depression is relatively controversial. A review article published in 2007 found psychostimulants may be effective in treatment-resistant depression with concomitant antidepressant therapy, but a more certain conclusion could not be drawn due to substantial deficiencies in the studies available for consideration, and the somewhat contradictory nature of their results.\n", "St John's wort\nBefore the 1950s, opioids and amphetamines were commonly used as antidepressants. Their use was later restricted due to their addictive nature and side effects. Extracts from the herb St John's wort have been used as a \"nerve tonic\" to alleviate depression.\n\n===Isoniazid, iproniazid, and imipramine===\nIn 1951, Irving Selikoff and Edward Robitzek, working out of Sea View Hospital on Staten Island, began clinical trials on two new anti-tuberculosis agents developed by Hoffman-LaRoche, isoniazid and iproniazid. Only patients with a poor prognosis were initially treated; nevertheless, their condition improved dramatically. Selikoff and Robitzek noted \"a subtle general stimulation … the patients exhibited renewed vigor and indeed this occasionally served to introduce disciplinary problems.\" The promise of a cure for tuberculosis in the Sea View Hospital trials was excitedly discussed in the mainstream press.\n\nIn 1952, learning of the stimulating side effects of isoniazid, the Cincinnati psychiatrist Max Lurie tried it on his patients. In the following year, he and Harry Salzer reported that isoniazid improved depression in two thirds of their patients and coined the term ''antidepressant'' to describe its action. A similar incident took place in Paris, where Jean Delay, head of psychiatry at Sainte-Anne Hospital, heard of this effect from his pulmonology colleagues at Cochin Hospital. In 1952 (before Lurie and Salzer), Delay, with the resident Jean-Francois Buisson, reported the positive effect of isoniazid on depressed patients. The mode of antidepressant action of isoniazid is still unclear. It is speculated that its effect is due to the inhibition of diamine oxidase, coupled with a weak inhibition of monoamine oxidase A.\n\nSelikoff and Robitzek also experimented with another anti-tuberculosis drug, iproniazid; it showed a greater psychostimulant effect, but more pronounced toxicity. Later, Jackson Smith, Gordon Kamman, George Crane, and Frank Ayd, described the psychiatric applications of iproniazid. Ernst Zeller found iproniazid to be a potent monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Nevertheless, iproniazid remained relatively obscure until Nathan Kline, the influential head of research at Rockland State Hospital, began to popularize it in the medical and popular press as a \"psychic energizer\". Roche put a significant marketing effort behind iproniazid. Its sales grew until it was recalled in 1961, due to reports of lethal hepatotoxicity.\n\nThe antidepressant effect of a tricyclic, a three ringed compound, was first discovered in 1957 by Roland Kuhn in a Swiss psychiatric hospital. Antihistamine derivatives were used to treat surgical shock and later as neuroleptics. Although in 1955 reserpine was shown to be more effective than placebo in alleviating anxious depression, neuroleptics were being developed as sedatives and antipsychotics.\n\nAttempting to improve the effectiveness of chlorpromazine, Kuhn in conjunction with the Geigy Pharmaceutical Company discovered the compound \"G 22355\", later renamed imipramine. Imipramine had a beneficial effect in patients with depression who showed mental and motor retardation. Kuhn described his new compound as a \"thymoleptic\" \"taking hold of the emotions,\" in contrast with neuroleptics, \"taking hold of the nerves\" in 1955–56. These gradually became established, resulting in the patent and manufacture in the US in 1951 by Häfliger and SchinderA.\n\n===Second generation antidepressants===\n\n\nAntidepressants became prescription drugs in the 1950s. It was estimated that no more than 50 to 100 individuals per million suffered from the kind of depression that these new drugs would treat, and pharmaceutical companies were not enthusiastic in marketing for this small market. Sales through the 1960s remained poor compared to the sales of tranquilizers, which were being marketed for different uses. Imipramine remained in common use and numerous successors were introduced. The use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) increased after the development and introduction of \"reversible\" forms affecting only the MAO-A subtype of inhibitors, making this drug safer to use.\n\nBy the 1960s, it was thought that the mode of action of tricyclics was to inhibit norepinephrine reuptake. However, norepinephrine reuptake became associated with stimulating effects. Later tricyclics were thought to affect serotonin as proposed in 1969 by Carlsson and Lindqvist as well as Lapin and Oxenkrug.\n\nResearchers began a process of rational drug design to isolate antihistamine-derived compounds that would selectively target these systems. The first such compound to be patented was zimelidine in 1971, while the first released clinically was indalpine. Fluoxetine was approved for commercial use by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1988, becoming the first blockbuster SSRI. Fluoxetine was developed at Eli Lilly and Company in the early 1970s by Bryan Molloy, Klaus Schmiegel, David Wong and others. SSRIs became known as \"novel antidepressants\" along with other newer drugs such as SNRIs and NRIs with various selective effects.\n\nSt John's wort fell out of favor in most countries through the 19th and 20th centuries, except in Germany, where Hypericum extracts were eventually licensed, packaged and prescribed. Small-scale efficacy trials were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s, and attention grew in the 1990s following a meta-analysis. It remains an over-the-counter drug (OTC) supplement in most countries. Research continues to investigate its active component hyperforin, and to further understand its mode of action.\n", "\n===Prescription trends===\n\nIn the United States, antidepressants were the most commonly prescribed medication in 2013. Of the estimated 16 million \"long term\" (over 24 months) users, roughly 70 percent are female.\n\nIn the UK, figures reported in 2010 indicated that the number of antidepressant prescribed by the National Health Service (NHS) almost doubled over a decade. Further analysis published in 2014 showed that number of antidepressants dispensed annually in the community went up by 25 million in the 14 years between 1998 and 2012, rising from 15 million to 40 million. Nearly 50% of this rise occurred in the four years after the 2008 banking crash, during which time the annual increase in prescriptions rose from 6.7% to 8.5%. These sources also suggest that aside from the recession, other factors that may influence changes in prescribing rates may include: improvements in diagnosis, a reduction of the stigma surrounding mental health, broader prescribing trends, GP characteristics, geographical location and housing status. Another factor that may contribute to increasing consumption of antidepressants is the fact that these medications now are used for other conditions including social anxiety and post traumatic stress.\n\n===Most commonly prescribed===\nStructural formula of the SSRI sertraline\n\n'''United States:''' The most commonly prescribed antidepressants in the US retail market in 2010 were:\n\n\n\n '''Drug name'''\n '''Commercial name'''\n '''Drug class'''\n '''Total prescriptions'''\n\n Sertraline\n Zoloft\n SSRI\n 33,409,838\n\n Citalopram\n Celexa\n SSRI\n 27,993,635\n\n Fluoxetine\n Prozac\n SSRI\n 24,473,994\n\n Escitalopram\n Lexapro\n SSRI\n 23,000,456\n\n Trazodone\n Desyrel\n SARI\n 18,786,495\n\nVenlafaxine (all formulations)\nEffexor (IR, ER, XR)\nSNRI\n16,110,606\n\nBupropion (all formulations)\nWellbutrin (IR, ER, SR, XL)\nNDRI\n15,792,653\n\n Duloxetine\n Cymbalta\n SNRI\n 14,591,949\n\n Paroxetine\n Paxil\n SSRI\n 12,979,366\n\n Amitriptyline\n Elavil\n TCA\n 12,611,254\n\n Venlafaxine XR\n Effexor XR\n SNRI\n 7,603,949\n\n Bupropion XL\n Wellbutrin XL\n NDRI\n 7,317,814\n\n Mirtazapine\n Remeron\n TeCA\n 6,308,288\n\n Venlafaxine ER\n Effexor XR\n SNRI\n 5,526,132\n\n Bupropion SR\n Wellbutrin SR\n NDRI\n 4,588,996\n\n Desvenlafaxine\n Pristiq\n SNRI\n 3,412,354\n\n Nortriptyline\n Sensoval\n TCA\n 3,210,476\n\n Bupropion ER\n Wellbutrin XL\n NDRI\n 3,132,327\n\n Venlafaxine\n Effexor\n SNRI\n 2,980,525\n\n Bupropion\n Wellbutrin IR\n NDRI\n 753,516\n\n\n'''Netherlands:''' In the Netherlands, paroxetine, marketed as Seroxat among generic preparations, is the most prescribed antidepressant, followed by amitriptyline, citalopram and venlafaxine.\n\n===Social science perspective===\nIn looking at the issue of antidepressant use, some academics have highlighted the need to examine the use of antidepressants and other medical treatments in cross-cultural terms, due to the fact that various cultures prescribe and observe different manifestations, symptoms, meanings and associations of depression and other medical conditions within their populations. These cross-cultural discrepancies, it has been argued, then have implications on the perceived efficacy and use of antidepressants and other strategies in the treatment of depression in these different cultures. In India antidepressants are largely seen as tools to combat marginality, promising the individual the ability to re-integrate into society through their use—a view and association not observed in the West.\n\n===Environmental impacts===\nSomewhat less than 10% of orally administered fluoxetine is excreted from humans unchanged or as glucuronide. Because most antidepressants function by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and norepinepherine these drugs can interfere with natural neurotransmitter levels in other organisms impacted by indirect exposure. Antidepressants fluoxetine and sertraline have been detected in aquatic organisms residing in effluent dominated streams. The presence of antidepressants in surface waters and aquatic organisms has caused concern because ecotoxicological effects to aquatic organisms due to fluoxetine exposure have been demonstrated. Coral reef fish have been demonstrated to modulate aggressive behavior through serotonin.\n\nExposure to fluoxetine has been demonstrated to increase serotonergic activity in fish, subsequently reducing aggressive behavior. Artificially increasing serotonin levels in crustaceans can temporarily reverse social status and turn subordinates into aggressive and territorial dominant males. Perinatal exposure to fluoxetine at relevant environmental concentrations has been shown to lead to significant modifications of memory processing in 1-month-old cuttlefish. This impairment may disadvantage cuttlefish and decrease their survival.\n", "\n\n* Antidepressants in Japan\n* Atypical antidepressant\n* Atypical depression\n* Depression and natural therapies\n* Discovery and development of dual serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors\n* ''Listening to Prozac'' by Peter Kramer\n* ''Anatomy of an Epidemic'' by Robert Whittaker\n* Rapid-acting antidepressant\n* List of investigational antidepressants\n\n===Categories===\n\n", "\n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Medical uses", "Adverse effects", "Pharmacology", "Types", "Adjuncts", "History", "Society and culture", "See also", "References", "Additional reading" ]	Antidepressant
[ " Two views of the Auger process. (a) illustrates sequentially the steps involved in Auger deexcitation. An incident electron (or photon) creates a core hole in the 1s level. An electron from the 2s level fills in the 1s hole and the transition energy is imparted to a 2p electron which is emitted. The final atomic state thus has two holes, one in the 2s orbital and the other in the 2p orbital. (b) illustrates the same process using spectroscopic notation,KL1L2,3.\nThe '''Auger effect''' is a physical phenomenon in which the filling of an inner-shell vacancy of an atom is accompanied by the emission of an electron from the same atom. When a core electron is removed, leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of energy. Although most often this energy is released in the form of an emitted photon, the energy can also be transferred to another electron, which is ejected from the atom; this second ejected electron is called an '''Auger electron'''. The effect was first discovered by Lise Meitner in 1922; Pierre Victor Auger independently discovered the effect shortly after and is credited with the discovery in most of the scientific community, in accordance with Stiegler's law of eponymy.\n\nUpon ejection, the kinetic energy of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition into the vacancy and the ionization energy for the electron shell from which the Auger electron was ejected. These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located. Auger electron spectroscopy involves the emission of Auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either X-rays or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of Auger electrons that result as a function of the Auger electron energy. The resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment. Auger recombination is a similar Auger effect which occurs in semiconductors. An electron and electron hole (electron-hole pair) can recombine giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy. The reverse effect is known as impact ionization.\n", "The Auger emission process was observed and published in 1922 by Lise Meitner, an Austrian-Swedish physicist, as a side effect in her competitive search for the nuclear beta electrons with the British physicist Charles Drummond Ellis.\n\nThe French physicist Pierre Victor Auger independently discovered it in 1923 upon analysis of a Wilson cloud chamber experiment and it became the central part of his PhD work. High-energy X-rays were applied to ionize gas particles and observe photoelectric electrons. The observation of electron tracks that were independent of the frequency of the incident photon suggested a mechanism for electron ionization that was caused from an internal conversion of energy from a radiationless transition. Further investigation, and theoretical work using elementary quantum mechanics and transition rate/transition probability calculations, showed that the effect was a radiationless effect more than an internal conversion effect.\n", "Auger electron spectroscopy\nCoster–Kronig transition\nElectron capture\nRadiative Auger effect\nCharge carrier generation and recombination\nAuger therapy\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Discovery", "See also", "References" ]	Auger effect
[ "\n\n\n was a Japanese businessman and co-founder of Sony along with Masaru Ibuka.\n", "Akio Morita was born in Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. Morita's family was involved in sake, miso and soy sauce production in the village of Kosugaya (currently a part of Tokoname City) on the western coast of Chita Peninsula in Aichi Prefecture since 1665. He was the oldest of four siblings and his father Kyuzaemon trained him as a child to take over the family business. Akio, however, found his true calling in mathematics and physics, and in 1944 he graduated from Osaka Imperial University with a degree in physics. He was later commissioned as a sub-lieutenant in the Imperial Japanese Navy, and served in World War II. During his service, Morita met his future business partner Masaru Ibuka in the Navy's Wartime Research Committee.\n", "On May 7, 1946, Ibuka founded ''Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha'' (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation, the forerunner of Sony Corporation) with about 20 employees and initial capital of ¥190,000. Ibuka was 38 years old. Morita, 25 years old joined ''Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha'' shortly after its inception, with Morita's family investing in Sony during the early period and being the largest shareholder.\n\nIn 1949, the company developed magnetic recording tape and in 1950, sold the first tape recorder in Japan. In 1957, it produced a pocket-sized radio (the first to be fully transistorized), and in 1958, Morita and Ibuka decided to rename their company Sony (derived from \"sonus\"--Latin for \"sound\"—and ''Sonny-boys'' the most common American expression). Morita was an advocate for all the products made by Sony. However, since the radio was slightly too big to fit in a shirt pocket, Morita made his employees wear shirts with slightly larger pockets to give the radio a \"pocket sized\" appearance. In 1960, it produced the first transistor television in the world. In 1973, Sony received an Emmy Award for its Trinitron television-set technology. In 1975, it released the first Betamax home video recorder, a year before VHS format came out. In 1979, the Walkman was introduced, making it one of the world's first portable music players. In 1984, Sony launched the Discman series which extended their Walkman brand to portable CD products.\n\nIn 1960, the Sony Corporation of America (SONAM, currently abbreviated as SCA) was established in the United States. In 1961, Sony Corporation was the first Japanese company to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange, in the form of American depositary receipts (ADRs), which are traded over-the-counter. Sony bought CBS Records Group which consisted of Columbia Records, Epic Records and other CBS labels in 1988 and Columbia Pictures Entertainment (Columbia Pictures, TriStar Pictures and others) in 1989.\n\nOn November 25, 1994, Morita stepped down as Sony chairman after suffering a cerebral hemorrhage while playing tennis. He was succeeded by Norio Ohga, who had joined the company in the 1950s after sending Morita a letter denouncing the poor quality of the company's tape recorders.\n", "Morita was vice chairman of the Japan Business Federation (Japan Federation of Economic Organizations), and was a member of the Japan-U.S. Economic Relations Group, also known as the \"Wise Men's Group\". He was also the third Japanese chairman of the Trilateral Commission. His amateur radio call sign is JP1DPJ.\n", "In 1966, Morita wrote a book called ''Gakureki Muyō Ron'' (学歴無用論, Never Mind School Records), where he stresses that school records are not important to success or one's business skills. In 1986, Morita wrote an autobiography titled ''Made in Japan''. He co-authored the 1991 book ''The Japan That Can Say No'' with politician Shintaro Ishihara, where they criticized American business practices and encouraged Japanese to take a more independent role in business and foreign affairs. The book was translated into English and caused controversy in the United States, and Morita later had his chapters removed from the English version and distanced himself from the book.\n", "Morita was awarded the Albert Medal by the United Kingdom's Royal Society of Arts in 1982, the first Japanese to receive the honor. Two years later, he received the prestigious Legion of Honour, and in 1991, was awarded the First Class Order of the Sacred Treasure from the Emperor of Japan. In 1993, he was awarded an honorary British knighthood (KBE). Morita received the International Distinguished Entrepreneur Award from the University of Manitoba in 1987. He was posthumously awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun in 1999.\n", "Morita suffered a stroke in 1993, during a game of tennis. On November 25, 1994, he stepped down as Sony chairman. On October 3, 1999, Morita died of pneumonia at the age of 78.\n", "\n", "Morita, Akio. ''Made in Japan'' (New York: Dutton, 1986, )\nMorita, Akio. ''Never Mind School Records'' (1966) ( in Japanese)\nMorita, Akio (Co-Author) and Shintaro Ishihara. ''The Japan That Can Say No'' (Simon & Schuster, 1991, , in Japanese)\n List of books authored by Akio Morita at WorldCat\n", "\n\n\n* Akio Morita Library\n* ''Time magazine'', AKIO MORITA: Guru Of Gadgets\n* ''Time Asia'', Time 100: Akio Morita\n* Sony Biographical notes\n* PBS notes\n* Full Biography at World of Biography\n* Sony Encyclopedia Article\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Sony", "Other affiliations", "Publications", "Awards", "Death", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Akio Morita
[ "\n\n\nDiagram of a zinc anode in a galvanic cell. Note how electrons move out of the cell, and the conventional current moves into it in the opposite direction.\n\nAn '''anode''' is an electrode through which conventional current flows into a polarized electrical device. A common mnemonic is ACID for \"anode current into device\". The direction of (positive) electric current is opposite to the direction of electron flow: (negatively charged) electrons flow out the anode to the outside circuit.\n", "The terms anode and cathode do not relate to the voltage polarity of those electrodes but the direction of the current: whether positive charge is flowing into or out of the device. Conventional current quantifies the flow of positive charge. In most cases, positive charge flows into the device via the anode, and positive charge leaves the device via the cathode.\n\nConventional current depends not only on the direction the charge carriers move, but also the carriers' charge. The currents outside the device are usually carried by electrons in a metal conductor. The flow of electrons is opposite to conventional current because electrons have a negative charge. Consequently, electrons leave the device via the anode, and electrons enter the device through the cathode.\n\nThe anode and cathode have slightly different definitions for electrical devices such as diodes and vacuum tubes where the electrode naming is fixed and does not depend on the actual charge flow (current). These devices usually allow substantial current flow in one direction but negligible current in the other direction. Consequently, the electrode names use the terms that have substantial ordinary currents. An ideal diode allows current in one direction but not in the other. The electrode that allows positive charges to flow into it would be the anode, but that electrode would never allow positive charges to flow out, so that ideal diode terminal could never be the cathode. For the ideal diode, it makes sense to always call that terminal the anode. For non-ideal diodes, the electrodes are also given fixed names even though such a diode under reverse bias would have a positive charge flow out of the \"anode\". For some operating conditions and devices, such as diode breakdown, Zener diodes, or photodiodes, the positive charge flow out of the \"anode\" could be substantial.\n", "The polarity of voltage on an anode with respect to an associated cathode varies depending on the device type and on its operating mode. In the following examples, the anode is negative in a device that provides power, and positive in a device that consumes power:\n\nIn a discharging battery or galvanic cell (diagram at right), the anode is the negative terminal because it is where conventional current flows into \"the device\" (i.e. the battery cell). This inward current is carried externally by electrons moving outwards, negative charge flowing in one direction being electrically equivalent to positive charge flowing in the opposite direction.\n\nIn a recharging battery, or an electrolytic cell, the anode is the positive terminal, which receives current from an external generator. The current through a recharging battery is opposite to the direction of current during discharge; in other words, the electrode which was the cathode during battery discharge becomes the anode while the battery is recharging.\n\nIn a diode, the anode is the positive terminal at the tail of the arrow symbol (flat side of the triangle), where current flows into the device. Note electrode naming for diodes is always based on the direction of the forward current (that of the arrow, in which the current flows \"most easily\"), even for types such as Zener diodes or solar cells where the current of interest is the reverse current.\n\nIn a cathode ray tube, the anode is the positive terminal where electrons flow out of the device, i.e., where positive electric current flows in.\n", "The word was coined in 1834 from the Greek ἄνοδος (''anodos''), 'ascent', by William Whewell, who had been consulted by Michael Faraday over some new names needed to complete a paper on the recently discovered process of electrolysis. In that paper Faraday explained that when an electrolytic cell is oriented so that electric current traverses the \"decomposing body\" (electrolyte) in a direction \"from East to West, or, which will strengthen this help to the memory, that in which the sun appears to move\", the anode is where the current enters the electrolyte, on the East side: \"''ano'' upwards, ''odos'' a way; the way which the sun rises\".\n\nThe use of 'East' to mean the 'in' direction (actually 'in' → 'East' → 'sunrise' → 'up') may appear contrived. Previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term \"eisode\" (the doorway where the current enters). His motivation for changing it to something meaning 'the East electrode' (other candidates had been \"eastode\", \"oriode\" and \"anatolode\") was to make it immune to a possible later change in the direction convention for current, whose exact nature was not known at the time. The reference he used to this effect was the Earth's magnetic field direction, which at that time was believed to be invariant. He fundamentally defined his arbitrary orientation for the cell as being that in which the internal current would run parallel to and in the same direction as a hypothetical magnetizing current loop around the local line of latitude which would induce a magnetic dipole field oriented like the Earth's. This made the internal current East to West as previously mentioned, but in the event of a later convention change it would have become West to East, so that the East electrode would not have been the 'way in' any more. Therefore, \"eisode\" would have become inappropriate, whereas \"anode\" meaning 'East electrode' would have remained correct with respect to the unchanged direction of the actual phenomenon underlying the current, then unknown but, he thought, unambiguously defined by the magnetic reference. In retrospect the name change was unfortunate, not only because the Greek roots alone do not reveal the anode's function any more, but more importantly because as we now know, the Earth's magnetic field direction on which the \"anode\" term is based is subject to reversals whereas the current direction convention on which the \"eisode\" term was based has no reason to change in the future.\n\nSince the later discovery of the electron, an easier to remember and more durably correct technically although historically false, etymology has been suggested: anode, from the Greek ''anodos'', 'way up', 'the way (up) out of the cell (or other device) for electrons'.\n", "In electrochemistry, the ''anode'' is where oxidation occurs and is the positive polarity contact in an electrolytic cell. At the anode, anions (negative ions) are forced by the electrical potential to react chemically and give off electrons (oxidation) which then flow up and into the driving circuit. Mnemonics: LEO Red Cat (Loss of Electrons is Oxidation, Reduction occurs at the Cathode), or AnOx Red Cat (Anode Oxidation, Reduction Cathode), or OIL RIG (Oxidation is Loss, Reduction is Gain of electrons), or Roman Catholic and Orthodox (Reduction – Cathode, anode – Oxidation), or LEO the lion says GER (Losing electrons is Oxidation, Gaining electrons is Reduction).\n\nThis process is widely used in metals refining. For example, in copper refining, copper anodes, an intermediate product from the furnaces, are electrolysed in an appropriate solution (such as sulfuric acid) to yield high purity (99.99%) cathodes. Copper cathodes produced using this method are also described as electrolytic copper.\n", "Galvanic cell\nIn a battery or galvanic cell, the anode is the negative electrode from which electrons flow out towards the external part of the circuit. Internally the positively charged cations are flowing away from the anode (even though it is negative and therefore would be expected to attract them, this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal/electrolyte systems); but, external to the cell in the circuit, electrons are being pushed out through the negative contact and thus through the circuit by the voltage potential as would be expected. Note: in a galvanic cell, contrary to what occurs in an electrolytic cell, no anions flow to the anode, the internal current being entirely accounted for by the cations flowing away from it (cf drawing).\n\nIn the United States, many battery manufacturers regard the positive electrode as the anode, particularly in their technical literature. Though technically incorrect, it does resolve the problem of which electrode is the anode in a secondary (or rechargeable) cell. Using the traditional definition, the anode switches ends between charge and discharge cycles.\n", "Cutaway diagram of a triode vacuum tube, showing the plate (anode)\n\nIn electronic vacuum devices such as a cathode ray tube, the anode is the positively charged electron collector. In a tube, the anode is a charged positive plate that collects the electrons emitted by the cathode through electric attraction. It also accelerates the flow of these electrons.\n", "In a semiconductor diode, the anode is the P-doped layer which initially supplies ''holes'' to the junction. In the junction region, the holes supplied by the anode combine with electrons supplied from the N-doped region, creating a depleted zone. As the P-doped layer supplies holes to the depleted region, negative dopant ions are left behind in the P-doped layer ('P' for positive charge-carrier ions). This creates a base negative charge on the anode. When a positive voltage is applied to anode of the diode from the circuit, more ''holes'' are able to be transferred to the depleted region, and this causes the diode to become conductive, allowing current to flow through the circuit. The terms anode and cathode should not be applied to a Zener diode, since it allows flow in either direction, depending on the polarity of the applied potential (i.e. voltage).\nDiode symbol\n", "Sacrificial anodes mounted \"on the fly\" for corrosion protection of a metal structure\nIn cathodic protection, a metal anode that is more reactive to the corrosive environment of the system to be protected is electrically linked to the protected system, and partially corrodes or dissolves, which protects the metal of the system it is connected to. As an example, an iron or steel ship's hull may be protected by a zinc sacrificial anode, which will dissolve into the seawater and prevent the hull from being corroded. Sacrificial anodes are particularly needed for systems where a static charge is generated by the action of flowing liquids, such as pipelines and watercraft. Sacrificial anodes are also generally used in tank-type water heaters.\n\nIn 1824 to reduce the impact of this destructive electrolytic action on ships hulls, their fastenings and underwater equipment, the scientist-engineer Sir Humphry Davy, developed the first and still most widely used marine electrolysis protection system. Davy installed sacrificial anodes made from a more electrically reactive (less noble) metal attached to the vessel hull and electrically connected to form a cathodic protection circuit.\n\nA less obvious example of this type of protection is the process of galvanising iron. This process coats iron structures (such as fencing) with a coating of zinc metal. As long as the zinc remains intact, the iron is protected from the effects of corrosion. Inevitably, the zinc coating becomes breached, either by cracking or physical damage. Once this occurs, corrosive elements act as an electrolyte and the zinc/iron combination as electrodes. The resultant current ensures that the zinc coating is sacrificed but that the base iron does not corrode. Such a coating can protect an iron structure for a few decades, but once the protecting coating is consumed, the iron rapidly corrodes.\n\nIf, conversely, tin is used to coat steel, when a breach of the coating occurs it actually accelerates oxidation of the iron.\n", "The opposite of an anode is a cathode. When the current through the device is reversed, the electrodes switch functions, so anode becomes cathode, while cathode becomes anode, as long as the reversed current is applied, with the exception of diodes where electrode naming is always based on the forward current direction.\n", "\nAnodizing\nBattery\nDiode\nCathodic protection\nElectrolysis\nGalvanic anode\nGas-filled tube\nRedox (oxidation-reduction)\nPrimary cell\nVacuum tube\n\n", "\n", "* The Cathode Ray Tube site\n* How to define anode and cathode\n* Valence Technologies Inc. battery education page\n* Cathodic Protection Technical Library\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Charge flow", "Examples", "Etymology", "Electrolytic anode", "Battery or galvanic cell anode", "Vacuum tube anode", "Diode anode", "Sacrificial anode", "Related antonym", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Anode
[ "\nEarly Monochrome analog receiver. In addition to volume control and channel selector dials, monochrome sets of this era would have had a fine-tuning control, brightness and contrast adjustment, and horizontal and vertical hold adjustments accessible to the viewer.\n\n'''Analog television''' or '''analogue television''' is the original television technology that uses analog signals to transmit video and audio. In an analog television broadcast, the brightness, colors and sound are represented by rapid variations of either the amplitude, frequency or phase of the signal.\n\nAnalog signals vary over a continuous range of possible values which means that electronic noise and interference becomes reproduced by the receiver. So with analog, a moderately weak signal becomes snowy and subject to interference. In contrast, a moderately weak digital signal and a very strong digital signal transmit equal picture quality. Analog television may be wireless or can be distributed over a cable network using cable converters.\n\nAll broadcast television systems preceding digital transmission of digital television (DTV) used analog signals.\n\nAnalog television around the world has been in the process of shutting down since the late 2000s.\n", "\n\nThe earliest systems were mechanical television systems, which used spinning disks with patterns of holes punched into the disc to scan an image. A similar disk reconstructed the image at the receiver. Synchronization of the receiver disc rotation was handled through sync pulses broadcast with the image information. However these mechanical systems were slow, the images were dim and flickered severely, and the image resolution very low. Camera systems used similar spinning discs and required intensely bright illumination of the subject for the light detector to work.\n\nAnalog television did not really begin as an industry until the development of the cathode-ray tube (CRT), which uses a focused electron beam to trace lines across a phosphor coated surface. The electron beam could be swept across the screen much faster than any mechanical disc system, allowing for more closely spaced scan lines and much higher image resolution. Also far less maintenance was required of an all-electronic system compared to a spinning disc system. All-electronic systems became popular with households after the Second World War.\n\n===Standards===\n\n\nBroadcasters of analog television encode their signal using different systems. The official systems of transmission are named: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, K1, L, M and N. These systems determine the number of scan lines, frame rate, channel width, video bandwidth, video-audio separation, and so on.\n\nThe colors in those systems are encoded with one of three color coding schemes: NTSC, PAL, or SECAM, and then use RF modulation to modulate this signal onto a very high frequency (VHF) or ultra high frequency (UHF) carrier. Each frame of a television image is composed of lines drawn on the screen. The lines are of varying brightness; the whole set of lines is drawn quickly enough that the human eye perceives it as one image. The next sequential frame is displayed, allowing the depiction of motion. The analog television signal contains timing and synchronization information, so that the receiver can reconstruct a two-dimensional moving image from a one-dimensional time-varying signal.\n\nThe first commercial television systems were black-and-white; the beginning of color television was in the 1950s.\n\nA practical television system needs to take luminance, chrominance (in a color system), synchronization (horizontal and vertical), and audio signals, and broadcast them over a radio transmission. The transmission system must include a means of television channel selection.\n\nAnalog broadcast television systems come in a variety of frame rates and resolutions. Further differences exist in the frequency and modulation of the audio carrier. The monochrome combinations still existing in the 1950s are standardized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as capital letters A through N. When color television was introduced, the hue and saturation information was added to the monochrome signals in a way that black and white televisions ignore. In this way backwards compatibility was achieved. That concept is true for all analog television standards.\n\nThere were three standards for the way the additional color information can be encoded and transmitted. The first was the American NTSC (National Television Systems Committee) color television system. The European/Australian PAL (Phase Alternation Line rate) and the French-former Soviet Union SECAM (Séquentiel Couleur Avec Mémoire) standard were developed later and attempt to cure certain defects of the NTSC system. PAL's color encoding is similar to the NTSC systems. SECAM, though, uses a different modulation approach than PAL or NTSC.\n\nIn principle, all three color encoding systems can be combined with any scan line/frame rate combination. Therefore, in order to describe a given signal completely, it's necessary to quote the color system and the broadcast standard as a capital letter. For example, the United States, Canada, Mexico and South Korea use NTSC-M (many of these transitioned or transitioning to digital), Japan uses NTSC-J (discontinued in 2012, when Japan transitioned to digital (ISDB)), the UK uses PAL-I (discontinued in 2012, when UK transitioned to digital (DVB-T)), France uses SECAM-L (discontinued in 2011, when France transitioned to digital (DVB-T)), much of Western Europe and Australia use PAL-B/G (Many of these transitioned or transitioning to DVB-T as digital television standards), most of Eastern Europe uses SECAM-D/K or PAL-D/K and so on.\n\nHowever, not all of these possible combinations actually exist. NTSC is currently only used with system M, even though there were experiments with NTSC-A (405 line) in the UK and NTSC-N (625 line) in part of South America. PAL is used with a variety of 625-line standards (B,G,D,K,I,N) but also with the North American 525-line standard, accordingly named PAL-M. Likewise, SECAM is used with a variety of 625-line standards.\n\nFor this reason many people refer to any 625/25 type signal as \"PAL\" and to any 525/30 signal as \"NTSC\", even when referring to digital signals; for example, on DVD-video, which does not contain any analog color encoding, and thus no PAL or NTSC signals at all. Even though this usage is common, it is misleading, as that is not the original meaning of the terms PAL/SECAM/NTSC.\n\nAlthough a number of different broadcast television systems were in use worldwide, the same principles of operation apply.\n\nIn many countries, over-the-air broadcast television of analog audio and analog video signals has been discontinued, to allow the re-use of the television broadcast radio spectrum for other services such as datacasting and subchannels.\n\n===Displaying an image===\nA cathode-ray tube (CRT) television displays an image by scanning a beam of electrons across the screen in a pattern of horizontal lines known as a raster. At the end of each line the beam returns to the start of the next line; the end of the last line is a link that returns to the top of the screen. As it passes each point the intensity of the beam is varied, varying the luminance of that point. A color television system is identical except that an additional signal known as chrominance controls the color of the spot.\n\nRaster scanning is shown in a slightly simplified form below.\n\ncenter\n\nWhen analog television was developed, no affordable technology for storing any video signals existed; the luminance signal has to be generated and transmitted at the same time at which it is displayed on the CRT. It is therefore essential to keep the raster scanning in the camera (or other device for producing the signal) in exact synchronization with the scanning in the television.\n\nThe physics of the CRT require that a finite time interval be allowed for the spot to move back to the start of the next line (''horizontal retrace'') or the start of the screen (''vertical retrace''). The timing of the luminance signal must allow for this.\n\nClose up image of analog color screen\n\nThe human eye has a characteristic called Phi phenomenon. Quickly displaying successive scan images will allow the apparent illusion of smooth motion. Flickering of the image can be partially solved using a long persistence phosphor coating on the CRT, so that successive images fade slowly. However, slow phosphor has the negative side-effect of causing image smearing and blurring when there is a large amount of rapid on-screen motion occurring.\n\nThe maximum frame rate depends on the bandwidth of the electronics and the transmission system, and the number of horizontal scan lines in the image. A frame rate of 25 or 30 hertz is a satisfactory compromise, while the process of interlacing two video fields of the picture per frame is used to build the image. This process doubles the apparent number of video frames per second and further reduces flicker and other defects in transmission.\n\n===Other types of display screens===\nPlasma screens and LCD screens have been used in analog television sets. These types of display screens use lower voltages than older CRT displays. Many dual system television receivers, equipped to receive both analog transmissions and digital transmissions have analog tuner receiving capability and must use a television antenna.\n", "The television system for each country will specify a number of television channels within the UHF or VHF frequency ranges. A channel actually consists of two signals: the picture information is transmitted using amplitude modulation on one frequency, and the sound is transmitted with frequency modulation at a frequency at a fixed offset (typically 4.5 to 6 MHz) from the picture signal.\n\nThe channel frequencies chosen represent a compromise between allowing enough bandwidth for video (and hence satisfactory picture resolution), and allowing enough channels to be packed into the available frequency band. In practice a technique called vestigial sideband is used to reduce the channel spacing, which would be nearly twice the video bandwidth if pure AM was used.\n\nSignal reception is invariably done via a superheterodyne receiver: the first stage is a ''tuner'' which selects a television channel and frequency-shifts it to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF). The signal amplifier performs amplification to the IF stages from the microvolt range to fractions of a volt.\n\n===Extracting the sound===\nAt this point the IF signal consists of a video carrier signal at one frequency and the sound carrier at a fixed offset. A demodulator recovers the video signal. Also at the output of the same demodulator is a new frequency modulated sound carrier at the offset frequency. In some sets made before 1948, this was filtered out, and the sound IF of about 22 MHz was sent to an FM demodulator to recover the basic sound signal. In newer sets, this new carrier at the offset frequency was allowed to remain as ''intercarrier sound'', and it was sent to an FM demodulator to recover the basic sound signal. One particular advantage of intercarrier sound is that when the front panel fine tuning knob is adjusted, the sound carrier frequency does not change with the tuning, but stays at the above-mentioned offset frequency. Consequently, it is easier to tune the picture without losing the sound.\n\nSo the FM sound carrier is then demodulated, amplified, and used to drive a loudspeaker. Until the advent of the NICAM and MTS systems, television sound transmissions were invariably monophonic.\n\n===Structure of a video signal===\nThe video carrier is demodulated to give a composite video signal; this contains luminance, chrominance and synchronization signals; this is identical to the video signal format used by analog video devices such as VCRs or CCTV cameras. Note that the RF signal modulation is inverted compared to the conventional AM: the minimum video signal level corresponds to maximum carrier amplitude, and vice versa. To ensure good linearity (fidelity), consistent with affordable manufacturing costs of transmitters and receivers, the video carrier is never shut off altogether. When intercarrier sound was invented later in 1948, not completely shutting off the carrier had the side effect of allowing intercarrier sound to be economically implemented.\n\nalt=Diagram showing video signal amplitude against time.\n\nEach line of the displayed image is transmitted using a signal as shown above. The same basic format (with minor differences mainly related to timing and the encoding of color) is used for PAL, NTSC and SECAM television systems. A monochrome signal is identical to a color one, with the exception that the elements shown in color in the diagram (the color burst, and the chrominance signal) are not present.\n\nPortion of a PAL video signal. From left to right: end of a video scan line, front porch, horizontal sync pulse, back porch with color burst, and beginning of next line\nThe ''front porch'' is a brief (about 1.5 microsecond) period inserted between the end of each transmitted line of picture and the leading edge of the next line sync pulse. Its purpose was to allow voltage levels to stabilise in older televisions, preventing interference between picture lines. The ''front porch'' is the first component of the horizontal blanking interval which also contains the horizontal sync pulse and the ''back porch''.\n\nThe ''back porch'' is the portion of each scan line between the end (rising edge) of the horizontal sync pulse and the start of active video. It is used to restore the black level (300 mV) reference in analog video. In signal processing terms, it compensates for the fall time and settling time following the sync pulse.\n\nIn color television systems such as PAL and NTSC, this period also includes the colorburst signal. In the SECAM system it contains the reference subcarrier for each consecutive color difference signal in order to set the zero-color reference.\n\nIn some professional systems, particularly satellite links between locations, the audio is embedded within the back porch of the video signal, to save the cost of renting a second channel.\n\n===Monochrome video signal extraction===\nThe luminance component of a composite video signal varies between 0 V and approximately 0.7 V above the \"black\" level. In the NTSC system, there is a ''blanking'' signal level used during the front porch and back porch, and a ''black'' signal level 75 mV above it; in PAL and SECAM these are identical.\n\nIn a monochrome receiver the luminance signal is amplified to drive the control grid in the electron gun of the CRT. This changes the intensity of the electron beam and therefore the brightness of the spot being scanned. Brightness and contrast controls determine the DC shift and amplification, respectively.\n\n===Color video signal extraction===\nColor bar generator test signal\nA color signal conveys picture information for each of the red, green, and blue components of an image (see the article on color space for more information). However, these are not simply transmitted as three separate signals, because: such a signal would not be compatible with monochrome receivers (an important consideration when color broadcasting was first introduced). It would also occupy three times the bandwidth of existing television, requiring a decrease in the number of television channels available. Furthermore, typical problems with signal transmission (such as differing received signal levels between different colors) would produce unpleasant side effects.\n\nInstead, the RGB signals are converted into YUV form, where the Y signal represents the lightness and darkness (luminance) of the colors in the image. Because the rendering of colors in this way is the goal of both black and white (monochrome) film and black and white (monochrome) television systems, the Y signal is ideal for transmission as the luminance signal. This ensures a monochrome receiver will display a correct picture in black and white, where a given color is reproduced by a shade of gray that correctly reflects how light or dark the original color is.\n\nThe U and V signals are \"color difference\" signals. The U signal is the difference between the B signal and the Y signal, also known as B minus Y (B-Y), and the V signal is the difference between the R signal and the Y signal, also known as R minus Y (R-Y). The U signal then represents how \"purplish-blue\" or its complementary color \"yellowish-green\" the color is, and the V signal how \"purplish-red\" or its complementary \"greenish-cyan\" it is. The advantage of this scheme is that the U and V signals are zero when the picture has no color content. Since the human eye is more sensitive to errors in luminance than in color, the U and V signals can be transmitted in a relatively lossy (specifically: bandwidth-limited) way with acceptable results.\n\nIn the receiver, a single demodulator can extract an additive combination of U plus V. An example is the X demodulator used in the X/Z demodulation system. In that same system, a second demodulator, the Z demodulator, also extracts an additive combination of U plus V, but in a different ratio. The X and Z color difference signals are further matrixed into three color difference signals, (R-Y), (B-Y), and (G-Y). The combinations of usually two, but sometimes three demodulators were:\n\na) (I) / (Q), (as used in the 1954 RCA CTC-2 and the 1985 RCA \"Colortrak\" series, and the 1954 Arvin, and some professional color monitors in the 1990s),\n\nb) (R-Y) / (Q), as used in the 1955 RCA 21 inch color receiver,\n\nc) (R-Y) / (B-Y), used in the first color receiver on the market (Westinghouse, not RCA),\n\nd) (R-Y) / (G-Y), (as used in the RCA Victor CTC-4 chassis),\n\ne) (R-Y) / (B-Y) / (G-Y),\n\nf) (X) / (Z), as used in many receivers of the late 50's and throughout the 60's.\n\nIn the end, further matrixing of the above color-difference signals c through f yielded the three color-difference signals, (R-Y), (B-Y), and (G-Y).\n\nThe R,G,B signals in the receiver needed for the display device (CRT, Plasma display or LCD display) are electronically derived by matrixing as follows: R is the additive combination of (R-Y) with Y, G is the additive combination of (G-Y) with Y, and B is the additive combination of (B-Y) with Y. All of this is accomplished electronically. It can be seen that in the combining process, the low resolution portion of the Y signals cancel out, leaving R,G, and B signals able to render a low-resolution image in full color. However, the higher resolution portions of the Y signals do not cancel out, and so are equally present in R, G, and B, producing the higher definition (higher resolution) image detail in monochrome, although it appears to the human eye as a full-color and full resolution picture.\n\nColor signals mixed with video signal (two horizontal lines in sequence)\n\nIn the NTSC and PAL color systems, U and V are transmitted by using quadrature amplitude modulation of a subcarrier. This kind of modulation applies two independent signals to one subcarrier, with the idea that both signals will be recovered independently at the receive end. Before transmission, the subcarrier itself, is removed from the active (visible) portion of the video, and moved, in the form of a burst, to the horizontal blanking portion, which is not directly visible on screen. (More about the burst below.)\n\nFor NTSC, the subcarrier is a 3.58 MHz sine wave. For the PAL system it is a 4.43 MHz sine wave. After the above-mentioned quadrature amplitude modulation of the subcarrier, subcarrier sidebands are produced, and the subcarrier itself is filtered out of the visible portion of the video, since it is the subcarrier sidebands that carry all of the U and V information, and the subcarrier itself carries no information.\n\nThe resulting subcarrier sidebands is also known as \"chroma\" or \"chrominance\". Physically, this chrominance signal is a 3.58 MHz(NTSC) or 4.43 MHz(PAL) sine wave which, in response to changing U and V values, changes phase as compared to the subcarrier, and also changes amplitude.\n\nAs it turns out, the chroma amplitude (when considered together with the Y signal) represents the approximate saturation of a color, and the chroma phase against the subcarrier as reference, approximately represents the hue of the color. For particular test colors found in the test color bar pattern, exact amplitudes and phases are sometimes defined for test and trouble shooting purposes only.\n\nAlthough, in response to changing U and V values, the chroma sinewave changes phase with respect to the subcarrier, it's not correct to say that the subcarrier is simply \"phase modulated\". That is because a single sine wave U test signal with QAM produces only one pair of sidebands, whereas real phase modulation under the same test conditions would produce multiple sets of sidebands occupying more frequency spectrum.\n\nIn NTSC, the chrominance sine wave has the same average frequency as the subcarrier frequency. But a spectrum analyzer instrument shows that, for transmitted chrominance, the frequency component at the subcarrier frequency is actually zero energy, verifying that the subcarrier was indeed removed before transmission.\n\nThese sideband frequencies are within the luminance signal band, which is why they are called \"subcarrier\" sidebands instead of simply \"carrier\" sidebands. Their exact frequencies were chosen such that (for NTSC), they are midway between two harmonics of the frame repetition rate, thus ensuring that the majority of the power of the luminance signal does not overlap with the power of the chrominance signal.\n\nIn the British PAL (D) system, the actual chrominance center frequency, with equal lower and upper sidebands, is 4.43361875 MHz, a direct multiple of the scan rate frequency. This frequency was chosen to minimize the chrominance beat interference pattern that would be visible in areas of high color saturation in the transmitted picture.\n\nAt certain times, the chrominance signal represents only the U signal, and 70 nanoseconds (NTSC) later, the chrominance signal represents only the V signal. (This is the nature of the quadrature amplitude modulation process that created the chrominance signal.) About 70 nanoseconds later still, -U, and another 70 nanoseconds, -V.\n\nSo to extract U, a synchronous demodulator is utilized, which uses the subcarrier to briefly gate (sample) the chroma every 280 nanoseconds, so that the output is only a train of discrete pulses, each having an amplitude that is the same as the original U signal at the corresponding time. In effect, these pulses are discrete-time analog samples of the U signal. The pulses are then low-pass filtered so that the original analog continuous-time U signal is recovered. For V, a 90 degree shifted subcarrier briefly gates the chroma signal every 280 nanoseconds, and the rest of the process is identical to that used for the U signal.\n\nGating at any other time than those times mentioned above will yield an additive mixture of any two of U, V, -U, or -V. One of these \"off-axis\" (that is, off the U and V axis) gating methods is called I/Q demodulation. Another much more popular \"off-axis\" scheme was the X/Z demodulation system. Further matrixing recovered the original U and V signals. This scheme was actually the most popular demodulator scheme throughout the 60's.\n\nThe above process uses the subcarrier. But as previously mentioned, it was deleted before transmission, and only the chroma is transmitted. Therefore, the receiver must reconstitute the subcarrier. For this purpose, a short burst of subcarrier, known as the color burst, is transmitted during the back porch (re-trace blanking period) of each scan line. A subcarrier oscillator in the receiver locks onto this signal (see phase-locked loop) to achieve a phase reference, resulting in the oscillator producing the reconstituted subcarrier.\n\n(A second use of the burst in more expensive or newer receiver models is a reference to an AGC system to compensate for chroma gain imperfections in reception.)\nTest card showing \"Hanover bars\" (color banding phase effect) in Pal S (simple) signal mode of transmission.\n\nNTSC uses this process unmodified. Unfortunately, this often results in poor color reproduction due to phase errors in the received signal, caused sometimes by multipath, but mostly by poor implementation at the studio end. With the advent of solid state receivers, cable TV, and digital studio equipment for conversion to an over-the-air analog signal, these NTSC problems have been largely fixed, leaving operator error at the studio end as the sole color rendition weakness of the NTSC system. In any case, the PAL D (delay) system mostly corrects these kind of errors by reversing the phase of the signal on each successive line, and the averaging the results over pairs of lines. This process is achieved by the use of a 1H (where H = horizontal scan frequency) duration delay line. (A typical circuit used with this device converts the low frequency color signal to ultrasound and back again). Phase shift errors between successive lines are therefore cancelled out and the wanted signal amplitude is increased when the two in-phase (coincident) signals are re-combined.\n\nNTSC is more spectrum efficient than PAL, giving more picture detail for a given bandwidth. This is because sophisticated comb filters in receivers are more effective with NTSC's 4 field color phase cadence compared to PAL's 8 field cadence. However, in the end, the larger channel width of most PAL systems in Europe still give their PAL systems the edge in transmitting more picture detail.\n\nIn the SECAM television system, U and V are transmitted on ''alternate'' lines, using simple frequency modulation of two different color subcarriers.\n\nIn some analog color CRT displays, starting in 1956, the brightness control signal (luminance) is fed to the cathode connections of the electron guns, and the color difference signals (chrominance signals) are fed to the control grids connections. This simple CRT matrix mixing technique was replaced in later solid state designs of signal processing with the original matrixing method used in the 1954 and 1955 color TV receivers.\n", "Synchronizing pulses added to the video signal at the end of every scan line and video frame ensure that the sweep oscillators in the receiver remain locked in step with the transmitted signal, so that the image can be reconstructed on the receiver screen.\n\nA ''sync separator'' circuit detects the sync voltage levels and sorts the pulses into horizontal and vertical sync. (see section below – Other technical information, for extra detail.)\n\n===Horizontal synchronization===\nThe horizontal synchronization pulse (''horizontal sync'' ''HSYNC''), separates the scan lines. The horizontal sync signal is a single short pulse which indicates the start of every line. The rest of the scan line follows, with the signal ranging from 0.3 V (black) to 1 V (white), until the next horizontal or vertical synchronization pulse.\n\nThe format of the horizontal sync pulse varies. In the 525-line NTSC system it is a 4.85 µs-long pulse at 0 V. In the 625-line PAL system the pulse is 4.7 µs synchronization pulse at 0 V . This is lower than the amplitude of any video signal (''blacker than black'') so it can be detected by the level-sensitive \"sync stripper\" circuit of the receiver.\n\n===Vertical synchronization===\n\nVertical synchronization (also called vertical sync or VSync) separates the video fields. In PAL and NTSC, the vertical sync pulse occurs within the vertical blanking interval. The vertical sync pulses are made by prolonging the length of HSYNC pulses through almost the entire length of the scan line.\n\nThe ''vertical sync'' signal is a series of much longer pulses, indicating the start of a new field. The sync pulses occupy the whole of line interval of a number of lines at the beginning and end of a scan; no picture information is transmitted during vertical retrace. The pulse sequence is designed to allow horizontal sync to continue during vertical retrace; it also indicates whether each field represents even or odd lines in interlaced systems (depending on whether it begins at the start of a horizontal line, or midway through).\n\nThe format of such a signal in 525-line NTSC is:\n* pre-equalizing pulses (6 to start scanning odd lines, 5 to start scanning even lines)\n* long-sync pulses (5 pulses)\n* post-equalizing pulses (5 to start scanning odd lines, 4 to start scanning even lines)\n\nEach pre- or post- equalizing pulse consists in half a scan line of black signal: 2 µs at 0 V, followed by 30 µs at 0.3 V.\n\nEach long sync pulse consists in an equalizing pulse with timings inverted: 30 µs at 0 V, followed by 2 µs at 0.3 V.\n\nIn video production and computer graphics, changes to the image are often kept in step with the vertical synchronization pulse to avoid visible discontinuity of the image. Since the frame buffer of a computer graphics display imitates the dynamics of a cathode-ray display, if it is updated with a new image while the image is being transmitted to the display, the display shows a mishmash of both frames, producing a page tearing artifact partway down the image.\n\nVertical synchronization eliminates this by timing frame buffer fills to coincide with the vertical blanking interval, thus ensuring that only whole frames are seen on-screen. Software such as video games and computer aided design (CAD) packages often allow vertical synchronization as an option, because it delays the image update until the vertical blanking interval. This produces a small penalty in latency, because the program has to wait until the video controller has finished transmitting the image to the display before continuing. Triple buffering reduces this latency significantly.\n\nTwo timing intervals are defined – the ''front porch'' between the end of displayed video and the start of the sync pulse, and the ''back porch'' after the sync pulse and before displayed video. These and the sync pulse itself are called the ''horizontal blanking'' (or ''retrace'') ''interval'' and represent the time that the electron beam in the CRT is returning to the start of the next display line.\n\n===Horizontal hold and vertical hold===\nThe lack of precision timing components in early television receivers meant that the timebase circuits occasionally needed manual adjustment.\nIf their free-run frequencies were too far from the actual line and field rates, the circuits would not be able to follow the incoming sync signals.\nLoss of horizontal synchronization usually resulted in an unwatchable picture; loss of vertical synchronization would produce an image rolling up or down the screen.\n\nThe adjustment took the form of ''horizontal hold'' and ''vertical hold'' controls, usually on the front panel along with other common controls. These adjusted the free-run frequencies of the corresponding timebase oscillators.\n\nBy the early 1980s the efficacy of the synchronization circuits, plus the inherent stability of the sets' oscillators, had been improved to the point where these controls were no longer necessary.\n", "\n\n\n===Components of a television system===\nA typical analog monochrome television receiver is based around the block diagram shown below:\n\nalt=block diagram of a television receiver showing tuner, intermediate frequency amplifier. A demodulator separates sound from video. Video is directed to the CRT and to the synchronizing circuits.\n\n===Sync separator===\n\nPortion of a PAL videosignal. From left to right: end of a video line, front porch, horizontal sync pulse, back porch with color burst, and beginning of next line\nBeginning of the frame, showing several scan lines; the terminal part of the vertical sync pulse is at the left\nPAL videosignal frames. Left to right: frame with scan lines (overlapping together, horizontal sync pulses show as the doubled straight horizontal lines), vertical blanking interval with vertical sync (shows as brightness increase of the bottom part of the signal in almost the leftmost part of the vertical blanking interval), entire frame, another VBI with VSYNC, beginning of third frame\n\nImage synchronization is achieved by transmitting negative-going pulses; in a composite video signal of 1 volt amplitude, these are approximately 0.3 V below the \"black level\". The ''horizontal sync'' signal is a single short pulse which indicates the start of every line. Two timing intervals are defined – the ''front porch'' between the end of displayed video and the start of the sync pulse, and the ''back porch'' after the sync pulse and before displayed video. These and the sync pulse itself are called the ''horizontal blanking'' (or ''retrace'') ''interval'' and represent the time that the electron beam in the CRT is returning to the start of the next display line.\n\nThe ''vertical sync'' signal is a series of much longer pulses, indicating the start of a new field. The sync pulses occupy the whole of line interval of a number of lines at the beginning and end of a scan; no picture information is transmitted during vertical retrace. The pulse sequence is designed to allow horizontal sync to continue during vertical retrace; it also indicates whether each field represents even or odd lines in interlaced systems (depending on whether it begins at the start of a horizontal line, or midway through).\n\nIn the television receiver, a ''sync separator'' circuit detects the sync voltage levels and sorts the pulses into horizontal and vertical sync.\n\nLoss of horizontal synchronization usually resulted in an unwatchable picture; loss of vertical synchronization would produce an image rolling up or down the screen.\n\nCounting sync pulses, a video line selector picks a selected line from a TV signal, used for teletext, on-screen displays, station identification logos as well as in the industry when cameras were used as a sensor.\n\n===Timebase circuits===\n\nIn an analog receiver with a CRT display sync pulses are fed to horizontal and vertical ''timebase'' circuits (commonly called \"sweep circuits\" in the United States), each consisting of an oscillator and an amplifier. These generate modified sawtooth and parabola current waveforms to scan the electron beam in a linear way. The waveform shapes are necessary to make up for the distance variations from the electron beam source and the screen surface. The oscillators are designed to free-run at frequencies very close to the field and line rates, but the sync pulses cause them to reset at the beginning of each scan line or field, resulting in the necessary synchronization of the beam sweep with the originating signal. The output waveforms from the timebase amplifiers are fed to the horizontal and vertical ''deflection coils'' wrapped around the CRT tube. These coils produce magnetic fields proportional to the changing current, and these deflect the electron beam across the screen.\n\nIn the 1950s, the power for these circuits was derived directly from the mains supply.\nA simple circuit consisted of a series voltage dropper resistance and a rectifier valve (tube) or semiconductor diode. This avoided the cost of a large high voltage mains supply (50 or 60 Hz) transformer. This type of circuit was used for thermionic valve (vacuum tube) technology. It was inefficient and produced a lot of heat which led to premature failures in the circuitry.\n\nIn the 1960s, semiconductor technology was introduced into timebase circuits. During the late 1960s in the UK, synchronous (with the scan line rate) power generation was introduced into solid state receiver designs. These had very complex circuits in which faults were difficult to trace, but had very efficient use of power.\n\nIn the early 1970s AC mains (50 or 60 Hz), and line timebase (15,625 Hz), thyristor based switching circuits were introduced. In the UK use of the simple (50 Hz) types of power circuits were discontinued. The reason for design changes arose from the electricity supply contamination problems arising from EMI, and supply loading issues due to energy being taken from only the positive half cycle of the mains supply waveform.\n\n===CRT flyback power supply design and operation principles===\n\n\nMost of the receiver's circuitry (at least in transistor- or IC-based designs) operates from a comparatively low-voltage DC power supply. However, the anode connection for a cathode-ray tube requires a very high voltage (typically 10–30 kV) for correct operation.\n\nThis voltage is not directly produced by the main power supply circuitry; instead the receiver makes use of the circuitry used for horizontal scanning. Direct current (DC), is switched though the line output transformer, and alternating current (AC) is induced into the scan coils. At the end of each horizontal scan line the magnetic field, which has built up in both transformer and scan coils by the current, is a source of latent electromagnetic energy. This stored collapsing magnetic field energy can be captured. The reverse flow, short duration, (about 10% of the line scan time) current from both the line output transformer and the horizontal scan coil is discharged again into the primary winding of the flyback transformer by the use of a rectifier which blocks this negative reverse emf. A small value capacitor is connected across the scan switching device. This tunes the circuit inductances to resonate at a much higher frequency. This slows down (lengthens) the flyback time from the extremely rapid decay rate that would result if they were electrically isolated during this short period. One of the secondary windings on the flyback transformer then feeds this brief high voltage pulse to a Cockcroft–Walton generator design voltage multiplier. This produces the required EHT supply. A flyback converter is a power supply circuit operating on similar principles.\n\nA typical modern design incorporates the flyback transformer and rectifier circuitry into a single unit with a captive output lead, (known as a diode split line output transformer or an Integrated High Voltage Transformer (IHVT)), so that all high-voltage parts are enclosed. Earlier designs used a separate line output transformer and a well insulated high voltage multiplier unit. The high frequency (15 kHz or so) of the horizontal scanning allows reasonably small components to be used.\n", "\n\nThe first country to make a wholesale switch to digital over-the-air (terrestrial television) broadcasting was Luxembourg in 2006, followed later in 2006 by the Netherlands; in 2007 by Finland, Andorra, Sweden and Switzerland; in 2008 by Belgium (Flanders) and Germany; in 2009 by the United States (high power stations), southern Canada, the Isle of Man, Norway, and Denmark. In 2010, Belgium (Wallonia), Spain, Wales, Latvia, Estonia, the Channel Islands, San Marino and Slovenia; in 2011 Israel, Austria, Monaco, Cyprus, Japan (excluding Miyagi, Iwate, and Fukushima prefectures), Malta and France; in 2012 the Czech Republic, Arab World, Taiwan, Portugal, Japan (including Miyagi, Iwate, and Fukushima prefectures), Serbia, Italy, Canada, Mauritius, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Lithuania, Slovakia, Gibraltar, and South Korea; in 2013, the Republic of Macedonia, Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Australia, and New Zealand, completed the transition. The United Kingdom made the transition to digital television between 2008 and 2012, with the exception of Barrow-in-Furness, which made the switch over in 2007. The first digital TV-only area in the United Kingdom was Ferryside in Carmarthenshire.\n\nIn the United States, high-power over-the-air broadcasts are solely in the ATSC digital format since 12 June 2009, the date that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) set for the end of all high-power analog television transmissions. As a result, almost two million households could no longer watch television because they had not prepared for the transition. The switchover was originally scheduled for 17 February 2009, until the U.S. Congress passed the DTV Delay Act. By special dispensation, some analog television signals ceased on the original date. While the majority of the viewers of over-the-air broadcast television in the U.S. watch full-power stations (which number about 1800), there are three other categories of television stations in the U.S.: low-power broadcasting stations, class A stations, and television translator stations. There is presently no deadline for these stations, about 7100 in number, to convert to digital broadcasting. In broadcasting, whatever happens in the United States also influences southern Canada and northern Mexico because those areas are covered by television stations in the U.S.\n\nIn Japan, the switch to digital occurred on the 24 July 2011, but in Fukushima, Iwate, and Miyagi prefectures, the conversion was delayed to 31 March 2012, due to complications from the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and its related nuclear accidents. In Canada, most of the larger cities turned off analog broadcasts on 31 August 2011. China is scheduled to end analog broadcasting between 2015 and 2018, due to the large size of the country.\n\nBrazil switched to digital television on 2 December 2007 in its major cities. It is now estimated that Brazil will end analog broadcasting in 2023.\n\nIn Malaysia, the Malaysian Communications & Multimedia Commission (MCMC) advertised for tender bids to be submitted in the third quarter of 2009 for the 470 through 742 MHz UHF allocation, to enable Malaysia's broadcast system to move into DTV. The new broadcast band allocation would result in Malaysia's having to build an infrastructure for all broadcasters, using a single digital terrestrial transmission/television broadcast (DTTB) channel. Large portions of Malaysia are covered by television broadcasts from Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, and Indonesia (from Borneo and Batam)\n\nIn the Philippines, the National Telecommunications Commission required all broadcasting companies to end analog broadcasting on December 31, 2015 at 11:59 p.m. Due to delay of the release of the implementing rules and regulations for digital television broadcast, the target date was moved to 2020. Full digital broadcast is expected in 2021.\n", "\n\n* Amateur television\n* Color burst\n* Narrow-bandwidth television\n* Overscan\n* Slow-scan television\n* Terrestrial television\n* Television transmitter\n* Vertical blanking interval\n* Field (video)\n* Video frame\n* Glossary of video terms\n\n", "\n", "\n* Video signal measurement and generation\n* Television synchronisation\n* Video broadcast standard frequencies and country listings\n* EDN magazine describing design of a 1958 transistorised television receiver\n* Designing the color television signal in the early 1950s as described by two engineers working directly with the NTSC\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Development", "Receiving signals", "Synchronization", "Other technical information", "Transition to digital", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Analog television
[ "\n\nNitrocellulose adhesive dispensed from a tube\n\n'''Adhesive''' may be used interchangeably with '''glue''', '''cement''', '''mucilage''', or '''paste''', and is any substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation. Adjectives may be used in conjunction with the word \"adhesive\" to describe properties based on the substance's physical or chemical form, the type of materials joined, or conditions under which it is applied.\n\nThe use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding techniques such as sewing, mechanical fastening, thermal bonding, etc. These include the ability to bind different materials together, to distribute stress more efficiently across the joint, the cost effectiveness of an easily mechanized process, an improvement in aesthetic design, and increased design flexibility. Disadvantages of adhesive use include decreased stability at high temperatures, relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface area, and greater difficulty in separating objects during testing. Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion. These are then organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural or synthetic origin, or by their starting physical phase.\n\nAdhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically. The earliest human use of adhesive-like substances was approximately 200,000 years ago, when Neanderthals produced tar from the dry distillation of birch bark for use in binding stone tools to wooden handles.The first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately 2000 BCE. The Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. In Europe, glue was not widely used until the period 1500–1700 CE. From then until the 1900s increases in adhesive use and discovery were relatively gradual. Only since the last century has the development of synthetic adhesives accelerated rapidly, and innovation in the field continues to the present.\n", "A reconstruction of Ötzi's axe, which used pitch as an adhesive\nThe earliest use of adhesives was discovered in central Italy when two stone flakes partially covered with birch-bark tar and a third uncovered stone from the Middle Pleistocene era (circa 200,000 years ago) were found. This is thought to be the oldest discovered human use of tar-hafted stones.\n\nThe birch-bark-tar adhesive is a simple, one-component adhesive. Although sticky enough, plant-based adhesives are brittle and vulnerable to environmental conditions. The first use of compound adhesives was discovered in Sibudu, South Africa. Here, 70,000-year-old stone segments that were once inserted in axe hafts were discovered covered with an adhesive composed of plant gum and red ochre (natural iron oxide) as adding ochre to plant gum produces a stronger product and protects the gum from disintegrating under wet conditions. The ability to produce stronger adhesives allowed middle stone age humans to attach stone segments to sticks in greater variations, which led to the development of new tools.\n\nMore recent examples of adhesive use by prehistoric humans have been found at the burial sites of ancient tribes. Archaeologists studying the sites found that approximately 6,000 years ago the tribesmen had buried their dead together with food found in broken clay pots repaired with tree resins. Another investigation by archaeologists uncovered the use of bituminous cements to fasten ivory eyeballs to statues in Babylonian temples dating to approximately 4000 BCE.\n\nIn 2000, a paper revealed the discovery of a 5,200-year-old man nicknamed the \"Tyrolean Iceman\" or \"Ötzi\", who was preserved in a glacier near the Austria-Italy border. Several of his belongings were found with him including two arrows with flint arrowheads and a copper hatchet, each with evidence of organic glue used to connect the stone or metal parts to the wooden shafts. The glue was analyzed as pitch, which requires the heating of tar during its production. The retrieval of this tar requires a transformation of birch bark by means of heat, in a process known as pyrolysis.\n\nThe first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately 2000 BCE. Further historical records of adhesive use are found from the period spanning 1500–1000 BCE. Artifacts from this period include paintings depicting wood gluing operations and a casket made of wood and glue in King Tutankhamun's tomb. Other ancient Egyptian artifacts employ animal glue for bonding or lamination. Such lamination of wood for bows and furniture is thought to have extended their life and was accomplished using casein (milk protein)-based glues. The ancient Egyptians also developed starch-based pastes for the bonding of papyrus to clothing and a plaster of Paris-like material made of calcined gypsum.\n\nFrom 1 to 500 AD the Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. Wood veneering and marquetry were developed, the production of animal and fish glues refined, and other materials utilized. Egg-based pastes were used to bond gold leaves incorporated various natural ingredients such as blood, bone, hide, milk, cheese, vegetables, and grains. The Greeks began the use of slaked lime as mortar while the Romans furthered mortar development by mixing lime with volcanic ash and sand. This material, known as pozzolanic cement, was used in the construction of the Roman Colosseum and Pantheon. The Romans were also the first people known to have used tar and beeswax as caulk and sealant between the wooden planks of their boats and ships.\nleft\nlime factory in Ukraine\n\nIn Central Asia, the rise of the Mongols in approximately 1000 AD can be partially attributed to the good range and power of the bows of Genghis Khan's hordes. These bows were constructed with laminated lemonwood and bullhorn bonded by an unknown adhesive.\n\nIn Europe, glue fell into disuse until the period 1500–1700 AD. At this time, world-renowned cabinet and furniture makers such as Thomas Chippendale and Duncan Phyfe began to use adhesives to hold their products together.\n\nThe development of modern adhesives began in 1690 with the founding of the first commercial glue plant in Holland. This plant produced glues from animal hides.\n\nLiquid animal glue\n\nIn 1750, the first British glue patent was issued for fish glue. The following decades of the next century witnessed the manufacture of casein glues in German and Swiss factories. In 1876, the first US patent (number 183,024) was issued to the Ross brothers for the production of casein glue.\n\nCasein glue preparation\n\nThe first US postage stamps used starch-based adhesives when issued in 1840. The first US patent (number 61,991) on dextrin (a starch derivative) adhesive was issued in 1867.\n\nNatural rubber was first used as material for adhesives starting in 1830. In 1839, Charles Goodyear discovered that a rubber and sulfur mixture, when heated, becomes elastic. In 1843, Thomas Hancock named this process vulcanization. In 1862, a British patent (number 3288) was issued for the plating of metal with brass by electrodeposition to obtain a stronger bond to rubber. The development of the automobile and the need for rubber shock mounts required stronger and more durable bonds of rubber and metal. This spurred the development of cyclized rubber treated in strong acids. By 1927, this process was used to produce solvent-based thermoplastic rubber cements for metal to rubber bonding.\n\nNatural rubber-based sticky adhesives were first used on a backing by Henry Day (US Patent 3,965) in 1845. Later these kinds of adhesives were used in cloth backed surgical and electric tapes. By 1925, the pressure-sensitive tape industry was born.\nToday, sticky notes, Scotch tape, and other tapes are examples of PSA (pressure-sensitive adhesives).\n\nA key step in the development of synthetic plastics was the introduction of a thermoset plastic known as Bakelite phenolic in 1910. Within two years, phenolic resin was applied to plywood as a coating varnish. In the early 1930s, phenolics gained importance as adhesive resins.\n\nThe 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s witnessed great advances in the development and production of new plastics and resins due to the First and Second World Wars. These advances greatly improved the development of adhesives by allowing the use of newly developed materials that exhibited a variety of properties. With changing needs and ever evolving technology, the development of new synthetic adhesives continues to the present. However, due to their low cost, natural adhesives are still more commonly used.\n", "In the course of time and during their development, adhesives have gained a stable position in an increasing number of production processes. There is hardly any product in our surroundings that does not contain at least one adhesive—be it the label on a beverage bottle, protective coatings on automobiles, or profiles on window frames. Market researchers forecast a turnover of almost US$50 billion for the global adhesives market in 2019. In particular, the economic development of emerging countries such as China, India, Russia, and Brazil will cause a rising demand for adhesives in the future.\n", "\n\nAdhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion. These are then organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural, or synthetic origin, or by their starting physical phase.\n\n=== By reactiveness ===\n\n====Non-reactive====\n\n=====Drying=====\nThere are two types of adhesives that harden by drying: ''solvent-based adhesives'' and ''polymer dispersion adhesives'', also known as ''emulsion adhesives''. \nSolvent-based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients (typically polymers) dissolved in a solvent. White glue, contact adhesives and rubber cements are members of the ''drying adhesive'' family. As the solvent evaporates, the adhesive hardens. Depending on the chemical composition of the adhesive, they will adhere to different materials to greater or lesser degrees.\n\nPolymer dispersion adhesives are milky-white dispersions often based on polyvinyl acetate (PVAc). They are used extensively in the woodworking and packaging industries. They are also used with fabrics and fabric-based components, and in engineered products such as loudspeaker cones.\n\n=====Pressure-sensitive=====\n\n''Pressure-sensitive adhesives'' (PSA) form a bond by the application of light pressure to marry the adhesive with the adherend. They are designed to have a balance between flow and resistance to flow. The bond forms because the adhesive is soft enough to flow (i.e., \"wet\") to the adherend. The bond has strength because the adhesive is hard enough to resist flow when stress is applied to the bond. Once the adhesive and the adherend are in close proximity, molecular interactions, such as van der Waals forces, become involved in the bond, contributing significantly to its ultimate strength.\n\nPSAs are designed for either permanent or removable applications. Examples of permanent applications include safety labels for power equipment, foil tape for HVAC duct work, automotive interior trim assembly, and sound/vibration damping films. Some high performance permanent PSAs exhibit high adhesion values and can support kilograms of weight per square centimeter of contact area, even at elevated temperatures. Permanent PSAs may initially be removable (for example to recover mislabeled goods) and build adhesion to a permanent bond after several hours or days.\n\nRemovable adhesives are designed to form a temporary bond, and ideally can be removed after months or years without leaving residue on the adherend. Removable adhesives are used in applications such as surface protection films, masking tapes, bookmark and note papers, barcodes labels, price marking labels, promotional graphics materials, and for skin contact (wound care dressings, EKG electrodes, athletic tape, analgesic and transdermal drug patches, etc.). Some removable adhesives are designed to repeatedly stick and unstick. They have low adhesion, and generally cannot support much weight. Pressure-sensitive adhesive is used in Post-it notes.\n\nPressure-sensitive adhesives are manufactured with either a liquid carrier or in 100% solid form. Articles are made from liquid PSAs by coating the adhesive and drying off the solvent or water carrier. They may be further heated to initiate a cross-linking reaction and increase molecular weight. 100% solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive, or they may be high viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form. Major raw material for PSA's are acrylate-based polymers.\n\n=====Contact =====\n''Contact adhesives'' are used in strong bonds with high shear-resistance like laminates, such as bonding Formica to a wooden counter, and in footwear, as in attaching outsoles to uppers.\n\nNatural rubber and polychloroprene (Neoprene) are commonly used contact adhesives. Both of these elastomers undergo strain crystallization. In the construction industry a specialised proprietary adhesive known as \"liquid nails\" is used. This also copes with tasks such as sealing artificial turf.\n\nContact adhesives must be applied to both surfaces and allowed some time to dry before the two surfaces are pushed together. Some contact adhesives require as long as 24 hours to dry before the surfaces are to be held together. Once the surfaces are pushed together, the bond forms very quickly. It is usually not necessary to apply pressure for a long time, so there is less need for clamps.\n\n=====Hot=====\nA glue gun, an example of a hot adhesive\n\n\n''Hot adhesives'', also known as ''hot melt adhesives'', are thermoplastics applied in molten form (in the 65–180 °C range) which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds between a wide range of materials. Ethylene-vinyl acetate-based hot-melts are particularly popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials they can join. A glue gun (shown at right) is one method of applying hot adhesives. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive, then allows the liquid to pass through its barrel onto the material, where it solidifies.\n\nThermoplastic glue may have been invented around 1940 by Procter & Gamble as a solution to the problem that water-based adhesives, commonly used in packaging at that time, failed in humid climates, causing packages to open.\n\n====Reactive====\n\n=====Multi-part=====\n''Multi-component adhesives'' harden by mixing two or more components which chemically react. This reaction causes polymers to cross-link into acrylics, urethanes, and epoxies - See thermosetting polymers.\n\nThere are several commercial combinations of multi-component adhesives in use in industry. Some of these combinations are:\n* Polyester resin – polyurethane resin\n* Polyols – polyurethane resin\n* Acrylic polymers – polyurethane resins\n\nThe individual components of a multi-component adhesive are not adhesive by nature. The individual components react with each other after being mixed and show full adhesion only on curing. The multi-component resins can be either solvent-based or solvent-less. The solvents present in the adhesives are a medium for the polyester or the polyurethane resin. The solvent is dried during the curing process.\n\n=====One-part=====\n''One-part adhesives'' harden via a chemical reaction with an external energy source, such as radiation, heat, and moisture.\n\n''Ultraviolet'' (UV) ''light curing adhesives'', also known as ''light curing materials'' (LCM), have become popular within the manufacturing sector due to their rapid curing time and strong bond strength. Light curing adhesives can cure in as little as a second and many formulations can bond dissimilar substrates (materials) and withstand harsh temperatures. These qualities make UV curing adhesives essential to the manufacturing of items in many industrial markets such as electronics, telecommunications, medical, aerospace, glass, and optical. Unlike traditional adhesives, UV light curing adhesives not only bond materials together but they can also be used to seal and coat products. They are generally acrylic-based.\n\n''Heat curing adhesives'' consist of a pre-made mixture of two or more components. When heat is applied the components react and cross-link. This type of adhesive includes thermoset epoxies, urethanes, and polyimides.\n\n''Moisture curing adhesives'' cure when they react with moisture present on the substrate surface or in the air. This type of adhesive includes cyanoacrylates and urethanes.\n\n\n===By origin===\n\n====Natural====\nNatural adhesives are made from organic sources such as vegetable starch (dextrin), natural resins, or animals (e.g. the milk protein casein and hide-based animal glues). These are often referred to as bioadhesives.\n\nOne example is a simple paste made by cooking flour in water. Starch-based adhesives are used in corrugated board and paper sack production, paper tube winding, and wallpaper adhesives. Casein glue is mainly used to adhere glass bottle labels. Animal glues have traditionally been used in bookbinding, wood joining, and many other areas but now are largely replaced by synthetic glues except in specialist applications like the production and repair of stringed instruments. Albumen made from the protein component of blood has been used in the plywood industry. Masonite, a wood hardboard, was originally bonded using natural wood lignin, an organic polymer, though most modern particle boards such as MDF use synthetic thermosetting resins.\n\n====Synthetic====\nSynthetic adhesives are based on elastomers, thermoplastics, emulsions, and thermosets. Examples of thermosetting adhesives are: epoxy, polyurethane, cyanoacrylate and acrylic polymers. The first commercially produced synthetic adhesive was Karlsons Klister in the 1920s.\n", "Applicators of different adhesives are designed according to the adhesive being used and the size of the area to which the adhesive will be applied. The adhesive is applied to either one or both of the materials being bonded. The pieces are aligned and pressure is added to aid in adhesion and rid the bond of air bubbles.\n\nCommon ways of applying an adhesive include brushes, rollers, using films or pellets, spray guns and applicator guns (''e.g.'', caulk gun). All of these can be used manually or automated as part of a machine.\n", "\n\nFor an adhesive to be effective it must have three main properties. It must be able to wet the substrate. It must harden note: not ''all'' adhesives harden and finally it must be able to transmit load between the two surfaces/substrates being adhered.\n\nAdhesion, the attachment between adhesive and substrate may occur either by mechanical means, in which the adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate, or by one of several chemical mechanisms. The strength of adhesion depends on many factors, including the means by which it occurs.\n\nIn some cases, an actual chemical bond occurs between adhesive and substrate. In others, electrostatic forces, as in static electricity, hold the substances together. A third mechanism involves the van der Waals forces that develop between molecules. A fourth means involves the moisture-aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate, followed by hardening.\n", "The quality of adhesive bonding depends strongly on the ability of the adhesive to efficiency cover (wet) the substrate area. This happens when the surface energy of the substrate is greater than the surface energy of the adhesive. However, high strength adhesives have high surface energy. Thus, their application is problematic for low energy materials such as polymers. To solve this problem, surface treatment can be used to increase the surface energy as a preparation step before adhesive bonding. Importantly, surface preparation provides a reproducible surface allowing consistent bonding results. The commonly used surface activation techniques include plasma activation, flame treatment and wet chemistry priming.\n", "Failure of the adhesive joint can occur in different locations\n\nThere are several factors that could contribute to the failure of two adhered surfaces. Sunlight and heat may weaken the adhesive. Solvents can deteriorate or dissolve adhesive. Physical stresses may also cause the separation of surfaces. When subjected to loading, debonding may occur at different locations in the adhesive joint. The major fracture types are the following:\n\n===Cohesive fracture===\n''Cohesive fracture'' is obtained if a crack propagates in the bulk polymer which constitutes the adhesive. In this case the surfaces of both adherends after debonding will be covered by fractured adhesive. The crack may propagate in the center of the layer or near an interface. For this last case, the cohesive fracture can be said to be \"cohesive near the interface\".\n\n===Adhesive fracture===\n''Adhesive fracture'' (sometimes referred to as ''interfacial fracture'') is when debonding occurs between the adhesive and the adherend. In most cases, the occurrence of adhesive fracture for a given adhesive goes along with smaller fracture toughness.\n\n===Other types of fracture===\nOther types of fracture include:\n\n* The ''mixed'' type, which occurs if the crack propagates at some spots in a cohesive and in others in an interfacial manner. Mixed fracture surfaces can be characterised by a certain percentage of adhesive and cohesive areas.\n* The ''alternating crack path'' type which occurs if the cracks jump from one interface to the other. This type of fracture appears in the presence of tensile pre-stresses in the adhesive layer.\n* Fracture can also occur in the adherend if the adhesive is tougher than the adherend. In this case, the adhesive remains intact and is still bonded to one substrate and remnants of the other. For example, when one removes a price label, the adhesive usually remains on the label and the surface. This is cohesive failure. If, however, a layer of paper remains stuck to the surface, the adhesive has not failed. Another example is when someone tries to pull apart Oreo cookies and all the filling remains on one side; this is an adhesive failure, rather than a cohesive failure.\n", "Modes of failure\n\nAs a general design rule, the material properties of the object need to be greater than the forces anticipated during its use. (i.e. geometry, loads, etc.). The engineering work will consist of having a good model to evaluate the function. For most adhesive joints, this can be achieved using fracture mechanics. Concepts such as the stress concentration factor and the strain energy release rate can be used to predict failure. In such models, the behavior of the adhesive layer itself is neglected and only the adherents are considered.\n\nFailure will also very much depend on the opening ''mode'' of the joint.\n* ''Mode I'' is an opening or tensile mode where the loadings are normal to the crack.\n* ''Mode II'' is a sliding or in-plane shear mode where the crack surfaces slide over one another in direction perpendicular to the leading edge of the crack. This is typically the mode for which the adhesive exhibits the highest resistance to fracture.\n* ''Mode III'' is a tearing or antiplane shear mode.\n\nAs the loads are usually fixed, an acceptable design will result from combination of a material selection procedure and geometry modifications, if possible. In adhesively bonded structures, the global geometry and loads are fixed by structural considerations and the design procedure focuses on the material properties of the adhesive and on local changes on the geometry.\n\nIncreasing the joint resistance is usually obtained by designing its geometry so that:\n* The bonded zone is large\n* It is mainly loaded in mode II\n* Stable crack propagation will follow the appearance of a local failure.\n", "Some glues and adhesives have a limited shelf life. Exposure to heat, oxygen, water vapor, etc. can degrade the adhesive over time, preventing it from functioning properly.\n", "* Adhesive surface forces\n* Blu-Tack\n* Glue stick\n* Sealant\n* Wood glue\n* Adhesive Tape\n", "\n\n===Bibliography===\n* Ebnesajjad, Sina (2010). \"History of Adhesives\". ''Handbook of Adhesives and Surface Preparation:Technology, Applications and Manufacturing''. Amsterdam: Elsevier. .\n* Kinloch, Anthony J. (1987). ''Adhesion and Adhesives: Science and Technology''. London: Chapman and Hall. \n\n Mittal, K.L., A. Pizzi (2003). ''Handbook of Adhesive Technology''. New York: Marcel Dekker. \n* \n", "\n\n* Web dedicated about adhesive science\n* Educational portal on adhesives and sealants\n* RoyMech: The theory of adhesive bonding\n* 3M's Adhesive & Tapes Classification\n* Database of adhesives for attaching different materials\n* Adhesive Formulations\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Economic importance", "Types", "Application", "Mechanisms of adhesion", " Methods to improve adhesion ", "Failure", "Design of adhesive joints", "Shelf life", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Adhesive
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Sir Philip Anthony Hopkins''' (born 31 December 1937) is a Welsh film, stage, and television actor. After graduating from the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in 1957, he trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London, and was then spotted by Laurence Olivier who invited him to join the Royal National Theatre. In 1968, he got his break in film in ''The Lion in Winter'', playing Richard the Lionheart.\n\nConsidered to be one of the greatest living actors, Hopkins is well known for his portrayal of Hannibal Lecter in ''The Silence of the Lambs'', for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor, its sequel ''Hannibal'', and the prequel ''Red Dragon''. Other notable films include ''The Mask of Zorro'', ''The Bounty'', ''Meet Joe Black'', ''The Elephant Man'', ''Magic'', ''84 Charing Cross Road'', ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'', ''Legends of the Fall'', ''Thor'', ''The Remains of the Day'', ''Amistad'', ''Nixon'', ''The World's Fastest Indian'', ''Instinct'', ''Fracture'', and ''The Dresser''. Since 2016, he has starred in the critically acclaimed HBO television series ''Westworld''.\n\nAlong with his Academy Award, Hopkins has won three BAFTA Awards, two Emmys, and the Cecil B. DeMille Award. In 1993, he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for services to the arts. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2003, and was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts in 2008.\n", "\n\nHopkins was born on New Year's Eve 1937, in Margam, a suburb of Port Talbot, Glamorgan. His parents were Annie Muriel (''née'' Yeates) and Richard Arthur Hopkins, a baker. His school days were unproductive; he would rather immerse himself in art, such as painting and drawing, or playing the piano, than attend to his studies. In 1949, to instill discipline, his parents insisted he attend Jones' West Monmouth Boys' School in Pontypool. He remained there for five terms and was then educated at Cowbridge Grammar School in the Vale of Glamorgan. In a 2002 profile in ''The New York Times'', Hopkins told journalist Franz Lidz: \"I was a poor learner, which left me open to ridicule and gave me an inferiority complex. I grew up absolutely convinced I was stupid.\" His only real talent was for drinking India ink, which impressed his school chums but not his teachers. In desperation, his parents sent him off to boarding school, where the headmaster told him he was \"hopeless\" and he developed a \"sheer contempt for authority.\" He stumbled into acting at 17 with a YMCA group (his one line: \"Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth\").\n\nHopkins was influenced and encouraged by Welsh compatriot Richard Burton, whom he met at the age of 15. Hopkins promptly enrolled at the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in Cardiff, from which he graduated in 1957. After two years in the British Army doing his national service, he moved to London, where he studied in London at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and, in 1965, joined Laurence Olivier's National Theatre.\n", "Isabella Rossellini and Hopkins in Berlin to shoot scenes for ''The Innocent'' (1993)\nHopkins made his first professional stage appearance in the Palace Theatre, Swansea, in 1960 with Swansea Little Theatre's production of ''Have a Cigarette''. In 1965, after several years in repertory, he was spotted by Laurence Olivier, who invited him to join the Royal National Theatre in London. Hopkins became Olivier's understudy, and filled in when Olivier was struck with appendicitis during a production of August Strindberg's ''The Dance of Death''. Olivier later noted in his memoir, ''Confessions of an Actor'', that \"A new young actor in the company of exceptional promise named Anthony Hopkins was understudying me and walked away with the part of Edgar like a cat with a mouse between its teeth.\"\n\nDespite his success at the National, Hopkins tired of repeating the same roles nightly and yearned to be in films. He made his small-screen debut in a 1967 BBC broadcast of ''A Flea in Her Ear''. His first starring role in a film came in 1964 in ''Changes'', a short directed by Drewe Henley, written and produced by James Scott and co-starring Jacqueline Pearce. In 1968, he got his break in ''The Lion in Winter'' playing Richard I. Although Hopkins continued in theatre (most notably at the National Theatre as Lambert Le Roux in ''Pravda'' by David Hare and Howard Brenton and as Antony in ''Antony and Cleopatra'' opposite Judi Dench as well as in the Broadway production of Peter Shaffer's ''Equus'') he gradually moved away from it to become more established as a television and film actor. He portrayed Charles Dickens in the BBC television film ''The Great Inimitable Mr. Dickens'' in 1970, and Pierre Bezukhov in the BBC's mini series ''War and Peace'' (1972). In 1972 he starred as British politician David Lloyd George in ''Young Winston'', and in 1977 he played British Army officer John Frost in Richard Attenborough's World War II-set film ''A Bridge Too Far''.\n\nIn 1980, he starred in ''The Elephant Man'' as the English doctor Sir Frederick Treves, who attends to Joseph Merrick (portrayed by John Hurt), a severely deformed man in 19th century London. That year he also starred opposite Shirley MacLaine in ''A Change of Seasons'' and famously said \"she was the most obnoxious actress I have ever worked with.\"\n\nIn 1983, Hopkins also became a company member of The Mirror Theater Ltd's Repertory Company.\nHe remained an enthusiastic member of the company and the Mirror’s Producing Artistic Director Sabra Jones visited him in London in 1986 to discuss moving ''Pravda'' to New York from the National Theater. In 1984, he starred opposite Mel Gibson in ''The Bounty'' as William Bligh, captain of the Royal Navy ship the HMS ''Bounty'', in a retelling of the mutiny on the ''Bounty''. In 1992, Hopkins portrayed Abraham Van Helsing in Francis Ford Coppola's ''Bram Stoker's Dracula''.\n\nSet in 1950s post-war Britain, Hopkins starred opposite Emma Thompson in the critically acclaimed ''The Remains of the Day'' (1993). Hopkins was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance, and the film frequently ranks among the best British films of all time. Hopkins portrayed Oxford academic C. S. Lewis in the 1993 British biographical film ''Shadowlands'', and received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor. During the 1990s, Hopkins had the chance to work with Bart the Bear in two films: ''Legends of the Fall'' (1994) and ''The Edge'' (1997). According to trainer, Lynn Seus, \"Tony Hopkins was absolutely brilliant with Bart...He acknowledged and respected him like a fellow actor. He would spend hours just looking at Bart and admiring him. He did so many of his own scenes with Bart.\"\n\nHopkins was Britain's highest paid performer in 1998, starring in ''The Mask of Zorro'' and ''Meet Joe Black'', and also agreed to reprise his role as Dr Hannibal Lecter for a fee of £15 million. In 2000, Hopkins narrated ''Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas''. Hopkins received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2003.\n\nHopkins stated that his role as Burt Munro, whom he portrayed in his 2005 film ''The World's Fastest Indian'', was his favourite. He also asserted that Munro was the easiest role that he had played because both men have a similar outlook on life. In 2006, Hopkins was the recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award for lifetime achievement. In 2008, he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, the highest award the British Film Academy can bestow.\n\nOn 24 February 2010, it was announced that Hopkins had been cast in ''The Rite'', which was released on 28 January 2011. He played a priest who is \"an expert in exorcisms and whose methods are not necessarily traditional\". Hopkins, who is quoted as saying \"I don't know what I believe, myself personally\", reportedly wrote a line--\"Some days I don't know if I believe in God or Santa Claus or Tinkerbell\"—into his character in order to identify with it. On the other hand, in other sources from the same time, he is quoted as saying that he did believe in God and had done so for decades. On 21 September 2011, Peter R. de Vries named Hopkins in the role of the Heineken owner Freddy Heineken in a future film about his kidnapping.\n\nHopkins portrayed Odin, the Allfather or \"king\" of Asgard, in the 2011 film adaptation of Marvel Comics' ''Thor''. Hopkins portrayed Alfred Hitchcock in Sacha Gervasi's biopic ''Hitchcock'', following his career while making ''Psycho''. The film was released on 23 November 2012. In 2013, he reprised his role as Odin in ''Thor: The Dark World''. In 2014, he portrayed Methuselah in Darren Aronofsky's ''Noah''. Since October 2016, Hopkins has been starring as Robert Ford in the HBO sci-fi series ''Westworld''. Hopkins played Autobot ally Sir Edmund Burton in ''Transformers: The Last Knight'', which was released in June 2017.\n", "Hopkins' most famous role is as the cannibalistic serial killer Hannibal Lecter in ''The Silence of the Lambs'', for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor in 1991, with Jodie Foster as Clarice Starling, who also won for Best Actress. The film won Best Picture, Best Director and Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Hopkins reprised his role as Lecter twice; in Ridley Scott's ''Hannibal'' (2001), and ''Red Dragon'' (2002). His original portrayal of the character in ''The Silence of the Lambs'' has been labelled by the AFI as the number-one film villain. At the time he was offered the role, Hopkins was making a return to the London stage, performing in ''M. Butterfly''. He had come back to Britain after living for a number of years in Hollywood, having all but given up on a career there, saying, \"Well that part of my life's over; it's a chapter closed. I suppose I'll just have to settle for being a respectable actor poncing around the West End and doing respectable BBC work for the rest of my life.\"\n\nHopkins played the iconic villain in adaptations of the first three of the Lecter novels by Thomas Harris. The author was reportedly very pleased with Hopkins' portrayal of his antagonist. However, Hopkins stated that ''Red Dragon'' would feature his final performance as the character, and that he would not reprise even a narrative role in the latest addition to the series, ''Hannibal Rising''.\n", "Hopkins at the Tuscan Sun Festival, Cortona, Italy, August 2009\nHopkins is renowned for his preparation for roles. He indicated in interviews that once he has committed to a project, he will go over his lines as many times as is needed (sometimes upwards of 200) until the lines sound natural to him, so that he can \"do it without thinking\". This leads to an almost casual style of delivery that belies the amount of groundwork done beforehand. While it can allow for some careful improvisation, it has also brought him into conflict with the occasional director who departs from the script, or demands what the actor views as an excessive number of takes. Hopkins has stated that after he is finished with a scene, he simply discards the lines, not remembering them later on. This is unlike others who usually remember their lines from a film, even years later.\n\nRichard Attenborough, who directed Hopkins on five occasions, found himself going to great lengths during the filming of ''Shadowlands'' (1993) to accommodate the differing approaches of his two stars (Hopkins and Debra Winger), who shared many scenes. Whereas Hopkins, preferring the spontaneity of a fresh take, liked to keep rehearsals to a minimum, Winger rehearsed continuously. To allow for this, Attenborough stood in for Hopkins during Winger's rehearsals, only bringing him in for the last one before a take. The director praised Hopkins for \"this extraordinary ability to make you believe when you hear him that it is the very first time he has ever said that line. It's an incredible gift.\"\n\nRenowned for his ability to remember lines, Hopkins keeps his memory supple by learning things by heart such as poetry, and Shakespeare. In Steven Spielberg's ''Amistad'', Hopkins astounded the crew with his memorisation of a seven-page courtroom speech, delivering it in one go. An overawed Spielberg couldn't bring himself to call him Tony, and insisted on addressing him as Sir Anthony throughout the shoot.\n\nHopkins is a gifted mimic, adept at turning his native Welsh accent into whatever is required by a character. He duplicated the voice of his late mentor, Laurence Olivier, for additional scenes in ''Spartacus'' in its 1991 restoration. His interview on the 1998 relaunch edition of the British TV talk show ''Parkinson'' featured an impersonation of comedian Tommy Cooper. Hopkins has said acting \"like a submarine\" has helped him to deliver credible performances in his thrillers. He said, \"It's very difficult for an actor to avoid, you want to show a bit. But I think the less one shows the better.\"\n", "Panorama of Snowdonia in north Wales which Hopkins described as \"one of the most beautiful places in the world and Snowdon is the jewel that lies at its heart. It must be cherished and protected.\"\n\nAnthony Hopkins was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1987, and was knighted as a Knight Bachelor at Buckingham Palace in 1993 for services to the arts. In 1988, Hopkins was made an Honorary D.Litt and in 1992 was awarded Honorary fellowship from the University of Wales, Lampeter. He was made a freeman of his hometown Port Talbot in 1996.\n", "Hopkins resides in Malibu, California. He had moved to the US once before during the late 1970s to pursue his film career, but returned to London in the late 1980s. However, he decided to return to the US following his 1990s success. Retaining his British citizenship, he became a naturalised US citizen on 12 April 2000, with Hopkins stating: \"I have dual citizenship; it just so happens I live in America\".\n\nHopkins has been married three times: to Petronella Barker from 1966 to 1972; to Jennifer Lynton from 1973 to 2002; and, since 2003, to Stella Arroyave. On Christmas Eve 2012, he celebrated his 10th wedding anniversary by having a blessing at a private service at St David's Cathedral, Pembrokeshire in the most westerly point of Wales. He has a daughter, actress and singer Abigail Hopkins (born 20 August 1968), from his first marriage.\n\nHopkins is a recovering alcoholic; he has stayed sober since he stopped drinking just after Christmas 1975. In 2002, he told the New York Times that he woke up in a Phoenix hotel room with no memory of having driven from Los Angeles. \"It was two days before his 38th birthday. Still, he continued to spiral downward, at times sitting at home for hours without saying a word. He'd climb in his car and cruise aimlessly for days: once he went on a drive and didn't return for two months. \"If there is someone fighting within you, it makes your life unbearable,\" he said. \"Anger has to be converted into something else or it destroys you.\" He said that a major help in his recovery was his belief in God. He has criticised atheism, saying in 2011 that \"being an atheist must be like living in a closed cell with no windows\". In an interview with Larry King in 2016, Hopkins described himself as an agnostic and said he believed in a \"superior consciousness in all of us\". He gave up smoking using the Allen Carr method. In 2008, he embarked on a weight loss program, and by 2010, he had lost 80 pounds.\n\nIn January 2017, in an interview with ''The Desert Sun'', Hopkins reported that he had been diagnosed with Asperger syndrome, but that he was \"high end\".\n", "Anthony Hopkins Centre at the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama, Cardiff\n\nHopkins has offered his support to various charities and appeals, notably becoming President of the National Trust's Snowdonia Appeal, raising funds for the preservation of Snowdonia National Park in north Wales. In 1998 he donated £1 million towards the £3 million needed to aid the Trust's efforts in purchasing parts of Snowdon. Prior to the campaign, Hopkins authored ''Anthony Hopkins' Snowdonia'', which was published in 1995. Due to his contributions to Snowdonia, in addition to his film career, in 2004 Hopkins was named among the 100 Welsh Heroes in a Welsh poll.\n\nHopkins has been a patron of the YMCA centre in his hometown of Port Talbot, South Wales for more than 20 years, having first joined the YMCA in the 1950s. He supports other various philanthropic groups. He was a Guest of Honour at a Gala Fundraiser for Women in Recovery, Inc., a Venice, California-based non-profit organisation offering rehabilitation assistance to women in recovery from substance abuse. He is also a volunteer teacher at the Ruskin School of Acting in Santa Monica, California. Hopkins served as the Honorary Patron of The New Heritage Theatre Company in Boise, Idaho from 1997-2007, participating in fundraising and marketing efforts for the repertory theatre.\n\nHopkins contributed toward the refurbishment of a £2.3 million wing at his alma mater, the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in Cardiff, named the Anthony Hopkins Centre. It opened in 1999.\n\nHopkins is a prominent member of environmental protection group Greenpeace and as of early 2008 featured in a television advertisement campaign, voicing concerns about Japan's continuing annual whale hunt. He has also been a patron of RAPt (Rehabilitation for Addicted Prisoners Trust) since its early days and helped open their first intensive drug and alcohol rehabilitation unit at Downview (HM Prison) in 1992.\n\nHopkins is an admirer of the Welsh comedian Tommy Cooper. On 23 February 2008, as patron of the Tommy Cooper Society, he unveiled a commemorative statue in the entertainer's home town of Caerphilly. For the ceremony, he donned Cooper's trademark fez and performed a comic routine.\n", "In a 2012 interview, Hopkins stated, \"I've been composing music all my life and if I'd been clever enough at school I would like to have gone to music college. As it was I had to settle for being an actor.\" In 1986, he released a single called \"Distant Star\", which peaked at No. 75 in the UK Singles Chart. In 2007, he announced he would retire temporarily from the screen to tour around the world. Hopkins has also written music for the concert hall, in collaboration with Stephen Barton as orchestrator. These compositions include ''The Masque of Time'', given its world premiere with the Dallas Symphony Orchestra in October 2008, and ''Schizoid Salsa''.\n\nIn 1990, Hopkins directed a film about his Welsh compatriot, poet Dylan Thomas, titled ''Dylan Thomas: Return Journey'', which was his directing debut for the screen. In the same year, as part of the restoration process for the Stanley Kubrick film ''Spartacus'', Hopkins was approached to re-record lines from a scene that was being added back to the film; this scene featured Laurence Olivier and Tony Curtis, with Hopkins recommended by Olivier's widow, Joan Plowright to perform her late husband's part thanks to his talent for mimicry.\n\nIn 1996, he directed ''August'', an adaptation of Chekhov's ''Uncle Vanya'' set in Wales. His first screenplay, an experimental drama called ''Slipstream'', which he also directed and scored, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2007. In 1997, Hopkins narrated the BBC natural documentary series, ''Killing for a Living'', which showed predatory behaviour in nature. He narrated episode 1 through 3 before being replaced by John Shrapnel.\n\nHopkins is a fan of the BBC sitcom ''Only Fools and Horses'', and once remarked in an interview how he would love to appear in the series. Writer John Sullivan saw the interview, and with Hopkins in mind created the character Danny Driscoll, a local villain. However, filming of the new series coincided with the filming of ''The Silence of the Lambs'', making Hopkins unavailable. The role instead went to Roy Marsden.\n\nOn 31 October 2011, André Rieu released an album including a waltz which Hopkins had composed in 1964, at the age of 27. Hopkins had never heard his composition, \"And the Waltz Goes On\", before it was premiered by Rieu's orchestra in Vienna; Rieu's album was given the same name as Hopkins' piece.\n\nIn January 2012, Hopkins released an album of classical music, entitled ''Composer'', performed by the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, and released on CD via the UK radio station Classic FM. The album consists of nine of his original works and film scores, with one of the pieces titled \"Margam\" in tribute to his home town near Port Talbot in Wales.\n\nIn October 2015, Hopkins appeared as Sir in a BBC Two production of Ronald Harwood's ''The Dresser'', alongside Ian McKellen, Edward Fox and Emily Watson. ''The Dresser'' is set in a London theatre during the Blitz, where an aging actor-manager, Sir, prepares for his starring role in ''King Lear'' with the help of his devoted dresser, Norman.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Hannibal Lecter", "Acting style", "Honours", "Personal life", "Philanthropy", "Other work", "Filmography", "Awards and nominations", "References", "External links" ]	Anthony Hopkins
[ "\n\n\n'''Ardal O'Hanlon''' (; born 8 October 1965) is an Irish comedian and actor. He played Father Dougal McGuire in ''Father Ted'', George Sunday/Thermoman in ''My Hero'', and DI Jack Mooney in ''Death in Paradise''.\n", "Ardal O'Hanlon was born on 8 October 1965 in Carrickmacross, the son of politician and doctor Rory O'Hanlon and Teresa Ward. He has five siblings. The episode of ''Who Do You Think You Are?'' which aired on 6 October 2008 revealed that O'Hanlon's paternal grandfather, Michael O'Hanlon, was a UCD medicine student who had joined the IRA during the Irish War of Independence and was a member of Michael Collins' squad which assassinated British secret service agents on the morning of Bloody Sunday. Details of his grandfather's activities survive in UCD Archives, as well as Blackrock College. It also transpired that, on his mother's side, he is a close relative of Peter Fenelon Collier.\n\nO'Hanlon was schooled in Blackrock College in Dublin and graduated, in 1987, from the National Institute for Higher Education, Dublin (now Dublin City University) with a degree in Communications Studies.\n", "Together with Kevin Gildea and Barry Murphy, O'Hanlon founded the International Comedy Cellar, upstairs in the International Bar on Dublin's South Wicklow Street. Dublin had no comedy scene at the time. As a stand up, O'Hanlon won the Hackney Empire New Act of the Year competition in 1994. For a time he was the presenter of ''The Stand Up Show''.\n\nHe was spotted by Graham Linehan, who was to cast him as Father Dougal McGuire in ''Father Ted'' (1995–98). In 1995 he received the Top TV Comedy Newcomer at the British Comedy Awards for this role. In 1995, he appeared (as Father Dougal) in a Channel 4 ident (\"Hello, you're watching.... television\"), and during Comic Relief on BBC1. This was followed by the award-winning short comedy film ''Flying Saucer Rock'n'Roll''.\n\nO'Hanlon moved into straight acting alongside Emma Fielding and Beth Goddard in the ITV comedy-drama ''Big Bad World'', which aired for two series in summer 1999 and winter 2001. He also played a minor role in ''The Butcher Boy'' as Joe's (Francie's best friend) father, and appeared in an episode of the original ''Whose Line is it Anyway?''.\n\nIn 2000, O'Hanlon starred in the comedy series ''My Hero'', in which he played a very naive superhero from the planet Ultron. His character juggled world-saving heroics with life in suburbia. He stayed in the role until the first episode of series 6 in July 2006 where he was replaced by James Dreyfus during the same episode.\n\nHe also provided the voice of the lead character in the three Christmas television cartoon specials of ''Robbie the Reindeer''. He appeared in the 2005 BBC One sitcom ''Blessed'', written by Ben Elton; at the 2005 British Comedy Awards, it was publicly slated by Jonathan Ross, albeit in jest. Towards the end of 2005, he played an eccentric Scottish character, Coconut Tam, in the family-based film, ''The Adventures of Greyfriars Bobby''. Although more commonly on television, he has appeared on radio – on 18 July 2011, he appeared on ''Quote... Unquote''. Appropriately, one of his questions concerned a quotation from ''Father Ted''.\n\nIn 2006, O'Hanlon wrote and presented an RTÉ television series called ''Leagues Apart'', which saw him investigate the biggest and most passionate football rivalries in a number of European countries. Included were Roma vs Lazio in Italy, Barcelona vs Real Madrid in Spain, and Galatasaray vs Fenerbahce in Turkey. He followed this with another RTÉ show, ''So You Want To Be Taoiseach?'' in 2007. It was a political series where O'Hanlon gave tongue-in-cheek advice on how to go about becoming Taoiseach of Ireland. Both programmes went some way towards freeing O'Hanlon from his association with the character of Dougal in the minds of Irish audiences.\n\nHe appeared in the ''Doctor Who'' episode \"Gridlock\", broadcast on 14 April 2007, in which he played a cat-like creature named Thomas Kincade Brannigan. O'Hanlon appears in Series 3 of the TV show ''Skins'', playing Naomi Campbell (Lily Loveless)'s Politics teacher named Kieran, who attempted to kiss her. He then went on to form a relationship with Naomi's mother (Olivia Colman). O'Hanlon plays the lead role in Irish comedy television programme ''Val Falvey, TD'' on RTÉ One. He has recently performed in the Edinburgh Fringe.\n\nIn February 2011, O'Hanlon returned to the Gate Theatre, Dublin starring in the Irish premiere of Christopher Hampton's translation of Yasmina Reza's ''God of Carnage'', alongside Maura Tierney.\n\nIn 2011, he appeared in the comedy panel show ''Argumental''.\n\nO'Hanlon has written a novel, ''The Talk of the Town'' (known in the United States as ''Knick Knack Paddy Whack''), which was published in 1998. The novel is about a teenage boy, Patrick Scully, and his friends.\n\nIn February 2015 he officially launched the 2015 Sky Cat Laughs Comedy Festival which takes place in Kilkenny from 28 May–1 June. In 2015 he played the role of Peter the Milkman in the Sky 1 sitcom ''After Hours''.\n\nOn 2 February 2017, it was announced he will play the lead role in the BBC crime sitcom ''Death in Paradise'' taking the role of DI Jack Mooney following Kris Marshall's departure the same day.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable sortable\"\n\n Year\n Title\n Role\n\n 1995–1998\n ''Father Ted''\n Father Dougal McGuire\n\n 1996\n ''Flying Saucer Rock'n'Roll''\n Eddie Johnny \n\n 1997\n ''Whose Line Is It Anyway?''\n Himself\n\n 1997\n ''The Butcher Boy''\n Mr Percell\n\n 1997\n ''Top of the Pops''\n Guest Presenter (1 Episode)\n\n 1999\n ''Hooves of Fire''\n Robbie \n\n 1999–01\n ''Big Bad World''\n Eamon Donaghy\n\n 2000–06\n ''My Hero''\n George Sunday/Thermoman\n\n 2002\n ''Legend of the Lost Tribe''\n Robbie\n\n 2004\n ''Jack Dee Live at the Apollo''\n Himself\n\n 2005\n ''Blessed''\n Gary\n\n 2005–06\n ''The Adventures of Greyfriars Bobby''\n Coconut Tam\n\n 2007\n ''Close Encounters of the Herd Kind''\n Robbie \n\n 2007\n ''Doctor Who'' – \"Gridlock\"\n Thomas Brannigan\n\n 2008\n ''Who Do You Think You Are?''\n Himself\n\n 2008\n ''Tales of the Riverbank''\n Hammy\n\n 2009\n ''Wide Open Spaces''\n Myles\n\n 2009\n ''Val Falvey, TD''\n Val Falvey\n\n 2009\n ''Skins''\n Kieran\n\n 2010\n ''Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow''\n Himself\n\n 2013\n ''London Irish''\n Chris \"Da\" Lynch\n\n 2014–15\n ''Lily's Driftwood Bay''\n Bull Dozer\n\n 2015\n ''Cucumber''\n Brian\n\n 2015\n ''After Hours''\n Willow's Dad\n\n2015\n ''Nelly and Nora''\n Dad (voice)\n\n 2016\n ''Around Ireland''\n Himself\n\n 2017–present\n ''Death in Paradise''\n DI Jack Mooney\n\n", "Ardal has been doing stand up for many years appearing on many shows including Live at the Apollo, Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow and Dave's One Night Stand. In 1994 he won the Hackney Empire New Act of the Year.\n\n\n Year\n Name\n\n 1997\n ''Ardal O'Hanlon Live From Dublin's Gaiety Theatre''\n\n 2000\n ''Ardal O'Hanlon Live''\n\n 2007\n ''Ardal O'Hanlon Live in Dublin''\n\n 2013\n ''Ardal O'Hanlon Live''\n\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n Year\n Name\n\n 1994\n Hackney Empire New Act of the Year\n\n 1995\n Top TV Comedy Newcomer at the British Comedy Awards\n\n", "O'Hanlon is married to Melanie, whom he met as a teenager, and with whom he has three children: Emily, Rebecca and Red. He is a supporter of Leeds United.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* Ardal O'Hanlon on comedycv.co.uk\n* Ardal O'Hanlon in Melbourne at The Australian Ireland Fund charity event\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Filmography", "Stand-up", "Awards", "Personal life", "References", "External links" ]	Ardal O'Hanlon
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.''' ('''AMD''') is an American multinational semiconductor company based in Sunnyvale, California, United States, that develops computer processors and related technologies for business and consumer markets. While initially it manufactured its own processors, the company later outsourced its manufacturing, a practice known as fabless, after GlobalFoundries was spun off in 2009. AMD's main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, and embedded systems applications.\n\nAMD is the second-largest supplier and only significant rival to Intel in the market for x86-based microprocessors. Since acquiring ATI in 2006, AMD and its competitor Nvidia have dominated the discrete Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) market.\n", "Markham, Ontario, Canada, formerly ATI headquarters\nLEED-certified Lone Star campus in Austin, Texas\n\n===First twelve years===\nAdvanced Micro Devices was formally incorporated on May 1, 1969, by Jerry Sanders, along with seven of his colleagues from Fairchild Semiconductor. Sanders, an electrical engineer who was the director of marketing at Fairchild, had like many Fairchild executives, grown frustrated with the increasing lack of support, opportunity, and flexibility within that company, and decided to leave to start his own semiconductor company. The previous year Robert Noyce, who had invented the first practical integrated circuit or the microchip in 1959 at Fairchild, had left Fairchild together with Gordon Moore and founded the semiconductor company Intel in July 1968.\n\nIn September 1969, AMD moved from its temporary location in Santa Clara to Sunnyvale, California. To immediately secure a customer base, AMD initially became a second source supplier of microchips designed by Fairchild and National Semiconductor. AMD first focused on producing logic chips. The company guaranteed quality control to United States Military Standard, an advantage in the early computer industry since unreliability in microchips was a distinct problem that customers – including computer manufacturers, the telecommunications industry, and instrument manufacturers – wanted to avoid.\n\nIn November 1969, the company manufactured its first product, the Am9300, a 4-bit MSI shift register, which began selling in 1970. Also in 1970, AMD produced its first proprietary product, the Am2501 logic counter, which was highly successful. Its best-selling product in 1971 was the Am2505, the fastest multiplier available.\n\nIn 1971, AMD entered the RAM chip market, beginning with the Am3101, a 64-bit bipolar RAM. That year AMD also greatly increased the sales volume of its linear integrated circuits, and by year end the company's total annual sales reached $4.6 million.\n\nAMD went public in September 1972. The company was a second source for Intel MOS/LSI circuits by 1973, with products such as Am14/1506 and Am14/1507, dual 100-bit dynamic shift registers. By 1975, AMD was producing 212 products – of which 49 were proprietary, including the Am9102 (a static N-channel 1024-bit RAM) and three low-power Schottky MSI circuits: Am25LS07, Am25LS08, and Am25LS09.\n\nIntel had created the first microprocessor, its 4-bit 4004, in 1971. By 1975, AMD entered the microprocessor market with the Am9080, a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080, and the Am2900 bit-slice microprocessor family. When Intel began installing microcode in its microprocessors in 1976, it entered into a cross-licensing agreement with AMD, granting AMD a copyright license to the microcode in its microprocessors and peripherals, effective October 1976.\n\nIn 1977, AMD entered into a joint venture with Siemens, a German engineering conglomerate wishing to enhance its technology expertise and enter the U.S. market. Siemens purchased 20% of AMD's stock, giving AMD an infusion of cash to increase its product lines. That year the two companies also jointly established Advanced Micro Computers, located in Silicon Valley and in Germany, giving AMD an opportunity to enter the microcomputer development and manufacturing field, in particular based on AMD's second-source Zilog Z8000 microprocessors. When the two companies' vision for Advanced Micro Computers diverged, AMD bought out Siemens' stake in the U.S. division in 1979. AMD closed its Advanced Micro Computers subsidiary in late 1981, after switching focus to manufacturing second-source Intel x86 microprocessors.\n\nTotal sales in fiscal year 1978 topped $100 million, and in 1979, AMD debuted on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1979, production also began in AMD's new semiconductor fab in Austin, Texas; the company already had overseas assembly facilities in Penang and Manila, and it began construction on a semiconductor fab in San Antonio in 1981. In 1980, AMD began supplying semiconductor products for telecommunications, an industry undergoing rapid expansion and innovation.\n\n===Technology exchange agreement with Intel===\nIntel had introduced the first x86 microprocessors in 1978. In 1981, IBM created its PC, and wanted Intel's x86 processors, but only under the condition that Intel also provide a second-source manufacturer for its patented x86 microprocessors. Intel and AMD entered into a 10-year technology exchange agreement, first signed in October 1981 and formally executed in February 1982. The terms of the agreement were that each company could acquire the right to become a second-source manufacturer of semiconductor products developed by the other; that is, each party could \"earn\" the right to manufacture and sell a product developed by the other, if agreed to, by exchanging the manufacturing rights to a product of equivalent technical complexity. The technical information and licenses needed to make and sell a part would be exchanged for a royalty to the developing company. The 1982 agreement also extended the 1976 AMD–Intel cross-licensing agreement through 1995. The agreement included the right to invoke arbitration of disagreements, and after five years the right of either party to end the agreement with one year's notice. The main result of the 1982 agreement was that AMD became a second-source manufacturer of Intel's x86 microprocessors and related chips, and Intel provided AMD with database tapes for its 8086, 80186, and 80286 chips.\n\nBeginning in 1982, AMD began volume-producing second-source Intel-licensed 8086, 8088, 80186, and 80188 processors, and by 1984 its own Am286 clone of Intel's 80286 processor, for the rapidly growing market of IBM PCs and IBM clones. It also continued its successful concentration on proprietary bipolar chips. In 1983, it introduced INT.STD.1000, the highest manufacturing quality standard in the industry.\n\nThe company continued to spend greatly on research and development, and in addition to other breakthrough products, created the world's first 512K EPROM in 1984. That year AMD was listed in the book ''The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America'', and based on 1984 income it made the ''Fortune'' 500 list for the first time in 1985.\n\nBy mid-1985, however, the microchip market experienced a severe downturn, mainly due to long-term aggressive trade practices (dumping) from Japan, but also due to a crowded and non-innovative chip market in the U.S. AMD rode out the mid-1980s crisis by aggressively innovating and modernizing, devising the Liberty Chip program of designing and manufacturing one new chip or chip set per week for 52 weeks in fiscal year 1986, and by heavily lobbying the U.S. government until sanctions and restrictions were put in place to prevent predatory Japanese pricing. During this time period, AMD withdrew from the DRAM market, and at the same time made some headway into the CMOS market, which it had lagged in entering, having focused instead on bipolar chips.\n\nAMD had some success in the mid-1980s with the AMD7910 and AMD7911 \"World Chip\" FSK modem, one of the first multi-standard devices that covered both Bell and CCITT tones at up to 1200 baud half duplex or 300/300 full duplex. Beginning in 1986, AMD embraced the perceived shift toward RISC with their own AMD Am29000 (29k) processor; the 29k survived as an embedded processor. The company also increased its EPROM memory market share in the late 1980s. Throughout the 1980s, AMD was a second-source supplier of Intel x86 processors. In 1991, it introduced its own 386-compatible Am386, an AMD-designed chip. Creating its own chips, AMD began to compete directly with Intel.\n\nAMD had a large and successful flash memory business, even during the dotcom bust. In 2003, to divest some manufacturing and aid its overall cash flow, which was under duress from aggressive microprocessor competition from Intel, AMD spun off its flash memory business and manufacturing into Spansion, a joint venture with Fujitsu, which had been co-manufacturing flash memory with AMD since 1993. AMD divested itself of Spansion in December 2005, in order to focus on the microprocessor market, and Spansion went public in an IPO.\n\n===Acquisition of ATI===\nAMD announced the acquisition of the graphics processor company ATI Technologies on July 24, 2006. AMD paid $4.3 billion in cash and 58 million shares of its stock, for a total of approximately $5.4 billion. The transaction completed on October 25, 2006. On August 30, 2010, AMD announced that it would retire the ATI brand name for its graphics chipsets in favor of the AMD brand name.\n\nIn October 2008, AMD announced plans to spin off manufacturing operations in the form of a multibillion-dollar joint venture with Advanced Technology Investment Co., an investment company formed by the government of Abu Dhabi. The new venture is called GlobalFoundries Inc. The partnership and spin-off gave AMD an infusion of cash and allowed AMD to focus solely on chip design. To assure the Abu Dhabi investors of the new venture's success, CEO Hector Ruiz stepped down as CEO of AMD in July 2008, while remaining Executive Chairman, in preparation for becoming Chairman of Global Foundries in March 2009. President and COO Dirk Meyer became AMD's CEO. Recessionary losses necessitated AMD cutting 1,100 jobs in 2009.\n\nIn August 2011, AMD announced that former Lenovo executive Rory Read would be joining the company as CEO, replacing Meyer. AMD announced in November 2011 plans to lay off more than 10% (1,400) of its employees from across all divisions worldwide. In October 2012, it announced plans to lay off an additional 15% of its workforce to reduce costs in the face of declining sales revenue.\n\nAMD acquired the low-power server manufacturer SeaMicro in early 2012, with an eye to bringing out an ARM architecture server chip.\n\nOn October 8, 2014, AMD announced that Rory Read had stepped down after three years as president and chief executive officer. He was succeeded by Lisa Su, a key lieutenant who had been serving as chief operating officer since June.\n\nOn October 16, 2014, AMD announced a new restructuring plan along with its Q3 results. Effective July 1, 2014, AMD reorganized into two business groups: Computing and Graphics, which primarily includes desktop and notebook processors and chipsets, discrete GPUs, and professional graphics; and Enterprise, Embedded and Semi-Custom, which primarily includes server and embedded processors, dense servers, semi-custom SoC products (including solutions for gaming consoles), engineering services, and royalties. As part of this restructuring, AMD announced that 7% of its global workforce would be laid off by the end of 2014.\n", "\n===CPUs and APUs===\nEarly AMD 9080 Processor (AMD AM9080ADC / C8080A), 1977\nAMD D8086, 1978\n\n\n\n====IBM PC and the x86 architecture====\n\n\nIn February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors. IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but IBM's policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the Am286 under the same arrangement. In 1984 Intel, in order to shore up its advantage in the marketplace, internally decided to no longer cooperate with AMD in supplying product information, and delayed and eventually refused to convey the technical details of the Intel 80386 to AMD. In 1987, AMD invoked arbitration over the issue, and Intel reacted by cancelling the 1982 technological-exchange agreement altogether. After three years of testimony, AMD eventually won in arbitration in 1992, but Intel disputed this decision. Another long legal dispute followed, ending in 1994 when the Supreme Court of California sided with the arbitrator and AMD.\n\nIn 1990, Intel also countersued AMD, renegotiating AMD's right to use derivatives of Intel's microcode for its cloned processors. In the face of uncertainty during the legal dispute, AMD was forced to develop clean-room designed versions of Intel code for its x386 and x486 processors, the former long after Intel had released its own x386 in 1985. In March 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor. By October of the same year it had sold one million units.\n\nIn 1993, AMD introduced the first of the Am486 family of processors, which proved popular with a large number of original equipment manufacturers, including Compaq, which signed an exclusive agreement using the Am486. Another Am486-based processor, the Am5x86, was released in November 1995 and continued AMD's success as a fast, cost-effective processor.\n\nFinally, in an agreement effective 1996, AMD received the rights to the microcode in Intel's x386 and x486 processor families, but not the rights to the microcode in the following generations of processors.\n\n====K5, K6, Athlon, Duron, and Sempron====\n\n\nAMD's first in-house x86 processor was the K5, which was launched in 1996. The \"K\" was a reference to Kryptonite. (In comic books, the only substance which could harm Superman was Kryptonite. This is a reference to Intel's hegemony over the market, i.e., an anthropomorphization of them as Superman.) The numeral \"5\" refers to the fifth generation of x86 processors; rival Intel had previously introduced its line of fifth-generation x86 processors as Pentium because the U.S. Trademark and Patent Office had ruled that mere numbers could not be trademarked.\n\nIn 1996, AMD purchased NexGen, specifically for the rights to their Nx series of x86-compatible processors. AMD gave the NexGen design team their own building, left them alone, and gave them time and money to rework the Nx686. The result was the K6 processor, introduced in 1997. Although the K6 was based on Socket 7, variants such as K6-3/450 were faster than Intel's Pentium II (sixth-generation processor).\n\nThe K7 was AMD's seventh-generation x86 processor, making its debut on June 23, 1999, under the brand name Athlon. Unlike previous AMD processors, it could not be used on the same motherboards as Intel's, due to licensing issues surrounding Intel's Slot 1 connector, and instead used a Slot A connector, referenced to the Alpha processor bus. The Duron was a lower-cost and limited version of the Athlon (64KB instead of 256KB L2 cache) in a 462-pin socketed PGA (socket A) or soldered directly onto the motherboard. Sempron was released as a lower-cost Athlon XP, replacing Duron in the socket A PGA era. It has since been migrated upward to all new sockets, up to AM3.\n\nOn October 9, 2001, the Athlon XP was released. On February 10, 2003, the Athlon XP with 512KB L2 Cache was released.\n\n====Athlon 64, Opteron and Phenom====\n\nThe K8 was a major revision of the K7 architecture, with the most notable features being the addition of a 64-bit extension to the x86 instruction set (called x86-64, AMD64, or x64), the incorporation of an on-chip memory controller, and the implementation of an extremely high performance point-to-point interconnect called HyperTransport, as part of the Direct Connect Architecture. The technology was initially launched as the Opteron server-oriented processor on April 22, 2003. Shortly thereafter it was incorporated into a product for desktop PCs, branded Athlon 64.\n\nOn April 21, 2005, AMD released the first dual core Opteron, an x86-based server CPU. A month later, AMD released the Athlon 64 X2, the first desktop-based dual core processor family. In May 2007, AMD abandoned the string \"64\" in its dual-core desktop product branding, becoming Athlon X2, downplaying the significance of 64-bit computing in its processors. Further updates involved improvements to the microarchitecture, and a shift of target market from mainstream desktop systems to value dual-core desktop systems. In 2008, AMD started to release dual-core Sempron processors exclusively in China, branded as the Sempron 2000 series, with lower HyperTransport speed and smaller L2 cache. Thus AMD completed its dual-core product portfolio for each market segment.\n\nAfter K8 came K10. In September 2007, AMD released the first K10 processors, Third Generation Opteron processors, followed in November by the Phenom processor for desktop. K10 processors came in dual-core, triple-core, and quad-core versions, with all cores on a single die. AMD released a new platform, codenamed \"Spider\", which utilized the new Phenom processor, as well as an R770 GPU and a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series. However, AMD built the Spider at 65nm, which was uncompetitive with Intel's smaller and more power-efficient 45nm.\n\nIn January 2009, AMD released a new processor line dubbed Phenom II, a refresh of the original Phenom built using the 45 nm process. AMD's new platform, codenamed “Dragon”, utilized the new Phenom II processor, and an ATI R770 GPU from the R700 GPU family, as well as a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series. The Phenom II came in dual-core, triple-core and quad-core variants, all using the same die, with cores disabled for the triple-core and dual-core versions. The Phenom II resolved issues that the original Phenom had, including a low clock speed, a small L3 cache and a Cool'n'Quiet bug that decreased performance. The Phenom II cost less but was not performance-competitive with Intel's mid-to-high-range Core 2 Quads. The Phenom II also enhanced the Phenom's memory controller, allowing it to use DDR3 in a new native socket AM3, while maintaining backwards compatibility with AM2+, the socket used for the Phenom, and allowing the use of the DDR2 memory that was used with the platform.\n\nIn April 2010, AMD released a new Phenom II hexa-core (6-core) processor codenamed \"Thuban\". This was a totally new die based on the hexa-core “Istanbul” Opteron processor. It included AMD's “turbo core” technology, which allows the processor to automatically switch from 6 cores to 3 faster cores when more pure speed is needed.\n\nThe Magny Cours and Lisbon server parts were released in 2010. The Magny Cours part came in 8 to 12 cores and the Lisbon part in 4 and 6 core parts. Magny Cours is focused on performance while the Lisbon part is focused on high performance per watt. Magny Cours is an MCM (multi-chip module) with two hexa-core “Istanbul” Opteron parts. This will use a new G34 socket for dual and quad socket processors and thus will be marketed as Opteron 61xx series processors. Lisbon uses C32 socket certified for dual socket use or single socket use only and thus will be marketed as Opteron 41xx processors. Both will be built on a 45 nm SOI process.\n\n====Fusion becomes the AMD APU====\n\nFollowing AMD's 2006 acquisition of Canadian graphics company ATI Technologies, an initiative codenamed ''Fusion'' was announced to integrate a CPU and GPU together on some of AMD's microprocessors, including a built in PCI Express link to accommodate separate PCI Express peripherals, eliminating the northbridge chip from the motherboard. The initiative intended to move some of the processing originally done on the CPU (e.g. floating-point unit operations) to the GPU, which is better optimized for some calculations. The Fusion was later renamed to the AMD APU (Accelerated Processing Unit).\n\nLlano was AMD's first APU built for laptops. Llano was the second APU released, targeted at the mainstream market. Incorporating a CPU and GPU on the same die, as well as northbridge functions, and using \"Socket FM1\" with DDR3 memory. The CPU part of the processor was based on the Phenom II \"Deneb\" processor. AMD suffered an unexpected decrease in revenue based on production problems for the Llano.\n\n====New microarchitectures====\n\n=====High-Power, High-Performance Bulldozer Cores=====\n\nBulldozer is AMD's microarchitecture codename for server and desktop AMD FX processors first released on October 12, 2011. This family 15h microarchitecture is the successor to the family 10h (K10) microarchitecture design. Bulldozer is designed from scratch, not a development of earlier processors. The core is specifically aimed at 10–125 W TDP computing products. AMD claims dramatic performance-per-watt efficiency improvements in high-performance computing (HPC) applications with Bulldozer cores. While hopes were very high that Bulldozer would bring AMD to be performance competitive with archrival Intel once more, most benchmarks were disappointing. In some cases the new Bulldozer products were slower than the K10 model they were built to replace.\n\nThe Piledriver microarchitecture was the 2012 successor to Bulldozer, increasing clock speeds and performance relative to its predecessor. Piledriver would be released in AMD FX, APU, and Opteron product lines. Piledriver was subsequently followed by the Steamroller microarchitecture in 2013. Used exclusively in AMD's APUs, Steamroller focused on greater parallelism.\n\nIn 2015, the Excavator microarchitecture replaced Piledriver. Expected to be the last microarchitecture of the Bulldozer series, Excavator focused on improved power efficiency.\n\n=====Low-Power Cat Cores=====\n\nThe Bobcat microarchitecture was revealed during a speech from AMD executive vice-president Henri Richard in Computex 2007 and was put into production Q1 2011. Based on the difficulty competing in the x86 market with a single core optimized for the 10–100 W range, AMD had developed a simpler core with a target range of 1–10 watts. In addition, it was believed that the core could migrate into the hand-held space if the power consumption can be reduced to less than 1 W.\n\nJaguar is a microarchitecture codename for Bobcat's successor, released in 2013, that is used in various APUs from AMD aimed at the low-power/low-cost market. Jaguar and its derivates would go on to be used in the custom APUs of the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, PlayStation 4 Pro, Xbox One S, and Xbox One X. Jaguar would be later followed by the Puma microarchitecture in 2014.\n\n=====ARM architecture-based designs=====\nIn 2012, AMD announced it was working on an ARM architecture products, both as a semi-custom product and server product. The initial server product was announced at the Opteron A1100 in 2014, and 8-core Cortex-A57 based ARMv8-A SoC, and was expected to be followed by an APU incorporating a Graphic Core Next GPU. However, the Opteron A1100 was not released until 2016, with the delay attributed to adding software support. The A1100 was also criticed for not having support from major vendors upon its release.\n\nIn 2014, AMD also announced the K12 custom core for release in 2016. While being ARMv8-A instruction set architecture compliant, the K12 is expected to be entirely custom designed targeting server, embedded, and semi-custom markets. The K12 was subsequently delayed until 2017, in preference to the development of AMD's x86 based Zen microarchitecture.\n\n==== Zen based CPUs and APUs====\nZen is a new architecture for x86-64 based Ryzen series CPUs and APUs, introduced in 2017 by AMD and built from the ground up by a team led by Jim Keller, beginning with his arrival in 2012, and taping out before his departure in September 2015. One of AMD's primary goals with Zen was an IPC increase of at least 40%, however in February 2017 AMD announced that they had actually achieved a 52% increase. Processors made on the Zen architecture are built on the 14 nm FinFET node and have a renewed focus on single-core performance and HSA compatibility. Previous processors from AMD were either built in the 32 nm process (\"Bulldozer\" and \"Piledriver\" CPUs) or the 28 nm process (\"Steamroller\" and \"Excavator\" APUs). Because of this, Zen is much more energy efficient. The Zen architecture is the first to encompass CPUs and APUs from AMD built for a single socket (Socket AM4). Also new for this architecture is the implementation of simultaneous multithreading (SMT) technology, something Intel has had for years on some of their processors with their proprietary Hyper-Threading implementation of SMT. This is a departure from the \"Clustered MultiThreading\" design introduced with the Bulldozer architecture. Zen also has support for DDR4 memory. AMD released the Zen-based high-end Ryzen 7 \"Summit Ridge\" series CPUs on March 2, 2017, mid-range Ryzen 5 series CPUs on April 11, 2017, and entry level Ryzen 3 series CPUs on July 27, 2017. AMD later released the Epyc line of Zen derived server processors for 1P and 2P systems. AMD is also expected to release next-generation Zen-based \"Raven Ridge\" APUs sometime in 2017.\n\n===Graphics Products and GPUs===\nAMD Radeon R9 290X video card.\n\n====ATI prior to AMD acquisition====\n\n\n====Radeon within AMD====\nIn 2008 the ATI division of AMD released the TeraScale microarchitecture implementing a unified shader model. This design replaced the previous fixed-function hardware of previous graphics cards with multipurpose, programmable shaders. Initially released a part of the GPU for the Xbox 360 this technology would go on to be used in Radeon branded HD 2000 parts. Three generations of TeraScale would be designed and used in parts from 2008-2014.\n\n====Combined GPU and CPU divisions====\nIn a 2009 restructuring, AMD merged the CPU and GPU divisions to support the companies APU's which fused both graphics and general purpose processing. In 2011, AMD released the successor to TeraScale, Graphics Core Next (GCN). This new microarchitecture emphasized GPGPU compute capability in addition to graphics processing, with a particular aim of supporting heterogeneous computing on AMD's APUs. GCN's reduced instruction set ISA allowed for significantly increased compute capability over TeraScale's very long instruction word ISA. Since GCN's introduction with the HD 7970, five generations of the GCN architecture have been produced from 2008 through at least 2017.\n\n====Radeon Technology Group====\nIn September 2015, AMD separated the graphics technology division of the company into an independent internal unit called the '''Radeon Technology Group''' (RTG) headed by Raja Koduri. This gave the graphics division of AMD autonomy in product design and marketing. The RTG then went on to create and release the Polaris and Vega microarchitectures released in 2016 and 2017, respectively. In particular the Vega, or 5th generation GCN, microarchitecture includes a number of major revisions to improve performance and compute capabilities.\n\n===Semi-Custom and Game Console Products===\nIn 2012, AMD's then CEO Rory Read began a program to offer semi-custom designs. Rather than AMD simply designing and offering a single product, potential customers could work with AMD to design a custom chip based on AMD's intellectual property. Customers pay a non-recurring engineering fees for design and development, and a purchase price for the resulting semi-custom products. In particular, AMD noted their unique position of offering both x86 and graphics intellectual property. These semi-custom designs would have design wins as the APUs in the Playstation 4 and Xbox One and the subsequent PlayStation 4 Pro, Xbox One S, and Xbox One X. Financially, these semi-custom products would represent a majority of the company's revenue in 2016.\n\n===Other Hardware===\n\n==== AMD motherboard chipsets ====\n\nBefore the launch of Athlon 64 processors in 2003, AMD designed chipsets for their processors spanning the K6 and K7 processor generations. The chipsets include the AMD-640, AMD-751 and the AMD-761 chipsets. The situation changed in 2003 with the release of Athlon 64 processors, and AMD chose not to further design its own chipsets for its desktop processors while opening the desktop platform to allow other firms to design chipsets. This was the “Open Platform Management Architecture” with ATI, VIA and SiS developing their own chipset for Athlon 64 processors and later Athlon 64 X2 and Athlon 64 FX processors, including the Quad FX platform chipset from Nvidia.\n\nThe initiative went further with the release of Opteron server processors as AMD stopped the design of server chipsets in 2004 after releasing the AMD-8111 chipset, and again opened the server platform for firms to develop chipsets for Opteron processors. As of today, Nvidia and Broadcom are the sole designing firms of server chipsets for Opteron processors.\n\nAs the company completed the acquisition of ATI Technologies in 2006, the firm gained the ATI design team for chipsets which previously designed the Radeon Xpress 200 and the Radeon Xpress 3200 chipsets. AMD then renamed the chipsets for AMD processors under AMD branding (for instance, the CrossFire Xpress 3200 chipset was renamed as AMD 580X CrossFire chipset). In February 2007, AMD announced the first AMD-branded chipset since 2004 with the release of the AMD 690G chipset (previously under the development codename ''RS690''), targeted at mainstream IGP computing. It was the industry's first to implement a HDMI 1.2 port on motherboards, shipping for more than a million units. While ATI had aimed at releasing an Intel IGP chipset, the plan was scrapped and the inventories of Radeon Xpress 1250 (codenamed ''RS600'', sold under ATI brand) was sold to two OEMs, Abit and ASRock. Although AMD stated the firm would still produce Intel chipsets, Intel had not granted the license of FSB to ATI.\n\nOn November 15, 2007, AMD announced a new chipset series portfolio, the AMD 7-Series chipsets, covering from enthusiast multi-graphics segment to value IGP segment, to replace the AMD 480/570/580 chipsets and AMD 690 series chipsets, marking AMD's first enthusiast multi-graphics chipset. Discrete graphics chipsets were launched on November 15, 2007, as part of the codenamed ''Spider'' desktop platform, and IGP chipsets were launched at a later time in spring 2008 as part of the codenamed ''Cartwheel'' platform.\n\nAMD returned to the server chipsets market with the AMD 800S series server chipsets. It includes support for up to six SATA 6.0 Gbit/s ports, the C6 power state, which is featured in Fusion processors and AHCI 1.2 with SATA FIS–based switching support. This is a chipset family supporting Phenom processors and Quad FX enthusiast platform (890FX), IGP(890GX).\n\nWith the advent of AMD's APUs in 2011, traditional north bridge features such as the connection to graphics and the PCI Express controller were incorporated into the APU die. Accordingly, APUs were connected to as single chip chipset, renamed the Fusion Controller Hub (FCH), which primarily provided southbridge functionality.\n\nAMD released new chipsets in 2017 to support the release of their new Ryzen products. As the Zen microarchitecture already includes much of the northbridge connectivity, the AM4 based chipsets primarily varied in the number of additional PCI Express lanes, USB connections, and SATA connections available. These AM4 chipsets were designed in conjunction with ASMedia.\n\n====Embedded Products====\n\n=====Embedded CPUs=====\n\n\nIn February 2002, AMD acquired Alchemy Semiconductor for its Alchemy line of MIPS processors for the hand-held and portable media player markets. On June 13, 2006, AMD officially announced that the line was to be transferred to Raza Microelectronics, Inc., a designer of MIPS processors for embedded applications.\n\nIn August 2003, AMD also purchased the Geode business which was originally the Cyrix MediaGX from National Semiconductor to augment its existing line of embedded x86 processor products. During the second quarter of 2004, it launched new low-power Geode NX processors based on the K7 Thoroughbred architecture with speeds of fanless processors and , and processor with fan, of TDP 25 W. This technology is used in a variety of embedded systems (Casino slot machines and customer kiosks for instance), several UMPC designs in Asia markets, as well as the OLPC XO-1 computer, an inexpensive laptop computer intended to be distributed to children in developing countries around the world. The Geode LX processor was announced in 2005 and is said will continue to be available through 2015.\n\nAMD has also introduced 64-bit processors into its embedded product line starting with the AMD Opteron processor. Leveraging the high throughput enabled through HyperTransport and the Direct Connect Architecture these server class processors have been targeted at high-end telecom and storage applications. In 2007, AMD added the AMD Athlon, AMD Turion, and Mobile AMD Sempron processors to its embedded product line. Leveraging the same 64-bit instruction set and Direct Connect Architecture as the AMD Opteron but at lower power levels, these processors were well suited to a variety of traditional embedded applications. Throughout 2007 and into 2008, AMD has continued to add both single-core Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors and dual-core AMD Athlon X2 and AMD Turion processors to its embedded product line and now offers embedded 64-bit solutions starting with 8W TDP Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors for fan-less designs up to multi-processor systems leveraging multi-core AMD Opteron processors all supporting longer than standard availability.\n\nThe ATI acquisition in 2006 included the Imageon and Xilleon product lines. In late 2008, the entire handheld division was sold off to Qualcomm, who have since produced the Adreno series. Also in 2008, the Xilleon division was sold to Broadcom.\n\nIn April 2007, AMD announced the release of the M690T integrated graphics chipset for embedded designs. This enabled AMD to offer complete processor and chipset solutions targeted at embedded applications requiring high-performance 3D and video such as emerging digital signage, kiosk and Point of Sale applications. The M690T was followed by the M690E specifically for embedded applications which removed the TV output, which required Macrovision licensing for OEMs, and enabled native support for dual TMDS outputs, enabling dual independent DVI interfaces.\n\nIn January 2011, AMD announced the AMD Embedded G-Series Accelerated Processing Unit. This was the first APU for embedded applications. These were followed by updates to the in 2013 and 2016.\n\nIn May 2012, AMD Announced the AMD Embedded R-Series Accelerated Processing Unit. This family of products incorporates the Bulldozer CPU architecture, and Discrete-class Radeon HD 7000G Series graphics. This was followed by a system on a chip (SoC) version in 2015 which offered a faster CPU and faster graphics, with support for DDR4 SDRAM memory.\n\n=====Embedded graphics=====\nAMD builds graphic processors for use in embedded systems. They can be found in anything from casinos to healthcare, with a large portion of products being used in industrial machines. These products include a complete graphics processing device in a compact multi-chip module including RAM and the GPU. ATI began offering embedded GPUs with the E2400 in 2008. Since that time AMD has released regular updates to their embedded GPU lineup in 2009, 2011, 2015, and 2016; reflecting improvements in their GPU technology.\n\n===Current Product Lines===\n\n====CPU and APU Products====\nAMD's portfolio of CPUs and APUs \n* '''Ryzen''' - brand of consumer CPUs\n* '''Epyc''' - brand of server CPUs\n* '''A12/A10/A8/A6''' - brand of desktop and mobile APUs\n\n====Graphics Products====\nAMD's portfolio of dedicated graphics processors \n'''Radeon''' – brand for consumer line of graphics cards; the brand name originated with ATI. \n* '''Mobility Radeon''' offers power-optimized versions of Radeon graphics chips for use in laptops.\n'''Radeon Pro''' – Workstation Graphics card brand. Successor to the FirePro brand.\n '''Radeon Instinct''' - brand of server and workstation targeted machine learning and GPGPU products\n\n===Radeon Branded products===\n\n====RAM====\nAMD Radeon memory\nIn 2011 AMD began selling Radeon branded DDR3 SDRAM to support the higher bandwidth needs of AMD's APUs. While the RAM is sold by AMD, it was manufactured by Patriot Memory and VisionTek. This was later followed by higher speeds of gaming oriented DDR3 memory in 2013. Radeon branded DDR4 SDRAM memory was released in 2015, despite no AMD CPUs or APUs supporting DDR4 at the time. AMD noted in 2017 that these products are \"mostly distributed in Eastern Europe\" and that it continues to be active in the business.\n\n====Solid State Drives====\nAMD announced in 2014 it would sell Radeon branded Solid state drives manufactured by OCZ with capacities up to 480 GB and using the SATA interface. This was followed in 2016 by updated drives of up to 960 GB, with M.2/NVMe drives expected later.\n", "\n===CPU Technologies===\n technologies found in AMD CPU/APU products include:\n* '''HyperTransport''' - a high-bandwidth, low-latency system bus used in AMD's CPU and APU products\n* '''Infinity Fabric''' - a derivative of HyperTransport used as the communication bus in AMD's Zen microarchitecture\n\n===Graphics Technologies===\n technologies found in AMD GPU products include:\n* '''AMD Eyefinity''' – facilitates multi-monitor setup of up to 6 monitors per graphics card\n* '''AMD FreeSync''' – display synchronization based on the VESA Adaptive Sync standard\n* '''AMD TrueAudio''' – acceleration of audio calculations\n* '''AMD XConnect''' – allows the use of External GPU enclosures through Thunderbolt 3\n* '''AMD CrossFire''' - multi-GPU technology allowing the simultaneous use of multiple GPUs\n* '''Unified Video Decoder (UVD)''' – acceleration of video decoding\n* '''Video Coding Engine (VCE)''' – acceleration of video encoding\n\n===Software===\n* AMD Catalyst is a collection of proprietary device driver software available for Microsoft Windows and Linux.\n* AMDGPU is AMD's open source device driver supporting the GCN architecture, available for Linux.\n* AMD develops the AMD CodeXL tool suite which includes a GPU debugger, a GPU profiler, a CPU profiler and an OpenCL static kernel analyzer. CodeXL is freely available at AMD developer tools website.\n* AMD Stream SDK and AMD APP SDK (Accelerated Parallel Processing) SDK to enable AMD graphics processing cores (GPU), working in concert with the system’s x86 cores (CPU), to execute heterogeneously to accelerate many applications beyond just graphics\n* AMD has also taken an active part in developing coreboot, an open source project aimed at replacing the proprietary BIOS firmware. This cooperation ceased in 2013, but AMD has indicated recently that it is considering releasing source code so that Ryzen can be compatible with coreboot in the future.\n* Other AMD software includes the AMD Core Math Library, and open-source software including the AMD Performance Library, and the CodeAnalyst performance profiler.\n* AMD contributes to open source projects, including working with Sun Microsystems to enhance OpenSolaris and Sun xVM on the AMD platform. AMD also maintains its own Open64 compiler distribution and contributes its changes back to the community.\n\n* In 2008, AMD released the low-level programming specifications for its GPUs, and works with the X.Org Foundation to develop drivers for AMD graphics cards.\n\n* Extensions for software parallelism (xSP), aimed at speeding up programs to enable multi-threaded and multi-core processing, announced in Technology Analyst Day 2007. One of the initiatives being discussed since August 2007 is the Light Weight Profiling (LWP), providing internal hardware monitor with runtimes, to observe information about executing process and help the re-design of software to be optimized with multi-core and even multi-threaded programs. Another one is the extension of Streaming SIMD Extension (SSE) instruction set, the SSE5.\n* Codenamed ''SIMFIRE'' – interoperability testing tool for the Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware (DASH) open architecture.\n", "\nPreviously, AMD produced its chips at company owned semiconductor foundries. AMD pursued a strategy of collaboration with other semiconductor manufacturers IBM and Motorola to co-develop production technologies. AMD's founder Jerry Sanders termed this the \"Virtual Gorilla\" strategy to compete with Intel's significantly greater investments in fabrication.\n\nIn 2008 AMD spun off its chip foundries into an independent company named GlobalFoundries. This break-up of the company was attributed to the increasing costs of each process node. The Emirate of Abu Dhabi purchased the newly created company through its subsidiary Advanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC), purchasing the final stake from AMD in 2009.\n\nWith the spin-off of its foundries, AMD became a fabless semiconductor manufacturer, designing products to be produced at for-hire foundries. Part of the GlobalFoundries spin-off included an agreement with AMD to produce some number of products at GlobalFoundries. Both prior to the spin-off and after AMD has pursued production with other foundries including TSMC and Samsung. It has been argued that this would reduce risk for AMD by decreasing dependence on any one foundry which has caused issues in the past.\n", "\n=== Partnerships ===\n* AMD utilizes strategic industry partnerships to further its business interests as well as to rival Intel's dominance and resources.\n\n* A partnership between AMD and Alpha Processor Inc. developed HyperTransport, a point-to-point interconnect standard which was turned over to an industry standards body for finalization. It is now used in modern motherboards that are compatible with AMD processors.\n\n* AMD also formed a strategic partnership with IBM, under which AMD gained silicon on insulator (SOI) manufacturing technology, and detailed advice on 90 nm implementation. AMD announced that the partnership would extend to 2011 for 32 nm and 22 nm fabrication-related technologies.\n\n* To facilitate processor distribution and sales, AMD is loosely partnered with end-user companies, such as HP, Dell, ASUS, Acer, and Microsoft.\n\n* In 1993, AMD established a 50–50 partnership with Fujitsu called FASL, and merged into a new company called FASL LLC in 2003. The joint venture went public under the name Spansion and ticker symbol SPSN in December 2005, with AMD shares drop to 37%. AMD no longer directly participates in the Flash memory devices market now as AMD entered into a non-competition agreement, as of December 21, 2005, with Fujitsu and Spansion, pursuant to which it agreed not to directly or indirectly engage in a business that manufactures or supplies standalone semiconductor devices (including single chip, multiple chip or system devices) containing only Flash memory.\n\n* On May 18, 2006, Dell announced that it would roll out new servers based on AMD's Opteron chips by year's end, thus ending an exclusive relationship with Intel. In September 2006, Dell began offering AMD Athlon X2 chips in their desktop line-up.\n\n* In June 2011, HP announced new business and consumer notebooks equipped with the latest versions of AMD APUsaccelerated processing units. AMD will power HP's Intel-based business notebooks as well.\n\n* In the spring of 2013, AMD announced that it would be powering all three major next-generation consoles. The Xbox One and Sony PlayStation 4 are both powered by a custom-built AMD APU, and the Nintendo Wii U is powered by an AMD GPU. According to AMD, having their processors in all three of these consoles will greatly assist developers with cross-platform development to competing consoles and PCs as well as increased support for their products across the board.\n\n* AMD has entered into an agreement with Hindustan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (HSMC) for the production of AMD products in India.\n\n* AMD is a founding member of the HSA Foundation which aims to ease the use of a Heterogeneous System Architecture. A Heterogeneous System Architecture is intended to use both central processing units and graphics processors to complete computational tasks.\n\n===Litigation with Intel===\n\nAMD processor with Intel logo\nAMD has a long history of litigation with former partner and x86 creator Intel.\n* In 1986, Intel broke an agreement it had with AMD to allow them to produce Intel's micro-chips for IBM; AMD filed for arbitration in 1987 and the arbitrator decided in AMD's favor in 1992. Intel disputed this, and the case ended up in the Supreme Court of California. In 1994, that court upheld the arbitrator's decision and awarded damages for breach of contract.\n* In 1990, Intel brought a copyright infringement action alleging illegal use of its 287 microcode. The case ended in 1994 with a jury finding for AMD and its right to use Intel's microcode in its microprocessors through the 486 generation.\n* In 1997, Intel filed suit against AMD and Cyrix Corp. for misuse of the term MMX. AMD and Intel settled, with AMD acknowledging MMX as a trademark owned by Intel, and with Intel granting AMD rights to market the AMD K6 MMX processor.\n* In 2005, following an investigation, the Japan Federal Trade Commission found Intel guilty on a number of violations. On June 27, 2005, AMD won an antitrust suit against Intel in Japan, and on the same day, AMD filed a broad antitrust complaint against Intel in the U.S. Federal District Court in Delaware. The complaint alleges systematic use of secret rebates, special discounts, threats, and other means used by Intel to lock AMD processors out of the global market. Since the start of this action, the court has issued subpoenas to major computer manufacturers including Acer, Dell, Lenovo, HP and Toshiba.\n* In November 2009, Intel agreed to pay AMD $1.25bn and renew a five-year patent cross-licensing agreement as part of a deal to settle all outstanding legal disputes between them.\n\n===Guinness World Record Achievement===\n* On August 31, 2011, in Austin, Texas, AMD achieved a Guinness World Record for the \"Highest frequency of a computer processor\": 8.429 GHz. The company ran an 8-core FX-8150 processor with only one active module (two cores), and cooled with liquid helium.During the video, cooling transitions from air to water to liquid nitrogen and finally to liquid helium. The previous record was 8.308 GHz, with an Intel Celeron 352 (one core).\n\n* On November 1, 2011, geek.com reported that Andre Yang, an overclocker from Taiwan, used an FX-8150 to set another record: 8.461 GHz.\n\n* On November 19, 2012, Andre Yang used an FX-8350 to set another record yet again: 8.794 GHz.\n\n===Corporate social responsibility===\n* In its 2012 report on progress relating to conflict minerals, the Enough Project rated AMD the fifth most progressive of 24 consumer electronics companies.\n\n===Other initiatives===\n* 50x15, digital inclusion, with targeted 50% of world population to be connected through Internet via affordable computers by the year of 2015.\n* The Green Grid, founded by AMD together with other founders, such as IBM, Sun and Microsoft, to seek lower power consumption for grids.\n", "\n* Bill Gaede\n\n", "\n", "* Rodengen, Jeffrey L. ''The Spirit of AMD: Advanced Micro Devices''. Write Stuff, 1998.\n* Ruiz, Hector. ''Slingshot: AMD's Fight to Free an Industry from the Ruthless Grip of Intel''. Greenleaf Book Group, 2013.\n", "\n* \n* AMD Developer Central\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Company history", "Products", "Technologies", "Production and fabrication", "Corporate affairs", " See also ", "Notes", "References", " External links " ]	Advanced Micro Devices
[ "\n\n'''Albrecht Dürer''' (; ; 21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528) was a painter, printmaker, and theorist of the German Renaissance. Born in Nuremberg, Dürer established his reputation and influence across Europe when he was still in his twenties due to his high-quality woodcut prints.\nHe was in communication with the major Italian artists of his time, including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and Leonardo da Vinci, and from 1512 he was patronized by emperor Maximilian I. Dürer is commemorated by both the Lutheran and Episcopal Churches.\n\n''The Expulsion From Paradise'' by Albrecht Dürer\n\nDürer's vast body of work includes engravings, his preferred technique in his later prints, altarpieces, portraits and self-portraits, watercolours and books. The woodcuts, such as the ''Apocalypse'' series (1498), are more Gothic than the rest of his work. \nHis well-known engravings include the ''Knight, Death, and the Devil'' (1513), ''Saint Jerome in his Study'' (1514) and ''Melencolia I'' (1514), which has been the subject of extensive analysis and interpretation. His watercolours also mark him as one of the first European landscape artists, while his ambitious woodcuts revolutionized the potential of that medium.\n\nDürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, has secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatises, which involve principles of mathematics, perspective, and ideal proportions.\n", "Self-portrait silverpoint drawing by the thirteen-year-old Dürer, 1484\n\nDürer was born on 21 May 1471, third child and second son of his parents, who had at least fourteen and possibly as many as eighteen children. His father, Albrecht Dürer the Elder, was a successful goldsmith, originally Ajtósi, who in 1455 had moved to Nuremberg from Ajtós, near Gyula in Hungary. One of Albrecht's brothers, Hans Dürer, was also a painter and trained under him. Another of Albrecht's brothers, Endres Dürer, took over their father's business and was a master goldsmith. The German name \"Dürer\" is a translation from the Hungarian, \"Ajtósi\". Initially, it was \"Türer,\" meaning doormaker, which is \"ajtós\" in Hungarian (from \"ajtó\", meaning door). A door is featured in the coat-of-arms the family acquired. Albrecht Dürer the Younger later changed \"Türer\", his father's diction of the family's surname, to \"Dürer\", to adapt to the local Nuremberg dialect. Albrecht Dürer the Elder married Barbara Holper, the daughter of his master when he himself became a master in 1467.\n\nWoodcut by Dürer of his coat of arms, which featured a door as a pun on his name, as well as the winged bust of a Moor\n\nDürer's godfather was Anton Koberger, who left goldsmithing to become a printer and publisher in the year of Dürer's birth and quickly became the most successful publisher in Germany, eventually owning twenty-four printing-presses and having many offices in Germany and abroad. Koberger's most famous publication was the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', published in 1493 in German and Latin editions. It contained an unprecedented 1,809 woodcut illustrations (albeit with many repeated uses of the same block) by the Wolgemut workshop. Dürer may have worked on some of these, as the work on the project began while he was with Wolgemut.\n\nBecause Dürer left autobiographical writings and became very famous by his mid-twenties, his life is well documented by several sources. After a few years of school, Dürer started to learn the basics of goldsmithing and drawing from his father. Though his father wanted him to continue his training as a goldsmith, he showed such a precocious talent in drawing that he started as an apprentice to Michael Wolgemut at the age of fifteen in 1486. A self-portrait, a drawing in silverpoint, is dated 1484 (Albertina, Vienna) \"when I was a child,\" as his later inscription says. Wolgemut was the leading artist in Nuremberg at the time, with a large workshop producing a variety of works of art, in particular woodcuts for books. Nuremberg was then an important and prosperous city, a centre for publishing and many luxury trades. It had strong links with Italy, especially Venice, a relatively short distance across the Alps.\n", "Self-Portrait'' (1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil, originally on vellum (Louvre, Paris)\n\nAfter completing his term of apprenticeship, Dürer followed the common German custom of taking ''Wanderjahre''—in effect gap years —in which the apprentice learned skills from artists in other areas; Dürer was to spend about four years away. He left in 1490, possibly to work under Martin Schongauer, the leading engraver of Northern Europe, but who died shortly before Dürer's arrival at Colmar in 1492. It is unclear where Dürer travelled in the intervening period, though it is likely that he went to Frankfurt and the Netherlands. In Colmar, Dürer was welcomed by Schongauer's brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul and the painter Ludwig. In 1493 Dürer went to Strasbourg, where he would have experienced the sculpture of Nikolaus Gerhaert. Dürer's first painted self-portrait (now in the Louvre) was painted at this time, probably to be sent back to his fiancée in Nuremberg.\n\nIn early 1492 Dürer travelled to Basel to stay with another brother of Martin Schongauer, the goldsmith Georg. Very soon after his return to Nuremberg, on 7 July 1494, at the age of 23, Dürer was married to Agnes Frey following an arrangement made during his absence. Agnes was the daughter of a prominent brass worker (and amateur harpist) in the city. However, no children resulted from the marriage.\n", "Dürer's sketch of his wife Agnes Frey 1494\n\nWithin three months of his marriage, Dürer left for Italy, alone, perhaps stimulated by an outbreak of plague in Nuremberg. He made watercolour sketches as he traveled over the Alps. Some have survived and others may be deduced from accurate landscapes of real places in his later work, for example his engraving ''Nemesis''.\n\nIn Italy, he went to Venice to study its more advanced artistic world. Through Wolgemut's tutelage, Dürer had learned how to make prints in drypoint and design woodcuts in the German style, based on the works of Martin Schongauer and the Housebook Master. He also would have had access to some Italian works in Germany, but the two visits he made to Italy had an enormous influence on him. He wrote that Giovanni Bellini was the oldest and still the best of the artists in Venice. His drawings and engravings show the influence of others, notably Antonio Pollaiuolo with his interest in the proportions of the body, Andrea Mantegna, Lorenzo di Credi and others. Dürer probably also visited Padua and Mantua on this trip.\n", "''Melencolia I'' (1514), engraving\n\nOn his return to Nuremberg in 1495, Dürer opened his own workshop (being married was a requirement for this). Over the next five years his style increasingly integrated Italian influences into underlying Northern forms. Dürer's father died in 1502, and his mother died in 1513. His best works in the first years of the workshop were his woodcut prints, mostly religious, but including secular scenes such as ''The Men's Bath House'' (ca. 1496). These were larger and more finely cut than the great majority of German woodcuts hitherto, and far more complex and balanced in composition.\n\nIt is now thought unlikely that Dürer cut any of the woodblocks himself; this task would have been performed by a specialist craftsman. However, his training in Wolgemut's studio, which made many carved and painted altarpieces and both designed and cut woodblocks for woodcut, evidently gave him great understanding of what the technique could be made to produce, and how to work with block cutters. Dürer either drew his design directly onto the woodblock itself, or glued a paper drawing to the block. Either way, his drawings were destroyed during the cutting of the block.\n\n''Portrait of Oswolt Krel'', a merchant from Lindau (Lake Constance), participating in the South German medieval trade corporation Große Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 1499.\n\nHis famous series of sixteen great designs for the ''Apocalypse'' is dated 1498, as is his engraving of'' St. Michael Fighting the Dragon''. He made the first seven scenes of the ''Great Passion'' in the same year, and a little later, a series of eleven on the Holy Family and saints. The ''Seven Sorrows Polyptych'', commissioned by Frederick III of Saxony in 1496, was executed by Dürer and his assistants c. 1500. Around 1503–1505 he produced the first seventeen of a set illustrating the ''Life of the Virgin'', which he did not finish for some years. Neither these, nor the ''Great Passion,'' were published as sets until several years later, but prints were sold individually in considerable numbers.\n\nDuring the same period Dürer trained himself in the difficult art of using the burin to make engravings. It is possible he had begun learning this skill during his early training with his father, as it was also an essential skill of the goldsmith. In 1496 he executed the ''Prodigal Son'', which the Italian Renaissance art historian Giorgio Vasari singled out for praise some decades later, noting its Germanic quality. He was soon producing some spectacular and original images, notably ''Nemesis'' (1502), ''The Sea Monster'' (1498), and ''Saint Eustace'' (c. 1501), with a highly detailed landscape background and animals. His landscapes of this period, such as ''Pond in the Woods'' and ''Willow Mill'', are quite different from his earlier watercolours. There is a much greater emphasis on capturing atmosphere, rather than depicting topography. He made a number of Madonnas, single religious figures, and small scenes with comic peasant figures. Prints are highly portable and these works made Dürer famous throughout the main artistic centres of Europe within a very few years.\n\nPraying Hands'', pen-and-ink drawing (c. 1508)\n\nThe Venetian artist Jacopo de' Barbari, whom Dürer had met in Venice, visited Nuremberg in 1500, and Dürer said that he learned much about the new developments in perspective, anatomy, and proportion from him. De' Barbari was unwilling to explain everything he knew, so Dürer began his own studies, which would become a lifelong preoccupation. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, leading to the famous engraving of ''Adam and Eve'' (1504), which shows his subtlety while using the burin in the texturing of flesh surfaces. This is the only existing engraving signed with his full name.\n\nDürer created large numbers of preparatory drawings, especially for his paintings and engravings, and many survive, most famously the ''Betende Hände'' (''Praying Hands'') from circa 1508, a study for an apostle in the Heller altarpiece. He continued to make images in watercolour and bodycolour (usually combined), including a number of still lifes of meadow sections or animals, including his ''Young Hare'' (1502) and the ''Great Piece of Turf'' (1503).\n", "Christ among the Doctors'' (1506), Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum\n\nIn Italy, he returned to painting, at first producing a series of works executed in tempera on linen. These include portraits and altarpieces, notably, the Paumgartner altarpiece and the ''Adoration of the Magi''. In early 1506, he returned to Venice and stayed there until the spring of 1507. By this time Dürer's engravings had attained great popularity and were being copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of San Bartolomeo. This was the altar-piece known as the ''Adoration of the Virgin'' or the ''Feast of Rose Garlands''. It includes portraits of members of Venice's German community, but shows a strong Italian influence. It was subsequently acquired by the Emperor Rudolf II and taken to Prague. Other paintings Dürer produced in Venice include ''The Virgin and Child with the Goldfinch'', ''Christ among the Doctors'' (supposedly produced in a mere five days), and a number of smaller works.\n", "''Adam and Eve'' {1504}\nAdam and Eve'' (1507)\n\nDespite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer returned to Nuremberg by mid-1507, remaining in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with most of the major artists including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and—mainly through Lorenzo di Credi—Leonardo da Vinci.\n\nBetween 1507 and 1511 Dürer worked on some of his most celebrated paintings: ''Adam and Eve'' (1507), ''The Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand'' (1508, for Frederick of Saxony), ''Virgin with the Iris'' (1508), the altarpiece ''Assumption of the Virgin'' (1509, for Jacob Heller of Frankfurt), and ''Adoration of the Trinity'' (1511, for Matthaeus Landauer). During this period he also completed two woodcut series, the Great Passion and the Life of the Virgin, both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the Apocalypse series. The post-Venetian woodcuts show Dürer's development of chiaroscuro modelling effects, creating a mid-tone throughout the print to which the highlights and shadows can be contrasted.\n\nOther works from this period include the thirty-seven woodcut subjects of the Little Passion, published first in 1511, and a set of fifteen small engravings on the same theme in 1512. Indeed, complaining that painting did not make enough money to justify the time spent when compared to his prints, he produced no paintings from 1513 to 1516. However, in 1513 and 1514 Dürer created his three most famous engravings: ''Knight, Death, and the Devil'' (1513, probably based on Erasmus's treatise ''Enchiridion militis Christiani''), ''St. Jerome in his Study'', and the much-debated ''Melencolia I'' (both 1514). Further outstanding pen and ink drawings of Dürer´s period of art work of 1513 were drafts for his friend Willibald Prickheimer. These drafts were later used to design the famous chandeliers lusterweibchen.\n\nIn 1515, he created his ''woodcut of a Rhinoceros'' which had arrived in Lisbon from a written description and sketch by another artist, without ever seeing the animal himself. An image of the Indian rhinoceros, the image has such force that it remains one of his best-known and was still used in some German school science text-books as late as last century. In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works, including the woodblocks for the first western printed star charts in 1515 and portraits in tempera on linen in 1516.\n\n===Patronage of Maximilian I===\n''Portrait of Maximilian I''\n\nFrom 1512, Maximilian I became Dürer's major patron. His commissions included ''The Triumphal Arch'', a vast work printed from 192 separate blocks, the symbolism of which is partly informed by Pirckheimer's translation of Horapollo's ''Hieroglyphica''. The design program and explanations were devised by Johannes Stabius, the architectural design by the master builder and court-painter Jörg Kölderer and the woodcutting itself by Hieronymous Andreae, with Dürer as designer-in-chief. ''The Arch'' was followed by ''The Triumphal Procession'', the program of which was worked out in 1512 by Marx Treitz-Saurwein and includes woodcuts by Albrecht Altdorfer and Hans Springinklee, as well as Dürer.\n\nDürer worked with pen on the marginal images for an edition of the Emperor's printed Prayer-Book; these were quite unknown until facsimiles were published in 1808 as part of the first book published in lithography. Dürer's work on the book was halted for an unknown reason, and the decoration was continued by artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Baldung. Dürer also made several portraits of the Emperor, including one shortly before Maximilian's death in 1519.\n", "Maximilian's death came at a time when Dürer was concerned he was losing \"my sight and freedom of hand\" (perhaps caused by arthritis) and increasingly affected by the writings of Martin Luther. In July 1520 Dürer made his fourth and last major journey, to renew the Imperial pension Maximilian had given him and to secure the patronage of the new emperor, Charles V, who was to be crowned at Aachen. Dürer journeyed with his wife and her maid via the Rhine to Cologne and then to Antwerp, where he was well received and produced numerous drawings in silverpoint, chalk and charcoal. In addition to going to the coronation, he made excursions to Cologne (where he admired the painting of Stefan Lochner), Nijmegen, 's-Hertogenbosch, Bruges (where he saw Michelangelo's Madonna of Bruges), Ghent (where he admired van Eyck's altarpiece), and Zeeland.\n\nDürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This provides rare information of the monetary value placed on prints at this time. Unlike paintings, their sale was very rarely documented. While providing valuable documentary evidence, Dürer's Netherlandish diary also reveals that the trip was not a profitable one. For example, Dürer offered his last portrait of Maximilian to his daughter, Margaret of Austria, but eventually traded the picture for some white cloth after Margaret disliked the portrait and declined to accept it. During this trip he also met Bernard van Orley, Jan Provoost, Gerard Horenbout, Jean Mone, Joachim Patinir and Tommaso Vincidor, though he did not, it seems, meet Quentin Matsys.\n\nAt the request of Christian II of Denmark, Dürer went to Brussels to paint the King's portrait. There he saw \"the things which have been sent to the king from the golden land\"—the Aztec treasure that Hernán Cortés had sent home to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V following the fall of Mexico. Dürer wrote that this treasure \"was much more beautiful to me than miracles. These things are so precious that they have been valued at 100,000 florins\". Dürer also appears to have been collecting for his own cabinet of curiosities, and he sent back to Nuremberg various animal horns, a piece of coral, some large fish fins, and a wooden weapon from the East Indies.\n\nHaving secured his pension, Dürer finally returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness—perhaps malaria —which afflicted him for the rest of his life, and greatly reduced his rate of work.\n", "''Salvator Mundi'', an unfinished oil painting on wood, full painting\n\nOn his return to Nuremberg, Dürer worked on a number of grand projects with religious themes, including a crucifixion scene and a Sacra Conversazione, though neither was completed. This may have been due in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry and perspective, the proportions of men and horses, and fortification.\n\nHowever, one consequence of this shift in emphasis was that during the last years of his life, Dürer produced comparatively little as an artist. In painting, there was only a portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher, a ''Madonna and Child'' (1526), ''Salvator Mundi '' (1526), and two panels showing St. John with St. Peter in background and St. Paul with St. Mark in the background. This last great work, the Four Apostles, was given by Dürer to the City of Nuremberg—although he was given 100 guilders in return.\n\nA close up reveals Dürer's highly detailed preparatory drawing\n\nAs for engravings, Dürer's work was restricted to portraits and illustrations for his treatise. The portraits include Cardinal-Elector Albert of Mainz; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony; the humanist scholar Willibald Pirckheimer; Philipp Melanchthon, and Erasmus of Rotterdam. For those of the Cardinal, Melanchthon, and Dürer's final major work, a drawn portrait of the Nuremberg patrician Ulrich Starck, Dürer depicted the sitters in profile, perhaps reflecting a more mathematical approach.\n\nDespite complaining of his lack of a formal classical education, Dürer was greatly interested in intellectual matters and learned much from his boyhood friend Willibald Pirckheimer, whom he no doubt consulted on the content of many of his images. He also derived great satisfaction from his friendships and correspondence with Erasmus and other scholars. Dürer succeeded in producing two books during his lifetime. \"The Four Books on Measurement\" were published at Nuremberg in 1525 and was the first book for adults on mathematics in German, as well as being cited later by Galileo and Kepler. The other, a work on city fortifications, was published in 1527. \"The Four Books on Human Proportion\" were published posthumously, shortly after his death in 1528.\n\nDürer died in Nuremberg at the age of 56, leaving an estate valued at 6,874 florins—a considerable sum. His large house (purchased in 1509 from the heirs of the astronomer Bernhard Walther), where his workshop was located and where his widow lived until her death in 1539, remains a prominent Nuremberg landmark. It is now a museum. He is buried in the ''Johannisfriedhof'' cemetery.\n\n===Dürer and the Reformation===\nAlbrecht Dürer's House in Nuremberg \n\nDürer's writings suggest that he may have been sympathetic to Martin Luther's ideas, though it is unclear if he ever left the Catholic Church. Dürer wrote of his desire to draw Luther in his diary in 1520: \"And God help me that I may go to Dr. Martin Luther; thus I intend to make a portrait of him with great care and engrave him on a copper plate to create a lasting memorial of the Christian man who helped me overcome so many difficulties.\" In a letter to Nicholas Kratzer in 1524, Dürer wrote \"because of our Christian faith we have to stand in scorn and danger, for we are reviled and called heretics.\" Most tellingly, Pirckheimer wrote in a letter to Johann Tscherte in 1530: \"I confess that in the beginning I believed in Luther, like our Albert of blessed memory...but as anyone can see, the situation has become worse.\" Dürer may even have contributed to the Nuremberg City Council's mandating Lutheran sermons and services in March 1525. Notably, Dürer had contacts with various reformers, such as Zwingli, Andreas Karlstadt, Melanchthon, Erasmus and Cornelius Grapheus from whom Dürer received Luther's ''Babylonian Captivity'' in 1520.\n\n''The Cannon'', Dürer's largest etching, 1518\n\nDürer's later works have also been claimed to show Protestant sympathies. For example, his woodcut of ''The Last Supper'' of 1523 has often been understood to have an evangelical theme, focussing as it does on Christ espousing the Gospel, as well the inclusion of the Eucharistic cup, an expression of Protestant utraquism, although this interpretation has been questioned. The delaying of the engraving of St Philip, completed in 1523 but not distributed until 1526, may have been due to Dürer's uneasiness with images of Saints; even if Dürer was not an iconoclast, in his last years he evaluated and questioned the role of art in religion.\n", "''Adoration of the Trinity'' (Landauer Altar)\n''Feast of Rose Garlands'' (1506)\n''Adoration of the Magi'' (1504), oil on wood Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence\n\nDürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominantly in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Parmigianino, all of whom collaborated with printmakers in order to promote and distribute their work.\n\nHis work in engraving seems to have had an intimidating effect upon his German successors, the \"Little Masters\" who attempted few large engravings but continued Dürer's themes in small, rather cramped compositions. Lucas van Leyden was the only Northern European engraver to successfully continue to produce large engravings in the first third of the 16th century. The generation of Italian engravers who trained in the shadow of Dürer all either directly copied parts of his landscape backgrounds (Giulio Campagnola, Giovanni Battista Palumba, Benedetto Montagna and Cristofano Robetta), or whole prints (Marcantonio Raimondi and Agostino Veneziano). However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio perfected his new engraving style, which in turn travelled over the Alps to dominate Northern engraving also.\n\nIn painting, Dürer had relatively little influence in Italy, where probably only his altarpiece in Venice was seen, and his German successors were less effective in blending German and Italian styles. His intense and self-dramatizing self-portraits have continued to have a strong influence up to the present, especially on painters in the 19th and 20th century who desired a more dramatic portrait style. Dürer has never fallen from critical favour, and there have been significant revivals of interest in his works in Germany in the ''Dürer Renaissance'' of about 1570 to 1630, in the early nineteenth century, and in German nationalism from 1870 to 1945.\n\nDürer's study of human proportions and the use of transformations to a coordinate grid to demonstrate facial variation inspired similar work by D'Arcy Thompson in his book ''On Growth and Form''.\n\nThe Lutheran Church remembers Dürer as a great Christian annually on April 6, along with Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Burgkmair. The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (United States) remembers him, Cranach and Matthias Grünewald on August 5.\n", "\nIn all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language rather than in Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language. For example, \"Schneckenlinie\" (\"snail-line\") was his term for a spiral form. Thus, Dürer contributed to the expansion in German prose which Martin Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible.\n\n===''Four Books on Measurement''===\n\nDürer's work on geometry is called the ''Four Books on Measurement'' (''Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt'' or ''Instructions for Measuring with Compass and Ruler''). The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and epicycloids. He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's 'Libellus super viginti duobus elementis conicis' of 1522.\n\nThe second book moves onto two dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular polygons. Here Dürer favours the methods of Ptolemy over Euclid. The third book applies these principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. \n\nIn architecture Dürer cites Vitruvius but elaborates his own classical designs and columns. In typography, Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the Latin alphabet, relying on Italian precedent. However, his construction of the Gothic alphabet is based upon an entirely different modular system. The fourth book completes the progression of the first and second by moving to three-dimensional forms and the construction of polyhedra. Here Dürer discusses the five Platonic solids, as well as seven Archimedean semi-regular solids, as well as several of his own invention.\n\nIn all these, Dürer shows the objects as nets. Finally, Dürer discusses the Delian Problem and moves on to the 'construzione legittima', a method of depicting a cube in two dimensions through linear perspective. It was in Bologna that Dürer was taught (possibly by Luca Pacioli or Bramante) the principles of linear perspective, and evidently became familiar with the 'costruzione legittima' in a written description of these principles found only, at this time, in the unpublished treatise of Piero della Francesca. He was also familiar with the 'abbreviated construction' as described by Alberti and the geometrical construction of shadows, a technique of Leonardo da Vinci. Although Dürer made no innovations in these areas, he is notable as the first Northern European to treat matters of visual representation in a scientific way, and with understanding of Euclidean principles. In addition to these geometrical constructions, Dürer discusses in this last book of ''Underweysung der Messung'' an assortment of mechanisms for drawing in perspective from models and provides woodcut illustrations of these methods that are often reproduced in discussions of perspective.\n\n===''Four Books on Human Proportion''===\n\nDürer's work on human proportions is called the ''Four Books on Human Proportion'' (''Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion'') of 1528. The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both Vitruvius and empirical observations of, \"two to three hundred living persons,\" in his own words. The second book includes eight further types, broken down not into fractions but an Albertian system, which Dürer probably learned from Francesco di Giorgio's 'De harmonica mundi totius' of 1525. In the third book, Dürer gives principles by which the proportions of the figures can be modified, including the mathematical simulation of convex and concave mirrors; here Dürer also deals with human physiognomy. The fourth book is devoted to the theory of movement.\n\nAppended to the last book, however, is a self-contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ('Nutz'), naïve approval ('Wohlgefallen') and the happy medium ('Mittelmass'). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but also as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or inspired to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'. In other words, that an artist builds on a wealth of visual experiences in order to imagine beautiful things. Dürer's belief in the abilities of a single artist over inspiration prompted him to assert that \"one man may sketch something with his pen on half a sheet of paper in one day, or may cut it into a tiny piece of wood with his little iron, and it turns out to be better and more artistic than another's work at which its author labours with the utmost diligence for a whole year.\"\n\nImage:AlbrechtDürer01.jpg\|Title page of ''Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion'' showing the monogram signature of artist\nFile:Durer foot.jpg\|Dürer often used multiview orthographic projections\nFile:Durer face transforms.jpg\|Dürer's study of human proportions\n\n", "\nFile:Albrecht Dürer 012.jpg\|''St Jerome in the Wilderness'', 1495, oil on panel, National Gallery, London\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Ritratto del padre - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Albrecht Dürer the Elder with a Rosary'', 1490, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence\nFile:Albrecht Dürer, Selbstbildnis mit 26 Jahren (Prado, Madrid).jpg\|''Self-portrait'', 1498, Museo del Prado, oil on wood panel\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Portrait of a Young Venetian Woman - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Portrait of a Young Venetian Woman'', 1505, Oil on panel, Kunsthistorisches Museum\nFile:Madonna Haller.jpg\|Detail, ''Haller Madonna'', 1505, National Gallery\nFile:Duerer (Marter der zehntausend Christen).jpg\|Self-portrait, from an inset of ''The Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand'' (1508)\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Virgin and child with a pear - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Madonna of the Pear'', 1512, oil on panel, Kunsthistorisches Museum\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Portrait of Bernhard von Reesen - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Portrait of Bernhard von Reesen'', 1521, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Gemäldegalerie\nFile:Albrecht Dürer Saint Jerome 1521.jpg\|''Saint Jerome'', 1521, Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon\nFile:Vier Apostel (Albrecht Duerer).jpg\|''The Four Apostles'', (l-r John, Peter, Mark, Paul), 1526, Alte Pinakothek\nFile:Albrecht Dürer 078.jpg\|''Portrait of Hieronymus Holzschuher'', 1526\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - 1500 self-portrait (High resolution and detail).jpg\|Albrecht Dürer - 1500 self-portrait\n\n\n\nFile:Albrecht D Akelei.jpg\|Flower watercolour, columbines.\nFile:Innsbruck castle courtyard.jpg\|''Innsbruck Castle Courtyard'', 1494, Gouache and watercolour on paper\nFile:Chateau-fort-Durer.jpg\|Castle Segonzano, 1502, gouache and watercolour on paper\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Hare, 1502 - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Young Hare'', (1502), Watercolour and bodycolour (Albertina, Vienna)\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - The Large Piece of Turf, 1503 - Google Art Project.jpg\|''The Large Piece of Turf'', 1503\n\n\n\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Man of Sorrows - Google Art Project.jpg\| Man of Sorrows \nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Head of an Old Man, 1521 - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Head of an Old Man'', 1521\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Bearing of the Cross - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Bearing of the Cross''\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Proportion study of female nude with a shield - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Proportion study of female nude with a shield''\nFile:St. Cristopher-Dürer.jpg\|St. Christopher, engraving, 1521 \nFile:Albrecht Dürer - The Small Horse - Google Art Project.jpg\| ''The Small Horse''\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Nemesis - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Nemesis''\nFile:Albrecht Dürer - Bearded Saint in a Forest, c. 1516 - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Bearded Saint in a Forest'', c. 1516\n\n", "For lists of Albrecht Dürer's works, see:\n* List of paintings by Albrecht Dürer\n* List of engravings by Dürer\n* List of woodcuts by Dürer\n", "\n", "Christine Demele. ''Dürers Nacktheit – Das Weimarer Selbstbildnis.'' Rhema Verlag, Münster 2012, \nBartrum, Giulia. ''Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy''. British Museum Press, 2002. \nCampbell Hutchison, Jane. ''Albrecht Dürer: A Biography''. Princeton University Press, 1990. \nDürer, Albrecht (translated by R.T. Nichol from the Latin text), ''Of the Just Shaping of Letters'', Dover Publications. \nHarbison, Craig. \"Dürer and the Reformation: The Problem of the Re-dating of the ''St. Philip'' Engraving\". ''The Art Bulletin'', Vol. 58, No. 3, 368–373. September 1976.\nKorolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana. ’The Unconscious and Space: Venice and the work of Albrecht Dürer’, in \"Architecture and the Unconscious\", eds. J. Hendrix and L.Holm, Farnham Surrey: Ashgate, 2016. pp27-44, .\nLandau David; Parshall, Peter. ''The Renaissance Print''. Yale, 1996. \nPanofsky, Erwin. \"The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer\", Princeton, 2005. \nPrice, David Hotchkiss. ''Albrecht Dürer's Renaissance: Humanism, Reformation and the Art of Faith''. Michigan, 2003. .\nStrauss, Walter L. (Ed.). ''The Complete Engravings, Etchings and Drypoints of Albrecht Durer''. Dover Publications, 1973. — still in print in paperback.\nWilhelm, Kurth (Ed.). ''The Complete Woodcuts of Albrecht Durer'', Dover Publications, 2000. \nWolf, Norbert. ''Albrecht Dürer''. Prestel, 2010. \n", "* (see index)\n* Wisse, Jacob. “Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528).” In ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (October 2002)\n", "\n\n\n* \n\n Albrecht Durer - The complete works\n* The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. November 14, 2010 – March 13, 2011\n* Dürer Prints Close-up. Made to accompany The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. November 14, 2010 – March 13, 2011\n* Albrecht Dürer: ''Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion'' (Nuremberg, 1528). Selected pages scanned from the original work. Historical Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine.\n* \n* \n* Albrecht Dürer, \"Four Books on Measurement\", original version in German with illustrations (Underweysung der messung, mit den zirckel un richtscheyt, in Linien ebnen unnd gantzen corporen), 1525.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life (1471–90)", "''Wanderjahre'' and marriage (1490–94)", "First journey to Italy (1494–95)", "Return to Nuremberg (1495–1505)", "Second journey to Italy (1505–1507)", "Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507–1520)", "Journey to the Netherlands (1520–21)", "Final years in Nuremberg (1521–28)", "Legacy and influence", "Theoretical works", "Gallery", "List of works", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Albrecht Dürer
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Australian rules football''', officially known as '''Australian football''', or simply called '''football''' or '''footy''', is a contact sport played between two teams of eighteen players on an oval-shaped field, often a modified cricket ground.\n\nThe main way to score points is by kicking the oval-shaped ball between the two tall goal posts. The team with the higher score by the end of the match wins unless a draw is declared.\n\nDuring general play, players may position themselves anywhere on the field and use any part of their bodies to move the ball. The primary methods are kicking, handballing and running with the ball. There are rules on how the ball can be handled: for example, players running with the ball must intermittently bounce or touch it on the ground. Throwing the ball is not allowed and players must not get caught holding the ball. A distinctive feature of the game is the mark, where players anywhere on the field who catch a ball from a kick (with specific conditions) are awarded possession. Possession of the ball is in dispute at all times except when a free kick or mark is paid. Players can tackle using their hands or use their whole body to obstruct opponents. Dangerous physical contact (such as pushing an opponent in the back), interference when marking and deliberately slowing the play are discouraged with free kicks, distance penalties or suspension for a certain number of matches, depending on the seriousness of the infringement. The game features frequent physical contests, spectacular marking, fast movement of both players and the ball and high scoring.\n\nThe sport's origins can be traced to football matches played in Melbourne, Victoria in 1858, inspired by English public school football games. Seeking to develop a game more suited to adults and Australian conditions, the Melbourne Football Club published the first laws of Australian football in May 1859, making it the oldest of the world's major football codes.\n\nAustralian football has the highest spectator attendance and television viewership of all sports in Australia, while the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's only fully professional competition, is the nation's wealthiest sporting body. Its annual Grand Final is the highest attended club championship event in the world. The sport is also played at amateur level in many countries and in several variations. The game's rules are governed by the AFL Commission with the advice of the AFL's Laws of the Game Committee.\n", "\nAustralian rules football is known by several nicknames, including Aussie rules, football and footy. In some regions, it is marketed as AFL after the Australian Football League.\n", "\n\n=== Origins ===\n\nStatue next to the Melbourne Cricket Ground on the approximate site of the 1858 football match between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. Tom Wills is depicted umpiring behind two young players contesting the ball. The plaque reads that Wills \"did more than any other person – as a footballer and umpire, co-writer of the rules and promoter of the game – to develop Australian football during its first decade.\"\nThere is evidence of football being played sporadically in the Australian colonies in the first half of the 19th century. Compared to cricket and horse racing, football was viewed as a minor \"amusement\" at the time, and while little is known about these early one-off games, it is clear they share no causal link with Australian football. In 1858, in a move that would help to shape Australian football in its formative years, public schools in Melbourne, Victoria began organising football games inspired by precedents at English public schools. The earliest such match, held in St Kilda on 15 June, was between Melbourne Grammar and St Kilda Grammar.\n\nOn 10 July 1858, the Melbourne-based ''Bell's Life in Victoria and Sporting Chronicle'' published a letter by Tom Wills, captain of the Victoria cricket team, calling for the formation of a \"foot-ball club\" with a \"code of laws\" to keep cricketers fit during winter. Born in Australia, Wills played a nascent form of rugby football whilst a pupil at Rugby School in England, and returned to his homeland a star athlete and cricketer. His letter is regarded by many historians as giving impetus for the development of a new code of football today known as Australian football. Two weeks later, Wills' friend, cricketer Jerry Bryant, posted an advertisement for a scratch match at the Richmond Paddock adjoining the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG). This was the first of several \"kickabouts\" held that year involving members of the Melbourne Cricket Club, including Wills, Bryant, W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson. Trees were used as goalposts and play typically lasted an entire afternoon. Without an agreed upon code of laws, some players were guided by rules they had learned in the British Isles, \"others by no rules at all\".\n\nAnother significant milestone in 1858 was a match played under experimental rules between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College, held at the Richmond Paddock. This 40-a-side contest, umpired by Wills and Scotch College teacher John Macadam, began on 7 August and continued over two subsequent Saturdays, ending in a draw with each side kicking one goal. It is commemorated with a statue outside the MCG, and the two schools have competed annually ever since in the Cordner-Eggleston Cup, the world's oldest continuous football competition.\n\nSince the early 20th century, it has been suggested that Australian football was derived from the Irish sport of Gaelic football, which was not codified until 1885. There is no archival evidence in favour of a Gaelic influence, and the style of play shared between the two modern codes was evident in Australia long before the Irish game evolved in a similar direction. Another theory, first proposed in 1983, posits that Wills, having grown up amongst Aborigines in Victoria, may have seen or played the Aboriginal game of Marn Grook, and incorporated some of its features into early Australian football. This evidence for this is only circumstantial, and according to biographer Greg de Moore's research, Wills was \"almost solely influenced by his experience at Rugby School\".\n\n===First rules===\n\nA loosely organised Melbourne side, captained by Wills, played against other football enthusiasts in the winter and spring of 1858. The following year, on 14 May, the Melbourne Football Club officially came into being, making it one of the world's oldest football clubs. Three days later, Wills, Hammersley, Thompson and teacher Thomas H. Smith met near the MCG at the Parade Hotel, owned by Bryant, and drafted ten rules: \"The Rules of the Melbourne Football Club\". These are the laws from which Australian football evolved. The document was signed by the rule-framers and three other club office bearers: Alex Bruce, T. Butterworth and J. Sewell. The club's stated aim was to create a simple code that was suited to the hard playing surfaces around Melbourne, and to eliminate the roughest aspects of English school games—such as \"hacking\" (shin-kicking) in Rugby School football—to lessen the chance of injuries to working men. In another significant departure from English public school football, the Melbourne rules omitted any offside law. \"The new code was as much a reaction against the school games as influenced by them\", writes Mark Pennings.\n\nThe rules were distributed throughout the colony; Thompson in particular did much to promote the new code in his capacity as a journalist. Australian football's date of codification predates that of any other major football code, including soccer (codified in 1863) and rugby union (codified in 1871).\n\n===Early competition in Victoria===\n\nRichmond Paddock, 1866. The MCG and its first pavilion are visible in the background, as are kick-off posts, the forerunner of today's behind posts.\n\nFollowing Melbourne's lead, Geelong and Melbourne University also formed football clubs in 1859. While many early Victorian teams participated in one-off matches, most had not yet formed clubs for regular competition. A South Yarra side devised its own rules. To ensure the supremacy of the Melbourne rules, the first-club level competition in Australia, the Caledonian Society's Challenge Cup (1861–64), stipulated that only the Melbourne rules were to be used. This law was reinforced by the Athletic Sports Committee (ASC), which ran a variation of the Challenge Cup in 1865–66. With input from other clubs, the rules underwent several minor revisions, establishing a uniform code known as \"Victorian rules\". In 1866, the \"first distinctively Victorian rule\", the running bounce, was formalised at a meeting of club delegates chaired by H. C. A. Harrison, an influential pioneer who took up football in 1859 at the invitation of Wills, his cousin.\n\nThe game around this time was defensive and low-scoring, played low to the ground in congested rugby-style scrimmages. The typical match was a 20-per-side affair, played with a ball that was roughly spherical, and lasted until a team scored two goals. The shape of the playing field was not standardised; matches often took place in rough, tree-spotted public parks, most notably the Richmond Paddock (Yarra Park), known colloquially as the Melbourne Football Ground. Wills argued that the turf of cricket fields would benefit from being trampled upon by footballers in winter, and, as early as 1859, football was allowed on the MCG. However, cricket authorities frequently prohibited football on their grounds until the 1870s, when they saw an opportunity to capitalise on the sport's growing popularity. Football gradually adapted to an oval-shaped field, and most grounds in Victoria expanded to accommodate the dual purpose—a situation that continues to this day.\n\n===Spread to other colonies===\n\nEngraving of the first intercolonial football match between Victoria and South Australia at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground, 1879\nAs \"Victorian rules\" gained roots in other Australasian colonies—beginning with South Australia (1860), Tasmania (1864), Queensland (1866), and New Zealand (1871)—it came to be known as \"Australian rules\" or \"Australasian rules\". In 1877, the sport's first governing bodies, the South Australian Football Association (SAFA) and the Victorian Football Association (VFA), formed on 30 April and 17 May respectively. The game was introduced to New South Wales in 1877 and Western Australia in 1881, where it took hold during the colony's gold rushes.\n\nBy the 1880s, Australian football had become the prevailing football code in Australia's southern and western colonies, and experienced a period of dominance in Queensland, where, like in areas of New South Wales, it struggled to thrive, largely due to the spread of rugby football, regional rivalries and the lack of strong local governing bodies. In the case of Sydney, denial of access to grounds, the influence of university headmasters from Britain who favoured rugby, and the loss of players to other codes inhibited the game's growth.\n\nIn 1879, the first intercolonial match took place in Melbourne between Victoria and South Australia, and clubs began touring the colonies. By this stage, the sport had become the first code of football to develop mass spectator appeal, with important matches drawing world record attendances for sports viewing. New rules such as holding the ball led to a \"golden era\" of fast, long-kicking and high-marking football in the 1880s, a time which also saw the rise of professionalism, particularly in Western Australia and Victoria, and players such as George Coulthard achieve superstardom. Australian football was now widely referred to as \"the people's game\".\n\n===Emergence of the VFL===\nIn 1896, delegates from six of the wealthiest VFA clubs—Carlton, Essendon, Fitzroy, Geelong, Melbourne and South Melbourne—met to discuss the formation of a breakaway professional competition. Later joined by Collingwood and St Kilda, the clubs formed the Victorian Football League (VFL), which held its inaugural season in 1897. The VFL's popularity grew rapidly as it made several innovations, such as instituting a finals system, reducing teams from 20 to 18 players, and introducing the behind as a score. Richmond and University joined the VFL in 1908, and by 1925, with the addition of Hawthorn, Footscray and North Melbourne, it had become the preeminent league in the country and would take a leading role in many aspects of the sport.\n\n===Effects of the two world wars===\n\nAustralia's first recruitment poster, published in 1915, questions the public's commitment to Australian football, rather than the war.\nBoth World War I and World War II had a devastating effect on Australian football and on Australian sport in general. While scratch matches were played by Australian \"diggers\" in remote locations around the world, the game lost many of its great players to wartime service. Some clubs and competitions never fully recovered. Between 1914 and 1915, a proposed hybrid code of Australian football and rugby league, the predominant code of football in New South Wales and Queensland, was trialed without success. World War I saw the game in New Zealand go into recess for three quarters of a century. In Queensland, the state league went into recess for the duration of the war. VFL club University left the league and went into recess due to severe casualties. The WAFL lost two clubs and the SANFL was suspended for one year in 1916 due to heavy club losses. The ANZAC Day clash is one example of how the war continues to be remembered in the football community.\n\n===Interstate football and the ANFC===\n\n1933 Australian Football Carnival at the Sydney Cricket Ground.\nThe role of the Australian National Football Council (ANFC) was primarily to govern the game at a national level and to facilitate interstate representative and club competition. The ANFC ran the Championship of Australia, the first national club competition, which commenced in 1888 and saw clubs from different states compete on an even playing field. Although clubs from other states were at times invited, the final was almost always between the premiers from the two strongest state competitions of the time—South Australia and Victoria—and the majority of matches were played in Adelaide at the request of the SAFA/SAFL. The last match was played in 1976, with North Adelaide being the last non-Victorian winner in 1972. Between 1976 and 1987, the ANFC, and later the Australian Football Championships (AFC) ran a night series, which invited clubs and representative sides from around the country to participate in a knock-out tournament parallel to the premiership seasons, which Victorian sides still dominated.\n\nWith the lack of international competition, state representative matches were regarded with great importance. The Australian Football Council co-ordinated regular interstate carnivals, including the Australasian Football Jubilee, held in Melbourne in 1908 to celebrate the game's bicentenary. Due in part to the VFL poaching talent from other states, Victoria dominated interstate matches for three quarters of a century. State of Origin rules, introduced in 1977, stipulated that rather than representing the state of their adopted club, players would return to play for the state they were first recruited in. This instantly broke Victoria's stranglehold over state titles and Western Australia and South Australia began to win more of their games against Victoria. Both New South Wales and Tasmania scored surprise victories at home against Victoria in 1990.\n\n===Towards a national competition===\nThe West Coast Eagles and Sydney Swans line up for the national anthem at the 2005 AFL Grand Final. Traditionally held at the MCG, the Grand Final is the highest attended club championship event in the world.\nThe term \"Barassi Line\", named after VFL star Ron Barassi, was coined by scholar Ian Turner in 1978 to describe the \"fictitious geographical barrier\" separating large parts of New South Wales and Queensland which predominately followed rugby from the rest of the country, where Australian football reigned. It became a reference point for the expansion of Australian football and for establishing a national league.\n\nThe way the game was played had changed dramatically due to innovative coaching tactics, with the phasing out of many of the game's kicking styles and the increasing use of handball; while presentation was influenced by television.\n\nIn 1982, in a move that heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, South Melbourne, relocated to Sydney and became known as the Sydney Swans. In the late 1980s, due to the poor financial standing of many of the Victorian clubs, the VFL pursued a more national competition. Two more non-Victorian clubs, West Coast and Brisbane, joined the league in 1987. In their early years, the Sydney and Brisbane clubs struggled both on and off-field because the substantial TV revenues they generated by playing on a Sunday went to the VFL. To protect these revenues the VFL granted significant draft concessions and financial aid to keep the expansion clubs competitive. Each club was required to pay a licence fee which allowed the Victorian-based clubs to survive.\n\nThe VFL changed its name to the Australian Football League (AFL) for the 1990 season, and over the next decade, three non-Victorian clubs gained entry: Adelaide (1991), Fremantle (1995) and the SANFL's Port Adelaide (1997), the only pre-existing club outside Victoria to join the league. In 2011 and 2012 respectively, two new non-Victorian clubs were added to the competition: Gold Coast and Greater Western Sydney. The AFL, currently with 18 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition and most powerful body. Following the emergence of the AFL, state leagues were quickly relegated to a second-tier status. The VFA merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998, adopting the VFL name. State of Origin also declined in importance, especially after an increasing number of player withdrawals. The AFL turned its focus to the annual International Rules Series against Ireland in 1998 before abolishing State of Origin the following year. State and territorial leagues still contest interstate matches, as do AFL Women players.\n\nAlthough a Tasmanian AFL bid is ongoing, the AFL's focus has been on expanding into markets outside Australian football's traditional heartlands. The AFL regularly schedules pre-season exhibition matches in all Australian states and territories as part of the Regional Challenge. The AFL signalled further attempts at expansion in the 2010s by hosting home-and-away matches in New Zealand, followed by China.\n", "\n\n\n\n===Field===\n\nTypical Australian rules football playing field\nAustralian rules football playing fields have no fixed dimensions but at senior level are typically between 135 and 185 metres long and 110 and 155 metres wide wing-to-wing. The field, like the ball, is oval-shaped, and in Australia, cricket grounds are often used. No more than 18 players of each team are permitted to be on the field at any time.\n\nUp to four interchange (reserve) players may be swapped for those on the field at any time during the game. In Australian rules terminology, these players wait for substitution \"on the bench\"—an area with a row of seats on the sideline. Players must interchange through a designated interchange \"gate\" with strict penalties for too many players from one team on the field. In addition, some leagues like the AFL have each team designate one player as a substitute who can be used to make a single permanent exchange of players during a game.\n\nThere is no offside rule nor are there set positions in the rules; unlike many other forms of football, players from both teams may disperse across the whole field before the start of play. However, a typical on-field structure consists of six forwards, six defenders or \"backmen\" and six midfielders, usually two wingmen, one centre and three followers, including a ruckman, ruck-rover and rover. Only four players from each team are allowed within the centre square () at every centre bounce, which occurs at the commencement of each quarter, and to restart the game after a goal is scored. There are also other rules pertaining to allowed player positions during set plays (that is, after a mark or free kick) and during kick-ins following the scoring of a behind.\n\n===Match duration===\nA game consists of four quarters and a timekeeper officiates their duration. At the professional level, each quarter consist of 20 minutes of play, with the clock being stopped for instances such as scores, the ball going out of bounds or at the umpire's discretion, e.g. for serious injury. Lower grades of competition might employ shorter quarters of play. The umpire signals ''time-off'' to stop the clock for various reasons, such as the player in possession being tackled into stagnant play. Time resumes when the umpire signals ''time-on'' or when the ball is brought into play. Stoppages cause quarters to extend approximately 5–10 minutes beyond the 20 minutes of play. 6 minutes of rest is allowed before the second and fourth quarters, and 20 minutes of rest is allowed at ''half-time''.\n\nThe official game clock is available only to the timekeeper(s), and is not displayed to the players, umpires or spectators. The only public knowledge of game time is when the timekeeper sounds a siren at the start and end of each quarter. Coaching staff may monitor the game time themselves and convey information to players via on-field trainers or substitute players. Broadcasters usually display an approximation of the official game time for television audiences, although some will now show the exact time remaining in a quarter. \n\n===General play===\n\n\nGames are officiated by umpires. Before the game, the winner of a coin toss determines which directions the teams will play to begin. Australian football begins after the first siren, when the umpire bounces the ball on the ground (or throws it into the air if the condition of the ground is poor), and the two ruckmen (typically the tallest players from each team) battle for the ball in the air on its way back down. This is known as the ''ball-up''. Certain disputes during play may also be settled with a ''ball-up'' from the point of contention. If the ball is kicked or hit from a ball-up or boundary throw-in over the boundary line or into a behind post without the ball bouncing, a free kick is paid for out of bounds on the full. A free kick is also paid if the ball is deemed by the umpire to have been deliberately carried or directed out of bounds. If the ball travels out of bounds in any other circumstances (for example, contested play results in the ball being knocked out of bounds) a boundary umpire will stand with his back to the infield and return the ball into play with a ''throw-in'', a high backwards toss back into the field of play.\n\nThe ball can be propelled in any direction by way of a foot, clenched fist (called a handball or ''handpass'') or open-hand tap but it cannot be thrown under any circumstances. Once a player takes possession of the ball he must dispose of it by either kicking or handballing it. Any other method of disposal is illegal and will result in a free kick to the opposing team. This is usually called \"incorrect disposal\", \"dropping the ball\" or \"throwing\". If the ball is not in the possession of one player it can be moved on with any part of the body.\n\nA player may run with the ball, but it must be bounced or touched on the ground at least once every 15 metres. Opposition players may bump or tackle the player to obtain the ball and, when tackled, the player must dispose of the ball cleanly or risk being penalised for holding the ball. The ball carrier may only be tackled between the shoulders and knees. If the opposition player forcefully contacts a player in the back while performing a tackle, the opposition player will be penalised for a push in the back. If the opposition tackles the player with possession below the knees (a ''low tackle'' or a ''trip'') or above the shoulders (a ''high tackle''), the team with possession of the football gets a free kick.\n\nIf a player takes possession of the ball that has travelled more than from another player's kick, by way of a catch, it is claimed as a ''mark'' (meaning that the game stops while he prepares to kick from the point at which he marked). Alternatively, he may choose to \"play on\" forfeiting the set shot in the hope of pressing an advantage for his team (rather than allowing the opposition to reposition while he prepares for the free kick). Once a player has chosen to play on, normal play resumes and the player who took the mark is again able to be tackled.\n\nThere are different styles of kicking depending on how the ball is held in the hand. The most common style of kicking seen in today's game, principally because of its superior accuracy, is the drop punt, where the ball is dropped from the hands down, almost to the ground, to be kicked so that the ball rotates in a reverse end over end motion as it travels through the air. Other commonly used kicks are the torpedo punt (also known as the spiral, barrel, or screw punt), where the ball is held flatter at an angle across the body, which makes the ball spin around its long axis in the air, resulting in extra distance (similar to the traditional motion of an American football punt), and the checkside punt or \"banana\", kicked across the ball with the outside of the foot used to curve the ball (towards the right if kicked off the right foot) towards targets that are on an angle. There is also the \"snap\", which is almost the same as a checkside punt except that it is kicked off the inside of the foot and curves in the opposite direction. It is also possible to kick the ball so that it bounces along the ground. This is known as a \"grubber\". Grubbers can bounce in a straight line, or curve to the left or right.\n\nApart from free kicks, marks or when the ball is in the possession of an umpire for a ''ball up'' or ''throw in'', the ball is always in dispute and any player from either side can take possession of the ball.\n\n===Scoring===\nA Sherrin Kangaroo Brand football. Sherrin is the official game ball of the Australian Football League.\nThe two tall central posts are the goal posts, and the two shorter outer posts are the behind posts.\nA ''goal'', worth 6 points, is scored when the football is propelled through the goal posts at any height (including above the height of the posts) by way of a kick from the attacking team. It may fly through \"on the full\" (without touching the ground) or bounce through, but must not have been touched, on the way, by any player from either team. A goal cannot be scored from the foot of an opposition (defending) player.\n\nA ''behind'', worth 1 point, is scored when the ball passes between a goal post and a behind post at any height, or if the ball hits a goal post, or if any player sends the ball between the goal posts by touching it with any part of the body other than a foot. A behind is also awarded to the attacking team if the ball touches any part of an opposition player, including his foot, before passing between the goal posts. When an opposition player deliberately scores a behind for the attacking team (generally as a last resort to ensure that a goal is not scored) this is termed a rushed behind. As of the 2009 AFL season, a free kick is awarded against any player who deliberately rushes a behind.\n\nThe goal umpire signals a goal with two hands pointed forward at elbow height, or a behind with one hand. The goal umpire then waves flags above their heads to confirm the goal or behind to the goal umpire at the opposite end of the ground.\n\nThe team that has scored the most points at the end of play wins the game. If the scores are level on points at the end of play, then the game is a draw; extra time applies only during finals matches in some competitions.\n\nAs an example of a score report, consider a match between and with the former as the home team. Essendon's score of 11 goals and 14 behinds equates to 80 points. Melbourne's score of 10 goals and 7 behinds equates to a 67-point tally. Essendon wins the match by a margin of 13 points. Such a result would be written as:\n\n:\"''' 11.14 (80)''' defeated 10.7 (67).\"\n\nAnd spoken as:\n\n:\"Essendon, eleven-fourteen, eighty, defeated Melbourne ten-seven, sixty-seven\".\n\nAdditionally, it can be said that:\n\n:\"Essendon defeated Melbourne by thirteen points\".\n\nThe home team is typically listed first and the visiting side is listed second. The scoreline is written with respect to the home side.\n\nFor example, won in successive weeks, once as the home side and once as the visiting side. These would be written out thus:\n\n:\"''' 23.20 (158)''' defeated 8.14 (62).\"\n:\n:\" 17.13 (115) defeated by ''' 18.10 (118)'''.\"\n\nA draw would be written as:\n\n:\" 10.8 (68) drew with 10.8 (68)\".\n", "\nThe ''football season'' proper is from March to August (early autumn to late winter in Australia) with finals being held in September and October. In the tropics, the game is sometimes played in the wet season (October to March). Pre-season competitions in southern Australia usually begin in late February.\n\nThe AFL is recognised by the Australian Sports Commission as being the National Sporting Organisation for Australian Football. There are also seven state/territory-based organisations in Australia, most of which are now either owned by or affiliated to the AFL. Most of these hold annual semi-professional club competitions while the others oversee more than one league. Local semi-professional or amateur organisations and competitions are often affiliated to their state organisations.\n\nThe AFL is the ''de facto'' world governing body for Australian football. There are also a number of affiliated organisations governing amateur clubs and competitions around the world.\n\nFor almost all Australian football club competitions the aim is to win the ''Premiership''. The premiership is always decided by a ''finals series''. The teams that occupy the highest positions on the ''ladder'' after the ''home-and-away'' season play off in a \"semi-knockout\" finals series, culminating in a single Grand Final match to determine the premiers. Typically between four and eight teams contest the finals series. The team which finishes first on the ladder after the home-and-away season is referred to as a \"minor premier\", but this usually holds little stand-alone significance, other than receiving a better draw in the finals.\n\nMany suburban and amateur leagues have a sufficient number of teams to be played across several tiered divisions, with promotion of the lower division premiers and relegation of the upper division's last placed team at the end of each year. At present, none of the top level national or state level leagues in Australia are large enough to warrant this structure.\n", "\nGold Coast between Bond University and Burleigh Heads\nThe level of interest shown by women in Australian football is considered unique among the world's football codes. It was the case in the 19th-century, as it is in modern times, that women made up approximately half of crowds at Australian football matches—a far greater proportion than soccer and the two rugby codes. This has been attributed in part to the egalitarian character of Australian football's origins in public parks where women could mingle freely and support the game in various ways.\n\nIn 2016, over 380,000 women played in organised games across Australia. The AFL Women's National Championships is women's football's state of origin competition. On the back of the inaugural AFL Women's Draft in 2013 and a series of exhibition matches at the MCG, the AFL stated that, by 2020, it would like to establish AFL Women's, a semi-professional, nationally televised women's league. A surge in viewing interest and participation in women's football prompted the AFL to push the founding date of the competition to 2017.\n", "\nMany related games have emerged from Australian football, mainly with variations of contact to encourage greater participation. These include Auskick (played by children aged between 5 and 12), kick-to-kick (and its variants end-to-end footy and marks up), rec footy, 9-a-side footy, masters Australian football, handball and longest-kick competitions. Players outside of Australia sometimes engage in related games adapted to available fields, like metro footy (played on gridiron fields) and Samoa rules (played on rugby fields).\n\n===International rules football===\n\n \nThe similarities between Australian football and the Irish sport of Gaelic football have allowed for the creation of a hybrid code known as international rules football. The first international rules matches were contested in Ireland during the 1967 Australian Football World Tour. Since then, various sets of compromise rules have been trialed, and in 1984 the International Rules Series commenced with national representative sides selected by Australia's state leagues (later by the AFL) and the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). The competition became an annual event in 1998, but was postponed indefinitely in 2007 when the GAA pulled out due to Australia's severe and aggressive style of play. It resumed in Australia in 2008 under new rules to protect the player with the ball.\n", "\nAustralian football match at Linkbelt Oval in Nauru, where Australian football is the national sport\nAustralian football is played at an amateur level in various countries throughout the world. Twenty countries participated in the Euro Cup and 23 countries have participated in the International Cup with both competitions prohibiting Australian players. Over 20 countries have either affiliation or working agreements with the AFL. There have been many VFL/AFL players who were born outside Australia, an increasing number of which have been recruited through initiatives such as the Irish experiment and more recently, international scholarship programs.\n\nIn the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the game spread with the Australian diaspora to areas such as New Zealand and South Africa; however this growth went into rapid decline following World War I. After World War II, the sport experienced a small amount of growth in the Pacific region, particularly in Nauru (where Australian football is the national sport) as well as Papua New Guinea and New Zealand.\n\nMost of the current amateur clubs and leagues in existence have developed since the 1980s, when leagues began to be established in North America, Europe and Asia. The sport developed a cult following in the United States when matches were broadcast on ESPN in the late 1980s. As the size of the Australian diaspora has increased, so has the number of clubs outside Australia. This expansion has been further aided by multiculturalism and assisted by exhibition matches as well as exposure generated through players who have converted to and from other football codes. In Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and the United States there are many thousands of players.\n\nA fan of the sport since attending school in Geelong, Prince Charles is the Patron of AFL Europe. In 2013, participation across AFL Europe's 21 member nations was more than 5,000 players, the majority of which are European nationals rather than Australian expats. The sport also has a growing presence in India.\n\nThe AFL became the de facto governing body when it pushed for the closure of the International Australian Football Council in 2002. The Australian Football International Cup, held triennially in Melbourne since 2002, is the highest level of international competition.\n", "\n\nSouth Melbourne's renowned ruck combination of the 1920s, left to right: Mark Tandy, Fred Fleiter and Roy Cazaly. Fleiter coined the phrase \"Up there, Cazaly!\" as a signal that he had cleared the way for Cazaly to leap for the ball. It was used as a battle cry by Australian soldiers during World War II, and inspired Mike Brady's 1979 Australian football anthem of the same name.\nAustralian football is a sport rich in tradition and Australian cultural references, especially surrounding the rituals of gameday for players, officials and supporters.\n\nAustralian football has been an inspiration for writers and poets including Manning Clarke, Bruce Dawe and Philip Hodgins. Paintings by Arthur Streeton (''The National Game'', 1889) and Sidney Nolan (''Footballer'', 1946) helped to establish Australian football as a serious subject for artists. Many Aboriginal artists have explored the game, often fusing it with the mythology of their region. Statues of Australian football identities can be found throughout the country. In cartooning, WEG's VFL/AFL premiership posters—inaugurated in 1954—have achieved iconic status among Australian football fans. Dance sequences based on Australian football feature heavily in Robert Helpmann's 1964 ballet ''The Display'', his first and most famous work for the Australian Ballet. The game has also inspired well-known plays such as ''And the Big Men Fly'' (1963) by Alan Hopgood and David Williamson's ''The Club'' (1977), which was adapted into a 1980 film, directed by Bruce Beresford. Mike Brady's 1979 hit \"Up There Cazaly\" is considered an Australian football anthem, and references to the sport can be found in works by popular musicians, from singer-songwriter Paul Kelly to the alternative rock band TISM. Many Australian football video games have been released, most notably the AFL series.\n\nAustralian football is popular among indigenous communities.\nAustralian football has attracted more overall interest among Australians (as measured by the Sweeney Sports report) than any other football code, and, when compared with all sports throughout the nation, has consistently ranked first in the winter reports, and most recently third behind cricket and swimming in summer. Over 875,000 fans were paying members of AFL clubs in 2016, which is equal to one in every 28 Australians. The 2016 AFL Grand Final was the year's most-watched television broadcast in Australia, with an in-home audience of up to 6.5 million watching the match.\n\nIn 2006, 615,549 registered participants played Australian football in Australia. Participation increased 7.84% between 2005 and 2006. The Australian Sports Commission statistics show a 64% increase in the total number of participants over the 10-year period between 2001 and 2010. In 2008 there were 35,000 people in 32 countries playing in structured competitions of Australian football outside of Australia.\n", "\nFor the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, the Australian Football Hall of Fame was established. In that year 136 identities were inducted, including 100 players, 10 coaches, 10 umpires, 10 administrators and six media representatives.\n\nThe elite ''Legend'' status was bestowed on 12 members of the Hall of Fame in 1996: Ron Barassi, Haydn Bunton Sr., Roy Cazaly, John Coleman, Jack Dyer, Polly Farmer, Leigh Matthews, John Nicholls, Bob Pratt, Dick Reynolds, Bob Skilton and Ted Whitten. The ''Legend'' status is the highest honour which can be bestowed on an Australian footballer.\n\nThe following fourteen members have been promoted to the status of \"Legend\" since 1996: Ian Stewart (1997), Gordon Coventry (1998), Peter Hudson (1999), Kevin Bartlett (2000), Barrie Robran (2001), Bill Hutchison (2003), Jock McHale (2005), Darrel Baldock (2006), Norm Smith (2007), Alex Jesaulenko (2008), Kevin Murray (2010), Barry Cable (2012), Tony Lockett (2015) and Malcolm Blight (2017).\n", "\n\n* Australian football at the 1956 Summer Olympics\n* Australian rules football attendance records\n* Australian rules football positions\n* List of Australian rules football clubs\n* List of Australian rules football terms\n* List of Australian rules football rivalries\n", "\n", "'''Books'''\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n'''Journals'''\n\n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* Australian Football League (AFL) official website\n* Australian Football: Celebrating The History of the Great Australian Game\n* Laws of Australian Football\n* Australian Football explained in 17 languages – a publication from AFL.com.au\n* Reading the Game - An Annotated Bibliography of Australian Rules Football\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology and names", "History", "Laws of the game", "Structure and competitions", "Women's Australian football", "Variations and related sports", "Global reach", "Cultural impact and popularity", "Australian Football Hall of Fame", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Australian rules football
[ "\n\n\n'''Aon plc''' is a global professional services firm that provides risk, retirement and health consulting. Aon has approximately 500 offices worldwide, serving 120 countries with 50,000 employees.\n\nIn 2011, Aon was ranked as the largest insurance broker in the world based on revenue. Aon was the principal partner and global shirt sponsor of the Premier League team Manchester United F.C. from 2010 until 2014.\n\nAon was created in 1982 when the Ryan Insurance Group merged with the Combined Insurance Company of America. In 1987, that company was renamed Aon, a Gaelic word meaning one.\n\nIn January 2012, Aon announced that its headquarters would be moved to London.\n\nAon Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA\n", "Aon Center, Los Angeles\n\nW. Clement Stone's mother bought a small Detroit insurance agency, and in 1918 brought her son into the business. Mr. Stone sold low-cost, low-benefit accident insurance, underwriting and issuing policies on-site. The next year he founded his own agency, the '''Combined Registry Co.'''\n\nAs the Great Depression began, Stone reduced his workforce and improved training. Forced by his son's respiratory illness to winter in the South, Stone moved to Arkansas and Texas. In 1939 he bought American Casualty Insurance Co. of Dallas, Texas. It was consolidated with other purchases as the Combined Insurance Co. of America in 1947. The company continued through the 1950s and 1960s, continuing to sell health and accident policies. In the 1970s, Combined expanded overseas despite being hit hard by the recession.\n\nIn 1982, after 10 years of stagnation under Clement Stone Jr., the elder Stone, then 79, resumed control until the completion of a merger with '''Ryan Insurance Co.''' allowed him to transfer control to Patrick Ryan. Ryan, the son of a Ford dealer in Wisconsin, had started his company as an auto credit insurer in 1964. In 1976, the company bought the insurance brokerage units of the Esmark conglomerate. Ryan focused on insurance brokering and added more upscale insurance products. He also trimmed staff and took other cost-cutting measures, and in 1987 he changed Combined's name to '''Aon'''. In 1992, he bought Dutch insurance broker '''Hudig-Langeveldt'''. In 1995, the company sold its remaining direct life insurance holdings to General Electric to focus on consulting. The following year, it began offering hostile takeover insurance policies to small and mid-sized companies.\n\nAon built a global presence through purchases. In 1997, it bought The Minet Group, as well as insurance brokerage Alexander & Alexander Services, Inc. in a deal that made Aon (temporarily) the largest insurance broker worldwide. The firm made no US buys in 1998, but doubled its employee base with purchases including Spain's largest retail insurance broker, Gil y Carvajal, and the formation of Aon Korea, the first non-Korean firm of its kind to be licensed there.\n\nResponding to industry demands, Aon announced its new fee disclosure policy in 1999, and the company reorganised to focus on buying personal line insurance firms and to integrate its acquisitions. That year it bought Nikols Sedgwick Group, an Italian insurance firm, and formed RiskAttack (with Zurich US), a risk analysis and financial management concern aimed at technology companies. The cost of integrating its numerous purchases, however, hammered profits in 1999.\n\nDespite its troubles, in 2000 Aon bought Reliance Group's accident and health insurance business, as well as Actuarial Sciences Associates, a compensation and employee benefits consulting company. Later in that year, however, the company decided to cut 6% of its workforce as part of a restructuring effort. In 2003, the company saw revenues increase primarily because of rate hikes in the insurance industry. Also that year, Endurance Specialty, a Bermuda-based underwriting operation that Aon helped to establish in November 2001 along with other investors, went public. The next year Aon sold most of its holdings in Endurance.\n\nIn late 2007, Aon announced the divestiture of its underwriting business. With this move, the firm sold off its two major underwriting subsidiaries: Combined Insurance Company of America (acquired by ACE Limited for $2.4 billion) and Sterling Life Insurance Company (purchased by Munich Re Group for $352 million). The low margin and capital-intensive nature of the underwriting industry was the primary reason for the firm's decision to divest. Upon completion of the move, Aon turned its attention to expanding its broking and consulting capabilities.\n\nThis growth strategy manifested in November 2008 when Aon announced it had acquired reinsurance intermediary and capital advisor Benfield Group Limited for $1.75 billion. The acquisition amplified the firm's broking capabilities, positioning Aon one of the largest players in the reinsurance brokerage industry.\n\nIn 2010, Aon made its most significant acquisition to date with the purchase of Lincolnshire, Illinois-based Hewitt Associates for $4.9 billion. Aside from drastically boosting Aon's human resources consulting capacity and entering the firm into the business process outsourcing industry, the move added 23,000 colleagues and more than $3 billion in revenue.\n\nIn 10 February 2017, Aon announced that it is selling its employee benefits outsourcing business to Private equity firm Blackstone Group LP (BX.N) for US$4.8 billion (£3.8 billion) \n\n===September 11 attacks===\nAon's New York offices were on the 92nd and 98th–105th floors of the South Tower of the World Trade Center at the time of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attack. When the North Tower was struck at 8:46 a.m., many executives began evacuating their employees from the upper floors of the South Tower. The evacuation of Aon's offices, ordered by Eric Eisenberg, was carried out quickly as 924 of the estimated 1,100 Aon employees present at the time managed to evacuate the building before United Airlines Flight 175 struck it twenty stories below them at 9:03 a.m.\n\nHowever, many were influenced to stay by security guards and security announcements, or did not exit the building in time. As a result, 176 employees of Aon were killed in the attacks, including Eisenberg and Kevin Cosgrove, a vice-president of the company, who made a call to 911 when the tower collapsed at 9:59 a.m.\n\n===Spitzer investigation===\nIn 2004–2005, Aon, along with other brokers including Marsh & McLennan and Willis, fell under regulatory investigation under New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer and other state attorneys general. At issue was the practice of insurance companies' payments to brokers (known as contingent commissions). The payments were thought to bring a conflict of interest, swaying broker decisions on behalf of carriers, rather than customers. In the spring of 2005, without acknowledging any wrongdoing, Aon agreed to a $190 million settlement, payable over 30 months.\n\n===UK regulatory breach===\nIn January 2009, Aon was fined £5.25 million in the UK by the Financial Services Authority, who stated that the fine related to the company's inadequate bribery and corruption controls, claiming that between 14 January 2005 and 30 September 2007 Aon had failed to properly assess the risks involved in its dealings with overseas firms and individuals. The Authority did not find that any money had actually made its way to illegal organisations. Aon qualified for a 30% discount on the fine as a result of its co-operation with the investigation. Aon said its conduct was not deliberate, adding it had since \"significantly strengthened and enhanced its controls around the usage of third parties\".\n\n===US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act violations===\nIn December 2011, Aon Corporation paid a $16.26 million penalty to the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and the US Department of Justice (DOJ) for violations of the US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA).\nAccording to the SEC, Aon's subsidiaries made improper payments of over $3.6 million to government officials and third-party facilitators in Costa Rica, Egypt, Vietnam, Indonesia, the United Arab Emirates, Myanmar and Bangladesh, between 1983 and 2007, to obtain and retain insurance contracts.\n\n===Major acquisitions===\nOn 10 February 2017, Aon announced that it is selling its employee benefits outsourcing business to Private equity firm Blackstone Group LP (BX.N) for US$4.8 billion (£3.8 billion) \n\nOn 31 October 2016, Aon's Aon Risk Solutions completed acquisition of Stroz Friedberg LLC, a specialised risk management firm focusing on cybersecurity.\n\nOn 16 June 2014, Aon announced that it agreed to buy National Flood Services, Inc., a leading processor of flood insurance, from Stoneriver Group, L.P.\n\nOn 22 October 2012, Aon announced that it agreed to buy OmniPoint, Inc, a Workday consulting firm. Financial terms were not disclosed.\n\nOn 19 July 2011, Aon announced that it bought Westfield Financial Corp., the owner of insurance-industry consulting firm Ward Financial Group, from Ohio Farmers Insurance Co. Financial terms were not disclosed.\n\nOn 7 April 2011, Aon announced that it had acquired Johannesburg, South Africa-based Glenrand MIB. Financial terms were not disclosed.\n\nOn 12 July 2010, Aon announced that it had agreed to buy Lincolnshire, Illinois-based Hewitt Associates for $4.9 billion in cash and stock.\n\nOn 5 Mar 2010, Hewitt Associates announced that it acquired Senior Educators Ltd. The acquisition offers companies a new way to address retiree medical insurance commitments.\n\nOn 22 August 2008, Aon announced that it had acquired London-based Benfield Group. The acquiring price was US$1.75 billion or £935 million, with US$170 million of debt.\n\nOn February 10, 2017, Aon PLC agreed to sell its human resources outsourcing platform for $4.3 billion to Blackstone Group L.P., creating a new company.\n\nIn September 2017, Aon announced its intent to purchase real estate investment management firm The Townsend Group from Colony NorthStar for $475 million, expanding Aon's property investment management portfolio.\n", "Aon Australia Head Office, Aon Tower, Sydney\n\n===Manchester United===\nOn 3 June 2009, it was reported that Aon had signed a four-year shirt sponsorship deal with English football giant Manchester United. On 1 June 2010, Aon replaced American insurance company AIG as the principal sponsor of the club. The Aon logo was prominently displayed on the front of the club's shirts until the 2014/2015 season when Chevrolet replaced them. The deal was said to be worth £80 million over four years, replacing United's deal with AIG as the most lucrative shirt deal in history at the time.\n\nIn April 2013, Aon signed a new eight-year deal with Manchester United to rename their training ground as the Aon Training Complex and sponsor the club's training kits, reportedly worth £180 million to the club.\n", "* Aon was awarded Investment Consultancy of the Year and Fiduciary Manager of the Year at the FT's 2014 Pension and Investment Provider Awards\n* Aon received a perfect score on the Human Rights Campaign's 2013 Corporate Equality Index\n* Aon was named to Working Mother's list of the 100 Best Companies for 2012\n* Aon Risk Solutions was the most recommended broker in 2012 for service and expertise by middle market buyers in Business Insurance's Buyers Choice Awards\n* Aon Risk Solutions was named Broker of the Year and Training Programme of the Year in 2012 by Insurance Times\n* Aon Benfield was named 2012 European Reinsurance Broker of the Year, Best European Property Reinsurance Broker and Best European Casualty Reinsurance Broker at the European Intelligent Insurer Awards\n* Aon Benfield was named Best Global Reinsurance Broking Company for Analytics at Reactions Global Awards 2012\n* Aon Hewitt was named Top Retirement Consultant of 2012 by PLANSPONSOR Magazine2\n* Aon Hewitt was named Actuarial and Investment Consultant of the Year for 2012 at the Professional Pensions Awards\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Operations", "Awards", "References", "External links" ]	Aon (company)
[ "Sketch of Alban Berg by Emil Stumpp\n\n'''Alban Maria Johannes Berg''' (; ; February 9, 1885 – December 24, 1935) was an Austrian composer of the Second Viennese School. His compositional style combined Romantic lyricism with twelve-tone technique.\n", "\n===Early life===\nBerg was born in Vienna, the third of four children of Johanna and Conrad Berg. His family lived comfortably until the death of his father in 1900.\n\n===Education===\nHe was more interested in literature than music as a child and did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music. In late February or early March 1902 he fathered a child with Marie Scheuchl, a servant girl in the Berg family household. His daughter, Albine, was born on December 4, 1902.\n\nBerg had little formal music education before he became a student of Arnold Schoenberg in October 1904. With Schoenberg he studied counterpoint, music theory, and harmony. By 1906, he was studying music full-time; by 1907, he began composition lessons. His student compositions included five drafts for piano sonatas. He also wrote songs, including his ''Seven Early Songs'' (''Sieben Frühe Lieder''), three of which were Berg's first publicly performed work in a concert that featured the music of Schoenberg's pupils in Vienna that year. The early sonata sketches eventually culminated in Berg's Piano Sonata, Op. 1 (1907–1908); it is one of the most formidable \"first\" works ever written. Berg studied with Schoenberg for six years until 1911. Berg admired him as a composer and mentor, and they remained close lifelong friends.\n\nAmong Schoenberg's teaching was the idea that the unity of a musical composition depends upon all its aspects being derived from a single basic idea; this idea was later known as ''developing variation''. Berg passed this on to his students, one of whom, Theodor W. Adorno, stated: \"The main principle he conveyed was that of variation: everything was supposed to develop out of something else and yet be intrinsically different\". The Piano Sonata is an example—the whole composition is derived from the work's opening quartal gesture and its opening phrase.\n\n===Innovation===\nBerg was a part of Vienna's cultural elite during the heady ''fin de siècle'' period. His circle included the musicians Alexander von Zemlinsky and Franz Schreker, the painter Gustav Klimt, the writer and satirist Karl Kraus, the architect Adolf Loos, and the poet Peter Altenberg. In 1906, Berg met the singer Helene Nahowski, daughter of a wealthy family (said by some to be in fact the illegitimate daughter of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria from his liaison with Anna Nahowski); despite the outward hostility of her family, the two were married on May 3, 1911.\n''Watschenkonzert'', caricature in ''Die Zeit'' of April 6, 1913\nIn 1913, two of Berg's ''Five Songs on Picture Postcard Texts by Peter Altenberg'' (1912) were premièred in Vienna, conducted by Schoenberg in the infamous ''Skandalkonzert''. Settings of aphoristic poetic utterances, the songs are accompanied by a very large orchestra. The performance caused a riot, and had to be halted. This was a crippling blow to Berg's self-confidence: he effectively withdrew the work, which is surely one of his most innovative and assured first orchestral compositions in the literature, and it was not performed in full until 1952. The full score remained unpublished until 1966.\n\nFrom 1915 to 1918, Berg served in the Austro-Hungarian Army and during a period of leave in 1917 he accelerated work on his first opera, ''Wozzeck''. After the end of World War I, he settled again in Vienna, where he taught private pupils. He also helped Schoenberg run his Society for Private Musical Performances, which sought to create the ideal environment for the exploration and appreciation of unfamiliar new music by means of open rehearsals, repeat performances, and the exclusion of professional critics.\n\nBerg had a particular interest in the number 23, using it to structure several works. Various suggestions have been made as to the reason for this interest: that he took it from the Biorhythms theory of Wilhelm Fliess, in which a 23-day cycle is considered significant, or because he first suffered an asthma attack on 23rd of the month.\n\n===Success of ''Wozzeck'' and inception of ''Lulu'' 1925–29===\nThree excerpts from ''Wozzeck'' were performed in 1924, and this brought Berg his first public success. The opera, which Berg completed in 1922, was first performed on December 14, 1925, when Erich Kleiber conducted the first performance in Berlin. Today ''Wozzeck'' is seen as one of the century's most important works. Berg made a start on his second opera, the three-act ''Lulu'', in 1928 but interrupted the work in 1929 for the concert aria ''Der Wein'' which he completed that summer. ''Der Wein'' presaged ''Lulu'' in a number of ways, including vocal style, orchestration, design and text.\n\nOther well-known Berg compositions include the ''Lyric Suite'' (1926), which was later shown to employ elaborate cyphers to document a secret love affair; the post-Mahlerian ''Three Pieces for Orchestra'' (completed in 1915 but not performed until after ''Wozzeck''); and the Chamber Concerto (''Kammerkonzert'', 1923–25) for violin, piano, and 13 wind instruments: this latter is written so conscientiously that Pierre Boulez has called it \"Berg's strictest composition\" and it, too, is permeated by cyphers and posthumously disclosed hidden programs.\n\n===Final years 1930-35===\nLife for the musical world was becoming increasingly difficult in the 1930s both in Vienna and Germany due to the rising tide of antisemitism and the Nazi cultural ideology that denounced modernity. Even to have an association with someone who was Jewish could lead to denunciation, and Berg's \"crime\" was to have studied with the Jewish composer Arnold Schoenberg. Berg found that opportunities for his work to be performed in Germany were becoming rare, and eventually his music was proscribed and placed on the list of degenerate music. In 1932 Berg and his wife acquired an isolated lodge, the ''Waldhaus'' on the southern shore of the ''Wörthersee'', near Schiefling am See in Carinthia, where he was able to work in seclusion, mainly on Lulu and the Violin Concerto. At the end of 1934 Berg became involved in the political intrigues around finding a replacement for Clemens Krauss as director of the Vienna State Opera. As more of the performances of his work in Germany were cancelled by the Nazis, who had come to power in early 1933, he needed to ensure the new director would be an advocate for modernist music. Originally the premiere of Lulu had been planned for the Berlin State Opera, where Erich Kleiber continued to champion his music and had conducted the premiere of ''Wozzeck'' in 1925, but now this was looking increasingly uncertain, and Lulu was rejected by the Berlin authorities in the spring of 1934. Kleiber's production of the Lulu symphonic suite on 30 November 1934 in Berlin was also the occasion of his resignation in protest at the extent of conflation of culture with politics. Even in Vienna, the opportunities for the Vienna School of musicians was dwindling.\n\nBerg had interrupted the orchestration of ''Lulu'' because of an unexpected (and financially much-needed) commission from the Russian-American violinist Louis Krasner for a Violin Concerto (1935). This profoundly elegiac work, composed at unaccustomed speed and posthumously premièred, has become Berg's best-known and beloved composition. Like much of his mature work, it employs an idiosyncratic adaptation of Schoenberg's \"dodecaphonic\" or twelve-tone technique, that enables the composer to produce passages openly evoking tonality, including quotations from historical tonal music, such as a Bach chorale and a Carinthian folk song. The Violin Concerto was dedicated \"to the memory of an Angel\", Manon Gropius, the deceased daughter of architect Walter Gropius and Alma Mahler.\n\nBerg died aged 50 in Vienna, on Christmas Eve 1935, from blood poisoning apparently caused by an insect-sting-induced carbuncle on his back that occurred in November.\n\n===Aftermath===\nBerg completed the orchestration of only the first two acts of ''Lulu'' before he died. The first two acts were successfully premièred in Zürich in 1937, but for personal reasons Helene Berg subsequently imposed a ban on any attempt to \"complete\" the final act, which Berg had in fact completed in particell (short score) format. An orchestration was therefore commissioned in secret from Friedrich Cerha and premièred in Paris (under Pierre Boulez) only in 1979, soon after Helene Berg's own death. The complete opera has rapidly entered the repertoire as one of the landmarks of contemporary music and, like ''Wozzeck'', remains a consistent audience draw.\n", "Bust of Alban Berg at Schiefling on the lake, Klagenfurt-Land District, Carinthia, Austria\nBerg is remembered as one of the most important composers of the 20th century and to date is the most widely performed opera composer among the Second Viennese School. He is considered to have brought more \"human values\" to the twelve-tone system, his works seen as more \"emotional\" than Schoenberg's. Critically, he is seen as having preserved the Viennese tradition in his music. His popularity has been more easily secured than many other Modernists since he plausibly combined both Romantic and Expressionist idioms. Though Berg's Romanticism at one time seemed a drawback for some more modernist composers, the Berg scholar Douglas Jarman writes in the New Grove: \"As the 20th century closed, the 'backward-looking' Berg suddenly came as George Perle remarked, to look like its most forward-looking composer.\"\n\nThe asteroid 4528 Berg is named after him.\n", "\n\n\n===Piano===\nPiano Sonata, Op. 1\n\n===Chamber===\nString Quartet, Op. 3\nFour Pieces for Clarinet and Piano, Op. 5\n''Lyric Suite''\n''Chamber Concerto'' (1925) for piano, violin and 13 wind instruments\n\n===Orchestral===\nThree Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6\nViolin Concerto\n\n===Vocal===\nSeven Early Songs\n''Vier Lieder'' (''Four Songs''), Op. 2\n''Five Orchestral Songs on Postcard Texts of Peter Altenberg'', Op. 4\n''Der Wein''\n''Schliesse mir die Augen beide''\n\n===Operas===\n''Wozzeck'', Op. 7 (1925)\n''Lulu'' (1937)\n\n", "\n", "\n* Warrack, John and Ewan West. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Opera'', 1992. .\n\n===Analytical writings===\n\n==== Douglas Jarman ====\n\nJarman, Douglas. ''Dr. Schon's Five-Strophe Aria: Some Notes on Tonality and Pitch Association in Berg's Lulu''. Perspectives of New Music 8/2 (Spring/Summer 1970).\nJarman, Douglas. ''Some Rhythmic and Metric Techniques in Alban Berg's Lulu''. Musical Quarterly 56/3 (July 1970).\nJarman, Douglas. ''Lulu: The Sketches''. International Alban Berg Society Newsletter, 6 (June 1978).\n \nJarman, Douglas. ''Countess Geschwitz's Series: A Controversy Resolved?''. Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 107 (1980/81).\nJarman, Douglas. ''Some Observations on Rhythm, Meter and Tempo in Lulu''. In Alban Berg Studien. Ed. Rudolf Klein. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1981.\nJarman, Douglas. ''Lulu: The Musical and Dramatic Structure''. Royal Opera House Covent Garden program notes, 1981.\nJarman, Douglas. ''The 'Lost' Score of the 'Symphonic Pieces from Lulu'''. International Alban Berg Society Newsletter 12 (Fall/Winter 1982).\n* \n* \n\n==== Other ====\n* Bruhn, Siglind, ed. ''Encrypted Messages in Alban Berg’s Music''. New York: Garland Publishing, 1998.\n* \n* Headlam, Dave. ''The Music of Alban Berg.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.\n* Lauder, Robert Neil. ''Two Early Piano Works of Alban Berg: A Stylistic and Structural Analysis''. Thesis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1986.\n* \n* \n* Perle, George. ''The Operas of Alban Berg''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.\n* Schmalfeldt, Janet. \"Berg’s Path to Atonality: The Piano Sonata, Op. 1\". ''Alban Berg: Historical and Analytical Perspectives''. Eds. David Gable and Robert P. Morgan, pp. 79–110. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.\n* Schweizer, Klaus. ''Die Sonatensatzform im Schaffen Alban Bergs''. Stuttgart: Satz und Druck, 1970.\n* Wilkey, Jay Weldon. ''Certain Aspects of Form in the Vocal Music of Alban Berg''. Ph.D. thesis. Ann Arbor: Indiana University, 1965.\n* \n\n===Biographical writings===\n* \n* Adorno, Theodor W. ''Alban Berg: Master of the Smallest Link''. Trans. Juliane Brand and Christopher Hailey. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.\n* Brand, Juliane, Christopher Hailey and Donald Harris, eds. ''The Berg-Schoenberg Correspondence: Selected Letters''. New York: Norton, 1987.\n* Carner, Mosco. ''Alban Berg: the man and the work''. London: Duckworth, 1975.\n* Floros, Contantin. Trans. by Ernest Bernhardt-Kabisch. ''Alban Berg and Hanna Fuchs''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007.\n* Grun, Bernard, ed. ''Alban Berg: Letters to his Wife''. London: Faber and Faber, 1971.\n* Jarman, Douglas. \"Alban Berg\", ''Grove Music Online'', ed. L. Macy (Accessed April 9, 2007) \n* \n* Leibowitz, René. ''Schoenberg and his school; the contemporary stage of the language of music''. Trans. Dika Newlin. New York: Philosophical Library, 1949.\n* \n* Monson, Karen. ''Alban Berg: a biography''. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1979.\n* Redlich, Hans Ferdinand. ''Alban Berg, the man and his music''. London: John Calder, 1957.\n* Reich, Willi. ''The life and work of Alban Berg''. Trans. Cornelius Cardew. New York : Da Capo Press, 1982.\n* \n* \n* , in \n* , in \n* \n\n", "\n\n* \n* Alban Berg biography and works on the UE website (publisher)\n* Vocal texts used by Alban Berg with translations to various languages at the LiederNet Archive.\n* \n* \n* Alban Berg at Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music\n* albanberg.resampled.de The most comprehensive acoustic representation of Alban Bergs Works in digital realisations. \n\n* Free scores by Alban Berg in the Open Music Library\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Legacy", "Major compositions", "References", " Bibliography ", "External links" ]	Alban Berg
[ "\nGas chromatography laboratory\n'''Analytical chemistry''' studies and uses instruments and methods used to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separation isolates analytes. Qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while quantitative analysis determines the numerical amount or concentration.\n\nAnalytical chemistry consists of classical, wet chemical methods and modern, instrumental methods. Classical qualitative methods use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and distillation. Identification may be based on differences in color, odor, melting point, boiling point, radioactivity or reactivity. Classical quantitative analysis uses mass or volume changes to quantify amount. Instrumental methods may be used to separate samples using chromatography, electrophoresis or field flow fractionation. Then qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed, often with the same instrument and may use light interaction, heat interaction, electric fields or magnetic fields . Often the same instrument can separate, identify and quantify an analyte.\n\nAnalytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in experimental design, chemometrics, and the creation of new measurement tools. Analytical chemistry has broad applications to forensics, medicine, science and engineering.\n", "Gustav Kirchhoff (left) and Robert Bunsen (right)\nAnalytical chemistry has been important since the early days of chemistry, providing methods for determining which elements and chemicals are present in the object in question. During this period significant contributions to analytical chemistry include the development of systematic elemental analysis by Justus von Liebig and systematized organic analysis based on the specific reactions of functional groups.\n\nThe first instrumental analysis was flame emissive spectrometry developed by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff who discovered rubidium (Rb) and caesium (Cs) in 1860.\n\nMost of the major developments in analytical chemistry take place after 1900. During this period instrumental analysis becomes progressively dominant in the field. In particular many of the basic spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques were discovered in the early 20th century and refined in the late 20th century.\n\nThe separation sciences follow a similar time line of development and also become increasingly transformed into high performance instruments. In the 1970s many of these techniques began to be used together as hybrid techniques to achieve a complete characterization of samples.\n\nStarting in approximately the 1970s into the present day analytical chemistry has progressively become more inclusive of biological questions (bioanalytical chemistry), whereas it had previously been largely focused on inorganic or small organic molecules. Lasers have been increasingly used in chemistry as probes and even to initiate and influence a wide variety of reactions. The late 20th century also saw an expansion of the application of analytical chemistry from somewhat academic chemical questions to forensic, environmental, industrial and medical questions, such as in histology.\n\nModern analytical chemistry is dominated by instrumental analysis. Many analytical chemists focus on a single type of instrument. Academics tend to either focus on new applications and discoveries or on new methods of analysis. The discovery of a chemical present in blood that increases the risk of cancer would be a discovery that an analytical chemist might be involved in. An effort to develop a new method might involve the use of a tunable laser to increase the specificity and sensitivity of a spectrometric method. Many methods, once developed, are kept purposely static so that data can be compared over long periods of time. This is particularly true in industrial quality assurance (QA), forensic and environmental applications. Analytical chemistry plays an increasingly important role in the pharmaceutical industry where, aside from QA, it is used in discovery of new drug candidates and in clinical applications where understanding the interactions between the drug and the patient are critical.\n", "The presence of copper in this qualitative analysis is indicated by the bluish-green color of the flame\nAlthough modern analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional techniques many of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs.\n\n===Qualitative analysis===\nA qualitative analysis determines the presence or absence of a particular compound, but not the mass or concentration. By definition, qualitative analyses do not measure quantity.\n\n====Chemical tests====\n\nThere are numerous qualitative chemical tests, for example, the acid test for gold and the Kastle-Meyer test for the presence of blood.\n\n====Flame test====\n\nInorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain, usually aqueous, ions or elements by performing a series of reactions that eliminate ranges of possibilities and then confirms suspected ions with a confirming test. Sometimes small carbon containing ions are included in such schemes. With modern instrumentation these tests are rarely used but can be useful for educational purposes and in field work or other situations where access to state-of-the-art instruments are not available or expedient.\n\n===Quantitative analysis===\n\nQuantitative analysis is the measurement of the quantities of particular chemical constituents present in a substance.\n\n====Gravimetric analysis====\n\nGravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the loss of water.\n\n====Volumetric analysis====\n\nTitration involves the addition of a reactant to a solution being analyzed until some equivalence point is reached. Often the amount of material in the solution being analyzed may be determined. Most familiar to those who have taken chemistry during secondary education is the acid-base titration involving a color changing indicator. There are many other types of titrations, for example potentiometric titrations.\nThese titrations may use different types of indicators to reach some equivalence point.\n", "\nBlock diagram of an analytical instrument showing the stimulus and measurement of response\n\n===Spectroscopy===\n\n\nSpectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation. Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as atomic absorption spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, dual polarization interferometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy and so on.\n\n===Mass spectrometry===\n\naccelerator mass spectrometer used for radiocarbon dating and other analysis\nMass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and magnetic fields. There are several ionization methods: electron impact, chemical ionization, electrospray, fast atom bombardment, matrix assisted laser desorption ionization, and others. Also, mass spectrometry is categorized by approaches of mass analyzers: magnetic-sector, quadrupole mass analyzer, quadrupole ion trap, time-of-flight, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance, and so on.\n\n===Electrochemical analysis===\n\nElectroanalytical methods measure the potential (volts) and/or current (amps) in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The four main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), coulometry (the transferred charge is measured over time), amperometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).\n\n===Thermal analysis===\n\nCalorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis measure the interaction of a material and heat.\n\n===Separation===\nSeparation of black ink on a thin layer chromatography plate\n\nSeparation processes are used to decrease the complexity of material mixtures. Chromatography, electrophoresis and Field Flow Fractionation are representative of this field.\n\n===Hybrid techniques===\nCombinations of the above techniques produce a \"hybrid\" or \"hyphenated\" technique. Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development. For example, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-NMR spectroscopy. liquid chromagraphy-infrared spectroscopy and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry.\n\nHyphenated separation techniques refers to a combination of two (or more) techniques to detect and separate chemicals from solutions. Most often the other technique is some form of chromatography. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in chemistry and biochemistry. A slash is sometimes used instead of hyphen, especially if the name of one of the methods contains a hyphen itself.\n\n===Microscopy===\nFluorescence microscope image of two mouse cell nuclei in prophase (scale bar is 5 µm)\n\nThe visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues and nanomaterials is an important and attractive approach in analytical science. Also, hybridization with other traditional analytical tools is revolutionizing analytical science. Microscopy can be categorized into three different fields: optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy. Recently, this field is rapidly progressing because of the rapid development of the computer and camera industries.\n\n===Lab-on-a-chip===\n\n\nDevices that integrate (multiple) laboratory functions on a single chip of only millimeters to a few square centimeters in size and that are capable of handling extremely small fluid volumes down to less than picoliters.\n", "\nError can be defined as numerical difference between observed value and true value.\n\nIn error the true value and observed value in chemical analysis can be related with each other by the equation\n:\nwhere \n:E = absolute error,\n:O = observed value,\n:T = true value.\nError of a measurement is an inverse measure of accurate measurement i.e. smaller the error greater the accuracy of the measurement. Errors are expressed relatively as:\n: × 100 = % error,\n\n: × 1000 = per thousand error\n", "\n\n===Standard curve===\nlimit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), dynamic range, and limit of linearity (LOL)\nA general method for analysis of concentration involves the creation of a calibration curve. This allows for determination of the amount of a chemical in a material by comparing the results of unknown sample to those of a series of known standards. If the concentration of element or compound in a sample is too high for the detection range of the technique, it can simply be diluted in a pure solvent. If the amount in the sample is below an instrument's range of measurement, the method of addition can be used. In this method a known quantity of the element or compound under study is added, and the difference between the concentration added, and the concentration observed is the amount actually in the sample.\n\n===Internal standards===\nSometimes an internal standard is added at a known concentration directly to an analytical sample to aid in quantitation. The amount of analyte present is then determined relative to the internal standard as a calibrant. An ideal internal standard is isotopically-enriched analyte which gives rise to the method of isotope dilution.\n\n===Standard addition===\nThe method of standard addition is used in instrumental analysis to determine concentration of a substance (analyte) in an unknown sample by comparison to a set of samples of known concentration, similar to using a calibration curve. Standard addition can be applied to most analytical techniques and is used instead of a calibration curve to solve the matrix effect problem.\n", "One of the most important components of analytical chemistry is maximizing the desired signal while minimizing the associated noise. The analytical figure of merit is known as the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N or SNR).\n\nNoise can arise from environmental factors as well as from fundamental physical processes.\n\n===Thermal noise===\n\nThermal noise results from the motion of charge carriers (usually electrons) in an electrical circuit generated by their thermal motion. Thermal noise is white noise meaning that the power spectral density is constant throughout the frequency spectrum.\n\nThe root mean square value of the thermal noise in a resistor is given by\n\n:\n\nwhere ''kB'' is Boltzmann's constant, ''T'' is the temperature, ''R'' is the resistance, and is the bandwidth of the frequency .\n\n===Shot noise===\n\nShot noise is a type of electronic noise that occurs when the finite number of particles (such as electrons in an electronic circuit or photons in an optical device) is small enough to give rise to statistical fluctuations in a signal.\n\nShot noise is a Poisson process and the charge carriers that make up the current follow a Poisson distribution. The root mean square current fluctuation is given by\n\n:\n\nwhere ''e'' is the elementary charge and ''I'' is the average current. Shot noise is white noise.\n\n===Flicker noise===\n\nFlicker noise is electronic noise with a 1/''ƒ'' frequency spectrum; as ''f'' increases, the noise decreases. Flicker noise arises from a variety of sources, such as impurities in a conductive channel, generation and recombination noise in a transistor due to base current, and so on. This noise can be avoided by modulation of the signal at a higher frequency, for example through the use of a lock-in amplifier.\n\n===Environmental noise===\nNoise in a thermogravimetric analysis; lower noise in the middle of the plot results from less human activity (and environmental noise) at night\nEnvironmental noise arises from the surroundings of the analytical instrument. Sources of electromagnetic noise are power lines, radio and television stations, wireless devices, Compact fluorescent lamps and electric motors. Many of these noise sources are narrow bandwidth and therefore can be avoided. Temperature and vibration isolation may be required for some instruments.\n\n===Noise reduction===\nNoise reduction can be accomplished either in computer hardware or software. Examples of hardware noise reduction are the use of shielded cable, analog filtering, and signal modulation. Examples of software noise reduction are digital filtering, ensemble average, boxcar average, and correlation methods.\n", "Analytical chemistry has applications including in forensic science, bioanalysis, clinical analysis, environmental analysis, and materials analysis. Analytical chemistry research is largely driven by performance (sensitivity, detection limit, selectivity, robustness, dynamic range, linear range, accuracy, precision, and speed), and cost (purchase, operation, training, time, and space). Among the main branches of contemporary analytical atomic spectrometry, the most widespread and universal are optical and mass spectrometry. In the direct elemental analysis of solid samples, the new leaders are laser-induced breakdown and laser ablation mass spectrometry, and the related techniques with transfer of the laser ablation products into inductively coupled plasma. Advances in design of diode lasers and optical parametric oscillators promote developments in fluorescence and ionization spectrometry and also in absorption techniques where uses of optical cavities for increased effective absorption pathlength are expected to expand. The use of plasma- and laser-based methods is increasing. An interest towards absolute (standardless) analysis has revived, particularly in emission spectrometry.\n\nGreat effort is being put in shrinking the analysis techniques to chip size. Although there are few examples of such systems competitive with traditional analysis techniques, potential advantages include size/portability, speed, and cost. (micro total analysis system (µTAS) or lab-on-a-chip). Microscale chemistry reduces the amounts of chemicals used.\n\nMany developments improve the analysis of biological systems. Examples of rapidly expanding fields in this area are genomics, DNA sequencing and related research in genetic fingerprinting and DNA microarray; proteomics, the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially in response to various stressors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the body, metabolomics, which deals with metabolites; transcriptomics, including mRNA and associated fields; lipidomics - lipids and its associated fields; peptidomics - peptides and its associated fields; and metalomics, dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules.\n\nAnalytical chemistry has played critical roles in the understanding of basic science to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical applications, environmental monitoring, quality control of industrial manufacturing, forensic science and so on.\n\nThe recent developments of computer automation and information technologies have extended analytical chemistry into a number of new biological fields. For example, automated DNA sequencing machines were the basis to complete human genome projects leading to the birth of genomics. Protein identification and peptide sequencing by mass spectrometry opened a new field of proteomics.\n\nAnalytical chemistry has been an indispensable area in the development of nanotechnology. Surface characterization instruments, electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes enables scientists to visualize atomic structures with chemical characterizations.\n", "\n* List of chemical analysis methods\n* List of materials analysis methods\n* Important publications in analytical chemistry\n* Sensory analysis - in the field of Food science\n* Virtual instrumentation\n* Working range\n* Metrology\n* Measurement uncertainty\n* Microanalysis\n* Quality of analytical results\n", "\n", "Skoog, D.A.; West, D.M.; Holler, F.J. Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry New York: Saunders College Publishing, 5th Edition, 1988.\nBard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2nd Edition, 2000.\nBettencourt da Silva, R; Bulska, E; Godlewska-Zylkiewicz, B; Hedrich, M; Majcen, N; Magnusson, B; Marincic, S; Papadakis, I; Patriarca, M; Vassileva, E; Taylor, P; Analytical measurement: measurement uncertainty and statistics, 2012, .\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Classical methods", "Instrumental methods", "Errors", "Standards", "Signals and noise", "Applications", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Analytical chemistry
[ "\n\n\n'''A cappella''' (Italian for \"in the manner of the chapel\") music is specifically group or solo singing without instrumental accompaniment, or a piece intended to be performed in this way. It contrasts with cantata, which is usually accompanied singing. The term \"a cappella\" was originally intended to differentiate between Renaissance polyphony and Baroque concertato style. In the 19th century a renewed interest in Renaissance polyphony coupled with an ignorance of the fact that vocal parts were often doubled by instrumentalists led to the term coming to mean unaccompanied vocal music. The term is also used, albeit rarely, as a synonym for alla breve.\n", "A cappella music was originally used in religious music, especially church music as well as anasheed and zemirot. Gregorian chant is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of secular vocal music from the Renaissance. The madrigal, up until its development in the early Baroque into an instrumentally-accompanied form, is also usually in a cappella form. Jewish and Christian music were originally a cappella, and this practice has continued in both of these religions as well as in Islam.\n\n===Christian===\nThe polyphony of Christian a cappella music began to develop in Europe around the late 15th century AD, with compositions by Josquin des Prez. The early a cappella polyphonies may have had an accompanying instrument, although this instrument would merely double the singers' parts and was not independent. By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms. 16th century a cappella polyphony, nonetheless, continued to influence church composers throughout this period and to the present day. Recent evidence has shown that some of the early pieces by Palestrina, such as what was written for the Sistine Chapel was intended to be accompanied by an organ \"doubling\" some or all of the voices. Such is seen in the life of Palestrina becoming a major influence on Bach, most notably in the ''Mass in B Minor''. Other composers that utilized the a cappella style, if only for the occasional piece, were Claudio Monteverdi and his masterpiece, ''Lagrime d'amante al sepolcro dell'amata'' (A lover's tears at his beloved's grave), which was composed in 1610, and Andrea Gabrieli when upon his death it was discovered many choral pieces, one of which was in the unaccompanied style. Learning from the preceding two composeres, Heinrich Schütz utilized the a cappella style in numerous pieces, chief among these were the pieces in the oratorio style, which were traditionally performed during the Easter week and dealt with the religious subject matter of that week, such as Christ's suffering and the Passion. Five of Schutz's ''Historien'' were Easter pieces, and of these the latter three, which dealt with the passion from three different viewpoints, those of Matthew, Luke and John, were all done a cappella style. This was a near requirement for this type of piece, and the parts of the crowd were sung while the solo parts which were the quoted parts from either Christ or the authors were performed in a plainchant.\n\n====Byzantine Rite====\nIn the Byzantine Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches, the music performed in the liturgies is exclusively sung without instrumental accompaniment. Bishop Kallistos Ware says, \"The service is sung, even though there may be no choir... In the Orthodox Church today, as in the early Church, singing is unaccompanied and instrumental music is not found.\" This ''a cappella'' behavior arises from strict interpretation of Psalms 150, which states, ''Let every thing that hath breath praise the Lord. Praise ye the Lord.'' In keeping with this philosophy, early Russian ''musika'' which started appearing in the late 17th century, in what was known as ''khorovïye kontsertï'' (choral concertos) made a cappella adaptations of Venetian-styled pieces, such as the treatise, ''Grammatika musikiyskaya'' (1675), by Nikolai Diletsky. Divine Liturgies and Western Rite masses composed by famous composers such as Peter Tchaikovsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Arkhangelsky, and Mykola Leontovych are fine examples of this.\n\n====Opposition to instruments in worship====\nPresent-day Christian religious bodies known for conducting their worship services without musical accompaniment include some Presbyterian churches devoted to the regulative principle of worship, Old Regular Baptists, Primitive Baptists, Plymouth Brethren, Churches of Christ, Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma), the Old German Baptist Brethren, Doukhobors the Byzantine Rite and the Amish, Old Order Mennonites and Conservative Mennonites. Certain high church services and other musical events in liturgical churches (such as the Roman Catholic Mass and the Lutheran Divine Service) may be a cappella, a practice remaining from apostolic times. Many Mennonites also conduct some or all of their services without instruments. Sacred Harp, a type of folk music, is an a cappella style of religious singing with shape notes, usually sung at singing conventions.\n\nOpponents of musical instruments in the Christian worship believe that such opposition is supported by the Christian scriptures and Church history. The scriptures typically referenced are Matthew 26:30; Acts 16:25; Romans 15:9; 1 Corinthians 14:15; Ephesians 5:19; Colossians 3:16; Hebrews 2:12, 13:15; James 5:13, which show examples and exhortations for Christians to sing.\n\nThere is no reference to instrumental music in early church worship in the New Testament, or in the worship of churches for the first six centuries. Several reasons have been posited throughout church history for the absence of instrumental music in church worship.\n\nChristians who believe in a cappella music today believe that in the Israelite worship assembly during Temple worship only the Priests of Levi sang, played, and offered animal sacrifices, whereas in the church era, all Christians are commanded to sing praises to God. They believe that if God wanted instrumental music in New Testament worship, He would have commanded not just singing, but singing and playing like he did in the Hebrew scriptures.\n\nThe first recorded example of a musical instrument in Roman Catholic worship was a pipe organ introduced by Pope Vitalian into a cathedral in Rome around 670.\n\nInstruments have divided Christendom since their introduction into worship. They were considered a Catholic innovation, not widely practiced until the 18th century, and were opposed vigorously in worship by a number of Protestant Reformers, including Martin Luther (1483–1546), Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin (1509–1564) and John Wesley (1703–1791). Alexander Campbell referred to the use of an instrument in worship as \"a cow bell in a concert\". In Sir Walter Scott's ''The Heart of Midlothian'', the heroine, Jeanie Deans, a Scottish Presbyterian, writes to her father about the church situation she has found in England (bold added):\n:The folk here are civil, and, like the barbarians unto the holy apostle, have shown me much kindness; and there are a sort of chosen people in the land, for they have some '''kirks without organs that are like ours''', and are called meeting-houses, where the minister preaches without a gown.\n\n====Acceptance of instruments in worship====\nThose who do not adhere to the regulative principle of interpreting Christian scripture, believe that limiting praise to the unaccompanied chant of the early church is not commanded in scripture, and that churches in any age are free to offer their songs with or without musical instruments.\n\nThose who subscribe to this interpretation believe that since the Christian scriptures never counter instrumental language with any negative judgment on instruments, opposition to instruments instead comes from an interpretation of history. There is no written opposition to musical instruments in any setting in the first century and a half of Christian churches (33 AD to 180AD). The use of instruments for Christian worship during this period is also undocumented. Toward the end of the 2nd century, Christians began condemning the instruments themselves. Those who oppose instruments today believe these Church Fathers had a better understanding of God's desire for the church, but there are significant differences between the teachings of these Church Fathers and Christian opposition to instruments today.\n* Modern Christians typically believe it is acceptable to play instruments or to attend weddings, funerals, banquets, etc., where instruments are heard playing religious music. The Church Fathers made no exceptions. Since the New Testament never condemns instruments themselves, much less in any of these settings, it is believed that \"the church Fathers go beyond the New Testament in pronouncing a negative judgment on musical instruments.\"\n* Written opposition to instruments in worship began near the turn of the 5th century. Modern opponents of instruments typically do not make the same assessment of instruments as these writers, who argued that God had allowed David the \"evil\" of using musical instruments in praise. While the Old Testament teaches that God specifically asked for musical instruments, modern concern is for worship based on the New Testament.\n\nSince \"a cappella\" singing brought a new polyphony (more than one note at a time) with instrumental accompaniment, it is not surprising that Protestant reformers who opposed the instruments (such as Calvin and Zwingli) also opposed the polyphony. While Zwingli was burning organs in Switzerland – Luther called him a fanatic – the Church of England was burning books of polyphony.\n\nSome Holiness Churches such as the Free Methodist Church opposed the use of musical instruments in church worship until the mid-20th century. The Free Methodist Church allowed for local church decision on the use of either an organ or piano in the 1943 Conference before lifting the ban entirely in 1955.\n\n===Jewish===\nWhile worship in the Temple in Jerusalem included musical instruments (), traditional Jewish religious services in the Synagogue, both before and after the last destruction of the Temple, did not include musical instruments given the practice of scriptural cantillation. The use of musical instruments is traditionally forbidden on the Sabbath out of concern that players would be tempted to repair (or tune) their instruments, which is forbidden on those days. (This prohibition has been relaxed in many Reform and some Conservative congregations.) Similarly, when Jewish families and larger groups sing traditional Sabbath songs known as zemirot outside the context of formal religious services, they usually do so a cappella, and Bar and Bat Mitzvah celebrations on the Sabbath sometimes feature entertainment by a cappella ensembles. During the Three Weeks musical instruments are prohibited. Many Jews consider a portion of the 49-day period of the counting of the omer between Passover and Shavuot to be a time of semi-mourning and instrumental music is not allowed during that time. This has led to a tradition of a cappella singing sometimes known as ''sefirah'' music.\n\nThe popularization of the Jewish chant may be found in the writings of the Jewish philosopher Philo, born 20 BCE. Weaving together Jewish and Greek thought, Philo promoted praise without instruments, and taught that \"silent singing\" (without even vocal chords) was better still. This view parted with the Jewish scriptures, where Israel offered praise with instruments by God's own command (). The shofar is the only temple instrument still being used today in the synagogue, and it is only used from Rosh Chodesh Elul through the end of Yom Kippur. The shofar is used by itself, without any vocal accompaniment, and is limited to a very strictly defined set of sounds and specific places in the synagogue service. However, silver trumpets, as described in , have been made in recent years and used in prayer services at the Western Wall.\n", "\nThe Hullabahoos, a popular a cappella group at the University of Virginia, were featured in the movie ''Pitch Perfect''\nPeter Christian Lutkin, dean of the Northwestern University School of Music, helped popularize a cappella music in the United States by founding the Northwestern A Cappella Choir in 1906. The A Cappella Choir was \"the first permanent organization of its kind in America.\"\n\nA strong and prominent a cappella tradition was begun in the midwest part of the United States in 1911 by F. Melius Christiansen, a music faculty member at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. The St. Olaf College Choir was established as an outgrowth of the local St. John's Lutheran Church, where Christiansen was organist and the choir was composed, at least partially, of students from the nearby St. Olaf campus. The success of the ensemble was emulated by other regional conductors, and a rich tradition of a cappella choral music was born in the region at colleges like Concordia College (Moorhead, Minnesota), Augustana College (Rock Island, Illinois), Wartburg College (Waverly, Iowa), Luther College (Decorah, Iowa), Gustavus Adolphus College (St. Peter, Minnesota), Augustana College (Sioux Falls, South Dakota), and Augsburg University (Minneapolis, Minnesota). The choirs typically range from 40 to 80 singers and are recognized for their efforts to perfect blend, intonation, phrasing and pitch in a large choral setting.\n\nMajor movements in modern a cappella over the past century include Barbershop and doo wop. The Barbershop Harmony Society, Sweet Adelines International, and Harmony Inc. host educational events including Harmony University, Directors University, and the International Educational Symposium, and international contests and conventions, recognizing international champion choruses and quartets.\n\nThese days, many a cappella groups can be found in high schools and colleges. There are amateur Barbershop Harmony Society and professional groups that sing a cappella exclusively. Although a cappella is technically defined as singing without instrumental accompaniment, some groups use their voices to emulate instruments; others are more traditional and focus on harmonizing. A cappella styles range from gospel music to contemporary to barbershop quartets and choruses.\n\nThe Contemporary A Cappella Society (CASA) is a membership option for former students, whose funds support hosted competitions and events.\n\nA cappella music was popularized between the late 2000s and the early to mid-2010s with media hits such as the 2009–2014 TV show ''The Sing-Off'', the musical ''Perfect Harmony'', and the musical comedy film series ''Pitch Perfect''.\n\n===Recording artists===\n\nIn July 1943, as a result of the American Federation of Musicians boycott of US recording studios, the a cappella vocal group ''The Song Spinners'' had a best-seller with \"Comin' In On A Wing And A Prayer\". In the 1950s several recording groups, notably The Hi-Los and the Four Freshmen, introduced complex jazz harmonies to a cappella performances. The King's Singers are credited with promoting interest in small-group a cappella performances in the 1960s. Frank Zappa loves Doo wop and A cappella, so Zappa released The Persuasions first album from his label in 1970. In 1983 an a cappella group known as The Flying Pickets had a Christmas 'number one' in the UK with a cover of Yazoo's (known in the US as Yaz) \"Only You\". A cappella music attained renewed prominence from the late 1980s onward, spurred by the success of Top 40 recordings by artists such as The Manhattan Transfer, Bobby McFerrin, Huey Lewis and the News, All-4-One, The Nylons, Backstreet Boys and Boyz II Men.\n\nContemporary a cappella includes many vocal groups and bands who add vocal percussion or beatboxing to create a pop/rock/gospel sound, in some cases very similar to bands with instruments. Examples of such professional groups include Straight No Chaser, Pentatonix, The House Jacks, Rockapella, Mosaic, Home Free and M-pact. There also remains a strong a cappella presence within Christian music, as some denominations purposefully do not use instruments during worship. Examples of such groups are Take 6, Glad and Acappella. Arrangements of popular music for small a cappella ensembles typically include one voice singing the lead melody, one singing a rhythmic bass line, and the remaining voices contributing chordal or polyphonic accompaniment.\n\nA cappella can also describe the isolated vocal track(s) from a multitrack recording that originally included instrumentation. These vocal tracks may be remixed or put onto vinyl records for DJs, or released to the public so that fans can remix them. One such example is the a cappella release of Jay-Z's ''Black Album'', which Danger Mouse mixed with The Beatles' ''White Album'' to create ''The Grey Album''.\n\nA cappella's growth is not limited to live performance, with hundreds of recorded a cappella albums produced over the past decade. As of December 2006, the Recorded A Cappella Review Board (RARB) had reviewed over 660 a cappella albums since 1994, and its popular discussion forum had over 900 users and 19,000 articles.\n\nOn their 1966 album titled ''Album'', Peter, Paul and Mary included the song \"Normal Normal.\" All the sounds on that song, both vocals and instruments, were created by Paul's voice, with no actual instruments used.\n\nIn 2013, an artist by the name Smooth McGroove rose to prominence with his style of a cappella music. He is best known for his a cappella covers of video game music tracks on YouTube.\n\nin 2015, an a cappella version of Jerusalem by multi-instrumentalist Jacob Collier was selected for Beats by Dre \"The Game Starts Here\" for the England Rugby World Cup campaign.\n\n===Musical theater===\nA cappella has been used as the sole orchestration for original works of musical theater that have had commercial runs Off-Broadway (theaters in New York City with 99 to 500 seats) only four times. The first was Avenue X which opened on 28 January 1994 and ran for 77 performances. It was produced by Playwrights Horizons with book by John Jiler, music and lyrics by Ray Leslee. The musical style of the show's score was primarily Doo-Wop as the plot revolved around Doo-Wop group singers of the 1960s.\n\nIn 2001, The Kinsey Sicks, produced and starred in the critically acclaimed off-Broadway hit, \"DRAGAPELLA! Starring the Kinsey Sicks\" at New York's legendary Studio 54. That production received a nomination for a Lucille Lortel award as Best Musical and a Drama Desk nomination for Best Lyrics. It was directed by Glenn Casale with original music and lyrics by Ben Schatz.\n\nThe a cappella musical Perfect Harmony, a comedy about two high school a cappella groups vying to win the National championship, made its Off Broadway debut at Theatre Row’s Acorn Theatre on 42nd Street in New York City in October, 2010 after a successful out-of-town run at the Stoneham Theatre, in Stoneham, Massachusetts. Perfect Harmony features the hit music of The Jackson 5, Pat Benatar, Billy Idol, Marvin Gaye, Scandal, Tiffany, The Romantics, The Pretenders, The Temptations, The Contours, The Commodores, Tommy James & the Shondells and The Partridge Family, and has been compared to a cross between Altar Boyz and The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee.\n\nThe fourth a cappella musical to appear Off-Broadway, In Transit, premiered 5 October 2010 and was produced by Primary Stages with book, music, and lyrics by Kristen Anderson-Lopez, James-Allen Ford, Russ Kaplan, and Sara Wordsworth. Set primarily in the New York City subway system its score features an eclectic mix of musical genres (including jazz, hip hop, Latin, rock, and country). In Transit incorporates vocal beat boxing into its contemporary a cappella arrangements through the use of a subway beat boxer character. Beat boxer and actor Chesney Snow performed this role for the 2010 Primary Stages production. According to the show's website, it is scheduled to reopen for an open-ended commercial run in the Fall of 2011. In 2011 the production received four Lucille Lortel Award nominations including Outstanding Musical, Outer Critics Circle and Drama League nominations, as well as five Drama Desk nominations including Outstanding Musical and won for Outstanding Ensemble Performance.\n\nIn December 2016, In Transit became the first a cappella musical on Broadway.\n\n===Barbershop style===\n\n\nBarbershop music is one of several uniquely American art forms. The earliest reports of this style of a cappella music involved African Americans. The earliest documented quartets all began in barbershops. In 1938, the first formal men's barbershop organization was formed, known as the Society for the Preservation and Encouragement of Barber Shop Quartet Singing in America (S.P.E.B.S.Q.S.A), and in 2004 rebranded itself and officially changed its public name to the Barbershop Harmony Society (BHS). Today the BHS has over 22,000 members in approximately 800 chapters across the United States, and the barbershop style has spread around the world with organizations in many other countries. The Barbershop Harmony Society provides a highly organized competition structure for a cappella quartets and choruses singing in the barbershop style.\n\nIn 1945, the first formal women's barbershop organization, Sweet Adelines, was formed. In 1953 Sweet Adelines became an international organization, although it didn't change its name to Sweet Adelines International until 1991. The membership of nearly 25,000 women, all singing in English, includes choruses in most of the fifty United States as well as in Australia, Canada, England, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Scotland, Sweden, Wales and the Netherlands. Headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the organization encompasses more than 1,200 registered quartets and 600 choruses.\n\nIn 1959, a second women's barbershop organization started as a break off from Sweet Adelines due to ideological differences. Based on democratic principles which continue to this day, Harmony, Inc. is smaller than its counterpart, but has an atmosphere of friendship and competition. With about 2,500 members in the United States and Canada, Harmony, Inc. uses the same rules in contest that the Barbershop Harmony Society uses. Harmony, Inc. is registered in Providence, Rhode Island.\n\n=== Amateur and high school ===\nThe popularity of a cappella among high schools and amateurs was revived by television shows and movies such as ''Glee'' and ''Pitch Perfect''. High school groups have conductors or student leaders who keep the tempo for the group.\n", "\n\n===Sri Lanka===\nComposer Dinesh Subasinghe became the first Sri Lankan to write a cappella pieces for SATB choirs. He wrote \"The Princes of the Lost Tribe\" and \"Ancient Queen of Somawathee\" for Menaka De Shabandu and Bridget Halpe's choirs, respectively, based on historical incidents in ancient Sri Lanka. Voice Print is also a professional a cappella music group in Sri Lanka.\n\n===Sweden===\n\nThe European a cappella tradition is especially strong in the countries around the Baltic and perhaps most so in Sweden as described by Richard Sparks in his doctoral thesis ''The Swedish Choral Miracle'' in 2000.\n\nSwedish a cappella choirs have over the last 25 years won around 25% of the annual prestigious European Grand Prix for Choral Singing (EGP) that despite its name is open to choirs from all over the world (see list of laureates in the Wikipedia article on the EGP competition).\n\nThe reasons for the strong Swedish dominance are as explained by Richard Sparks manifold; suffice to say here that there is a long-standing tradition, an unsusually large proportion of the populations (5% is often cited) regularly sing in choirs, the Swedish choral director Eric Ericson had an enormous impact on a cappella choral development not only in Sweden but around the world, and finally there are a large number of very popular primary and secondary schools (''music schools'') with high admission standards based on auditions that combine a rigid academic regimen with high level choral singing on every school day, a system that started with Adolf Fredrik's Music School in Stockholm in 1939 but has spread over the country.\n\n===United Kingdom===\nThe Oxford Alternotives, the oldest a cappella group at the University of Oxford in the UK\n\nThe Sweet Nothings are one of the University of Exeter's eight A Capella groups. They are one of the oldest and most successful girl groups in the UK\nA cappella has gained attention in the UK in recent years, with many groups forming at British universities by students seeking an alternative singing pursuit to traditional choral and chapel singing. This movement has been bolstered by organisations such as The Voice Festival UK.\n", "\n\nIt is not clear exactly where collegiate a cappella began. The Rensselyrics of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (formerly known as the RPI Glee Club), established in 1873 is perhaps the oldest known collegiate a cappella group. However the longest continuously-singing group is probably The Whiffenpoofs of Yale University, which was formed in 1909 and once included Cole Porter as a member. Collegiate a cappella groups grew throughout the 20th century. Some notable historical groups formed along the way include Colgate University's The Colgate 13 (1942), Dartmouth College's Aires (1946), Cornell University's Cayuga's Waiters (1949) and The Hangovers (1968), the University of Maine Maine Steiners (1958), the Columbia University Kingsmen (1949), the Jabberwocks of Brown University (1949), and the University of Rochester YellowJackets (1956). All-women a cappella groups followed shortly, frequently as a parody of the men's groups: the Smiffenpoofs of Smith College (1936), The Shwiffs of Connecticut College (The She-Whiffenpoofs, 1944), and The Chattertocks of Brown University (1951). A cappella groups exploded in popularity beginning in the 1990s, fueled in part by a change in style popularized by the Tufts University Beelzebubs and the Boston University Dear Abbeys. The new style used voices to emulate modern rock instruments, including vocal percussion/\"beatboxing\". Some larger universities now have multiple groups. Groups often join one another in on-campus concerts, such as the Georgetown Chimes' Cherry Tree Massacre, a 3-weekend a cappella festival held each February since 1975, where over a hundred collegiate groups have appeared, as well as International Quartet Champions The Boston Common and the contemporary commercial a cappella group Rockapella. Co-ed groups have produced many up-and-coming and major artists, including John Legend, an alumnus of the Counterparts at the University of Pennsylvania, and Sara Bareilles, an alumna of Awaken A Cappella at University of California, Los Angeles. Mira Sorvino is an alumna of the Harvard-Radcliffe Veritones of Harvard College, where she had the solo on Only You by Yaz.\n\nA cappella is gaining popularity among South Asians with the emergence of primarily Hindi-English College groups. The first South Asian a cappella group was Penn Masala, founded in 1996 at the University of Pennsylvania. Co-ed South Asian a cappella groups are also gaining in popularity. The first co-ed south Asian a cappella was Anokha, from the University of Maryland, formed in 2001. Also, Dil se, another co-ed a cappella from UC Berkeley, hosts the \"Anahat\" competition at the University of California, Berkeley annually. Maize Mirchi, the co-ed a cappella group from the University of Michigan hosts \"Sa Re Ga Ma Pella\", an annual South Asian a cappella invitational with various groups from the Midwest. Another South Asian group from the Midwest is Chai Town who is based in the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign.\n\nJewish-interest groups such as Tufts University's Shir Appeal, University of Chicago's Rhythm and Jews, Binghamton University's Kaskeset, Ohio State University's Meshuganotes, Rutgers University's Kol Halayla, New York University's Ani V'Ata and Yale University's Magevet are also gaining popularity across the U.S.\n\nIncreased interest in modern a cappella (particularly collegiate a cappella) can be seen in the growth of awards such as the Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (overseen by the Contemporary A Cappella Society) and competitions such as the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella for college groups and the Harmony Sweepstakes for all groups. In December 2009, a new television competition series called ''The Sing-Off'' aired on NBC. The show featured eight a cappella groups from the United States and Puerto Rico vying for the prize of $100,000 and a recording contract with Epic Records/Sony Music. The show was judged by Ben Folds, Shawn Stockman, and Nicole Scherzinger and was won by an all-male group from Puerto Rico called Nota. The show returned for a second, third and fourth season, won by Committed, Pentatonix and Home Free respectively.\n\nEach year, hundreds of Collegiate a cappella groups submit their strongest songs in a competition to be on The Best of College A Cappella (BOCA), an album compilation of tracks from the best college a cappella groups around the world. The album is produced by Varsity Vocals – which also produces the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella – and Deke Sharon. A group chosen to be on the BOCA album earns much credibility among the a cappella community.\n\nCollegiate a cappella groups may also submit their tracks to Voices Only, a two-disc series released at the beginning of each school year. A Voices Only album has been released every year since 2005.\n\nIn addition, all women's a cappella groups can send their strongest song tracks to the Women’s A Cappella Association (WACA) for its annual best of women's a cappella album. WACA offers another medium for women's voices to receive recognition and has released an album every year since 2014, featuring women's groups from across the United States.\n", "\nIn addition to singing words, some a cappella singers also emulate instrumentation by reproducing instrumental sounds with their vocal cords and mouth. One of the earliest 20th century practitioners of this method were The Mills Brothers whose early recordings of the 1930s clearly stated on the label that all instrumentation was done vocally. More recently, \"Twilight Zone\" by 2 Unlimited was sung a cappella to the instrumentation on the comedy television series ''Tompkins Square''. Another famous example of emulating instrumentation instead of singing the words is the theme song for ''The New Addams Family'' series on Fox Family Channel (now ABC Family). Groups such as Vocal Sampling and Undivided emulate Latin rhythms a cappella. In the 1960s, the Swingle Singers used their voices to emulate musical instruments to Baroque and Classical music. Vocal artist Bobby McFerrin is famous for his instrumental emulation. A cappella group Naturally Seven recreates entire songs using vocal tones for every instrument.\n\nThe Swingle Singers used nonsense words to sound like instruments, but have been known to produce non-verbal versions of musical instruments. Beatboxing, more accurately known as vocal percussion, is a technique used in a cappella music popularized by the hip-hop community, where rap is often performed a cappella also. The advent of vocal percussion added new dimensions to the a cappella genre and has become very prevalent in modern arrangements. Jazz vocalist Petra Haden used a four-track recorder to produce an a cappella version of ''The Who Sell Out'' including the instruments and fake advertisements on her album ''Petra Haden Sings: The Who Sell Out'' in 2005. Haden has also released a cappella versions of Journey's \"Don't Stop Believin'\", The Beach Boys' \"God Only Knows\" and Michael Jackson's \"Thriller\".\n\nChristian rock group Relient K recorded the song \"Plead the Fifth\" a cappella on its album ''Five Score and Seven Years Ago''. The group recorded lead singer Matt Thiessen making drum noises and played them with an electronic drum machine to record the song.\n\nThe German metal band van Canto uses vocal noises to imitate guitars on covers of well-known rock and metal songs (such as \"Master of Puppets\" by Metallica) as well as original compositions. Although they are generally classified as a cappella metal, the band also includes a drummer, and uses amplifiers on some songs to distort the voice to sound more like an electric guitar.\n", "* Barbershop music – four-part a cappella (in close harmony)\n* Collegiate a cappella\n* The Contemporary A Cappella Society\n* Home Free – quintet, winners of NBC's Sing-Off Season 4\n* List of collegiate a cappella groups\n* List of professional a cappella groups\n* List of university a cappella groups in the United Kingdom\n* Pentatonix – quintet, winners of NBC's Sing-Off Season 3 and Grammy-winning a cappella group\n* ''Perfect Harmony'' – an a cappella musical comedy\n* ''Pitch Perfect'' – a 2012 film widely focusing on an a cappella talent competition\n* Straight No Chaser – 10 man a cappella ground founded at Indiana University\n* Sweet Adelines International\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* Contemporary A Cappella Society of America (CASA)\n* Harmony Sweepstakes A Cappella Festival\n* A Cappella News\n* Primarily A Cappella\n* The Recorded A Cappella Review Board (RARB)\n* In Transit the Musical\n* Melbourne A Cappella Festival\n* British Contemporary A Cappella Society\n* History of Barbershop\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Religious origins", "In the United States", "In other countries", "Collegiate", "Emulating instruments", "See also", "Notes", "Footnotes", "References", "External links" ]	A cappella
[ "\n\nIn music, an '''arrangement''' is a musical reconceptualization of a previously composed work. It may differ from the original work by means of reharmonization, melodic paraphrasing, orchestration, or development of the formal structure. Arranging differs from orchestration as the latter process is limited to the assignment of notes to instruments for performance by an orchestra, concert band, or other musical ensemble. Arranging \"involves adding compositional techniques, such as new thematic material for introductions, transitions, or modulations, and endings.... Arranging is the art of giving an existing melody musical variety\".\n", "Arrangement and transcriptions of classical and serious music go back to the early history of this genre. In particular, music written for the piano has frequently undergone this treatment. The suite of ten piano pieces ''Pictures at an Exhibition'', by Modest Mussorgsky, has been arranged over twenty times, notably by Maurice Ravel.\n\nDue to his lack of expertise in orchestration, the American composer George Gershwin had his ''Rhapsody in Blue'' orchestrated and arranged by Ferde Grofé.\n", "Popular music recordings often include parts for brass, string, and other instruments which were added by arrangers and not composed by the original songwriters. Popular music arrangements may also be considered to include new releases of existing songs with a new musical treatment. These changes can include alterations to tempo, meter, key, instrumentation, and other musical elements.\n\nWell-known examples include Joe Cocker's version of the Beatles' \"With a Little Help from My Friends,\" Cream's Crossroads, and Ike And Tina Turner's version of Creedence Clearwater Revival's \"Proud Mary\". The American group Vanilla Fudge and British group Yes based their early careers on radical re-arrangements of contemporary hits. Bonnie Pointer performed disco and Motown-themed versions of \"Heaven Must Have Sent You.\" Remixes, such as in dance music, can also be considered arrangements.\n\nThough arrangers may contribute substantially to finished musical products, for copyright and royalty purposes, they usually hold no legal claim to their work.\n", "Arrangements for small jazz combos are usually informal, minimal, and uncredited. Larger ensembles have generally had greater requirements for notated arrangements, though the early Count Basie big band is known for its many ''head'' arrangements, so called because they were worked out by the players themselves, memorized (in the player's ''head''), and never written down. Most arrangements for big bands, however, were written down and credited to a specific arranger, as with arrangements by Sammy Nestico and Neal Hefti for Count Basie's later big bands.\n\nDon Redman made innovations in jazz arranging as a part of Fletcher Henderson's orchestra in the 1920s. Redman's arrangements introduced a more intricate melodic presentation and ''soli'' performances for various sections of the big band. Benny Carter became Henderson's primary arranger in the early 1930s, becoming known for his arranging abilities in addition to his previous recognition as a performer. Beginning in 1938, Billy Strayhorn became an arranger of great renown for the Duke Ellington orchestra. Jelly Roll Morton is sometimes considered the earliest jazz arranger. While he toured around the years 1912 to 1915, he wrote down parts to enable \"pick-up\" bands to perform his compositions.\n\nBig band arrangements are informally called ''charts''. In the swing era they were usually either arrangements of popular songs or they were entirely new compositions. Duke Ellington's and Billy Strayhorn's arrangements for the Duke Ellington big band were usually new compositions, and some of Eddie Sauter's arrangements for the Benny Goodman band and Artie Shaw's arrangements for his own band were new compositions as well. It became more common to arrange sketchy jazz combo compositions for big band after the bop era.\n\nAfter 1950, the big bands declined in number. However, several bands continued and arrangers provided renowned arrangements. Gil Evans wrote a number of large-ensemble arrangements in the late 1950s and early 1960s intended for recording sessions only. Other arrangers of note include Vic Schoen, Pete Rugolo, Oliver Nelson, Johnny Richards, Billy May, Thad Jones, Maria Schneider, Bob Brookmeyer, Lou Marini, Nelson Riddle, Ralph Burns, Billy Byers, Gordon Jenkins, Ray Conniff, Henry Mancini, Ray Reach, Vince Mendoza, and Claus Ogerman.\n\nIn the 21st century, the Big Band arrangement has made a modest comeback. Gordon Goodwin, Roy Hargrove, and Christian McBride have all rolled out New Big Bands with both original compositions and new arrangements of standard tunes.\n\n\n", "\n===Strings===\nThe string section is a body of instruments composed of various stringed instruments. By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins (the same instrument as the first violins, but typically playing an accompaniment or harmony part to the first violins, and often at a lower pitch), violas, cellos, and double basses. The string section in a multi-sectioned orchestra is referred sometimes to as the \"string choir.\"\n\nThe harp is also a stringed instrument, but is not a member of nor homogeneous with the violin family and is not considered part of the string choir. Samuel Adler classifies the harp as a plucked string instrument in the same category as the guitar (acoustic or electric), mandolin, banjo, or zither. Like the harp these instruments do not belong to the violin family and are not homogeneous with the string choir. In modern arranging these instruments are considered part of the rhythm section. The electric bass and upright string bass—depending on the circumstance—can be treated by the arranger as either string section or rhythm section instruments.\n\nA group of instruments in which each member plays a unique part—rather than playing in unison with other like instruments—is referred to as a chamber ensemble. A chamber ensemble made up entirely of strings of the violin family is referred to by its size. A string trio consists of three players, a string quartet four, a string quintet five, and so on.\n\nIn most circumstances the string section is treated by the arranger as one homogeneous unit and its members are required to play preconceived material rather than improvise.\n\nA string section can be utilized on its own (this is referred to as a string orchestra) or in conjunction with any of the other instrumental sections. More than one string orchestra can be utilized.\n\nA standard string section (vln., vln 2., vla., vcl, cb.) with each section playing unison allows the arranger to create a five-part texture. Often an arranger will divide each violin section in half or thirds to achieve a denser texture. It is possible to carry this division to its logical extreme in which each member of the string section plays his or her own unique part.\n\n====Size of the string section====\nArtistic, budgetary and logistical concerns will determine the size and instrumentation of a string section. The Broadway musical West Side Story, in 1957, was booked into the Winter Garden theater; composer Leonard Bernstein disliked the playing of \"house\" viola players he would have to use there, and so he chose to leave them out of the show's instrumentation; a benefit was the creation of more space in the pit for an expanded percussion section.\n\nGeorge Martin, producer and arranger for The Beatles, warns arrangers about the intonation issues when only two like instruments play in unison. \"After a string quartet,\" Martin explains, \"I do not think there is a satisfactory sound for strings until one has at least three players on each line...as a rule two stringed instruments together create a slight \"beat\" which does not give a smooth sound.\"\n\nWhile any combination and number of string instruments is possible in a section, a traditional string section sound is achieved with a violin-heavy balance of instruments.\n\n\n+Suggested string section sizes\nReference\nAuthor\nSection size\nViolins\nViolas\nCelli\nBasses\n\n\"Arranged By Nelson Riddle\"\nNelson Riddle\n12 players\n8\n2\n2\n0\n\n15 players\n9\n3\n3\n0\n\n16 players\n10\n3\n3\n0\n\n20 players\n12\n4\n4\n0\n\n30 players\n18\n6\n6\n0\n\n\"The Contemporary Arranger\"\nDon Sebesky\n9 players\n7\n0\n2\n0\n\n12 players\n8\n2\n2\n0\n\n16 players\n12\n0\n4\n0\n\n20 players\n12\n4\n4\n0\n\n\n", "\n\nName\nAuthor\n\n''Inside the score: A detailed analysis of 8 classic jazz ensemble charts by Sammy Nestico, Thad Jones and Bob Brookmeyer''\nRayburn Wright\n\n''Sounds and Scores : A Practical Guide to Professional Orchestration''\nHenry Mancini\n\n''The Contemporary Arranger''\nDon Sebesky\n\n''The Study Of Orchestration''\nSamuel Adler\n\n''Arranged by Nelson Riddle''\nNelson Riddle\n\n''Instrumental Jazz Arranging: A Comprehensive and Practical Guide''\nMike Tomaro\n\n''Modern Jazz Voicings: Arranging for Small and Medium Ensemble''\nTed Pease, Ken Pullig\n\n''Arranging for Large Jazz Ensemble''\nTed Pease, Dick Lowell\n\n''Arranging concepts complete: the ultimate arranging course for today's music''\nDick Grove\n\n''The complete arranger''\nSammy Nestico\n\n''Arranging Songs: How to Put the Parts Together''\nRikky Rooksby\n\n", "* Transcription (music)\n* Orchestration\n* Musical notation\n* American Society of Music Arrangers and Composers\n* Electronic keyboard (or Electronic Music Arranger), which allows for live music arrangement\n* List of music arrangers\n* List of jazz arrangers\n* :Category:Music arrangers\n", "\n\n;Sources\n* \n* Kers, Robert de (1944). ''Harmonie et orchestration pour orchestra de danse''. Bruxelles: Éditions musicales C. Bens. vii, 126 p.\n* Kidd, Jim (1987). ''Unsung Heroes, the Jazz Arrangers, from Don Redman to Sy Oliver: text with recorded examples for a presentation Prepared on the Occasion of the 16th Annual Canadian Collectors' Congress, 25 April 1987, Toronto, Ont.'' Toronto: Canadian Collectors' Congress. Photo-reproduced text (6 leaves) with audiocassette of recorded illustrative musical examples.\n* Randel, Don Michael (2002). ''The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians''. .\n*Harry Boyd (2015). \"Swag\"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Classical music ", "Popular music", "Jazz", "For instrumental groups", " Further reading ", " See also ", " References " ]	Arrangement
[ "Athanasius of Alexandria was traditionally thought to be the author of the Athanasian Creed, and gives his name to its common title.\n\nThe '''Athanasian Creed''', also known as '''Pseudo-Athanasian Creed''' or '''''Quicunque Vult''''' (also '''''Quicumque Vult'''''), is a Christian statement of belief focused on Trinitarian doctrine and Christology. The Latin name of the creed, ''Quicunque vult'', is taken from the opening words, \"Whosoever wishes\". The creed has been used by Christian churches since the sixth century. It is the first creed in which the equality of the three persons of the Trinity is explicitly stated. It differs from the Nicene-Constantinopolitan and Apostles' Creeds in the inclusion of anathemas, or condemnations of those who disagree with the creed (like the original Nicene Creed).\n\nWidely accepted among Western Christians, including the Roman Catholic Church and some Anglican churches, Lutheran churches (it is considered part of Lutheran confessions in the Book of Concord), and ancient, liturgical churches generally, the Athanasian Creed has been used in public worship less and less frequently, but part of it can be found as an \"Authorized Affirmation of Faith\" in the recent (2000) Common Worship liturgy of the Church of England Main Volume page 145. \n\nIt was designed to distinguish Nicene Christianity from the heresy of Arianism. Liturgically, this Creed was recited at the Sunday Office of Prime in the Western Church; it is not in common use in the Eastern Church. The creed has never gained acceptance in liturgy among Eastern Christians since it was considered as one of many unorthodox fabrications that contained the Filioque clause. Today, the Athanasian Creed is rarely used even in the Western Church. When used, one common practice is to use it once a year on Trinity Sunday.\n", "\nThe Shield of the Trinity, a visual representation of the doctrine of the Trinity, derived from the Athanasian Creed. The Latin reads: \"The Father is God, The Son is God, The Holy Spirit is God; God is the Father, God is the Son, God is the Holy Spirit; The Father is not the Son, The Son is not the Father, The Father is not the Holy Spirit, The Holy Spirit is not the Father, The Son is not the Holy Spirit, The Holy Spirit is not the Son.\"\n\nA medieval account credited Athanasius of Alexandria, the famous defender of Nicene theology, as the author of the Creed. According to this account, Athanasius composed it during his exile in Rome and presented it to Pope Julius I as a witness to his orthodoxy. This traditional attribution of the Creed to Athanasius was first called into question in 1642 by Dutch Protestant theologian G. J. Voss. \n\nIt has since been widely accepted by modern scholars that the creed was not authored by Athanasius, that it was not originally called a creed at all, nor was Athanasius' name originally attached to it. Athanasius' name seems to have become attached to the creed as a sign of its strong declaration of Trinitarian faith. The reasoning for rejecting Athanasius as the author usually relies on a combination of the following:\n\n# The creed originally was most likely written in Latin, while Athanasius composed in Greek.\n# Neither Athanasius nor his contemporaries ever mention the Creed.\n# It is not mentioned in any records of the ecumenical councils.\n# It appears to address theological concerns that developed after Athanasius died (including the filioque).\n# It was most widely circulated among Western Christians.\n\nThe use of the creed in a sermon by Caesarius of Arles, as well as a theological resemblance to works by Vincent of Lérins, point to Southern Gaul as its origin. The most likely time frame is in the late fifth or early sixth century AD – at least 100 years after Athanasius. The theology of the creed is firmly rooted in the Augustinian tradition, using exact terminology of Augustine's ''On the Trinity'' (published 415 AD). In the late 19th century, there was a great deal of speculation about who might have authored the creed, with suggestions including Ambrose of Milan, Venantius Fortunatus, and Hilary of Poitiers, among others. \n\nThe 1940 discovery of a lost work by Vincent of Lérins, which bears a striking similarity to much of the language of the Athanasian Creed, have led many to conclude that the creed originated either with Vincent or with his students. For example, in the authoritative modern monograph about the creed, J. N. D. Kelly asserts that Vincent of Lérins was not its author, but that it may have come from the same milieu, namely the area of Lérins in southern Gaul. The oldest surviving manuscripts of the Athanasian Creed date from the late 8th century.\n", "\nThe Athanasian Creed is usually divided into two sections: lines 1–28 addressing the doctrine of the Trinity, and lines 29–44 addressing the doctrine of Christology. Enumerating the three persons of the Trinity (i.e., Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit), the first section of the creed ascribes the divine attributes to each individually. Thus, each person of the Trinity is described as uncreated (''increatus''), limitless (''Immensus''), eternal (''æternus''), and omnipotent (''omnipotens''). \n\nWhile ascribing the divine attributes and divinity to each person of the Trinity, thus avoiding subordinationism, the first half of the Athanasian Creed also stresses the unity of the three persons in the one Godhead, thus avoiding a theology of tritheism. Furthermore, although one God, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct from each other. For the Father is neither made nor begotten; the Son is not made but is begotten from the Father; the Holy Spirit is neither made nor begotten but proceeds from the Father - Western churches include \"and the Son\" (filioque), a concept which Eastern and Oriental Orthodox reject.\n\nThe text of the Athanasian Creed is as follows:\n\n\n\n in Latin\n English translation\n\n\n\n''Quicumque vult salvus esse, ante omnia opus est, ut teneat catholicam fidem: Quam nisi quisque integram inviolatamque servaverit, absque dubio in aeternum peribit. Fides autem catholica haec est: ut unum Deum in Trinitate, et Trinitatem in unitate veneremur. Neque confundentes personas, neque substantiam separantes. Alia est enim persona Patris alia Filii, alia Spiritus Sancti: Sed Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti una est divinitas, aequalis gloria, coeterna maiestas. Qualis Pater, talis Filius, talis et Spiritus Sanctus. Increatus Pater, increatus Filius, increatus et Spiritus Sanctus. Immensus Pater, immensus Filius, immensus et Spiritus Sanctus. Aeternus Pater, aeternus Filius, aeternus et Spiritus Sanctus. Et tamen non tres aeterni, sed unus aeternus. Sicut non tres increati, nec tres immensi, sed unus increatus, et unus immensus. Similiter omnipotens Pater, omnipotens Filius, omnipotens et Spiritus Sanctus. Et tamen non tres omnipotentes, sed unus omnipotens. Ita Deus Pater, Deus Filius, Deus et Spiritus Sanctus. Et tamen non tres dii, sed unus est Deus. Ita Dominus Pater, Dominus Filius, Dominus et Spiritus Sanctus. Et tamen non tres Domini, sed unus est Dominus. Quia, sicut singillatim unamquamque personam Deum ac Dominum confiteri christiana veritate compellimur: Ita tres Deos aut tres Dominos dicere catholica religione prohibemur. Pater a nullo est factus: nec creatus, nec genitus. Filius a Patre solo est: non factus, nec creatus, sed genitus. Spiritus Sanctus a Patre et Filio: non factus, nec creatus, nec genitus, sed procedens. Unus ergo Pater, non tres Patres: unus Filius, non tres Filii: unus Spiritus Sanctus, non tres Spiritus Sancti. Et in hac Trinitate nihil prius aut posterius, nihil maius aut minus: Sed totae tres personae coaeternae sibi sunt et coaequales. Ita, ut per omnia, sicut iam supra dictum est, et unitas in Trinitate, et Trinitas in unitate veneranda sit. Qui vult ergo salvus esse, ita de Trinitate sentiat.''\n\n''Sed necessarium est ad aeternam salutem, ut incarnationem quoque Domini nostri Iesu Christi fideliter credat. Est ergo fides recta ut credamus et confiteamur, quia Dominus noster Iesus Christus, Dei Filius, Deus pariter et homo est. Deus est ex substantia Patris ante saecula genitus: et homo est ex substantia matris in saeculo natus. Perfectus Deus, perfectus homo: ex anima rationali et humana carne subsistens. Aequalis Patri secundum divinitatem: minor Patre secundum humanitatem. Qui licet Deus sit et homo, non duo tamen, sed unus est Christus. Unus autem non conversione divinitatis in carnem, sed assumptione humanitatis in Deum. Unus omnino, non confusione substantiae, sed unitate personae. Nam sicut anima rationalis et caro unus est homo: ita Deus et homo unus est Christus. Qui passus est pro salute nostra: descendit ad inferos: tertia die resurrexit a mortuis. Ascendit ad in caelos, sedet ad dexteram Dei Patris omnipotentis. Inde venturus est judicare vivos et mortuos. Ad cujus adventum omnes homines resurgere habent cum corporibus suis; Et reddituri sunt de factis propriis rationem. Et qui bona egerunt, ibunt in vitam aeternam: qui vero mala, in ignem aeternum. Haec est fides catholica, quam nisi quisque fideliter firmiterque crediderit, salvus esse non poterit.''\n\nWhosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the catholic faith.\nWhich faith except every one do keep whole and undefiled; without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.\nAnd the catholic faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the Persons; nor dividing the Essence.\nFor there is one Person of the Father; another of the Son; and another of the Holy Ghost.\nBut the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all one; the Glory equal, the Majesty coeternal.\nSuch as the Father is; such is the Son; and such is the Holy Ghost.\nThe Father uncreated; the Son uncreated; and the Holy Ghost uncreated.\nThe Father unlimited; the Son unlimited; and the Holy Ghost unlimited.\nThe Father eternal; the Son eternal; and the Holy Ghost eternal.\nAnd yet they are not three eternals; but one eternal.\nAs also there are not three uncreated; nor three infinites, but one uncreated; and one infinite.\nSo likewise the Father is Almighty; the Son Almighty; and the Holy Ghost Almighty.\nAnd yet they are not three Almighties; but one Almighty.\nSo the Father is God; the Son is God; and the Holy Ghost is God.\nAnd yet they are not three Gods; but one God.\nSo likewise the Father is Lord; the Son Lord; and the Holy Ghost Lord.\nAnd yet not three Lords; but one Lord.\nFor like as we are compelled by the Christian verity; to acknowledge every Person by himself to be God and Lord;\nSo are we forbidden by the catholic religion; to say, There are three Gods, or three Lords.\nThe Father is made of none; neither created, nor begotten.\nThe Son is of the Father alone; not made, nor created; but begotten.\nThe Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son; neither made, nor created, nor begotten; but proceeding.\nSo there is one Father, not three Fathers; one Son, not three Sons; one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts.\nAnd in this Trinity none is before, or after another; none is greater, or less than another.\nBut the whole three Persons are coeternal, and coequal.\nSo that in all things, as aforesaid; the Unity in Trinity, and the Trinity in Unity, is to be worshipped.\nHe therefore that will be saved, let him thus think of the Trinity.\n\nFurthermore, it is necessary to everlasting salvation; that he also believe faithfully the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ.\nFor the right Faith is, that we believe and confess; that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and Man;\nGod, of the Substance Essence of the Father; begotten before the worlds; and Man, of the Substance Essence of his Mother, born in the world.\nPerfect God; and perfect Man, of a reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting.\nEqual to the Father, as touching his Godhead; and inferior to the Father as touching his Manhood.\nWho although he is God and Man; yet he is not two, but one Christ.\nOne; not by conversion of the Godhead into flesh; but by assumption of the Manhood into God.\nOne altogether; not by confusion of Substance Essence; but by unity of Person.\nFor as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man; so God and Man is one Christ;\nWho suffered for our salvation; descended into hell; rose again the third day from the dead.\nHe ascended into heaven, he sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty, from whence he will come to judge the living and the dead.\nAt whose coming all men will rise again with their bodies; And shall give account for their own works.\nAnd they that have done good shall go into life everlasting; and they that have done evil, into everlasting fire.\nThis is the catholic faith; which except a man believe truly and firmly, he cannot be saved.\n\n\nThe Christology of the second section is more detailed than that of the Nicene Creed, and reflects the teaching of the First Council of Ephesus (431) and the definition of the Council of Chalcedon (451). The Athanasian Creed uses the term ''substantia'' (a Latin translation of the Nicene ''homoousios'': 'same being' or 'consubstantial') not only with respect to the relation of the Son to the Father according to his divine nature, but also says the Son is ''substantia'' of his mother Mary according to his human nature.\n\nThe Creed's wording thus excludes not only Sabellianism and Arianism, but the Christological heresies of Nestorianism and Eutychianism. A need for a clear confession against Arianism arose in western Europe when the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, who had Arian beliefs, invaded at the beginning of the 5th century.\n\nThe final section of this Creed also moved beyond the Nicene (and Apostles') Creeds in making negative statements about the people's fate: \"They that have done good shall go into life everlasting: and they that have done evil into everlasting fire.\" This caused considerable debate in England in the mid-nineteenth century, centred on the teaching of Frederick Denison Maurice.\n", "\nDetail of a manuscript illustration depicting a knight carrying the \"Shield of the Trinity.\"\n\nComposed of 44 rhythmic lines, the Athanasian Creed appears to have been intended as a liturgical document – that is, the original purpose of the creed was to be spoken or sung as a part of worship. The creed itself uses the language of public worship, speaking of the worship of God rather than the language of belief (\"Now this is the catholic faith: We worship one God\"). In the Catholic Church in medieval times, this creed was recited following the Sunday sermon or at the Sunday Office of Prime. The creed was often set to music and used in the place of a Psalm.\n\nEarly Protestants inherited the late medieval devotion to the Athanasian Creed, and it was considered to be authoritative in many Protestant churches. The statements of Protestant belief (confessional documents) of various Reformers commend the Athanasian Creed to their followers, including the Augsburg Confession, the Formula of Concord, the Second Helvetic Confession, the Belgic Confession, the Bohemian Confession and the Thirty-nine Articles. A metric version titled \"Quicumque vult\", with a musical setting, was published in ''The Whole Booke of Psalmes'' printed by John Day in 1562. Among modern Lutheran and Reformed churches adherence to the Athanasian Creed is prescribed by the earlier confessional documents, but the creed does not receive much attention outside of occasional use – especially on Trinity Sunday.\n\nIn Reformed circles, it is included (for example) in the Christian Reformed Churches of Australia's Book of Forms (publ. 1991). However, it is rarely recited in public worship.\n\nIn the successive Books of Common Prayer of the reformed Church of England, from 1549 to 1662, its recitation was provided for on 19 occasions each year, a practice which continued until the nineteenth century, when vigorous controversy regarding its statement about 'eternal damnation' saw its use gradually decline. It remains one of the three Creeds approved in the Thirty-Nine Articles, and is printed in several current Anglican prayer books (e.g. A Prayer Book for Australia (1995)). As with Roman Catholic practice, its use is now generally only on Trinity Sunday or its octave. The Episcopal Church based in the United States has never provided for its use in worship, but added it to its Book of Common Prayer for the first time in 1979, where it is included in small print in a reference section entitled \"Historical Documents of the Church.\"\n\nIn Roman Catholic churches, it was traditionally said at Prime on Sundays when the Office was of the Sunday. The 1911 reforms reduced this to Sundays after Epiphany and Pentecost, and on Trinity Sunday, except when a commemoration of a Double feast or a day within an Octave occurred. The 1960 reforms further reduced its use to once a year, on Trinity Sunday. It has been effectively dropped from the Catholic liturgy since the Second Vatican Council. It is however maintained in the ''Forma Extraordinaria'', per the decree Summorum Pontificum, and also in the rite of exorcism, both in the ''Forma Ordinaria'' and the ''Forma Extraordinaria'' of the Roman Rite.\n\nIn Lutheranism, the Athanasian Creed is—along with the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds—one of the three ecumenical creeds placed at the beginning of the 1580 Book of Concord, the historic collection of authoritative doctrinal statements (confessions) of the Lutheran Church. It is still used in the liturgy on Trinity Sunday.\n\nA common visualisation of the first half of the Creed is the Shield of the Trinity.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Origin ", " Content ", " Uses ", " Notes ", " References " ]	Athanasian Creed
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Alicante''' (, ), or (), both the Spanish and Valencian being official names, is a city and port in Spain on the Costa Blanca, the capital of the province of Alicante and of the comarca of Alacantí, in the south of the Valencian Community. It is also a historic Mediterranean port. The population of the city of Alicante proper was 330,525, estimated , ranking as the second-largest Valencian city. Including nearby municipalities, the Alicante conurbation had 452,462 residents. The population of the metropolitan area (including Elche and satellite towns) was 757,085 estimates, ranking as the eighth-largest metropolitan area of Spain.\nthumb\n", "The name of the city echoes the Arabic name ''Laqant'' (لَقَنْت) or ''Al-Laqant'' (ألَلَقَنْت), which in turn reflects the Latin ''Lucentum''.\n", "\n\nThe area around Alicante has been inhabited for over 7000 years. The first tribes of hunter-gatherers moved down gradually from Central Europe between 5000 and 3000 BC. Some of the earliest settlements were made on the slopes of Mount Benacantil. By 1000 BC Greek and Phoenician traders had begun to visit the eastern coast of Spain, establishing small trading ports and introducing the native Iberian tribes to the alphabet, iron and the pottery wheel. The town of Leuce Akra (white cape) was then founded by Greek settlers from Marseille around 325/324 b.C. By the 3rd century BC, the rival armies of Carthage and Rome began to invade and fight for control of the Iberian Peninsula. The Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca established the fortified settlement of ''Akra Leuka'' (Greek: , meaning \"White Mountain\" or \"White Point\"), where Alicante stands today.\nIberian–Carthaginian–Roman city of \"Akra-Leuke\" or \"Lucentum\"\n\nAlthough the Carthaginians conquered much of the land around Alicante, the Romans would eventually rule Hispania Tarraconensis for over 700 years. By the 5th century AD, Rome was in decline and the Roman predecessor town of Alicante, known as ''Lucentum'' (Latin), was more or less under the control of the Visigothic warlord Theudimer. However neither the Romans nor the Goths put up much resistance to the Arab conquest of ''Medina Laqant'' in the 8th century. The Moors ruled southern and eastern Spain until the 13th century ''Reconquista'' (Reconquest). Alicante was finally taken in 1246 by the Castilian king Alfonso X, but it passed soon and definitively to the Kingdom of Valencia in 1298 with King James II of Aragon. It gained the status of Royal Village (''Vila Reial'') with representation in the medieval Valencian Parliament (''Corts Valencianes'').\n\nAlicante around year 1832. Engraving by Alfred Guesdon\nAfter several decades of being the battlefield where the Kingdom of Castile and the Crown of Aragon clashed, Alicante became a major Mediterranean trading station exporting rice, wine, olive oil, oranges and wool. But between 1609 and 1614 King Felipe III expelled thousands of Moriscos who had remained in Valencia after the Reconquista, due to their cooperation with Barbary pirates who continually attacked coastal cities and caused much harm to trade. This act cost the region dearly; with so many skilled artisans and agricultural labourers gone, the feudal nobility found itself sliding into bankruptcy. Things got worse in the early 18th century; after the War of Spanish Succession, Alicante went into a long, slow decline, surviving through the 18th and 19th centuries by making shoes and growing agricultural produce such as oranges and almonds, and thanks to its fisheries. The end of the 19th century witnessed a sharp recovery of the local economy with increasing international trade and the growth of the city harbour leading to increased exports of several products (particularly during World War I when Spain was a neutral country).\n\nMonjas-Santa Faz Square\nDuring the early 20th century, Alicante was a minor capital that enjoyed the benefit of Spain's neutrality during World War I, and that provided new opportunities for local industry and agriculture. The Rif War in the 1920s saw numerous ''alicantinos'' drafted to fight in the long and bloody campaigns in the former Spanish protectorate (Northern Morocco) against the Rif rebels. The political unrest of the late 1920s led to the victory of Republican candidates in local council elections throughout the country, and the abdication of King Alfonso XIII. The proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic was much celebrated in the city on 14 April 1931. The Spanish Civil War broke out on 17 July 1936. Alicante was the last city loyal to the Republican government to be occupied by General Franco's troops on 1 April 1939, and its harbour saw the last Republican government officials fleeing the country. Vicious air bombings were targeted on Alicante during the three years of civil conflict, most notably the bombing by the Italian ''Aviazione Legionaria'' of the Mercado de Abastos on 25 May 1938 in which more than 300 civilians perished.\n\nLuceros Square\nThe late 1950s and early 1960s saw the onset of a lasting transformation of the city by the tourist industry. Large buildings and complexes rose in nearby Albufereta (e.g. El Barco) and Playa de San Juan, with the benign climate being the biggest draw to attract prospective buyers and tourists who kept the hotels reasonably busy. New construction benefited the whole economy, as the development of the tourism sector also spawned new businesses such as restaurants, bars and other tourist-oriented enterprises. Also, the old airfield at Rabassa was closed and air traffic moved to the new El Altet Airport, which made a more convenient and modern facility for charter flights bringing tourists from northern European countries.\n\nWhen Franco died in 1975, his successor Juan Carlos I played his part as the living symbol of the transition of Spain to a democratic constitutional monarchy. The governments of regional communities were given constitutional status as ''nationalities'', and their governments were given more autonomy, including that of the Valencian region, the ''Generalitat Valenciana''.\n\nThe Port of Alicante has been reinventing itself since the industrial decline the city suffered in the 1980s (with most mercantile traffic lost to Valencia's harbour). In recent years, the Port Authority has established it as one of the most important ports in Spain for cruises, with 72 calls to port made by cruise ships in 2007 bringing some 80,000 passengers and 30,000 crew to the city each year. The moves to develop the port for more tourism have been welcomed by the city and its residents, but the latest plans to develop an industrial estate in the port have caused great controversy.\n\n\n", "Port of Alicante\nUntil the global recession which started in 2008, Alicante was one of the fastest-growing cities in Spain. The boom depended partly on tourism directed to the beaches of the Costa Blanca and particularly on the second residence-construction boom which started in the 1960s and revived again by the late 1990s. Services and public administration also play a major role in the city's economy. The construction boom has raised many environmental concerns and both the local autonomous government and city council are under scrutiny by the European Union. The construction surge was the subject of hot debates among politicians and citizens alike. The latest of many public battles concerns the plans of the Port Authority of Alicante to construct an industrial estate on reclaimed land in front of the city's coastal strip, in breach of local, national and European regulations. (See Port of Alicante for details).\n\nCiudad de la Luz\nThe city serves as the headquarters of the European Union Intellectual Property Office and a sizeable population of European public workers live there.\n\nThe campus of the University of Alicante lies in San Vicente del Raspeig, bordering the city of Alicante to the north. More than 27,000 students attend the University.\n\nSince 2005 Ciudad de la Luz, one of the largest film studios in Europe, has had its base in Alicante. The studio has shot Spanish and international movies such as ''Asterix at the Olympic Games'' by Frédéric Forestier and Thomas Langmann, and ''Manolete'' by Menno Meyjes.\n", "\n\nThe official population of Alicante in 2014 was 332,067 inhabitants and 757,085 in the metropolitan area \"Alicante-Elche\". About 15% of the population is foreign, most of them immigrants from Argentina, Ecuador, United Kingdom and Colombia who have arrived in the previous 20 years. There are also immigrants from other countries such as Germany, Romania, Russia, Algeria, Ukraine, Morocco and Italy, many of whom coming outside the EU are under illegal alien status and therefore are not accounted for in official population figures. The real percentage of foreign residents is higher, since the Alicante metropolitan area is home to many Northern European retirees who are officially still residents of their own countries. In the same pattern, a sizable number of permanent residents are Spanish nationals who officially still live in Madrid, the Basque provinces, or other areas of the country.\n", "\nGabriel Echávarri is the Mayor of the city. He was elected for the post on June 13, 2015, following the municipal elections on May 24, 2015. He was supported by the votes from his own group (6), plus those from leftist parties Guanyar Alacant (6) and Compromís (3), as well as from centre-right party Ciudadanos (6). The People's Party (''Partido Popular'', PP), with only 8 elected seats, lost the majority.\n\nIn the previous municipal elections of May 2011, Sonia Castedo of People's Party won the elections with an absolute majority, but resigned in December 2014 due to her involvement in several corruption scandals, at present being under investigation. Her fellow party member Miguel Valor went on to become mayor up until Echávarri's election.\n\nAt the foot of the main staircase of the City Hall Building (''Ayuntamiento'') is the zero point (''cota cero''), used as the point of reference for measuring the height above or below sea level of any point in Spain, due to the marginal tidal variations of the Mediterranean sea in Alicante.\n", "Alicante enjoys mild winter temperatures, hot summers and little rain, concentrated in equinoctial periods. The climate of the Alicante region according to Köppen climate classification is a Hot semi-arid climate (''BSh''). On average the temperature ranges between and in January, and between and in August, with an average annual temperature of . Daily variations in temperature are generally small because of the stabilising influence of the sea, although occasional periods of westerly wind can produce temperature changes of or more. Seasonal variations in temperature are also relatively small, meaning that winters are mild and summers are hot.\n\nThe average rainfall is per year. The cold drop means that September and October are the wettest months. Rarely, the rainfall can be torrential, reaching over in a 24-hour period, leading to severe flooding. Because of this irregularity, only 35 rainy days are observed on average per year, and the annual number of sunshine hours is 2,953.\n\nThe record maximum temperature of was observed on 4 July 1994. The record minimum temperature of was recorded on 2 January 1971. The worst flooding in modern history occurred on 30 September 1997 when of rain fell within six hours. Temperatures under are very rare. Snow is unknown since 1926 The climate of Alicante is very similar to the climate of Los Angeles, California.\n\n\n\n+Average sea temperature:\n\n'''Jan'''\n'''Feb'''\n'''Mar'''\n'''Apr'''\n'''May'''\n'''Jun'''\n'''Jul'''\n'''Aug'''\n'''Sep'''\n'''Oct'''\n'''Nov'''\n'''Dec'''\n'''Year'''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAlicante City Hall\n", "Alicante Airport outranks its Valencian counterpart, being among the busiest airports in Spain after Madrid, Barcelona, Palma de Mallorca and Málaga. It is connected with Madrid and Barcelona by frequent Iberia and Vueling flights, and with many Western European cities through carriers such as Ryanair, Easyjet, Air Berlin, Monarch Airlines, and Jet2.com. There are also regular flights to Algeria and Russia.\n\nLine L1 Alicante Tram near ''Sangueta'' stop\nAlicante railway station is used by Cercanías linking Alicante with suburbs and Murcia. Long-range RENFE trains run frequently to Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia.\n\nAlicante Tram connects the city with outlying settlements along Costa Blanca. , electric tram-trains run up to Benidorm, and diesel trains go further to Dénia.\n\nThe city has regular ferry services to the Balearic Islands and Algeria. The city is strongly fortified, with a spacious harbour.\n", "Mount Benacantil and Castle of Santa Bárbara\nAmongst the most notable features of the city are the Castle of Santa Bárbara, which sits high above the city, and the port of Alicante. The latter was the subject of bitter controversy in 2006–2007 as residents battled, successfully, to keep it from being changed into an industrial estate.\n\nThe Santa Bárbara castle is situated on Mount Benacantil, overlooking the city. The tower (''La Torreta'') at the top, is the oldest part of the castle, while part of the lowest zone and the walls were constructed later in the 18th century.\n\nExplanada de España\nThe promenade ''Explanada de España'', lined by palm trees, is paved with 6.5 million marble floor tiles creating a wavy form and is one of the most lovely promenades in Spain. The Promenade extends from the Port of Alicante to the Gran Vía and ends at the famous statue of Mark Hersch. For the people of Alicante, the promenade is the meeting place for the traditional Spanish ''paseo'', or stroll along the waterfront in the evenings, and a venue for outdoor musical concerts. At the end of the promenade is a monument by the artist Bañuls of the 19th century.\n\n''Barrio de la Santa Cruz'' is a colourful quarter of the old city, situated on the south-west of Santa Bárbara castle. Its small houses climb up the hill leading to the walls and the castle, through narrow streets decorated with flags and tubs of flowers.\n\n''L'Ereta Park'' is situated on the foothills of Mount Benacantil, on the way to the castle. It runs from the Santa Bárbara castle down to the old part of Alicante and consists of several levels, routes, decks and rest stops which offer a panoramic view overlooking the city.\n\n''El Palmeral Park'' is one of the favorite parks of Alicante's citizens. It includes walking trails, children's playgrounds, ponds and brooks, picnic tables and an auditorium for concerts.\n\nJust a few kilometers from Alicante on the Mediterranean Sea lies Tabarca island. What was once a haven for Barbary pirates is now a beautiful tourist attraction.\n\nBasilica of St Mary.\nOther sights include:\n* Basilica of Santa María (14th–16th centuries), built in Gothic style over the former main mosque. Other features include the high altar, in Rococo style, and the portal, in Baroque style, both from the 18th century.\n* Co-cathedral of St. Nicholas of Bari (15th–18th centuries), also built over a mosque. It is the main church of Alicante and the bishop's seat.\n* Monastery of ''Santa Faz'' (15th century), located outside the city, in Baroque style.\n* Defence towers of the ''Huerta de Alicante'' (15th–18th centuries), built to defend against the Barbary pirates. Today some 20 towers are still extant.\n* Baroque ''Casa de La Asegurada'' (1685), the most ancient civil building in the city. (s. XVII). Today it is home to the Museum of Contemporary Art of Alicante.\n* ''Casa consistorial de Alicante'' (18th century), also in Baroque style.\n* Convent of the ''Canónigas de San Agustín'' (18th century).\n* Gravina Palace (1748–1808), nowadays hosting Gravina Museum of Fine Arts.\n* Castle of San Fernando.\n\nThere are a dozen museums in Alicante. On exhibition at the Archaeological Museum of Alicante (MARQ) are local artifacts dating from 100,000 years ago till the early 20th century. The collection is divided into different rooms representing three divisions of archaeological methodology: ground, urban and underwater archaeology, with dioramas, audiovisual and interactive zones. The archaeological museum won the European Museum of the Year Award in 2004. Gravina Museum of Fine Arts presents a number of paintings and sculptures from the 16th century to the 19th century. Asegurada Museum of Contemporary Art houses a major collection of twentieth-century art, composed mainly of works donated by Eusebio Sempere.\n", "Castle of Santa Bárbara and Postiguet beach at the final night of Bonfires of Saint John's festival\n\nThe most important festival, the ''Bonfires of Saint John'' (''Fogueres de Sant Joan''), takes place during the summer solstice. This is followed a week later by seven nights of firework and pyrotechnic contests between companies on the urban beach ''Playa del Postiguet''. Another well-known festival is ''Moros i Cristians'' in Altozano or ''San Blas'' district. Overall, the city boasts a year-round nightlife for the enjoyment of tourists, residents, and a large student population of the University of Alicante. The nightlife social scene tends to shift to nearby Playa de San Juan (St. John's Beach) during the summer months.\n\nEvery summer in Alicante, a two-month-long programme of music, theatre and dance is staged in the Paseo del Puerto.\n", "The two established Alicante football teams are Hércules CF, which competes in the Spanish Segunda División B, and Alicante CF, which plays in Tercera División and was dissolved in 2014 due to economic problems. Hércules CF is more well known as it was in the first division in Spain during 96/97 and had many popular players such as David Trezeguet, Royston Drenthe and Aedo Valvez. It is also known because, thanks to this team beating Barcelona, Real Madrid won the league in 1997. Nowadays their home games are played in the Estadio José Rico Pérez.\n\nBasketball club Lucentum Alicante participates in the Spanish basketball league. It plays in the Centro de Tecnificación de Alicante.\n\nAlicante serves as headquarters and the starting point of Volvo Ocean Race, a yacht race around the world. The latest race sailed in October 2014.\n", "''Torre Provincial'' in La Rambla de Alicante.\nSeaside promenade.\nCastle of Santa Barbara.\n\n\n* George Washington Montgomery (1804–1841), born in Alicante, United States diplomat and editor/publisher of the first Spanish-language translation of the works of Washington Irving.\n* Carlos Arniches (1866–1943), novelist\n* Rafael Altamira y Crevea (1866–1951), co-founder of Permanent Court of International Justice so-called the World Court, after 1945 International Court of Justice\n* Francisco Javier de Balmis (1753–1819), physician who headed the Balmis expedition to vaccinate the Spanish-colonies population against smallpox.\nAlex De Minaur, tennis player\n Manuel Senante (1873–1959) Carlist publisher and politician\n* Gabriel Miró (1879–1930), novelist\n* Antonio Gades (1936–2004), Flamenco dancer\n* Juan Escarré (1969), field hockey player\n* Belen Rueda, actress\n* David Ferrer, tennis player\n* Miriam Blasco, judoka Olympic winner\n* Isabel Fernández, judoka Olympic winner\n* Esther Cañadas, model and actress\n* Pedro Ferrándiz, basketball coach\n* Francisco Rufete, footballer\n* Miguel Hernández, poet\n* Ricardo Llorca (born 1962), composer\n* Kiko Martínez, boxer\n* Nahemah, Extreme metal band\n* José Perramón, handball player\n* Asunción Valdés (born 1950), journalist\n\n\n", "\n\n===Twin towns – sister cities===\nAlicante is twinned with:\n\n\n\n* Nice, France\n* Carloforte, Italy\n* Herzliya, Israel\n* León, Nicaragua\n* Matanzas, Cuba\n\n\n\n* Oran, Algeria\n* Riga, Latvia\n* Toyooka, Japan\n* Wenzhou, China\n* Sivas, Turkey\n\n\nIn 2009 a bid was made to twin Newcastle, United Kingdom, with Alicante.\n", "Castrum Album\nSt Nicholas Day\n", "\n", "\n\n* Official website of Alicante \n* Official website of the Diputación Provincial de Alicante \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Toponymy ", "History", "Economy", "Population", "Government", "Climate", "Transport", "Main sights", "Festivals", "Sport", "Notable residents", "International relations", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alicante
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* AD 70 – Titus ends the siege of Jerusalem after destroying Herod's Temple.\n* 598 – Goguryeo-Sui War: Emperor Wéndi of Sui orders his youngest son, Yang Liang (assisted by the co-prime minister Gao Jiong), to conquer Goguryeo (Korea) during the Manchurian rainy season, with a Chinese army and navy.\n1265 – Second Barons' War: Battle of Evesham: The army of Prince Edward (the future king Edward I of England) defeats the forces of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, killing de Montfort and many of his allies.\n1327 – First War of Scottish Independence: James Douglas leads a raid into Weardale and almost kills Edward III of England.\n1532 – The Duchy of Brittany is united to the Kingdom of France.\n1578 – Battle of Al Kasr al Kebir: The Moroccans defeat the Portuguese. King Sebastian of Portugal is killed in the battle, leaving his elderly uncle, Cardinal Henry, as his heir. This initiates a succession crisis in Portugal.\n1693 – Date traditionally ascribed to Dom Perignon's invention of champagne; it is not clear whether he actually invented champagne, however he has been credited as an innovator who developed the techniques used to perfect sparkling wine.\n1701 – Great Peace of Montreal between New France and First Nations is signed.\n1704 – War of the Spanish Succession: Gibraltar is captured by an English and Dutch fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir George Rooke and allied with Archduke Charles.\n1783 – Mount Asama erupts in Japan, killing about 1,400 people. The eruption causes a famine, which results in an additional 20,000 deaths.\n1789 – France: members of the National Constituent Assembly take an oath to end feudalism and abandon their privileges.\n1790 – A newly passed tariff act creates the ''Revenue Cutter Service'' (the forerunner of the United States Coast Guard).\n1791 – The Treaty of Sistova is signed, ending the Ottoman–Habsburg wars.\n1796 – French Revolutionary Wars: Napoleon leads the French Army of Italy to victory in the Battle of Lonato.\n1821 – ''The Saturday Evening Post'' is published for the first time as a weekly newspaper.\n1824 – The Battle of Kos is fought between Turkish and Greek forces.\n1854 – The Hinomaru is established as the official flag to be flown from Japanese ships.\n1863 – Matica slovenská, Slovakia's public-law cultural and scientific institution focusing on topics around the Slovak nation, is established in Martin.\n1873 – American Indian Wars: While protecting a railroad survey party in Montana, the United States 7th Cavalry, under Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer clashes for the first time with the Cheyenne and Lakota people near the Tongue River; only one man on each side is killed.\n1889 – The Great Fire of Spokane, Washington destroys some 32 blocks of the city, prompting a mass rebuilding project.\n1892 – The father and stepmother of Lizzie Borden are found murdered in their Fall River, Massachusetts home. She was tried and acquitted for the crimes a year later.\n1914 – In response to the German invasion of Belgium, Belgium and the British Empire declare war on Germany. The United States declares its neutrality.\n1915 – World War I: The German 12th Army occupies Warsaw during the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive and the Great Retreat of 1915.\n1924 – Diplomatic relations between Mexico and the Soviet Union are established.\n1936 – Prime Minister of Greece Ioannis Metaxas suspends parliament and the Constitution and establishes the 4th of August Regime.\n1944 – The Holocaust: A tip from a Dutch informer leads the Gestapo to a sealed-off area in an Amsterdam warehouse, where they find and arrest Jewish diarist Anne Frank, her family, and four others.\n1946 – An earthquake of magnitude 8.0 hits northern Dominican Republic. One hundred are killed and 20,000 are left homeless.\n1947 – The Supreme Court of Japan is established.\n1964 – Civil Rights Movement: Civil rights workers Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman and James Chaney are found dead in Mississippi after disappearing on June 21.\n 1964 – Gulf of Tonkin incident: U.S. destroyers and report coming under attack in the Gulf of Tonkin.\n1965 – The Constitution of the Cook Islands comes into force, giving the Cook Islands self-governing status within New Zealand.\n1969 – Vietnam War: At the apartment of French intermediary Jean Sainteny in Paris, American representative Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Xuân Thuỷ begin secret peace negotiations. The negotiations will eventually fail.\n1974 – A bomb explodes in the ''Italicus Express'' train at San Benedetto Val di Sambro, Italy, killing 12 people and wounding 22.\n1975 – The Japanese Red Army takes more than 50 hostages at the AIA Building housing several embassies in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The hostages include the U.S. consul and the Swedish Chargé d'affaires. The gunmen win the release of five imprisoned comrades and fly with them to Libya.\n1977 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter signs legislation creating the United States Department of Energy.\n1984 – The Republic of Upper Volta changes its name to Burkina Faso.\n1987 – The Federal Communications Commission rescinds the Fairness Doctrine which had required radio and television stations to present controversial issues \"fairly\".\n1993 – A federal judge sentences Los Angeles Police Department officers Stacey Koon and Laurence Powell to 30 months in prison for violating motorist Rodney King's civil rights.\n1995 – Operation Storm begins in Croatia.\n2006 – A massacre is carried out by Sri Lankan government forces, killing 17 employees of the French INGO Action Against Hunger (known internationally as Action Contre la Faim, or ACF).\n2007 – NASA's ''Phoenix'' spacecraft is launched.\n", "1222 – Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester, English soldier (d. 1262)\n1281 – Külüg Khan, Emperor Wuzong of Yuan (d. 1311)\n1290 – Leopold I, Duke of Austria (d. 1326)\n1463 – Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, Florentine patron of the arts (d. 1503)\n1469 – Margaret of Saxony, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1528)\n1470 – Bernardo Dovizi, Italian cardinal (d. 1520)\n 1470 – Lucrezia de' Medici, Italian noblewoman (d. 1553)\n1521 – Pope Urban VII (d. 1590)\n1522 – Udai Singh II, King of Mewar (d. 1572)\n1604 – François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac, French cleric and author (d. 1676)\n1611 – Jan van den Hoecke, Flemish painter (d. 1651)\n1623 – Friedrich Casimir, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1641–1680) and Hanau-Münzenberg (1642–1680) (d. 1685)\n1701 – Thomas Blackwell, Scottish historian and scholar (d. 1757)\n1704 – Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans (d. 1752)\n1719 – Johann Gottlob Lehmann, German mineralogist and geologist (d. 1767)\n1721 – Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, English politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 1803)\n1755 – Nicolas-Jacques Conté, French soldier, painter, balloonist, and inventor (d. 1805)\n1792 – Percy Bysshe Shelley, English poet and playwright (d. 1822)\n1805 – William Rowan Hamilton, Irish physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (d. 1865)\n1821 – Louis Vuitton, French fashion designer, founded Louis Vuitton (d. 1892)\n 1821 – James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (d. 1881)\n1834 – John Venn, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1923)\n1839 – Walter Pater, English author, critic, and academic (d. 1894)\n1844 – Henri Berger, German composer and bandleader (d. 1929)\n1853 – John Henry Twachtman, American painter, etcher, and academic (d. 1902)\n1859 – Knut Hamsun, Norwegian novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1952)\n1867 – Jake Beckley, American baseball player and coach (d. 1918)\n1870 – Harry Lauder, Scottish actor and singer (d. 1950)\n1871 – William Holman, English-Australian politician, 19th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1934)\n1876 – Giovanni Giuriati, Italian lawyer and politician (d. 1970)\n 1876 – John Scaddan, Australian politician, 10th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1934)\n1884 – Béla Balázs, Hungarian poet and critic (d. 1949)\n 1884 – Henri Cornet, French cyclist (d. 1941)\n1887 – Albert M. Greenfield, Ukrainian-American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1967)\n1888 – Taher Saifuddin, Indian religious leader, 51st Da'i al-Mutlaq (d. 1965)\n1890 – Dolf Luque, Cuban baseball player and manager (d. 1957)\n1893 – Fritz Gause, German historian and curator (d. 1973)\n1898 – Ernesto Maserati, Italian race car driver and engineer (d. 1975)\n1899 – Ezra Taft Benson, American religious leader, 13th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1994)\n1900 – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother of the United Kingdom (d. 2002)\n 1900 – Nabi Tajima, Japanese supercentenarian, and current world's oldest living person\n1901 – Louis Armstrong, American trumpet player and singer (d. 1971)\n 1901 – Clarence Passailaigue, Jamaican cricketer (d. 1972)\n1902 – Bill Hallahan, American baseball player (d. 1981)\n1904 – Witold Gombrowicz, Polish author and playwright (d. 1969)\n* 1904 – Helen Kane, American singer and actress (d. 1966)\n* 1904 – Joe Tate, English footballer and manager (d. 1973)\n1906 – Eugen Schuhmacher, German zoologist, director, and producer (d. 1973)\n1908 – Kurt Eichhorn, German conductor (d. 1994)\n1909 – Glenn Cunningham, American runner and academic (d. 1988)\n1910 – Anita Page, American actress (d. 2008)\n* 1910 – William Schuman, American composer and educator (d. 1992)\n* 1910 – Hedda Sterne, Romanian-American painter and photographer (d. 2011)\n1912 – Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov, Russian mathematician, physicist, and mountaineer (d. 1999)\n 1912 – David Raksin, American composer and educator (d. 2004)\n* 1912 – Raoul Wallenberg, Swedish architect and diplomat (d. 1947)\n1913 – Wesley Addy, American actor (d. 1996)\n 1913 – Robert Hayden, American poet and educator (d. 1980)\n* 1913 – Johann Niemann, German lieutenant (d. 1943)\n1915 – Warren Avis, American businessman, founded Avis Rent a Car System (d. 2007)\n1917 – John Fitch, American race car driver and engineer (d. 2012)\n1918 – Brian Crozier, Australian-English historian and journalist (d. 2012)\n1919 – Michel Déon, French novelist, playwright, and critic (d. 2016)\n1920 – Helen Thomas, American journalist and author (d. 2013)\n1921 – Herb Ellis, American guitarist (d. 2010)\n* 1921 – Maurice Richard, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2000)\n1922 – Luis Aponte Martínez, Puerto Rican cardinal (d. 2012)\n1926 – George Irving Bell, American physicist, biologist, and mountaineer (d. 2000)\n* 1926 – Perry Moss, American football player and coach (d. 2014)\n1928 – Christian Goethals, Belgian race car driver (d. 2003)\n 1928 – Gerard Damiano, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)\n1928 – Nadežka Mosusova, Serbian composer\n1929 – Kishore Kumar, Indian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1987)\n* 1929 – Vellore G. Ramabhadran, Mridangam artiste from Tamil Nadu, India (d. 2012)\n1930 – Ali al-Sistani, Iranian-Iraqi cleric and scholar\n1931 – Naren Tamhane, Indian cricketer (d. 2002)\n1932 – Frances E. Allen, American computer scientist and academic\n 1932 – Liang Congjie, Chinese environmentalist, founded Friends of Nature (d. 2010)\n1934 – Dallas Green, American baseball player and manager (d. 2017)\n1935 – Carol Arthur, American actress and producer\n* 1935 – Hans-Walter Eigenbrodt, German footballer and coach (d. 1997)\n* 1935 – Michael J. Noonan, Irish farmer and politician, 25th Minister of Defence for Ireland (d. 2013)\n1936 – Giorgos Zographos, Greek singer and actor (d. 2005)\n1937 – David Bedford, English keyboard player, composer, and conductor (d. 2011)\n1938 – Ellen Schrecker, American historian and academic\n1939 – Jack Cunningham, Baron Cunningham of Felling, English politician, Minister for the Cabinet Office\n* 1939 – Frankie Ford, American R&B/rock & roll singer (d. 2015)\n1940 – Robin Harper, Scottish academic and politician\n 1940 – Larry Knechtel, American bass player and pianist (d. 2009)\n* 1940 – Frances Stewart, English economist and academic\n* 1940 – Timi Yuro, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004)\n1941 – Martin Jarvis, English actor\n 1941 – Andy Smillie, English footballer\n* 1941 – Ted Strickland, American psychologist and politician, 68th Governor of Ohio\n1942 – Cleon Jones, American baseball player\n 1942 – David Lange, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 2005)\n1943 – Vicente Álvarez Areces, Spanish politician, 6th President of the Principality of Asturias\n 1943 – Barbara Saß-Viehweger, German politician, lawyer and civil law notary\n* 1943 – Bjørn Wirkola, Norwegian ski jumper and footballer\n1944 – Richard Belzer, American actor\n 1944 – Doudou Ndoye, Senegalese lawyer and politician\n1945 – Paul McCarthy, American painter and sculptor\n 1945 – Alan Mulally, American engineer and businessman\n1946 – Aleksei Turovski, Estonian zoologist and ethologist\n1947 – Klaus Schulze, German keyboard player and songwriter \n1948 – Johnny Grubb, American baseball player and coach\n1949 – John Riggins, American football player, sportscaster, and actor\n1950 – Caldwell Jones, American basketball player and coach (d. 2014)\n 1950 – N. Rangaswamy, Indian lawyer and politician, 9th Chief Minister of Puducherry\n1951 – Peter Goodfellow, English geneticist and academic\n1952 – James Arbuthnot, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills\n* 1952 – Moya Brennan, Irish singer-songwriter and harp player \n* 1952 – Gábor Demszky, Hungarian sociologist, lawyer, and politician\n1953 – Hiroyuki Usui, Japanese footballer and manager\n1954 – Anatoliy Kinakh, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Ukraine\n* 1954 – Steve Phillips, English footballer\n* 1954 – François Valéry, Algerian-French singer-songwriter\n1955 – Alberto Gonzales, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 80th United States Attorney General\n 1955 – Billy Bob Thornton, American actor, director, and screenwriter \n1956 – Gerry Cooney, American boxer and promoter\n1957 – Brooks D. Simpson, American historian and author\n* 1957 – Valdis Valters, Latvian basketball player and coach\n* 1957 – John Wark, Scottish footballer and sportscaster\n1958 – Ian Broudie, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n 1958 – Allison Hedge Coke, American-Canadian poet and academic\n* 1958 – Mary Decker, American runner\n* 1958 – Silvan Shalom, Tunisian-Israeli sergeant and politician, 30th Deputy Prime Minister of Israel\n1959 – Robbin Crosby, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2002)\n 1959 – John Gormley, Irish politician, Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government\n1960 – Chuck C. Lopez, American jockey\n 1960 – José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Spanish academic and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Spain\n* 1960 – Bernard Rose, English director, screenwriter, and cinematographer\n* 1960 – Tim Winton, Australian author and playwright\n1961 – Barack Obama, American lawyer and politician, 44th President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate\n1962 – Roger Clemens, American baseball player and actor\n* 1962 – Paul Reynolds, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (A Flock of Seagulls)\n1964 – Andrew Bartlett, Australian social worker and politician\n1965 – Adam Afriyie, English businessman and politician\n* 1965 – Dennis Lehane, American author, screenwriter, and producer\n* 1965 – Fredrik Reinfeldt, Swedish soldier and politician, 42nd Prime Minister of Sweden\n* 1965 – Michael Skibbe, German footballer and manager\n1967 – Michael Marsh, American sprinter\n1968 – Daniel Dae Kim, South Korean-American actor\n* 1968 – Lee Mack, English comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter\n1969 – Mark Bickley, Australian footballer and coach\n 1969 – Max Cavalera, Brazilian singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1969 – Troy O'Leary, American baseball player\n1970 – John August, American director and screenwriter\n 1970 – Bret Baier, American journalist\n* 1970 – Steve House, American mountaineer\n* 1970 – Steven Jack, South African cricketer\n* 1970 – Kate Silverton, English journalist\n1971 – Bethan Benwell, English linguist, author, and academic\n 1971 – Jeff Gordon, American race car driver and actor\n1972 – Stefan Brogren, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1973 – Eva Amaral, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1973 – Xavier Marchand, French swimmer\n* 1973 – Marek Penksa, Slovak footballer\n* 1973 – Marcos Roberto Silveira Reis, Brazilian footballer\n1975 – Nikos Liberopoulos, Greek footballer\n 1975 – Jutta Urpilainen, Finnish politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Finland\n* 1975 – Daniella van Graas, Dutch model and actress\n1976 – Andrew McLeod, Australian footballer\n 1976 – Trevor Woodman, English rugby player and coach\n1977 – Frankie Kazarian, American wrestler\n 1977 – Luís Boa Morte, Portuguese footballer and manager\n1978 – Jeremy Adduono, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n 1978 – Luke Allen, American baseball player\n* 1978 – Kurt Busch, American race car driver\n* 1978 – Agnė Eggerth, Lithuanian sprinter\n* 1978 – Ibán Espadas, Spanish footballer\n* 1978 – Jon Knott, American baseball player \n* 1978 – Karine Legault, Canadian swimmer\n* 1978 – Sandeep Naik, Indian politician\n* 1978 – Siri Nordby, Norwegian footballer\n* 1978 – Ricardo Serrano, Spanish cyclist\n* 1978 – Per-Åge Skrøder, Norwegian ice hockey player\n* 1978 – Satoshi Hino, Japanese voice actor\n1979 – Robin Peterson, South African cricketer\n1980 – Richard Dawson, English cricketer and coach\n1981 – Erica Carlson, Swedish actress\n 1981 – Marques Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor \n1983 – Greta Gerwig, American actress, producer, and screenwriter\n1984 – Terry Campese, Australian rugby league player\n* 1984 – Mardy Collins, American basketball player\n1985 – Crystal Bowersox, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n 1985 – Robbie Findley, American soccer player\n* 1985 – Mark Milligan, Australian footballer\n* 1985 – Ha Seung-jin, South Korean basketball player\n* 1985 – Antonio Valencia, Ecuadorean footballer\n1986 – Nick Augusto, American drummer \n 1986 – Leon Camier, English motorcycle racer\n* 1986 – Cicinho, Brazilian footballer\n* 1986 – Iosia Soliola, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player\n* 1986 – David Williams, Australian rugby league player\n1987 – Jang Keun-suk, South Korean actor and singer\n 1987 – Marreese Speights American basketball player\n* 1987 – Tomoya Warabino, Japanese actor\n1988 – Carly Foulkes, Canadian model and actress\n1989 – Wang Hao, Chinese chess player\n* 1989 – Jessica Mauboy, Australian singer-songwriter \n1990 – Hikmet Balioğlu, Turkish footballer\n 1990 – Siim Tenno, Estonian footballer\n1991 – Thiago Cardoso, Brazilian footballer\n 1991 – Izet Hajrović, Bosnian footballer\n1992 – Daniele Garozzo, Italian fencer\n 1992 – Dylan Sprouse, American actor\n* 1992 – Cole Sprouse, American actor\n1994 – Pauli Pauli, Australian rugby league player\n1995 – Bruna Marquezine, Brazilian actress\n\n", "221 – Lady Zhen, Chinese empress (b. 183)\n966 – Berengar II of Italy (b. 900)\n1060 – Henry I of France (b. 1008)\n1265 – Peter de Montfort, English politician (b. 1215)\n* 1265 – Henry de Montfort (b. 1238)\n* 1265 – Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, French-English soldier and politician, Lord High Steward (b. 1208)\n* 1265 – Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer, English politician (b. 1223)\n1266 – Eudes of Burgundy, Count of Nevers (b. 1230)\n1306 – Wenceslaus III of Bohemia (b. 1289)\n1338 – Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk (b. 1300)\n1345 – As-Salih Ismail, Sultan of Egypt (b. 1326)\n1378 – Galeazzo II Visconti, Lord of Milan (b. c. 1320)\n1430 – Philip I, Duke of Brabant (b. 1404)\n1526 – Juan Sebastián Elcano, Spanish explorer and navigator (b. 1476)\n1578 – Sebastian of Portugal (b. 1554)\n1598 – William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, English academic and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1520)\n1612 – Hugh Broughton, English scholar and theologian (b. 1549)\n1639 – Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Mexican actor and playwright (b. 1581)\n1718 – René Lepage de Sainte-Claire, French-Canadian founder of Rimouski (b. 1656)\n1727 – Victor-Maurice, comte de Broglie, French general (b. 1647)\n1741 – Andrew Hamilton, Scottish-American lawyer and politician (b. 1676)\n1778 – Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial, Canadian-French politician, Governor General of New France (b. 1698)\n1792 – John Burgoyne, English general and politician (b. 1723)\n1795 – Timothy Ruggles, American lawyer, jurist, and politician (b. 1711)\n1804 – Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan, Scottish admiral (b. 1731)\n1822 – Kristjan Jaak Peterson, Estonian poet and author (b. 1801)\n1844 – Jacob Aall, Norwegian economist, historian, and politician (b. 1773)\n1859 – John Vianney, French priest and saint (b. 1786)\n1873 – Viktor Hartmann, Russian architect and painter (b. 1834)\n1875 – Hans Christian Andersen, Danish novelist, short story writer, and poet (b. 1805)\n1886 – Samuel J. Tilden, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of New York (b. 1814)\n1900 – Isaac Levitan, Russian painter and educator (b. 1860)\n1914 – Jules Lemaître, French playwright and critic (b. 1853)\n1919 – Dave Gregory, Australian cricketer and umpire (b. 1845)\n1922 – Enver Pasha, Ottoman general and politician (b. 1881)\n1932 – Alfred Henry Maurer, American painter (b. 1868)\n1938 – Pearl White, American actress (b. 1889)\n1940 – Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Ukrainian-American general, journalist, and activist (b. 1880)\n1941 – Mihály Babits, Hungarian poet and author (b. 1883)\n1942 – Alberto Franchetti, Italian composer and educator (b. 1860)\n1944 – Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Polish soldier and poet (b. 1921)\n1957 – John Cain Sr., Australian politician, 34th Premier of Victoria (b. 1882)\n 1957 – Washington Luís, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 13th President of Brazil (b. 1869)\n1958 – Ethel Anderson, Australian poet, author, and painter (b. 1883)\n1959 – József Révai, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1898)\n1967 – Peter Smith, English cricketer (b. 1908)\n1976 – Enrique Angelelli, Argentinian bishop and martyr (b. 1923)\n* 1976 – Roy Thomson, 1st Baron Thomson of Fleet, Canadian-English publisher (b. 1894)\n1977 – Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, English physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1889)\n1981 – Melvyn Douglas, American actor (b. 1901)\n1982 – Bruce Goff, American architect, designed the Boston Avenue Methodist Church (b. 1904)\n1985 – Don Whillans, English rock climber and mountaineer (b. 1933)\n1990 – Ettore Maserati, Italian engineer and businessman (b. 1894)\n1992 – Seichō Matsumoto, Japanese author (b. 1909)\n1996 – Geoff Hamilton, English gardener, author, and television host (b. 1936)\n1997 – Jeanne Calment, French super-centenarian; holds records for the world's substantiated longest-lived person (b. 1875)\n1998 – Yury Artyukhin, Russian colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1930)\n1999 – Victor Mature, American actor (b. 1913)\n2003 – Frederick Chapman Robbins, American pediatrician and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1916)\n2004 – Mary Sherman Morgan, American chemist and engineer (b. 1921)\n2005 – Anatoly Larkin, Russian-American physicist and theorist (b. 1932)\n 2005 – Iván Szabó, Hungarian economist and politician, Minister of Finance of Hungary (b. 1934)\n2007 – Lee Hazlewood, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1929)\n 2007 – Raul Hilberg, Austrian-American political scientist and historian (b. 1926)\n2008 – Craig Jones, English motorcycle racer (b. 1985)\n2009 – Blake Snyder, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1957)\n2011 – Naoki Matsuda, Japanese footballer (b. 1977)\n2012 – Johnnie Bassett, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1935)\n* 2012 – Brian Crozier, Australian-English journalist and historian (b. 1918)\n* 2012 – Bud Riley, American football player and coach (b. 1925)\n2013 – Keith H. Basso, American anthropologist and academic (b. 1940)\n 2013 – Art Donovan, American football player and radio host (b. 1925)\n* 2013 – Olavi J. Mattila, Finnish engineer and politician, Finnish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1918)\n* 2013 – Renato Ruggiero, Italian lawyer and politician, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1930)\n* 2013 – Tony Snell, English lieutenant and pilot (b. 1922)\n* 2013 – Sandy Woodward, English admiral (b. 1932)\n2014 – James Brady, American activist and politician, 15th White House Press Secretary (b. 1940)\n 2014 – Chester Crandell, American lawyer and politician (b. 1946)\n* 2014 – Jake Hooker, Israeli-American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1953)\n2015 – Elsie Hillman, American philanthropist and politician (b. 1925)\n 2015 – Les Munro, New Zealand soldier and pilot (b. 1919)\n* 2015 – John Rudometkin, American basketball player (b. 1940)\n* 2015 – Billy Sherrill, American songwriter and producer (b. 1936)\n* 2015 – Alfred C. Williams, American lawyer and politician (b. 1951)\n\n", "* Christian feast day:\n Aristarchus\n Euphronius\n Blessed Frédéric Janssoone\n John Vianney\n Molua (or Lua)\n Raynerius of Split\n Sithney, patron saint of mad dogs\n August 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Coast Guard Day (United States)\n* Constitution Day (Cook Islands)\n* Matica slovenská Day (Slovakia)\n* Revolution Day (Burkina Faso)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 4
[ "\n\n\n'''Ann Noreen Widdecombe''', (born 4 October 1947) is a former British Conservative Party politician. She is a Privy Councillor and was the Member of Parliament for Maidstone from 1987 to 1997 and for Maidstone and The Weald from 1997 to 2010. She was a social conservative and a member of the Conservative Christian Fellowship. She retired from politics at the 2010 general election. Since 2002 she has also made numerous television and radio appearances, including as a television presenter. She is a convert from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism.\n\nAs an MP, Widdecombe was known for opposing the legality of abortion, her opposition to various issues of LGBT equality such as an equal age of consent and the repeal of Section 28, her support for the re-introduction of the death penalty, the retention of blasphemy laws and her opposition to fox hunting.\n", "Born in Bath, Somerset, Widdecombe is the daughter of Rita Noreen (née Plummer; 1911-2007) and Ministry of Defence civil servant James Murray Widdecombe. Widdecombe's maternal grandfather, James Henry Plummer, was born to an Irish Catholic family of English descent in Crosshaven, County Cork in 1874. She attended the Royal Naval School in Singapore, and La Sainte Union Convent School in Bath. She then read Latin at the University of Birmingham and later attended Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, to read Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE). She worked for Unilever (1973–75) and then as an administrator at the University of London (1975–87) before entering Parliament.\n\n===Councillor===\nFrom 1976 to 1978, Widdecombe was a councillor on Runnymede District Council in Surrey. She contested the seat of Burnley in Lancashire in the 1979 general election and then, against David Owen, the Plymouth Devonport seat in the 1983 general election.\n", "She was first elected to the House of Commons in the 1987 general election as member for the constituency of Maidstone (which became Maidstone and The Weald in 1997).\n\n===Political views===\nAs an MP, Widdecombe expressed conservative views, including opposition to abortion; it was understood during her time in frontline politics that she would not become Health Secretary as long as this involved responsibility for abortions. Although a committed Christian, she has characterised the issue as one of life and death on which her view had been the same when she was agnostic. Along with John Gummer MP, she converted from the Church of England to the Catholic Church following the decision of the Church of England on the Ordination of women as priests. In her speech at the 2000 Conservative conference, she called for a zero tolerance policy of prosecution, with the punishment of £100 fines for users of cannabis. This was well received by rank-and-file Conservative delegates.\n\nWiddecombe consistently opposed LGBT equality. On the issue of an equal age of consent, she said in 2000: \"I do not believe that issues of equality should override the imperatives of protecting the young.\" In 2003, Widdecombe proposed an amendment opposing repeal of Section 28 of the Local Government Act, which banned the promotion of homosexuality by local governments. Out of the 17 parliamentary votes considered by the Public Whip website to concern equal rights for homosexuals, Widdecombe took the opposing position in 15 cases, not being present at the other two votes. Widdecombe has also expressed her opposition to same-sex marriage, introduced by David Cameron's government in 2014, claiming that \"the state must have a preferred model\" and \"a union that is generally open to procreation\".\n\nShe is a committed animal lover and one of the few Conservative MPs to have consistently voted for the ban on fox hunting. Widdecombe was among more than 20 high-profile people who signed a letter to Members of Parliament in 2015 to oppose David Cameron's plan to amend the Hunting Act 2004.\n\nShe has expressed a variety of views on scientific issues such as climate change but has been opposed to legislation reducing emissions. Her views on the subject appear to have hardened over time. In 2007, she wrote that she did not want to belittle the issue but was sceptical of the claims that specific actions would prevent catastrophe, then in 2008 that her doubts had been \"crystalised\" by Nigel Lawson's book ''An Appeal to Reason'', before stating in 2009 that \"There is no climate change, hasn’t anybody looked out of their window recently?\" She was one of the five MPs who voted against the Climate Change Act 2008. In 2011 she expressed the view that \"climate change money should go to armed services\". The previous year, she voted to support a parliamentary motion supporting homeopathy, criticizing the Science and Technology Committee's Report on the subject.\n\nOver the years, Widdecombe has expressed her support for a reintroduction of the death penalty, which was abolished in the UK in 1965. She notably spoke of her support for its reintroduction for the worst cases of murder in the aftermath of the murder of two 10-year-old girls from Soham, Cambridgeshire, in August 2002, in the Soham murders. She supported the argument that the death penalty would have deterrent value, as within five years of its abolition the national murder rate had more than doubled.\n\n===In government===\nWiddecombe joined John Major's government as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Social Security in 1990. In 1993, she was moved to the Department of Employment, and she was promoted to Minister of State the following year. In 1995, she joined the Home Office as Minister of State for Prisons and visited every prison in Britain.\n\n===Shadow Cabinet===\nAfter the fall of the Conservative government to Labour in 1997, she served as Shadow Health Secretary between 1998 and 1999 and later as Shadow Home Secretary between 1999 and 2001 under William Hague.\n\n===Leadership contest and backbenches===\nWiddecombe in 2006\nDuring the 2001 Conservative leadership election, she could not find sufficient support amongst Conservative MPs for her leadership candidacy. She first supported Michael Ancram, who was eliminated in the first round, and then Kenneth Clarke, who lost in the final round. She afterwards declined to serve in Iain Duncan Smith's Shadow Cabinet (although she indicated on the television programme ''When Louis Met...'', prior to the leadership contest, that she wished to retire to the backbenches anyway).\n\nIn the 2005 leadership election, she initially supported Kenneth Clarke again. Once he was eliminated, she turned support towards Liam Fox. Following Fox's subsequent elimination, she took time to reflect before finally declaring for David Davis. She expressed reservations over the eventual winner David Cameron, feeling that he did not, like the other candidates, have a proven track record, and she was later a leading figure in parliamentary opposition to his A-List policy, which she has said is \"an insult to women\". At the October 2006 Conservative Conference, she was Chief Dragon in a political version of the television programme ''Dragons' Den'', in which A-list candidates were invited to put forward a policy proposal, which was then torn apart by her team of Rachel Elnaugh, Oliver Letwin and Michael Brown.\n\nIn an interview with ''Metro'' in September 2006 she stated that if Parliament were of a normal length, it was likely she would retire at the next general election. She confirmed her intention to stand down to ''The Observer'''s Pendennis diary in September 2007, and again in October 2007 after Prime Minister Gordon Brown quashed speculation of an autumn 2007 general election.\n\nIn November 2006, she moved into the house of an Islington Labour Councillor to experience life on a council estate, her response to her experience being \"Five years ago I made a speech in the House of Commons about the forgotten decents. I have spent the last week on estates in the Islington area finding out that they are still forgotten.\"\n\nWiddecombe was one of the 98 MPs who voted to keep their expense details secret. When the expenses claims were leaked, however, Widdecombe was described by ''The Daily Telegraph'' as one of the \"saints\" amongst all MPs.\n\nIn May 2009, following the resignation of Michael Martin as Speaker of the House of Commons, it was reported that Widdecombe was gathering support for election as interim Speaker until the next general election. On 11 June 2009, she confirmed her bid to be the Speaker. She made it through to the second ballot but came last and was eliminated.\n\nWiddecombe retired from politics at the 2010 general election. It was rumoured that she would be a Conservative candidate for Police and Crime Commissioner in 2012, but she refused. She has since spoken about her opposition to the Coalition Government and her surprise at not being given a peerage by David Cameron.\n\nIn 2016, she backed Britain's withdrawal from the European Union during the 2016 EU referendum and, following the resignation of David Cameron, endorsed Andrea Leadsom in her candidacy for election for the leadership of the governing Conservative Party.\n", "Until her retirement at the 2010 general election, Widdecombe divided her time between her two homes – one in London and one in the village of Sutton Valence, Kent, in her constituency. She sold both of these properties, however, upon deciding to retire at the next general election. She shared her home in London with her widowed mother, Rita Widdecombe, until Rita's death, on 25 April 2007, aged 95. In March 2008, she purchased a house in Haytor Vale, on Dartmoor in Devon, to where she has now retired. Her brother, Malcolm (1937–2010), who was an Anglican Canon in Bristol, retired in May 2009 and died of metastatic oesophageal cancer on 12 October 2010. Her nephew, Roger Widdecombe, is an Anglican priest.\n\nShe has never married nor had any children. In November 2007 on BBC Radio 4 she described how a journalist once produced a profile on her with the assumption that she had had at least \"one sexual relationship\", to which Widdecombe replied: \"Be careful, that's the way you get sued\". When interviewer Jenni Murray asked if she had ever had a sexual relationship, Widdecombe laughed \"it's nobody else's business\".\n\nWiddecombe has a fondness for cats and has a section of her website devoted to all the pet cats with which she has shared her life. In an interview, Widdecombe talked about her appreciation of music despite describing herself as \"pretty well tone-deaf\".\n\nHer non-political accomplishments include being a popular novelist. Widdecombe also currently writes a weekly column for the ''Daily Express''.\n\nIn January 2011 Widdecombe was joint President of the North of England Education Conference in Blackpool. She shared the responsibility with a young person from the town. She has also become a patron of The Grace Charity for M.E.\n\nWiddecombe revealed, in an April 2012 interview with Matt Chorley of ''The Independent'', that she was writing her autobiography, which she described as \"rude about all and sundry, but an amount of truth is always necessary\".\n\nWiddecombe is a Patron of the charity Safe Haven for Donkeys in the Holy Land (SHADH) and in 2014 visited the SHADH Donkey Sanctuary in Palestine.\n\n===Religious views===\nWiddecombe is a practising Roman Catholic. She converted in 1993 after leaving the Church of England. Her reasons for leaving the latter were many, as she explained to reporters from the ''New Statesman'':\n\n:I left the Church of England because there was a huge bundle of straw. The ordination of women was the last straw, but it was only one of many. For years I had been disillusioned by the Church of England's compromising on everything. The Catholic Church doesn't care if something is unpopular.\n\nIn October 2006, she pledged to boycott British Airways for suspending a worker who refused to hide her cross. The matter was resolved when the company reversed the suspension.\n\nIn 2010, Widdecombe turned down an offer to be Britain's next ambassador to the Holy See, being prevented from accepting by suffering a detached retina. She was made a Dame of the Order of St. Gregory the Great by Pope Benedict XVI for services to politics and public life on 31 January 2013.\n", "In 1990, following the assassination of the Conservative politician Ian Gow by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), the Eastbourne by-election for his seat in the House of Commons was won by the Liberal Democrat David Bellotti. Upon the announcement, Widdecombe told the voters that the IRA would be \"toasting their success\".\n\nIn 1996, Widdecombe, as prisons minister, defended the Government's policy to shackle pregnant prisoners with handcuffs and chains when in hospital receiving ante-natal care. Widdecombe told the Commons the restrictions were needed to prevent prisoners from escaping. \"Some MPs may like to think that a pregnant woman would not or could not escape. Unfortunately this is not true. The fact is that hospitals are not secure places in which to keep prisoners, and since 1990, 20 women have escaped from hospitals\". Jack Straw, Labour's Home Affairs spokesman at the time, said it was \"degrading and unnecessary\" for a woman to be shackled at any stage.\n\nIn 1997, during the Conservative leadership election of William Hague, Widdecombe spoke out against Michael Howard, under whom she had served when he was Home Secretary. She remarked in the House of Commons that there is \"something of the night\" about him. The remark was considered to be antisemitic by some and was damaging to Howard, who came last in the first round, an opinion both former ministers share. Howard still became party leader in 2003, and Widdecombe then stated, \"I explained fully what my objections were in 1997 and I do not retract anything I said then. But ... we have to look to the future and not the past.\"\n\nIn 2001, when Michael Portillo was running for leader of the Conservative Party, Widdecombe described him and his allies as \"backbiters\". She went on to say that, should he be appointed leader, she would never give him her allegiance.\n", "Widdecombe in an ''Any Questions?'' broadcast in 2016 at the Nexus Methodist Church, Bath\nIn 2002, she took part in the ITV programme ''Celebrity Fit Club''. Also in 2002 she took part in a Louis Theroux television documentary, depicting her life, both in and out of politics. In March 2004 she briefly became ''The Guardian'' newspaper's agony aunt, introduced with an Emma Brockes interview. In 2005 BBC Two showed six episodes of ''The Widdecombe Project'', an agony aunt television programme. In 2005, she appeared in a new series of ''Celebrity Fit Club'', but this time as a panel member dispensing wisdom and advice to the celebrities taking part. Also in 2005, she presented the show ''Ann Widdecombe to the Rescue'' in which she acted as an agony aunt, dispensing no-nonsense advice to disputing families, couples, and others across the UK. In 2005, she also appeared in a discussion programme on Five to discuss who had been England's greatest monarch since the Norman Conquest; her choice of monarch was Charles II.\n\nShe was the guest host of news quiz ''Have I Got News for You'' twice, in 2006 and 2007. Following her second appearance, Widdecombe vowed she would never appear on the show again because of comments made by panellist Jimmy Carr. She wrote, \"His idea of wit is a barrage of filth and the sort of humour most men grow out of in their teens.... There's no amount of money for which I would go through those two recording hours again. At one stage I nearly walked out.\" She did, however, stand by her appraisal of regular panellists Ian Hislop and Paul Merton, whom she has called \"the fastest wits in showbusiness\".\n\nIn 2007, she awarded the ''University Challenge'' trophy to the winners. In the same year, she was cast as herself in \"The Sound of Drums\", the 12th episode of the third series of the science-fiction drama ''Doctor Who'' supporting Mr Saxon, the alias of the Master.\n\nSince 2007, Widdecombe has fronted a television series called ''Ann Widdecombe Versus'', on ITV1, in which she speaks to various people about things related to her as an MP, with an emphasis on confronting those responsible for problems she wished to tackle. On 15 August 2007 she talked about prostitution, the next week about benefits and the week after that about truancy. A fourth episode was screened on 18 September 2008 in which she travelled around London and Birmingham talking to girl gangs.\n\nIn 2009, Widdecombe appeared with Archbishop John Onaiyekan in an \"Intelligence Squared\" debate in which they defended the motion that the Catholic Church was a force for good. Arguing against the motion were Stephen Fry and Christopher Hitchens, who won the debate overall.\n\nIn October 2010, she appeared on BBC One's ''Strictly Come Dancing'', partnered by Anton du Beke, winning the support of some viewers despite low marks from the judges. After nine weeks of routines strongly flavoured by comedy the couple had received enough support in the public vote to stay in the contest. Widdecombe was eliminated from the competition on Sunday 5 December after the public vote had been combined with the judges' score; she was with Scott Maslen of ''EastEnders'' in the bottom two.\n\nIn 2012, Widdecombe hosted a new quiz show with herself as questionmaster, for the Sky Atlantic channel, called ''Cleverdicks''. The show ran for one series with 30 one-hour episodes. It featured four contestants, usually high quality members of the UK national quiz circuit and ended with a money round for the winner of each show.\n\nOn 23 April 2012, Widdecombe presented an hour-long documentary for BBC Radio 5 Live, ''Drunk Again: Ann Widdecombe Investigates'', looking at how the British attitude to getting drunk has changed over the last few years.\n\nIt was revealed in October 2012, that the year's Children in Need's appeal night will feature a ''Strictly Come Dancing'' special with former show favourites Russell Grant and Ann Widdecombe.\n\nOn 4 November 2012, Ann presented guest hosted one episode of BBC's ''Songs of Praise'' programme about singleness.\n\nIn October 2014, she appeared in the BBC series ''Celebrity Antiques Road Trip'', partnered with expert Mark Stacey, where the pair beat the rival team of Craig Revel Horwood and Catherine Southon.\n\nWiddecombe was a part of television series ''24 Hours in the Past'', along with Colin Jackson, Alistair McGowan, Miquita Oliver, Tyger Drew-Honey and Zoe Lucker. The 4 -part series was aired from 28 April–19 May 2015 on BBC One. She took part in an episode of ''Tipping Point: Lucky Stars'' in 2016. In 2017, Widdecombe took part in ITV's ''Sugar Free Farm''.\n", "Following her retirement, Widdecombe made her stage debut, on 9 December 2011, at The Orchard Theatre, Dartford in the Christmas pantomime ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'', alongside ''Strictly Come Dancing'' judge Craig Revel Horwood. In April 2012, she had a ten-minute non-singing cameo part in Gaetano Donizetti's comic opera ''La Fille Du Regiment'', playing the Duchesse de Crackentorp. Ann reprised her pantomime performance, again with Revel Horwood, at The Swan Theatre, High Wycombe in December 2012.\n", "Widdecombe was appointed an Honorary Fellow of Canterbury Christ Church University at a ceremony held at Canterbury Cathedral on 30 January 2009.\n: Dame of the Order of St Gregory the Great (DSG) (2013)\n", "\n===Fiction===\n* 2000: ''The Clematis Tree''. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson \n* 2002: ''An Act of Treachery''. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson \n* 2005: ''Father Figure''. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson \n* 2005: ''An Act of Peace''. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson \n\n===Non-fiction===\n* 1999: ''Inspired and Outspoken: the collected speeches of Ann Widdecombe''; edited by John Simmons, with a biographical preface by Nick Kochan. London: Politico's Publishing \n2004: ''The Mass is a Mess'', with Martin Kochanski. London: Catholic Writers' Guild\n", " 2000: Kochan, Nicholas ''Ann Widdecombe: right from the beginning''. London: Politico's Publishing \n\n", "\n", "\n* Official Website\n* TheyWorkForYou.com – Ann Widdecombe MP\n* The Public Whip – Ann Widdecombe MP voting record\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Member of Parliament", "Personal life and family", "Controversies", "Media work and appearances", "Stage acting career", "Honours", "Selected publications", "Further reading", "References", "External links" ]	Ann Widdecombe
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad''' (3 November 1618 – 3 March 1707), commonly known by the sobriquet '''Aurangzeb''' (Persian: \"Ornament of the Throne\") or by his regnal title '''Alamgir''' (Persian: \"Conqueror of the World\"), was the sixth, and widely considered the last effective Mughal emperor. His reign lasted for 49 years from 1658 until his death in 1707.\n\nAurangzeb was a notable expansionist and during his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, ruling over nearly all of the Indian subcontinent. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres, and he ruled over a population estimated to be over 158 million subjects, with an annual yearly revenue of $450 million (more than ten times that of his contemporary Louis XIV of France), or £38,624,680 (2,879,469,894 rupees) in 1690. Under his reign, India surpassed China to become the world's largest economy, worth over $90 billion, nearly a quarter of world GDP in 1700.\n\nAurangzeb is considered one of India's most controversial kings. Some historians argue that his policies abandoned his predecessors' legacy of pluralism and religious tolerance, citing his destruction of Hindu temples and execution of a Sikh guru,Avari writes, \"Aurangzeb's religious policy caused friction between him and the ninth Sikh guru, Tegh Bahadur. In both Punjab and Kashmir the Sikh leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by Aurangzeb to embrace Islam and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November 1675. Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the Mughals. (Avari (2013), page 155) while other historians question this, arguing that his destruction of temples has been exaggerated and were politically motivated, and noting that he built more temples than he destroyed, also destroyed Islamic mosques, paid for the maintenance of temples, employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, and opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.\n\nIt was at the end of his reign that the downfall of the Mughal Empire began. Rebellions and wars eventually led to the exhaustion of the imperial Mughal treasury and army. He was a strong-handed authoritarian ruler, and following his death the expansionary period of the Mughal Empire came to an end. Nevertheless, the contiguous territory of the Mughal Empire still remained intact more or less until the reign of Muhammad Shah.\n", "Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh in their younger years.\nAurangzeb was born on 3 November 1618, in Dahod, Gujarat. He was the third son and sixth child of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. In June 1626, after an unsuccessful rebellion by his father, Aurangzeb and his brother Dara Shukoh were kept as hostages under their grandparents' (Nur Jahan and Jahangir) Lahore court. On 26 February 1628, Shah Jahan was officially declared the Mughal Emperor, and Aurangzeb returned to live with his parents at Agra Fort, where Aurangzeb received his formal education in Arabic and Persian. His daily allowance was fixed at Rs. 500, which he spent on religious education and the study of history.\n\nOn 28 May 1633, Aurangzeb escaped death when a powerful war elephant stampeded through the Mughal Imperial encampment. He rode against the elephant and struck its trunk with a lance, and successfully defended himself from being crushed. Aurangzeb's valour was appreciated by his father who conferred him the title of ''Bahadur'' (Brave) and had him weighed in gold and presented gifts worth Rs. 200,000. This event was celebrated in Persian and Urdu verses, and Aurangzeb said:\n\n\n", "\n===Bundela War===\n\nThe Mughal Army under the command of Aurangzeb recaptures Orchha in October 1635.\n\nAurangzeb was nominally in charge of the force sent to Bundelkhand with the intent of subduing the rebellious ruler of Orchha, Jhujhar Singh, who had attacked another territory in defiance of Shah Jahan's policy and was refusing to atone for his actions. By arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took the advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the Siege of Orchha in 1635.The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power.\n\n===Viceroy of the Deccan===\n\nA painting from ''Padshahnama'' depicts Prince Aurangzeb facing a maddened war elephant named ''Sudhakar''.\n\nAurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636. After Shah Jahan's vassals had been devastated by the alarming expansion of Ahmednagar during the reign of the Nizam Shahi boy-prince Murtaza Shah III, the emperor dispatched Aurangzeb, who in 1636 brought the Nizam Shahi dynasty to an end. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess Dilras Banu Begum, posthumously known as Rabia-ud-Daurani. She was his first wife and chief consort as well as his favourite. He also had an infatuation with a slave girl, Hira Bai, whose death at a young age greatly affected him. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, Udaipuri Bai. The latter had formerly been a companion to Dara Shikoh. In the same year, 1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana, which he did with ease.\n\nIn 1644, Aurangzeb's sister, Jahanara, was burned when the chemicals in her perfume were ignited by a nearby lamp while in Agra. This event precipitated a family crisis with political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure by not returning to Agra immediately but rather three weeks later. Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects. Shah Jahan was outraged to see Aurangzeb enter the interior palace compound in military attire and immediately dismissed him from his position of viceroy of the Deccan; Aurangzeb was also no longer allowed to use red tents or to associate himself with the official military standard of the Mughal emperor. Other sources tell us that Aurangzeb was dismissed from his position because Aurangzeb left the life of luxury and became a Faqir.\n\nIn 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months and mentioned his grief to fellow Mughal commanders. Thereafter, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of Gujarat where he served well and was rewarded for bringing stability.\n\nIn 1647, Shah Jahan moved Aurangzeb from Gujarat to be governor of Balkh, replacing a younger son, Murad Baksh, who had proved ineffective there. The area was under attack from Uzbek and Turkmen tribes. Whilst the Mughal artillery and muskets were a formidable force, so too were the skirmishing skills of their opponents. The two sides were in stalemate and Aurangzeb discovered that his army could not live off the land, which was devastated by war. With the onset of winter, he and his father had to make a largely unsatisfactory deal with the Uzbeks, giving away territory in exchange for nominal recognition of Mughal sovereignty. The Mughal force suffered still further with attacks by Uzbeks and other tribesmen as it retreated through snow to Kabul. By the end of this two-year campaign, into which Aurangzeb had been plunged at a late stage, a vast sum of money had been expended for little gain.\n\nFurther inauspicious military involvements followed, as Aurangzeb was appointed governor of Multan and Sindh. His efforts in 1649 and 1652 to dislodge the Safavids at Kandahar, which they had recently retaken after a decade of Mughal control, both ended in failure as winter approached. The logistical problems of supplying an army at the extremity of the empire, combined with the poor quality of armaments and the intransigence of the opposition have been cited by John Richards as the reasons for failure, and a third attempt in 1653, led by Dara Shikoh, met with the same outcome.\n\nAurangzeb became viceroy of the Deccan again after he was replaced by Dara Shikoh in the attempt to recapture Kandahar. Aurangzeb regretted this and harboured feelings that Shikoh had manipulated the situation to serve his own ends. Aurangbad's two ''jagirs'' (land grants) were moved there as a consequence of his return and, because the Deccan was a relatively impoverished area, this caused him to lose out financially. So poor was the area that grants were required from Malwa and Gujarat in order to maintain the administration and the situation caused ill-feeling between father and son. Shah Jahan insisted that things could be improved if Aurangzeb made efforts to develop cultivation. Aurangzeb appointed Murshid Quli Khan to extend to the Deccan the ''zabt'' revenue system used in northern India. Murshid Quli Khan organised a survey of agricultural land and a tax assessment on what it produced. To increase revenue, Murshid Quli Khan granted loans for seed, livestock, and irrigation infrastructure. The Deccan returned to prosperity, but too slowly to satisfy the emperor.\n\nAurangzeb proposed to resolve the situation by attacking the dynastic occupants of Golconda (the Qutb Shahis) and Bijapur (the Adil Shahis). As an adjunct to resolving the financial difficulties, the proposal would also extend Mughal influence by accruing more lands. Again, he was to feel that Dara had exerted influence on his father: believing that he was on the verge of victory in both instances, Aurangzeb was frustrated that Shah Jahan chose then to settle for negotiations with the opposing forces rather than pushing for complete victory.\n\n===War of Succession===\nSepoys loyal to the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb maintain their positions around the palace, at Aurangabad, in 1658.\nThe four sons of Shah Jahan all held governorships during their father's reign. The emperor favoured the eldest, Dara Shukoh. This had caused resentment among the younger three, who sought at various times to strengthen alliances between themselves and against Dara. There was no Mughal tradition of primogeniture, the systematic passing of rule, upon an emperor's death, to his eldest son. Instead it was customary for sons to overthrow their father and for brothers to war to the death among themselves. Historian Satish Chandra says that \"In the ultimate resort, connections among the powerful military leaders, and military strength and capacity were the real arbiters\". The contest for power was primarily between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb because, although all four sons had demonstrated competence in their official roles, it was around these two that the supporting cast of officials and other influential people mostly circulated. There were ideological differences — Dara was an intellectual and a religious liberal in the mould of Akbar, while Aurangzeb was much more conservative — but, as historians Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf say, \"To focus on divergent philosophies neglects the fact that Dara was a poor general and leader. It also ignores the fact that factional lines in the succession dispute were not, by and large, shaped by ideology.\" Marc Gaborieau, professor of Indian studies at l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, explains that \"The loyalties of officials and their armed contingents seem to have been motivated more by their own interests, the closeness of the family relation and above all the charisma of the pretenders than by ideological divides.\" Muslims and Hindus did not divide along religious lines in their support for one pretender or the other nor, according to Chandra, is there much evidence to support the belief that Jahanara and other members of the royal family were split in their support. Jahanara, certainly, interceded at various times on behalf of all of the princes and was well-regarded by Aurangzeb even though she shared the religious outlook of Dara.\n\nIn 1656, a general under Qutb Shahi dynasty named Musa Khan led an army of 12,000 Musketeers to attack Aurangzeb, and later on the same campaign Aurangzeb in turn rode against an army consisting 8,000 horsemen and 20,000 Karnataka Musketeers\n\nHaving made clear that he wanted Dara to succeed him, Shah Jahan became ill with stranguary in 1657 and was closeted under the care of his favourite son in the newly built city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). Rumours of the death of Shah Jahan abounded and the younger sons were concerned that Dara might be hiding it for Machiavellian reasons. Thus, they took action: Shah Shuja prepared to contest the throne from Bengal, where he had been governor since 1637, while Murad did the same in his governorship of Gujarat and Aurangzeb did so in the Deccan. It is not known whether these preparations were made in the mistaken belief that the rumours of death were true or whether the challengers were just taking advantage of the situation.\n\nAurangzeb becomes emperor.\n\nAfter regaining some of his health, Shah Jahan moved to Agra and Dara urged him to send forces to challenge Shah Shuja and Murad, who had declared themselves rulers in their respective territories. While Shah Shuja was defeated at Banares in February 1658, the army sent to deal with Murad discovered to their surprise that he and Aurangzeb had combined their forces, the two brothers having agreed to partition the empire once they had gained control of it. The two armies clashed at Dharmat in April 1658, with Aurangzeb being the victor. Shuja was being chased through Bihar and the victory of Aurangzeb proved this to be a poor decision by Dara Shikoh, who now had a defeated force on one front and a successful force unnecessarily pre-occupied on another. Realising that his recalled Bihar forces would not arrive at Agra in time to resist the emboldened Aurangzeb's advance, Dara scrambled to form alliances in order but found that Aurangzeb had already courted key potential candidates. When Dara's disparate, hastily concocted army clashed with Aurangzeb's well-disciplined, battle-hardened force at the Battle of Samugarh in late May, neither Dara's men nor his generalship were any match for Aurangzeb. Dara had also become over-confident in his own abilities and, by ignoring advice not to lead in battle while his father was alive, he cemented the idea that he had usurped the throne. \"After the defeat of Dara, Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the fort of Agra where he spent eight long years under the care of his favourite daughter Jahanara.\"\n\nAurangzeb then broke his arrangement with Murad Baksh, which probably had been his intention all along. Instead of looking to partition the empire between himself and Murad, he had his brother arrested and imprisoned at Gwalior Fort. Murad was executed on 4 December 1661, ostensibly for the murder of the ''diwan'' of Gujarat some time earlier. The allegation was encouraged by Aurangzeb, who caused the ''diwan's'' son to seek retribution for the death under the principles of Sharia law. Meanwhile, Dara gathered his forces, and moved to the Punjab. The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the east, its generals Jai Singh and Dilir Khan submitted to Aurangzeb, but Dara's son, Suleiman Shikoh, escaped. Aurangzeb offered Shah Shuja the governorship of Bengal. This move had the effect of isolating Dara Shikoh and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja, who had declared himself emperor in Bengal began to annex more territory and this prompted Aurangzeb to march from Punjab with a new and large army that fought during the Battle of Khajwa, where Shah Shuja and his chain-mail armoured war elephants were routed by the forces loyal to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja then fled to Arakan (in present-day Burma), where he was executed by the local rulers.\n\nWith Shuja and Murad disposed of, and with his father immured in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara Shikoh, chasing him across the north-western bounds of the empire. Aurangzeb claimed that Dara was no longer a Muslim and accused him of poisoning the Mughal Grand Vizier Saadullah Khan. Both of these statements however lacked any evidence. After a series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him. In 1658, Aurangzeb arranged his formal coronation in Delhi.\n\nOn 10 August 1659, Dara was executed on grounds of apostasy and his head was sent to Shahjahan. Having secured his position, Aurangzeb confined his frail father at the Agra Fort but did not mistreat him. Shah Jahan was cared for by Jahanara and died in 1666.\n", "===Bureaucracy===\nMughal Empire under Aurangzeb shown in red borders\n\nAurangzeb's imperial bureaucracy employed significantly more Hindus than that of his predecessors. Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration rose by half, many of them Marathas and Rajputs. His increasing employment of Hindus and Shia Muslims was deemed controversial at the time, with several of his fellow Sunni Muslim officials petitioning against it, which he rejected, and responded, \"What connection have earthly affairs with religion? And what right have administrative works to meddle with bigotry? 'For you is your religion and for me is mine.'\" He insisted on employment based on ability rather than religion.\n\nUnder Aurangzeb's reign, Hindus rose to represent 31.6% of Mughal nobility, the highest in the Mughal era. This was largely due to a substantial influx of Marathas, who played a key role in his successful Deccan campaign. During his time, the number of Hindu Mansabdars increased from 22% to over 31% in the Mughal administration, as he needed them to continue his fight in the Deccan. However, one of his Rajput nobles, Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur, Hindu ruler of Jodhpur, “destroyed mosques and built idol-temples in their stead” around 1658-1659, according to Aurangzeb. Despite this, relationships did not turn sour between the two, as they worked together for the next two decades up until Singh's death in the late 1670s.\n\n===Establishment of Islamic law===\nAurangzeb compiled Hanafi law by introducing the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri.\n\nHistorian Katherine Brown has noted that \"The very name of Aurangzeb seems to act in the popular imagination as a signifier of politico-religious bigotry and repression, regardless of historical accuracy.\" The subject is controversial and, despite no proof, has resonated in modern times with popularly accepted claims that he intended to destroy the Bamiyan Buddhas. As a political and religious conservative, Aurangzeb chose not to follow the liberal religious viewpoints of his predecessors after his ascension. Shah Jahan had already moved away from the liberalism of Akbar, although in a token manner rather than with the intent of suppressing Hinduism, and Aurangzeb took the change still further. Though the approach to faith of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan was more syncretic than Babur, the founder of the empire, Aurangzeb's position is not so obvious. His emphasis on sharia competed, or was directly in conflict, with his insistence that ''zawabit'' or secular decrees could supersede sharia. Despite claims of sweeping edicts and policies, contradictory accounts exist. He sought to codify Hanafi law by the work of several hundred jurists, called Fatawa-e-Alamgiri. It is possible the War of Succession and continued incursions combined with Shah Jahan's spending made cultural expenditure impossible.\n\nAs emperor, Aurangzeb banned the drinking of alcohol, gambling, castration, servitude, eunuchs, music, nautch and narcotics in the Mughal Empire. He learnt that at Sindh, Multan, Thatta and particularly at Varanasi, the Hindu Brahmins attracted large numbers of indigenous local Muslims to their discourses. He ordered the Subahdars of these provinces to demolish the schools and the temples of non-Muslims. Aurangzeb also ordered Subahdars to punish Muslims who dressed like non-Muslims. The executions of the antinomian Sufi mystic Sarmad Kashani and the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur bear testimony to Aurangzeb's religious policy; the former was beheaded on multiple accounts of heresy, the latter, according to Sikhs, because he objected to Aurangzeb's forced conversions.\n\n===Taxation policy===\nHe imposed Jizya, a military tax on non-Muslims who were not fighting for Mughal Empire in his second decade on ruling in the year 1679. Further, Aurangzeb levied discriminatory taxes on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants. He ordered to dismiss Hindu ''quanungos'' and ''patwaris'' from revenue administration. However, he also employed many Hindus as Jizya tax collectors.\n\nThe introduction of Jizya in 1679 was a response to several events shortly before its introduction: the great Rajput rebellion of 1678, the Maratha alliance with the Shia Golconda, and the Mughal expansion into the Deccan. However, the contemporary historian Khafi Khan (died 1733), whose family had served Aurangzeb, noted that Jizya could not be levied and remained largely a tax on paper only.\n\n===Policy on temples and mosques===\nDuring his reign, Aurangzeb generally maintained a similar policy on both Hindu temples and Islamic mosques. Like his predecessors, he issued land grants for the maintenance of Hindu temples. However, he also ordered the destruction of temples and mosques. For example, he ordered the destruction of Vishvanath Temple at Varanasi for being a centre of conspiracy against the state, and he ordered the destruction of the Jama Masjid at Golkunda after finding out that its ruler had built the mosque in order to hide revenues from the state. Aurangzeb also ordered a rescue raid on a temple, in order to rescue a Rajasthan minister's female family members who went there on a pilgrimage.\n\nAurangzeb's policy on temples was mixed: he destroyed many, but also built many, building more temples than he destroyed. During his reign, 15 temples were destroyed. Indian historian Harbans Mukhia wrote: \"In the end, as recently recorded in Richard Eaton's careful tabulation, some 80 temples were demolished between 1192 and 1760 (15 in Aurangzeb's reign) and he compares this figure with the claim of 60,000 demolitions, advanced rather nonchalantly by 'Hindu nationalist' propagandists, although even in that camp professional historians are slightly more moderate.\" Among the Hindu temples he demolished were three of the most sacred, the Kashi Vishwanath temple, Kesava Deo temple, and Somnath temple, and built large mosques in their place. In 1679, he ordered destruction of several prominent temples that had become associated with his enemies: these included the temples of Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor and Jodhpur. The historian Richard Eaton argues that the overall understanding of temples to be flawed. As early as the sixth century, temples became vital political landmarks as well as religious ones. He writes that, not only was temple desecration widely practised and accepted, it was a necessary part of political struggle.\n\nOther scholars point out that Aurangzeb also built many temples; Ian Copland says that he built more temples than he destroyed. Ram Puniyani states that Aurangzeb was not always fanatically anti-Hindu, and kept changing his policies depending on the needs of the situation. He banned the construction of new temples, but permitted the repair and maintenance of existing temples. He also made generous donations of ''jagirs'' to several temples to win the sympathies of his Hindu subjects. There are several ''firman''s (orders) in his name, supporting temples and gurudwaras, including Mahakaleshwar temple of Ujjain, Balaji temple of Chitrakoot, Umananda Temple of Guwahati and the Shatrunjaya Jain temples.\n\n===Execution of opponents===\nThe first prominent execution during the long reign of Aurangzeb started with that of his brother Prince Dara Shikoh, who was accused of being influenced by Hinduism although some sources argue it was done for political reasons. Aurangzeb had his allied brother Prince Murad Baksh held for murder, judged and then executed. Aurangzeb is accused of poisoning his imprisoned nephew Sulaiman Shikoh.\n\nLater, Sambhaji was executed during his reign. In a trial, he was found guilty of murder and violence, atrocities against the Muslims of Burhanpur and Bahadurpur in Berar by Marathas under his command. The atrocities that Sambhaji perpetrated included plunder, killing, rape, and torture, when he raided Burhanpur with 20,000 troops. The ulema of the Mughal Empire sentenced him to death for his atrocities against Muslims.\n\nThe Sikh leader Guru Tegh Bahadur was arrested on orders by Aurangzeb, found guilty of blasphemy by a Qadi's court and executed.\n\n32 nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (Absolute Missionary) of the Dawoodi Bohra sect of Musta‘lī Islam Syedna Qutubkhan Qutubuddin was executed by Aurangzeb, then governor of Gujarat, for heresy; on 27 Jumadil Akhir 1056 AH/ 1648 AD), Ahmedabad, India.\n\n\nFile:Tulapur arch.jpg\|In the year 1688, according to Mughal accounts, Sambhaji was put on trial, found guilty of atrocities and executed.\nFile:Gurdwara Rakabganj Sahib, Delhi.jpg\|Guru Tegh Bahadur was publicly executed in 1675 on the orders of Aurangzeb in Delhi\nFile:Indian - Single Leaf of Shah Sarmad and Prince Dara Shikoh - Walters W912.jpg\|Sarmad Kashani, a Jewish convert to Islam and Sufi mystic was accused of heresy and executed.\n\n\n===Expansion of the Mughal Empire===\nAurangzeb seated on a golden throne holding a Hawk in the Durbar. Standing before him is his son, Azam Shah.\n\nThroughout his reign, Aurangzeb engaged in almost constant warfare. He built up a massive army and began a program of military expansion along all the boundaries of his empire. He pushed north-west into the Punjab and also drove south, conquering two further Muslim kingdoms - the Adil Shahis of Bijapur and Qutbshahis of Golconda — to add to the defeat of the Ahmednagar Sultanate that had been accomplished in 1636 while he had been viceroy of the Deccan. These new territories were administered by the Mughal Nawabs loyal to Aurangzeb.\n\nSoon after seizing the throne, Aurangzeb began advancements against the unruly Sultan of Bijapur and during 1657, the Mughals are known to have utilised rockets during the Siege of Bidar, against Sidi Marjan. Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls, and Sidi Marjan himself was mortally wounded after a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot. After twenty-seven days of hard fighting, Bidar was captured by the Mughals.\n\nIn 1663, during his visit to Ladakh, Aurangzeb established direct control over that part of the empire and loyal subjects such as Deldan Namgyal agreed to pledge tribute and loyalty. Deldan Namgyal is also known to have constructed a Grand Mosque in Leh, which he dedicated to Mughal rule.\n\nAurangzeb seated on the Peacock Throne.\n\nIn 1664, Aurangzeb appointed Shaista Khan subedar (governor) of Bengal. Shaista Khan eliminated Portuguese and Arakanese pirates from the region, and in 1666 recaptured the port of Chittagong from the Arakanese king, Sanda Thudhamma. Chittagong remained a key port throughout Mughal rule.\n\nIn 1685, Aurangzeb dispatched his son, Muhammad Azam Shah, with a force of nearly 50,000 men to capture Bijapur Fort and defeat Sikandar Adil Shah (the ruler of Bijapur) who refused to be a vassal. The Mughals could not make any advancements upon Bijapur Fort mainly because of the superior usage of cannon batteries on both sides. Outraged by the stalemate Aurangzeb himself arrived on 4 September 1686 and commanded the Siege of Bijapur; after eight days of fighting, the Mughals were victorious.\n\nOnly one remaining ruler, Abul Hasan Qutb Shah (the Qutbshahi ruler of Golconda), refused to surrender. He and his servicemen fortified themselves at Golconda and fiercely protected the Kollur Mine, which was then probably the world's most productive diamond mine, and an important economic asset. In 1687, Aurangzeb led his grand Mughal army against the Deccan Qutbshahi fortress during the Siege of Golconda. The Qutbshahis had constructed massive fortifications throughout successive generations on a granite hill over 400 ft high with an enormous eight-mile long wall enclosing the city. The main gates of Golconda had the ability to repulse any war elephant attack. Although the Qutbshahis maintained the impregnability of their walls, at night Aurangzeb and his infantry erected complex scaffolding that allowed them to scale the high walls. During the eight-month siege the Mughals faced many hardships including the death of their experienced commander Kilich Khan Bahadur. Eventually, Aurangzeb and his forces managed to penetrate the walls by capturing a gate, and their entry into the fort led Abul Hasan Qutb Shah to surrender peacefully.\n\n===Military equipment===\n\nDagger (Khanjar) of Aurangzeb (''Badshah Alamgir'').\n\nMughal cannon making skills advanced during the 17th century. One of the most impressive Mughal cannons is known as the Zafarbaksh, which is a very rare ''composite cannon'', that required skills in both wrought-iron forge welding and bronze-casting technologies and the in-depth knowledge of the qualities of both metals.\n\nAurangzeb military entourage consisted of 16 cannons including the ''Azdaha Paikar'' (which, was capable of firing a 33.5 kg ordnance) and ''Fateh Rahber'' (20 feet long with Persian and Arabic inscriptions).\n\nThe ''Ibrahim Rauza'' was also a famed cannon, which was well known for its multi-barrels. François Bernier, the personal physician to Aurangzeb, observed versatile Mughal gun-carriages each drawn by two horses.\n\nDespite these innovations, most soldiers used bows and arrows, the quality of sword manufacture was so poor that they preferred to use ones imported from England, and the operation of the cannons was entrusted not to Mughals but to European gunners. Other weapons used during the period included rockets, cauldrons of boiling oil, muskets and manjaniqs (stone-throwing catapults).\n\nInfantry who were later called Sepoy and who specialised in siege and artillery emerged during the reign of Aurangzeb\n\n\nFile:Daulatabad fort N-MH-A50-3.JPG\|Daulatabad cannon\nFile:Kalak Bangadi,Janjira Fort.jpg\|Kalak Bangadi cannon.\nFile:Daulatabad cannon1.jpg\|one of the Daulatabad cannons\nFile:Kilkila cannon.jpg\|Kilkila cannon\nFile:Aurangabad - Daulatabad Fort (69).JPG\|Aurangabad cannon\n\n\n====War elephants====\nIn 1703, the Mughal commander at Coromandel, Daud Khan Panni spent 10,500 coins to purchase 30 to 50 war elephants from Ceylon.\n\n===Art and Culture===\nAurangzeb was known to be of a more austere nature than his predecessors. Being religious he encouraged Islamic calligraphy. His reign also saw the building of the Lahore badshahi Mosque, and Bibi ka Maqbara in Aurangabad for his wife Rabia-ud-Daurani.\n\n====Calligraphy====\nManuscript ''Quran'', parts of which are believed to have been written in Aurangzeb's own hand.\n\nThe Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb is known to have patronised works of Islamic Calligraphy during his reign particularly Syed Ali Tabrizi.\n\n\nFile:Quatrain on the Virtue of Patience WDL6844.png\|Quatrain on the Virtue of Patience by Muhammad Muhsin Lahuri.\nFile:Spousal Advice WDL6832.png\|Spousal Advice, by Abdallah Lahuri.\nFile:Ruba'i of Ḥāfiẓ WDL6860.png\|Works of Hafez, by Abdallah Lahuri.\nFile:Ruba'i of Ḥāfiẓ WDL6857.png\|Works of Hafez, by Muhammad Tahir Lahuri.\n\n\n\n====Architecture====\nUnlike his father, Aurangzeb was not much interested in architecture. Aurangzeb constructed a small marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Red Fort complex in Delhi. He ordered the construction of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. He also constructed a mosque on Benares. The mosque he constructed in Srinagar is still the largest in Kashmir. The structure of Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad, which now is a historical monument was constructed by the sons of Aurangzeb in remembrance of their mother. The inspiration came from Taj mahal as is quite visible from its architecture.\n\n\nFile:Badshahi Mosque July 1 2005 pic32 by Ali Imran (1).jpg\|17th century Badshahi Masjid built by Aurangzeb in Lahore.\nFile:Great Mosque of Aurungzebe and Adjoining Ghats.jpg\|Great Mosque of Aurungzeb and the adjoining Ghats.\nFile:Syed Abdul Rahim Shah Bukhari.jpg\|Tomb of Sufi saint, Syed Abdul Rahim Shah Bukhari constructed by Aurangzeb.\n\n\n====Textiles====\nThe textile industry in the Mughal Empire emerged very firmly during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and was particularly well noted by Francois Bernier, a French physician of the Mughal Emperor. Francois Bernier writes how ''Karkanahs'', or workshops for the artisans, particularly in textiles flourished by \"employing hundreds of embroiderers, who were superintended by a master\". He further writes how \"Artisans manufacture of silk, fine brocade, and other fine muslins, of which are made turbans, robes of gold flowers, and tunics worn by females, so delicately fine as to wear out in one night, and cost even more if they were well embroidered with fine needlework\".\n\nHe also explains the different techniques employed to produce such complicated textiles such as ''Himru'' (whose name is Persian for \"brocade\"), ''Paithani'' (whose pattern is identical on both sides), ''Mushru'' (satin weave) and how ''Kalamkari'', in which fabrics are painted or block-printed, was a technique that originally came from Persia. Francois Bernier provided some of the first, impressive descriptions of the designs and the soft, delicate texture of Pashmina Shawls also known as ''Kani'', which were very valued for their warmth and comfort among the Mughals, and how these textiles and shawls eventually began to find their way to France and England.\n\n\nFile:Caspar David Friedrich - Frau mit Umschlagtuch (1804).jpg\|Shawls manufactured in the Mughal Empire had highly influenced other cultures around the world.\nFile:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg\|Shawl makers in the Mughal Empire.\nFile:Floorspread LACMA M.79.9.6 (1 of 3).jpg\|Mughal imperial carpet\n\n", "The Mughal imperial palace at Delhi (1701–1708), made by Johann Melchior Dinglinger.\n\nAs soon as he became emperor, Aurangzeb sent some of the finest ornate gifts such as carpets, lamps, tiles and others to the Islamic shrines at Mecca and Medina. He also ordered the construction of very large ships in Surat that would transport these gifts and even pilgrims to the Hijaz. These annual expeditions organised by Aurangzeb were led by Mir Aziz Badakhshi who died in Mecca of natural causes but managed to deliver more than 45,000 silver coins and several thousand Kaftans of honour.\n\n===Relations with the Uzbek===\nSubhan Quli, Balkh's Uzbek ruler was the first to recognise him in 1658 and requested for a general alliance, he worked alongside the new Mughal Emperor since 1647, when Aurangzeb was the Subedar of Balkh.\n\n===Relations with the Safavid dynasty===\nAurangzeb received the embassy of Abbas II of Persia in 1660 and returned them with gifts. However relations between the Mughal Empire and the Safavid dynasty were tense because the Persians attacked the Mughal army positioned near Kandahar. Aurangzeb prepared his armies in the Indus River Basin for a counteroffensive, but Abbas II's death in 1666 caused Aurangzeb to end all hostilities. Aurangzeb's rebellious son, Sultan Muhammad Akbar, sought refuge with Suleiman I of Persia, who had rescued him from the Imam of Musqat and later refused to assist him in any military adventures against Aurangzeb.\n\n===Relations with the French===\nIn 1667, the French East India Company ambassadors Le Gouz and Bebert presented Louis XIV of France's letter which urged the protection of French merchants from various rebels in the Deccan. In response to the letter Aurangzeb issued a Firman allowing the French to open a factory in Surat.\n\n\nFile:Pomp and Ceremony of the March of the Great Mogol.jpg\|''March of the Great Mughal'' (Aurangzeb)\nFile:Voyage de Francois Bernier by Paul Maret 1710.jpg\|François Bernier, was a French physician and traveller, who for 12 years was the personal physician of Aurangzeb. He described his experiences in ''Travels in the Mughal Empire''.\nFile:Indostan - a Map of India by Vincenzo Coronelli, Venice 1692.jpg\|Map of the Mughal Empire by Vincenzo Coronelli (1650–1718) of Venice, who served as Royal Geographer to Louis XIV of France.\nFile:1652 Sanson Map of India - Geographicus - India-sanson-1652.jpg\|French map of the Deccan.\n\n\n===Relations with the Sultanate of Maldives===\nIn the 1660s, the Sultan of the Maldives, Ibrahim Iskandar I, requested help from Aurangzeb's representative, the Faujdar of Balasore. The sultan was concerned about the impact of Dutch and English trading ships but the powers of Aurangzeb did not extend to the seas, the Maldives were not under his governance and nothing came of the request.\n\n===Relations with the Ottoman Empire===\nIn 1688, the desperate Ottoman Sultan Suleiman II urgently requested for assistance against the rapidly advancing Austrians, during the Ottoman–Habsburg War. However, Aurangzeb and his forces were heavily engaged in the Deccan Wars against the Marathas to commit any formal assistance to their Ottoman allies.\n\n===Relations with the English===\nA member of the English East India Company requests pardon from Aurangzeb during the Child's War.\n\nIn 1686, the English East India Company, which had unsuccessfully tried to obtain a firman, an imperial directive that would grant England regular trading privileges throughout the Mughal empire, initiated the so-called Child's War. This hostility against the empire ended in disaster for the English, particularly when Aurangzeb dispatched a strong fleet from Janjira commanded by the Sidi Yaqub and manned by Mappila loyal to Ali Raja Ali II and Abyssinian sailors firmly blockaded Bombay in 1689. In 1690, the company sent envoys to Aurangzeb's camp to plead for a pardon. The company's envoys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay a large indemnity, and promise better behaviour in the future.\n\nIn September 1695, English pirate Henry Every perpetrated one of the most profitable pirate raids in history with his capture of a Grand Mughal convoy near Surat. The Indian ships had been returning home from their annual pilgrimage to Mecca when the pirates struck, capturing the ''Ganj-i-Sawai'', reportedly the greatest ship in the Muslim fleet, and its escorts in the process. When news of the piracy reached the mainland, a livid Aurangzeb nearly ordered an armed attack against the English-governed city of Bombay, though he finally agreed to compromise after the East India Company promised to pay financial reparations, estimated at £600,000 by the Mughal authorities. Meanwhile, Aurangzeb shut down four of the East India Company's factories, imprisoned the workers and captains (who were nearly lynched by a rioting mob), and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India until Every was captured. The Privy Council and East India Company offered a massive bounty for Every's apprehension, leading to the first worldwide manhunt in recorded history. However, Every successfully eluded capture.\n\nIn 1702, Aurangzeb sent Daud Khan Panni, the Mughal Empire's Subhedar of the Carnatic region, to besiege and blockade Fort St. George for more than three months. The governor of the fort Thomas Pitt was instructed by the English East India Company to sue for peace.\n", "\n===Revenue===\nBy 1690, Aurangzeb was acknowledged as: ''\"emperor of the Mughal Sultanate from Cape Comorin to Kabul\"''.\n\nAurangzeb's exchequer raised a record £100 million in annual revenue through various sources like taxes, customs and land revenue, ''et al.'' from 24 provinces. He had an annual yearly revenue of $450 million, more than ten times that of his contemporary Louis XIV of France.\n\n===Coins===\n\nFile:035Aur1.jpg\|Half rupee\nFile:Silver Rupee of Aurangazeb AH1096.jpg\|Rupee coin showing full name\nFile:047aur13.jpg\|Rupee with square area\nFile:074aur-12.JPG\|A copper dam of Aurangzeb\n\nAurangzeb felt that verses from the ''Quran'' should not be stamped on coins, as done in former times, because they were constantly touched by the hands and feet of people. His coins had the name of the mint city and the year of issue on one face, and, the following couplet on other:\n\n\n", "Aurangzeb spent his reign crushing major and minor rebellions throughout the Mughal Empire.\n\nBy 1700, the Marathas attacked the Mughal provinces from the Deccan and secessionist agendas from the Rajputs, Hindu Jats, Pashtuns and Sikhs rebelled against the Mughal Empire's administrative and economic systems.\n* In 1669, the Hindu Jat peasants of Bharatpur around Mathura rebelled and created Bharatpur state but were defeated.\n* In 1659, Shivaji, launched a surprise attack on the Mughal Viceroy Shaista Khan and, while waging war against Aurangzeb. Shivaji and his forces attacked the Deccan, Janjira and Surat and tried to gain control of vast territories. In 1689 Aurangzeb's armies captured Shivaji's son Sambhaji and executed him after he had sacked Burhanpur. But, the Marathas continued the fight and it actually started the terminal decline of his empire.\n* In 1679, the Rathore clan under the command of Durgadas Rathore rebelled when Aurangzeb didn't give permission to make the young Rathore prince the king and took direct command of Jodhpur. This incident caused great unrest among the Hindu Rajput rulers under Aurangzeb and led to many rebellions in Rajputana.\n* In 1672, the Satnami, a sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, under the leadership of Bhirbhan, took over the administration of Narnaul, but they were eventually crushed upon Aurangzeb's personal intervention with very few escaping alive.\n* In 1671, the Battle of Saraighat was fought in the easternmost regions of the Mughal Empire against the Ahom Kingdom. The Mughals led by Mir Jumla II and Shaista Khan attacked and were defeated by the Ahoms.\n* Maharaja Chhatrasal was a medieval Indian warrior from Bundela Rajput clan, who fought against the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, and established his own kingdom in Bundelkhand, becoming a Maharaja of Panna.\n\n===Jat rebellion===\nThe tomb of Akbar the Great was pillaged by Jat rebels during the reign of Aurangzeb.\n\nIn 1669, Hindu Jats began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by Aurangzeb's imposition of Jizya (a form of organised religious taxation). The Jats were led by ''Gokula'', a rebel landholder from Tilpat. By the year 1670 20,000 Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat, Gokula's personal fortune amounted to 93,000 gold coins and hundreds of thousands of silver coins.\n\nGokula was caught and executed. But the Jats continued to terrorise the Mughals and attacked Akbar's mausoleum the gold, silver and fine carpets within the tomb . There are claims that Jats caused two large silver doors at the entrance of the Taj Mahal to be stolen and melted down. However, Jats later established their independent state of Bharatpur.\n\n===Mughal–Maratha Wars===\n\n\nAurangzeb leads the Mughal Army during the Battle of Satara.\n\nIn 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur in the Deccan, the Hindu Maratha warrior aristocrat, Shivaji, used guerrilla tactics to take control of three Adil Shahi forts formerly under his father's command. With these victories, Shivaji assumed de facto leadership of many independent Maratha clans. The Marathas harried the flanks of the warring Adil Shahis and Mughals, gaining weapons, forts, and territory. Shivaji's small and ill-equipped army survived an all out Adil Shahi attack, and Shivaji personally killed the Adil Shahi general, Afzal Khan. With this event, the Marathas transformed into a powerful military force, capturing more and more Adil Shahi and Mughal territories. Shivaji went on to neutralise Mughal power in the region.\n\nIn 1659, Aurangzeb sent his trusted general and maternal uncle Shaista Khan, the Wali in Golconda to recover forts lost to the Maratha rebels. Shaista Khan drove into Maratha territory and took up residence in Pune. But in a daring raid on the governor's palace in Pune during a midnight wedding celebration, the Marathas killed Shaista Khan's son and maimed Shaista Khan by cutting off the fingers of his hand. Shaista Khan, however, survived and was re-appointed the administrator of Bengal going on to become a key commander in the war against the Ahoms.\n\nA depiction of Shivaji in Aurangzeb's court in Agra in 1666.\n\nShivaji captured forts belonging to both Mughals and Bijapur. At last Aurangzeb ordered the armament of the Daulatabad Fort with two bombards (the Daulatabad Fort was later utilised as a Mughal bastion during the Deccan Wars). Aurangzeb also sent his general Raja Jai Singh of Amber, a Hindu Rajput, to attack the Marathas. Jai Singh won the fort of Purandar after fierce battle in which the Maratha commander Murarbaji fell. Foreseeing defeat, Shivaji agreed for a truce and a meeting with Aurangzeb at Delhi. Jai Singh also promised Shivaji his safety, placing him under the care of his own son, the future Raja Ram Singh I. However, circumstances at the Mughal court were beyond the control of the Raja, and when Shivaji and his son Sambhaji went to Agra to meet Aurangzeb, they were placed under house arrest, from which they managed to effect a daring escape.\n\nShivaji returned to the Deccan, and crowned himself ''Chhatrapati'' or the ruler of the Maratha Kingdom in 1674. While Aurangzeb continued to send troops against him, Shivaji expanded Maratha control throughout the Deccan until his death in 1680. Shivaji was succeeded by his son, Sambhaji. Militarily and politically, Mughal efforts to control the Deccan continued to fail.\n\nOn the other hand, Aurangzeb's third son Akbar left the Mughal court along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters and joined Muslim rebels in the Deccan. Aurangzeb in response moved his court to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to seek refuge with Sambhaji, Shivaji's successor. More battles ensued, and Akbar fled to Persia and never returned.\n\nIn 1689, Aurangzeb's forces captured and executed Sambhaji. His successor Rajaram, later Rajaram's widow Tarabai and their Maratha forces fought individual battles against the forces of the Mughal Empire. Territory changed hands repeatedly during the years (1689–1707) of interminable warfare . As there was no central authority among the Marathas, Aurangzeb was forced to contest every inch of territory, at great cost in lives and money. Even as Aurangzeb drove west, deep into Maratha territory – notably conquering Satara — the Marathas expanded their attacks further into Mughal lands – Malwa, Hyderabad and Jinji in Tamil Nadu. Aurangzeb waged continuous war in the Deccan for more than two decades with no resolution. He thus lost about a fifth of his army fighting rebellions led by the Marathas in Deccan India. He travelled a long distance to the Deccan to conquer the Marathas and eventually died at the age of 90, still fighting the Marathas.\n\nAurangzeb's shift from conventional warfare to anti-insurgency in the Deccan region shifted the paradigm of Mughal military thought. There were conflicts between Marathas and Mughals in Pune, Jinji, Malwa and Vadodara. The Mughal Empire's port city of Surat was sacked twice by the Marathas during the reign of Aurangzeb and the valuable port was in ruins.\n\n\nFile:A portrait probably made by a Mughal artist, in the Deccan, during Aurangzeb's military campaigns there.jpg\|A Mughal trooper in the Deccan.\nFile:Bhavanidas. The Emperor Aurangzeb Carried on a Palanquin ca. 1705–20 Metripolitan Museum of Art..jpg\|Aurangzeb leads his final expedition (1705), leading an army of 500,000 troops.\nFile:Prince with rifle.jpg\|Mughal-era aristocrat armed with a matchlock musket.\n\n\n===Ahom campaign===\nAurangzeb reading the Quran.\nWhile Aurangzeb and his brother Shah Shuja had been fighting against each other, the Hindu rulers of Kuch Behar and Assam took advantage of the disturbed conditions in the Mughal Empire, had invaded imperial dominions. For three years they were not attacked, but in 1660 Mir Jumla II, the viceroy of Bengal, was ordered to recover the lost territories.\n\nThe Mughals set out in November 1661, and within weeks occupied the capital of Kuch Behar after a few fierce skirmishes. The Kuch Behar was annexed, and the Mughal Army reorganised and began to retake their territories in Assam. Mir Jumla II's forces captured Pandu, Guwahati, and Kajali practically unopposed. In February 1662, Mir Jumla II initiated the Siege of Simalugarh and after the Mughal cannon breached the fortifications, the Ahoms abandoned the fort and escaped. Mir Jumla II then proceeded towards Garhgaon the capital of the Ahom kingdom, which was reached on 17 March 1662, although the ruler Raja Sutamla fled and the victorious Mughals captured 100 elephants, about 300,000 coins of silver, 8000 shields, 1000 ships, and 173 massive stores of rice.\n\nLater that year in December 1663, the aged Mir Jumla II died on his way back to Dacca of natural causes, but skirmishes continued between the Mughals and Ahoms after the rise of Chakradhwaj Singha, who refused to pay further indemnity to the Mughals and during the wars that continued the Mughals suffered great hardships. Munnawar Khan emerged as a leading figure and is known to have supplied food to vulnerable Mughal forces in the region near Mathurapur. Although the Mughals under the command of Syed Firoz Khan the Faujdar at Guwahati were overrun by two Ahom armies in the year 1667, but they continued to hold and maintain presence along their the eastern territories even after the Battle of Saraighat in the year 1671.\n\nThe Battle of Saraighat was fought in 1671 between the Mughal empire (led by the Kachwaha king, Raja Ramsingh I), and the Ahom Kingdom (led by Lachit Borphukan) on the Brahmaputra river at Saraighat, now in Guwahati. Although much weaker, the Ahom Army defeated the Mughal Army by brilliant uses of the terrain, clever diplomatic negotiations to buy time, guerrilla tactics, psychological warfare, military intelligence and by exploiting the sole weakness of the Mughal forces—its navy.\n\nThe Battle of Saraighat was the last battle in the last major attempt by the Mughals to extend their empire into Assam. Though the Mughals managed to regain Guwahati briefly after a later Borphukan deserted it, the Ahoms wrested control in the Battle of Itakhuli in 1682 and maintained it till the end of their rule.\n\n===Satnami opposition===\nAurangzeb dispatched his personal imperial guard during the campaign against the Satnami rebels.\n\nIn May 1672, the Satnami sect obeying the commandments of an \"old toothless woman\" (according to Mughal accounts) organised a massive revolt in the agricultural heartlands of the Mughal Empire. The Satnamis were known to have shaved off their heads and even eyebrows and had temples in many regions of Northern India. They began a large-scale rebellion 75 miles southwest of Delhi.\n\nThe Satnamis believed they were invulnerable to Mughal bullets and believed they could multiply in any region they entered. The Satnamis initiated their march upon Delhi and overran small-scale Mughal infantry units.\n\nAurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops and artillery, and dispatched detachments of his own personal Mughal imperial guards to carry out several tasks. To boost Mughal morale, Aurangzeb wrote Islamic prayers, made amulets, and drew designs that would become emblems in the Mughal Army. This rebellion would have a serious aftermath effect on the Punjab.\n\n===Sikh opposition===\nZafarnama is the name given to the letter sent by the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh in 1705 to Aurangzeb. The letter is written in Persian script.\n\nEarly in Aurangzeb's reign, various insurgent groups of Sikhs engaged Mughal troops in increasingly bloody battles. The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, like his predecessors was opposed to conversion of the local population as he considered it wrong. According to Sikh sources, approached by Kashmiri Pandits to help them retain their faith and avoid forced religious conversions, Guru Tegh Bahadur took on Aurangzeb. The emperor perceived the rising popularity of the Guru as a threat to his sovereignty and in 1670 had him executed, which infuriated the Sikhs. In response, Guru Tegh Bahadur's son and successor, Guru Gobind Singh, further militarised his followers, starting with the establishment of Khalsa in 1699, eight years before Aurangzeb's death. In 1705, Guru Gobind Singh sent a letter entitled ''Zafarnamah'' to Aurangzeb. This drew attention to Auranzeb's cruelty and how he had betrayed Islam. The letter caused him much distress and remorse. Guru Gobind Singh's formation of Khalsa in 1699 led to the establishment of the Sikh Confederacy and later Sikh Empire.\n\n===Pashtun opposition===\nAurangzeb in a pavilion with three courtiers below.\n\nThe Pashtun revolt in 1672 under the leadership of the warrior poet Khushal Khan Khattak of Kabul, was triggered when soldiers under the orders of the Mughal Governor Amir Khan allegedly molested women of the Pashtun tribes in modern-day Kunar Province of Afghanistan. The Safi tribes retaliated against the soldiers. This attack provoked a reprisal, which triggered a general revolt of most of tribes. Attempting to reassert his authority, Amir Khan led a large Mughal Army to the Khyber Pass, where the army was surrounded by tribesmen and routed, with only four men, including the Governor, managing to escape.\n\nAfter that the revolt spread, with the Mughals suffering a near total collapse of their authority in the Pashtun belt. The closure of the important Attock-Kabul trade route along the Grand Trunk road was particularly disastrous. By 1674, the situation had deteriorated to a point where Aurangzeb camped at Attock to personally take charge. Switching to diplomacy and bribery along with force of arms, the Mughals eventually split the rebels and partially suppressed the revolt, although they never managed to wield effective authority outside the main trade route.\n", "\nBibi Ka Maqbara, the mausoleum of Aurangzeb's wife Dilras Banu Begum, was commissioned by him\nAurangzeb's tomb in Khuldabad.\n\nBy 1689, almost all of Southern India was a part of the Mughal Empire and after the conquest of Golconda, Aurangzeb may have been the richest and most powerful man alive. Mughal victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres, with a population estimated to be over 158 million. But this supremacy was short-lived. Jos Gommans, Professor of Colonial and Global History at the University of Leiden, says that \"... the highpoint of imperial centralisation under emperor Aurangzeb coincided with the start of the imperial downfall.\"\n\nAurangzeb's vast imperial campaigns against rebellion-affected areas of the Mughal Empire caused his opponents to exaggerate the \"importance\" of their rebellions. The results of his campaigns were made worse by the incompetence of his regional Nawabs.\n\nMuslim views regarding Aurangzeb vary. Most Muslim historians believe that Aurangzeb was the last powerful ruler of an empire inevitably on the verge of decline. The major rebellions organised by the Sikhs and the Marathas had deep roots in the remote regions of the Mughal Empire.\n\nUnlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb considered the royal treasury to be held in trust for the citizens of his empire. He made caps and copied the Quran to earn money for his use,. Aurangzeb constructed a small marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Red Fort complex in Delhi. However, his constant warfare, especially with the Marathas, drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy just as much as the wasteful personal spending and opulence of his predecessors. Aurangzeb knew he would not return to the throne after his final campaign against the Marathas in 1706, in which he was joined by newly emerging commanders in the Mughal army such as Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha, Saadat Ali Khan and Asaf Jah I, and Daud Khan.\n\nAurangzeb reading the ''Quran''\n\nThe Indologist Stanley Wolpert, emeritus professor at UCLA, says that:\n\n\n\nThe unmarked grave of Aurangzeb in the mausoleum at Khuldabad.\n\nEven when ill and dying, Aurangzeb made sure that the populace knew he was still alive, for if they had thought otherwise then the turmoil of another war of succession was likely. He died in Ahmednagar on 20 February 1707 at the age of 88, having outlived many of his children. His modest open-air grave in Khuldabad expresses his deep devotion to his Islamic beliefs. It is sited in the courtyard of the shrine of the Sufi saint Shaikh Burhan-u'd-din Gharib, who was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi.\n\nBrown writes that after his death, \"a string of weak emperors, wars of succession, and coups by noblemen heralded the irrevocable weakening of Mughal power\". She notes that the populist but \"fairly old-fashioned\" explanation for the decline is that there was a reaction to Aurangzeb's oppression. Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, succeeded him and the empire, both because of Aurangzeb's over-extension and because of Bahadur Shah's weak military and leadership qualities, entered a period of terminal decline. Immediately after Bahadur Shah occupied the throne, the Maratha Empire – which Aurangzeb had held at bay, inflicting high human and monetary costs even on his own empire – consolidated and launched effective invasions of Mughal territory, seizing power from the weak emperor. Within decades of Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Emperor had little power beyond the walls of Delhi.\n", "Aurangzeb's full imperial title was:\n\n''Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Hazrat Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I'',\n''Badshah Ghazi'', \n''Shahanshah-e-Sultanat-ul-Hindiya Wal Mughaliya''.\n", "* Jaigarh Fort\n* Mughal weapons\n* List of largest empires\n* Muhammad Azam\n* Gujarat under Aurangzeb\n", "'''Notes'''\n\n'''Citations'''\n\n'''Bibliography'''\n\n\n\n", " \n* \n* Muḥammad Bakhtāvar Khān. ''Mir'at al-'Alam: History of Emperor Awangzeb Alamgir''. Trans. Sajida Alvi. Lahore: Idārah-ʾi Taḥqīqāt-i Pākistan, 1979.\n* \n* \nSarkar, J. (1972). History of Aurangzib. Bombay: Orient Longman.\n ''Delhi'', Khushwant Singh, Penguin USA, Open Market Ed edition, 5 February 2000. ()\n* Also published as \n* ''A Short History of Pakistan'', Dr. Ishtiaque Hussain Qureshi, University of Karachi Press.\n", "\n* Aurangzeb, as he was according to Mughal Records\n* Article on Aurganzeb from MANAS group page, UCLA\n* by Audrey Truschke, published on AEON\n* The Tragedy of Aureng-zebe Text of John Dryden's drama, based loosely on Aurangzeb and the Mughal court, 1675\n* Coins of Aurangzeb\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Early military campaigns and administration", "Reign", "Foreign relations", "Administrative reforms", "Rebellions", "Death and legacy", "Full title", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Aurangzeb
[ "\nAlexander the Great in a diving bell: a scene from the line's namesake, the ''Roman d'Alexandre''.\n'''Alexandrine''' is a name used for several distinct types of verse line with related metrical structures, most of which are ultimately derived from the classical French alexandrine. The line's name derives from its use in the Medieval French ''Roman d'Alexandre'' of 1170, although it had already been used several decades earlier in ''Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne''. The foundation of most alexandrines consists of two hemistichs (half-lines) of six syllables each, separated by a caesura (a word break, though often realized as a stronger syntactic break):\n\n o o o o o o \| o o o o o o\n \n o=any syllable; \|=caesura\n\nHowever, no tradition remains this simple. Each applies additional constraints (such as obligatory stress or nonstress on certain syllables) and options (such as a permitted or required additional syllable at the end of one or both hemistichs). Thus a line that is metrical in one tradition may be unmetrical in another.\n", "The term \"alexandrine\" may be used with greater or lesser rigor. Peureux suggests that only French syllabic verse with a 6+6 structure is, strictly speaking, an alexandrine. Preminger ''et al''. allow a broader scope: \"Strictly speaking, the term 'alexandrine' is appropriate to French syllabic meters, and it may be applied to other metrical systems only where they too espouse syllabism as their principle, introduce phrasal accentuation, or rigorously observe the medial caesura, as in French.\" Common usage within the literatures of European languages is broader still, embracing lines syllabic, accentual-syllabic, and (inevitably) stationed ambivalently between the two; lines of 12, 13, or even 14 syllables; lines with obligatory, predominant, and optional caesurae.\n", "\n\nAlthough alexandrines occurred in French verse as early as the 12th century, they were slightly looser rhythmically, and vied with the ''décasyllabe'' and ''octosyllabe'' for cultural prominence and use in various genres. \"The alexandrine came into its own in the middle of the sixteenth century with the poets of the Pléiade and was firmly established in the seventeenth century.\" It became the preferred line for the prestigious genres of epic and tragedy. The structure of the classical French alexandrine is\n\n o o o o o S \| o o o o o S (e)\n \n S=stressed syllable; (e)=optional ''mute e''\n\nClassical alexandrines are always rhymed, often in couplets alternating masculine rhymes and feminine rhymes, though other configurations (such as quatrains and sonnets) are also common.\n\nVictor Hugo began the process of loosening the strict two-hemistich structure. While retaining the medial caesura, he often reduced it to a mere word-break, creating a three-part line (''alexandrin ternaire'') with this structure:\n\n o o o S \| o o ¦ o S \| o o o S (e)\n \n \|=strong caesura; ¦=word break\n\nThe Symbolists further weakened the classical structure, sometimes eliminating any or all of these caesurae. However, at no point did the newer line ''replace'' the older; rather, they were used concurrently, often in the same poem. This loosening process eventually led to ''vers libéré'' and finally to ''vers libre''.\n", "\nIn English verse, \"alexandrine\" is typically used to mean \"iambic hexameter\":\n\n × / × / × / ¦ × / × / × / (×)\n \n /=''ictus'', a strong syllabic position; ×=''nonictus''\n ¦=often a mandatory or predominant caesura, but depends upon the author\n\nWhereas the French alexandrine is syllabic, the English is accentual-syllabic; and the central caesura (a defining feature of the French) is not always rigidly preserved in English.\n\nThough English alexandrines have occasionally provided the sole metrical line for a poem, for example in lyric poems by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and Sir Philip Sidney, and in two notable long poems, Michael Drayton's ''Poly-Olbion'' and Robert Browning's ''Fifine at the Fair'', they have more often featured alongside other lines. During the Middle Ages they typically occurred with heptameters (seven-beat lines), both exhibiting metrical looseness. Around the mid-16th century stricter alexandrines were popular as the first line of poulter's measure couplets, fourteeners (strict iambic heptameters) providing the second line.\n\nThe strict English alexandrine may be exemplified by a passage from ''Poly-Olbion'', which features a rare caesural enjambment (symbolized ¦) in the first line:\n\n\nYe sacred Bards, that to ¦ your harps' melodious strings\nSung th'ancient Heroes' deeds (the monuments of Kings)\nAnd in your dreadful verse ingrav'd the prophecies,\nThe agèd world's descents, and geneaologies; (lines 31-34)\n\n\nThe Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser, with its stanzas of eight iambic pentameter lines followed by one alexandrine, exemplifies what came to be its chief role: as a somewhat infrequent variant line in an otherwise iambic pentameter context. Alexandrines provide occasional variation in the blank verse of William Shakespeare and his contemporaries (but rarely; they constitute only about 1% of Shakespeare's blank verse). John Dryden and his contemporaries and followers likewise occasionally employed them as the second (rarely the first) line of heroic couplets, or even more distinctively as the third line of a triplet.\n", "\n===Spanish===\n\nThe Spanish ''alejandrino'' is a line of 7+7 syllables, probably developed in imitation of the French alexandrine.\n\n o o o o o o o \| o o o o o o o\n\nIt was used beginning about 1200 for ''mester de clerecía'' (clerical verse), typically occurring in the ''cuaderna vía'', a stanza of four ''alejandrinos'' all with a single end-rhyme.\n\nThe ''alejandrino'' was most prominent during the 13th and 14th centuries, after which time it was eclipsed by the metrically more flexible ''arte mayor''. Juan Ruiz's Book of Good Love is one of the best-known examples of ''cuaderna vía'', though other verse forms also appear in the work.\n\n===Dutch===\n\nThe mid-16th-century poet Jan van der Noot pioneered syllabic Dutch alexandrines on the French model, but within a few decades Dutch alexandrines had been transformed into strict iambic hexameters with a caesura after the third foot. From Holland the accentual-syllabic alexandrine spread to other continental literatures.\n\n\n===German===\n\nSimilarly, in early 17th-century Germany, Georg Rudolf Weckherlin advocated for an alexandrine with free rhythms, reflecting French practice; whereas Martin Opitz advocated for a strict accentual-syllabic iambic alexandrine in imitation of contemporary Dutch practice — and German poets followed Opitz. The alexandrine (strictly iambic with a consistent medial caesura) became the dominant long line of the German baroque.\n\n===Polish===\n\n\nUnlike many similar lines, the Polish alexandrine developed not from French verse but from Latin, specifically, the 13-syllable goliardic line:\n\n Latin goliardic: o o o s S s s \| o o o s S s\n Polish alexandrine: o o o o o S s \| o o o s S s\n \n s=unstressed syllable\n\nThough looser instances of this (nominally) 13-syllable line were occasionally used in Polish literature, it was Mikołaj Rej and Jan Kochanowski who, in the 16th century, introduced the syllabically strict line as a vehicle for major works.\n\n===Czech===\n\n\nThe Czech alexandrine is a comparatively recent development, based on the French alexandrine and introduced by Karel Hynek Mácha in the 19th century. Its structure forms a halfway point between features usual in syllabic and in accentual-syllabic verse, being more highly constrained than most syllabic verse, and less so than most accentual-syllabic verse. Moreover, it equally encourages the very different rhythms of iambic hexameter and dactyllic tetrameter to emerge by preserving the constants of both measures:\n\n iambic hexameter: s S s S s S \| s S s S s S (s)\n dactylic tetrameter: S s s S s s \| S s s S s s (s)\n Czech alexandrine: o o s S s o \| o o s S s o (s)\n", "In the comic book ''Asterix and Cleopatra'', the author Goscinny inserted a pun about alexandrines: when the Druid Panoramix (\"Getafix\" in the English translation) meets his Alexandrian (Egyptian) friend the latter exclaims ''Je suis, mon cher ami, \n très heureux de te voir'' at which Panoramix observes ''C'est un Alexandrin'' (\"That's an alexandrine!\"/\"He's an Alexandrian!\"). The pun can also be heard in the theatrical adaptations. The English translation renders this as \"My dear old Getafix \n How good to see you here\", with the reply \"Aha, an Alexandrine\".\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Scope of the term", "French", "English", "Other languages", "Modern references", "Notes", "References" ]	Alexandrine
[ "\nA page from the ''Bombardier's Information File'' (BIF) that describes the components and controls of the Norden bombsight. The '''Norden bombsight''' was a highly sophisticated optical/mechanical analog computer used by the United States Army Air Force during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War to aid the pilot of a bomber aircraft in dropping bombs accurately.\n\nAn '''analog computer''' or '''analogue computer''' is a form of computer that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines. Unlike digital signal processing, analog computers do not suffer from the quantization noise, but are limited by analog noise.\n\nAnalog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications where digital computers of the time lacked sufficient performance. Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomographs are the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers and large hybrid digital/analog computers were among the most complicated. Systems for process control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective functions.\n\nThe advent of digital computing made simple analog computers obsolete as early as the 1950s and 1960s, although analog computers remained in use in some specific applications, like the flight computer in aircraft, and for teaching control systems in universities. More complex applications, such as synthetic aperture radar, remained the domain of analog computing well into the 1980s, since digital computers were insufficient for the task.\n", "Setting up an analog computer required scale factors to be chosen, along with initial conditions—that is, starting values. Another essential was creating the required network of interconnections between computing elements. Sometimes it was necessary to re-think the structure of the problem so that the computer would function satisfactorily. No variables could be allowed to exceed the computer's limits, and differentiation was to be avoided, typically by rearranging the \"network\" of interconnects, using integrators in a different sense.\n\nRunning an electronic analog computer, assuming a satisfactory setup, started with the computer held with some variables fixed at their initial values. Moving a switch released the holds and permitted the problem to run. In some instances, the computer could, after a certain running time interval, repeatedly return to the initial-conditions state to reset the problem, and run it again.\n", "\n\n===Precursors===\n\n\nThis is a list of examples of early computation devices which are considered to be precursors of the modern computers. Some of them may even have been dubbed as 'computers' by the press, although they may fail to fit the modern definitions.\n\nThe south-pointing chariot, invented in ancient China during the first millennium BC, can be considered the earliest analog computer. It was a mechanical-geared wheeled vehicle used to discern the southern cardinal direction.\n\nThe Antikythera mechanism, dating between 150 and 100 BC, was an early analog computer.\nThe Antikythera mechanism was an orrery and is claimed to be an early mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to ''circa'' 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.\n\nMany mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use.\nThe planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear-wheels, ''circa'' 1000 AD. The castle clock, a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, was the first programmable analog computer.\n\nThe sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.\n\nThe planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.\n\nA slide rule\nThe slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving time–distance problems in light aircraft.\n\nThe tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.\n\nThe differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 James Thomson had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.\n\n===Modern era===\n Analog computing machine at the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory circa 1949.\nHeathkit EC-1 educational analog computer\nThe Dumaresq was a mechanical calculating device invented around 1902 by Lieutenant John Dumaresq of the Royal Navy. It was an analog computer which related vital variables of the fire control problem to the movement of one's own ship and that of a target ship. It was often used with other devices, such as a Vickers range clock to generate range and deflection data so the gun sights of the ship could be continuously set. A number of versions of the Dumaresq were produced of increasing complexity as development proceeded.\n\nBy 1912 Arthur Pollen had developed an electrically driven mechanical analog computer for fire-control systems, based on the differential analyser. It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I.\n\nStarting in 1929, AC network analyzers were constructed to solve calculation problems related to electrical power systems that were too large to solve with numerical methods at the time. These were essentially scale models of the electrical properties of the full-size system. Since network analyzers could handle problems too large for analytic methods or hand computation, they were also used to solve problems in nuclear physics and in the design of structures. More than 50 large network analyzers were built by the end of the 1950s.\n\nWorld War II era gun directors, gun data computers, and bomb sights used mechanical analog computers. In 1941 Helmut Hölzer built a fully electronic general-purpose analog computer at Peenemünde Army Research Center. Mechanical analog computers were very important in gun fire control in World War II, The Korean War and well past the Vietnam War; they were made in significant numbers.\n\nThe FERMIAC was an analog computer invented by physicist Enrico Fermi in 1947 to aid in his studies of neutron transport. Project Cyclone was an analog computer developed by Reeves in 1950 for the analysis and design of dynamic systems. Project Typhoon was an analog computer developed by RCA in 1952. It consisted of over 4000 electron tubes and used 100 dials and 6000 plug-in connectors to program. The MONIAC Computer was a hydraulic model of a national economy first unveiled in 1949.\n\nComputer Engineering Associates was spun out of Caltech in 1950 to provide commercial services using the \"Direct Analogy Electric Analog Computer\" (\"the largest and most impressive general-purpose analyzer facility for the solution of field problems\") developed there by Gilbert D. McCann, Charles H. Wilts, and Bart Locanthi.\n\nEducational analog computers illustrated the principles of analog calculation. The Heathkit EC-1, a $199 educational analog computer, was made by the Heath Company, USA c. 1960. It was programmed using patch cords that connected nine operational amplifiers and other components. General Electric also marketed an \"educational\" analog computer kit of a simple design in the early 1960s consisting of a two transistor tone generator and three potentiometers wired such that the frequency of the oscillator was nulled when the potentiometer dials were positioned by hand to satisfy an equation. The relative resistance of the potentiometer was then equivalent to the formula of the equation being solved. Multiplication or division could be performed depending on which dials were considered inputs and which was the output. Accuracy and resolution was limited and a simple slide rule was more accurate; however, the unit did demonstrate the basic principle.\n\nIn industrial process control, thousands of analog loop controllers were used to automatically regulate temperature, flow, pressure, or other process conditions. The technology of these controllers ranged from purely mechanical integrators, through vacuum-tube and solid-state devices, to emulation of analog controllers by microprocessors.\n", "Polish analog computer AKAT-1\n\nThe similarity between linear mechanical components, such as springs and dashpots (viscous-fluid dampers), and electrical components, such as capacitors, inductors, and resistors is striking in terms of mathematics. They can be modeled using equations of the same form.\n\nHowever, the difference between these systems is what makes analog computing useful. If one considers a simple mass–spring system, constructing the physical system would require making or modifying the springs and masses. This would be followed by attaching them to each other and an appropriate anchor, collecting test equipment with the appropriate input range, and finally, taking measurements. In more complicated cases, such as suspensions for racing cars, experimental construction, modification, and testing is both complicated and expensive.\n\nThe electrical equivalent can be constructed with a few operational amplifiers (op amps) and some passive linear components; all measurements can be taken directly with an oscilloscope. In the circuit, the (simulated) 'stiffness of the spring', for instance, can be changed by adjusting the parameters of a capacitor. The electrical system is an analogy to the physical system, hence the name, but it is less expensive to construct, generally safer, and typically much easier to modify.\n\nAs well, an electronic circuit can typically operate at higher frequencies than the system being simulated. This allows the simulation to run faster than real time (which could, in some instances, be hours, weeks, or longer). Experienced users of electronic analog computers said that they offered a comparatively intimate control and understanding of the problem, relative to digital simulations.\n\nThe drawback of the mechanical-electrical analogy is that electronics are limited by the range over which the variables may vary. This is called dynamic range. They are also limited by noise levels. Floating-point digital calculations have a comparatively huge dynamic range.\n\nThese electric circuits can also easily perform a wide variety of simulations. For example, voltage can simulate water pressure and electric current can simulate rate of flow in terms of cubic metres per second. An integrator can provide the total accumulated volume of liquid, using an input current proportional to the (possibly varying) flow rate.\n\nAnalog computers are especially well-suited to representing situations described by differential equations. Occasionally, they were used when a differential equation proved very difficult to solve by traditional means.\n\nThe accuracy of an analog computer is limited by its computing elements as well as quality of the internal power and electrical interconnections. The precision of the analog computer readout was limited chiefly by the precision of the readout equipment used, generally three or four significant figures. The precision of a digital computer is limited by the word size; arbitrary-precision arithmetic, while relatively slow, provides any practical degree of precision that might be needed.\n\nMany small computers dedicated to specific computations are still part of industrial regulation equipment, but from the 1950s to the 1970s, general-purpose analog computers were the only systems fast enough for real time simulation of dynamic systems, especially in the aircraft, military and aerospace field.\n\nIn the 1960s, the major manufacturer was Electronic Associates of Princeton, New Jersey, with its 231R Analog Computer (vacuum tubes, 20 integrators) and subsequently its 8800 Analog Computer (solid state operational amplifiers, 64 integrators). Its challenger was Applied Dynamics of Ann Arbor, Michigan.\n\nAlthough the basic technology for analog computers is usually operational amplifiers (also called \"continuous current amplifiers\" because they have no low frequency limitation), in the 1960s an attempt was made in the French ANALAC computer to use an alternative technology: medium frequency carrier and non dissipative reversible circuits.\n\nIn the 1970s every big company and administration concerned with problems in dynamics had a big analog computing center, for example:\n* ''In the USA'': NASA (Huntsville, Houston), Martin Marietta (Orlando), Lockheed, Westinghouse, Hughes Aircraft\n* ''In Europe'': CEA (French Atomic Energy Commission), MATRA, Aerospatiale, BAC (British Aircraft Corporation).\n", "Analog computing devices are fast, digital computing devices are more versatile and accurate, so the idea is to combine the two processes for the best efficiency. An example of such hybrid elementary device is the hybrid multiplier where one input is an analog signal, the other input is a digital signal and the output is analog. It acts as an analog potentiometer upgradable digitally. This kind of hybrid technique is mainly used for fast dedicated real time computation when computing time is very critical as signal processing for radars and generally for controllers in embedded systems.\n\nIn the early 1970s analog computer manufacturers tried to tie together their analog computer with a digital computer to get the advantages of the two techniques. In such systems, the digital computer controlled the analog computer, providing initial set-up, initiating multiple analog runs, and automatically feeding and collecting data. The digital computer may also participate to the calculation itself using analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters.\n\nThe largest manufacturer of hybrid computers was Electronics Associates. Their hybrid computer model 8900 was made of a digital computer and one or more analog consoles. These systems were mainly dedicated to large projects such as the Apollo program and Space Shuttle at NASA, or Ariane in Europe, especially during the integration step where at the beginning everything is simulated, and progressively real components replace their simulated part.\n\nOnly one company was known as offering general commercial computing services on its hybrid computers, CISI of France, in the 1970s.\n\nThe best reference in this field is the 100,000 simulations runs for each certification of the automatic landing systems of Airbus and Concorde aircraft.\n\nAfter 1980, purely digital computers progressed more and more rapidly and were fast enough to compete with analog computers.\nOne key to the speed of analog computers was their fully parallel computation, but this was also a limitation. The more equations required for a problem, the more analog components were needed, even when the problem wasn't time critical. \"Programming\" a problem meant interconnecting the analog operators; even with a removable wiring panel this was not very versatile. Today there are no more big hybrid computers, but only hybrid components.\n", "\n\n=== Mechanical analog computers ===\nWhile a wide variety of mechanisms have been developed throughout history, some stand out because of their theoretical importance, or because they were manufactured in significant quantities.\n\nMost practical mechanical analog computers of any significant complexity used rotating shafts to carry variables from one mechanism to another. Cables and pulleys were used in a Fourier synthesizer, a tide-predicting machine, which summed the individual harmonic components. Another category, not nearly as well known, used rotating shafts only for input and output, with precision racks and pinions. The racks were connected to linkages that performed the computation. At least one US Naval sonar fire control computer of the later 1950s, made by Librascope, was of this type, as was the principal computer in the Mk. 56 Gun Fire Control System.\n\nOnline, there is a remarkably clear illustrated reference (OP 1140) that describes the fire control computer mechanisms.\nFor adding and subtracting, precision miter-gear differentials were in common use in some computers; the Ford Instrument Mark I Fire Control Computer contained about 160 of them.\n\nIntegration with respect to another variable was done by a rotating disc driven by one variable. Output came from a pickoff device (such as a wheel) positioned at a radius on the disc proportional to the second variable. (A carrier with a pair of steel balls supported by small rollers worked especially well. A roller, its axis parallel to the disc's surface, provided the output. It was held against the pair of balls by a spring.)\n\nArbitrary functions of one variable were provided by cams, with gearing to convert follower movement to shaft rotation.\n\nFunctions of two variables were provided by three-dimensional cams. In one good design, one of the variables rotated the cam. A hemispherical follower moved its carrier on a pivot axis parallel to that of the cam's rotating axis. Pivoting motion was the output. The second variable moved the follower along the axis of the cam. One practical application was ballistics in gunnery.\n\nCoordinate conversion from polar to rectangular was done by a mechanical resolver (called a \"component solver\" in US Navy fire control computers). Two discs on a common axis positioned a sliding block with pin (stubby shaft) on it. One disc was a face cam, and a follower on the block in the face cam's groove set the radius. The other disc, closer to the pin, contained a straight slot in which the block moved. The input angle rotated the latter disc (the face cam disc, for an unchanging radius, rotated with the other (angle) disc; a differential and a few gears did this correction).\n\nReferring to the mechanism's frame, the location of the pin corresponded to the tip of the vector represented by the angle and magnitude inputs. Mounted on that pin was a square block.\n\nRectilinear-coordinate outputs (both sine and cosine, typically) came from two slotted plates, each slot fitting on the block just mentioned. The plates moved in straight lines, the movement of one plate at right angles to that of the other. The slots were at right angles to the direction of movement. Each plate, by itself, was like a Scotch yoke, known to steam engine enthusiasts.\n\nDuring World War II, a similar mechanism converted rectilinear to polar coordinates, but it was not particularly successful and was eliminated in a significant redesign (USN, Mk. 1 to Mk. 1A).\n\nMultiplication was done by mechanisms based on the geometry of similar right triangles. Using the trigonometric terms for a right triangle, specifically opposite, adjacent, and hypotenuse, the adjacent side was fixed by construction. One variable changed the magnitude of the opposite side. In many cases, this variable changed sign; the hypotenuse could coincide with the adjacent side (a zero input), or move beyond the adjacent side, representing a sign change.\n\nTypically, a pinion-operated rack moving parallel to the (trig.-defined) opposite side would position a slide with a slot coincident with the hypotenuse. A pivot on the rack let the slide's angle change freely. At the other end of the slide (the angle, in trig, terms), a block on a pin fixed to the frame defined the vertex between the hypotenuse and the adjacent side.\n\nAt any distance along the adjacent side, a line perpendicular to it intersects the hypotenuse at a particular point. The distance between that point and the adjacent side is some fraction that is the product of ''1'' the distance from the vertex, and ''2'' the magnitude of the opposite side.\n\nThe second input variable in this type of multiplier positions a slotted plate perpendicular to the adjacent side. That slot contains a block, and that block's position in its slot is determined by another block right next to it. The latter slides along the hypotenuse, so the two blocks are positioned at a distance from the (trig.) adjacent side by an amount proportional to the product.\n\nTo provide the product as an output, a third element, another slotted plate, also moves parallel to the (trig.) opposite side of the theoretical triangle. As usual, the slot is perpendicular to the direction of movement. A block in its slot, pivoted to the hypotenuse block positions it.\n\nA special type of integrator, used at a point where only moderate accuracy was needed, was based on a steel ball, instead of a disc. It had two inputs, one to rotate the ball, and the other to define the angle of the ball's rotating axis. That axis was always in a plane that contained the axes of two movement-pickoff rollers, quite similar to the mechanism of a rolling-ball computer mouse (in this mechanism, the pickoff rollers were roughly the same diameter as the ball). The pickoff roller axes were at right angles.\n\nA pair of rollers \"above\" and \"below\" the pickoff plane were mounted in rotating holders that were geared together. That gearing was driven by the angle input, and established the rotating axis of the ball. The other input rotated the \"bottom\" roller to make the ball rotate.\n\nEssentially, the whole mechanism, called a component integrator, was a variable-speed drive with one motion input and two outputs, as well as an angle input. The angle input varied the ratio (and direction) of coupling between the \"motion\" input and the outputs according to the sine and cosine of the input angle.\n\nAlthough they did not accomplish any computation, electromechanical position servos were essential in mechanical analog computers of the \"rotating-shaft\" type for providing operating torque to the inputs of subsequent computing mechanisms, as well as driving output data-transmission devices such as large torque-transmitter synchros in naval computers.\n\nOther non-computational mechanisms included internal odometer-style counters with interpolating drum dials for indicating internal variables, and mechanical multi-turn limit stops.\n\nConsidering that accurately controlled rotational speed in analog fire-control computers was a basic element of their accuracy, there was a motor with its average speed controlled by a balance wheel, hairspring, jeweled-bearing differential, a twin-lobe cam, and spring-loaded contacts (ship's AC power frequency was not necessarily accurate, nor dependable enough, when these computers were designed).\n\n=== Electronic analog computers ===\nElectronic analog computers typically have front panels with numerous jacks (single-contact sockets) that permit patch cords (flexible wires with plugs at both ends) to create the interconnections which define the problem setup. In addition, there are precision high-resolution potentiometers (variable resistors) for setting up (and, when needed, varying) scale factors. In addition, there is likely to be a zero-center analog pointer-type meter for modest-accuracy voltage measurement. Stable, accurate voltage sources provide known magnitudes.\n\nTypical electronic analog computers contain anywhere from a few to a hundred or more operational amplifiers (\"op amps\"), named because they perform mathematical operations. Op amps are a particular type of feedback amplifier with very high gain and stable input (low and stable offset). They are always used with precision feedback components that, in operation, all but cancel out the currents arriving from input components. The majority of op amps in a representative setup are summing amplifiers, which add and subtract analog voltages, providing the result at their output jacks. As well, op amps with capacitor feedback are usually included in a setup; they integrate the sum of their inputs with respect to time.\n\nIntegrating with respect to another variable is the nearly exclusive province of mechanical analog integrators; it is almost never done in electronic analog computers. However, given that a problem solution does not change with time, time can serve as one of the variables.\n\nOther computing elements include analog multipliers, nonlinear function generators, and analog comparators.\n\nElectrical elements such as inductors and capacitors used in electrical analog computers had to be carefully manufactured to reduce non-ideal effects. For example, in the construction of AC power network analyzers, one motive for using higher frequencies for the calculator (instead of the actual power frequency) was that higher-quality inductors could be more easily made. Many general-purpose analog computers avoided the use of inductors entirely, re-casting the problem in a form that could be solved using only resistive and capacitive elements, since high-quality capacitors are relatively easy to make.\n\nThe use of electrical properties in analog computers means that calculations are normally performed in real time (or faster), at a speed determined mostly by the frequency response of the operational amplifiers and other computing elements. In the history of electronic analog computers, there were some special high-speed types.\n\nNonlinear functions and calculations can be constructed to a limited precision (three or four digits) by designing function generators—special circuits of various combinations of resistors and diodes to provide the nonlinearity. Typically, as the input voltage increases, progressively more diodes conduct.\n\nWhen compensated for temperature, the forward voltage drop of a transistor's base-emitter junction can provide a usably accurate logarithmic or exponential function. Op amps scale the output voltage so that it is usable with the rest of the computer.\n\nAny physical process which models some computation can be interpreted as an analog computer. Some examples, invented for the purpose of illustrating the concept of analog computation, include using a bundle of spaghetti as a model of sorting numbers; a board, a set of nails, and a rubber band as a model of finding the convex hull of a set of points; and strings tied together as a model of finding the shortest path in a network. These are all described in Dewdney (1984).\n", "\nA 1960 Newmark analogue computer, made up of five units. This computer was used to solve differential equations and is currently housed at the Cambridge Museum of Technology.\n\nAnalog computers often have a complicated framework, but they have, at their core, a set of key components which perform the calculations, which the operator manipulates through the computer's framework.\n\nKey hydraulic components might include pipes, valves and containers.\n\nKey mechanical components might include rotating shafts for carrying data within the computer, miter gear differentials, disc/ball/roller integrators, cams (2-D and 3-D), mechanical resolvers and multipliers, and torque servos.\n\nKey electrical/electronic components might include:\n* Precision resistors and capacitors\n* operational amplifiers\n* Multipliers\n* potentiometers\n* fixed-function generators\n\nThe core mathematical operations used in an electric analog computer are:\n* addition\n* integration with respect to time\n* inversion\n* multiplication\n* exponentiation\n* logarithm\n* division\n\nIn some analog computer designs, multiplication is much preferred to division. Division is carried out with a multiplier in the feedback path of an Operational Amplifier.\n\nDifferentiation with respect to time is not frequently used, and in practice is avoided by redefining the problem when possible. It corresponds in the frequency domain to a high-pass filter, which means that high-frequency noise is amplified; differentiation also risks instability.\n", "\nIn general, analog computers are limited by non-ideal effects. An analog signal is composed of four basic components: DC and AC magnitudes, frequency, and phase. The real limits of range on these characteristics limit analog computers. Some of these limits include the operational amplifier offset, finite gain, and frequency response, noise floor, non-linearities, temperature coefficient, and parasitic effects within semiconductor devices. For commercially available electronic components, ranges of these aspects of input and output signals are always figures of merit.\n", "In 1950s to 1970s, digital computers based on first vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits and then micro-processors became more economical and precise. This led digital computers to largely replace analog computers. Even so, some research in analog computation is still being done. A few universities still use analog computers to teach control system theory. The American company Comdyna manufactures small analog computers. At Indiana University Bloomington, Jonathan Mills has developed the Extended Analog Computer based on sampling voltages in a foam sheet. At the Harvard Robotics Laboratory, analog computation is a research topic. Lyric Semiconductor's error correction circuits use analog probabilistic signals. Slide rules are still popular among aircraft personnel. \n", "With the development of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) technology, Yannis Tsividis' group at Columbia University has been revisiting analog/hybrid computers design in standard CMOS process. Two VLSI chips have been developed, an 80th-order analog computer (250 nm) by Glenn Cowan in 2005 and an 4th-order hybrid computer (65 nm) developed by Ning Guo in 2015, both targeting at energy-efficient ODE/PDE applications. Glenn's chip contains 16 macros, in which there are 25 analog computing blocks, namely integrators, multipliers, fanouts, few nonlinear blocks. Ning's chip contains one macro block, in which there are 26 computing blocks including integrators, multipliers, fanouts, ADCs, SRAMs and DACs. Arbitrary nonlinear function generation is made possible by the ADC+SRAM+DAC chain, where the SRAM block stores the nonlinear function data. The experiments from the related publications revealed that VLSI analog/hybrid computers demonstrated about 1–2 orders magnitude of advantage in both solution time and energy while achieving accuracy within 5%, which points to the promise of using analog/hybrid computing techniques in the area of energy-efficient approximate computing.\n", "X-15 simulator analog computer\nThese are examples of analog computers that have been constructed or practically used:\n\n* Boeing B-29 Superfortress Central Fire Control System\n* Deltar\n* Kerrison Predictor\n* Leonardo Torres y Quevedo's Analogue Calculating Machines based on \"fusee sans fin\"\n* Librascope, aircraft weight and balance computer\n* Mechanical computer\n* Mechanical integrators, for example, the planimeter\n* Nomogram\n* Norden bombsight\n* Rangekeeper and related fire control computers\n* Scanimate\n* Torpedo Data Computer\n* Torquetum\n* Water integrator\n\n\nAnalog (audio) synthesizers can also be viewed as a form of analog computer, and their technology was originally based in part on electronic analog computer technology. The ARP 2600's Ring Modulator was actually a moderate-accuracy analog multiplier.\n\nThe Simulation Council (or Simulations Council) was an association of analog computer users in USA. It is now known as The Society for Modeling and Simulation International. The Simulation Council newsletters from 1952 to 1963 are available online and show the concerns and technologies at the time, and the common use of analog computers for missilry.\n", "\nComputer theorists often refer to idealized analog computers as real computers (because they operate on the set of real numbers). Digital computers, by contrast, must first quantize the signal into a finite number of values, and so can only work with the rational number set (or, with an approximation of irrational numbers).\n\nThese idealized analog computers may ''in theory'' solve problems that are intractable on digital computers; however as mentioned, in reality, analog computers are far from attaining this ideal, largely because of noise minimization problems. ''In theory'', ambient noise is limited by quantum noise (caused by the quantum movements of ions). Ambient noise may be severely reduced – but never to zero – by using cryogenically cooled parametric amplifiers. Moreover, given unlimited time and memory, the (ideal) digital computer may also solve real number problems.\n", "\nAnalogical models\nChaos theory\nDifferential equation\nDynamical system\nField-programmable analog array\nGeneral purpose analog computer\nSignal (electrical engineering)\nVoskhod Spacecraft \"Globus\" IMP navigation instrument\nXY-writer\n", "\n", " A.K. Dewdney. \"On the Spaghetti Computer and Other Analog Gadgets for Problem Solving\", ''Scientific American'', 250(6):19-26, June 1984. Reprinted in ''The Armchair Universe'', by A.K. Dewdney, published by W.H. Freeman & Company (1988), .\n* Universiteit van Amsterdam Computer Museum. (2007). ''Analog Computers''.\n* Jackson, Albert S., \"Analog Computation\". London & New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. \n", "* Biruni's eight-geared lunisolar calendar in Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece, François Charette, Nature 444, 551-552(30 November 2006), doi:10.1038/444551a\n* The first computers\n* Large collection of electronic analog computers with lots of pictures, documentation and samples of implementations (some in German)\n* Large collection of old analog and digital computers at Old Computer Museum\n* A great disappearing act: the electronic analogue computer Chris Bissell, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK Accessed February 2007\n* German computer museum with still runnable analog computers\n* Analog computer basics\n* Analog computer trumps Turing model\n* Jonathan W. Mills's Analog Notebook\n* Harvard Robotics Laboratory Analog Computation\n* The Enns Power Network Computer – an analog computer for the analysis of electric power systems (advertisement from 1955)\n* Librascope Development Company – Type LC-1 WWII Navy PV-1 \"Balance Computor\"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Setup", "Timeline of analog computers", "Electronic analog computers", " Analog–digital hybrids ", " Implementations ", " Components ", " Limitations ", " Decline", " Resurgence in VLSI technology ", "Practical examples", " Real computers ", "See also", "Notes", "References", " External links " ]	Analog computer
[ "\n'''Audio''' most commonly refers to sound. It may also refer to:\n\n", "Audio signal, an electrical representation of sound\nAudio frequency, a frequency in the audio spectrum\nDigital audio, representation of sound in a form processed and/or stored by computers or other digital electronics\nAudio, audible content (media) in audio production and publishing\nSemantic audio, extraction of symbols or meaning from audio\n", "AUDIO (group), an American R&B band of 5 brothers formerly known as TNT Boyz and as B5\n''Audio'' (album), an album by the Blue Man Group\n''Audio'' (magazine), a magazine published from 1947 to 2000\nAudio (musician), a UK drum and bass artist\n", ", an HTML element, see HTML5 Audio\n", "Acoustic (disambiguation)\nAudible (disambiguation)\nRadio broadcasting\nSound recording and reproduction\n*Sound reinforcement\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Sound", "Entertainment", "Computing", "See also" ]	Audio
[ "\n\n\n\nA '''minute of arc''', '''arcminute''' (arcmin), '''arc minute''', or '''minute arc''' is a unit of angular measurement equal to of one degree. Since one degree is of a turn (or complete rotation), one minute of arc is of a turn (or, in radians, ). A '''second of arc''', '''arcsecond''' (arcsec), or '''arc second''' is of an arcminute, of a degree, of a turn, and (about ) of a radian. These units originated in Babylonian astronomy as sexagesimal subdivisions of the degree; they are used in fields that involve very small angles, such as astronomy, optometry, ophthalmology, optics, navigation, land surveying and marksmanship.\n\nTo express even smaller angles, standard SI prefixes can be employed; the '''milliarcsecond''' (mas) and '''microarcsecond''' (μas), for instance, are commonly used in astronomy.\n\nThe number of square arcminutes in a complete sphere is square arcminutes.\n", "The standard symbol for marking the arcminute is the prime (′) (U+2032), though a single quote (') (U+0027) is commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcminute is thus written 1′. It is also abbreviated as '''arcmin''' or '''amin''' or, less commonly, the prime with a circumflex over it ().\n\nThe standard symbol for the arcsecond is the double prime (″) (U+2033), though a double quote (\") (U+0022) is commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcsecond is thus written 1″. It is also abbreviated as '''arcsec''' or '''asec'''.\n\n\n+ '''Sexagesimal system of angular measurement'''\n\n Unit !! Value !! Symbol !! Abbreviations !! In radians, approx.\n\n Degree\n turn \n ° (degree) \n deg\n\n\n Arcminute\n degree \n ′ (prime) \n arcmin, amin, am, , MOA\n\n\n Arcsecond\n arcminute = degree \n ″ (double prime) \n arcsec, asec, as \n \n\n Milliarcsecond\n 0.001 arcsecond = degree \n \n mas \n \n\n Microarcsecond\n 0.001 mas = arcsecond \n \n μas \n \n\n\nIn celestial navigation, seconds of arc are rarely used in calculations, the preference usually being for degrees, minutes and decimals of a minute, for example, written as 42° 25.32′ or 42° 25.322′. This notation has been carried over into marine GPS receivers, which normally display latitude and longitude in the latter format by default.\n", "\nAn arcsecond is approximately the angle subtended by a U.S. dime coin (18 mm) at a distance of .\n\nAn arcsecond is also the angle subtended by\nan object of diameter at a distance of one astronomical unit,\nan object of diameter at one light-year,\nan object of diameter one astronomical unit () at a distance of one parsec.\n\nA milliarcsecond is about the size of a dime atop the Eiffel Tower as seen from New York City.\n\nA microarcsecond is about the size of a period at the end of a sentence in the Apollo mission manuals left on the Moon as seen from Earth.\n", "\n===Astronomy===\nComparison of angular diameter of the Sun, Moon, planets and the International Space Station. True representation of the sizes is achieved when the image is viewed at a distance of 103 times the width of the \"Moon: max.\" circle. For example, if the \"Moon: max.\" circle is 10 cm wide on a monitor, viewing it from 10.3 m away will show true representation of the sizes.\n\nSince antiquity the arcminute and arcsecond have been used in astronomy. In the ecliptic coordinate system, latitude (β) and longitude (λ); in the horizon system, altitude (Alt) and azimuth (Az); and in the equatorial coordinate system, declination (δ), are all measured in degrees, arcminutes and arcseconds. The principal exception is Right ascension (RA) in equatorial coordinates, which is measured in time units of hours, minutes, and seconds.\n\nThe arcsecond is also often used to describe small astronomical angles such as the angular diameters of planets (e.g. the angular diameter of Venus which varies between 10″ and 60″), the proper motion of stars, the separation of components of binary star systems, and parallax, the small change of position of a star in the course of a year or of a solar system body as the Earth rotates. These small angles may also be written in milliarcseconds (mas), or thousandths of an arcsecond. The unit of distance, the parsec, named from the '''par'''allax of one arc'''sec'''ond, was developed for such parallax measurements. It is the distance at which the mean radius of the Earth's orbit would subtend an angle of one arcsecond.\n\nThe ESA astrometric space probe Gaia is hoped to measure star positions to 20 microarcseconds (µas) when it begins producing catalog positions sometime after 2016. There are about 1.3 trillion µas in a turn. Currently the best catalog positions of stars actually measured are in terms of milliarcseconds, by the U.S. Naval Observatory.\n\nApart from the Sun, the star with the largest angular diameter from Earth is R Doradus, a red supergiant with a diameter of 0.05 arcsecond. Because of the effects of atmospheric seeing, ground-based telescopes will smear the image of a star to an angular diameter of about 0.5 arcsecond; in poor seeing conditions this increases to 1.5 arcseconds or even more. The dwarf planet Pluto has proven difficult to resolve because its angular diameter is about 0.1 arcsecond.\n\nSpace telescopes are not affected by the Earth's atmosphere but are diffraction limited. For example, the Hubble Space Telescope can reach an angular size of stars down to about 0.1″. Techniques exist for improving seeing on the ground. Adaptive optics, for example, can produce images around 0.05 arcsecond on a 10 m class telescope.\n\n===Cartography===\n\nMinutes (′) and seconds (″) of arc are also used in cartography and navigation. At sea level one minute of arc along the equator or a meridian (indeed, any great circle) equals exactly one geographical mile along the Earth's equator or approximately one nautical mile (1852 meters, or ≈1.15078 statute miles). A second of arc, one sixtieth of this amount, is roughly 30 meters or 100 feet. The exact distance varies along meridian arcs because the figure of the Earth is slightly oblate (bulges a third of a percent at the equator).\n\nPositions are traditionally given using degrees, minutes, and seconds of arcs for latitude, the arc north or south of the equator, and for longitude, the arc east or west of the Prime Meridian. Any position on or above the Earth's reference ellipsoid can be precisely given with this method. However, when it is inconvenient to use base-60 for minutes and seconds, positions are frequently expressed as decimal fractional degrees to an equal amount of precision. Degrees given to three decimal places ( of a degree) have about the precision of degrees-minutes-seconds ( of a degree) and specify locations within about 120 meters or 400 feet.\n\n===Property cadastral surveying===\n\nRelated to cartography, property boundary surveying using the metes and bounds system relies on fractions of a degree to describe property lines' angles in reference to cardinal directions. A boundary \"mete\" is described with a beginning reference point, the cardinal direction North or South followed by an angle less than 90 degrees and a second cardinal direction, and a linear distance. The boundary runs the specified linear distance from the beginning point, the direction of the distance being determined by rotating the first cardinal direction the specified angle toward the second cardinal direction. For example, ''North 65° 39′ 18″ West 85.69 feet'' would describe a line running from the starting point 85.69 feet in a direction 65° 39′ 18″ (or 65.655°) away from north toward the west.\n\n===Firearms===\nThe arcminute is commonly found in the firearms industry and literature, particularly concerning the accuracy of rifles, though the industry refers to it as '''minute of angle''' (MOA). It is especially popular with shooters familiar with the imperial measurement system because 1 MOA subtends 1.047 inches at 100 yards (approximately 3 cm at 100 m), a traditional distance on U.S. target ranges. The subtension is linear with the distance, for example, 500 yards = 5.235 inches, and 1000 yards = 10.47 inches. Since many modern telescopic sights are adjustable in half (), quarter (), or eighth () MOA increments, also known as ''clicks'', zeroing and adjustments are made by counting 2, 4 and 8 clicks per MOA respectively.\n\nFor example, if the point of impact is 3 inches high and 1.5 inches left of the point of aim at 100 yards (which for instance could be measured by using a spotting scope with a calibrated reticle), the scope needs to be adjusted 3 MOA down, and 1.5 MOA right. Such adjustments are trivial when the scope's adjustment dials have a MOA scale printed on them, and even figuring the right number of clicks is relatively easy on scopes that ''click'' in fractions of MOA. This makes zeroing and adjustments much easier:\n\n To adjust a MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 × 2 = 6 clicks down and 1.5 x 2 = 3 clicks right\n* To adjust a MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 4 = 12 clicks down and 1.5 × 4 = 6 clicks right\n* To adjust a MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 8 = 24 clicks down and 1.5 × 8 = 12 clicks right\n\nAnother common system of measurement in firearm scopes is the milliradian. Zeroing a mil based scope is easy for users familiar with base ten systems. The most common adjustment value in mil based scopes is mil (which approximates MOA).\n\n* To adjust a mil scope 0.9 mil down and 0.4 mil right, the scope needs to be adjusted 9 clicks down and 4 clicks right (which equals approximately 3 and 1.5 MOA respectively).\n\nOne thing to be aware of is that some MOA scopes, including some higher-end models, are calibrated such that an adjustment of 1 MOA on the scope knobs corresponds to exactly 1 inch of impact adjustment on a target at 100 yards, rather than the mathematically correct 1.047\". This is commonly known as the Shooter's MOA (SMOA) or Inches Per Hundred Yards (IPHY). While the difference between one true MOA and one SMOA is less than half of an inch even at 1000 yards, this error compounds significantly on longer range shots that may require adjustment upwards of 20-30 MOA to compensate for the bullet drop. If a shot requires an adjustment of 20 MOA or more, the difference between true MOA and SMOA will add up to 1 inch or more. In competitive target shooting, this might mean the difference between a hit and a miss.\n\nThe physical group size equivalent to ''m'' minutes of arc can be calculated as follows: group size = tan() × distance. In the example previously given, for 1 minute of arc, and substituting 3,600 inches for 100 yards, 3,600 tan() ≈ 1.047 inches. In metric units 1 MOA at 100 meters ≈ 2.908 centimeters.\n\nSometimes, a precision firearm's accuracy will be measured in MOA. This simply means that under ideal conditions i.e. no wind, match-grade ammo, clean barrel, and a vise or a benchrest used to eliminate shooter error, the gun is capable of producing a group of shots whose center points (center-to-center) fit into a circle, the average diameter of circles in several groups can be subtended by that amount of arc. For example, a ''1 MOA rifle'' should be capable, under ideal conditions, of shooting an average 1-inch groups at 100 yards. Most higher-end rifles are warrantied by their manufacturer to shoot under a given MOA threshold (typically 1 MOA or better) with specific ammunition and no error on the shooter's part. For example, Remington's M24 Sniper Weapon System is required to shoot 0.8 MOA or better, or be rejected.\n\nRifle manufacturers and gun magazines often refer to this capability as ''sub-MOA'', meaning it shoots under 1 MOA. This means that a single group of 3 to 5 shots at 100 yards, or the average of several groups, will measure less than 1 MOA between the two furthest shots in the group, i.e. all shots fall within 1 MOA. If larger samples are taken (i.e., more shots per group) then group size typically increases, however this will ultimately average out. If a rifle was truly a 1 MOA rifle, it would be just as likely that two consecutive shots land exactly on top of each other as that they land 1 MOA apart. For 5 shot groups, based on 95% confidence a rifle that normally shoots 1 MOA can be expected to shoot groups between 0.58 MOA and 1.47 MOA, although the majority of these groups will be under 1 MOA. What this means in practice is if a rifle that shoots 1-inch groups on average at 100 yards shoots a group measuring 0.7 inches followed by a group that is 1.3 inches this is not statistically abnormal.\n\nThe Metric System counterpart of the MOA is the milliradian or '''mil''', being equal to one 1000th of the target range, laid out on a circle that has the observer as centre and the target range as radius. The number of mils on a full such circle therefore always is equal to 2 × × 1000, regardless the target range. Therefore, 1 MOA ≈ 0.2908 mil. This means that an object which spans 1 mil on the reticle is at a range that is in meters equal to the object's size in millimeters (e.g. an object of 100 mm @ 1 Milrad is 100 meters away). So there is no conversion factor required, contrary to the MOA system. A reticle with markings (hashes or dots) spaced with a one mil apart (or a fraction of a mil) are collectively called a mil reticle. If the markings are round they are called '''mil-dots'''.\n\nIn the table below conversions from mil to metric values are exact (e.g. 0.1 mil equals exactly 1 cm at 100 meters), while conversions of minutes of arc to both metric and imperial values are approximate.\n\nComparison of milliradian (mil) and minute of arc (moa).\n\n\n\n* 1′ at 100 yards equals 22619/ 21600 = 1.04717593 in ≈ 1.047 inches\n* 1′ ≈ 0.291 mil (or 2.91 cm at 100 m, approximately 3 cm at 100 m)\n* 1 mil ≈ 3.44′, so mil ≈ ′\n* 0.1 mil equals exactly 1 cm at 100 m, or approximately 0.36 inches at 100 yards\n\n===Human vision===\nIn humans, 20/20 vision is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc.\nA 20/20 letter subtends 5 minutes of arc total.\n\n===Materials===\nThe deviation from parallelism between two surfaces, for instance in optical engineering, is usually measured in arcminutes or arcseconds.\nIn addition, arcseconds are sometimes used in rocking curve (ω-scan) x ray diffraction measurements of high-quality epitaxial thin films.\n", "\n\nSquare minute\nSquare second\n", "\n", "\n", "* MOA / mils By Robert Simeone\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Symbols and abbreviations", " Common examples ", "Uses", "See also", "Notes", "References", " External links " ]	Minute and second of arc
[ "\n\nAn '''anthem''' is a musical composition of celebration, usually used as a symbol for a distinct group, particularly the national anthems of countries. Originally, and in music theory and religious contexts, it also refers more particularly to short sacred choral work and still more particularly to a specific form of Anglican church music.\n\n\n", "''Anthem'' is derived from the Greek (''antíphōna'') via Old English . Both words originally referred to antiphons, a call-and-response style of singing. The adjectival form is \"anthemic\".\n", "Anthems were originally a form of liturgical music. In the Church of England, the rubric appoints them to follow the third collect at morning and evening prayer. Several anthems are included in the British coronation service. The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. Being written for a trained choir rather than the congregation, the Anglican anthem is analogous to the motet of the Roman Catholic and Lutheran Churches but represents an essentially English musical form. Anthems may be described as \"verse\", \"full\", or \"full with verse\", depending on whether they are intended for soloists, the full choir, or both.\n\nThe anthem developed as a replacement for the Catholic \"votive antiphon\" commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the Blessed Virgin Mary or other saints. During the Elizabethan period, notable anthems were composed by Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Tye, and Farrant but they were not mentioned in the Book of Common Prayer until 1662 when the famous rubric \"In quires and places where they sing here followeth the Anthem\" first appears. Early anthems tended to be simple and homophonic in texture, so that the words could be clearly heard. During the 17th century, notable anthems were composed by Orlando Gibbons, Henry Purcell, and John Blow, with the verse anthem becoming the dominant musical form of the Restoration. In the 18th century, famed anthems were composed by Croft, Boyce, James Kent, James Nares, Benjamin Cooke, and Samuel Arnold. In the 19th, Samuel Sebastian Wesley wrote anthems influenced by contemporary oratorio which stretch to several movements and last twenty minutes or longer. Later in the century, Charles Villiers Stanford used symphonic techniques to produce a more concise and unified structure. Many anthems have been composed since this time, generally by organists rather than professional composers and often in a conservative style. Major composers have usually composed anthems in response to commissions and for special occasions. Examples include Edward Elgar's 1912 \"Great is the Lord\" and 1914 \"Give unto the Lord\" (both with orchestral accompaniment), Benjamin Britten's 1943 ''Rejoice in the Lamb'' (a modern example of a multi-movement anthem, today heard mainly as a concert piece), and, on a much smaller scale, Ralph Vaughan Williams's 1952 \"O Taste and See\" written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. With the relaxation of the rule, in England at least, that anthems should be only in English, the repertoire has been greatly enhanced by the addition of many works from the Latin repertoire.\n\nThe word \"anthem\" is now commonly used to describe any celebratory song or composition for a distinct group, as in national anthems. Many pop songs are used as sports anthems, notably including Queen's \"We Are the Champions\" and \"We Will Rock You\", and some sporting events have their own anthems, most notably including UEFA Champions League. Further, some songs are artistically styled as anthems, whether or not they are used as such, including Marilyn Manson's \"Irresponsible Hate Anthem\", Silverchair's \"Anthem for the Year 2000\", and Toto's \"Child's Anthem\".\n", "\nAntiphon\nEarth Anthem\nMotet\nNational anthem (list)\nSports & stadium anthems\nVerse anthem\n\n", "\n", "* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "History", "See also", "Notes", "References" ]	Anthem
[ "''Albrecht Altdorfer'' by Philipp Kilian\n''Resurrection'' by Altdorfer, 1518\n\n'''Albrecht Altdorfer''' (c. 1480 – February 12, 1538) was a German painter, engraver and architect of the Renaissance working in Regensburg. Along with Lucas Cranach the Elder and Wolf Huber he is regarded to be the main representative of the so-called Danube School setting biblical and historical subjects against landscape backgrounds of expressive colours. As an artist also making small intricate engravings he is seen to belong to the Nuremberg Little Masters.\n", "Altdorfer was born in Regensburg or Altdorf around 1480.\n\nHe acquired an interest in art from his father, Ulrich Altdorfer, who was a painter and miniaturist. At the start of his career, he won public attention by creating small, intimate modestly scaled works in unconventional media and with eccentric subject matter. He settled in the free imperial city of Regensburg, a town located on the Danube River in 1505, eventually becoming the town architect and a town councillor. His first signed works date to c. 1506, including engravings and drawings such the ''Stygmata of St. Francis'' and ''St. Jerome''. His models were niellos and copper engravings from the workshops of Jacopo de Barbari and Albrecht Dürer.\n\nAround 1511 or earlier, he travelled down the river and south into the Alps, where the scenery moved him so deeply that he became the first landscape painter in the modern sense, making him the leader of the Danube School, a circle that pioneered landscape as an independent genre, in southern Germany. From 1513 he was at the service of Maximilian I in Innsbruck, where he received several commissions from the imperial court. During the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, he dedicated mostly to architecture; paintings of the period, showing his increasing attention to architecture, include the ''Nativity of the Virgin''.\n\nIn 1529 he executed ''The Battle of Alexander at Issus'' for Duke William IV of Bavaria. In the 1520s he returned to Regensburg as a wealthy man, and became a member of the city's council. He was also responsible for the fortifications of Regensburg.\n\nIn that period his works are influenced by artists such as Giorgione and Lucas Cranach, as shown by his ''Crucifixion''. In 1535 he was in Vienna. He died at Regensburg in 1538.\n\nThe remains of Altdorfer's surviving work comprises 55 panels, 120 drawings, 125 woodcuts, 78 engravings, 36 etchings, 24 paintings on parchment, and fragments from a mural for the bathhouse of the Kaiserhof in Regensburg. This production extends at least over the period 1504–1537. He signed and dated each one of his works.\n", "''Christ taking Leave of his Mother''\nAlbrecht Altdorfer: Sebastian Altar in St. Florian's Priory, Upper Austria\n\nAltdorfer was the pioneer painter of pure landscape, making them the subject of the painting, as well as compositions dominated by their landscape; these comprise much of his oeuvre. He believed that the human figure should not disrupt nature, but rather participate in it or imitate its natural processes. Taking and developing the landscape style of Lucas Cranach the Elder, he shows the hilly landscape of the Danube valley with thick forests of drooping and crumbling firs and larches hung with moss, and often dramatic colouring from a rising or setting sun. His ''Landscape with Footbridge'' (National Gallery, London) of 1518–1520 is claimed to be the first pure landscape in oil. In this painting, Altdorfer places a large tree that is cut off by the margins at the center of the landscape, making it the central axis and focus within the piece. He uses anthropomorphism to give the tree human qualities such as the drapery of its limbs. He also made many fine finished drawings, mostly landscapes, in pen and watercolour such as the ''Landscape with the Woodcutter'' in 1522. The drawing opens at ground level on a clearing surrounding an enormous tree that is placed in the center, dominating the picture. It poses and gesticulates as if it was human, splaying its branches out in every corner. Halfway up the tree trunk, hangs a gabled shrine. At the time, a shrine like this might shelter an image of the Crucifixion or the Virgin Mary, but since it is turned away from the viewer, we are not sure what it truly is. At the bottom of the tree, a tiny figure of a seated man, crossed legged, holds a knife and axe, declaring his status in society/occupation.\n\nAlso, he often painted scenes of historical and biblical subjects, set in atmospheric landscapes. His best religious scenes are intense, with their glistening lights and glowing colours sometimes verging on the expressionistic. They often depict moments of intimacy between Christ and his mother, or various saints. His sacral masterpiece and one of the most famous religious works of art of the later Middle Ages is ''The Legend of St. Sebastian'' and ''The Passion of Christ'' of the so-called ''Sebastian Altar'' in ''St. Florian's Priory'' (''Stift Sankt Florian'') near Linz, Upper Austria. When closed the altarpiece displayed the four panels of the legend of St. Sebastian’s Martyrdom, while the opened wings displayed the Stations of the Cross. Today the altarpiece is dismantled and the predellas depicting the two final scenes, ''Entombment'' and ''Resurrection'' were sold to Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna in 1923 and 1930. Both these paintings share a similar formal structure that consists of an open landscape that is seen beyond and through the opening of a dark grotto. The date of completion on the resurrection panel is 1518.\n\nAltdorfer often distorts perspective to subtle effect. His donor figures are often painted completely out of scale with the main scene, as in paintings of the previous centuries. He also painted some portraits; overall his painted oeuvre was not large. In his later works, Altdorfer moved more towards mannerism and began to depict the human form to the conformity of the Italian model, as well as dominate the picture with frank colors.\n", "''The Battle of Alexander at Issus'', 1529, Wood, 158,4 × 120,3 cm Alte Pinakothek, Munich.\n\nHis rather atypical ''Battle of Issus'' (or of ''Alexander'') of 1529 was commissioned by William IV, Duke of Bavaria as part of a series of eight historical battle scenes destined to hang in the Residenz in Munich. Albrecht Altdorfer's depiction of the moment in 333 BCE when Alexander the Great routed Darius III for supremacy in Asia Minor is vast in ambition, sweeping in scope, vivid in imagery, rich in symbols, and obviously heroic—the Iliad of painting, as literary critic Friedrich Schlegel suggested In the painting, a swarming cast of thousands of soldiers surround the central action: Alexander on his white steed, leading two rows of charging cavalrymen, dashes after a fleeing Darius, who looks anxiously over his shoulder from a chariot. The opposing armies are distinguished by the colors of their uniforms: Darius' army in red and Alexander's in blue. The upper half of ''The Battle of Alexander'' expands with unreal rapidity into an arcing panorama comprehending vast coiling tracts of globe and sky. The victory also lies on the planar surface; The sun outshone the moon just as the Imperial and allied army successfully repel the Turks.\nBy making the mass number of soldiers blend within the landscape/painting, it shows that he believed that the usage and depiction of landscape was just as significant as a historical event, such as a war. He renounced the office of ''Mayor of Regensburg'' to accept the commission. Few of his other paintings resemble this apocalyptic scene of two huge armies dominated by an extravagant landscape seen from a very high viewpoint, which looks south over the whole Mediterranean from modern Turkey to include the island of Cyprus and the mouths of the Nile and the Red Sea (behind the isthmus to the left) on the other side. However his style here is a development of that of a number of miniatures of battle-scenes he had done much earlier for Maximilian I in his illuminated manuscript ''Triumphal Procession'' in 1512-14. It is thought to be the earliest painting to show the curvature of the Earth from a great height.\n\nThe ''Battle'' is now in the Alte Pinakothek, which has the best collection of Altdorfer's paintings, including also his small ''St. George and the Dragon'' (1510), in oil on parchment, where the two figures are tiny and almost submerged in the lush, dense forest that towers over them. Altdorfer seems to exaggerate the measurements of the forest in comparison to the figures: the leaves appear to be larger than the horse, showing the significance of nature and landscape. He also emphasizes line within the work, by displaying the upward growth of the forest with the vertical and diagonal lines of the trunks. There is a small opening of the forest on the lower right hand corner that provides a rest for your eyes. It serves to create depth within the painting and is the only place you can see the characters. The human form is completely absorbed by the thickness of the forest. Fantastic light effects provide a sense of mystery and dissolve the outline of objects. Without the contrast of light, the figures would blend in with its surrounding environment. Altdorfer's figures are invariably the complement of his romantic landscapes; for them he borrowed Albrecht Dürer's inventive iconography, but the panoramic setting is personal and has nothing to do with the fantasy landscapes of the Netherlands A ''Susanna in the Bath and the Stoning of the Elders'' (1526) set outside an Italianate skyscraper of a palace shows his interest in architecture. Another small oil on parchment, ''Danube Landscape with Castle Wörth'' (c. 1520) is one of the earliest accurate topographical paintings of a particular building in its setting, of a type that was to become a cliché in later centuries.\n", "National Museum in Warsaw.\n\nAltdorfer was a significant printmaker, with numerous engravings and about ninety-three woodcuts. These included some for the ''Triumphs of Maximilian'', where he followed the overall style presumably set by Hans Burgkmair, although he was able to escape somewhat from this in his depictions of the more disorderly baggage-train, still coming through a mountain landscape. However most of his best prints are etchings, many of landscapes; in these he was able most easily to use his drawing style. He was one of the most successful early etchers, and was unusual for his generation of German printmakers in doing no book illustrations. He often combined etching and engraving techniques in a single plate, and produced about 122 intaglio prints altogether. Many of Altdorfer's prints are quite small in size, and he is considered to be of the main members of the group of artists known as the Little Masters. Arthur Mayger Hind considers his graphical work to be somewhat lacking in technical skill but with an \"intimate personal touch\", and notes his characteristic feeling for landscape.\n", "As the superintendent of the municipal buildings Altdorfer had overseen the construction of several commercial structures, such as a slaughterhouse and a building for wine storage, possibly even designing them. He was considered to be an outstanding politician of his day. In 1517 he was a member of the \"Ausseren Rates\", the council on external affairs, and in this capacity was involved in the expulsion of the Jews, the destruction of the synagogue and in its place the construction of a church and shrine to the Schöne Maria that occurred in 1519. Altdorfer made etchings of the interior of the synagogue and designed a woodcut of the cult image of the Schöne Maria. In 1529–1530 he was also charged with reinforcing certain city fortifications in response to the Turkish threat.\n\nAlbrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and printmaker in woodcut and engraving, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach the Elder.\nA ''Crucifixion'' (unusually set on the banks of a large river) by Altdorfer, c. 1512.\n", "* 8121 Altdorfer, asteroid named after Altdorfer\n* Danube school\n* Early Renaissance painting\n", "\n", "Alte Pinakotek, Munich; (Summary Catalogue -various authors),1986, Edition Lipp,\n Christopher Wood, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London, \nChristoph Wagner, Oliver Jehle (ed.), Albrecht Altdorfer. Kunst als zweite Natur, 2012, Schnell & Steiner Verlag, Regensburg (= Regensburger Studien zur Kunstgeschichte, Band 17), \nJochen Sander, Stefan Roller, Sabine Haag, Guido Messling (ed): Fantastische Welten. Albrecht Altdorfer und das Expressive in der Kunst um 1500. Hirmer, Munich 2014, .( exhibition catalogue Städel Museum, Frankfort, November 5, 2014 - February 2015 and Kusthistorisches Museum, Vienna, March 17 - June 14, 2015)\n", "\n* Works by Albrecht Altdofer at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa\n\n Works by Altdorfer at Zeno.org\n* Albrecht Altdorfer in the \"History of Art\"\n* Albrecht Altdorfer Wallpapers\n* Page at artcyclopedia.com\n* Page at ibiblio.org\n* Artvibrations Archive: http://www.artvibrations.com/AlbrechtAltdorfer\n* Albrecht Altdorfer Paintings Gallery (Public Domain Paintings - www.art.onilm.com)\n* Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Albrecht Altdorfer (see index)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Painting", "Paintings in Munich", "Printmaking", "Public life", " See also ", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Albrecht Altdorfer
[ "\n\n\nThe '''House of Ascania''' () is a dynasty of German rulers. It is also known as the '''House of Anhalt''', which refers to its longest-held possession, Anhalt.\n\nThe Ascanians are named after Ascania (or Ascaria) Castle, ''Schloss Askanien'', which was located near and named after Aschersleben. The castle was the seat of the County of Ascania, a title that was later subsumed into the titles of the princes of Anhalt.\n", "\nThe earliest known member of the house, Esiko, Count of Ballenstedt, first appears in a document of 1036. He is assumed to have been a grandson (through his mother) of Odo I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark. From Odo, the Ascanians inherited large properties in the Saxon Eastern March.\n\nEsiko's grandson was Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, who died in 1123. By Otto's marriage to Eilika, daughter of Magnus, Duke of Saxony, the Ascanians became heirs to half of the property of the House of Billung, former dukes of Saxony.\n\nOtto's son, Albert the Bear, became, with the help of his mother's inheritance, the first Ascanian duke of Saxony in 1139. However, he soon lost control of Saxony to the rival House of Guelph. \n\nAlbert inherited the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157 from its last Wendish ruler, Pribislav, and he became the first Ascanian margrave. Albert, and his descendants of the House of Ascania, then made considerable progress in Christianizing and Germanizing the lands. As a borderland between German and Slavic cultures, the country was known as a march.\n\nIn 1237 and 1244, two towns, Cölln and Berlin, were founded during the rule of Otto and Johann, grandsons of Margrave Albert the Bear. Later, they were united into one city, Berlin. The emblem of the House of Ascania, a red eagle and bear, became the heraldic emblems of Berlin. In 1320, the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end.\n\nAfter the Emperor had deposed the Guelph rulers of Saxony in 1180, Ascanians returned to rule the Duchy of Saxony, which had been reduced to its eastern half by the Emperor. However, even in eastern Saxony, the Ascanians could establish control only in limited areas, mostly near the River Elbe.\n\nIn the 13th century, the Principality of Anhalt was split off from the Duchy of Saxony. Later, the remaining state was split into Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. The Ascanian dynasties in the two Saxon states became extinct in 1689 and in 1422, respectively, but Ascanians continued to rule in the smaller state of Anhalt and its various subdivisions until the monarchy was abolished in 1918.\n\nCatherine the Great, Empress of Russia from 1762–1796, was a member of the House of Ascania, herself the daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst.\n", "\n* County, Principality, and Duchy of Anhalt: c. 1100–1918\n* Duchy and Electorate of Saxony: 1112, 1139–1142, 1180–1422\n* County of Weimar-Orlamünde: 1112–1486\n* Margravate of Brandenburg: 1157–1320\n* Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg: 1269–1689\n* Principality of Lüneburg: 1369–1388\n* Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg: 1252–1468 and 1603–1863\n* Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst: 1252–1396 and 1544–1796\n* Principality of Anhalt-Aschersleben: 1252–1315\n* Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Köthen: 1396–1561 and 1603–1847\n* Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau 1396–1561 and 1603–1863\n* Principality of Anhalt-Plötzkau 1544–1553 and 1603–1665\n* Principality of Anhalt-Harzgerode 1635–1709\n* Principality of Anhalt-Mühlingen: 1667–1714\n* Principality of Anhalt-Dornburg: 1667–1742\n* Principality of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym: 1718–1812\n* Russian Empire: 1762–1796\n", "* ''Askanien'', Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888\n* Trillmich, Werner, ''Kaiser Konrad II. und seine Zeit'', Bonn, 1991\n", "\n* Ducal Family of Anhalt (House of Ascania) - official website\n* European Heraldry page\n* (first page of a series)\n* Stirnet: Brandenburg1 (genealogy of the Houses of Ascania and Brandenburg, including the most likely ancestry of the 11th-century House of Ascania)\n* Stirnet: Ascania1 (an alternate possible ancestry of the 11th-century House of Ascania)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", "List of states ruled by the House of Ascania", "References", "External links" ]	House of Ascania
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Acceleration''', in physics, is the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. An object's acceleration is the net result of any and all forces acting on the object, as described by Newton's Second Law. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared Accelerations are vector quantities (they have magnitude and direction) and add according to the parallelogram law. As a vector, the calculated net force is equal to the product of the object's mass (a scalar quantity) and its acceleration.\n\nFor example, when a car starts from a standstill (zero relative velocity) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the car turns, an acceleration occurs toward the new-direction. In this example, we can call the forward acceleration of the car a \"linear acceleration\", which passengers in the car might experience as a force pushing them back into their seats. When changing direction, we might call this \"non-linear acceleration\", which passengers might experience as a sideways force. If the speed of the car decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction from the direction of the vehicle, sometimes called '''deceleration'''. Passengers may experience deceleration as a force lifting them forwards. Mathematically, there is no separate formula for deceleration: both are changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (linear, non-linear, deceleration) might be felt by passengers until their velocity (speed and direction) matches that of the car. \n", "Kinematic quantities of a classical particle: mass ''m'', position '''r''', velocity '''v''', acceleration '''a'''.\n\n===Average acceleration===\nAcceleration is the rate of change of velocity. At any point on a trajectory, the magnitude of the acceleration is given by the rate of change of velocity in both magnitude and direction at that point. The true acceleration at time ''t'' is found in the limit as time interval ''Δt'' → 0 of ''Δ'''''v'''/''Δt''\n\nAn object's average acceleration over a period of time is its change in velocity divided by the duration of the period . Mathematically,\n\n:\n\n===Instantaneous acceleration===\n'''From bottom to top''': \nInstantaneous acceleration, meanwhile, is the limit of the average acceleration over an infinitesimal interval of time. In the terms of calculus, instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of the velocity vector with respect to time:\n\n:\n\n(Here and elsewhere, if motion is in a straight line, vector quantities can be substituted by scalars in the equations.)\n\nIt can be seen that the integral of the acceleration function is the velocity function ; that is, the area under the curve of an acceleration vs. time ( vs. ) graph corresponds to velocity.\n\n:\n\nAs acceleration is defined as the derivative of velocity, , with respect to time and velocity is defined as the derivative of position, , with respect to time, acceleration can be thought of as the second derivative of with respect to :\n\n:\n\n===Units===\nAcceleration has the dimensions of velocity (L/T) divided by time, i.e. L.T−2. The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared (m s−2); or \"metre per second per second\", as the velocity in metres per second changes by the acceleration value, every second.\n\n===Other forms===\nAn object moving in a circular motion—such as a satellite orbiting the Earth—is accelerating due to the change of direction of motion, although its speed may be constant. In this case it is said to be undergoing ''centripetal'' (directed towards the center) acceleration.\n\nProper acceleration, the acceleration of a body relative to a free-fall condition, is measured by an instrument called an accelerometer.\n\nIn classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the (vector) acceleration of the body's center of mass is proportional to the net force vector (i.e. sum of all forces) acting on it (Newton's second law):\n:\nwhere '''F''' is the net force acting on the body, ''m'' is the mass of the body, and '''a''' is the center-of-mass acceleration. As speeds approach the speed of light, relativistic effects become increasingly large.\n", "An oscillating pendulum, with velocity and acceleration marked. It experiences both tangential and centripetal acceleration.\nComponents of acceleration for a curved motion. The tangential component '''a'''t'' is due to the change in speed of traversal, and points along the curve in the direction of the velocity vector (or in the opposite direction). The normal component (also called centripetal component for circular motion) '''a'''c'' is due to the change in direction of the velocity vector and is normal to the trajectory, pointing toward the center of curvature of the path.\n\n\nThe velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as:\n:\n\nwith ''v''(''t'') equal to the speed of travel along the path, and\n\n:\n\na unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into account both the changing speed ''v(t)'' and the changing direction of '''u'''''t'', the acceleration of a particle moving on a curved path can be written using the chain rule of differentiation for the product of two functions of time as:\n\n:\n\nwhere '''u'''n is the unit (inward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory (also called ''the principal normal''), and '''r''' is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time ''t''. These components are called the tangential acceleration and the normal or radial acceleration (or centripetal acceleration in circular motion, see also circular motion and centripetal force).\n\nGeometrical analysis of three-dimensional space curves, which explains tangent, (principal) normal and binormal, is described by the Frenet–Serret formulas.\n", "\n===Uniform acceleration===\nCalculation of the speed difference for a uniform acceleration.\n''Uniform'' or ''constant'' acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time period.\n\nA frequently cited example of uniform acceleration is that of an object in free fall in a uniform gravitational field. The acceleration of a falling body in the absence of resistances to motion is dependent only on the gravitational field strength ''g'' (also called ''acceleration due to gravity''). By Newton's Second Law the force, ''F'', acting on a body is given by:\n\n:\n\nBecause of the simple analytic properties of the case of constant acceleration, there are simple formulas relating the displacement, initial and time-dependent velocities, and acceleration to the time elapsed:\n\n:\n:\n:\n\nwhere\n* is the elapsed time,\n* is the initial displacement from the origin,\n* is the displacement from the origin at time ,\n* is the initial velocity,\n* is the velocity at time , and\n* is the uniform rate of acceleration.\n\nIn particular, the motion can be resolved into two orthogonal parts, one of constant velocity and the other according to the above equations. As Galileo showed, the net result is parabolic motion, which describes, e. g., the trajectory of a projectile in a vacuum near the surface of Earth.\n\n===Circular motion===\n\n\nUniform circular motion, that is constant speed along a circular path, is an example of a body experiencing acceleration resulting in velocity of a constant magnitude but change of direction. In this case, because the direction of the object's motion is constantly changing, being tangential to the circle, the object's linear velocity vector also changes, but its speed does not. This acceleration is a radial acceleration since it is always directed toward the centre of the circle and takes the magnitude:\n\n:\n\nwhere is the object's linear speed along the circular path. Equivalently, the radial acceleration vector () may be calculated from the object's angular velocity :\n\n:\nwhere is a vector directed from the centre of the circle and equal in magnitude to the radius. The negative shows that the acceleration vector is directed towards the centre of the circle (opposite to the radius).\n\nThe acceleration and the net force acting on a body in uniform circular motion are directed ''toward'' the centre of the circle; that is, it is centripetal. Whereas the so-called 'centrifugal force' appearing to act outward on the body is really a pseudo force experienced in the frame of reference of the body in circular motion, due to the body's linear momentum at a tangent to the circle.\n\nWith nonuniform circular motion, i.e., the speed along the curved path changes, a transverse acceleration is produced equal to the rate of change of the angular speed around the circle times the radius of the circle. That is,\n\n:\n\nThe transverse (or tangential) acceleration is directed at right angles to the radius vector and takes the sign of the angular acceleration ().\n", "\n===Special relativity===\n\nThe special theory of relativity describes the behavior of objects traveling relative to other objects at speeds approaching that of light in a vacuum. Newtonian mechanics is exactly revealed to be an approximation to reality, valid to great accuracy at lower speeds. As the relevant speeds increase toward the speed of light, acceleration no longer follows classical equations.\n\nAs speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it.\n\n===General relativity===\n\nUnless the state of motion of an object is known, it is impossible to distinguish whether an observed force is due to gravity or to acceleration—gravity and inertial acceleration have identical effects. Albert Einstein called this the principle of equivalence, and said that only observers who feel no force at all—including the force of gravity—are justified in concluding that they are not accelerating.\n", "\n", "\n* Inertia\n* Four-vector: making the connection between space and time explicit\n* Gravitational acceleration \n* Acceleration (differential geometry)\n* Orders of magnitude (acceleration)\n* Shock (mechanics) \n* Shock and vibration data loggermeasuring 3-axis acceleration\n* Space travel using constant acceleration\n* Specific force\n\n", "\n", "\n* Acceleration Calculator Simple acceleration unit converter\n* Measurespeed.com - Acceleration Calculator Based on starting & ending speed and time elapsed.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Definition and properties ", " Tangential and centripetal acceleration ", " Special cases ", " Relation to relativity ", " Conversions ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Acceleration
[ "\n\nRemoval of adherent surface deposits by physical chemical means (by cotton swab) at Church of Sucevița Monastery, burial chamber, in Suceava, Romania\nConservation of the Horses of Saint Mark (Venice)\n\nThe '''conservation-restoration of cultural heritage''' focuses on protection and care of tangible cultural heritage, including artworks, architecture, archaeology, and museum collections. Conservation activities include preventive conservation, examination, documentation, research, treatment, and education. This field is closely allied with conservation science, curators and registrars.\n", "Revision and conservation of the Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc (Czech Republic) in 2006.\nConservation of cultural heritage involves protection and restoration using \"any methods that prove effective in keeping that property in as close to its original condition as possible for as long as possible.\" Conservation of cultural heritage is often associated with art collections and museums and involves collection care and management through tracking, examination, documentation, exhibition, storage, preventative conservation, and restoration.\n\nThe scope has widened from art conservation, involving protection and care of artwork and architecture, to conservation of cultural heritage, also including protection and care of a broad set of other cultural and historical works. Conservation of cultural heritage can be described as a type of ethical stewardship.\n\nConservation of cultural heritage applies simple ethical guidelines:\n* Minimal intervention;\n* Appropriate materials and reversible methods;\n* Full documentation of all work undertaken.\n\nOften there are compromises between preserving appearance, maintaining original design and material properties, and ability to reverse changes. Reversibility is now emphasized so as to reduce problems with future treatment, investigation, and use.\n\nIn order for conservators to decide upon an appropriate conservation strategy and apply their professional expertise accordingly, they must take into account views of the stakeholder, the values and meaning of the work, and the physical needs of the material.\n\nCesare Brandi in his ''Theory of Restoration'', describes restoration as \"the methodological moment in which the work of art is appreciated in its material form and in its historical and aesthetic duality, with a view to transmitting it to the future\".\n", "\n===Key dates===\n\n\nSome consider the tradition of conservation of cultural heritage in Europe to have begun in 1565 with the restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes, but more ancient examples include the work of Cassiodorus.\n\n===Brief history===\nAn early video showing some activities in a conservation laboratory at the Rijksmuseum\nA temporary windowed partition along restoration work area in the cloister of the Church of St. Trophime, Arles\nThe care of cultural heritage has a long history, one that was primarily aimed at fixing and mending objects for their continued use and aesthetic enjoyment. Until the early 20th century, artists were normally the ones called upon to repair damaged artworks. During the 19th century, however, the fields of science and art became increasingly intertwined as scientists such as Michael Faraday began to study the damaging effects of the environment to works of art. Louis Pasteur carried out scientific analysis on paint as well. However, perhaps the first organized attempt to apply a theoretical framework to the conservation of cultural heritage came with the founding in the United Kingdom of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in 1877. The society was founded by William Morris and Philip Webb, both of whom were deeply influenced by the writings of John Ruskin. During the same period, a French movement with similar aims was being developed under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, an architect and theorist, famous for his restorations of medieval buildings.\n\nSince 1998, Harvard University wraps some of the valuable statues on its campus, such as this \"Chinese stele\", with waterproof covers every winter, in order to protect them from erosion caused by acid rain.\nConservation of cultural heritage as a distinct field of study initially developed in Germany, where in 1888 Friedrich Rathgen became the first chemist to be employed by a Museum, the Koniglichen Museen, Berlin (Royal Museums of Berlin). He not only developed a scientific approach to the care of objects in the collections, but disseminated this approach by publishing a Handbook of Conservation in 1898. The early development of conservation of cultural heritage in any area of the world is usually linked to the creation of positions for chemists within museums. In the United Kingdom, pioneering research into painting materials and conservation, ceramics, and stone conservation was conducted by Arthur Pillans Laurie, academic chemist and Principal of Heriot-Watt University from 1900. Laurie's interests were fostered by William Holman Hunt. In 1924 the chemist Dr Harold Plenderleith began to work at the British Museum with Dr. Alexander Scott in the recently created Research Laboratory, although he was actually employed by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in the early years. Plenderleith's appointment may be said to have given birth to the conservation ''profession'' in the UK, although there had been craftsmen in many museums and in the commercial art world for generations. This department was created by the museum to address the deteriorating condition of objects in the collection, damages which were a result of their being stored in the London Underground tunnels during the First World War. The creation of this department moved the focus for the development of conservation theory and practice from Germany to Britain, and made the latter a prime force in this fledgling field. In 1956 Plenderleith wrote a significant handbook called The Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, which supplanted Rathgen's earlier tome and set new standards for the development of art and conservation science.\n\nIn the United States, the development of conservation of cultural heritage can be traced to the Fogg Art Museum, and Edward Waldo Forbes, its director from 1909 to 1944. He encouraged technical investigation, and was Chairman of the Advisory Committee for the first technical journal, Technical Studies in the Field of the Fine Arts, published by the Fogg from 1932 to 1942. Importantly he also brought onto the museum staff chemists. Rutherford John Gettens was the first of usch in the US to be permanently employed by an art museum. He worked with George L. Stout, the founder and first editor of Technical Studies. Gettens and Stout co-authored Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopaedia in 1942, reprinted in 1966. This compendium is still cited regularly. Only a few dates and descriptions in Gettens' and Stout's book are now outdated.\n\nGeorge T. Oliver, of Oliver Brothers Art Restoration and Art Conservation-Boston\n(Est. 1850 in New York City) invented the vacuum hot table for relining paintings in 1920s; he filed a patent for the table in 1937. Taylor's prototype table, which he designed and constructed, is still in operation. Oliver Brothers is believed to be the first and the oldest continuously operating art restoration company in the United States.\n\nThe focus of conservation development then accelerated in Britain and America, and it was in Britain that the first International Conservation Organisations developed. The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) was incorporated under British law in 1950 as \"a permanent organization to co-ordinate and improve the knowledge, methods, and working standards needed to protect and preserve precious materials of all kinds.\" The rapid growth of conservation professional organizations, publications, journals, newsletters, both internationally and in localities, has spearheaded the development of the conservation profession, both practically and theoretically. Art historians and theorists such as Cesare Brandi have also played a significant role in developing conservation science theory. In recent years ethical concerns have been at the forefront of developments in conservation. Most significantly has been the idea of preventive conservation. This concept is based in part on the pioneering work by Garry Thomson CBE, and his book the Museum Environment, first published in 1978. Thomson was associated with the National Gallery in London; it was here that he established a set of guidelines or environmental controls for the best conditions in which objects could be stored and displayed within the museum environment. Although his exact guidelines are no longer rigidly followed, they did inspire this field of conservation.\n", "The conservator's work is guided by ethical standards. These take the form of applied ethics. Ethical standards have been established across the world, and national and international ethical guidelines have been written. One such example is:\n\n* American Institute for Conservation Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice \n\nConservation OnLine provides resources on ethical issues in conservation, including examples of codes of ethics and guidelines for professional conduct in conservation and allied fields; and charters and treaties pertaining to ethical issues involving the preservation of cultural property.\n\nAs well as standards of practice conservators deal with wider ethical concerns, such as the debates as to whether all art is worth preserving.\n\n\nPreserved historical quarter in Beirut Central District\n", "\n===Collections care===\n\nMany cultural works are sensitive to environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and exposure to visible light and ultraviolet radiation. These works must be protected in controlled environments where such variables are maintained within a range of damage-limiting levels. For example, watercolour paintings usually require shielding from sunlight to prevent fading of pigments.\n\nCollections care is an important element of museum policy. It is an essential responsibility of members of the museum profession to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care, whether in store, on display, or in transit. A museum should carefully monitor the condition of collections to determine when an artifact requires conservation work and the services of a qualified conservator.\n\nWork of preventive conservation in a rock wall with prehistoric paintings at the Serra da Capivara National Park. The work consists of filling the cracks to prevent the fragmentation of the wall.\n\n===Interventive conservation===\nFurniture conservation – Re-glueing loose element of solid nut marriage chest (probably Italy, 19th century)\nA principal aim of a cultural conservator is to reduce the rate of deterioration of an object. Both non-interventive and interventive methodologies may be employed in pursuit of this goal. Interventive conservation refers to any direct interaction between the conservator and the material fabric of the object. Interventive actions are carried out for a variety of reasons, including aesthetic choices, stabilization needs for structural integrity, or cultural requirements for intangible continuity. Examples of interventive treatments include the removal of discolored varnish from a painting, the application of wax to a sculpture, and the washing and rebinding of a book. Ethical standards within the field require that the conservator fully justify interventive actions and carry out documentation before, during, and after the treatment.\n\nOne of the guiding principles of conservation of cultural heritage has traditionally been the idea of reversibility, that all interventions with the object should be fully reversible and that the object should be able to be returned to the state in which it was prior to the conservator's intervention. Although this concept remains a guiding principle of the profession, it has been widely critiqued within the conservation profession and is now considered by many to be \"a fuzzy concept.\" Another important principle of conservation is that all alterations should be well documented and should be clearly distinguishable from the original object.\n\nAn example of a highly publicized interventive conservation effort would be the conservation work conducted on the Sistine Chapel.\n", "The Lunder Conservation Center. Conservation staff for both the Smithsonian American Art Museum and the National Portrait Gallery are visible to the public through floor-to-ceiling glass walls that allow visitors to see firsthand all the techniques that conservators use to examine, treat and preserve artworks within a functioning conservation Laboratory.\nConservators routinely use chemical and scientific analysis for the examination and treatment of cultural works. The modern conservation laboratory uses equipment such as microscopes, spectrometers, and various x-ray regime instruments to better understand objects and their components. The data thus collected helps in deciding the conservation treatments to be provided to the object.\n", "\n===United States===\nHeritage Preservation, in partnership with the Institute of Museum and Library Services, a U.S. federal agency, produced The Heritage Health Index. The results of this work was the report A Public Trust at Risk: The Heritage Health Index Report on the State of America's Collections, which was published in December 2005 and concluded that immediate action is needed to prevent the loss of 190 million artifacts that are in need of conservation treatment. The report made four recommendations:\n* Institutions must give priority to providing safe conditions for the collections they hold in trust.\n* Every collecting institution must develop an emergency plan to protect its collections and train staff to carry it out.\n* Every institution must assign responsibility for caring for collections to members of its staff.\n* Individuals at all levels of government and in the private sector must assume responsibility for providing the support that will allow these collections to survive.\n\n===United Kingdom===\nConservation in Progress note, Victoria and Albert Museum (2014)\nIn October 2006, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, a governmental department, authored a document: \"Understanding the Future: Priorities for England's Museums\". This document was based on several years of consultation aimed to lay out the government's priorities for museums in the 21st century.\n\nThe document listed the following as priorities for the next decade:\n\n# Museums will fulfil their potential as learning resources (pp 7–10).\n#* Museums will be embedded into the delivery of education in every school in the country.\n#* Understanding of the effectiveness of museum education will be improved further and best practice built into education programmes.\n#* The value of museums' collections as a research resource will be well understood and better links built between the academic community and museums.\n# Museums will embrace their role in fostering, exploring, celebrating and questioning the identities of diverse communities (pp 11–14).\n#* The sector needs to work with partners in academia and beyond to create an intellectual framework supporting museums' capacity to tackle issues of identity.\n#* The museum sector must continue to develop improved practical techniques for engaging communities of all sorts.\n# Museums' collections will be more dynamic and better used (pp 15–18).\n#* Government and the sector will find new ways to encourage museums to collect actively and strategically, especially the record of contemporary society.\n#* The sector will develop new collaborative approaches to sharing and developing collections and related expertise.\n# Museums' workforces will be dynamic, highly skilled and representative (pp 17–22).\n#* Museums' governing bodies and workforces will be representative of the communities they serve.\n#* Find more varied ways for a broader range of skills to come into museums.\n#* Improve continuing professional development.\n# Museums will work more closely with each other and partners outside the sector (pp 23–26).\n#* A consistent evidence base of the contribution of all kinds of museums to the full range of public service agendas will be developed.\n#* There will be deeper and longer lasting partnerships between the national museums and a broader range of regional partners.\n#* Museums' international roles will be strengthened to improve museum programmes in this country and Britain's image, reputation and relationships abroad.\n\nThe conservation profession response to this report was on the whole less than favourable, the Institute of Conservation (ICON) published their response under the title \"A Failure of Vision\". It had the following to say:\n\n\n\n\n\nConcluding: \n\nFurther to this the ICON website summary report lists the following specific recommendations:\n\n* A national survey to find out what the public want from museums, what motivates them to visit them and what makes for a rewarding visit.\n* A review of survey results and prioritisation of the various intrinsic, instrumental and institutional values to provide a clear basis for a 10-year strategy\n* HR consultants to be brought in from the commercial sector to review recruitment, career development and working practices in the national and regional museums.\n* A commitment to examine the potential for using Museum Accreditation as a more effective driver for improving recruitment, diversity, and career development across the sector.\n* DCMS to take full account of the eventual findings of the current Commons Select Committee enquiry into Care of Collections in the final version of this document\n* The adoption of those recommendations of the recent House of Lords enquiry into Science and Heritage which have a potential impact on the future of museums.\n\nIn November 2008, the UK-based think tank Demos published an influential pamphlet entitled ''It's a material world: caring for the public realm'', in which they argue for integrating the public directly into efforts to conserve material culture, particularly that which is in the public, their argument, as stated on page 16, demonstrates their belief that society can benefit from conservation as a paradigm as well as a profession:\n\n\n", "\nTraining in conservation of cultural heritage for many years took the form of an apprenticeship, whereby an apprentice slowly developed the necessary skills to undertake their job. For some specializations within conservation this is still the case. However, it is more common in the field of conservation today that the training required to become a practicing conservator comes from a recognized university course in conservation of cultural heritage.\n\nThe University can rarely provide all the necessary training in first hand experience that an apprenticeship can, and therefore in addition to graduate level training the profession also tends towards encouraging conservation students to spend time as an intern.\n\nConservation of cultural heritage is an interdisciplinary field as conservators have backgrounds in the fine arts, sciences (including chemistry, biology, and materials science), and closely related disciplines, such as art history, archaeology, studio art, and anthropology. They also have design, fabrication, artistic, and other special skills necessary for the practical application of that knowledge.\n\nWithin the various schools that teach conservation of cultural heritage, the approach differs according to the educational and vocational system within the country, and the focus of the school itself. This is acknowledged by the American Institute for Conservation who advise \"Specific admission requirements differ and potential candidates are encouraged to contact the programs directly for details on prerequisites, application procedures, and program curriculum\".\n", "\nSocieties devoted to the care of cultural heritage have been in existence around the world for many years. One early example is the founding in 1877 of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in Britain to protect the built heritage, this society continues to be active today.\n\nThe built heritage was at the forefront of the growth of member based organizations in the United States. Preservation Virginia, founded in Richmond in 1889 as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities, was the United States' first statewide historic preservation group.\n\nToday, professional conservators join and take part in the activities of numerous conservation associations and professional organizations with the wider field, and within their area of specialization.\n\nThese organizations exist to \"support the conservation professionals who preserve our cultural heritage\".\n\nThis involves upholding professional standards, promoting research and publications, providing educational opportunities, and fostering the exchange of knowledge among cultural conservators, allied professionals, and the public.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n Year\n Document\n Sponsor\n Text (English where available)\n\n1931\nAthens Charter\nInternational Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments\n text\n\n1931\nCarta Di Atene\nConferenza Internazionale di Atene\n text (Italian)\n\n1932\nCarta Italiana del restauro\nConsiglio Superiore Per Le Antichità e Belle Arti\n text (Italian)\n\n1933\nCharter of Athens\nIV CIAM\n text\n\n1956\nNew Delhi Recommendation\nIX UNESCO\n text, text\n\n1962\nParis Recommendation\nXII UNESCO\n text\n\n1964\nVenice Charter\nII International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments\n text, text\n\n1964\nParis Recommendation\nXIII UNESCO\n text\n\n1967\nNorms of Quito\nOAS\n text (Spanish), text\n\n1968\nParis Recommendation\nXV UNESCO\n text\n\n1972\nParis Convention\nXVII UNESCO\n text\n\n1972\nParis Recommendation\nXVII UNESCO\n text\n\n1972\nCarta Italiana del Restauro\n\n text (Italian)\n\n1972\nStockholm Declaration\nUNEP\n text\n\n1974\nSanto Domingo Resolution, Dominican Republic\nInteramerican Seminar on the Conservation and Restoration of the Architectural Heritage of the Colonial and Republican Periods – OAS\n text (Portuguese), text (Portuguese)\n\n1975\nDeclaration of Amsterdam\nCongress on the European Architectural Heritage\n text\n\n1975\nEuropean Charter of the Architectural Heritage\nCouncil of Europe\n text\n\n1976\nCharter on Cultural Tourism, Brussels\nInternational Seminar on Contemporary Tourism and Humanism\n text\n\n1976\nNairobi Recommendation\nXIX UNESCO\n text\n\n1977\nMachu Picchu Charter\n\n text (Portuguese), text (Portuguese), text (Spanish), ref (Spanish)\n\n1981\nBurra Charter\nICOMOS\n text\n\n1982\nFlorence Charter\nICOMOS: Historic Gardens\n text, text\n\n1982\nNairobi Declaration\nUNEP\n text\n\n1982\nTlaxcala Declaration\nICOMOS\n text\n\n1982\nMéxico Declaration\nWorld Conference on Cultural Policies – MONDIACULT\n text, text\n\n1983\nDeclaration of Rome\nICOMOS\n text\n\n1987\nCarta della conservazione e del restauro degli oggetti d'arte e di cultura\n\n text (Italian)\n\n1987\nWashington Charter\nICOMOS\n text, text\n\n1989\nParis Recommendation\nXXV UNESCO\n text\n\n1990\nLausanne Charter\nICOMOS / ICAHM\n text, text\n\n1994\nNara Document\nUNESCO / ICCROM / ICOMOS\n text, text\n\n1995\nEuropean Recommendation\nCouncil of Europe, Committee of Ministers\n text (Rec(95)3E),\n text (Rec(95)9E)\n\n1996\nDeclaration of San Antonio\nICOMOS\n text\n\n1997\nDeclaration of Sofia\nXI ICOMOS or XXIX UNESCO\n text\n\n1997\nCarta de Mar del Plata\nMercosur\n text (Portuguese), text (Portuguese), text (Spanish), text (Spanish)\n\n2000\nCracow Charter\n\n text (Italian)\n\n2002\nDeclaration of Cartagena de Indias, Colômbia\nConselho Andino, OAS\n text\n\n2003\nParis Recommendation\nXXXII UNESCO\n text\n\n", "\nImage:St amant roche savine 3 (2).jpg\|First archaeological search in the 19th-century layer by French archaeologist and restorer Yves Morvan\nImage:St amant roche savine 1 (2).jpg\|Painting of the 15th century cleared before restoration\nImage:St amant roche savine 8.jpg\|Painting after restoration\n\n", "\n\n* Wikipedia:WikiProject Collections Care\n", "\n", "Charola, A. Elena, and Robert J. Koestler, eds. ''Pesticide Mitigation in Museum Collections: Science in Conservation: Proceedings from the MCI Workshop Series''. Smithsonian Contributions to Museum Conservation, no. 1. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2010. Copies of this volume are available for free pdf download from the Smithsonian's digital library by clicking on the included link.\n\nPergoli Campanelli, Alessandro, ''La nascita del restauro. Dall'antichità all'alto medioevo'', Milan, Jaca book 2015 .\nSandis, Constantine, ed. 'Cultural heritage Ethics: Between Theory and Practice''. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 2014. \nStaniforth, Sarah, ed. ''Historical Perspectives on Preventive Conservation''. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2013. \nH. M. Szczepanowska, D. Jha, T. G. Mathia, eds. ''Morphology and characterization of Dematiaceous fungi on a cellulose paper substrate using synchrotron X-ray microtomography, scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy in the context of cultural heritage'', Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, 2015\n", "\n\n* Conservation at the Williamson Gallery in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library\n* AATA Online, Abstracts of International Conservation Literature\n* BCIN, the Bibliographic Database of the Conservation Information Network\n* CAMEO: Conservation and Art Materials Encyclopedia OnLine\n* Conservation OnLine (CoOL) Resources for Conservation Professionals, \"CoOL, an online resource operated by the Foundation of the American Institute for Conservation is a full text library of conservation information, covering a wide spectrum of topics of interest to those involved with the conservation of library, archives and museum materials. It is a growing online resource for conservators, collection care specialists, and other conservation professionals.\"\n* Grimwade Centre for Cultural Materials Conservation, a Department of Melbourne University.\n* DOCAM — Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage \"to address the issues of preserving and documenting digital, technological and electronic works of art.\"\n* Hornemann Institute of the HAWK Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaft und Kunst (University of Applied Sciences and Arts) Hildesheim/Holzminden/Göttingen which provides E-Publications, mostly of European students and online courses in the field of heritage conservation as well as links to other conservation-related Websites.\n* ICOMOS Open Archive: both an institutional archive of the scientific documentation produced by the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and also a subject archive open to the entire international scientific community in the field of heritage conservation.\n* Integrated Pest Management Working Group Website\n* International Council of Museums (ICOM) Code of Ethics for Museums, 2006\n* Indigo Arts Alliance/ Network, News, Listings and Grants for Conservators\n* museumkids/What is Art Conservation? – The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001.\n* Research Resources at the Getty Conservation Institute, including the AATA (formerly \"Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts\") search engine, bibliographies for various topics, cultural heritage policy documents, and links to other conservation-related Web sites.\n* Caring for Heritage Collections Online Course. An online course in preventive conservation issues for museum professionals, University of Melbourne, School of Historical Studies: Centre for Cultural Materials Conservation.\n* Centre de recherche et de restauration des Musées de France, C2RMF on Wikipedia \nTheory and practice of conservation .\n\n;Scholarly journals\n Journal of the American Institute for Conservation\n* ICOM-CC Ethnographic Newsletter\n* Victoria and Albert Museum Conservation Journal \n* Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies\n* Tate Papers\n* Getty Conservation Institute Newsletter\n* The Book and Paper Group – American Institute for Conservation\n* The Abbey Newsletter\n* e-Preservation Science journal\n* e-conservation magazine\n* CeROArt. on-line magazine devoted to a multidisciplinary approach to questions of Conservation, exposition, Restoration of Objets d’Art\n* Studies in Conservation\n* Reviews in Conservation\n* Journal of the Institute of Conservation\n* The Paper Conservator\n* Future Anterior. Journal of Historic Preservation, History, Theory, and Criticism, GSAPP, Columbia University\n\n;Relation to the public\n* UPenn's Architectural Conservation Lab\n* You be the Conservator\n* Lunder Conservation Center\n* Conservation Advice Notes – Portable Antiquities Scheme\n* Objects Conservation — Provided by the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.\n* Conservation Report on Mukul Dey Archives by C. B. Gupta\n* Public Art Restoration Services\n* Freeview Video 'Science and Fine Art' by David Bomford of the National Gallery. A Royal Institution Lecture showing how scientific techniques aid conservation by the Vega Science Trust.\n* New York Academy of Science Podcast about Ad Reinhardt's ''Black Painting'' and its restoration\n* Preserv'Art – Interactive database of products used in conservation by the CCQ\n* Agents of Deterioration – a Game from Liverpool Museum\n\n;Conservators in private practice that provide resources\n* Animation Art Conservation discusses the preservation of animation art and has many interviews with animation artists that detail their original intent and frequently how they made their art.\n* Conrad Schmitt Studios has been conserving artwork for buildings of architectural, historic, and religious significance since 1889.\n* EverGreene Architectural Arts, Inc. specializes in conservation and restoration practices globally.\n* Oliver Brothers Fine Art Restoration and Conservation, Boston-New York has been restoring and conserving paintings, works on paper, icons, murals, sculpture, gilded objects, and antique and contemporary picture frames for more than one and one-half centuries . Established in 1850, Oliver Brothers Art Restoration and Art Conservation is the oldest art restoration company in the United States.\n* Anthony Moore Painting Conservation, York, ME Has been in operation in the Northeast for over 20 years, Anthony Moore Painting Conservation moved to its current location in York, ME in 1991. They have conserved and consulted on numerous paintings for museums, auction houses, historical societies, galleries, insurance companies, as well as a long list of private clients.\n* ConservArt, Boca Raton, FL George Schwartz has been active as a conservator in private practice since 1963. Schwartz is a currently a Professional Associate Member -The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works (AIC).\n* Spicer Art Conservation. Gwen Spicer is a textile conservator in private practice for 20 years. Spicer is a Fellow of The American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic works. Spicer Art specializes in the treatment of historic flags and banners, and textile artifacts.\n\n===External lists===\nExternal lists of international cultural heritage documents:\nat ICOMOS – Charters adopted by the General Assembly of ICOMOS and other Standards\nat UNESCO – Official documents\nat UNESCO – Normative Action\nat UNESCO – Legal instruments\nat UN – UN Documents Cooperation Circles – Gathering a Body of Global Agreements\nat The J. Paul Getty Trust – Conservation Institute – Cultural Heritage Policy Documents\nat Fletcher School, Tufts University – Cultural Protection Treaties and Other International Agreements\nat Robert Gordon University – Documents on cultural heritage protection\nat Cultural Heritage.net – Codes-Charters-Declarations\nby JK Gillon – CULTURAL HERITAGE CHARTERS AND STANDARDS\nat Cuba Arqueológica – Cartas Internacionales de Protección del Patrimonio (Spanish)\nat IPHAN – Relação das Cartas Patrimoniais \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Definition", "History", "Ethics", "Caring for cultural heritage", "The conservation laboratory", "Country by country look", "Training", "Associations and professional organizations", "International cultural heritage documents", "Example of an archaeological discovery and restoration of a mural painting", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Conservation-restoration of cultural heritage
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Anton Pavlovich Chekhov''' (, ; 29 January 1860 – 15 July 1904) was a Russian playwright and short story writer, who is considered to be among the greatest writers of short fiction in history. His career as a playwright produced four classics and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics. Along with Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg, Chekhov is often referred to as one of the three seminal figures in the birth of early modernism in the theatre. Chekhov practiced as a medical doctor throughout most of his literary career: \"Medicine is my lawful wife\", he once said, \"and literature is my mistress.\"\n\nChekhov renounced the theatre after the reception of ''The Seagull'' in 1896, but the play was revived to acclaim in 1898 by Konstantin Stanislavski's Moscow Art Theatre, which subsequently also produced Chekhov's ''Uncle Vanya'' and premiered his last two plays, ''Three Sisters'' and ''The Cherry Orchard''. These four works present a challenge to the acting ensemble as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a \"theatre of mood\" and a \"submerged life in the text\".\n\nChekhov had at first written stories only for financial gain, but as his artistic ambition grew, he made formal innovations which have influenced the evolution of the modern short story. He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them.\n", "\n===Childhood===\nBirth house of Anton Chekhov in Taganrog, Russia\nYoung Chekhov in 1882\nThe Taganrog Boys Gymnasium in the late 19th century. The cross on top is no longer present\nPortrait of young Chekhov in country clothes\nYoung Chekhov (left) with brother Nikolai in 1882\nChekhov family and friends in 1890 (''Top row, left to right'') Ivan, Alexander, Father; (''second row'') unknown friend, Lika Mizinova, Masha, Mother, Seryozha Kiselev; (''bottom row'') Misha, Anton\nChekhov's classic look: pince-nez, hat and bow-tie\nMelikhovo, now a museum\nAnton Chekhov in 1893\nOsip Braz: \"Portrait of Anton Chekhov\"\nChekhov with Leo Tolstoy at Yalta, 1900\nOlga, 1901, on their honeymoon\n\nAnton Chekhov was born on the feast day of St. Anthony the Great (17 January Old Style) 29 January 1860, the third of six surviving children, in Taganrog, a port on the Sea of Azov in southern Russia. His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a former serf and his Ukrainian wife, were from the village Vilkhovatka near Kobeliaky (Poltava Region in modern-day Ukraine) and ran a grocery store. A director of the parish choir, devout Orthodox Christian, and physically abusive father, Pavel Chekhov has been seen by some historians as the model for his son's many portraits of hypocrisy. Chekhov's mother, Yevgeniya (Morozova), was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels with her cloth-merchant father all over Russia. \"Our talents we got from our father,\" Chekhov remembered, \"but our soul from our mother.\"\nIn adulthood, Chekhov criticised his brother Alexander's treatment of his wife and children by reminding him of Pavel's tyranny: \"Let me ask you to recall that it was despotism and lying that ruined your mother's youth. Despotism and lying so mutilated our childhood that it's sickening and frightening to think about it. Remember the horror and disgust we felt in those times when Father threw a tantrum at dinner over too much salt in the soup and called Mother a fool.\"\n\nChekhov attended the Greek School in Taganrog and the Taganrog ''Gymnasium'' (since renamed the Chekhov Gymnasium), where he was kept down for a year at fifteen for failing an examination in Ancient Greek. He sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his father's choirs. In a letter of 1892, he used the word \"suffering\" to describe his childhood and recalled:\n\n\n\nHe later became an atheist.\n\nIn 1876, Chekhov's father was declared bankrupt after overextending his finances building a new house, having been cheated by a contractor called Mironov. To avoid debtor's prison he fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolay, were attending university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow, Chekhov's mother physically and emotionally broken by the experience. Chekhov was left behind to sell the family's possessions and finish his education.\n\nChekhov remained in Taganrog for three more years, boarding with a man called Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in ''The Cherry Orchard'', had bailed out the family for the price of their house. Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches, and selling short sketches to the newspapers, among other jobs. He sent every ruble he could spare to his family in Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer them up. During this time, he read widely and analytically, including the works of Cervantes, Turgenev, Goncharov, and Schopenhauer, and wrote a full-length comic drama, ''Fatherless'', which his brother Alexander dismissed as \"an inexcusable though innocent fabrication.\" Chekhov also enjoyed a series of love affairs, one with the wife of a teacher.\n\nIn 1879, Chekhov completed his schooling and joined his family in Moscow, having gained admission to the medical school at I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University.\n\n===Early writings===\nChekhov now assumed responsibility for the whole family. To support them and to pay his tuition fees, he wrote daily short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under pseudonyms such as \"Antosha Chekhonte\" (Антоша Чехонте) and \"Man without a Spleen\" (Человек без селезенки). His prodigious output gradually earned him a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life, and by 1882 he was writing for ''Oskolki'' (''Fragments''), owned by Nikolai Leykin, one of the leading publishers of the time. Chekhov's tone at this stage was harsher than that familiar from his mature fiction.\n\nIn 1884, Chekhov qualified as a physician, which he considered his principal profession though he made little money from it and treated the poor free of charge.\n\nIn 1884 and 1885, Chekhov found himself coughing blood, and in 1886 the attacks worsened, but he would not admit his tuberculosis to his family or his friends. He confessed to Leykin, \"I am afraid to submit myself to be sounded by my colleagues.\" He continued writing for weekly periodicals, earning enough money to move the family into progressively better accommodations.\n\nEarly in 1886 he was invited to write for one of the most popular papers in St. Petersburg, ''Novoye Vremya'' (''New Times''), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin, who paid a rate per line double Leykin's and allowed Chekhov three times the space. Suvorin was to become a lifelong friend, perhaps Chekhov's closest.\n\nBefore long, Chekhov was attracting literary as well as popular attention. The sixty-four-year-old Dmitry Grigorovich, a celebrated Russian writer of the day, wrote to Chekhov after reading his short story \"The Huntsman\" that \"You have ''real'' talent, a talent that places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation.\" He went on to advise Chekhov to slow down, write less, and concentrate on literary quality.\n\nChekhov replied that the letter had struck him \"like a thunderbolt\" and confessed, \"I have written my stories the way reporters write up their notes about fires — mechanically, half-consciously, caring nothing about either the reader or myself.\"\" The admission may have done Chekhov a disservice, since early manuscripts reveal that he often wrote with extreme care, continually revising. Grigorovich's advice nevertheless inspired a more serious, artistic ambition in the twenty-six-year-old. In 1888, with a little string-pulling by Grigorovich, the short story collection ''At Dusk'' (''V Sumerkakh'') won Chekhov the coveted Pushkin Prize \"for the best literary production distinguished by high artistic worth.\"\n\n===Turning points===\nIn 1887, exhausted from overwork and ill health, Chekhov took a trip to Ukraine, which reawakened him to the beauty of the steppe. On his return, he began the novella-length short story \"The Steppe,\" which he called \"something rather odd and much too original,\" and which was eventually published in ''Severny Vestnik'' (''The Northern Herald''). In a narrative that drifts with the thought processes of the characters, Chekhov evokes a chaise journey across the steppe through the eyes of a young boy sent to live away from home, and his companions, a priest and a merchant. \"The Steppe\" has been called a \"dictionary of Chekhov's poetics\", and it represented a significant advance for Chekhov, exhibiting much of the quality of his mature fiction and winning him publication in a literary journal rather than a newspaper.\n\nIn autumn 1887, a theatre manager named Korsh commissioned Chekhov to write a play, the result being ''Ivanov'', written in a fortnight and produced that November. Though Chekhov found the experience \"sickening\" and painted a comic portrait of the chaotic production in a letter to his brother Alexander, the play was a hit and was praised, to Chekhov's bemusement, as a work of originality. Although Chekhov did not fully realize it at the time, Chekhov's plays, such as ''The Seagull'' (written in 1895), ''Uncle Vanya'' (written in 1897), ''The Three Sisters'' (written in 1900), and ''The Cherry Orchard'' (written in 1903) served as a revolutionary backbone to what is common sense to the medium of acting to this day: an effort to recreate and express the \"realism\" of how people truly act and speak with each other and translating it to the stage in order to manifest the human condition as accurately as possible in hopes to make the audience reflect upon their own definition of what it means to be human, warts and all.\n\nThis philosophy of approaching the art of acting has stood not only steadfast, but as the cornerstone of acting for much of the 20th century to this day. Mikhail Chekhov considered ''Ivanov'' a key moment in his brother's intellectual development and literary career. From this period comes an observation of Chekhov's that has become known as '''Chekhov's gun''', a dramatic principle that requires that every element in a narrative be necessary and irreplaceable, and that everything else be removed.\n\n\nThe death of Chekhov's brother Nikolay from tuberculosis in 1889 influenced ''A Dreary Story'', finished that September, about a man who confronts the end of a life that he realises has been without purpose. Mikhail Chekhov, who recorded his brother's depression and restlessness after Nikolay's death, was researching prisons at the time as part of his law studies, and Anton Chekhov, in a search for purpose in his own life, himself soon became obsessed with the issue of prison reform.\n\n===Sakhalin===\nIn 1890, Chekhov undertook an arduous journey by train, horse-drawn carriage, and river steamer to the Russian Far East and the ''katorga'', or penal colony, on Sakhalin Island, north of Japan, where he spent three months interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census. The letters Chekhov wrote during the two-and-a-half-month journey to Sakhalin are considered to be among his best. His remarks to his sister about Tomsk were to become notorious.\nAlexandrovsk-Sakhalinsky, Russia. It is the house where he stayed in Sakhalin during 1890\n\n\nThe inhabitants of Tomsk later retaliated by erecting a mocking statue of Chekhov.\nAlexandrovsk-Sakhalinsky, Russia\nChekhov witnessed much on Sakhalin that shocked and angered him, including floggings, embezzlement of supplies, and forced prostitution of women. He wrote, \"There were times I felt that I saw before me the extreme limits of man's degradation.\" He was particularly moved by the plight of the children living in the penal colony with their parents. For example:\n\n\n\nChekhov later concluded that charity was not the answer, but that the government had a duty to finance humane treatment of the convicts. His findings were published in 1893 and 1894 as ''Ostrov Sakhalin'' (''The Island of Sakhalin''), a work of social science, not literature, that is worthy and informative rather than brilliant. Chekhov found literary expression for the \"Hell of Sakhalin\" in his long short story \"The Murder,\" the last section of which is set on Sakhalin, where the murderer Yakov loads coal in the night while longing for home. Chekhov's writing on Sakhalin is the subject of brief comment and analysis in Haruki Murakami's novel 1Q84. It is also the subject of a poem by the Nobel Prize winner Seamus Heaney, \"Chekhov on Sakhalin\" (collected in the volume ''Station Island'').\n\n===Melikhovo===\nIn 1892, Chekhov bought the small country estate of Melikhovo, about forty miles south of Moscow, where he lived with his family until 1899. \"It's nice to be a lord,\" he joked to his friend Ivan Leontyev (who wrote humorous pieces under the pseudonym Shcheglov), but he took his responsibilities as a landlord seriously and soon made himself useful to the local peasants. As well as organising relief for victims of the famine and cholera outbreaks of 1892, he went on to build three schools, a fire station, and a clinic, and to donate his medical services to peasants for miles around, despite frequent recurrences of his tuberculosis.\n\nMikhail Chekhov, a member of the household at Melikhovo, described the extent of his brother's medical commitments:\n\n\n\nChekhov's expenditure on drugs was considerable, but the greatest cost was making journeys of several hours to visit the sick, which reduced his time for writing. However, Chekhov's work as a doctor enriched his writing by bringing him into intimate contact with all sections of Russian society: for example, he witnessed at first hand the peasants' unhealthy and cramped living conditions, which he recalled in his short story \"Peasants\". Chekhov visited the upper classes as well, recording in his notebook: \"Aristocrats? The same ugly bodies and physical uncleanliness, the same toothless old age and disgusting death, as with market-women.\"\n\nIn 1894, Chekhov began writing his play ''The Seagull'' in a lodge he had built in the orchard at Melikhovo. In the two years since he had moved to the estate, he had refurbished the house, taken up agriculture and horticulture, tended the orchard and the pond, and planted many trees, which, according to Mikhail, he \"looked after ... as though they were his children. Like Colonel Vershinin in his ''Three Sisters'', as he looked at them he dreamed of what they would be like in three or four hundred years.\"\n\nThe first night of ''The Seagull'', at the Alexandrinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg on 17 October 1896, was a fiasco, as the play was booed by the audience, stinging Chekhov into renouncing the theatre. But the play so impressed the theatre director Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko that he convinced his colleague Konstantin Stanislavski to direct a new production for the innovative Moscow Art Theatre in 1898. Stanislavski's attention to psychological realism and ensemble playing coaxed the buried subtleties from the text, and restored Chekhov's interest in playwriting. The Art Theatre commissioned more plays from Chekhov and the following year staged ''Uncle Vanya'', which Chekhov had completed in 1896.\n\n===Yalta===\nIn March 1897, Chekhov suffered a major hemorrhage of the lungs while on a visit to Moscow. With great difficulty he was persuaded to enter a clinic, where the doctors diagnosed tuberculosis on the upper part of his lungs and ordered a change in his manner of life.\n\nAfter his father's death in 1898, Chekhov bought a plot of land on the outskirts of Yalta and built a villa, into which he moved with his mother and sister the following year. Though he planted trees and flowers, kept dogs and tame cranes, and received guests such as Leo Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky, Chekhov was always relieved to leave his \"hot Siberia\" for Moscow or travels abroad. He vowed to move to Taganrog as soon as a water supply was installed there. In Yalta he completed two more plays for the Art Theatre, composing with greater difficulty than in the days when he \"wrote serenely, the way I eat pancakes now\". He took a year each over ''Three Sisters'' and ''The Cherry Orchard''.\n\nOn 25 May 1901, Chekhov married Olga Knipper quietly, owing to his horror of weddings. She was a former protegée and sometime lover of Nemirovich-Danchenko whom he had first met at rehearsals for ''The Seagull''. Up to that point, Chekhov, known as \"Russia's most elusive literary bachelor,\" had preferred passing liaisons and visits to brothels over commitment. He had once written to Suvorin:\n\n\n\nThe letter proved prophetic of Chekhov's marital arrangements with Olga: he lived largely at Yalta, she in Moscow, pursuing her acting career. In 1902, Olga suffered a miscarriage; and Donald Rayfield has offered evidence, based on the couple's letters, that conception may have occurred when Chekhov and Olga were apart, although Russian scholars have rejected that claim. The literary legacy of this long-distance marriage is a correspondence that preserves gems of theatre history, including shared complaints about Stanislavski's directing methods and Chekhov's advice to Olga about performing in his plays.\n\nIn Yalta, Chekhov wrote one of his most famous stories, ''The Lady with the Dog'' (also translated from the Russian as \"Lady with Lapdog\"), which depicts what at first seems a casual liaison between a cynical married man and an unhappy married woman who meet while vacationing in Yalta. Neither expects anything lasting from the encounter. Unexpectedly though, they gradually fall deeply in love and end up risking scandal and the security of their family lives. The story masterfully captures their feelings for each other, the inner transformation undergone by the disillusioned male protagonist as a result of falling deeply in love, and their inability to resolve the matter by either letting go of their families or of each other.\n\n===Death===\nBy May 1904, Chekhov was terminally ill with tuberculosis. Mikhail Chekhov recalled that \"everyone who saw him secretly thought the end was not far off, but the nearer he was to the end, the less he seemed to realise it.\" On 3 June, he set off with Olga for the German spa town of Badenweiler in the Black Forest, from where he wrote outwardly jovial letters to his sister Masha, describing the food and surroundings, and assuring her and his mother that he was getting better. In his last letter, he complained about the way German women dressed.\n\nChekhov's death has become one of \"the great set pieces of literary history,\" retold, embroidered, and fictionalised many times since, notably in the short story \"Errand\" by Raymond Carver. In 1908, Olga wrote this account of her husband's last moments:\n\n\n\nChekhov's body was transported to Moscow in a refrigerated railway car meant for oysters, a detail that offended Gorky. Some of the thousands of mourners followed the funeral procession of a General Keller by mistake, to the accompaniment of a military band. Chekhov was buried next to his father at the Novodevichy Cemetery.\n", "A few months before he died, Chekhov told the writer Ivan Bunin that he thought people might go on reading his writings for seven years. \"Why seven?\" asked Bunin. \"Well, seven and a half,\" Chekhov replied. \"That's not bad. I've got six years to live.\"\nChekhov biographies\nChekhov's posthumous reputation greatly exceeded his expectations. The ovations for the play ''The Cherry Orchard'' in the year of his death served to demonstrate the Russian public's acclaim for the writer, which placed him second in literary celebrity only to Tolstoy, who outlived him by six years. Tolstoy was an early admirer of Chekhov's short stories and had a series that he deemed \"first quality\" and \"second quality\" bound into a book. In the first category were: ''Children'', ''The Chorus Girl'', ''A Play'', ''Home'', ''Misery'', ''The Runaway'', ''In Court'', ''Vanka'', ''Ladies'', ''A Malefactor'', ''The Boys'', ''Darkness'', ''Sleepy'', ''The Helpmate'', and ''The Darling\"''; in the second: ''A Transgression'', ''Sorrow'', ''The Witch'', ''Verochka'', ''In a Strange Land'', ''The Cook's Wedding'', ''A Tedious Business'', ''An Upheaval'', ''Oh! The Public!'', ''The Mask'', ''A Woman's Luck'', ''Nerves'', ''The Wedding'', ''A Defenseless Creature'', and ''Peasant Wives.''\n\nIn Chekhov's lifetime, British and Irish critics generally did not find his work pleasing; E. J. Dillon thought \"the effect on the reader of Chekhov's tales was repulsion at the gallery of human waste represented by his fickle, spineless, drifting people\" and R. E. C. Long said \"Chekhov's characters were repugnant, and that Chekhov reveled in stripping the last rags of dignity from the human soul\". After his death, Chekhov was reappraised. Constance Garnett's translations won him an English-language readership and the admiration of writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Katherine Mansfield, whose story \"The Child Who Was Tired\" is similar to Chekhov's \"Sleepy\". The Russian critic D. S. Mirsky, who lived in England, explained Chekhov's popularity in that country by his \"unusually complete rejection of what we may call the heroic values.\" In Russia itself, Chekhov's drama fell out of fashion after the revolution, but it was later incorporated into the Soviet canon. The character of Lopakhin, for example, was reinvented as a hero of the new order, rising from a modest background so as eventually to possess the gentry's estates.\n\nOne of the first non-Russians to praise Chekhov's plays was George Bernard Shaw, who subtitled his ''Heartbreak House'' \"A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes,\" and pointed out similarities between the predicament of the British landed class and that of their Russian counterparts as depicted by Chekhov: \"the same nice people, the same utter futility.\"\n\nIn the United States, Chekhov's reputation began its rise slightly later, partly through the influence of Stanislavski's system of acting, with its notion of subtext: \"Chekhov often expressed his thought not in speeches,\" wrote Stanislavski, \"but in pauses or between the lines or in replies consisting of a single word ... the characters often feel and think things not expressed in the lines they speak.\" The Group Theatre, in particular, developed the subtextual approach to drama, influencing generations of American playwrights, screenwriters, and actors, including Clifford Odets, Elia Kazan and, in particular, Lee Strasberg. In turn, Strasberg's Actors Studio and the \"Method\" acting approach influenced many actors, including Marlon Brando and Robert De Niro, though by then the Chekhov tradition may have been distorted by a preoccupation with realism. In 1981, the playwright Tennessee Williams adapted ''The Seagull'' as ''The Notebook of Trigorin''. One of Anton's nephews, Michael Chekhov would also contribute heavily to modern theatre, particularly through his unique acting methods which developed Stanislavski's ideas further.\n\nDespite Chekhov's reputation as a playwright, William Boyd asserts that his short stories represent the greater achievement. Raymond Carver, who wrote the short story \"Errand\" about Chekhov's death, believed that Chekhov was the greatest of all short story writers:\n\n\n\nErnest Hemingway, another writer influenced by Chekhov, was more grudging: \"Chekhov wrote about six good stories. But he was an amateur writer.\" And Vladimir Nabokov criticized Chekhov's \"medley of dreadful prosaisms, ready-made epithets, repetitions.\" But he also declared ''The Lady with the Dog'' \"one of the greatest stories ever written\" in its depiction of a problematic relationship, and described Chekhov as writing \"the way one person relates to another the most important things in his life, slowly and yet without a break, in a slightly subdued voice.\"\n\nFor the writer William Boyd, Chekhov's historical accomplishment was to abandon what William Gerhardie called the \"event plot\" for something more \"blurred, interrupted, mauled or otherwise tampered with by life.\"\n\nVirginia Woolf mused on the unique quality of a Chekhov story in ''The Common Reader'' (1925):\n\n\n\nWhile a Professor of Comparative Literature at Princeton University, Michael Goldman presented his view on defining the elusive quality of Chekhov's comedies stating: \"Having learned that Chekhov is comic ... Chekhov is comic in a very special, paradoxical way. His plays depend, as comedy does, on the vitality of the actors to make pleasurable what would otherwise be painfully awkward -- inappropriate speeches, missed connections, ''faux pas'', stumbles, childishness -- but as part of a deeper pathos; the stumbles are not pratfalls but an energized, graceful dissolution of purpose.\"\n\nAlan Twigg, the chief editor and publisher of the Canadian book review magazine ''BC Bookworld wrote,\n\n\nChekhov has also influenced the work of Japanese playwrights including Shimizu Kunio, Yōji Sakate, and Ai Nagai. Critics have noted similarities in how Chekhov and Shimizu use a mixture of light humor as well as an intense depictions of longing. Sakate adapted several of Chekhov's plays and transformed them in the general style of ''nō''. Nagai also adapted Chekhov's plays, including ''Three Sisters'', and transformed his dramatic style into Nagai's style of satirical realism while emphasizing the social issues depicted on the play.\n\nChekhov's works have been adapted for the screen, including Sidney Lumet's ''Sea Gull'' and Louis Malle's ''Vanya on 42nd Street''. Laurence Olivier's last film as director was an adaptation of the Three Sisters (UK 1970). It was released in the U.S. In 1974. His work has also served as inspiration or been referenced in numerous films. In Andrei Tarkovsky's 1975 film ''The Mirror'', characters discuss his short story \"Ward No. 6\". Woody Allen has been influenced by Chekhov and reference to his works are present in many of his films including Love and Death (1975), Interiors (1978) and Hannah and Her Sisters (1985). Plays by Chekhov are also referenced in François Truffaut's 1980 drama film ''The Last Metro'', which is set in a theater. A portion of a stage production of ''Three Sisters'' appears in the 2014 drama film ''Still Alice''.\n", "\n* Ann Dunnigan, English-language translator\n* Anton Chekhov bibliography\n* Jean-Claude van Itallie, English-language translator\n* Maria Chekhova\n", "\n", "\n* Allen, David, ''Performing Chekhov'', Routledge (UK), 2001, \n* Bartlett, Rosamund, and Anthony Phillips (translators), ''Chekhov: A Life in Letters'', Penguin Books, 2004, \n* Bartlett, Rosamund, ''Chekhov: Scenes from a Life'', Free Press, 2004, \n* Benedetti, Jean (editor and translator), ''Dear Writer, Dear Actress: The Love Letters of Olga Knipper and Anton Chekhov'', Methuen Publishing Ltd, 1998 edition, \n* Benedetti, Jean, ''Stanislavski: An Introduction'', Methuen Drama, 1989 edition, \n* Chekhov, Anton, ''About Love and Other Stories'', translated by Rosamund Bartlett, Oxford University Press, 2004, \n* Chekhov, Anton, ''The Undiscovered Chekhov: Fifty New Stories'', translated by Peter Constantine, Duck Editions, 2001, \n* Chekhov, Anton, ''Easter Week'', translated by Michael Henry Heim, engravings by Barry Moser, Shackman Press, 2010\n* Chekhov, Anton, ''Forty Stories'', translated and with an introduction by Robert Payne, New York, Vintage, 1991 edition, \n* Chekhov, Anton, ''Letters of Anton Chekhov to His Family and Friends with Biographical Sketch'', translated by Constance Garnett, Macmillan, 1920. Full text at Gutenberg. Retrieved 16 February 2007.\n* Chekhov, Anton, ''Note-Book of Anton Chekhov,'' translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W. Huebsch, 1921. Full text at Gutenberg. Retrieved 16 February 2007.\n* Chekhov, Anton, ''The Other Chekhov'', edited by Okla Elliott and Kyle Minor, with story introductions by Pinckney Benedict, Fred Chappell, Christopher Coake, Paul Crenshaw, Dorothy Gambrell, Steven Gillis, Michelle Herman, Jeff Parker, Benjamin Percy, and David R. Slavitt. New American Press, 2008 edition, \n* Chekhov, Anton, ''Seven Short Novels'', translated by Barbara Makanowitzky, W.W.Norton & Company, 2003 edition, \n* Clyman, T. W. (Ed.). A Chekhov companion. Westport, Ct: Greenwood Press, (1985). \n* Finke, Michael C., ''Chekhov's 'Steppe': A Metapoetic Journey'', an essay in ''Anton Chekhov Rediscovered'', ed Savely Senderovich and Munir Sendich, Michigan Russian Language Journal, 1988, \n* Finke, Michael C., ''Seeing Chekhov: Life and Art'', Cornell UP, 2005, \n* Gerhardie, William, ''Anton Chekhov'', Macdonald, (1923) 1974 edition, \n* Gorky, Maksim, Alexander Kuprin, and I.A. Bunin, ''Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov'', translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W.Huebsch, 1921. Read at eldritchpress. Retrieved 16 February 2007.\n* Gottlieb, Vera, and Paul Allain (eds), ''The Cambridge Companion to Chekhov'', Cambridge University Press, 2000, \n* Jackson, Robert Louis, ''Dostoevsky in Chekhov's Garden of Eden—'Because of Little Apples','' in ''Dialogues with Dostoevsky'', Stanford University Press, 1993, \n* Klawans, Harold L., ''Chekhov's Lie'', 1997, . About the challenges of combining writing with the medical life.\n* \n* Miles, Patrick (ed), ''Chekhov on the British Stage'', Cambridge University Press, 1993, \n* Nabokov, Vladimir, ''Anton Chekhov'', in ''Lectures on Russian Literature'', Harvest/HBJ Books, 1981 2002 edition, .\n* Pitcher, Harvey, ''Chekhov's Leading Lady: Portrait of the Actress Olga Knipper'', J Murray, 1979, \n* Prose, Francine, ''Learning from Chekhov'', in ''Writers on Writing'', ed. Robert Pack and Jay Parini, UPNE, 1991, \n* \n* Sekirin, Peter. \"Memories of Chekhov: Accounts of the Writer from His Family, Friends and Contemporaries,\" MacFarland Publishers, 2011, \n* \n* Speirs, L. Tolstoy and Chekhov. Cambridge, England: University Press, (1971), \n* Stanislavski, Constantin, ''My Life in Art'', Methuen Drama, 1980 edition, \n* Styan, John Louis, ''Modern Drama in Theory and Practice'', Cambridge University Press, 1981, \n* \n* Zeiger, Arthur, ''The Plays of Anton Chekhov'', Claxton House, Inc., New York, NY, 1945.\n* Tufarulo, G, M., ''La Luna è morta e lo specchio infranto. Miti letterari del Novecento'', vol.1- G. Laterza, Bari, 2009– .\n\n", "\n\n'''Biographical'''\n* \n* \n* Biography at ''The Literature Network''\n* \"Chekhov's Legacy\" by Cornel West at NPR, 2004\n* The International competition of philological, culture and film studies works dedicated to Anton Chekhov's life and creative work \n'''Works'''\n* . All Constance Garnett's translations of the short stories and letters are available, plus the edition of the ''Note-book'' translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf – see the \"References\" section for print publication details of all of these. Site also has translations of all the plays.\n* \n* \n* 201 Stories by Anton Chekhov, translated by Constance Garnett presented in chronological order of Russian publication with annotations.\n* Антон Павлович Чехов. Указатель Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian, listed in chronological order, and also alphabetically by title. Retrieved June 2013. \n* Антон Павлович Чехов Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian. Retrieved 16 February 2007. \n* \n* Plays, Three Sisters by Anton Chekhov.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Legacy", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Anton Chekhov
[ "\n'''Action Against Hunger''' (or Action Contre La Faim (ACF) in French) is a global humanitarian organization which originated in France and is committed to ending world hunger. The organization helps malnourished children whilst providing communities with access to safe water and sustainable solutions to hunger.\n\nIn 2014, Action Against Hunger worked in 49 different countries around the world with more than 6,000 employees and volunteers helping 13.6 million people in need.\n", "Action Against Hunger was established in 1979 by a group of French doctors, scientists, and writers. Nobel Prize-winning physicist Alfred Kastler served as the organization's first chairman.\n\nThe group initially provided assistance to Afghanistan refugees in Pakistan, famine-stricken Ugandan communities, and Cambodian refugees in Thailand. It expanded to address additional humanitarian concerns in Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, the Balkans and elsewhere during the 1980s and 1990s. Action Against Hunger's Scientific Committee pioneered the therapeutic milk formula (F100), now used by all major humanitarian aid organizations to treat acute malnutrition. As a result, the global mortality rate of severely malnourished children under the age of five has been reduced from 25% to 5%. A few years later, therapeutic milk was repackaged as ready-to-use therapeutic foods (RUTFs), a peanut-based paste packaged like a power bar. These bars allow for the treatment of malnutrition at home, and do not require any preparation or refrigeration.\n\nThe international network currently has headquarters in five countries – France, Spain, the United States, Canada, and the UK. Its four main areas of work include nutrition, food security, water and sanitation, and advocacy.\n", "Action Against Hunger saves lives by preventing, detecting and treating severe acute malnutrition, particularly in emergency and conflicts situations. The organisation has an integrated approach with various sectors of intervention:\n* Nutrition and Health\n* Water, Sanitation and Hygiene\n* Food Security & Livelihoods\n* Emergency Response\n\n===Restaurants Against Hunger===\nAction Against Hunger partners with leaders from the food and beverage industry to bring attention to global hunger. Each year, several campaigns are ran by the network to raise funds and support the organisation's programs : Restaurants Against Hunger and Love Food Give Food.\n", "In 2017, Action Against Hunger International Network is present in 51 countries:\n\n=== Africa ===\nBurkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroun, Ivory Coast, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Uganda, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Soudan, Tanzania, Chad, Zimbabwe\n\n=== Asia ===\nBangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines\n\n=== Caribbean ===\nHaïti\n\n=== Europe ===\nSouth Caucasus, Turkey, Ukraine\n\n=== Middle East ===\nAfghanistan, Azerbaijan, Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Palestinian Occupied Territories, Yemen, Jordan, Iraq\n\n=== South America ===\nColombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru\n", "Since 1995 Action Against Hunger developed an international network to have a bigger global impact.\n\nThe Network has 5 headquarters in the world: France, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada.\n\nAction Against Hunger has also a West Africa Regional Office (WARO) located in Dakar, a Training center in Nairobi and 5 logistic platforms (Lyon, Paris, Barcelona, Dubai, Panama).\n\nThis network increases the human and financial capacities and enables a specialization per headquarter.\n* Action Against Hunger in France, Spain and the USA are the operational headquarters: they manage the interventions directly on the field. In order to maximize efficiency and coherence, these three operational headquarters work under the principle of one headquarter per country of intervention.\n* Action Against Hunger-UK focuses on research, monitoring and evaluation, notably with Hunger Watch. This UK headquarters also plays an intermediary role with DFID.\n* Action Against Hunger Canada raises public and private funds in North America and plays an increasing role on the national level.\n", "\n", "* Action Against Hunger US website\n* Action Against Hunger UK website\n* Action Contre la Faim France website\n* Acción Contra el Hambre Spain website\n* Action Contre la Faim Canada website\n* Aktion gegen den Hunger Germany website \n* Azione contro la Fame Italy website \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", " Mission ", " Countries of intervention ", " Action Against Hunger International Network ", "References", "External links" ]	Action Against Hunger
[ "\n'''A&W''', '''AW''', '''Aw''', '''aW''' or '''aw''' may refer to:\n\n", "* Aw (surname), a Cantonese surname\n* A. W., anonymous 16th century poet\n* A. W. (wrestler), a ring name of Brian Bary Jossie\n* Alan Walker (music producer) (born 1997), uses the initials and logo AW\n", "* Ahrweiler (district), Germany, vehicle registartion\n* Aruba (ISO 3166-1 2-letter country code AW)\n", "* A&W Restaurants\n** A&W Root Beer\n* Addison-Wesley, publishers\n* Africa World Airlines, IATA code\n* Prefix for helicopters made by AgustaWestland, e.g., AW101\n* Allied Waste Industries Inc, stock symbol on NYSE\n* Armstrong Whitworth, a British manufacturing company in the early 20th century\n", "* ''Active Worlds'', a 3D virtual reality platform\n* ''Another World'' (TV series), an American soap opera\n* ''Aviation Week'', magazine\n", "* aw, or Water activity, the relative availability of water in a substance\n* aw, or attowatt, an SI unit of power\n* .aw, the internet top level domain country code for Aruba\n* Aw, categorization for tropical savanna climate in the Köppen classification system\n* AW, in German email subject line, equivalent to Re:\n", "* AW, US Navy hull classification symbol for \"distilling ship\"\n* Agencja Wywiadu, the Polish foreign intelligence service\n* Ahnapee and Western Railway, A&W\n* Arctic Warfare, a British sniper rifle\n* Aviation Warfare Systems Operator, a rating in the United States Navy\n* Ibanez AW Series, acoustic guitars\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "People", "Places", "Companies", "Media and entertainment", "Science and technology", "Other uses" ]	AW
[ "\n'''Apoptosis''' (from Ancient Greek ἀπόπτωσις \"falling off\") is a process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, chromosomal DNA fragmentation, and global mRNA decay. Between 50 and 70 billion cells die each day due to apoptosis in the average human adult. For an average child between the ages of 8 and 14, approximately 20 to 30 billion cells die a day.\n\nIn contrast to necrosis, which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis is a highly regulated and controlled process that confers advantages during an organism's lifecycle. For example, the separation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo occurs because cells between the digits undergo apoptosis. Unlike necrosis, apoptosis produces cell fragments called apoptotic bodies that phagocytic cells are able to engulf and quickly remove before the contents of the cell can spill out onto surrounding cells and cause damage to the neighboring cells.\n\nBecause apoptosis cannot stop once it has begun, it is a highly regulated process. Apoptosis can be initiated through one of two pathways. In the ''intrinsic pathway'' the cell kills itself because it senses cell stress, while in the ''extrinsic pathway'' the cell kills itself because of signals from other cells. Both pathways induce cell death by activating caspases, which are proteases, or enzymes that degrade proteins. The two pathways both activate initiator caspases, which then activate executioner caspases, which then kill the cell by degrading proteins indiscriminately.\n\nResearch on apoptosis has increased substantially since the early 1990s. In addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in a wide variety of diseases. Excessive apoptosis causes atrophy, whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, such as cancer.\nSome factors like Fas receptors and caspases promote apoptosis, while some members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins inhibit apoptosis.\n", "\n\nGerman scientist Karl Vogt was first to describe the principle of apoptosis in 1842. In 1885, anatomist Walther Flemming delivered a more precise description of the process of programmed cell death. However, it was not until 1965 that the topic was resurrected. While studying tissues using electron microscopy, John Foxton Ross Kerr at University of Queensland was able to distinguish apoptosis from traumatic cell death. Following the publication of a paper describing the phenomenon, Kerr was invited to join Alastair R Currie, as well as Andrew Wyllie, who was Currie's graduate student, at University of Aberdeen. In 1972, the trio published a seminal article in the British Journal of Cancer. Kerr had initially used the term programmed cell necrosis, but in the article, the process of natural cell death was called ''apoptosis''. Kerr, Wyllie and Currie credited James Cormack, a professor of Greek language at University of Aberdeen, with suggesting the term apoptosis. Kerr received the Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize on March 14, 2000, for his description of apoptosis. He shared the prize with Boston biologist H. Robert Horvitz.\n\nFor many years, the terms \"apoptosis\" and \"programmed cell death\" were not highly cited. What transformed cell death from obscurity to a major field of research were two things: the identification of components of the cell death control and effector mechanisms, and the linkage of abnormalities in cell death to human disease, in particular cancer.\n\nThe 2002 Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, Horvitz and John E. Sulston for their work identifying genes that control apoptosis. The genes were identified by studies in the nematode ''C. elegans'' and homologues of these genes function in humans to regulate apoptosis.\nJohn E. Sulston won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2002, for his pioneering research on apoptosis.\n\nIn Greek, apoptosis translates to the \"falling off\" of leaves from a tree. Cormack, professor of Greek language, reintroduced the term for medical use as it had a medical meaning for the Greeks over two thousand years before. Hippocrates used the term to mean \"the falling off of the bones\". Galen extended its meaning to \"the dropping of the scabs\". Cormack was no doubt aware of this usage when he suggested the name. Debate continues over the correct pronunciation, with opinion divided between a pronunciation with the second ''p'' silent ( ) and the second ''p'' pronounced (), as in the original Greek. In English, the ''p'' of the Greek ''-pt-'' consonant cluster is typically silent at the beginning of a word (e.g. pterodactyl, Ptolemy), but articulated when used in combining forms preceded by a vowel, as in helicopter or the orders of insects: diptera, lepidoptera, etc.\n\nIn the original Kerr, Wyllie & Currie paper, there is a footnote regarding the pronunciation:\n\n\"We are most grateful to Professor James Cormack of the Department of Greek, University of Aberdeen, for suggesting this term. The word \"apoptosis\" () is used in Greek to describe the \"dropping off\" or \"falling off\" of petals from flowers, or leaves from trees. To show the derivation clearly, we propose that the stress should be on the penultimate syllable, the second half of the word being pronounced like \"ptosis\" (with the \"p\" silent), which comes from the same root \"to fall\", and is already used to describe the drooping of the upper eyelid.\"\n", "right\nControl Of The Apoptotic Mechanisms\n\nThe initiation of apoptosis is tightly regulated by activation mechanisms, because once apoptosis has begun, it inevitably leads to the death of the cell. The two best-understood activation mechanisms are the intrinsic pathway (also called the mitochondrial pathway) and the extrinsic pathway. The ''intrinsic pathway'' is activated by intracellular signals generated when cells are stressed and depends on the release of proteins from the intermembrane space of mitochondria. The ''extrinsic pathway'' is activated by extracellular ligands binding to cell-surface death receptors, which leads to the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC).\n\nA cell initiates intracellular apoptotic signaling in response to a stress, which may bring about cell suicide. The binding of nuclear receptors by glucocorticoids, heat, radiation, nutrient deprivation, viral infection, hypoxia and increased intracellular calcium concentration,\nfor example, by damage to the membrane, can all trigger the release of intracellular apoptotic signals by a damaged cell. A number of cellular components, such as poly ADP ribose polymerase, may also help regulate apoptosis.\n\nBefore the actual process of cell death is precipitated by enzymes, apoptotic signals must cause regulatory proteins to initiate the apoptosis pathway. This step allows those signals to cause cell death, or the process to be stopped, should the cell no longer need to die. Several proteins are involved, but two main methods of regulation have been identified: the targeting of mitochondria functionality, or directly transducing the signal via adaptor proteins to the apoptotic mechanisms. An extrinsic pathway for initiation identified in several toxin studies is an increase in calcium concentration within a cell caused by drug activity, which also can cause apoptosis via a calcium binding protease calpain.\n\n===Intrinsic pathway===\nThe mitochondria are essential to multicellular life. Without them, a cell ceases to respire aerobically and quickly dies. This fact forms the basis for some apoptotic pathways. Apoptotic proteins that target mitochondria affect them in different ways. They may cause mitochondrial swelling through the formation of membrane pores, or they may increase the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane and cause apoptotic effectors to leak out. They are very closely related to intrinsic pathway, and tumors arise more frequently through intrinsic pathway than the extrinsic pathway because of sensitivity. There is also a growing body of evidence indicating that nitric oxide is able to induce apoptosis by helping to dissipate the membrane potential of mitochondria and therefore make it more permeable. Nitric oxide has been implicated in initiating and inhibiting apoptosis through its possible action as a signal molecule of subsequent pathways that activate apoptosis.\n\nMitochondrial proteins known as SMACs (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases) are released into the cell's cytosol following the increase in permeability of the mitochondria membranes. SMAC binds to ''proteins that inhibit apoptosis'' (IAPs) thereby deactivating them, and preventing the IAPs from arresting the process and therefore allowing apoptosis to proceed. IAP also normally suppresses the activity of a group of cysteine proteases called caspases, which carry out the degradation of the cell. Therefore, the actual degradation enzymes can be seen to be indirectly regulated by mitochondrial permeability.\n\nCytochrome c is also released from mitochondria due to formation of a channel, the mitochondrial apoptosis-induced channel (MAC), in the outer mitochondrial membrane, and serves a regulatory function as it precedes morphological change associated with apoptosis. Once cytochrome c is released it binds with Apoptotic protease activating factor – 1 (''Apaf-1'') and ATP, which then bind to ''pro-caspase-9'' to create a protein complex known as an apoptosome. The apoptosome cleaves the pro-caspase to its active form of caspase-9, which in turn activates the effector ''caspase-3''.\n\nMAC (not to be confused with the Membrane Attack Complex formed by complement activation, also commonly denoted as MAC), also called \"Mitochondrial Outer Membrane Permeabilization Pore\" is regulated by various proteins, such as those encoded by the mammalian Bcl-2 family of anti-apoptopic genes, the homologs of the ''ced-9'' gene found in ''C. elegans''. ''Bcl-2'' proteins are able to promote or inhibit apoptosis by direct action on MAC/MOMPP. Bax and/or Bak form the pore, while Bcl-2, Bcl-xL or Mcl-1 inhibit its formation.\n\n===Extrinsic pathway===\nOverview of signal transduction pathways.\n\nTwo theories of the direct initiation of apoptotic mechanisms in mammals have been suggested: the ''TNF-induced'' (tumor necrosis factor) model and the ''Fas-Fas ligand-mediated'' model, both involving receptors of the ''TNF receptor'' (TNFR) family coupled to extrinsic signals.\n\n'''TNF path'''\n\nTNF-alpha is a cytokine produced mainly by activated macrophages, and is the major extrinsic mediator of apoptosis. Most cells in the human body have two receptors for TNF-alpha: TNFR1 and TNFR2. The binding of TNF-alpha to TNFR1 has been shown to initiate the pathway that leads to caspase activation via the intermediate membrane proteins TNF receptor-associated death domain (TRADD) and Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD). cIAP1/2 can inhibit TNF-α signaling by binding to TRAF2. FLIP inhibits the activation of caspase-8. Binding of this receptor can also indirectly lead to the activation of transcription factors involved in cell survival and inflammatory responses. However, signalling through TNFR1 might also induce apoptosis in a caspase-independent manner. The link between TNF-alpha and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF-alpha plays a fundamental role in several human diseases, especially in autoimmune diseases.\n\n'''Fas path'''\n\nThe fas receptor (First apoptosis signal) – (also known as ''Apo-1'' or ''CD95'') is a transmembrane protein of the TNF family which binds the Fas ligand (FasL). The interaction between Fas and FasL results in the formation of the ''death-inducing signaling complex'' (DISC), which contains the FADD, caspase-8 and caspase-10. In some types of cells (type I), processed caspase-8 directly activates other members of the caspase family, and triggers the execution of apoptosis of the cell. In other types of cells (type II), the ''Fas''-DISC starts a feedback loop that spirals into increasing release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria and the amplified activation of caspase-8.\n\n'''Common components'''\n\nFollowing ''TNF-R1'' and ''Fas'' activation in mammalian cells a balance between proapoptotic (BAX, BID, BAK, or BAD) and anti-apoptotic (''Bcl-Xl'' and ''Bcl-2'') members of the ''Bcl-2'' family is established. This balance is the proportion of proapoptotic homodimers that form in the outer-membrane of the mitochondrion. The proapoptotic homodimers are required to make the mitochondrial membrane permeable for the release of caspase activators such as cytochrome c and SMAC. Control of proapoptotic proteins under normal cell conditions of nonapoptotic cells is incompletely understood, but in general, Bax or Bak are activated by the activation of BH3-only proteins, part of the Bcl-2 family.\n\n'''Caspases'''\nCaspases play the central role in the transduction of ER apoptotic signals. Caspases are proteins that are highly conserved, cysteine-dependent aspartate-specific proteases. There are two types of caspases: initiator caspases, caspase 2,8,9,10,11,12, and effector caspases, caspase 3,6,7. The activation of initiator caspases requires binding to specific oligomeric activator protein. Effector caspases are then activated by these active initiator caspases through proteolytic cleavage. The active effector caspases then proteolytically degrade a host of intracellular proteins to carry out the cell death program.\n\n'''Caspase-independent apoptotic pathway'''\nThere also exists a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway that is mediated by AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor).\n\n===Apoptosis model in amphibians===\nAmphibian Metamorphosis \nAmphibian frog ''Xenopus laevis'' serves as an ideal model system for the study of the mechanisms of apoptosis. In fact, iodine and thyroxine also stimulate the spectacular apoptosis of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins in amphibians metamorphosis, and stimulate the evolution of their nervous system transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog.\n", "Many pathways and signals lead to apoptosis, but these converge on a single mechanism that actually causes the death of the cell. After a cell receives stimulus, it undergoes organized degradation of cellular organelles by activated proteolytic caspases. In addition to the destruction of cellular organelles, mRNA is rapidly and globally degraded by a mechanism that is not yet fully characterized. mRNA decay is triggered very early in apoptosis.\n\nA cell undergoing apoptosis shows a series of characteristic morphological changes. Early alterations include:\n# Cell shrinkage and rounding occur because of the retraction lamellipodia and the breakdown of the proteinaceous cytoskeleton by caspases.\n# The cytoplasm appears dense, and the organelles appear tightly packed.\n# Chromatin undergoes condensation into compact patches against the nuclear envelope (also known as the perinuclear envelope) in a process known as pyknosis, a hallmark of apoptosis.\n# The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as karyorrhexis. The nucleus breaks into several discrete ''chromatin bodies'' or ''nucleosomal units'' due to the degradation of DNA.\n\nApoptosis progresses quickly and its products are quickly removed, making it difficult to detect or visualize on classical histology sections. During karyorrhexis, endonuclease activation leaves short DNA fragments, regularly spaced in size. These give a characteristic \"laddered\" appearance on agar gel after electrophoresis. Tests for DNA laddering differentiate apoptosis from ischemic or toxic cell death.\n\n===Apoptotic cell disassembly===\nDifferent steps in apoptotic cell disassembly.\nBefore the apoptotic cell is disposed of, there is a process of disassembly. There are three recognized steps in apoptotic cell disassembly:\n# Membrane blebbing: The cell membrane shows irregular buds known as blebs. Initially these are smaller surface blebs. Later these can grow into larger so-called dynamic membrane blebs. An important regulator of apoptotic cell membrane blebbing is ROCK1 (rho associated coiled-coil-containing protein kinase 1).\n# Formation of membrane protrusions: Some cell types, under specific conditions, may develop different types of long, thin extensions of the cell membrane called membrane protrusions. Three types have been described: microtubule spikes, '''apoptopodia''' (''feet of death''), and '''beaded apoptopodia''' (the latter having a beads-on-a-string appearance). Pannexin 1 is an important component of membrane channels involved in the formation of apoptopodia and beaded apoptopodia.\n# Fragmentation: The cell breaks apart into multiple vesicles called ''apoptotic bodies'', which undergo phagocytosis. The plasma membrane protrusions may help bring apoptotic bodies closer to phagocytes.\n\n===Removal of dead cells===\nThe removal of dead cells by neighboring phagocytic cells has been termed efferocytosis.\nDying cells that undergo the final stages of apoptosis display phagocytotic molecules, such as phosphatidylserine, on their cell surface. Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the inner leaflet surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as scramblase. These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells possessing the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response. During apoptosis cellular RNA and DNA are separated from each other and sorted to different apoptotic bodies; separation of RNA is initiated as nucleolar segregation.\n", "Many knock-outs have been made in the apoptosis pathways to test the function of each of the proteins. Several caspases, in addition to APAF-1 and FADD, have been mutated to determine the new phenotype. In order to create a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) knockout, an exon containing the nucleotides 3704–5364 was removed from the gene. This exon encodes a portion of the mature TNF domain, as well as the leader sequence, which is a highly conserved region necessary for proper intracellular processing. TNF-/- mice develop normally and have no gross structural or morphological abnormalities. However, upon immunization with SRBC (sheep red blood cells), these mice demonstrated a deficiency in the maturation of an antibody response; they were able to generate normal levels of IgM, but could not develop specific IgG levels. Apaf-1 is the protein that turns on caspase 9 by cleavage to begin the caspase cascade that leads to apoptosis. Since a -/- mutation in the APAF-1 gene is embryonic lethal, a gene trap strategy was used in order to generate an APAF-1 -/- mouse. This assay is used to disrupt gene function by creating an intragenic gene fusion. When an APAF-1 gene trap is introduced into cells, many morphological changes occur, such as spina bifida, the persistence of interdigital webs, and open brain. In addition, after embryonic day 12.5, the brain of the embryos showed several structural changes. APAF-1 cells are protected from apoptosis stimuli such as irradiation. A BAX-1 knock-out mouse exhibits normal forebrain formation and a decreased programmed cell death in some neuronal populations and in the spinal cord, leading to an increase in motor neurons.\n\nThe caspase proteins are integral parts of the apoptosis pathway, so it follows that knock-outs made have varying damaging results. A caspase 9 knock-out leads to a severe brain malformation. A caspase 8 knock-out leads to cardiac failure and thus embryonic lethality. However, with the use of cre-lox technology, a caspase 8 knock-out has been created that exhibits an increase in peripheral T cells, an impaired T cell response, and a defect in neural tube closure. These mice were found to be resistant to apoptosis mediated by CD95, TNFR, etc. but not resistant to apoptosis caused by UV irradiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, and other stimuli. Finally, a caspase 3 knock-out was characterized by ectopic cell masses in the brain and abnormal apoptotic features such as membrane blebbing or nuclear fragmentation. A remarkable feature of these KO mice is that they have a very restricted phenotype: Casp3, 9, APAF-1 KO mice have deformations of neural tissue and FADD and Casp 8 KO showed defective heart development, however in both types of KO other organs developed normally and some cell types were still sensitive to apoptotic stimuli suggesting that unknown proapoptotic pathways exist.\n", "In order to perform analysis of apoptotic versus necrotic (necroptotic) cells, one can do analysis of morphology by time-lapse microscopy, flow fluorocytometry, and transmission electron microscopy. There are also various biochemical techniques for analysis of cell surface markers (phosphatidylserine exposure versus cell permeability by flow cytometry), cellular markers such as DNA fragmentation (flow cytometry), caspase activation, Bid cleavage, and cytochrome c release (Western blotting). It is important to know how primary and secondary necrotic cells can be distinguished by analysis of supernatant for caspases, HMGB1, and release of cytokeratin 18. However, no distinct surface or biochemical markers of necrotic cell death have been identified yet, and only negative markers are available. These include absence of apoptotic markers (caspase activation, cytochrome c release, and oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation) and differential kinetics of cell death markers (phosphatidylserine exposure and cell membrane permeabilization). A selection of techniques that can be used to distinguish apoptosis from necroptotic cells could be found in these references.\n", "\nA section of mouse liver showing several apoptotic cells, indicated by arrows\nstained to show cells undergoing apoptosis (orange)\nNeonatal cardiomyocytes ultrastructure after anoxia-reoxygenation.\n\n===Defective pathways===\nThe many different types of apoptotic pathways contain a multitude of different biochemical components, many of them not yet understood. As a pathway is more or less sequential in nature, removing or modifying one component leads to an effect in another. In a living organism, this can have disastrous effects, often in the form of disease or disorder. A discussion of every disease caused by modification of the various apoptotic pathways would be impractical, but the concept overlying each one is the same: The normal functioning of the pathway has been disrupted in such a way as to impair the ability of the cell to undergo normal apoptosis. This results in a cell that lives past its \"use-by-date\" and is able to replicate and pass on any faulty machinery to its progeny, increasing the likelihood of the cell's becoming cancerous or diseased.\n\nA recently described example of this concept in action can be seen in the development of a lung cancer called NCI-H460. The ''X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein'' (XIAP) is overexpressed in cells of the H460 cell line. XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9, and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator cytochrome c, therefore overexpression leads to a decrease in the amount of proapoptotic agonists. As a consequence, the balance of anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic effectors is upset in favour of the former, and the damaged cells continue to replicate despite being directed to die.\n\n====Dysregulation of p53====\nThe tumor-suppressor protein p53 accumulates when DNA is damaged due to a chain of biochemical factors. Part of this pathway includes alpha-interferon and beta-interferon, which induce transcription of the ''p53'' gene, resulting in the increase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis. p53 prevents the cell from replicating by stopping the cell cycle at G1, or interphase, to give the cell time to repair, however it will induce apoptosis if damage is extensive and repair efforts fail. Any disruption to the regulation of the ''p53'' or interferon genes will result in impaired apoptosis and the possible formation of tumors.\n\n===Inhibition===\nInhibition of apoptosis can result in a number of cancers, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, and viral infections. It was originally believed that the associated accumulation of cells was due to an increase in cellular proliferation, but it is now known that it is also due to a decrease in cell death. The most common of these diseases is cancer, the disease of excessive cellular proliferation, which is often characterized by an overexpression of IAP family members. As a result, the malignant cells experience an abnormal response to apoptosis induction: Cycle-regulating genes (such as p53, ras or c-myc) are mutated or inactivated in diseased cells, and further genes (such as bcl-2) also modify their expression in tumors. Some apoptotic factors are vital during mitochondrial respiration e.g. cytochrome C. Pathological inactivation of apoptosis in cancer cells is correlated with frequent respiratory metabolic shifts toward glycolysis (an observation known as the “Warburg hypothesis” ).\n\n====HeLa cell====\nApoptosis in HeLa cells is inhibited by proteins produced by the cell; these inhibitory proteins target retinoblastoma tumor-suppressing proteins. These tumor-suppressing proteins regulate the cell cycle, but are rendered inactive when bound to an inhibitory protein. HPV E6 and E7 are inhibitory proteins expressed by the human papillomavirus, HPV being responsible for the formation of the cervical tumor from which HeLa cells are derived. HPV E6 causes p53, which regulates the cell cycle, to become inactive. HPV E7 binds to retinoblastoma tumor suppressing proteins and limits its ability to control cell division. These two inhibitory proteins are partially responsible for HeLa cells' immortality by inhibiting apoptosis to occur. CDV (Canine Distemper Virus) is able to induce apoptosis despite the presence of these inhibitory proteins. This is an important oncolytic property of CDV: this virus is capable of killing canine lymphoma cells. Oncoproteins E6 and E7 still leave p53 inactive, but they are not able to avoid the activation of caspases induced from the stress of viral infection. These oncolytic properties provided a promising link between CDV and lymphoma apoptosis, which can lead to development of alternative treatment methods for both canine lymphoma and human non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Defects in the cell cycle are thought to be responsible for the resistance to chemotherapy or radiation by certain tumor cells, so a virus that can induce apoptosis despite defects in the cell cycle is useful for cancer treatment.\n\n====Treatments====\nThe main method of treatment for death from signaling-related diseases involves either increasing or decreasing the susceptibility of apoptosis in diseased cells, depending on whether the disease is caused by either the inhibition of or excess apoptosis. For instance, treatments aim to restore apoptosis to treat diseases with deficient cell death, and to increase the apoptotic threshold to treat diseases involved with excessive cell death. To stimulate apoptosis, one can increase the number of death receptor ligands (such as TNF or TRAIL), antagonize the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 pathway, or introduce Smac mimetics to inhibit the inhibitor (IAPs). The addition of agents such as Herceptin, Iressa, or Gleevec works to stop cells from cycling and causes apoptosis activation by blocking growth and survival signaling further upstream. Finally, adding p53-MDM2 complexes displaces p53 and activates the p53 pathway, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Many different methods can be used either to stimulate or to inhibit apoptosis in various places along the death signaling pathway.\n\nApoptosis is a multi-step, multi-pathway cell-death programme that is inherent in every cell of the body. In cancer, the apoptosis cell-division ratio is altered. Cancer treatment by chemotherapy and irradiation kills target cells primarily by inducing apoptosis.\n\n===Hyperactive apoptosis===\nOn the other hand, loss of control of cell death (resulting in excess apoptosis) can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, hematologic diseases, and tissue damage. It is to note that neurons that rely on mitochondrial respiration undergo apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s (an observation known as the “Inverse Warburg hypothesis” ).Moreover, there is an inverse epidemiological comorbidity between neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. The progression of HIV is directly linked to excess, unregulated apoptosis. In a healthy individual, the number of CD4+ lymphocytes is in balance with the cells generated by the bone marrow; however, in HIV-positive patients, this balance is lost due to an inability of the bone marrow to regenerate CD4+ cells. In the case of HIV, CD4+ lymphocytes die at an accelerated rate through uncontrolled apoptosis, when stimulated.\n\n====Treatments====\nTreatments aiming to inhibit works to block specific caspases. Finally, the Akt protein kinase promotes cell survival through two pathways. Akt phosphorylates and inhibits Bas (a Bcl-2 family member), causing Bas to interact with the 14-3-3 scaffold, resulting in Bcl dissociation and thus cell survival. Akt also activates IKKα, which leads to NF-κB activation and cell survival. Active NF-κB induces the expression of anti-apoptotic genes such as Bcl-2, resulting in inhibition of apoptosis. NF-κB has been found to play both an antiapoptotic role and a proapoptotic role depending on the stimuli utilized and the cell type.\n\n===HIV progression===\nThe progression of the human immunodeficiency virus infection into AIDS is due primarily to the depletion of CD4+ T-helper lymphocytes in a manner that is too rapid for the body's bone marrow to replenish the cells, leading to a compromised immune system. One of the mechanisms by which T-helper cells are depleted is apoptosis, which results from a series of biochemical pathways:\n# HIV enzymes deactivate anti-apoptotic ''Bcl-2''. This does not directly cause cell death but primes the cell for apoptosis should the appropriate signal be received. In parallel, these enzymes activate proapoptotic ''procaspase-8'', which does directly activate the mitochondrial events of apoptosis.\n# HIV may increase the level of cellular proteins that prompt Fas-mediated apoptosis.\n# HIV proteins decrease the amount of CD4 glycoprotein marker present on the cell membrane.\n# Released viral particles and proteins present in extracellular fluid are able to induce apoptosis in nearby \"bystander\" T helper cells.\n# HIV decreases the production of molecules involved in marking the cell for apoptosis, giving the virus time to replicate and continue releasing apoptotic agents and virions into the surrounding tissue.\n# The infected CD4+ cell may also receive the death signal from a cytotoxic T cell.\n\nCells may also die as direct consequences of viral infections. HIV-1 expression induces tubular cell G2/M arrest and apoptosis. The progression from HIV to AIDS is not immediate or even necessarily rapid; HIV's cytotoxic activity toward CD4+ lymphocytes is classified as AIDS once a given patient's CD4+ cell count falls below 200.\n\n===Viral infection===\nViral induction of apoptosis occurs when one or several cells of a living organism are infected with a virus, leading to cell death. Cell death in organisms is necessary for the normal development of cells and the cell cycle maturation. It is also important in maintaining the regular functions and activities of cells.\n\nViruses can trigger apoptosis of infected cells via a range of mechanisms including:\nReceptor binding\nActivation of protein kinase R (PKR)\nInteraction with p53\nExpression of viral proteins coupled to MHC proteins on the surface of the infected cell, allowing recognition by cells of the immune system (such as Natural Killer and cytotoxic T cells) that then induce the infected cell to undergo apoptosis.\nCanine distemper virus (CDV) is known to cause apoptosis in central nervous system and lymphoid tissue of infected dogs in vivo and in vitro.\nApoptosis caused by CDV is typically induced via the extrinsic pathway, which activates caspases that disrupt cellular function and eventually leads to the cells death. In normal cells, CDV activates caspase-8 first, which works as the initiator protein followed by the executioner protein caspase-3. However, apoptosis induced by CDV in HeLa cells does not involve the initiator protein caspase-8. HeLa cell apoptosis caused by CDV follows a different mechanism than that in vero cell lines. This change in the caspase cascade suggests CDV induces apoptosis via the intrinsic pathway, excluding the need for the initiator caspase-8. The executioner protein is instead activated by the internal stimuli caused by viral infection not a caspase cascade.\n\nThe Oropouche virus (OROV) is found in the family ''Bunyaviridae''. The study of apoptosis brought on by ''Bunyaviridae'' was initiated in 1996, when it was observed that apoptosis was induced by the La Crosse virus into the kidney cells of baby hamsters and into the brains of baby mice.\n\nOROV is a disease that is transmitted between humans by the biting midge (''Culicoides paraensis''). It is referred to as a zoonotic arbovirus and causes febrile illness, characterized by the onset of a sudden fever known as Oropouche fever.\n\nThe Oropouche virus also causes disruption in cultured cells – cells that are cultivated in distinct and specific conditions. An example of this can be seen in HeLa cells, whereby the cells begin to degenerate shortly after they are infected.\n\nWith the use of gel electrophoresis, it can be observed that OROV causes DNA fragmentation in HeLa cells. It can be interpreted by counting, measuring, and analyzing the cells of the Sub/G1 cell population. When HeLA cells are infected with OROV, the cytochrome C is released from the membrane of the mitochondria, into the cytosol of the cells. This type of interaction shows that apoptosis is activated via an intrinsic pathway.\n\nIn order for apoptosis to occur within OROV, viral uncoating, viral internalization, along with the replication of cells is necessary. Apoptosis in some viruses is activated by extracellular stimuli. However, studies have demonstrated that the OROV infection causes apoptosis to be activated through intracellular stimuli and involves the mitochondria.\n\nMany viruses encode proteins that can inhibit apoptosis. Several viruses encode viral homologs of Bcl-2. These homologs can inhibit proapoptotic proteins such as BAX and BAK, which are essential for the activation of apoptosis. Examples of viral Bcl-2 proteins include the Epstein-Barr virus BHRF1 protein and the adenovirus E1B 19K protein. Some viruses express caspase inhibitors that inhibit caspase activity and an example is the CrmA protein of cowpox viruses. Whilst a number of viruses can block the effects of TNF and Fas. For example, the M-T2 protein of myxoma viruses can bind TNF preventing it from binding the TNF receptor and inducing a response. Furthermore, many viruses express p53 inhibitors that can bind p53 and inhibit its transcriptional transactivation activity. As a consequence, p53 cannot induce apoptosis, since it cannot induce the expression of proapoptotic proteins. The adenovirus E1B-55K protein and the hepatitis B virus HBx protein are examples of viral proteins that can perform such a function.\n\nViruses can remain intact from apoptosis in particular in the latter stages of infection. They can be exported in the ''apoptotic bodies'' that pinch off from the surface of the dying cell, and the fact that they are engulfed by phagocytes prevents the initiation of a host response. This favours the spread of the virus.\n", "Programmed cell death in plants has a number of molecular similarities to that of animal apoptosis, but it also has differences, notable ones being the presence of a cell wall and the lack of an immune system that removes the pieces of the dead cell. Instead of an immune response, the dying cell synthesizes substances to break itself down and places them in a vacuole that ruptures as the cell dies. Whether this whole process resembles animal apoptosis closely enough to warrant using the name ''apoptosis'' (as opposed to the more general ''programmed cell death'') is unclear.\n", "The characterization of the caspases allowed the development of caspase inhibitors, which can be used to determine whether a cellular process involves active caspases. Using these inhibitors it was discovered that cells can die while displaying a morphology similar to apoptosis without caspase activation. Later studies linked this phenomenon to the release of AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor) from the mitochondria and its translocation into the nucleus mediated by its NLS (nuclear localization signal). Inside the mitochondria, AIF is anchored to the inner membrane. In order to be released, the protein is cleaved by a calcium-dependent calpain protease.\n", "In 2003, a method was developed for predicting subcellular location of apoptosis proteins.\nSubsequent to this, various modes of Chou's pseudo amino acid composition were developed for improving the quality of predicting subcellular localization of apoptosis proteins based on their sequence information alone.\n", "\n* Anoikis\n* Apaf-1\n* Apo2.7\n* Apoptotic DNA fragmentation\n* Atromentin induces apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells.\n* Autolysis\n* Autophagy\n* Cisplatin\n* Cytotoxicity\n* Entosis\n* Immunology\n* Necrobiosis\n* Necrosis\n* Necrotaxis\n* p53\n* Paraptosis\n* Pseudoapoptosis\n* PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway\n\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n\n", "* Apoptosis & cell surface\n* Apoptosis & Caspase 3, The Proteolysis Map—animation\n* Apoptosis & Caspase 8, The Proteolysis Map—animation\n* Apoptosis & Caspase 7, The Proteolysis Map—animation\n* Apoptosis MiniCOPE Dictionary—list of apoptosis terms and acronyms\n* Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology\n* Apoptosis Research Portal\n* Apoptosis Info Apoptosis protocols, articles, news, and recent publications.\n* Database of proteins involved in apoptosis\n* Apoptosis Video\n* Apoptosis Video (WEHI on YouTube )\n* The Mechanisms of Apoptosis Kimball's Biology Pages. Simple explanation of the mechanisms of apoptosis triggered by internal signals (bcl-2), along the caspase-9, caspase-3 and caspase-7 pathway; and by external signals (FAS and TNF), along the caspase 8 pathway. Accessed 25 March 2007.\n* WikiPathways – Apoptosis pathway\n* Finding Cancer's Self-Destruct Button CR magazine (Spring 2007). Article on apoptosis and cancer.\n* Xiaodong Wang's lecture: Introduction to Apoptosis\n* Robert Horvitz's short clip: Discovering Programmed Cell Death\n* The Bcl-2 Database\n* DeathBase: a database of proteins involved in cell death, curated by experts\n* European Cell Death Organization\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Discovery and etymology", "Activation mechanisms", "Proteolytic caspase cascade: Killing the cell", "Pathway knock-outs", "Methods for distinguishing apoptotic from necrotic (necroptotic) cells", "Implication in disease", "Plants", "Caspase-independent apoptosis", "Apoptosis protein subcellular location prediction", " See also ", " Footnotes ", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Apoptosis
[ "'''Appomattox''', shorthand for the surrender of Robert E. Lee to Ulysses S. Grant in the American Civil War, may refer to:\n\nBattle of Appomattox Court House, a battle of the American Civil War that was a culmination of the Appomattox Campaign and resulted in the surrender of Robert E. Lee\nAppomattox Court House National Historical Park, a National Historical Park in Virginia at the site of the surrender\n\n'''Appomattox''' may also refer to:\nAppomattox County, Virginia, in the United States\nAppomattox, Virginia, a town and the seat of that county\nAppomattox Court House (disambiguation), several courthouses in Appomattox, Virginia\nAppomattox River, a tributary of the James River in Virginia\n Appomattox Basin, a name for the Tri-Cities, Virginia region\nAppomattox Manor, a manor in City Point, Hopewell, Virginia\nBattle of Appomattox Station, a battle of the American Civil War in Appomattox, Virginia, a day before the Battle of Appomattox Court House\n''SS'' Appomattox, a large American wooden steamship operated mainly on the Great Lakes\n''SS'' Appomattox (1893), a British steamship of the early 20th century\n''Appomattox'' (opera), a 2007 opera in based on the American Civil War, composed by Philip Glass\n", "\n*Appomattoc (people)\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " See also " ]	Appomattox
[ "\n\n\nAn illustration of anal sex\n\n'''Anal sex''' or '''anal intercourse''' is generally the insertion and thrusting of the erect penis into a person's anus, or anus and rectum, for sexual pleasure. Other forms of anal sex include fingering, the use of sex toys for anal penetration, oral sex performed on the anus (anilingus), and pegging. Although the term ''anal sex'' most commonly means penile-anal penetration, sources sometimes use the term ''anal intercourse'' to refer exclusively to penile-anal penetration, and ''anal sex'' to refer to any form of anal sexual activity, especially between pairings as opposed to anal masturbation.\n\nWhile anal sex is commonly associated with male homosexuality, research shows that not all gay males engage in anal sex and that it is not uncommon in heterosexual relationships. Types of anal sex can also be a part of lesbian sexual practices. People may experience pleasure from anal sex by stimulation of the anal nerve endings, and orgasm may be achieved through anal penetration – by indirect stimulation of the prostate in men, indirect stimulation of the clitoris or an area of the vagina (sometimes termed ''the G-spot'') in women, and other sensory nerves (especially the pudendal nerve). However, people may also find anal sex painful, sometimes extremely so, which may be primarily due to psychological factors in some cases.\n\nAs with most forms of sexual activity, anal sex participants risk contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs). Anal sex is considered a high-risk sexual practice because of the vulnerability of the anus and rectum. The anal and rectal tissues are delicate and do not provide lubrication like the vagina does, so they can easily tear and permit disease transmission, especially if a personal lubricant is not used. Anal sex without protection of a condom is considered the riskiest form of sexual activity, and therefore health authorities such as the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend safe sex practices for anal sex.\n\nStrong views are often expressed about anal sex. It is controversial in various cultures, especially with regard to religious prohibitions. This is commonly due to prohibitions against anal sex among males or teachings about the procreative purpose of sexual activity. It may be regarded as taboo or unnatural, and is a criminal offense in some countries, punishable by corporal or capital punishment; by contrast, people also regard anal sex as a natural and valid form of sexual activity that may be as fulfilling as other desired sexual expressions. They may regard it as an enhancing element of their sex lives or as their primary form of sexual activity.\n", "\nMale genital anatomy, showing the location of the prostate with respect to the rectum\n\nThe abundance of nerve endings in the anal region and rectum can make anal sex pleasurable for men or women. The internal and external sphincter muscles control the opening and closing of the anus; these muscles, which are sensitive membranes made up of many nerve endings, facilitate pleasure or pain during anal sex. The ''Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia'' states that \"the inner third of the anal canal is less sensitive to touch than the outer two-thirds, but is more sensitive to pressure\" and that \"the rectum is a curved tube about eight or nine inches long and has the capacity, like the anus, to expand\".\n\nResearch indicates that anal sex occurs significantly less frequently than other sexual behaviors, but its association with dominance and submission, as well as taboo, makes it an appealing stimulus to people of all sexual orientations. In addition to sexual penetration by the penis, people may use sex toys such as butt plugs or anal beads, engage in fingering, anilingus, pegging, anal masturbation or fisting for anal sexual activity, and different sex positions may also be included. Fisting is the least practiced of the activities, partly because it is uncommon that people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus.\n\nIn a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the inserted penis rubbing or brushing against the prostate (also known as the \"male G-spot\") through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a \"deeper\" orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed male homologue (variation) to the female Skene's glands. However, though the experiences are different, male orgasms by penile stimulation are also centered in the prostate gland. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.\n\nGeneral statistics indicate that 70–80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm. The vaginal walls contain significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris and anus, and therefore intense sexual pleasure, including orgasm, from vaginal sexual stimulation is less likely to occur than from direct clitoral stimulation in the majority of women. The clitoris is composed of more than the externally visible glans (head). With its glans or body as a whole estimated to have around 8,000 sensory nerve endings, the clitoris surrounds the vagina and urethra, and may have a similar connection with the anus. The vagina is flanked on each side by the clitoral crura, the internal \"legs\" of the clitoris, which are highly sensitive and become engorged with blood when sexually aroused. In addition to nerve endings present within the anus and rectum, women may find anal stimulation pleasurable due to indirect stimulation of these \"legs\". Indirect stimulation of the clitoris through anal penetration may also be caused by the shared sensory nerves, especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into two terminal branches: the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris.\n\nThe Gräfenberg spot, or G-spot, is a debated area of female anatomy, particularly among doctors and researchers, but it is typically described as being located behind the female pubic bone surrounding the urethra and accessible through the anterior wall of the vagina; it and other areas of the vagina are considered to have tissue and nerves that are related to the clitoris. Besides the shared anatomy of the aforementioned sensory nerves, orgasm by indirect stimulation of the clitoris or G-spot area through anal penetration may be possible because of the close proximity between the vaginal cavity and the rectal cavity. Achieving orgasm solely by anal stimulation is rare among women. Direct stimulation of the clitoris, a G-spot area, or both, during anal sex can help some women enjoy the activity and reach orgasm from it.\n\nStimulation from anal sex can additionally be affected by popular perception or portrayals of the activity, such as erotica or pornography. In pornography, anal sex is commonly portrayed as a desirable, painless routine that does not require personal lubricant; this can result in couples performing anal sex without care, and men and women believing that it is unusual for women, as receptive partners, to find discomfort or pain instead of pleasure from the activity. By contrast, each person's sphincter muscles react to penetration differently, the anal sphincters have tissues that are more prone to tearing, and the anus and rectum do not provide lubrication for sexual penetration like the vagina does. Researchers say adequate application of a personal lubricant, relaxation, and communication between sexual partners are crucial to avoid pain or damage to the anus or rectum. Additionally, ensuring that the anal area is clean and the bowel is empty, for both aesthetics and practicality, may be desired by participants.\n", "\n=== Behaviors and views ===\nlithograph by Paul Avril depicting male-to-female anal sex\n\nThe anal sphincters are usually tighter than the pelvic muscles of the vagina, which can enhance the sexual pleasure for the inserting male during male-to-female anal intercourse because of the pressure applied to the penis. Men may also enjoy the penetrative role during anal sex because of its association with dominance, because it is made more alluring by a female partner or society in general insisting that it is forbidden, or because it presents an additional option for penetration.\n\nWhile some women find being a receptive partner during anal intercourse painful or uncomfortable, or only engage in the act to please a male sexual partner, other women find the activity pleasurable or prefer it to vaginal intercourse.\n\nIn a 2010 clinical review article of heterosexual anal sex, the term ''anal intercourse'' is used to refer specifically to penile-anal penetration, and ''anal sex'' is used to refer to any form of anal sexual activity. The review suggests that anal sex is exotic among the sexual practices of some heterosexuals and that \"for a certain number of heterosexuals, anal intercourse is pleasurable, exciting, and perhaps considered more intimate than vaginal sex\".\n\nAnal intercourse is sometimes used as a substitute for vaginal intercourse during menstruation. The likelihood of pregnancy occurring during anal sex is greatly reduced, as anal sex alone cannot lead to pregnancy unless sperm is somehow transported to the vaginal opening. Because of this, some couples practice anal intercourse as a form of contraception, often in the absence of a condom.\n\nMale-to-female anal sex is commonly viewed as a way of preserving female virginity because it is non-procreative and does not tear the hymen; a person, especially a teenage girl or woman, who engages in anal sex or other sexual activity with no history of having engaged in vaginal intercourse is often regarded among heterosexuals and researchers as not having yet experienced virginity loss. This is sometimes termed ''technical virginity.'' Heterosexuals may view anal sex as \"fooling around\" or as foreplay; scholar Laura M. Carpenter stated that this view \"dates to the late 1600s, with explicit 'rules' appearing around the turn of the twentieth century, as in marriage manuals defining petting as 'literally every caress known to married couples but does not include complete sexual intercourse.'\"\n\n===Prevalence===\n\nBecause most research on anal intercourse addresses men who have sex with men, little data exists on the prevalence of anal intercourse among heterosexual couples. In Kimberly R. McBride's 2010 clinical review on heterosexual anal intercourse and other forms of anal sexual activity, it is suggested that changing norms may affect the frequency of heterosexual anal sex. McBride and her colleagues investigated the prevalence of non-intercourse anal sex behaviors among a sample of men (n=1,299) and women (n=1,919) compared to anal intercourse experience and found that 51% of men and 43% of women had participated in at least one act of oral–anal sex, manual–anal sex, or anal sex toy use. The report states the majority of men (n=631) and women (n=856) who reported heterosexual anal intercourse in the past 12 months were in exclusive, monogamous relationships: 69% and 73%, respectively. The review added that because \"relatively little attention is given to anal intercourse and other anal sexual behaviors between heterosexual partners\", this means that it is \"quite rare\" to have research \"that specifically differentiates the anus as a sexual organ or addresses anal sexual function or dysfunction as legitimate topics. As a result, we do not know the extent to which anal intercourse differs qualitatively from coitus.\"\n\nAccording to a 2010 study from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) that was authored by Debby Herbenick et al., although anal intercourse is reported by fewer women than other partnered sex behaviors, partnered women in the age groups between 18–49 are significantly more likely to report having anal sex in the past 90 days. Women engaged in anal intercourse less commonly than men. Vaginal intercourse was practiced more than insertive anal intercourse among men, but 13% to 15% of men aged 25 to 49 practiced insertive anal intercourse.\n\nWith regard to adolescents, limited data also exists. This may be because of the taboo nature of anal sex and that teenagers and caregivers subsequently avoid talking to one another about the topic. It is also common for subject review panels and schools to avoid the subject. A 2000 study found that 22.9% of college students who self-identified as virgins had anal sex. They used condoms during anal sex 20.9% of the time as compared with 42.9% of the time with vaginal intercourse.\n\nAnal sex being more common among heterosexuals today than it was previously has been linked to the increase in consumption of anal pornography among men, especially among those who view it on a regular basis. Seidman et al. argued that \"cheap, accessible and, especially, interactive media have enabled many more people to produce as well as consume pornography\", and that this modern way of producing pornography, in addition to the buttocks and anus having become more eroticized, has led to a significant interest in or obsession with anal sex among men.\n", "\n===Behaviors and views===\n19th-century erotic interpretation of Hadrian and Antinous (detail), by Paul Avril \n\nHistorically, anal sex has been commonly associated with male homosexuality. However, many gay men and men who have sex with men in general (those who identify as gay, bisexual, heterosexual or have not identified their sexual identity) do not engage in anal sex. Among men who have anal sex with other men, the insertive partner may be referred to as the ''top'' and the one being penetrated may be referred to as the ''bottom''. Those who enjoy either role may be referred to as ''versatile''.\n\nGay men who prefer anal sex may view it as their version of intercourse and a natural expression of intimacy that is capable of providing pleasure. The notion that it might resonate with gay men with the same emotional significance that vaginal sex resonates with heterosexuals has also been considered. Some men who have sex with men, however, believe that being a receptive partner during anal sex questions their masculinity.\n\nMen who have sex with men may also prefer to engage in frot or other forms of mutual masturbation because they find it more pleasurable or more affectionate, to preserve technical virginity, or as safe sex alternatives to anal sex, while other frot advocates denounce anal sex as degrading to the receptive partner and unnecessarily risky.\n\n===Prevalence===\n\nReports regarding the prevalence of anal sex among gay men and other men who have sex with men vary. A survey in ''The Advocate'' in 1994 indicated that 46% of gay men preferred to penetrate their partners, while 43% preferred to be the receptive partner. Other sources suggest that roughly three-fourths of gay men have had anal sex at one time or another, with an equal percentage participating as tops and bottoms. A 2012 NSSHB sex survey in the U.S. suggests high lifetime participation in anal sex among gay men: 83.3% report ever taking part in anal sex in the insertive position and 90% in the receptive position, even if only between a third and a quarter self-report very recent engagement in the practice, defined as 30 days or less.\n\nOral sex and mutual masturbation are more common than anal stimulation among men in sexual relationships with other men. According to Weiten et al., anal intercourse is generally more popular among gay male couples than among heterosexual couples, but \"it ranks behind oral sex and mutual masturbation\" among both sexual orientations in prevalence. Wellings et al. reported that \"the equation of 'homosexual' with 'anal' sex among men is common among lay and health professionals alike\" and that \"yet an Internet survey of 180,000 MSM across Europe (EMIS, 2011) showed that oral sex was most commonly practised, followed by mutual masturbation, with anal intercourse in third place\".\n", "A woman wearing a strap-on dildo about to engage in anal sex with a man\nWomen may sexually stimulate a man's anus by fingering the exterior or interior areas of the anus; they may also stimulate the perineum (which, for males, is between the base of the scrotum and the anus), massage the prostate or engage in anilingus. Sex toys, such as a dildo, may also be used. The practice of a woman penetrating a man's anus with a strap-on dildo for sexual activity is called pegging.\n\nCommonly, heterosexual men reject the idea of being receptive partners during anal sex because they believe it is a feminine act, can make them vulnerable, or contradicts their sexual orientation (for example, that it is indicative that they are gay). The ''BMJ'' stated in 1999, however:There are little published data on how many heterosexual men would like their anus to be sexually stimulated in a heterosexual relationship. Anecdotally, it is a substantial number. What data we do have almost all relate to penetrative sexual acts, and the superficial contact of the anal ring with fingers or the tongue is even less well documented but may be assumed to be a common sexual activity for men of all sexual orientations.\n\nReece et al. reported in 2010 that receptive anal intercourse is infrequent among men overall, stating that \"an estimated 7% of men 14 to 94 years old reported being a receptive partner during anal intercourse\".\n", "A woman performing anilingus (anal–oral sex) on another woman\nWith regard to lesbian sexual practices, anal sex includes fingering, use of a dildo or other sex toys, or anilingus. Some lesbians do not like anal sex, and anilingus is less often practiced among female same-sex couples.\n\nThere is less research on anal sexual activity among women who have sex with women compared to couples of other sexual orientations. In 1987, a non-scientific study (Munson) was conducted of more than 100 members of a lesbian social organization in Colorado. When asked what techniques they used in their last ten sexual encounters, lesbians in their 30s were twice as likely as other age groups to engage in anal stimulation (with a finger or dildo). While author Tom Boellstorff, when particularly examining anal sex among gay and lesbian individuals in Indonesia, stated that he had not heard of oral-anal contact or anal penetration as recognized forms of lesbian sexuality but assume they take place, author Felice Newman cites anal sex as a part of lesbian sexual practices. A 2014 study of partnered lesbian women in Canada and the U.S. found that 7% engaged in anal stimulation or penetration at least once a week; about 10% did so monthly and 70% did not at all.\n", "\n===General risks===\nMucous membranes of the rectum\nAnal sex can expose its participants to two principal dangers: infections due to the high number of infectious microorganisms not found elsewhere on the body, and physical damage to the anus and rectum due to their fragility. Unprotected penile-anal penetration, colloquially known as ''barebacking'', carries a higher risk of passing on sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs) because the anal sphincter is a delicate, easily torn tissue that can provide an entry for pathogens. The high concentration of white blood cells around the rectum, together with the risk of tearing and the colon's function to absorb fluid, are what place those who engage in anal sex at high risk of STIs. Use of condoms, ample lubrication to reduce the risk of tearing, and safer sex practices in general, reduce the risk of STI transmission. However, a condom can break or otherwise come off during anal sex, and this is more likely to happen with anal sex than with other sex acts because of the tightness of the anal sphincters during friction.\n\nUnprotected receptive anal sex (with an HIV positive partner) is the sex act most likely to result in HIV transmission. Other infections that can be transmitted by unprotected anal sex are human papillomavirus (HPV) (which can increase risk of anal cancer); typhoid fever; amoebiasis; chlamydia; cryptosporidiosis; E. coli infections; giardiasis; gonorrhea; hepatitis A; hepatitis B; hepatitis C; herpes simplex; Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (HHV-8); lymphogranuloma venereum; Mycoplasma hominis; Mycoplasma genitalium; pubic lice; salmonellosis; shigella; syphilis; tuberculosis; and Ureaplasma urealyticum.\n\nAs with other sexual practices, people without sound knowledge about the sexual risks involved are susceptible to STIs. Because of the view that anal sex is not \"real sex\" and therefore does not result in virginity loss, or pregnancy, teenagers and other young people may consider vaginal intercourse riskier than anal intercourse and believe that a STI can only result from vaginal intercourse. It may be because of these views that condom use with anal sex is often reported to be low and inconsistent across all groups in various countries.\n\nAlthough anal sex alone does not lead to pregnancy, pregnancy can still occur with anal sex or other forms of sexual activity if the penis is near the vagina (such as during intercrural sex or other genital-genital rubbing) and its sperm is deposited near the vagina's entrance and travels along the vagina's lubricating fluids; the risk of pregnancy can also occur without the penis being near the vagina because sperm may be transported to the vaginal opening by the vagina coming in contact with fingers or other non-genital body parts that have come in contact with semen.\n\nThere are a variety of factors that make male-to-female anal intercourse riskier for a female than for a male. For example, besides the risk of HIV transmission being higher for anal intercourse than for vaginal intercourse, the risk of injury to the woman during anal intercourse is significantly higher than the risk of injury to her during vaginal intercourse because of the durability of the vaginal tissues compared to the anal tissues. Additionally, if a man moves from anal intercourse immediately to vaginal intercourse without a condom or without changing it, infections can arise in the vagina (or urinary tract) due to bacteria present within the anus; these infections can also result from switching between vaginal sex and anal sex by the use of fingers or sex toys.\n\nPain during receptive anal sex among gay men (or men who have sex with men) is formally known as ''anodyspareunia.'' In one study, 61% of gay or bisexual men said they experienced painful receptive anal sex and that it was the most frequent sexual difficulty they had experienced. By contrast, 24% of gay or bisexual men stated that they always experienced some degree of pain during anal sex, and about 12% of gay men find it too painful to pursue receptive anal sex; it was concluded that the perception of anal sex as painful is as likely to be psychologically or emotionally based as it is to be physically based. Factors predictive of pain during anal sex include inadequate lubrication, feeling tense or anxious, lack of stimulation, as well as lack of social ease with being gay and being closeted. Research has found that psychological factors can in fact be the primary contributors to the experience of pain during anal intercourse and that adequate communication between sexual partners can prevent it, countering the notion that pain is always inevitable during anal sex.\n\n===Physical damage and cancer===\n\nAnal sex can exacerbate hemorrhoids and therefore result in bleeding; in other cases, the formation of a hemorrhoid is attributed to anal sex. If bleeding occurs as a result of anal sex, it may also be because of a tear in the anal or rectal tissues (an anal fissure) or perforation (a hole) in the colon, the latter of which being a serious medical issue that should be remedied by immediate medical attention. Because of the rectum's lack of elasticity, the anal mucous membrane being thin, and small blood vessels being present directly beneath the mucous membrane, tiny tears and bleeding in the rectum usually result from penetrative anal sex, though the bleeding is usually minor and therefore usually not visible. By contrast to other anal sexual behaviors, anal fisting poses a more serious danger of damage due to the deliberate stretching of the anal and rectal tissues; anal fisting injuries include anal sphincter lacerations and rectal and sigmoid colon (rectosigmoid) perforation, which might result in death.\n\nRepetitive penetrative anal sex may result in the anal sphincters becoming weakened, which may cause rectal prolapse or affect the ability to hold in feces (a condition known as fecal incontinence). Rectal prolapse is relatively uncommon, however, especially in men, and its causes are not well understood. Kegel exercises have been used to strengthen the anal sphincters and overall pelvic floor, and may help prevent or remedy fecal incontinence.\n\nMost cases of anal cancer are related to infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV). Anal sex alone does not cause anal cancer; the risk of anal cancer through anal sex is attributed to HPV infection, which is often contracted through unprotected anal sex. Anal cancer is relatively rare, and significantly less common than cancer of the colon or rectum (colorectal cancer); the American Cancer Society states that it affects approximately 7,060 people (4,430 in women and 2,630 in men) and results in approximately 880 deaths (550 in women and 330 in men) in the United States, and that, though anal cancer has been on the rise for many years, it is mainly diagnosed in adults, \"with an average age being in the early 60s\" and it \"affects women somewhat more often than men.\" Though anal cancer is serious, treatment for it is \"often very effective\" and most anal cancer patients can be cured of the disease; the American Cancer Society adds that \"receptive anal intercourse also increases the risk of anal cancer in both men and women, particularly in those younger than the age of 30. Because of this, men who have sex with men have a high risk of this cancer.\"\n", "\n===General===\nkylix\nSuzuki Harunobu, A shunga print depicting an older and a younger man\n\nDifferent cultures have had different views on anal sex throughout human history, with some cultures more positive about the activity than others. Historically, anal sex has been restricted or condemned, especially with regard to religious beliefs; it has also commonly been used as a form of domination, usually with the active partner (the one who is penetrating) representing masculinity and the passive partner (the one who is being penetrated) representing femininity. A number of cultures have especially recorded the practice of anal sex between males, and anal sex between males has been especially stigmatized or punished. In some societies, if discovered to have engaged in the practice, the individuals involved were put to death, such as by decapitation, burning, or even mutilation.\n\nAnal sex has been more accepted in modern times; it is often considered a natural, pleasurable form of sexual expression. Some people, men in particular, are only interested in anal sex for sexual satisfaction, which has been partly attributed to the buttocks and anus being more eroticized in modern culture, including via pornography. Engaging in anal sex is still, however, punished in some societies. For example, regarding LGBT rights in Iran, Iran's Penal Code states in Article 109 that \"both men involved in same-sex penetrative (anal) or non-penetrative sex will be punished\" and \"Article 110 states that those convicted of engaging in anal sex will be executed and that the manner of execution is at the discretion of the judge\".\n\n===Ancient and non-Western cultures===\n\nThe term ''Greek love'' has long been used to refer to anal intercourse, and in modern times, \"doing it the Greek way\" is sometimes used as slang for anal sex. Ancient Greeks accepted romantic or sexual relationships between males as a balanced sex life (having males and women as lovers), and they considered this \"normal (as long as one partner was an adult and the other was aged between twelve and fifteen)\".\n\nMale-male anal sex was not a universally accepted practice in Ancient Greece; it was the target of jokes in some Athenian comedies. Aristophanes, for instance, mockingly alludes to the practice, claiming, \"Most citizens are ''europroktoi'' (wide-arsed) now.\" The terms ''kinaidos'', ''europroktoi'', and ''katapygon'' were used by Greek residents to categorize men who chronically practiced passive anal intercourse. While pedagogic pederasty was an essential element in the education of male youths, these relationships, at least in Athens and Sparta, were expected to steer clear of penetrative sex of any kind. Greek artwork of sexual interaction between men and boys usually depicted fondling or intercrural sex, which was not condemned for violating or feminizing boys, while male-male anal intercourse was usually depicted between males of the same age-group. Intercrural sex was not considered penetrative and two males engaging in it was considered a \"clean\" act. Some sources explicitly state that anal sex between men and boys was criticized as shameful and seen as a form of hubris. Evidence suggests, however, that the younger partner in pederastic relationships (i.e., the ''eromenos'') did engage in receptive anal intercourse so long as no one accused him of being 'feminine'.\n\nRoman males on the Warren Cup, British Museum\n\nIn later Roman-era Greek poetry, anal sex became a common literary convention, represented as taking place with \"eligible\" youths: those who had attained the proper age but had not yet become adults. Seducing those not of proper age (for example, non-adolescent children) into the practice was considered very shameful for the adult, and having such relations with a male who was no longer adolescent was considered more shameful for the young male than for the one mounting him; Greek courtesans, or hetaerae, are said to have frequently practiced male-female anal intercourse as a means of preventing pregnancy.\n\nA male citizen taking the passive (or receptive) role in anal intercourse (''paedicatio'' in Latin) was condemned in Rome as an act of ''impudicitia'' (immodesty or unchastity); free men, however, frequently took the active role with a young male slave, known as a ''catamite'' or ''puer delicatus''. The latter was allowed because anal intercourse was considered equivalent to vaginal intercourse in this way; men were said to \"take it like a woman\" (muliebria pati, \"to undergo womanly things\") when they were anally penetrated, but when a man performed anal sex on a woman, she was thought of as playing the boy's role. Likewise, women were believed to only be capable of anal sex or other sex acts with women if they possessed an exceptionally large clitoris or a dildo. The passive partner in any of these cases was always considered a woman or a boy because being the one who penetrates was characterized as the only appropriate way for an adult male citizen to engage in sexual activity, and he was therefore considered unmanly if he was the one who was penetrated; slaves could be considered \"non-citizen\". Although Roman men often availed themselves of their own slaves or others for anal intercourse, Roman comedies and plays presented Greek settings and characters for explicit acts of anal intercourse, and this may be indicative that the Romans thought of anal sex as something specifically \"Greek\".\n\nMoche Culture. 300 C.E. Larco Museum Collection\n\nIn Japan, records (including detailed shunga) show that some males engaged in penetrative anal intercourse with males, and evidence suggestive of widespread male-female anal intercourse in a pre-modern culture can be found in the erotic vases, or stirrup-spout pots, made by the Moche people of Peru; in a survey, of a collection of these pots, it was found that 31 percent of them depicted male-female anal intercourse significantly more than any other sex act. Moche pottery of this type belonged to the world of the dead, which was believed to be a reversal of life. Therefore, the reverse of common practices was often portrayed. The Larco Museum houses an erotic gallery in which this pottery is showcased.\n\n19th century anthropologist Richard Francis Burton theorized that there is a geographical Sotadic zone wherein penetrative intercourse between males is particularly prevalent and accepted; moreover he was one of the first writers to advance the premise that such an orientation is biologically determined.\n\n===Western cultures===\nIn many western countries, anal sex has generally been taboo since the Middle Ages, when heretical movements were sometimes attacked by accusations that their members practiced anal sex among themselves. At that time, celibate members of the Christian clergy were accused of engaging in \"sins against nature\", including anal sex.\n\nThe term ''buggery'' originated in medieval Europe as an insult used to describe the rumored same-sex sexual practices of the heretics from a sect originating in Bulgaria, where its followers were called ''bogomils''; when they spread out of the country, they were called ''buggres'' (from the ethnonym ''Bulgars''). Another term for the practice, more archaic, is ''pedicate'' from the Latin ''pedicare'', with the same meaning.\n\nThe Renaissance poet Pietro Aretino advocated anal sex in his ''Sonetti Lussuriosi'' (Lust Sonnets). While men who engaged in homosexual relationships were generally suspected of engaging in anal sex, many such individuals did not. Among these, in recent times, have been André Gide, who found it repulsive; and Noël Coward, who had a horror of disease, and asserted when young that \"I'd never do anything – well the disgusting thing they do – because I know I could get something wrong with me\".\n\n===Religion===\nFrançois-Rolland Elluin, ''Sodomites provoking divine wrath'', from ''Le pot-pourri'' (1781)\n\nOttoman illustration depicting two young men having sex (from ''Sawaqub al-Manaquib'')\n\n====Judaism====\nThe Mishneh Torah, a text considered authoritative by Orthodox Jewish sects, states \"since a man’s wife is permitted to him, he may act with her in any manner whatsoever. He may have intercourse with her whenever he so desires and kiss any organ of her body he wishes, and he may have intercourse with her naturally or unnaturally traditionally, ''unnaturally'' refers to anal and oral sex, provided that he does not expend semen to no purpose. Nevertheless, it is an attribute of piety that a man should not act in this matter with levity and that he should sanctify himself at the time of intercourse.\"\n\n====Christianity====\n\nChristian texts may sometimes euphemistically refer to anal sex as the ''peccatum contra naturam'' (the sin against nature, after Thomas Aquinas) or ''Sodomitica luxuria'' (sodomitical lusts, in one of Charlemagne's ordinances), or ''peccatum illud horribile, inter christianos non nominandum'' (that horrible sin that among Christians is not to be named).\n\n====Islam====\n\n\n''Liwat'', or the sin of Lot's people, which has come to be interpreted as referring generally to same-sex sexual activity, is commonly officially prohibited by Islamic sects; there are parts of the Quran which talk about smiting on Sodom and Gomorrah, and this is thought to be a reference to unnatural sex, and so there are hadith and Islamic laws which prohibit it. While, concerning Islamic belief, it is objectionable to use the words ''al-Liwat'' and ''luti'' to refer to homosexuality because it is blasphemy toward the prophet of Allah, and therefore the terms ''sodomy'' and ''homosexuality'' are preferred, same-sex male practitioners of anal sex are called ''luti'' or ''lutiyin'' in plural and are seen as criminals in the same way that a thief is a criminal, meaning that they are giving in to a universal temptation.\n\n====Buddhism====\n\n\nThe most common formulation of Buddhist ethics is the Five Precepts. These precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings, not divine mandate or instruction. The third of the Precepts is \"To refrain from committing sexual misconduct\". However, \"sexual misconduct\" (Sanskrit: ''Kāmesu micchācāra'', literally \"sense gratifications arising from the 5 senses\") is subject to interpretation relative to the social norms of the followers. Buddhism, in its fundamental form, does not define what is right and what is wrong in absolute terms for lay followers. Therefore, the interpretation of what kinds of sexual activity are acceptable for a layman is not a religious matter as far as Buddhism is concerned.\n\n====Hinduism====\n\n\nAlthough Hindu society does not formally acknowledge sexuality between men, it formally acknowledges and gives space to sexuality between men and third genders as a variation of male-female sex (meaning a part of heterosexuality, rather than homosexuality, if analyzed in western terms). Hijras, Alis, Kotis, etc. (the various forms of third gender that exist in India today) are all characterized by the gender role of having receptive anal and oral sex with men. However, sexuality between males (as distinct from third genders) has thrived, mostly unspoken and informally, without being seen as different in the way it is seen in the west; young men involved in \"such relationships do not consider themselves to be 'homosexual' but conceive their behavior in terms of sexual desire, opportunity and pleasure\".\n", "\n\n* Ass to mouth\n* Coprophilia\n* Creampie (sexual act)\n* Felching\n* Klismaphilia\n* Sodomy law\n\n\n", "'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Further reading'''\n* Bentley, Toni ''The Surrender: An Erotic Memoir'', Regan Books, 2004.\n* Brent, Bill ''Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Men'', Cleis Press, 2002.\nDeCitore, David ''Arouse Her Anal Ecstasy'' (2008) \n Hite, Shere ''The Hite Report on Male Sexuality''\n* Houser, Ward ''Anal Sex'', Encyclopedia of Homosexuality Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. pp. 48–50.\n* Manning, Lee ''The Illustrated Book Of Anal Sex'', Erotic Print Society, 2003. \n* Morin, Jack ''Anal Pleasure & Health: A Guide for Men and Women'', Down There Press, 1998. \n* Sanderson, Terry ''The Gay Man's Kama Sutra'', Thomas Dunne Books, 2004.\n* Strong, Bill with Lori E. Gammon ''Anal Sex for Couples: A Guaranteed Guide for Painless Pleasure'' Triad Press, Inc.; First edition, 2006. \n* Tristan Taormino ''The Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Women'', Cleis Press, 1997, 2006. \n* Underwood, Steven G. ''Gay Men and Anal Eroticism: Tops, Bottoms, and Versatiles'', Harrington Park Press, 2003\n* Webb, Charlotte ''Masterclass: Anal Sex'', Erotic Print Society, 2007.\n", "\n* Anal Intercourse and Analingus – from alt.sex FAQ\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Anatomy and stimulation", "Male to female", "Male to male", " Female to male ", "Female to female", "Health risks", "Other cultural views", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Anal sex
[ "\n\n\nThe '''canton of Aargau''' (German ''Kanton'' ; sometimes anglicized '''Argovia'''; see also other names) is one of the more northerly cantons of Switzerland. It is situated by the lower course of the Aare, which is why the canton is called Aar-gau (meaning ''Aare province''). It is one of the most densely populated regions of Switzerland.\n", "===Early history===\nThe area of Aargau and the surrounding areas were controlled by the Helvetians, a member of the Celts, as far back as 200 BC, eventually being occupied by the Romans and then by the 6th century, the Franks. The Romans built a major settlement called Vindonissa, near the present location of Brugg.\n\n===Medieval Aargau===\n\nAarau\nIn early medieval times, the Aargau was a disputed border region between the duchies of Alamannia and Burgundy. A line of the von Wetterau (Conradines) intermittently held the countship of Aargau from 750 until about 1030, when they lost it (having in the meantime taken the name von Tegerfelden). From the extinction in 1254 of the Hohenstaufen dynasty until 1415, the area was ruled by the Habsburgs, and many castles from that time still stand (examples include Habsburg, Lenzburg, Tegerfelden, Bobikon, Stin and Wildegg). The Habsburgs founded a number of monasteries (with some structures enduring, e.g., in Wettingen and Muri), the closing of which by the government in 1841 was a contributing factor to the outbreak of the Swiss civil war – the \"Sonderbund War\" – in 1847.\n\n===Under the Swiss Confederation===\nSwitzerland in 1416, showing the part of the Aargau under Bernese control, the county of Baden and the Freie Ämter.\nWhen Frederick IV of Habsburg sided with Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, Emperor Sigismund placed him under the Imperial ban. In July 1414, the Pope visited Bern and received assurances from them, that they would move against the Habsburgs. A few months later the Swiss Confederation denounced the Treaty of 1412. Shortly thereafter in 1415, Bern and the rest of the Swiss Confederation used the ban as a pretext to invade the Aargau. The Confederation was able to quickly conquer the towns of Aarau, Lenzburg, Brugg and Zofingen along with most of the Habsburg castles. Bern kept the southwest portion (Zofingen, Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), northward to the confluence of the Aare and Reuss. The important city of Baden was taken by a united Swiss army and governed by all 8 members of the Confederation. Some districts, named the ''Freie Ämter'' (''free bailiwicks'') – Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten, with the countship of Baden – were governed as \"subject lands\" by all or some of the Confederates. Shortly after the conquest of the Aargau by the Swiss, Frederick humbled himself to the Pope. The Pope reconciled with him and ordered all of the taken lands to be returned. The Swiss refused and years later after no serious attempts at re-acquisition, the Duke officially relinquished rights to the Swiss.\n\n===Unteraargau or Berner Aargau===\nDistricts in Bernese controlled Unteraargau\nBern's portion of the Aargau came to be known as the Unteraargau, though can also be called the Berner or Bernese Aargau. In 1514 Bern expanded north into the Jura and so came into possession of several strategically important mountain passes into the Austrian Fricktal. This land was added to the Unteraargau and was directly ruled from Bern. It was divided into seven rural bailiwicks and four administrative cities, Aarau, Zofingen, Lenzburg and Brugg. While the Habsburgs were driven out, many of their minor nobles were allowed to keep their lands and offices, though over time they lost power to the Bernese government. The bailiwick administration was based on a very small staff of officials, mostly made up of Bernese citizens, but with a few locals.\n\nWhen Bern converted during the Protestant Reformation in 1528, the Unteraargau also converted. At the beginning of the 16th century a number of anabaptists migrated into the upper Wynen and Rueder valleys from Zürich. Despite pressure from the Bernese authorities in the 16th and 17th centuries anabaptism never entirely disappeared from the Unteraargau.\n\nBern used the Aargau bailiwicks mostly as a source of grain for the rest of the city-state. The administrative cities remained economically only of regional importance. However, in the 17th and 18th centuries Bern encouraged industrial development in Unteraargau and by the late 18th century it was the most industrialized region in the city-state. The high industrialization led to high population growth in the 18th century, for example between 1764 and 1798, the population grew by 35%, far more than in other parts of the canton. In 1870 the proportion of farmers in Aarau, Lenzburg, Kulm, and Zofingen districts was 34–40%, while in the other districts it was 46–57%.\n\n===Freie Ämter===\nMap of the Freie Ämter, including the 1712 line dividing the Upper and Lower Freie Ämter\nThe rest of the Freie Ämter were collectively administered as subject territories by the rest of the Confederation. Muri ''Amt'' was assigned to Zürich, Lucerne, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug and Glarus, while the ''Ämter'' of Meienberg, Richensee and Villmergen were first given to Lucerne alone. The final boundary was set in 1425 by an arbitration tribunal and Lucerne had to give the three ''Ämter'' to be collectively ruled. The four ''Ämter'' were then consolidated under a single Confederation bailiff into what was known in the 15th century as the ''Waggental'' Bailiwick (). In the 16th century, it came to be known as the ''Vogtei der Freien Ämter''. While the ''Freien Ämter'' often had independent lower courts, they were forced to accept the Confederation's sovereignty. Finally, in 1532, the canton of Uri became part of the collective administration of the Freien Ämter.\n\nAt the time of Reformation, the majority of the Ämter converted to the new faith. In 1529, a wave of iconoclasm swept through the area and wiped away much of the old religion. After the defeat of Zürich in the second Battle of Kappel in 1531, the victorious five Catholic cantons marched their troops into the Freie Ämter and reconverted them to Catholicism.\n\nIn the First War of Villmergen, in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712, the Freie Ämter became the staging ground for the warring Reformed and Catholic armies. While the peace after the 1656 war did not change the status quo, the fourth Peace of Aarau in 1712 brought about a reorganization of power relations. The victory gave Zürich the opportunity to force the Catholic cantons out of the government in the county of Baden and the adjacent area of the Freie Ämter. The Freie Ämter were then divided in two by a line drawn from the gallows in Fahrwangen to the Oberlunkhofen church steeple. The northern part, the so-called Unteren Freie Ämter (lower Freie Ämter), which included the districts of Boswil (in part) and Hermetschwil and the Niederamt, were ruled by Zürich, Bern and Glarus. The southern part, the Oberen Freie Ämter (upper Freie Ämter), were ruled by the previous seven cantons but Bern was added to make an eighth.\n\nDuring the Helvetic Republic (1798–1803), the county of Baden, the Freie Ämter and the area known as the Kelleramt were combined into the canton of Baden.\n\n===County of Baden===\nCounty of Baden\nThe County of Baden was a shared condominium of the entire Old Swiss Confederacy. After the Confederacy conquest in 1415, they retained much of the Habsburg legal structure, which caused a number of problems. The local nobility had the right to hold the low court in only about one fifth of the territory. There were over 30 different nobles who had the right to hold courts scattered around the surrounding lands. All these overlapping jurisdictions caused numerous conflicts, but gradually the Confederation was able to acquire these rights in the County. The cities of Baden, Bremgarten and Mellingen became the administrative centers and held the high courts. Together with the courts, the three administrative centers had considerable local autonomy, but were ruled by a governor who was appointed by the ''Acht Orte'' every two years. After the Protestant victory at the Second Battle of Villmergen, the administration of the County changed slightly. Instead of the ''Acht Orte'' appointing a bailiff together, Zürich and Bern each appointed the governor for 7 out of 16 years while Glarus appointed him for the remaining 2 years.\n\nThe chaotic legal structure and fragmented land ownership combined with a tradition of dividing the land among all the heirs in an inheritance prevented any large scale reforms. The governor tried in the 18th century to reform and standardize laws and ownership across the County, but with limited success. With an ever-changing administration, the County lacked a coherent long-term economic policy or support for reforms. By the end of the 18th century there were no factories or mills and only a few small cottage industries along the border with Zürich. Road construction first became a priority after 1750, when Zürich and Bern began appointing a governor for seven years.\n\nDuring the Protestant Reformation, some of the municipalities converted to the new faith. However, starting in 1531, some of the old parishes were converted back to the old faith. The governors were appointed from both Catholic and Protestant cantons and since they changed every two years, neither faith gained a majority in the County.\n\nThe County was the only federal condominium in the 17th century where Jews were tolerated. In 1774, they were restricted to just two towns, Endingen and Lengnau. While the rural upper class tried several times to finally expel the Jews, the financial interests of the authorities prevented this. The Jews were directly subordinate to the governor starting in 1696 when they were forced to buy a protecting and shielding letter every 16 years from the governor.\n\nAfter the French invasion, on 19 March 1798, the governments of Zürich and Bern agreed to the creation of the short lived canton of Baden in the Helvetic Republic. With the Act of Mediation in 1803, the canton of Baden was dissolved. Portions of the lands of the former County of Baden now became the District of Baden in the newly created canton of Aargau. After World War II, this formerly agrarian region saw striking growth and became the district with the largest and densest population in the canton (110,000 in 1990, 715 persons per km2).\n\n===Forming the canton of Aargau===\nHelvetic Republic c. 1798/99, with the newly created cantons of Aargau and Baden\nSwiss Confederation following the 1803 Act of Mediation, with the modern canton of Aargau formed\nThe contemporary canton of Aargau was formed in 1803, a canton of the Swiss Confederation as a result of the Act of Mediation. It was a combination of three short-lived cantons of the Helvetic Republic: Aargau (1798–1803), Baden (1798–1803) and Fricktal (1802–1803). Its creation is therefore rooted in the Napoleonic era. In the year 2003, the canton of Aargau celebrated its 200th anniversary.\n\nFrench forces occupied the Aargau from 10 March to 18 April 1798; thereafter the Bernese portion became the canton of Aargau and the remainder formed the canton of Baden. Aborted plans to merge the two halves came in 1801 and 1802, and they were eventually united under the name Aargau, which was then admitted as a full member of the reconstituted Confederation following the Act of Mediation. Some parts of the canton of Baden at this point were transferred to other cantons: the ''Amt'' of Hitzkirch to Lucerne, whilst Hüttikon, Oetwil an der Limmat, Dietikon and Schlieren went to Zürich. In return, Lucerne's ''Amt'' of Merenschwand was transferred to Aargau (district of Muri).\n\nThe Fricktal, ceded in 1802 by Austria via Napoleonic France to the Helvetic Republic, was briefly a separate canton of the Helvetic Republic (the canton of Fricktal) under a ''Statthalter'' ('Lieutenant'), but on 19 March 1803 (following the Act of Mediation) was incorporated into the canton of Aargau.\n\nThe former cantons of Baden and Fricktal can still be identified with the contemporary districts – the canton of Baden is covered by the districts of Zurzach, Baden, Bremgarten, and Muri (albeit with the gains and losses of 1803 detailed above); the canton of Fricktal by the districts of Rheinfelden and Laufenburg (except for Hottwil which was transferred to that district in 2010).\n\n===Chief magistracy===\nThe chief magistracy of Aargau changed its style repeatedly:\n* first two consecutive ''Regierungsstatthalter'' :\n April 1798 – November 1801 Jakob Emmanuel Feer (1754–1833)\n 1802–1803 Johann Heinrich Rothpletz (1766–1833)\n* Presidents of the Government Commission\n 10 March 1803 – 26 April 1803 Johann Rudolf Dolder (1753–1807)\n 26 April 1803 – 1815 a 'Small Council' (president rotating monthly)\n* annual ''Amtsbürgermeister'' 1815–1831\n* annual ''Landammänner'' since 1815\n\n===The Jewish history in Aargau===\nTwo separate doors (one for Jews and one for Christians) on a house in Lengnau\nIn the 17th century, Jews were banished from Switzerland. However, a few families were permitted to live in two villages, Endingen and Lengnau, in Aargau which became the Jewish ghetto in Switzerland. During this period, Jews and Christians were not allowed to live under the same roof, neither were Jews allowed to own land or houses. They were taxed at a much higher rate than others and, in 1712, the Lengnau community was \"pillaged.\" In 1760, they were further restricted regarding marriages and multiplying. This remained the case until the 19th century. In 1799, all special tolls were abolished, and, in 1802, the poll tax was removed. On 5 May 1809, they were declared citizens and given broad rights regarding trade and farming. They were still restricted to Endingen and Lengnau until 7 May 1846, when their right to move and reside freely within the canton of Aargau was granted. On 24 September 1856, the Swiss Federal Council granted them full political rights within Aargau, as well as broad business rights; however the majority Christian population did not abide by these new liberal laws fully. The time of 1860 saw the canton government voting to grant suffrage in all local rights and to give their communities autonomy. Before the law was enacted, it was repealed due to vocal opposition led by the Ultramonte Party. Finally, the federal authorities in July 1863, granted all Jews full rights of citizens. However, they did not receive all of the rights in Endingen and Lengn until a resolution of the Grand Council, on 15 May 1877, granted citizens' rights to the members of the Jewish communities of those places, giving them charters under the names of New Endingen and New Lengnau. The Swiss Jewish Kulturverein was instrumental in this fight from its founding in 1862 until it was dissolved 20 years later. During this period of diminished rights, they were not even allowed to bury their dead in Swiss soil and had to bury their dead on an island called ''Judenäule'' (Jews' Isle) on the Rhine near Waldshut. Beginning in 1603, the deceased Jews of the Surbtal communities were buried on the river island which was leased by the Jewish community. As the island was repeatedly flooded and devastated, in 1750 the Surbtal Jews asked the ''Tagsatzung'' to establish the Endingen cemetery in the vicinity of their communities.\n", "View of the Lägern from Bözberg\nThe capital of the canton is Aarau, which is located on its western border, on the Aare. The canton borders Germany (Baden-Württemberg) to the north, the Rhine forming the border. To the west lie the Swiss cantons of Basel-Landschaft, Solothurn and Bern; the canton of Lucerne lies south, and Zürich and Zug to the east. Its total area is . It contains both large rivers, the Aare and the Reuss.\n\nThe canton of Aargau is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aare and its tributaries. The valleys alternate with pleasant hills, most of which are full of woods. Slightly over one-third of the canton is wooded (), while nearly half is used from farming (). or about 2.4% of the canton is considered unproductive, mostly lakes (notably Lake Hallwil) and streams. With a population density of 450/km2 (1,200/sq mi), the canton has a relatively high amount of land used for human development, with or about 15% of the canton developed for housing or transportation.\n\nIt contains the famous hot sulphur springs of Baden and Schinznach-Bad, while at Rheinfelden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Königsfelden (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman settlement of ''Vindonissa'' (Windisch).\n\nFahr Monastery forms a small exclave of the canton, otherwise surrounded by the canton of Zürich, and since 2008 is part of the Aargau municipality of Würenlos.\n", "===Districts===\n\nDistricts in Aargau\nAargau is divided into 11 districts:\nAarau with capital Aarau\nBaden with capital Baden\nBremgarten with capital Bremgarten\nBrugg with capital Brugg\nKulm with capital Unterkulm\nLaufenburg with capital Laufenburg\nLenzburg with capital Lenzburg\nMuri with capital Muri\nRheinfelden with capital Rheinfelden\nZofingen with capital Zofingen\nZurzach with capital Zurzach\n\nThe most recent change in district boundaries occurred in 2010 when Hottwil transferred from Brugg to Laufenburg, following its merger with other municipalities, all of which were in Laufenburg.\n\n===Municipalities===\n\nThere are (as of 2014) 213 municipalities in the canton of Aargau. As with most Swiss cantons there has been a trend since the early 2000s for municipalities to merge, though mergers in Aargau have so far been less radical than in other cantons.\n", "The blazon of the coat of arms is ''Per pale, dexter: sable, a fess wavy argent, charged with two cotises wavy azure; sinister: sky blue, three mullets of five argent.''\n\nThe flag and arms of Aargau date to 1803 and are an original design by Samuel Ringier-Seelmatter; the current official design, specifying the stars as five-pointed, dates to 1930.\n", "Aargau has a population () of . , 21.5% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 11%. Migration accounted for 8.7%, while births and deaths accounted for 2.8%. Most of the population () speaks German (477,093 or 87.1%) as their first language, Italian is the second most common (17,847 or 3.3%) and Serbo-Croatian is the third (10,645 or 1.9%). There are 4,151 people who speak French and 618 people who speak Romansh.\n\nOf the population in the canton, 146,421 or about 26.7% were born in Aargau and lived there in 2000. There were 140,768 or 25.7% who were born in the same canton, while 136,865 or 25.0% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 107,396 or 19.6% were born outside of Switzerland.\n\n, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 24.3% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 62.3% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 13.4%.\n\n, there were 227,656 people who were single and never married in the canton. There were 264,939 married individuals, 27,603 widows or widowers and 27,295 individuals who are divorced.\n\n, there were 224,128 private households in the canton, and an average of 2.4 persons per household. There were 69,062 households that consist of only one person and 16,254 households with five or more people. , the construction rate of new housing units was 6.5 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the canton, , was 1.54%.\n\nThe majority of the population is centered on one of three areas: the Aare Valley, the side branches of the Aare Valley, or along the Rhine.\n", "The historical population is given in the following chart:\n\nColors=\n id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9)\n id:darkgrey value:gray(0.8)\nImageSize = width:800 height:500\nPlotArea = top:10 left: 100 bottom:90 right:100\nLegend = columns:3 left:220 top:70 columnwidth:160\nAlignBars = justify\nDateFormat = x.y\nPeriod = from:0 till:550000\nTimeAxis = orientation:vertical\nAlignBars = justify\nScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:110000 start:0\nScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:22000 start:0\nColors=\n id:TO value:yellowgreen legend:Total\n id:GE value:teal legend:German_Speaking\n id:IT value:green legend:Italian_Speaking\n id:PR value:lightpurple legend:Protestant\n id:CA value:oceanblue legend:Catholic\n id:SW value:red legend:Swiss\nPlotData=\n color:yellowgreen width:60 mark:(line,white) align:center\n bar:1850 from:start till:199852 text:\"199,852\" color:TO\n bar:1900 from:start till:206498 text:\"206,498\" color:TO\n bar:1950 from:start till:300782 text:\"300,782\" color:TO\n bar:1990 from:start till:507508 text:\"507,508\" color:TO\n bar:2000 from:start till:547493 text:\"547,493\" color:TO\nLineData =\n points:(260,238)(400,302) color:GE\n points:(400,302)(540,406) color:GE\n points:(540,406)(680,437) color:GE\n points:(260,92)(400,94) color:IT\n points:(400,94)(540,108) color:IT\n points:(540,108)(680,103) color:IT\n points:(120,168)(260,173) color:PR\n points:(260,173)(400,215) color:PR\n points:(400,215)(540,249) color:PR\n points:(540,249)(680,238) color:PR\n points:(120,156)(260,156) color:CA\n points:(260,156)(400,179) color:CA\n points:(400,179)(540,254) color:CA\n points:(540,254)(680,250) color:CA\n points:(120,233)(260,233) color:SW\n points:(260,233)(400,301) color:SW\n points:(400,301)(540,396) color:SW\n\n\n Historic Population Data\n\n Year\n Total Population\n German Speaking\n Italian Speaking\n Protestant\n Catholic\n Christian Catholic\n Jewish\n Other\n No religion given\n Swiss\n Non-Swiss\n\n 1850\n 199,852 \n \n \n107,194 \n91,096 \n \n1,562 \n79 \n \n196,890 \n2,962\n\n 1900\n 206,498 \n203,071 \n2,415 \n114,176 \n91,039 \n \n990 \n293 \n \n196,455 \n10,043\n\n 1950\n 300,782 \n291,101 \n5,335 \n171,296 \n122,172 \n5,096 \n496 \n1,722 \n \n290,049 \n10,733\n\n 1990\n 507,508 \n435,103 \n24,758 \n218,379 \n224,836 \n3,676 \n405 \n29,736 \n30,476 \n420,616 \n86,892\n\n 1993\n 512,000\n\n 2000\n 547,493 \n477,093 \n17,847 \n203,949 \n219,800 \n3,418 \n342 \n20,816 \n57,573 \n \n\n\n\n", "In the 2011 federal election, the most popular party was the SVP which received 34.7% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP/PS (18.0%), the FDP (11.5%) and the CVP (10.6%).\n\nThe SVP received about the same percentage of the vote as they did in the 2007 Federal election (36.2% in 2007 vs 34.7% in 2011). The SPS retained about the same popularity (17.9% in 2007), the FDP retained about the same popularity (13.6% in 2007) and the CVP retained about the same popularity (13.5% in 2007).\n", "===Federal election results===\n\n\n Percentage of the total vote per party in the canton in the National Council Elections 1971-2015\n\n Ideology !! 1971 !! 1975 !! 1979 !! 1983 !! 1987 !! 1991 !! 1995 !! 1999 !! 2003 !! 2007 !! 2011 !! 2015\n\n FDP.The Liberals\n \n Classical liberalism \n 15.9 \n 17.7 \n 20.5 \n 20.2 \n 20.3 \n 16.4 \n 15.8 \n 17.2 \n 15.3 \n 13.6 \n 11.5 \n 15.1\n\n CVP/PDC/PPD/PCD\n \n Christian democracy \n 20.0 \n 20.6 \n 22.5 \n 21.5 \n 18.9 \n 14.5 \n 14.2 \n 16.3 \n 15.6 \n 13.5 \n 10.6 \n 8.6\n\n SP/PS\n \n Social democracy \n 23.9 \n 24.2 \n 27.6 \n 27.5 \n 18.5 \n 17.4 \n 19.4 \n 18.7 \n 21.2 \n 17.9 \n 18.0 \n 16.1\n\n SVP/UDC\n \n Swiss nationalism \n 12.5 \n 12.8 \n 13.9 \n 14.1 \n 15.7 \n 17.9 \n 19.8 \n 31.8 \n 34.6 \n 36.2 \n 34.7 \n 38.0\n\n Ring of Independents\n \n Social liberalism \n 9.4 \n 6.6 \n 5.5 \n 5.9 \n 4.7 \n 4.3 \n 3.3 \n 2.0 \n \n * \n * \n \n\n EVP/PEV\n \n Christian democracy \n 3.8 \n 4.6 \n 5.0 \n 5.0 \n 3.4 \n 3.3 \n 3.0 \n 3.8 \n 5.2 \n 4.2 \n 3.2 \n 3.3\n\n GLP/PVL\n \n Green liberalism \n \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n 5.7 \n 5.2\n\n BDP/PBD\n \n Conservatism \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n 6.1 \n 5.1\n\n POCH\n \n Progressivism \n * \n 0.6 \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n \n\n GPS/PES\n \n Green politics \n \n * \n * \n * \n * \n 6.8 \n 5.3 \n 4.4 \n 5.1 \n 8.1 \n 7.3 \n 5.5\n\n FGA\n \n Feminist \n * \n * \n * \n * \n 6.9 \n \n 1.0 \n * \n 0.8 \n * \n * \n \n\n SD/DS\n \n National conservatism \n 3.4 \n 3.5 \n 1.6 \n 4.0 \n 4.5 \n 4.5 \n 4.5 \n 2.7 \n 1.4 \n 0.7 \n 0.4 \n \n\n Rep.\n \n Right-wing populism \n 5.8 \n 6.5 \n 2.1 \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n * \n \n\n EDU/UDF\n \n Christian right \n \n * \n * \n * \n 1.0 \n 1.4 \n 1.3 \n 1.4 \n * \n 1.2 \n 1.2 \n 1.1\n\n FPS/PSL\n \n Right-wing populism \n * \n * \n * \n * \n 5.3 \n 13.2 \n 11.3 \n 1.4 \n 0.2 \n * \n * \n \n\n Other\n \n \n 5.2 \n 2.9 \n 1.1 \n 1.8 \n 0.9 \n 0.4 \n 1.1 \n 0.1 \n 0.4 \n 4.7 \n 1.3 \n 2.0\n\n Voter participation % \n \n \n 62.5 \n 50.7 \n 45.6 \n 44.9 \n 43.1 \n 42.3 \n 42.1 \n 42.0 \n 42.3 \n 47.9 \n 48.5 \n 48.3\n\n\n: FDP before 2009, FDP.The Liberals after 2009\n: \"\" indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.\n: Part of the GPS\n", "Catholic City Church in Baden, Aargau\nFrom the , 219,800 or 40.1% were Roman Catholic, while 189,606 or 34.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 11,523 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.10% of the population), there were 3,418 individuals (or about 0.62% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 29,580 individuals (or about 5.40% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 342 individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who were Jewish, and 30,072 (or about 5.49% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 1,463 individuals who were Buddhist, 2,089 individuals who were Hindu and 495 individuals who belonged to another church. 57,573 (or about 10.52% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 15,875 individuals (or about 2.90% of the population) did not answer the question.\n", "In Aargau about 212,069 or (38.7%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 70,896 or (12.9%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a ''Fachhochschule''). Of the 70,896 who completed tertiary schooling, 63.6% were Swiss men, 20.9% were Swiss women, 10.4% were non-Swiss men and 5.2% were non-Swiss women.\n", "Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant\n\n, Aargau had an unemployment rate of 3.6%. , there were 11,436 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 3,927 businesses involved in this sector. 95,844 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 6,055 businesses in this sector. 177,782 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 21,530 businesses in this sector.\n\n the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 238,225. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 7,167, of which 6,731 were in agriculture, 418 were in forestry or lumber production and 18 were in fishing or fisheries. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 90,274 of which 64,089 or (71.0%) were in manufacturing, 366 or (0.4%) were in mining and 21,705 (24.0%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 140,784. In the tertiary sector; 38,793 or 27.6% were in the sale or repair of motor vehicles, 13,624 or 9.7% were in the movement and storage of goods, 8,150 or 5.8% were in a hotel or restaurant, 5,164 or 3.7% were in the information industry, 5,946 or 4.2% were the insurance or financial industry, 14,831 or 10.5% were technical professionals or scientists, 10,951 or 7.8% were in education and 21,952 or 15.6% were in health care.\n\nOf the working population, 19.5% used public transportation to get to work, and 55.3% used a private car. Public transportation – bus and train – is provided by Busbetrieb Aarau AG.\n\nThe farmland of the canton of Aargau is some of the most fertile in Switzerland. Dairy farming, cereal and fruit farming are among the canton's main economic activities. The canton is also industrially developed, particularly in the fields of electrical engineering, precision instruments, iron, steel, cement and textiles.\n\nThree of Switzerland's five nuclear power plants are in the canton of Aargau (Beznau I + II and Leibstadt). Additionally, the many rivers supply enough water for numerous hydroelectric power plants throughout the canton. The canton of Aargau is often called \"the energy canton\".\n\nA significant number of people commute into the financial center of the city of Zürich, which is just across the cantonal border. As such the per capita cantonal income (in 2005) is 49,209 CHF.\n\nTourism is significant, particularly for the hot springs at Baden and Schinznach-Bad, the ancient castles, the landscape, and the many old museums in the canton. Hillwalking is another tourist attraction but is of only limited significance.\n", "* Aargauer Zeitung\n* FC Aarau\n* Grand Prix of Aargau Canton, bicycle race\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* Official website \n* \n* Official statistics\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Political subdivisions", "Coat of arms", "Demographics", "Historic population", "Politics", "Politics", "Religion", "Education", "Economy", "See also", "Notes", "Footnotes", "References", "External links" ]	Aargau
[ "\n\n'''Aba''' may refer to:\n\n\n", "* Aba, Abia, a city in Nigeria and former second capital of Biafra\n* Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, prefecture in Sichuan, China\n Aba County, county in Aba Prefecture, Sichuan, China\n Aba, Sichuan, main town in Aba County\n* Aba, Democratic Republic of the Congo, a city in the Democratic Republic of the Congo\n* Aba, Hungary, a town in Fejér County, Hungary\n* Abeh-ye Now, a village in Semnan Province, Iran\n* Aba, Okayama, a village in Japan\n* Aba Island, in the White Nile River, Sudan\n* Aba River (Nigeria), a river in Nigeria\n* Aba River (Russia), a river in Russia\n* Itu Aba Island, in the South China Sea\n", "* Aba (family), a clan in Hungary\n* Aba (people), a clan of the Shor in Russia\n* Aba Andam, Ghanaian physicist\n* Aba Bayefsky, Canadian artist and teacher\n* Aba Cercato, Italian television presenter\n* Mar Abba I (or Aba), metropolitan bishop and saint of the Assyrian Church of the East\n* Samuel Aba of Hungary, 11th-century leader\n* Vilmos Aba Novák, a Hungarian painter\n* Saint Aba of Kaskhar, a 4th-century martyr\n* Johnny Aba (born 1956), a Papua New Guinean boxer of the 1970s and '80s\n", "* The aba, ''Gymnarchus niloticus'', a species of fish native to Africa\n* Aba Roundleaf Bat, a west Africa bat\n", "* ''Aba'' (film), Sri Lanka 2008 film\n* \"Aba Daba Honeymoon\", 1914 song\n", "* Aba short form of Abaya, a middle eastern robe\n* Aba (Dune), a type of robe in the fictional ''Dune'' universe created by Frank Herbert\n* Aba (mythology), Thracian naiad, mother of Ergiscus (after whom Çatalca or Ergisce, took its name) by Poseidon\n* Aba Nigeria Temple, of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Aba, Abia, Nigeria\n* Abscisic acid, a plant hormone\n* Applied behavior analysis\n", "* Abas (disambiguation)\n* Abba (disambiguation)\n* Abaya, a long overgarment essentially worn by some women in parts of the Islamic world\n* \n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Geographic toponyms ", " People ", " Animals ", " Media ", " Other uses ", " See also " ]	Aba
[ "\n\nThe '''Ababda''' or '''Ababde''' – the '''Gebadei''' of Pliny, and possibly the '''Troglodytes''' of other classical writers – are nomads living in the area between the Nile and the Red Sea, in the vicinity of Aswan in Egypt and north Sudan. They are a subgroup of the Beja people who are bilingual in Beja and Arabic.\n", "Geographical distribution.\nThe Ababda extend from the Nile at Aswan to the Red Sea, and reach northward to the Qena-Quseir road, thus occupying the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile. They call themselves \"sons of the Jinns.\" With some of the clans of the Bisharin and possibly the Hadendoa, they represent the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location today is almost identical with that assigned them in Roman times.\n\nThey were constantly at war with the Romans, who eventually conquered them. In the Middle Ages, they were known as Beja, and convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to Aidhab, the port of embarkation for Jeddah. From time immemorial, they have acted as guides to caravans through the Nubian desert and up the Nile valley as far as Sennar. They intermarried with the Nubians, and settled in small colonies at Shendi and elsewhere up to Muhammad Ali's conquest of the region in the early 19th century. They are still great trade carriers, and visit very distant districts.\n\n\n", "Beja people\nHala'ib_Triangle#History\n", "\n", "* Zbigniew Kosc: Ababda Bedouins of the Eastern Desert\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Overview", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Ababda people
[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''American Quarter Horse''', or '''Quarter Horse''', is an American breed of horse that excels at sprinting short distances. Its name came from its ability to outdistance other horse breeds in races of a quarter mile or less; some have been clocked at speeds up to 55 mph (88.5 km/h). The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States today, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with almost 3 million living American Quarter Horses registered in 2014.\n\nThe American Quarter Horse is well known both as a race horse and for its performance in rodeos, horse shows and as a working ranch horse. The compact body of the American Quarter Horse is well-suited to the intricate and speedy maneuvers required in reining, cutting, working cow horse, barrel racing, calf roping, and other western riding events, especially those involving live cattle. The American Quarter Horse is also shown in English disciplines, driving, and many other equestrian activities.\n", "\n===Colonial era===\n\nIn the 17th century, colonists on the eastern seaboard of what today is the United States began to cross imported English Thoroughbred horses with assorted \"native\" horses such as the Chickasaw horse, which was a breed developed by Native American people from horses descended from Spain, developed from Iberian, Arabian and Barb stock brought to what is now the Southeastern United States by the Conquistadors.\n\nOne of the most famous of these early imports was Janus, a Thoroughbred who was the grandson of the Godolphin Arabian. He was foaled in 1746, and imported to colonial Virginia in 1756. The influence of Thoroughbreds like Janus contributed genes crucial to the development of the colonial \"Quarter Horse\". The breed is sometimes referred to as the \"Famous American Quarter Running Horse\". The resulting horse was small, hardy, and quick, and was used as a work horse during the week and a race horse on the weekends.\n\nAs flat racing became popular with the colonists, the Quarter Horse gained even more popularity as a sprinter over courses that, by necessity, were shorter than the classic racecourses of England, and were often no more than a straight stretch of road or flat piece of open land. When matched against a Thoroughbred, local sprinters often won. As the Thoroughbred breed became established in America, many colonial Quarter Horses were included in the original American stud books, starting a long association between the Thoroughbred breed and what would later become officially known as the \"Quarter Horse\", named after the race distance at which it excelled. with some individuals being clocked at up to 55 mph.\n\n===Westward expansion===\nIn the 19th century, pioneers heading West needed a hardy, willing horse. On the Great Plains, settlers encountered horses that descended from the Spanish stock Hernán Cortés and other Conquistadors had introduced into the viceroyalty of New Spain, which today includes the Southwestern United States and Mexico. These horses of the west included herds of feral animals known as Mustangs, as well as horses domesticated by Native Americans, including the Comanche, Shoshoni and Nez Perce tribes. As the colonial Quarter Horse was crossed with these western horses, the pioneers found that the new crossbred had innate \"cow sense\", a natural instinct for working with cattle, making it popular with cattlemen on ranches.\n\n===Development as a distinct breed===\n\nA photograph of Peter McCue, taken in Oklahoma around 1905.\nEarly foundation sires of Quarter horse type included Steel Dust, foaled 1843; Shiloh (or Old Shiloh), foaled 1844; Old Cold Deck (1862); Lock's Rondo, one of many \"Rondo\" horses, foaled in 1880; Old Billy—again, one of many \"Billy\" horses—foaled circa 1880; Traveler, a stallion of unknown breeding, known to have been in Texas by 1889; and Peter McCue, foaled 1895, registered as a Thoroughbred but of disputed pedigree.\n\nThe main duty of the ranch horse in the American West was working cattle. Even after the invention of the automobile, horses were still irreplaceable for handling livestock on the range. Thus, major Texas cattle ranches, such as the King Ranch, the 6666 (Four Sixes) Ranch, and the Waggoner Ranch played a significant role in the development of the modern Quarter Horse. The skills needed by cowboys and their horses became the foundation of the rodeo, a contest which began with informal competition between cowboys and expanded to become a major competitive event throughout the west. To this day, the Quarter Horse dominates the sport both in speed events and in competition that emphasizes the handling of live cattle.\n\nHowever, sprint races were also popular weekend entertainment and racing became a source of economic gain for breeders as well. As a result, more Thoroughbred blood was added back into the developing American Quarter Horse breed. The American Quarter Horse also benefitted from the addition of Arabian, Morgan and even Standardbred bloodlines.\n\nIn 1940, the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) was formed by a group of horsemen and ranchers from the southwestern United States dedicated to preserving the pedigrees of their ranch horses. The horse honored with the first registration number, P-1, was Wimpy, a descendant of the King Ranch foundation sire Old Sorrel. Other sires alive at the founding of the AQHA were given the earliest registration numbers Joe Reed P-3, Chief P-5, Oklahoma Star P-6, Cowboy P-12, and Waggoner's Rainy Day P-13. The Thoroughbred race horse Three Bars, alive in the early years of the AQHA, is recognized by the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame as one of the significant foundation sires for the Quarter Horse breed. Other significant Thoroughbred sires seen in early AQHA pedigrees include Rocket Bar, Top Deck and Depth Charge.\n", "Since the American Quarter Horse formally established itself as a breed, the AQHA stud book has remained open to additional Thoroughbred blood via a performance standard. An \"Appendix\" American Quarter Horse is a first generation cross between a registered Thoroughbred and an American Quarter Horse or a cross between a \"numbered\" American Quarter Horse and an \"appendix\" American Quarter Horse. The resulting offspring is registered in the \"appendix\" of the American Quarter Horse Association's studbook, hence the nickname. Horses listed in the appendix may be entered in competition, but offspring are not initially eligible for full AQHA registration. If the Appendix horse meets certain conformational criteria and is shown or raced successfully in sanctioned AQHA events, the horse can earn its way from the appendix into the permanent studbook, making its offspring eligible for AQHA registration\n\nSince Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses continue to enter the official registry of the American Quarter Horse breed, this creates a continual gene flow from the Thoroughbred breed into the American Quarter Horse breed, which has altered many of the characteristics that typified the breed in the early years of its formation. Some breeders, who argue that the continued infusion of Thoroughbred bloodlines is beginning to compromise the integrity of the breed standard, favor the earlier style of horse and have created several separate organizations to promote and register \"Foundation\" Quarter Horses.\n", "The Quarter Horse is well-suited for the western disciplines.\nThe American Quarter Horse is best known today as a show horse, race horse, reining and cutting horse, rodeo competitor, ranch horse, and all-around family horse. Quarter Horses compete well in rodeo events such as barrel racing, calf roping and team roping; and gymkhana or O-Mok-See. Other stock horse events such as cutting and reining are open to all breeds but also dominated by American Quarter Horse. Large purses allow top competitors to earnover a million dollars in these events. \n\nThe breed is not only well-suited for western riding and cattle work. Many race tracks offer Quarter Horses a wide assortment of pari-mutuel horse racing with purses in the millions. Quarter Horses have also been trained to compete in dressage and can be good jumpers. They are also used for recreational trail riding and in mounted police units.\n\nThe American Quarter Horse has also been exported worldwide. European nations such as Germany and Italy have imported large numbers of Quarter Horses. Next to the American Quarter Horse Association (which also encompasses Quarter Horses from Canada), the second largest registry of Quarter Horses is in Brazil, followed by Australia. With the internationalization of the discipline of reining and its acceptance as one of the official seven events of the World Equestrian Games, there is a growing international interest in Quarter Horses. Countries like Japan, Switzerland and Israel that did not have traditional stock horse industries have begun to compete with American Quarter Horses in their own nations and internationally. The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States today, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with over 5 million American Quarter Horses registered worldwide.\n", "A halter-type Quarter Horse\nThe modern Quarter Horse has a small, short, refined head with a straight profile, and a strong, well-muscled body, featuring a broad chest and powerful, rounded hindquarters. They usually stand between high, although some Halter-type and English hunter-type horses may grow as tall as .\n\nThere are two main body types: the stock type and the hunter or racing type. The stock horse type is shorter, more compact, stocky and well muscled, yet agile. The racing and hunter type Quarter Horses are somewhat taller and smoother muscled than the stock type, more closely resembling the Thoroughbred.\n\nQuarter Horses come in nearly all colors. The most common color is sorrel, a brownish red, part of the color group called chestnut by most other breed registries. Other recognized colors include bay, black, brown, buckskin, palomino, gray, dun, red dun, grullo (also occasionally referred to as blue dun), red roan, blue roan, bay roan, perlino, cremello, and white. In the past, spotted color patterns were excluded, but now with the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, the registry accepts all colors as long as both parents are registered.\n\n===Stock type===\n\nA stock horse is a horse of a type that is well suited for working with livestock, particularly cattle. Reining and cutting horses are smaller in stature, with quick, agile movements and very powerful hindquarters. Western pleasure show horses are often slightly taller, with slower movements, smoother gaits, and a somewhat more level topline – though still featuring the powerful hindquarters characteristic of the Quarter Horse. \n\n===Halter type===\nHorses shown in-hand in Halter competition are larger yet, with a very heavily muscled appearance, while retaining small heads with wide jowls and refined muzzles. There is controversy amongst owners, breeder and veterinarians regarding the health effects of the extreme muscle mass that is currently fashionable in the specialized halter horse, which typically is and weighs in at over when fitted for halter competition. Not only are there concerns about the weight to frame ratio on the horse's skeletal system, but the massive build is also linked to HYPP. (See ''Genetic diseases'' below))\n\n===Racing and hunter type===\nA Quarter Horse warming up for hunt seat competition.\nQuarter Horse race horses are bred to sprint short distances ranging from 220 to 870 yards. Thus, they have long legs and are leaner than their stock type counterparts, but are still characterized by muscular hindquarters and powerful legs. Quarter horses race primarily against other Quarter horses, and their sprinting ability has earned them the nickname, \"the world's fastest athlete.\" The show hunter type is slimmer, even more closely resembling a Thoroughbred, usually reflecting a higher percentage of appendix breeding. They are shown in hunter/jumper classes at both breed shows and in open USEF-rated horse show competition.\n", "There are several genetic diseases of concern to Quarter Horse breeders:\nHyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), which is caused by an autosomal dominant gene linked to the stallion Impressive. It is characterized by uncontrollable muscle twitching and substantial muscle weakness or paralysis among affected horses. Because it is a dominant gene, only one parent has to have the gene for it to be transmitted to offspring. There is a DNA test for HYPP, which is required by the AQHA. Since 2007, the AQHA bars registration of horses who possess the homozygous form (H/H) of the gene, and though heterozygous (H/N) horses are still eligible for registration, altering that status is currently being discussed. Additionally all Quarter Horses born 2007 or later that are confirmed to be descendants of Impressive must carry a note about the risks of HYPP on their registration papers. Due to HYPP, the halter classes are undergoing significant changes. Halter classes are dominated by the Impressive bloodline. Impressive, a very prolific halter horse, brought to the stock breeds the muscle mass that is popular in halter competition today. This muscle mass is linked to HYPP, and as the condition is reduced within the breed, the style of horse in halter classes is also likely to change. Already there have been rule changes, including the creation of a \"Performance Halter class\" in which a horse must possess a Register of Merit in performance or racing before it can compete.\nMalignant hyperthermia. A causative mutated allele, ryanodine receptor 1 gene (RyR1) at nucleotide C7360G, generating a R2454G amino acid substitution. has been identified in the American Quarter Horse and breeds with Quarter Horse ancestry, inherited as an autosomal dominant It can be caused by overwork, anesthesia, or stress.\nHereditary Equine Regional Dermal Asthenia (HERDA), also known as hyperelastosis cutis (HC). This is caused by an autosomal recessive gene, and thus, unlike HYPP, HERDA can only be transmitted if both parents carry the gene. When a horse has this disease, there is a collagen defect that results in the layers of skin not being held firmly together. Thus, when the horse is ridden under saddle or suffers trauma to the skin, the outer layer often splits or separates from the deeper layer, or it can tear off completely. It rarely heals without disfiguring scars. Sunburn can also be a concern. In dramatic cases, the skin can split along the back and even roll down the sides, with the horse literally being skinned alive. Most horses with HERDA are euthanized for humane reasons between the age of two and four years. The very hotly debated and controversial theory, put forth by researchers at Cornell University and Mississippi State University is that the sire line of the great foundation stallion Poco Bueno is implicated as the origin of the disease. As of May 9, 2007, Researchers working independently at Cornell University and at the University of California, Davis announced that a DNA test for HERDA has been developed. Over 1,500 horses were tested during the development phase of the test, which is now available to the general public through both institutions.\nGlycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) is a genetic disease where the horse is lacking an enzyme necessary for storing glycogen, the horse's heart muscle and skeletal muscles cannot function, leading to rapid death. The disease occurs in foals who are homozygous for the lethal GBED allele, meaning both parents carry one copy of the gene. The stallion King P-234 has been linked to this disease. There is a DNA blood test for this gene.\nEquine polysaccharide storage myopathy, also called EPSM or PSSM, is a metabolic muscular condition in horses that causes tying up, and is also related to a glycogen storage disorder. While also seen in some draft horse breeds, PSSM has been traced to three specific but undisclosed bloodlines in Quarter Horses, with an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern. 48% of Quarter Horses with symptoms of neuromuscular disease have PSSM. To some extent it can be diet controlled with specialized low-starch diets, but genetic testing is advised before breeding, as the condition exists at a subclinical level in approximately 6% of the general Quarter Horse population.\nLethal White Syndrome. Although \"cropout\" Quarter Horses with Paint markings were not allowed to be registered for many years, the gene for such markings is a recessive and continued to periodically appear in Quarter Horse foals. Thus, it is believed that some Quarter Horses may carry the gene for Lethal White Syndrome. There is a DNA test for this condition.\n", "Quarab\nQuarter pony\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \n\n", "\n* American Quarter Horse Association\n* Information about Quarter Horses in Europe\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Breed history", "\"Appendix\" and \"Foundation\" horses", "American Quarter Horses today", "Breed characteristics", "Genetic diseases", "See also", "References", "Sources", "Further reading", "External links" ]	American Quarter Horse
[ "\n\n'''Abacá''' ( ; ), binomial name '''''Musa textilis''''', is a species of banana native to the Philippines, grown as a commercial crop in the Philippines, Ecuador, and Costa Rica. The plant, also known as '''Manila hemp''', has great economic importance, being harvested for its fiber, also called Manila hemp, extracted from the leaf-stems. The plant grows to , and averages about . The fiber was originally used for making twines and ropes; now most is pulped and used in a variety of specialized paper products including tea bags, filter paper and banknotes. It is classified as a hard fiber, along with coir, henequin and sisal.\n", "The abacá plant is stoloniferous, meaning that the plant produces runners or shoots along the ground that then root at each segment. Cutting and transplanting rooted runners is the primary technique for creating new plants, since seed growth is substantially slower. Abacá has a \"false trunk\" or pseudostem about in diameter. The leaf stalks (petioles) are expanded at the base to form sheaths that are tightly wrapped together to form the pseudostem. There are from 12 to 25 leaves, dark green on the top and pale green on the underside, sometimes with large brown patches. They are oblong in shape with a deltoid base. They grow in succession. The petioles grow to at least in length. When the plant is mature, the flower stalk grows up inside the pseudostem. The male flower has 5 petals, each about long. The leaf sheaths contain the valuable fiber. After harvesting, the coarse fibers range in length from long. They are composed primarily of cellulose, lignin, and pectin.\n\nThe fruit, which is inedible and is rarely seen as harvesting occurs before the plant fruits, grows to about in length and in diameter. It has black turbinate seeds that are in diameter.\n", "The abacá plant belongs to the banana family, Musaceae; it resembles the closely related wild seeded bananas, ''Musa acuminata'' and ''Musa balbisiana''. Its scientific name is ''Musa textilis''. Within the genus ''Musa'', it is placed in section ''Callimusa'' (now including the former section ''Australimusa''), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.\n", "Abaca fiber drying in abaca farm, Costa Rica\nBefore synthetic textiles came into use, ''M. textilis'' was a major source of high quality fiber: soft, silky and fine. Ancestors of the modern abaca are thought to have originated from the Eastern Philippines where there are lot of rains (no pronounced dry season), in fact wild type of abaca can still be found in the interior forests of Catanduanes Island which is often not cultivated. Today, Catanduanes has many other modern kinds of abaca which are more competitive. For many years, breeders from various research institutions have made the cultivated varieties of Catanduanes Island even more competitive in local and international markets. This results in the optimum production of the island which had a consistent highest production throughout the archipelago.\n\nEuropeans first came into contact with Abaca fibre when Magellan made land in the Philippines in 1521, as the natives were cultivating it and utilizing it in bulk for textiles already. By 1897, the Philippines were exporting almost 100,000 tons of abacá, and it was one of the three biggest cash crops, along with tobacco and sugar. In fact, from 1850 through the end of the 19th century, sugar or abacá alternated with each other as the biggest export crop of the Philippines. This 19th century trade was predominantly with the United States and the making of ropes was done mainly in New England, although in time the rope-making was moved back to the Philippines. Excluding the Philippines, abacá was first cultivated on a large scale in Sumatra in 1925 under the Dutch, who had observed its cultivation in the Philippines for cordage since the nineteenth century, followed up by plantings in Central America in 1929 sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. It also was transplanted into India and Guam. Commercial planting began in 1930 in British North Borneo; with the commencement of World War II, the supply from the Philippines was eliminated by the Japanese.\n\nIn the early 1900s, a train running from Danao to Argao would transport Philippine abaca from the plantations to Cebu city for export. The train and tracks were destroyed during the Second world war, however the Abaca plantations continue and are now transported to Cebu by road.\n\nAfter the war, the U.S. Department of Agriculture started production in Panama, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala. Today, abacá is produced primarily in the Philippines and Ecuador. The Philippines produces between 85% and 95% of the world's abacá, and the production employs 1.5 million people. Production has declined because of virus diseases.\nMats made from woven Abacá fibers from the Philippines\n", "Due to its strength, it is a sought after product and is the strongest of the natural fibers. It is used by the paper industry for such specialty uses such as tea bags, banknotes and decorative papers. It can be used to make handcrafts such as bags, carpets, clothing and furniture. Abacá rope is very durable, flexible and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in hawsers, ship's lines and fishing nets. A rope can require to break. Abacá fiber was once used primarily for rope, but this application is now of minor significance. Lupis is the finest quality of abacá. Sinamay is woven chiefly from abacá.\n\n===Textiles===\nThe inner fibers are used in the making of hats, including the \"Manila hats,\" hammocks, matting, cordage, ropes, coarse twines, and types of canvas. It is called Manila hemp in the market although it is unlike true hemp, and is also known as Cebu hemp and Davao hemp. Abacá cloth is found in museum collections around the world, like the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and the Textile Museum of Canada.\n\nPhilippine indigenous tribes still weave abaca-based textiles like ''t'nalak'', made by the Tiboli tribe of South Cotabato, and ''dagmay'', made by the Bagobo people. \n", "The plant is normally grown in well-drained loamy soil, using rhizomes planted at the start of the rainy season. In addition, new plants can be started by seeds. Growers harvest abacá fields every three to eight months after an initial growth period of 12–25 months. Harvesting is done by removing the leaf-stems after flowering but before fruit appears. The plant loses productivity between 15 and 40 years. The slopes of volcanoes provide a preferred growing environment. Harvesting generally includes several operations involving the leaf sheaths:\n* tuxying (separation of primary and secondary sheath)\n* stripping (getting the fibers)\n* drying (usually following the tradition of sun-drying).\n\nWhen the processing is complete, the bundles of fiber are pale and lustrous with a length of .\n\nIn Costa Rica, more modern harvest and drying techniques are being developed to accommodate the very high yields obtained there.\n\nAccording to the Philippine Fiber Industry Development Authority, the Philippines provided 87.4% of the world's abaca in 2014, earning the Philippines US$111.33 million. The demand is still greater than the supply. The remainder came from Ecuador (12.5%) and Costa Rica (0.1%). The Bicol region in the Philippines produced 27,885 metric tons of abaca in 2014, the largest of any Philippine region. The Philippine Rural Development Program (PRDP) and the Department of Agriculture reported that in 2009-2013, Bicol Region had 39% share of Philippine abaca producution while overwhelming 92% comes from Catanduanes Island. Eastern Visayas, the second largest producer had 24% and the Davao Region, the third largest producer had 11% of the total production. Around 42 percent of the total abaca fiber shipments from the Philippines went to the United Kingdom in 2014, making it the top importer. Germany imported 37.1 percent abaca pulp from the Philippines, importing around 7,755 metric tons (MT). Sales of abaca cordage surged 20 percent in 2014 to a total of 5,093 MT from 4,240 MT, with the United States holding around 68 percent of the market.\n\n===Pathogens===\nAbacá is vulnerable to a number of pathogens, notably abaca bunchy top virus and abaca bract mosaic virus.\n", "Piña\nBatik\nFiber crop\nInternational Year of Natural Fibres\nNatural fiber\nManila hemp\nManila folder\n", "\n", "\n", " \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n\nThe World Book encyclopedia set, 1988.\nSee International Year of Natural Fibres 2009\nChristenhusz, M.J.M. (2009). Typification of ornamental plants: ''Musa textilis'' (Musaceae). ''Phytotaxa'' 2: 53-54.\n Abáca or Manila hemp - Historical notes\n* Plants USDA\n* abacá A comprehensive pamphlet about Philippine abacá presented 1915 Panama Pacific International Exposition held in San Francisco. Online publication uploaded in Filipiniana.net\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Description", "Systematics", "History", "Uses", "Cultivation", "See also", "Notes", "Footnotes", "References", "External links" ]	Abacá
[ "\n\n\n\n\nApollyon (top) battling Christian in John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress''.\|240px\|thumb\nThe Hebrew term '''''Abaddon''''' (, ''''), and its two Greek equivalents '''''Apollyon''''' (, ''Apollyon'') as a person/being and Τάρταρος Tartaros as a place/time, appears in the Bible as name of a place, time, or personification/incarnation of destructive nature. In the Hebrew Bible, ''Abaddon'' often appears alongside the place שְׁאוֹל (''sheol''), meaning the realm of the dead. In the New Testament Book of Revelation, an angel called Abaddon is described as the king of an army of locusts; his name is first transcribed in Greek (Revelation 9:11—\"whose name in Hebrew is Abaddon, The Angel of Death.\" (Ἀβαδδὼν), and then translated (\"which in Greek means the Destroyer\" (Ἀπολλύων, ''Apollyon'')). The Latin Vulgate and the Douay Rheims Bible have additional notes (not present in the Greek text), \"in Latin Exterminans\", ''exterminans'' being the Latin word for \"destroyer\".\n", "According to the Brown Driver Briggs lexicon, the Hebrew ''abaddon'' (Hebrew: אבדון; ''abaddon'') is an intensive form of the Semitic root and verb stem ''abad'' (אָבַד) \"perish\" (transitive \"destroy\"), which occurs 184 times in the Hebrew Bible. The Septuagint, an early Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, renders \"Abaddon\" as \"ἀπώλεια\", while the Greek ''Apollyon'' comes from ''apollumi'' (ἀπόλλυμι), \"to destroy\". The Greek term ''Apollyon'' (Ἀπολλύων, \"the destroyer\"), is the active participle of ''apollumi'' (ἀπόλλυμι, \"to destroy\"), and is not used as a name in classical Greek texts.\nThe Edinburgh Encyclopedia of 1832 includes another view: \"There can be no doubt that the Pythian Apollo is the same as the Ob and Abaddon of the Hebrews, which the Greeks translated literally Apollyon.\"\n", "\n===Hebrew Bible===\nThe term ''abaddon'' appears six times in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible; ''abaddon'' means destruction or \"place of destruction\", or the realm of the dead, and is accompanied by Sheol. \n* Job 26:6: the grave (Sheol) is naked before Him, and destruction (Abaddon) has no covering.\n* Job 28:22: destruction (Abaddon) and death say..\n* Job 31:12: it is a fire that consumes to destruction (Abaddon)...\n* Psalm 88:11: Shall thy loving kindness be declared in the grave (Sheol) or thy faithfulness in destruction (Abaddon)?\n* Proverbs 15:11: Hell (Sheol) and Destruction (Abaddon) are before the LORD, how much more than the hearts of the children of men?\n* Proverbs 27:20: Hell (Sheol) and Destruction (Abaddon) are never full; so the eyes of man are never satisfied. (KJV, 1611)\n\n===Second Temple era texts===\nThe text of the Thanksgiving Hymns—which was found in the Dead Sea Scrolls—tells of \"the Sheol of Abaddon\" and of the \"torrents of Belial that burst into Abaddon\". The ''Biblical Antiquities'' (misattributed to Philo) mentions Abaddon as a place (destruction) rather than an individual. Abaddon is also one of the compartments of Gehenna. By extension, it can mean an underworld abode of lost souls, or Gehenna.\n\n===Rabbinical literature===\nIn some legends, Abaddon is identified as a realm where the damned lie in fire and snow, one of the places in Gehenna that Moses visited.\n", "\n===New Testament===\nThe Christian scriptures contain the first known depiction of ''Abaddon'' as an individual entity instead of a place.\n\n\nIn Revelation 9:11, Abaddon is described as \"Destroyer\", the angel of the abyss, and as the king of a plague of locusts resembling horses with crowned human faces, women's hair, lions' teeth, wings, iron breast-plates, and a tail with a scorpion's stinger that torments for five months anyone who does not have the seal of God on their foreheads.\n\nThe symbolism of Revelation 9:11 leaves the identity of Abaddon open to interpretation. Protestant commentator Matthew Henry (1708) believed Abaddon to be the Antichrist, whereas the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Commentary (1871) and Henry H. Halley (1922) identified the angel as Satan. Latter-Day Saints believe that the use of \"Abaddon\" in Revelation 9 refers to the devil.\n\nIn contrast, the Methodist publication ''The Interpreter's Bible'' states: \"Abaddon, however, is an angel not of Satan but of God, performing his work of destruction at God's bidding\", citing the context at Revelation chapter 20, verses 1 through 3.\n\nJehovah's Witnesses as well cite Revelation 20:1-3 where the angel having \"the key of the abyss\" is actually shown to be a representative of God, one from heaven, and, rather than being \"satanic\", is the one that binds Satan and hurls him into the abyss; concluding that \"Abaddon\" is another name for Jesus Christ after his resurrection. \n\nFull Preterism\nIn scripture, the Greek name for Abaddon is Apollian, which happens to be the very name of the 15th Legion of the Roman army that laid siege to Jerusalem for five months and destroyed it in 70 AD. Interestingly, the prophets including Daniel, Jesus and John the Revelator, foretold of this destruction that would occur before that 1st century generation passed away. It was predicted that there would come to be 4 kingdoms: Babylon, Persia, Greece and Rome on the earth. The 4th kingdom Rome was represented by Iron and it was a composite beast made up of the previous kingdoms which had been conquered. The Empire of Rome ruled the world in the lifetime of Jesus which is exactly when the prophecy foretold that the kingdom of heaven would destroy the power of that earthly Roman kingdom and it did, but not with physical weapons, but with spiritual ones through the spread of the good news of God's kingdom under Christ in the 1st century. The old Jewish age passed away and the new heavenly kingdom age under Jesus began. Other views often overlook audience relevance and time statements which is crucial in understanding Daniel, The Olivet prophecy and Revelation which are all written about the same last days events in the 1st century.\n\n===Gnostic texts===\nIn the 3rd century Acts of Thomas, Abaddon is the name of a demon, or the devil himself.\n\nAbaddon is given particularly important roles in two sources, a homily entitled \"The Enthronement of Abbaton\" by pseudo-Timothy of Alexandria, and the Apocalypse of Bartholomew. In the homily by Timothy, Abbaton was first named ''Muriel'', and had been given the task by God of collecting the earth that would be used in the creation of Adam. Upon completion of this task, the angel was appointed as a guardian. Everyone, including the angels, demons, and corporeal entities feared him. Abbaton was promised that any who venerated him in life could be saved. Abaddon is also said to have a prominent role in the Last Judgement, as the one who will take the souls to the Valley of Josaphat. He is described in the Apocalypse of Bartholomew as being present in the Tomb of Jesus at the moment of his resurrection.\n", "* Abaddon in popular culture\n* Hades\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Judaism", "Christianity", "See also", "References", "Bibliography" ]	Abaddon
[ "\n\n'''Abadeh''' (, also Romanized as '''Ābādeh''') is a city in and the capital of Abadeh County, in Fars Province, Iran. Abadeh is situated at an elevation of in a fertile plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, from the former and from the latter. At the 2006 census, its population was 52,042, in 14,184 families. As of 2009, the population was estimated to be 59,042.\n\nIt is the largest city in the Northern Fars Region (South Central-Iran), which is famed for its carved wood-work, made of the wood of pear and box trees. Sesame oil, castor oil, grain, and various fruits are also produced there. The area is famous for its Abadeh rugs.\n\nAn interesting fact is that Abadeh is closer, road-distance-wise to 4 provincial capitals of Isfahan (193 km), Yasuj (197 km), Yazd (217 km), and Shahrekord (237 km) compared to the distance to the provincial capital of its corresponding province, Shiraz (260 km).\n\n\n", "Abadeh historical monuments include Emirate Kolah Farangi, Tymcheh Sarafyan and Khaje tomb, located in the Khoja mountains.\nAbadeh crafts can be embroidered in cotton. The town also produces Abadeh rugs.\n\nThe rugs tend to be based on a cotton warp and have a thin, tightly knotted pile. Most Abadeh rugs are closely cut making them very flat. Although some of the older Abadehs vary in style, many of the new designs are easily recognisable. These new designs, known as Heybatlu consist of a single diamond shaped medallion in the centre with smaller medallions on each corner. The pattern is typically geometrical flowers or animals and the main colours are light reds or burnt orange on top of a dark blue background with strong green details. The corners or borders are generally ivory in colour. Although some Abadeh and Shiraz rugs appear similar Abadeh can normally be differentiated by their higher knot counts as well as the fact that the warp is invariably cotton. The rugs are almost always exclusively medium in size and the KPSI of an average Abadeh is around 90. As always in the rug-world you get what you pay for however in general Abadeh are well made and fairly popular items, particularly in modern interiors or those with a Mediterranean or North African style.\n", "\n'''Expressway 65''' passes through Abadeh. This situation helps Abadeh to improve its capabilities compared to the neighboring city, Eqlid. Road 78 makes connections from Abadeh to Abarkuh, Yazd Eqlid and Yasuj. It has a junction with Abadeh Shiraz Expressway 24 km south of the city. A road starts from Abadeh Ring Road to Soqad and Semirom, Road 55.\n\nThe railroad from Isfahan to Shiraz passes Abadeh and there are train services at Abadeh Railway Station to Shiraz, Esfahan, Tehran and Mashad. Abadeh Airport (OISA) was planned to be built in the mid 1990s.\n", "Abadeh's main sport is Football, like the rest of the country. The main stadium is Takhti Stadium located in Mo'allem Square. The main team in Abadeh is Behineh Rahbar Abadeh F.C. which is currently playing in Iran Football's 3rd Division after finishing first in Fars Provincial League (FPL) last year. It played in Hazfi Cup 2010-11 reaching the fourth round.\n", "Iran announced in 2012 the construction of the largest air defense site in the southern Iranian city of Abadeh.\n", "Abadeh features a continental semi-arid climate (Köppen ''BSk'') with extreme heat and dryness over summer, and cold (extreme at times) and wet winter, with huge variations between daytime and nighttime throughout the year.\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Landmarks and crafts", "Transportation", "Sport", "Air Defense Base", "Climate", "References" ]	Abadeh
[ "\nThe archaeological site\n'''Abae''' (, ''Abai'') is an ancient town in the northeastern corner of Phocis, in Greece. It was famous in antiquity for its oracle of Apollo Abaeus, one of those consulted by Croesus, king of Lydia, and Mardonius, among others.\n", "It was rich in treasures, but was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 BCE, and a second time by the Boeotians and remained in a ruined state.It was rebuilt by Hadrian.\n\nThe oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans before Leuctra in 371 BCE. The temple, along with the village of the same name, may have escaped destruction during the Third Sacred War (355–346 BCE), due to the respect given to the inhabitants; however it was in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias in the 2nd century CE, though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, was undertaken by Emperor Hadrian.\n\nThe sanctity of the shrine ensured certain privileges to the people of Abae, and these were confirmed by the Romans. The Persians did not reflect this opinion and would destroy all the temples that they overcame, Abae included. The Greek pledged to not rebuild them as a memorial of the ravages of the Persians.\n\nAmong the most exciting recent archaeological discoveries in Greece is the recognition that the sanctuary site near the modern village of Kalapodi is not only the site of the oracle of Apollon at Abai but that it was in constant use for cult practices from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period. It is thus the first site where the archaeology confirms the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion, which has been inferred from the presence of the names of Classical Greek divinities on Linear B texts from Pylos and Knossos.\n\nThe fortified site described below, originally identified as Abae by Colonel William Leake in the 19th century, is much more likely to be that of the Sanctuary of Artemis at Hyampolis.\n\nThe polygonal walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill standing about above the little plain of Exarcho; one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but little was found.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "* Black-and-white photo essay of the archeological site of Abae\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Notes", "Footnotes", "References", "External links" ]	Abae
[ "\n\n\n'''Abakan''' (; Khakas: , ''Ağban'') is the capital city of the Republic of Khakassia, Russia, located in the central part of Minusinsk Depression, at the confluence of the Yenisei and Abakan Rivers. As of the 2010 Census, it had a population of 165,214—a slight increase over 165,197 recorded during the 2002 Census and a further increase from 154,092 recorded during the 1989 Census.\n", "Abakansky ''ostrog'' (), also known as '''Abakansk''' (), was built at the mouth of the Abakan River in 1675. In the 1780s, the ''selo'' of '''Ust-Abakanskoye''' () was established in this area. It was granted town status and given its current name on April 30, 1931.\n\n===Chinese exiles===\nIn 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and Askiz. When the site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists in 1941–1945, they realized that they had discovered a building absolutely unique for the area: a large (1500 square meters) Chinese-style, likely Han Dynasty era (206 BCE–220 CE) palace. The identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside of the borders of the Han Empire, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. Russian archaeologist L.A. Yevtyukhova surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99 BCE, and defected to them as a result. While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well. More recently, for example, it was claimed by A.A. Kovalyov as the residence of Lu Fang (盧芳), a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era.\n\n===Lithuanian exiles===\nIn the late 18th and during the 19th century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830–1831, and 1863 rebellions against Russian rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established where prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines. After Stalin's death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in.\n", "Abakan is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the '''City of Abakan'''—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts As a municipal division, the City of Abakan is incorporated as '''Abakan Urban Okrug'''.\n", "The city has a river port, industry enterprises, Katanov State University of Khakasia, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a commercial center that produces footwear, foodstuffs, and metal products.\n\n===Transportation===\nAbakan (together with Tayshet) was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway. Now it is an important railway junction.\n\nThe city is served by the Abakan International Airport.\n", "The 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until circa 1996.\n", "Statue of Vladimir Lenin in Abakan\nAbakan Cathedral of the Transfiguration\n\nAbakan's sites of interest include Holy Transfiguration Cathedral, \"Good Angel of Peace\" sculpture, park of topiary art, and many others.\n", "Bandy is the one of the most popular sports in the city. Sayany-Khakassia was playing in the top-tier Super League in the 2012–13 season but was relegated for the 2013–14 season. Russian Government Cup was played here in 1988 and in 2012.\n", "Abakan has a borderline humid continental (Köppen climate classification ''Dwb'')/cold semi-arid climate (Köppen ''BSk''). Temperature differences between seasons are extreme, which is typical for Siberia. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer and is less common because of rain shadow from nearby mountains.\n\n\n\n", "===Notes===\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n\n Official website of Abakan\n* Unofficial website of Abakan\n* Tourist Information Centre of the Republic of Khakassia\n* Abakan live cam\n* Abakan city streets views\n* Beyaz Arif Akbas, \"Khakassia: The Lost Land\", Portland State Center for Turkish Studies, 2007\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Administrative and municipal status", "Economy", "Military", "Sites", "Sports", "Climate", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Abakan
[ "\n\n'''ATM''' or '''atm''' may refer to:\n\n* Atmosphere (unit) or atm, a unit of atmospheric pressure\n* Automated teller machine, a cash dispenser or cash machine\n\n", "* Adobe Type Manager, a computer program for managing fonts\n* Alternating Turing machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science\n* Asynchronous Transfer Mode, a telecommunications protocol used in networking\n* ATM (computer), a ZX Spectrum clone developed in Moscow in 1991\n", "* ''Amateur Telescope Making'', a series of books by Albert Graham Ingalls\n* ''ATM'' (2012 film), an American film\n* ''ATM'' (2015 film), an Indian film\n* ''ATM: Er Rak Error'', a 2012 Thai film\n* ''Azhagiya Tamil Magan'', a 2007 Indian film\n", "* Abiding Truth Ministries, in Springfield, Massachusetts, US\n* Association of Teachers of Mathematics, UK \n* Acrylic Tank Manufacturing, US aquarium manufacturer, televised in ''Tanked''\n* ATM FA, a football club in Malaysia\n* A. T. M. Wilson (1906–1978), British psychiatrist\n", "* Active traffic management, a motorway scheme on the M42 in England\n* Air traffic management, a concept in air navigation that includes air traffic control\n* ATM, the IATA code for the Altamira Airport, an airport in Brazil\n* Azienda Trasporti Milanesi, a public company responsible for public transportation in Milan\n\n=== Catalonia, Spain ===\n* Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM Àrea de Barcelona), in the Barcelona metropolitan area\n* Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat del Camp de Tarragona (ATM Camp de Tarragona), in the Camp de Tarragona area\n* Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Girona (ATM Àrea de Girona), in the Girona area\n* Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Lleida (ATM Àrea de Lleida), in the Lleida area\n", "* Actun Tunichil Muknal, a cave in Belize\n* Anti-tank missile, a missile designed to destroy tanks\n* Apollo Telescope Mount, a solar observatory\n* Ass to mouth, a sexual act\n* At the money, moneyness where the strike price is the same as the current spot price\n* ATM serine/threonine kinase, a protein kinase recruited and activated by DNA damage\n* Automatenmarken, a variable value stamp\n* Able Toastmasters, a post-nominal from Toastmasters International\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Computing ", " Media ", " People and organizations ", " Transportation ", " Other uses " ]	ATM
[ "\n\n'''Amazonite''' (sometimes called \"Amazon stone\") is a green variety of microcline feldspar.\n\nThe name is taken from that of the Amazon River, from which certain green stones were formerly obtained, but it is doubtful whether green feldspar occurs in the Amazon area.\n\nAmazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. Formerly it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of Miass in the Ilmensky Mountains, 50 miles southwest of Chelyabinsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks. More recently, high-quality crystals have been obtained from Pike's Peak, Colorado, where it is found associated with smoky quartz, orthoclase, and albite in a coarse granite or pegmatite. Crystals of amazonite can also be found in Crystal Park, El Paso County, Colorado. Other locations in the United States which yield amazonite include the Morefield Mine in Amelia, Virginia. It is also found in pegmatite in Madagascar and in Brazil.\n\nBecause of its bright green color when polished, amazonite is sometimes cut and used as a cheap gemstone, although it is easily fractured, and loses its gloss due to its softness.\n\nFor many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery. Naturally, many people assumed the color was due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors. More recent studies suggest that the blue-green color results from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar.\n", "\nFile:Microcline-Quartz-Albite-48224.jpg\|Deep robins-egg blue color amazonite on smoky quartz\nFile:Amazonite, quartz 300-3-7927.JPG\|Crystals of amazonite, from Pikes Peak, El Paso Co., Colorado, USA\nFile:Microcline-179612.jpg\|Large Amazonite crystal from Konso special woreda, Ethiopia. Size: 16.4 x 11.9 x 8.0 cm.\nFile:Microcline-Quartz-206935.jpg\|Two smoky quartz crystals leaping out from surrounding amazonite\nFile:Amazonite 1.jpg\|Amazonite crystals on feldspar \nFile:Microcline-20436.jpg\|Crystal of amazonite from the Take 5 claim near Florissant, Colorado (size: 4.4 x 4 x 3.5 cm)\n\n", "\n\n\n\n Microcline Mineral Data Retrieved 1 November 2013.\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Gallery of Amazonite specimens", " References " ]	Amazonite
[ "\n'''Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder''' (18 January 1573 – 1621) was a still life painter of the Dutch Golden Age.\n", "Still-Life with flowers\n\nHe was born in Antwerp, where he started his career, but he spent most of it in Middelburg (1587–1613), where he moved with his family because of the threat of religious persecution. He specialized in painting still lifes with flowers, which he signed with the monogram AB (the B in the A). At the age of twenty-one, he joined the city’s Guild of Saint Luke and later became dean. Not long after, Bosschaert had married and established himself as a leading figure in the fashionable floral painting genre. \n\nHe had three sons who all became flower painters; Ambrosius II, Johannes and Abraham. His brother-in-law Balthasar van der Ast also lived and worked in his workshop and moved with him on his travels. Bosschaert later worked in Amsterdam (1614), Bergen op Zoom (1615–1616), Utrecht (1616–1619), and Breda (1619). In 1619 when he moved to Utrecht, his brother-in-law van der Ast entered the Utrecht Guild of St. Luke, where the renowned painter Abraham Bloemaert had just become dean. The painter Roelandt Savery (1576–1639) entered the St. Luke’s guild in Utrecht at about the same time. Savery had considerable influence on the Bosschaert dynasty. When Bosschaert died in The Hague while on commission there for a flower piece, Balthasar van der Ast took over running his workshop and pupils.\n\n", " Fruit still life with shells painted by Balthasar van der Ast.\nHis bouquets were painted symmetrically and with scientific accuracy in small dimensions and normally on copper. They sometimes included symbolic and religious meanings. At the time of his death, Bosschaert was working on an important commission in the Hague. That piece is now in the collection in Stockholm. Bosschaert became one of the first artists to specialize in still life painting, and he started a tradition of painting detailed flower bouquets, which typically included tulips and roses. Thanks to the booming seventeenth-century Dutch art market, he became highly successful, as the inscription on one of his paintings attests.\n\n===Legacy===\nHis sons and his pupil and brother-in-law, Balthasar van der Ast, were among those to uphold the Bosschaert dynasty which continued until the mid-17th century.\n\nIt may not be a coincidence that this trend coincided with a national obsession with exotic flowers which made flower portraits highly sought after.\n\nAlthough he was highly in demand, he did not create many pieces because he was also employed as an art dealer.\n===Selected works===\n\nFile:Ambrosius Bosschaert, the Elder 01.jpg\|Still-Life of Flowers\nFile:Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder - Bouquet of Flowers in a Glass Vase - Google Art Project.jpg\|Bouquet of Flowers in a Glass Vase\nFile:Ambrosius Bosschaert, the Elder 02.jpg\|Still-Life of Flowers\nFile:Bosschaert the Elder, Still Life with Flowers in a Porcelain Vase.jpg\|Roses, tulips, anemone and cyclamen in a porcelain vase\n File:Ambrosius Bosschaert - Bouquet of Flowers on a Ledge - Google Art Project.jpg\| Bouquet of Flowers on a Ledge\nFile:Ambrosius Bosschaert, the Elder 03.jpg\|''Vase of Flowers in a Window Niche'' (Mauritshuis)\nFile:Ambrosius Bosschaert, the Elder 06.jpg\|Still-Life of Flowers\n\n", "\n\n", "\n Ambrosius Bosschaert on Artnet\n* A number of Ambrosius Bosschaert's paintings\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Style", "References", "External links" ]	Ambrosius Bosschaert
[ "\n\n\n\nThe '''aurochs''' ( or ; pl. '''aurochs''', or rarely '''aurochsen''', '''aurochses'''), also '''urus''', '''ure''' (''Bos primigenius''), is an extinct species of large wild cattle that inhabited Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It is the ancestor of domestic cattle. The species survived in Europe until the last recorded aurochs died in the Jaktorów Forest, Poland, in 1627.\n\nDuring the Neolithic Revolution, which occurred during the early Holocene, at least two aurochs domestication events occurred: one related to the Indian subspecies, leading to zebu cattle, and the other one related to the Eurasian subspecies, leading to taurine cattle. Other species of wild bovines were also domesticated, namely the wild water buffalo, gaur, wild yak and banteng. In modern cattle, numerous breeds share characteristics of the aurochs, such as a dark colour in the bulls with a light eel stripe along the back (the cows being lighter), or a typical aurochs-like horn shape.\n", "Illustration from Sigismund von Herberstein's book published in 1556 captioned : \"I am 'urus', '''' in Polish, '''' in German (dunces call me bison) lit. ''(the) ignorant (ones) had given me the name (of) Bison''\"; Latin original: ''''\nThe aurochs was variously classified as ''Bos primigenius'', ''Bos taurus'', or, in old sources, ''Bos urus''. However, in 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature \"conserved the usage of 17 specific names based on wild species, which are predated by or contemporary with those based on domestic forms\", confirming ''Bos primigenius'' for the aurochs. Taxonomists who consider domesticated cattle a subspecies of the wild aurochs should use ''B. primigenius taurus''; those who consider domesticated cattle to be a separate species may use the name ''B. taurus'', which the Commission has kept available for that purpose.\n\n=== Etymology ===\nThe words aurochs, urus, and wisent have all been used synonymously in English. However, the extinct aurochs/urus is a completely separate species from the still-extant wisent, also known as European bison. The two were often confused, and some 16th-century illustrations of aurochs and wisents have hybrid features.\nThe word ''urus'' (; plural ''uri'') is a Latin word, but was borrowed into Latin from Germanic (cf. Old English/Old High German ''ūr'', Old Norse ''úr''). In German, OHG ''ūr'' was compounded with ''ohso'' \"ox\", giving ''ūrohso'', which became early modern ''Aurochs''. The modern form is ''Auerochse''.\n\nThe word ''aurochs'' was borrowed from early modern German, replacing archaic ''urochs'', also from an earlier form of German. The word is invariable in number in English, though sometimes back-formed singular ''auroch'' and innovated plural ''aurochses'' occur. The use in English of the plural form '''' is nonstandard, but mentioned in ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language''. It is directly parallel to the German plural ''Ochsen'' (singular ''Ochse'') and recreates by analogy the same distinction as English ''ox'' (singular) and ''oxen'' (plural).\n\n=== Evolution ===\nThe Prejlerup-aurochs, a bull at the Zoological Museum in Copenhagen from 7400 BC\nLife restoration of an aurochs bull found in Braunschweig, Germany\nSpeculative life restoration of the enigmatic Indian aurochs (''B. p. namadicus'')\nDuring the Pliocene, the colder climate caused an extension of open grassland, which led to the evolution of large grazers, such as wild bovines. ''Bos acutifrons'' is an extinct species of cattle that has been suggested as an ancestor for the aurochs.\n\nThe oldest aurochs remains have been dated to about 2 million years ago, in India. The Indian subspecies was the first to appear. During the Pleistocene, the species migrated west into the Middle East (western Asia), as well as to the east. They reached Europe about 270,000 years ago. The South Asian domestic cattle, or zebu, descended from Indian aurochs at the edge of the Thar Desert; the zebu is resistant to drought. Domestic yak, gayal, and Bali cattle do not descend from aurochs.\n\nThe first complete mitochondrial genome (16,338 base pairs) DNA sequence analysis of ''Bos primigenius'' from an archaeologically verified and exceptionally well preserved aurochs bone sample was published in 2010.\n\nThree wild subspecies of aurochs are recognised. Only the Eurasian subspecies survived until recent times.\n* The Eurasian aurochs (''B. p. primigenius'') once ranged across the steppes and taigas of Europe, Siberia and Central Asia, and East Asia. It is noted as part of the Pleistocene megafauna, and declined in numbers along with other megafauna species by the end of Pleistocene. The Eurasian aurochs were domesticated into modern taurine cattle breeds around the sixth millennium BC in the Middle East, and possibly also at about the same time in the Far East. Aurochs were still widespread in Europe during the time of the Roman Empire, when they were widely popular as a battle beast in Roman arenas. Excessive hunting began and continued until the species was nearly extinct. By the 13th century, aurochs existed only in small numbers in Eastern Europe, and the hunting of aurochs became a privilege of nobles, and later royal households. The aurochs were not saved from extinction, and the last recorded live aurochs, a female, died in 1627 in the Jaktorów Forest, Poland, from natural causes. Aurochs were found to have lived on the island of Sicily, having migrated via a land bridge from Italy. After the disappearance of the land bridge, Sicilian aurochs evolved to be 20% smaller than their mainland relatives due to insular dwarfism. Fossilized specimen were found in Japan, possibly herded with steppe bisons.\n* The Indian aurochs (''B. p. namadicus'') once inhabited India. It was the first subspecies of the aurochs to appear, at 2 million years ago, and from about 9000 years ago, it was domesticated as the zebu. Fossil remains indicate wild Indian aurochs besides domesticated zebu cattle were in Gujarat and the Ganges area until about 4–5000 years ago. Remains from wild aurochs 4400 years old are clearly identified from Karnataka in South India.\n* The North African aurochs (''B. p. africanus'') once lived in the woodland and shrubland of North Africa. It descended from aurochs populations migrating from the Middle East. The North African aurochs was morphologically very similar to the Eurasian subspecies, so this taxon may exist only in a biogeographic sense. However, evidence indicates it was genetically distinct from the Eurasian subspecies. Depictions show that North African aurochs may have had a light saddle marking on its back. This subspecies may have been extinct before the Middle Ages.\n", "\nThe appearance of the aurochs has been reconstructed from skeletal material, historical descriptions, and contemporaneous depictions, such as cave paintings, engravings, or Sigismund von Herberstein’s illustration. The work by Charles Hamilton Smith is a copy of a painting owned by a merchant in Augsburg, which may date to the 16th century. Scholars have proposed that Smith's illustration was based on a cattle/aurochs hybrid, or an aurochs-like breed. The aurochs was depicted in prehistoric cave paintings and described in Julius Caesar's ''The Gallic War, Book 6, Ch. 28''.\n\n=== Size ===\n\nHolocene aurochs bull skull in Berlin\nThe aurochs was one of the largest herbivores in postglacial Europe, comparable to the wisent (European bison). The size of an aurochs appears to have varied by region; in Europe, northern populations were bigger on average than those from the south. For example, during the Holocene, aurochs from Denmark and Germany had an average height at the shoulders of in bulls and in cows, while aurochs populations in Hungary had bulls reaching . The body mass of aurochs appears to have shown some variability. Some individuals were comparable in weight to the wisent and the banteng, reaching around , whereas those from the late-middle Pleistocene are estimated to have weighed up to , as much as the largest gaur (the largest extant bovid). The sexual dimorphism between bulls and cows was strongly expressed, with the cows being significantly shorter than bulls on average.\n\nRestoration of the aurochs based on a bull skeleton from Lund and a cow skeleton from Cambridge, with chart of characteristic external features of the aurochs\n\n=== Horns ===\nBecause of the massive horns, the frontal bones of aurochs were elongated and broad. The horns of the aurochs were characteristic in size, curvature, and orientation. They were curved in three directions: upwards and outwards at the base, then swinging forwards and inwards, then inwards and upwards. Aurochs horns could reach in length and between in diameter. The horns of bulls were larger, with the curvature more strongly expressed than in cows. The horns grew from the skull at a 60° angle to the muzzle, facing forwards.\n\n=== Body shape ===\nThe proportions and body shape of the aurochs were strikingly different from many modern cattle breeds. For example, the legs were considerably longer and more slender, resulting in a shoulder height that nearly equalled the trunk length. The skull, carrying the large horns, was substantially larger and more elongated than in most cattle breeds. As in other wild bovines, the body shape of the aurochs was athletic, and especially in bulls, showed a strongly expressed neck and shoulder musculature. Therefore, the fore hand was larger than the rear, similar to the wisent, but unlike many domesticated cattle. Even in carrying cows, the udder was small and hardly visible from the side; this feature is equal to that of other wild bovines.\nAurochs in a cave painting in Lascaux, France\n\n=== Coat colour ===\nThe coat colour of the aurochs can be reconstructed by using historical and contemporary depictions. In his letter to Conrad Gesner (1602), Anton Schneeberger describes the aurochs, a description that agrees with cave paintings in Lascaux and Chauvet. Calves were born a chestnut colour. Young bulls changed their coat colour at a few months old to a very deep brown or black, with a white eel stripe running down the spine. Cows retained the reddish-brown colour. Both sexes had a light-coloured muzzle. Some North African engravings show aurochs with a light-coloured \"saddle\" on the back, but otherwise no evidence of variation in coat colour is seen throughout its range. A passage from Mucante (1596), describing the “wild ox” as gray, but is ambiguous and may refer to the wisent. Egyptian grave paintings show cattle with a reddish-brown coat colour in both sexes, with a light saddle, but the horn shape of these suggest that they may depict domesticated cattle. Remains of aurochs hair were not known until the early 1980s.\n\n=== Colour of forelocks ===\nSome primitive cattle breeds display similar coat colours to the aurochs, including the black colour in bulls with a light eel stripe, a pale mouth, and similar sexual dimorphism in colour. A feature often attributed to the aurochs is blond forehead hairs. Historical descriptions tell that the aurochs had long and curly forehead hair, but none mentions a certain colour for it. Cis van Vuure (2005) says that, although the colour is present in a variety of primitive cattle breeds, it is probably a discolouration that appeared after domestication. The gene responsible for this feature has not yet been identified. Zebu breeds show lightly coloured inner sides of the legs and belly, caused by the so-called zebu-tipping gene. It has not been tested if this gene is present in remains of the wild form of the zebu, the Indian aurochs.\n", "A painting by Heinrich Harder showing an aurochs fighting off a wolf pack\nLike many bovids, aurochs formed herds for at least a part of the year. These probably did not number much more than 30. If aurochs had social behaviour similar to their descendents, social status was gained through displays and fights, in which cows engaged, as well as bulls. Indeed, aurochs bulls were reported to often have had severe fights. As in other wild cattle, ungulates that form unisexual herds, considerable sexual dimorphism was expressed. Ungulates that form herds containing animals of both sexes, such as horses, have more weakly developed sexual dimorphism.\n\nDuring the mating season, which probably took place during the late summer or early autumn, the bulls had severe fights, and evidence from the forest of Jaktorów shows these could lead to death. In autumn, aurochs fed up for the winter and got fatter and shinier than during the rest of the year, according to Schneeberger. Calves were born in spring. According to Schneeberger, the calf stayed at the cow's side until it was strong enough to join and keep up with the herd on the feeding grounds.\n\nCalves were vulnerable to wolves and, to an extent, bears, while healthy adult aurochs probably did not have to fear these predators. In prehistoric Europe, North Africa, and Asia, big cats, such as lions and tigers, and hyenas were additional predators that probably preyed on aurochs.\n\nHistorical descriptions, like Caesar’s ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'' or Schneeberger, tell that aurochs were swift and fast, and could be very aggressive. According to Schneeberger, aurochs were not concerned when a man approached, but when teased or hunted, an aurochs could get very aggressive and dangerous, and throw the teasing person into the air, as he described in a 1602 letter to Gesner.\n", "Floodplain forests like this one in Germany were the aurochs' last refuge during its final centuries of existence.\nNo consensus exists concerning the habitat of the aurochs. While some authors think that the habitat selection of the aurochs was comparable to the African forest buffalo, others describe the species as inhabiting open grassland and helping maintain open areas by grazing, together with other large herbivores. With its hypsodont jaw, the aurochs was probably a grazer and had a food selection very similar to domesticated cattle. It was not a browser like many deer species, nor a semi-intermediary feeder like the wisent. Comparisons of the isotope levels of Mesolithic aurochs and domestic cattle bones showed that aurochs probably inhabited wetter areas than domestic cattle. Schneeberger describes that during winter, the aurochs ate twigs and acorns in addition to grasses.\n\nAfter the beginning of the Common Era, the habitat of aurochs became more fragmented because of the steadily growing human population. During the last centuries of its existence, the aurochs was limited to remote regions, such as floodplain forests or marshes, with no competing domestic herbivores and less hunting pressure.\n", "\n=== Domestication ===\nThe Vig-aurochs, one of two very well-preserved aurochs skeletons found in Denmark. The circles indicate where the animal was wounded by arrows.\nThe aurochs, which ranged throughout much of Eurasia and Northern Africa during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene, is the wild ancestor of modern cattle. Archaeological evidence shows that domestication occurred independently in the Near East and the Indian subcontinent between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago, giving rise to the two major domestic taxa observed today: humpless ''Bos taurus'' (taurine) and humped ''Bos indicus'' (zebu), respectively. This is confirmed by genetic analyses of matrilineal mitochondrial DNA sequences, which reveal a marked differentiation between modern ''B. taurus'' and ''B. indicus'' haplotypes, demonstrating their derivation from two geographically and genetically divergent wild populations. A third domestication event possibly occurred from another form of the aurochs in Africa. The sanga cattle, a zebu-like cattle with no back hump, is commonly believed to originate from crosses between humped zebus with taurine cattle breeds. However, some archaeological evidence indicates these cattle were domesticated independently in Africa and that bloodlines of taurine and zebu cattle were introduced only within the last few hundreds years.\n\nDomestication of the aurochs began in the southern Caucasus and northern Mesopotamia from about the sixth millennium BC. Genetic evidence suggests that aurochs were independently domesticated in India and possibly also in northern Africa. Domesticated cattle and aurochs are so different in size that they have been regarded as separate species; however, large ancient cattle and aurochs have more similar morphological characteristics, with significant differences only in the horns and some parts of the cranium.\n\nA mitochondrial DNA study suggests that all domesticated taurine cattle originated from about 80 wild female aurochs in the Near East.\nCharles Hamilton Smith's copy of a painting possibly dating to the 16th century\nComparison of aurochs bones with those of modern cattle has provided many insights about the aurochs. Remains of the beast, from specimens believed to have weighed more than a ton, have been found in Mesolithic sites around Goldcliff, Wales.\nThough aurochs became extinct in Britain during the Bronze Age, analysis of bones from aurochs that lived about the same time as domesticated cattle traditionally suggested no genetic contribution to modern breeds. More recent work has pointed to substantial aurochs contributions to indigenous British cattle breeds, with the most material found in Kerry cattle.\n\nIndian zebu, although domesticated eight to ten thousand years ago, are related to aurochs that diverged from the Near Eastern ones some 200,000 years ago. African cattle are thought to have descended from aurochs more closely related to the Near Eastern ones. The Near East and African aurochs groups are thought to have split some 25,000 years ago, probably 15,000 years before domestication. The \"Turano-Mongolian\" type of cattle now found in northern China, Mongolia, Korea, and Japan may represent a fourth domestication event (and a third event among ''B. taurus''–type aurochs). This group may have diverged from the Near East group some 35,000 years ago. Whether these separate genetic populations would have equated to separate subspecies is unclear.\n\nThe maximum range of the aurochs was from Europe (excluding Ireland and northern Scandinavia), to northern Africa, the Middle East, India, and Central Asia. Until at least 3,000 years ago, the aurochs was also found in eastern China, where it is recorded at the Dingjiabao Reservoir in Yangyuan County. Most remains in China are known from the area east of 105°E, but the species has also been reported from the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau, close to the Heihe River. In Japan, excavations in various locations such as in Iwate and Tochigi prefectures have found aurochs which may have herded with steppe bisons.\n\n=== Extinction ===\nThe ornamented horn of the last aurochs bull that belonged to King Sigismund III of Poland\nThe inscription reads: \"The Aurochs – Bos primigenius bojanus, the ancestor of domestic cattle, lived in this forest Jaktorów until the year 1627.\"\nAlready in the times of Herodotus (fifth century BC), aurochs had disappeared from southern Greece, but remained common in the area north and east of Echedorus River close to modern Thessaloniki. Last reports of the species in the southern tip of the Balkans date to the first century BC when Varro reported that fierce wild oxen live in Dardania (southern Serbia) and Thrace. By the 13th century AD, the aurochs' range was restricted to Poland, Lithuania, Moldavia, Transylvania, and East Prussia. The right to hunt large animals on any land was restricted first to nobles, and then gradually, to only the royal households. As the population of aurochs declined, hunting ceased, and the royal court used gamekeepers to provide open fields for grazing for the aurochs. The gamekeepers were exempted from local taxes in exchange for their service. Poaching aurochs was punishable by death.\n\nAccording to a Polish royal survey in 1564, the gamekeepers knew of 38 animals. The last recorded live aurochs, a female, died in 1627 in the Jaktorów Forest, Poland, from natural causes. The causes of extinction were unrestricted hunting, a narrowing of habitat due to the development of farming, and diseases transmitted by domesticated cattle.\n", "\nWhile all the wild subspecies are extinct, ''B. primigenius'' lives on in domesticated cattle, and attempts are being made to breed similar types suitable for filling the extinct subspecies' role in the wild.\n\nThe idea of breeding back the aurochs was first proposed in the 19th century by Feliks Paweł Jarocki. In the 1920s, a first attempt was undertaken by the Heck brothers in Germany with the aim of breeding an effigy (a look-alike) of the aurochs. Starting in the 1990s, grazing and rewilding projects brought new impetus to the idea and new breeding-back efforts came underway, this time with the aim of recreating an animal not only with the looks, but also with the behaviour and the ecological impact of the aurochs, to be able to fill the ecological role of the aurochs.\nHeck cattle: the first attempt to breed a look-alike from modern cattle from the 1920s\n\n=== Heck cattle ===\n\n\nIn the early 1920s, two German zoo directors (in Berlin and Munich), the brothers Heinz and Lutz Heck, began a selective breeding program to breed back the aurochs into existence from the descendant domesticated cattle. Their plan was based on the concept that a species is not extinct as long as all its genes are still present in a living population. The result is the breed called Heck cattle. It resembles what is known about the appearance of the aurochs in colour, and in some cases, also horn shape.\n\n=== Taurus Project ===\n\n\nThe ''Arbeitsgemeinschaft Biologischer Umweltschutz'', a conservation group in Germany, started to crossbreed Heck cattle with southern-European primitive breeds in 1996, with the goal of increasing the aurochs-likeness of certain Heck cattle herds. These crossbreeds are called Taurus cattle. It is intended to bring in aurochs-like features that are supposedly missing in Heck cattle using Sayaguesa Cattle and Chianina, and to a lesser extent Spanish Fighting Cattle (Lidia). The same breeding program is being carried out in Latvia, in Lille Vildmose National Park in Denmark, and in the Hungarian Hortobágy National Park. The program in Hungary has additionally included Hungarian Grey cattle and Watusi.\n\n=== Tauros Programme ===\n\nFirst-generation cross bull from Tauros Programme\n\nThe Dutch-based Tauros Programme, (initially TaurOs Project) is trying to DNA-sequence breeds of primitive cattle to find gene sequences that match those found in \"ancient DNA\" from aurochs samples. The modern cattle would be selectively bred to try to produce the aurochs-type genes in a single animal. Starting around 2007, Tauros Programme selected a number of primitive breeds mainly from Iberia and Italy, such as Sayaguesa cattle, Maremmana primitivo, Pajuna cattle, Limia cattle, Maronesa cattle, Tudanca cattle, and others, which already bear considerable resemblance to the aurochs in certain features. Tauros Programme started collaborations with Rewilding Europe and European Wildlife, two European organizations for ecological restoration and rewilding, and now has breeding herds not only in the Netherlands but also in Portugal, Croatia, Romania, and the Czech Republic. Numerous crossbred calves of the first, second, and third offspring generations have already been born.\n\n=== Uruz Project ===\n\n\nA further back-breeding effort, the Uruz project, was started in 2013 by the True Nature Foundation, an organization for ecological restoration and rewilding. It differs from the other projects in that it is planning to make use of genome editing. Its preliminary plans called for the use of Sayaguesa, Maremmana primitive, or Hungarian Grey (Steppe) cattle, and Texas Longhorn with wildtype colour or Barrosã cattle. The finalised plans now call for setting up two breeding lines, Sayaguesa × Maremmana primitiva/Hungarian Steppe cattle and Watusi × Chianina, and later crossing these lines. Two Watusi × Chianina breeding herds have been set up in Boxmeer and Breda in the Netherlands, another herd using Barrosã is being set up in northern Portugal.\n\n=== Auerrind Project ===\n\nThe newest of the back-breeding efforts, the ''Auerrindprojekt'', was started in 2015 as a conjoint effort of the Experimentalarchäologisches Freilichtlabor Lauresham (Lauresham Experimental-Archaeological Open-air Laboratory, run by Lorsch Abbey), the Förderkreis Große Pflanzenfresser im Kreis Bergstraße e.V. (Promoting Association Megaherbivores in Bergstraße District) and the Landschaftspflegebetrieb Hohmeyer (Landscape Preservation Company Hohmeyer). In accordance with the breeding aims, the Auerrindprojekt has already set up two breeding herds of Watusi × Chianina and one breeding herd of Sayaguesa x Podolian cattle; a second breeding herd of Sayaguesa × Podolian cattle will be started in 2017.\n\n=== Other projects ===\n\nScientists of the Polish Foundation for Recreating the Aurochs (PFOT) in Poland hope to use DNA from bones in museums to recreate the aurochs. They plan to return this animal to the forests of Poland. The project has gained the support of the Polish Ministry of the Environment. They plan research on ancient preserved DNA. Other research projects have extracted \"ancient\" DNA over the past 20 years and their results have been published in such periodicals as ''Nature'' and ''PNAS''. Polish scientists Ryszard Słomski and Jacek A. Modliński believe that modern genetics and biotechnology make it possible to recreate an animal almost identical to the aurochs. They say this research will lead to examining the causes of the extinction of the aurochs, and help prevent a similar occurrence with domesticated cattle.\n\n=== Breeding back the aurochs ===\nHighland cattle – their genome has been secondarily introgressed by European aurochs.\nApproaches that aim to breed an aurochs-like phenotype do not equate to an aurochs-like genotype. In 2015, researchers mapped the draft genome of a British aurochs dated to 6,750 years before present. Researchers compared the genome to the genomes of 73 modern cattle populations and found in traditional or landrace cattle breeds of Scottish, Irish, Welsh, and English origin – such as Highland, Dexter, Kerry, Welsh Black, and White Park – carry the ancestry of the sequenced aurochs, but the other populations did not. Another study concluded that because of this genomic introgression of the aurochs into these breeds, if this reflects \"the bigger picture across the aurochs/cattle range, perhaps several subpopulations of aurochs are not extinct at all.\" The study proposed that it will be possible to consider breeding back cattle \"that are genetically akin to specific original aurochs populations, through selective cross-breeding of local cattle breeds bearing local aurochs-genome ancestry.\"\n", "\nCro-Magnon graffito of ''Bos primigenius'' in ''Grotta del Romito'', Papasidero, Italy\nReplica of Chauvet cave art depicting aurochs, woolly rhino, and wild horses\nThe aurochs was an important game animal appearing in both Paleolithic European and Mesopotamian cave paintings, such as those found at Lascaux and Livernon in France. Aurochs existed into the Iron Age in Anatolia and the Near East, where it was worshiped as a sacred animal, the Lunar Bull, associated with the Great Goddess and later with Mithras. In 2012, an archaeological mission of the British Museum, led by Lebanese archaeologist Claude Doumet Serhal, discovered at the site of the old American school in Sidon, Lebanon, the remains of wild animal bones, including those of an aurochs, dating from the late-fourth to early-third millennium. A 1999 archaeological dig in Peterborough, England, uncovered the skull of an aurochs. The front part of the skull had been removed, but the horns remained attached. The supposition is that the killing of the aurochs in this instance was a sacrificial act.\nMural from Çatalhöyük excavated by James Mellaart showing neolithic hunters attacking an aurochs\n\nAn aurochs bull used in heraldry: Coat of arms of Mecklenburg region, Germany\nAlso during antiquity, the aurochs was regarded as an animal of cultural value. Aurochs are depicted on the Ishtar Gate. In the Peloponnese there is a 15th-century BC depiction on the so-called violent cup of Vaphio, of hunters trying to capture with nets three wild bulls being probably aurochs, in a possibly Cretan date palm stand. The one of the bulls throws one hunter on the ground while attacking the second with its horns. The cup despite the older perception of being Minoan seems to be Mycenaean. Greeks and Paeonians were hunting aurochs (wild oxen/bulls) and used their huge horns as trophies, cups for wine, and offers to the gods and heroes. For example, as mentioned by Samus, Philippus of Thessalonica and Antipater when Philip V of Macedon killed an aurochs on the foothills of mountain Orvilos, he offered the horns which were 105 cm long and the skin to a temple of Hercules. Aurochs horns were often used by Romans as hunting horns. Aurochs were among those wild animals caught for fights (''venationes'') in arenas. Julius Caesar described aurochs in Gaul:\n\n\nThe Hebrew Bible contains numerous references to the untameable strength of ''re'em'', translated as \"bullock\" or \"wild-ox\" in Jewish translations and translated rather poorly in the King James Version as \"unicorn\", but recognised from the last century by Hebrew scholars as the aurochs.\n\nWhen the aurochs became rarer, hunting it became a privilege of the nobility and a sign of a high social status. The \"Nibelungenlied\" describes Siegfried killing aurochs: \"''Darnach schlug er schiere einen Wisent und einen Elch, starker Ure viere und einen grimmen Schelch''\", meaning \"After that, he defeated one wisent and one elk, four aurochs, and one Schelch\" - the background of the \"Schelch\" is dubious. Aurochs horns were commonly used as drinking horns by the nobility, which led to the fact that many aurochs horn sheaths are preserved today (albeit often discoloured). The drinking horn at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, given to the college on its foundation in 1352, probably by the college's founders, the Guilds of Corpus Christi and the Blessed Virgin Mary, is thought to come from an aurochs. A painting by Willem Kalf depicts an aurochs horn. The horns of the last aurochs bulls, which died in 1620, were ornamented with gold and are located at the Livrustkammaren in Stockholm today.\n\nSchneeberger writes that aurochs were hunted with arrows, nets, and hunting dogs. With immobilised aurochs, a ritual was practised that might be regarded as cruel nowadays: the curly hair on the forehead was cut from the skull of the living animal. Belts were made out of this hair and were believed to increase the fertility of women. When the aurochs was slaughtered, a cross-like bone (''os cardis'') was extracted from the heart. This bone, which is also present in domesticated cattle, contributed to the mystique of the animal and magical powers have been attributed to it.\nCoat of arms of Moldavia from 1481\nA 16th-century illustration by Teodoro Ghisi, believed to show an aurochs, although the horns and muzzle differ from those of an aurochs.\nIn eastern Europe, where it survived until nearly 400 years ago, the aurochs has left traces in fixed expressions. In Russia, a drunken person behaving badly was described as \"behaving like an aurochs\", whereas in Poland, big, strong people were characterized as being \"a bloke like an aurochs\".\n\nIn Central Europe, the aurochs features in toponyms and heraldic coats of arms. For example, the names Ursenbach and Aurach am Hongar are derived from the aurochs. An aurochs head, the traditional arms of the German region Mecklenburg, figures in the coat of arms of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The aurochs (Romanian ''bour'', from Latin ''būbalus'') was also the symbol of Moldavia; nowadays, they can be found in the coat of arms of both Romania and Moldova. An aurochs head is featured on an 1858 series of Moldavian stamps, the so-called Bull's Heads (''cap de bour'' in Romanian), renowned for their rarity and price among collectors. In Romania there are still villages named Boureni, after the Romanian word for the auroch. The horn of the aurochs is a charge of the coat of arms of Tauragė, Lithuania, (the name of Tauragė is a compound of ''taũras'' \"auroch\" and ''ragas'' \"horn\"). It is also present in the emblem of Kaunas, Lithuania, and was part of the emblem of Bukovina during its time as an Austro-Hungarian ''Kronland''. The Swiss Canton of Uri is named after the aurochs; its yellow flag shows a black aurochs head. East Slavic surnames Turenin, Turishchev, Turov, and Turovsky originate from the Slavic name of the species ''tur''. In Slovakia, toponyms such as Turany, Turíčky, Turie, Turie Pole, Turík, Turová (villages), Turiec (river and region), Turská dolina (valley) and others are used. Turopolje, a large lowland floodplain south of the Sava River in Croatia, got its name from the once-abundant aurochs (Croatian: ). The ancient name of the Estonian town of Rakvere, ''Tarwanpe'' or ''Tarvanpea'', probably derives from \"Aurochs head\" (''Tarvan pea'') in ancient Estonian.\n\nIn 2002, a 3.5-m-high and 7.1-m-long statue of an aurochs was erected in Rakvere, Estonia, for the town's 700th birthday. The sculpture, by artist Tauno Kangro, has become a symbol of the town.\n\nAurochs are frequently mentioned in the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series of fantasy novels by George R. R. Martin; in particular, roasted aurochs are sometimes served at banquets.\n\nIn the 2012 movie ''Beasts of the Southern Wild'', the six-year-old main character imagines aurochs, though the fantasy creatures are portrayed by \"costumed\" Vietnamese Pot-bellied piglets.\n", "\n\n\n* Ashurnasirpal II's hunting of \"wild oxen\"\n* Chillingham Cattle\n* Ur (rune)\n* American bison (''Bison bison'')\n* Beefalo\n* ''Bison antiquus''\n* ''Bison bonasus'' (European bison)\n* ''Bison latifrons'' (giant bison) (longhorn bison)\n* ''Bison priscus'' (steppe bison)\n* Bison\n* Bovid hybrid\n* Wood bison\n* Yak\n* Żubroń\n\n\n", "This article incorporates Creative Commons license CC BY-2.5 text from reference.\n\n", "Heptner, V. G. ; Nasimovich, A. A. ; Bannikov, A. G. ; Hoffman, R. S. (1988) ''Mammals of the Soviet Union'', Volume I, Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation\nCis van Vuure: ''Retracing the Aurochs – History, Morphology and Ecology of an extinct wild Ox.'' 2005, \n", "American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition (AHD4). Houghton Mifflin, 2000. Headwords ''aurochs'', ''urus'', ''wisent''.\nBunzel-Drüke, M. 2001. ''Ecological substitutes for Wild Horse'' (Equus ferus Boddaert, 1785 = E. przewalslii Poljakov, 1881) and ''Aurochs'' (Bos primigenius Bojanus, 1827). Natur- und Kulturlandschaft, Höxter/Jena, 4, 10 p. AFKP. Online pdf (298 kB)\nC. Julius Caesar. ''Caesar's Gallic War. Book 6, Ch. 28'' Translator. W. A. McDevitte. Translator. W. S. Bohn. 1st Edition. New York. Harper & Brothers. 1869. Harper's New Classical Library.\nInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. ''Opinion 2027 (Case 3010).'' Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81–84.\n* Merriam-Webster Unabridged (MWU). (Online subscription-based reference service of Merriam-Webster, based on Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002.) Headword ''aurochs''. Accessed 2007-06-02.\nShaffer, Jim G. (1995). Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology. In: Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. Ed. George Erdosy. \nShaffer, Jim G. (1999). Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology. In: Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Ed. Bronkhorst and Deshpande. .\nVuure, T. van. 2002. ''History, morphology and ecology of the Aurochs'' (''Bos primigenius''). Lutra 45-1. Online pdf (603 kB)\nVuure, C. van. 2005. ''Retracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology and Ecology of an Extinct Wild Ox.'' Pensoft Publishers. Sofia-Moscow.\nWilson, Don E. and DeeAnn M. Reeder: ''Mammals''. \n", "\n\n\n The Extinction Website – Aurochs (''Bos primigenius primigenius'')\n* History of aurochs in Poland\n* Breeding Back the Aurochs 2005, web-paper by student Magdalena Michalak at Bryn Mawr College, near Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.\n* The Aurochs is coming back to European forests and grasslands\n* The Comeback of the European Icon. Rewilding Europe News, 8 November 2012.\n* Uruz Project.\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Taxonomy ", " Description ", " Behaviour and ecology ", " Habitat and distribution ", " Relationship with humans ", " Breeding of aurochs-like cattle ", " Cultural significance ", " See also ", " Notes ", " Further reading ", " References ", " External links " ]	Aurochs
[ "\n\n\n'''Asynchronous transfer mode''' ('''ATM''') is, according to the ATM Forum, \"a telecommunications concept defined by ANSI and ITU (formerly CCITT) standards for carriage of a complete range of user traffic, including voice, data, and video signals\". ATM was developed to meet the needs of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network, as defined in the late 1980s, and designed to unify telecommunication and computer networks. It was designed for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic (e.g., file transfers), and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video. The reference model for ATM approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the ISO-OSI reference model: network layer, data link layer, and physical layer. ATM is a core protocol used over the SONET/SDH backbone of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), but its use is declining in favour of all IP.\n\nATM provides functionality that is similar to both circuit switching and packet switching networks: ATM uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing, and encodes data into small, fixed-sized packets (ISO-OSI frames) called ''cells.'' This differs from approaches such as the Internet Protocol or Ethernet that use variable sized packets and frames. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins. These virtual circuits may be “permanent”, i.e. dedicated connections that are usually preconfigured by the service provider, or “switched”, i.e. set up on a per-call basis using signalling and disconnected when the call is terminated.\n\nUse of ATM technology was eventually largely superseded by Internet Protocol (IP)-only technology. Wireless and mobile ATM never established a significant foothold.\n\nIBM Turboways ATM 155 PCI network interface card\nMarconi ForeRunnerLE 25 ATM PCI network interface card\n", "In the ISO-OSI reference model data link layer (layer 2), the basic transfer units are generically called frames. In ATM these frames are of a fixed (53 octets or bytes) length and specifically called \"cells\".\n\n=== Cell size===\nIf a speech signal is reduced to packets, and it is forced to share a link with bursty data traffic (traffic with some large data packets) then no matter how small the speech packets could be made, they would always encounter full-size data packets. Under normal queuing conditions the cells might experience maximum queuing delays. To avoid this issue, all ATM packets, or \"cells,\" are the same small size. In addition, the fixed cell structure means that ATM can be readily switched by hardware without the inherent delays introduced by software switched and routed frames.\n\nThus, the designers of ATM utilized small data cells to reduce jitter (delay variance, in this case) in the multiplexing of data streams. Reduction of jitter (and also end-to-end round-trip delays) is particularly important when carrying voice traffic, because the conversion of digitized voice into an analogue audio signal is an inherently real-time process, and to do a good job, the decoder (codec) that does this needs an evenly spaced (in time) stream of data items. If the next data item is not available when it is needed, the codec has no choice but to produce silence or guess — and if the data is late, it is useless, because the time period when it should have been converted to a signal has already passed.\n\nAt the time of the design of ATM, 155 Mbit/s Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) with 135 Mbit/s payload was considered a fast optical network link, and many plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to 45 Mbit/s in the USA, and 2 to 34 Mbit/s in Europe.\n\nAt this rate, a typical full-length 1,500 byte (12,000-bit) data packet would take 77.42 µs to transmit. In a lower-speed link, such as a 1.544 Mbit/s T1 line, a 1,500 byte packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds.\n\nA queuing delay induced by several such data packets might exceed the figure of 7.8 ms several times over, in addition to any packet generation delay in the shorter speech packet. This was clearly unacceptable for speech traffic, which needs to have low jitter in the data stream being fed into the codec if it is to produce good-quality sound. A packet voice system can produce this low jitter in a number of ways:\n\n* Using a playback buffer between the network and the codec, one large enough to tide the codec over almost all the jitter in the data. This allows smoothing out the jitter, but the delay introduced by passage through the buffer require echo cancellers even in local networks; this was considered too expensive at the time. Also, it increased the delay across the channel, and made conversation difficult over high-delay channels.\n* Using a system that inherently provides low jitter (and minimal overall delay) to traffic that needs it.\n* Operate on a 1:1 user basis (i.e., a dedicated pipe).\n\nThe design of ATM aimed for a low-jitter network interface. However, \"cells\" were introduced into the design to provide short queuing delays while continuing to support datagram traffic. ATM broke up all packets, data, and voice streams into 48-byte chunks, adding a 5-byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. The choice of 48 bytes was political rather than technical. When the CCITT (now ITU-T) was standardizing ATM, parties from the United States wanted a 64-byte payload because this was felt to be a good compromise in larger payloads optimized for data transmission and shorter payloads optimized for real-time applications like voice; parties from Europe wanted 32-byte payloads because the small size (and therefore short transmission times) simplify voice applications with respect to echo cancellation. Most of the European parties eventually came around to the arguments made by the Americans, but France and a few others held out for a shorter cell length. With 32 bytes, France would have been able to implement an ATM-based voice network with calls from one end of France to the other requiring no echo cancellation. 48 bytes (plus 5 header bytes = 53) was chosen as a compromise between the two sides. 5-byte headers were chosen because it was thought that 10% of the payload was the maximum price to pay for routing information. ATM multiplexed these 53-byte cells instead of packets which reduced worst-case cell contention jitter by a factor of almost 30, reducing the need for echo cancellers.\n\n=== Structure of an ATM cell ===\nAn ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload. The payload size of 48 bytes was chosen as described above.\n\nATM defines two different cell formats: User–network interface (UNI) and Network-to-network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell format.\n\n\n\n\n'''Diagram of a UNI ATM cell'''\n\n\n\n 7\n \n \n 4\n 3\n \n \n 0\n\n GFC\n VPI\n\n VPI\n VCI\n\n VCI\n\n VCI\n PT\n CLP\n\n HEC\n\n \n\nPayload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)\n\n\n\n'''Diagram of an NNI ATM cell'''\n\n\n\n 7\n \n \n 4\n 3\n \n \n 0\n\n VPI\n\n VPI\n VCI\n\n VCI\n\n VCI\n PT\n CLP\n\n HEC\n\n \n\nPayload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)\n\n\n\n\n: GFC = The Generic Flow Control (GFC) field is a 4-bit field that was originally added to support the connection of ATM networks to shared access networks such as a Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) ring. The GFC field was designed to give the User-Network Interface (UNI) 4 bits in which to negotiate multiplexing and flow control among the cells of various ATM connections. However, the use and exact values of the GFC field have not been standardized, and the field is always set to 0000.\n: VPI = Virtual path identifier (8 bits UNI, or 12 bits NNI)\n: VCI = Virtual channel identifier (16 bits)\n: PT = Payload type (3 bits)\n:: PT bit 3 (msbit): Network management cell. If 0, user data cell and the following apply:\n:: PT bit 2: Explicit forward congestion indication (EFCI); 1 = network congestion experienced\n:: PT bit 1 (lsbit): ATM user-to-user (AAU) bit. Used by AAL5 to indicate packet boundaries.\n: CLP = Cell loss priority (1-bit)\n: HEC = Header error control (8-bit CRC, polynomial = X8 + X2 + X + 1)\n\nATM uses the PT field to designate various special kinds of cells for operations, administration and management (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some ATM adaptation layers (AAL). If the most significant bit of the PT field is 0, this is a user data cell, and the other two bits are used to indicate network congestion and as a general purpose header bit available for ATM adaptation layers.\n\nIf the msbit of the PT bit is 1, this is a management cell, and the other two bits indicate the type. (Network management segment, network management end-to-end, resource management, and reserved for future use.)\n\nSeveral ATM link protocols use the HEC field to drive a CRC-based framing algorithm, which allows locating the ATM cells with no overhead beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection. The 8-bit CRC is used to correct single-bit header errors and detect multi-bit header errors. When multi-bit header errors are detected, the current and subsequent cells are dropped until a cell with no header errors is found.\n\nA UNI cell reserves the GFC field for a local flow control/submultiplexing system between users. This was intended to allow several terminals to share a single network connection, in the same way that two Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) phones can share a single basic rate ISDN connection. All four GFC bits must be zero by default.\n\nThe NNI cell format replicates the UNI format almost exactly, except that the 4-bit GFC field is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM interconnection is capable of addressing almost 212 VPs of up to almost 216 VCs each (in practice some of the VP and VC numbers are reserved).\n\n=== Cells in practice ===\nATM supports different types of services via AALs. Standardized AALs include AAL1, AAL2, and AAL5, and the rarely used AAL3 and AAL4. AAL1 is used for constant bit rate (CBR) services and circuit emulation. Synchronization is also maintained at AAL1. AAL2 through AAL4 are used for variable bitrate (VBR) services, and AAL5 for data. Which AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or configured at the endpoints on a per-virtual-connection basis.\n\nFollowing the initial design of ATM, networks have become much faster. A 1500 byte (12000-bit) full-size Ethernet frame takes only 1.2 µs to transmit on a 10 Gbit/s network, reducing the need for small cells to reduce jitter due to contention. Some consider that this makes a case for replacing ATM with Ethernet in the network backbone. However, it should be noted that the increased link speeds by themselves do not alleviate jitter due to queuing. Additionally, the hardware for implementing the service adaptation for IP packets is expensive at very high speeds. Specifically, at speeds of OC-3 and above, the cost of segmentation and reassembly (SAR) hardware makes ATM less competitive for IP than Packet Over SONET (POS); because of its fixed 48-byte cell payload, ATM is not suitable as a data link layer ''directly'' underlying IP (without the need for SAR at the data link level) since the OSI layer on which IP operates must provide a maximum transmission unit (MTU) of at least 576 bytes. SAR performance limits mean that the fastest IP router ATM interfaces are STM16 - STM64 which actually compares, while POS can operate at OC-192 (STM64) with higher speeds expected in the future.\n\nOn slower or congested links (622 Mbit/s and below), ATM does make sense, and for this reason most asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) systems use ATM as an intermediate layer between the physical link layer and a Layer 2 protocol like PPP or Ethernet.\n\nAt these lower speeds, ATM provides a useful ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium, although other techniques exist, such as Multi-link PPP and Ethernet VLANs, which are optional in VDSL implementations. DSL can be used as an access method for an ATM network, allowing a DSL termination point in a telephone central office to connect to many internet service providers across a wide-area ATM network. In the United States, at least, this has allowed DSL providers to provide DSL access to the customers of many internet service providers. Since one DSL termination point can support multiple ISPs, the economic feasibility of DSL is substantially improved.\n\n=== Reasons for virtual circuits === \nATM operates as a channel-based transport layer, using virtual circuits (VCs). This is encompassed in the concept of the virtual paths (VP) and virtual channels. Every ATM cell has an 8- or 12-bit virtual path identifier (VPI) and 16-bit virtual channel identifier (VCI) pair defined in its header. The VCI, together with the VPI, is used to identify the next destination of a cell as it passes through a series of ATM switches on its way to its destination. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on the user-network interface (on the edge of the network), or if it is sent on the network-network interface (inside the network).\n\nAs these cells traverse an ATM network, switching takes place by changing the VPI/VCI values (label swapping). Although the VPI/VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the concept of a circuit ''is'' consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route than the others). ATM switches use the VPI/VCI fields to identify the virtual channel link (VCL) of the next network that a cell needs to transit on its way to its final destination. The function of the VCI is similar to that of the data link connection identifier (DLCI) in frame relay and the logical channel number and logical channel group number in X.25.\n\nAnother advantage of the use of virtual circuits comes with the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing different services (such as voice, frame relay, n* 64 channels, IP). The VPI is useful for reducing the switching table of some virtual circuits which have common paths.\n\n=== Using cells and virtual circuits for traffic engineering ===\nAnother key ATM concept involves the traffic contract. When an ATM circuit is set up each switch on the circuit is informed of the traffic class of the connection.\n\nATM traffic contracts form part of the mechanism by which \"quality of service\" (QoS) is ensured. There are four basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of parameters describing the connection.\n\n# CBR - Constant bit rate: a Peak Cell Rate (PCR) is specified, which is constant.\n# VBR - Variable bit rate: an average or Sustainable Cell Rate (SCR) is specified, which can peak at a certain level, a PCR, for a maximum interval before being problematic.\n# ABR - Available bit rate: a minimum guaranteed rate is specified.\n# UBR - Unspecified bit rate: traffic is allocated to all remaining transmission capacity.\n\nVBR has real-time and non-real-time variants, and serves for \"bursty\" traffic. Non-real-time is sometimes abbreviated to vbr-nrt.\n\nMost traffic classes also introduce the concept of Cell Delay Variation Tolerance (CDVT), which defines the \"clumping\" of cells in time.\n\n==== Traffic policing ====\nTo maintain network performance, networks may apply traffic policing to virtual circuits to limit them to their traffic contracts at the entry points to the network, i.e. the user–network interfaces (UNIs) and network-to-network interfaces (NNIs): Usage/Network Parameter Control (UPC and NPC). The reference model given by the ITU-T and ATM Forum for UPC and NPC is the generic cell rate algorithm (GCRA), which is a version of the leaky bucket algorithm. CBR traffic will normally be policed to a PCR and CDVt alone, whereas VBR traffic will normally be policed using a dual leaky bucket controller to a PCR and CDVt and an SCR and Maximum Burst Size (MBS). The MBS will normally be the packet (SAR-SDU) size for the VBR VC in cells.\n\nIf the traffic on a virtual circuit is exceeding its traffic contract, as determined by the GCRA, the network can either drop the cells or mark the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit (to identify a cell as potentially redundant). Basic policing works on a cell by cell basis, but this is sub-optimal for encapsulated packet traffic (as discarding a single cell will invalidate the whole packet). As a result, schemes such as Partial Packet Discard (PPD) and Early Packet Discard (EPD) have been created that will discard a whole series of cells until the next packet starts. This reduces the number of useless cells in the network, saving bandwidth for full packets. EPD and PPD work with AAL5 connections as they use the end of packet marker: the ATM User-to-ATM User (AUU) Indication bit in the Payload Type field of the header, which is set in the last cell of a SAR-SDU.\n\n==== Traffic shaping ====\nTraffic shaping usually takes place in the network interface card (NIC) in user equipment, and attempts to ensure that the cell flow on a VC will meet its traffic contract, i.e. cells will not be dropped or reduced in priority at the UNI. Since the reference model given for traffic policing in the network is the GCRA, this algorithm is normally used for shaping as well, and single and dual leaky bucket implementations may be used as appropriate.\n\n=== Types of virtual circuits and paths ===\nATM can build virtual circuits and virtual paths either statically or dynamically. Static circuits (permanent virtual circuits or PVCs) or paths (permanent virtual paths or PVPs) require that the circuit is composed of a series of segments, one for each pair of interfaces through which it passes.\n\nPVPs and PVCs, though conceptually simple, require significant effort in large networks. They also do not support the re-routing of service in the event of a failure. Dynamically built PVPs (soft PVPs or SPVPs) and PVCs (soft PVCs or SPVCs), in contrast, are built by specifying the characteristics of the circuit (the service \"contract\") and the two end points.\n\nFinally, ATM networks create and remove switched virtual circuits (SVCs) on demand when requested by an end piece of equipment. One application for SVCs is to carry individual telephone calls when a network of telephone switches are inter-connected using ATM. SVCs were also used in attempts to replace local area networks with ATM.\n\n=== Virtual circuit routing ===\nMost ATM networks supporting SPVPs, SPVCs, and SVCs use the Private Network Node Interface or the Private Network-to-Network Interface (PNNI) protocol. PNNI uses the same shortest-path-first algorithm used by OSPF and IS-IS to route IP packets to share topology information between switches and select a route through a network. PNNI also includes a very powerful summarization mechanism to allow construction of very large networks, as well as a call admission control (CAC) algorithm which determines the availability of sufficient bandwidth on a proposed route through a network in order to satisfy the service requirements of a VC or VP.\n\n=== Call admission and connection establishment ===\nA network must establish a connection before two parties can send cells to each other. In ATM this is called a virtual circuit (VC). It can be a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which is created administratively on the end points, or a switched virtual circuit (SVC), which is created as needed by the communicating parties. SVC creation is managed by signaling, in which the requesting party indicates the address of the receiving party, the type of service requested, and whatever traffic parameters may be applicable to the selected service. \"Call admission\" is then performed by the network to confirm that the requested resources are available and that a route exists for the connection.\n\n=== Reference model ===\nATM defines three layers:\n* ATM adaptation layer (AAL)\n* ATM layer 2, roughly corresponding to the OSI data link layer\n* physical layer, equivalent to the OSI physical layer\n", "ATM became popular with telephone companies and many computer makers in the 1990s. However, even by the end of the decade, the better price/performance of Internet Protocol-based products was competing with ATM technology for integrating real-time and bursty network traffic. Companies such as FORE Systems focused on ATM products, while other large vendors such as Cisco Systems provided ATM as an option. After the burst of the dot-com bubble, some still predicted that \"ATM is going to dominate\". However, in 2005 the ATM Forum, which had been the trade organization promoting the technology, merged with groups promoting other technologies, and eventually became the Broadband Forum.\n", "Wireless ATM, or mobile ATM, consists of an ATM core network with a wireless access network. ATM cells are transmitted from base stations to mobile terminals. Mobility functions are performed at an ATM switch in the core network, known as \"crossover switch\", which is similar to the MSC (mobile switching center) of GSM networks. The advantage of wireless ATM is its high bandwidth and high speed handoffs done at layer 2. In the early 1990s, Bell Labs and NEC research labs worked actively in this field. Andy Hopper from Cambridge University Computer Laboratory also worked in this area. There was a wireless ATM forum formed to standardize the technology behind wireless ATM networks. The forum was supported by several telecommunication companies, including NEC, Fujitsu and AT&T. Mobile ATM aimed to provide high speed multimedia communications technology, capable of delivering broadband mobile communications beyond that of GSM and WLANs.\n", "* VoATM\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* ATM Cell formats- Cisco Systems\n* Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) - Cisco Systems\n", "* \n* ATM Info and resources\n* ATM ChipWeb - Chip and NIC database\n* ''A tutorial from Juniper web site\n* ATM Tutorial\n* Vuskovic Marko, Broadband Communication Networks Lectures, San Diego State University.\n* ATM at Cisco DocWiki\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Layer 2 – Datagrams", " Deployment ", " Wireless ATM or mobile ATM ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]	Asynchronous Transfer Mode
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''anus''' (from Latin ''anus'' meaning \"ring\", \"circle\") is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the mouth. Its function is to control the expulsion of feces, unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion, which, depending on the type of animal, may include: matter which the animal cannot digest, such as bones; food material after all the nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; and dead or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts.\n\nAmphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes via the therapsids. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.\n\nThe development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals. It appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes. This accompanied or facilitated other important evolutionary developments: the bilaterian body plan, the coelom, and metamerism, in which the body was built of repeated \"modules\" which could later specialize, such as the heads of most arthropods, which are composed of fused, specialized segments.\n", "\nIn animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth. The protostomes were so named because it was thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth first (''proto–'' meaning \"first\") and the anus was formed later at the opening made by the other end of the gut. More recent research, however, shows that in protostomes the edges of the dent close up in the middle, leaving openings at the ends which become the mouth and anus.\n", "* Anal canal\n* Imperforate anus; a birth defect.\n", "\n", "* \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Development", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Anus
[ "\n\n'''Appendix''' may refer to:\n\nIn '''documents''':\nAddendum, an addition required to be made to a document by its author subsequent to its printing or publication\nBibliography, a systematic list of books and other works\nIndex (publishing), a list of words or phrases with pointers to where related material can be found in a document\n\nIn '''anatomy''':\nAppendix (anatomy), a part of the human digestive system\nAppendix of the epididymis, a detached efferent duct of the epididymis\nAppendix testis, a vestigial remnant of the Müllerian duct\nEpiploic appendix, one of several small pouches of fat on the peritoneum along the colon and rectum\nAppendix of the laryngeal ventricle, a sac that extends from the laryngeal ventricle\nMesoappendix, the portion of the mesentery that connects the ileum to the vermiform appendix\n\nIn '''music''':\nAppendix (band), a Finnish punk rock group\n\nIn '''journalism''':\nThe Appendix, a quarterly journal of history and culture\n", "* Irregular English plurals—the word \"appendix\"\n*Appendicitis\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Appendix
[ "\n\nThe '''Acantharea''' (Acantharia) are a group of radiolarian protozoa, distinguished mainly by their skeletons.\n", "The skeletons are composed of strontium sulfate crystals, which do not fossilize, and take the form of either ten diametric or twenty radial spines. The central capsule is made up of microfibrils arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spine projects, and there is also a microfibrillar cortex linked to the spines by myonemes. These assist in flotation, together with the vacuoles in the ectoplasm, which often contain zooxanthellae.\n", "The arrangement of the spines is very precise, and is described by what is called the Müllerian law, which can be described in terms of lines of latitude and longitude – the spines lie on the intersections between five of the former, symmetric about an equator, and eight of the latter, spaced uniformly. Each line of longitude carries either two ''tropical'' spines or one ''equatorial'' and two ''polar'' spines, in alternation. The way that the spines are joined together at the center of the cell varies and is one of the primary characteristics by which acanthareans are classified.\n* Holacanthida – diametric spines, simply crossed\n* Symphyacanthida – radial spines, with free bases\n* Chaunacanthida – radial spines, with articulated bases\n* Arthracanthida – radial spines, with pyramidal bases packed together\n\nThe axopods are fixed in number.\n", "Adults are usually multinucleated. Reproduction is thought to take place by formation of swarmer cells (formerly referred to as \"spores\"), which may be flagellate. Not all life cycle stages have been observed, and study of these organisms has been hampered mainly by an inability to maintain these organisms in culture through successive generations.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Structure", "Classification by spine arrangement", "Life cycle", "References" ]	Acantharea
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Amphetamine''' (contracted from ) is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and obesity. Amphetamine was discovered in 1887 and exists as two enantiomers: levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine. ''Amphetamine'' properly refers to a specific chemical, the racemic free base, which is equal parts of the two enantiomers, levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine, in their pure amine forms. The term is frequently used informally to refer to any combination of the enantiomers, or to either of them alone. Historically, it has been used to treat nasal congestion and depression. Amphetamine is also used as an athletic performance enhancer and cognitive enhancer, and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant. It is a prescription drug in many countries, and unauthorized possession and distribution of amphetamine are often tightly controlled due to the significant health risks associated with recreational use.\n\nThe first amphetamine pharmaceutical was Benzedrine, a brand which was used to treat a variety of conditions. Currently, pharmaceutical amphetamine is prescribed as racemic amphetamine, Adderall, dextroamphetamine, or the inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine. Amphetamine, through activation of a trace amine receptor, increases monoamine and excitatory neurotransmitter activity in the brain, with its most pronounced effects targeting the catecholamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine.\n\nAt therapeutic doses, amphetamine causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria, change in desire for sex, increased wakefulness, and improved cognitive control. It induces physical effects such as decreased reaction time, fatigue resistance, and increased muscle strength. Larger doses of amphetamine may impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown. Drug addiction is a serious risk with large recreational doses but is unlikely to arise from typical long-term medical use at therapeutic doses. Very high doses can result in psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) which rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long-term use. Recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses and carry a far greater risk of serious side effects.\n\nAmphetamine belongs to the phenethylamine class. It is also the parent compound of its own structural class, the substituted amphetamines, which includes prominent substances such as bupropion, cathinone, MDMA, and methamphetamine. As a member of the phenethylamine class, amphetamine is also chemically related to the naturally occurring trace amine neuromodulators, specifically phenethylamine and , both of which are produced within the human body. Phenethylamine is the parent compound of amphetamine, while is a positional isomer of amphetamine that differs only in the placement of the methyl group.\n\n\n", "\n===Medical===\n\n\n===Enhancing performance===\n\n", "\n\n", "The side effects of amphetamine are varied, and the amount of amphetamine used is the primary factor in determining the likelihood and severity of side effects. Amphetamine products such as Adderall, Dexedrine, and their generic equivalents are currently approved by the USFDA for long-term therapeutic use. Recreational use of amphetamine generally involves much larger doses, which have a greater risk of serious side effects than dosages used for therapeutic reasons.\n\n\n", "\n", "\nMany types of substances are known to interact with amphetamine, resulting in altered drug action or metabolism of amphetamine, the interacting substance, or both. Inhibitors of enzymes that metabolize amphetamine (e.g., CYP2D6 and FMO3) will prolong its elimination half-life, meaning that its effects will last longer. Amphetamine also interacts with , particularly monoamine oxidase A inhibitors, since both MAOIs and amphetamine increase plasma catecholamines (i.e., norepinephrine and dopamine); therefore, concurrent use of both is dangerous. Amphetamine modulates the activity of most psychoactive drugs. In particular, amphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of stimulants and antidepressants. Amphetamine may also decrease the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics due to its effects on blood pressure and dopamine respectively. Zinc supplementation may reduce the minimum effective dose of amphetamine when it is used for the treatment of ADHD.\n\nIn general, there is no significant interaction when consuming amphetamine with food, but the pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of amphetamine, respectively. Acidic substances reduce the absorption of amphetamine and increase urinary excretion, and alkaline substances do the opposite. Due to the effect pH has on absorption, amphetamine also interacts with gastric acid reducers such as proton pump inhibitors and H2 antihistamines, which increase gastrointestinal pH (i.e., make it less acidic).\n", "\n===Pharmacodynamics===\n\nAmphetamine exerts its behavioral effects by altering the use of monoamines as neuronal signals in the brain, primarily in catecholamine neurons in the reward and executive function pathways of the brain. The concentrations of the main neurotransmitters involved in reward circuitry and executive functioning, dopamine and norepinephrine, increase dramatically in a dose-dependent manner by amphetamine due to its effects on monoamine transporters. The reinforcing and motivational salience-promoting effects of amphetamine are mostly due to enhanced dopaminergic activity in the mesolimbic pathway. The euphoric and locomotor-stimulating effects of amphetamine are dependent upon the magnitude and speed by which it increases synaptic dopamine and norepinephrine concentrations in the striatum.\n\nAmphetamine has been identified as a potent full agonist of trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), a and G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) discovered in 2001, which is important for regulation of brain monoamines. Activation of increases production via adenylyl cyclase activation and inhibits monoamine transporter function. Monoamine autoreceptors (e.g., D2 short, presynaptic α2, and presynaptic 5-HT1A) have the opposite effect of TAAR1, and together these receptors provide a regulatory system for monoamines. Notably, amphetamine and trace amines possess high binding affinities for TAAR1, but not for monoamine autoreceptors. Imaging studies indicate that monoamine reuptake inhibition by amphetamine and trace amines is site specific and depends upon the presence of TAAR1 in the associated monoamine neurons. of TAAR1 and the dopamine transporter (DAT) has been visualized in rhesus monkeys, but of TAAR1 with the norepinephrine transporter (NET) and the serotonin transporter (SERT) has only been evidenced by messenger RNA (mRNA) expression.\n\nIn addition to the neuronal monoamine transporters, amphetamine also inhibits both vesicular monoamine transporters, VMAT1 and VMAT2, as well as SLC1A1, SLC22A3, and SLC22A5. SLC1A1 is excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3), a glutamate transporter located in neurons, SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in astrocytes, and SLC22A5 is a high-affinity carnitine transporter. Amphetamine is known to strongly induce cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) gene expression, a neuropeptide involved in feeding behavior, stress, and reward, which induces observable increases in neuronal development and survival ''in vitro''. The CART receptor has yet to be identified, but there is significant evidence that CART binds to a unique . Amphetamine also inhibits monoamine oxidases at very high doses, resulting in less monoamine and trace amine metabolism and consequently higher concentrations of synaptic monoamines. In humans, the only post-synaptic receptor at which amphetamine is known to bind is the receptor, where it acts as an agonist with micromolar affinity.\n\nThe full profile of amphetamine's short-term drug effects in humans is mostly derived through increased cellular communication or neurotransmission of dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine, CART peptides, endogenous opioids, adrenocorticotropic hormone, corticosteroids, and glutamate, which it effects through interactions with , , , , , , and possibly other biological targets.\n\nDextroamphetamine is a more potent agonist of than levoamphetamine. Consequently, dextroamphetamine produces greater stimulation than levoamphetamine, roughly three to four times more, but levoamphetamine has slightly stronger cardiovascular and peripheral effects.\n\n====Dopamine====\nIn certain brain regions, amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft. Amphetamine can enter the presynaptic neuron either through or by diffusing across the neuronal membrane directly. As a consequence of DAT uptake, amphetamine produces competitive reuptake inhibition at the transporter. Upon entering the presynaptic neuron, amphetamine activates which, through protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC) signaling, causes DAT phosphorylation. Phosphorylation by either protein kinase can result in DAT internalization ( reuptake inhibition), but phosphorylation alone induces the reversal of dopamine transport through DAT (i.e., dopamine efflux). Amphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium, an effect which is associated with DAT phosphorylation through an unidentified Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CAMK)-dependent pathway, in turn producing dopamine efflux. Through direct activation of G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels, reduces the firing rate of dopamine neurons, preventing a hyper-dopaminergic state.\n\nAmphetamine is also a substrate for the presynaptic vesicular monoamine transporter, . Following amphetamine uptake at VMAT2, amphetamine induces the collapse of the vesicular pH gradient, which results in the release of dopamine molecules from synaptic vesicles into the cytosol via dopamine efflux through VMAT2. Subsequently, the cytosolic dopamine molecules are released from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft via reverse transport at .\n\n====Norepinephrine====\nSimilar to dopamine, amphetamine dose-dependently increases the level of synaptic norepinephrine, the direct precursor of epinephrine. Based upon neuronal expression, amphetamine is thought to affect norepinephrine analogously to dopamine. In other words, amphetamine induces TAAR1-mediated efflux and reuptake inhibition at phosphorylated , competitive NET reuptake inhibition, and norepinephrine release from .\n\n====Serotonin====\nAmphetamine exerts analogous, yet less pronounced, effects on serotonin as on dopamine and norepinephrine. Amphetamine affects serotonin via and, like norepinephrine, is thought to phosphorylate via . Like dopamine, amphetamine has low, micromolar affinity at the human 5-HT1A receptor.\n\n====Other neurotransmitters, peptides, and hormones====\n\nAcute amphetamine administration in humans increases endogenous opioid release in several brain structures in the reward system. Extracellular levels of glutamate, the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, have been shown to increase in the striatum following exposure to amphetamine. This increase in extracellular glutamate presumably occurs via the amphetamine-induced internalization of EAAT3, a glutamate reuptake transporter, in dopamine neurons. Amphetamine also induces the selective release of histamine from mast cells and efflux from histaminergic neurons through . Acute amphetamine administration can also increase adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosteroid levels in blood plasma by stimulating the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.\n\n===Pharmacokinetics===\n\n\n===Related endogenous compounds===\n\n", "\n\n\nAmphetamine is a methyl homolog of the mammalian neurotransmitter phenethylamine with the chemical formula . The carbon atom adjacent to the primary amine is a stereogenic center, and amphetamine is composed of a racemic 1:1 mixture of two enantiomeric mirror images. This racemic mixture can be separated into its optical isomers: levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine. At room temperature, the pure free base of amphetamine is a mobile, colorless, and volatile liquid with a characteristically strong amine odor, and acrid, burning taste. Frequently prepared solid salts of amphetamine include amphetamine aspartate, hydrochloride, phosphate, saccharate, and sulfate, the last of which is the most common amphetamine salt. Amphetamine is also the parent compound of its own structural class, which includes a number of psychoactive derivatives. In organic chemistry, amphetamine is an excellent chiral ligand for the stereoselective synthesis of .\n\n===Substituted derivatives===\n\n\nThe substituted derivatives of amphetamine, or \"substituted amphetamines\", are a broad range of chemicals that contain amphetamine as a \"backbone\"; specifically, this chemical class includes derivative compounds that are formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in the amphetamine core structure with substituents. The class includes amphetamine itself, stimulants like methamphetamine, serotonergic empathogens like MDMA, and decongestants like ephedrine, among other subgroups.\n\n===Synthesis===\n\n\nSince the first preparation was reported in 1887, numerous synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed. The most common route of both legal and illicit amphetamine synthesis employs a non-metal reduction known as the Leuckart reaction (method 1). In the first step, a reaction between phenylacetone and formamide, either using additional formic acid or formamide itself as a reducing agent, yields . This intermediate is then hydrolyzed using hydrochloric acid, and subsequently basified, extracted with organic solvent, concentrated, and distilled to yield the free base. The free base is then dissolved in an organic solvent, sulfuric acid added, and amphetamine precipitates out as the sulfate salt.\n\nA number of chiral resolutions have been developed to separate the two enantiomers of amphetamine. For example, racemic amphetamine can be treated with to form a diastereoisomeric salt which is fractionally crystallized to yield dextroamphetamine. Chiral resolution remains the most economical method for obtaining optically pure amphetamine on a large scale. In addition, several enantioselective syntheses of amphetamine have been developed. In one example, optically pure is condensed with phenylacetone to yield a chiral Schiff base. In the key step, this intermediate is reduced by catalytic hydrogenation with a transfer of chirality to the carbon atom alpha to the amino group. Cleavage of the benzylic amine bond by hydrogenation yields optically pure dextroamphetamine.\n\nA large number of alternative synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed based on classic organic reactions. One example is the Friedel–Crafts alkylation of benzene by allyl chloride to yield beta chloropropylbenzene which is then reacted with ammonia to produce racemic amphetamine (method 2). Another example employs the Ritter reaction (method 3). In this route, allylbenzene is reacted acetonitrile in sulfuric acid to yield an organosulfate which in turn is treated with sodium hydroxide to give amphetamine via an acetamide intermediate. A third route starts with which through a double alkylation with methyl iodide followed by benzyl chloride can be converted into acid. This synthetic intermediate can be transformed into amphetamine using either a Hofmann or Curtius rearrangement (method 4).\n\nA significant number of amphetamine syntheses feature a reduction of a nitro, imine, oxime or other nitrogen-containing functional groups. In one such example, a Knoevenagel condensation of benzaldehyde with nitroethane yields . The double bond and nitro group of this intermediate is reduced using either catalytic hydrogenation or by treatment with lithium aluminium hydride (method 5). Another method is the reaction of phenylacetone with ammonia, producing an imine intermediate that is reduced to the primary amine using hydrogen over a palladium catalyst or lithium aluminum hydride (method 6).\n\n\n+'''Amphetamine synthetic routes'''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Detection in body fluids===\nAmphetamine is frequently measured in urine or blood as part of a drug test for sports, employment, poisoning diagnostics, and forensics. Techniques such as immunoassay, which is the most common form of amphetamine test, may cross-react with a number of sympathomimetic drugs. Chromatographic methods specific for amphetamine are employed to prevent false positive results. Chiral separation techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source of the drug, whether prescription amphetamine, prescription amphetamine prodrugs, (e.g., selegiline), over-the-counter drug products that contain levomethamphetamine, or illicitly obtained substituted amphetamines. Several prescription drugs produce amphetamine as a metabolite, including benzphetamine, clobenzorex, famprofazone, fenproporex, lisdexamfetamine, mesocarb, methamphetamine, prenylamine, and selegiline, among others. These compounds may produce positive results for amphetamine on drug tests. Amphetamine is generally only detectable by a standard drug test for approximately 24 hours, although a high dose may be detectable for two to four days.\n\nFor the assays, a study noted that an enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) assay for amphetamine and methamphetamine may produce more false positives than liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the derivatizing agent chloride allows for the detection of methamphetamine in urine. GC–MS of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the chiral derivatizing agent Mosher's acid chloride allows for the detection of both dextroamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine in urine. Hence, the latter method may be used on samples that test positive using other methods to help distinguish between the various sources of the drug.\n", "\n\n\nAmphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist Lazăr Edeleanu who named it ''phenylisopropylamine''; its stimulant effects remained unknown until 1927, when it was independently resynthesized by Gordon Alles and reported to have sympathomimetic properties. Amphetamine had no medical use until late 1933, when Smith, Kline and French began selling it as an inhaler under the brand name Benzedrine as a decongestant. Benzedrine sulfate was introduced three years later and was used to treat a wide variety of medical conditions, including narcolepsy, obesity, low blood pressure, low libido, and chronic pain, among others. During World War II, amphetamine and methamphetamine were used extensively by both the Allied and Axis forces for their stimulant and performance-enhancing effects. As the addictive properties of the drug became known, governments began to place strict controls on the sale of amphetamine. For example, during the early 1970s in the United States, amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act. In spite of strict government controls, amphetamine has been used legally or illicitly by people from a variety of backgrounds, including authors, musicians, mathematicians, and athletes.\n\nAmphetamine is still illegally synthesized today in clandestine labs and sold on the black market, primarily in European countries. Among European Union (EU) member states, 1.2 million young adults used illicit amphetamine or methamphetamine in 2013. During 2012, approximately 5.9 metric tons of illicit amphetamine were seized within EU member states; the \"street price\" of illicit amphetamine within the EU ranged from €6–38 per gram during the same period. Outside Europe, the illicit market for amphetamine is much smaller than the market for methamphetamine and MDMA.\n\n===Legal status===\nAs a result of the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance, as defined in the treaty, in all (183) state parties. Consequently, it is heavily regulated in most countries. Some countries, such as South Korea and Japan, have banned substituted amphetamines even for medical use. In other nations, such as Canada (schedule I drug), the Netherlands (List I drug), the United States (schedule II drug), Australia (schedule 8), Thailand (category 1 narcotic), and United Kingdom (class B drug), amphetamine is in a restrictive national drug schedule that allows for its use as a medical treatment.\n\n===Pharmaceutical products===\n\nSeveral currently prescribed amphetamine formulations contain both enantiomers, including '''Adderall''', '''Adderall XR''', '''Mydayis''', '''Adzenys XR-ODT''', '''Dyanavel XR''', and '''Evekeo''', the last of which contains racemic amphetamine sulfate. Amphetamine is also prescribed in enantiopure and prodrug form as dextroamphetamine and lisdexamfetamine respectively. Lisdexamfetamine is structurally different from amphetamine, and is inactive until it metabolizes into dextroamphetamine. The free base of racemic amphetamine was previously available as Benzedrine, Psychedrine, and Sympatedrine. Levoamphetamine was previously available as Cydril. Many current amphetamine pharmaceuticals are salts due to the comparatively high volatility of the free base. However, oral suspension and orally disintegrating tablet (ODT) dosage forms composed of the free base were introduced in 2015 and 2016. Some of the current brands and their generic equivalents are listed below.\n\n\n\n\n+ Amphetamine pharmaceuticals\n Brandname\n United StatesAdopted Name\n (D:L) ratio\n Dosageform\n Marketingstart date\n Sources\n\n Adderall \n – \n 3:1 (salts) \n tablet \n 1996 \n \n\n Adderall XR \n – \n 3:1 (salts) \n capsule \n 2001 \n \n\n Mydayis \n – \n 3:1 (salts) \n capsule \n 2017 \n \n\n \n amphetamine \n 3:1 (base) \n ODT \n 2016 \n \n\n Dyanavel XR \n amphetamine \n 3.2:1 (base) \n suspension \n 2015 \n \n\n Evekeo \n amphetamine sulfate \n 1:1 (salts) \n tablet \n 2012 \n \n\n Dexedrine \n dextroamphetamine sulfate \n 1:0 (salts) \n capsule \n 1976 \n \n\n ProCentra \n dextroamphetamine sulfate \n 1:0 (salts) \n liquid \n 2010 \n \n\n Zenzedi \n dextroamphetamine sulfate \n 1:0 (salts) \n tablet \n 2013 \n \n\n Vyvanse \n lisdexamfetamine dimesylate \n 1:0 (prodrug) \n capsule \n 2007 \n \n\n tablet\n\n\n\n+ \n\nalt=An image of the lisdexamfetamine compound\n\n\n\n", "\n\n;Image legend\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n* – Amphetamine\n* – Dextroamphetamine\n* – Levoamphetamine\n* Comparative Toxicogenomics Database entry: Amphetamine\n* Comparative Toxicogenomics Database entry: CARTPT\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Uses", "Contraindications", "Side effects", "Overdose", "Interactions", "Pharmacology", "Chemistry", "History, society, and culture", "Notes", "Reference notes", "References", "External links" ]	Amphetamine
[ "\n\nIn telecommunications, '''asynchronous communication''' is transmission of data, generally without the use of an external clock signal, where data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream. Any timing required to recover data from the communication symbols is encoded within the symbols. Plus \n\nThe most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that data is not transmitted at regular intervals, thus making possible variable bit rate, and that the transmitter and receiver clock generators do not have to be exactly synchronized all the time. In asynchronous transmission data is sent one byte at a time and each byte is preceded by start bit and stop bit.\n", "\nIn asynchronous serial communication the physical protocol layer, the data blocks are code words of a certain word length, for example octets (bytes) or ASCII characters, delimited by start bits and stop bits. A variable length space can be inserted between the code words. No bit synchronization signal is required. This is sometimes called character oriented communication. Examples are the RS-232C serial standard, and MNP2 and V.2 modems and older.\n", "Asynchronous communication at the data link layer or higher protocol layers is known as statistical multiplexing, for example asynchronous transfer mode (ATM). In this case the asynchronously transferred blocks are called data packets, for example ATM cells. The opposite is circuit switched communication, which provides constant bit rate, for example ISDN and SONET/SDH.\n\nThe packets may be encapsulated in a data frame, with a frame synchronization bit sequence indicating the start of the frame, and sometimes also a bit synchronization bit sequence, typically 01010101, for identification of the bit transition times. Note that at the physical layer, this is considered as synchronous serial communication. Examples of packet mode data link protocols that can be/are transferred using synchronous serial communication are the HDLC, Ethernet, PPP and USB protocols.\n", "\nAn asynchronous communication service or application does not require a constant bit rate. Examples are file transfer, email and the World Wide Web. An example of the opposite, a synchronous communication service, is realtime streaming media, for example IP telephony, IP-TV and video conferencing.\n", "Electronically mediated communication often happens asynchronously in that the participants do not communicate concurrently. Examples include email\nand bulletin-board systems, where participants send or post messages at different times. The term \"asynchronous communication\" acquired currency in the field of online learning, where teachers and students often exchange information asynchronously instead of synchronously (that is, simultaneously), as they would in face-to-face or in telephone conversations.\n", "* Synchronization in telecommunications\n* Asynchronous serial communication\n* Asynchronous system\n* Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)\n* Asynchronous circuit\n* Asynchrony\n* Anisochronous\n* Baud rate\n* Plesiochronous\n* Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Physical layer ", " Data link layer and higher ", " Application layer ", " Electronically mediated communication ", "See also", "References" ]	Asynchronous communication
[ "\n\n\n\nFrench naval piece of the late 19th century\n'''Artillery''' is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry's small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, fairly immobile siege engines. As technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today; modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an army's total firepower.\n\nIn its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. Since the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, the word \"artillery\" has largely meant cannon, and in contemporary usage, it usually refers to shell-firing guns, howitzers, mortars, rockets and guided missiles. In common speech, the word artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings, although these assemblages are more properly called \"equipments\". However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth: the United States uses \"artillery piece\", but most English-speaking armies use \"gun\" and \"mortar\". The projectiles fired are typically either \"shot\" (if solid) or \"shell\" (if not). \"Shell\" is a widely used generic term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions.\n\nBy association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines. In some armies one arm has operated field, coast, anti-aircraft artillery and some anti-tank artillery, in others these have been separate arms and in some nations coast has been a naval or marine responsibility. In the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms. The widespread adoption of indirect fire in the early 20th century introduced the need for specialist data for field artillery, notably survey and meteorological, in some armies provision of these are the responsibility of the artillery arm.\n\nArtillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships. The early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft: anti-aircraft guns.\n\nArtillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, and has been since at least the early Industrial Revolution. The majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was \"the God of War\".\n", "French soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War 1870–71.\nBritish 64 Pounder Rifled Muzzle-Loaded (RML) Gun on a Moncrieff disappearing mount, at Scaur Hill Fort, Bermuda. This is a part of a fixed battery, meant to protect against over-land attack and to serve as coastal artillery.\nAlthough not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. Historical references show artillery was first employed by the Roman legions at Syracuse in 399 BC, well before the Christian era. Until the introduction of gunpowder into western warfare, artillery was dependent upon mechanical energy which not only severely limited the kinetic energy of the projectiles, it also required the construction of very large engines to store sufficient energy. A 1st-century BC Roman catapult launching stones achieved a kinetic energy of 16,000 joules, compared to a mid-19th-century 12-pounder gun, which fired a round, with a kinetic energy of 240,000 joules, or a late 20th century US battleship that fired a projectile from its main battery with an energy level surpassing 350,000,000 joules.\n\nFrom the Middle Ages through most of the modern era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, artillery pieces and their crew relied on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation. These land versions of artillery were dwarfed by railway guns, which includes the largest super-gun ever conceived, theoretically capable of putting a satellite into orbit. Artillery used by naval forces has also changed significantly, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare.\n\nOver the course of military history, projectiles were manufactured from a wide variety of materials, into a wide variety of shapes, using many different methods in which to target structural/defensive works and inflict enemy casualties. The engineering applications for ordnance delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, encompassing some of the most complex and advanced technologies in use today.\n\nIn some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery. The actions involved in operating an artillery piece are collectively called \"serving the gun\" by the \"detachment\" or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The manner in which gunnery crews (or formations) are employed is called artillery support. At different periods in history this may refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground-, sea-, and even air-based weapons platforms.\n\n==Crew==\nThe term \"gunner\" is used in some armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. \nM777 Light Towed Howitzer, War in Afghanistan, 2009.\nThe gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either \"crews\" or \"detachments\". Several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company. In gun detachments, each role is numbered, starting with \"1\" the Detachment Commander, and the highest number being the Coverer, the second-in-command. \"Gunner\" is also the lowest rank and junior non-commissioned officers are \"Bombardiers\" in some artillery arms.\n\nBatteries are roughly equivalent to a company in the infantry, and are combined into larger military organizations for administrative and operational purposes, either battalions or regiments, depending on the army. These may be grouped into brigades; the Russian army also groups some brigades into artillery divisions, and the People's Liberation Army has artillery corps.\n\nThe term \"artillery\" is also applied to a combat arm of most military services when used organizationally to describe units and formations of the national armed forces that operate the weapons.\n\nDuring military operations, the role of field artillery is to provide support to other arms in combat or to attack targets, particularly in depth. Broadly, these effects fall into two categories, either to suppress or neutralize the enemy, or to cause casualties, damage, and destruction. This is mostly achieved by delivering high-explosive munitions to suppress, or inflict casualties on the enemy from casing fragments and other debris and blast, or by destroying enemy positions, equipment, and vehicles. Non-lethal munitions, notably smoke, can also be used to suppress or neutralize the enemy by obscuring their view.\n\nFire may be directed by an artillery observer or other observer, including manned and unmanned aircraft pilots, or called onto map coordinates.\n\nMilitary doctrine has played a significant influence on the core engineering design considerations of artillery ordnance through its history, in seeking to achieve a balance between delivered volume of fire with ordnance mobility. However, during the modern period, the consideration of protecting the gunners also arose due to the late-19th-century introduction of the new generation of infantry weapons using conoidal bullet, better known as the Minié ball, with a range almost as long as that of field artillery.\n\nThe gunners' increasing proximity to and participation in direct combat against other combat arms and attacks by aircraft made the introduction of a gun shield necessary. The problems of how to employ a fixed or horse-towed gun in mobile warfare necessitated the development of new methods of transporting the artillery into combat. Two distinct forms of artillery developed: the towed gun, which was used primarily to attack or defend a fixed line; and the self-propelled gun, which was designed to accompany a mobile force and provide continuous fire support. These influences have guided the development of artillery ordnance, systems, organisations, and operations until the present, with artillery systems capable of providing support at ranges from as little as 100 m to the intercontinental ranges of ballistic missiles. The only combat in which artillery is unable to take part in is close quarters combat, with the possible exception of artillery reconnaissance teams.\n", "The word as used in the current context originated in the Middle Ages. One suggestion is that it comes from the Old French ''atellier'', meaning \"to arrange\", and ''attillement'', meaning \"equipment\".\n\nFrom the 13th century, an ''artillier'' referred to a builder of any war equipment; and, for the next 250 years, the sense of the word \"artillery\" covered all forms of military weapons. Hence, the naming of the Honourable Artillery Company an essentially infantry unit until the 19th century. Another suggestion is that it comes from the Italian ''arte de tirare'' (art of shooting), coined by one of the first theorists on the use of artillery, Niccolò Tartaglia.\n", "\nMechanical systems used for throwing ammunition in ancient warfare, also known as \"engines of war\", like the catapult, onager, trebuchet, and ballista, are also referred to by military historians as artillery.\n\n===Invention of gunpowder===\nA depiction of an early vase-shaped cannon dated from around 1350 AD. The illustration is from the 14th century Ming Dynasty book ''Huolongjing''.\n\n\nEarly Chinese artillery had vase-like shapes. This includes the \"long range awe inspiring\" cannon dated from 1350 and found in the 14th century Ming Dynasty treatise ''Huolongjing''. With the development of better metallurgy techniques, later cannons abandoned the vase shape of early Chinese artillery. This change can be seen in the bronze \"thousand ball thunder cannon,\" an early example of field artillery. These small, crude weapons diffused into the Middle East (the ''madfaa'', see also the German Wikipedia and ''midfa'') and reached Europe in the 13th century, in a very limited manner.\n\nIn Asia, Mongols adopted the Chinese artillery and used it effectively in the great conquest. By the late 14th century, Chinese rebels used organized artillery and cavalry to push Mongols out.\n\nAs small smooth-bore tubes these were initially cast in iron or bronze around a core, with the first drilled bore ordnance recorded in operation near Seville in 1247. They fired lead, iron, or stone balls, sometimes large arrows and on occasions simply handfuls of whatever scrap came to hand. During the Hundred Years' War, these weapons became more common, initially as the bombard and later the cannon. Cannon were always muzzle-loaders. While there were many early attempts at breech-loading designs, a lack of engineering knowledge rendered these even more dangerous to use than muzzle-loaders.\n\n===Expansion of artillery use===\nFrench gunner in the 15th century, a 1904 illustration.\nFirst Battle of Panipat\nBullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Akbar's Siege of Ranthambore\n\nIn 1415, the Portuguese invaded the Mediterranean port town of Ceuta. While it is difficult to confirm the use of firearms in the siege of the city, it is known the Portuguese defended it thereafter with firearms, namely ''bombardas'', ''colebratas'', and ''falconetes''. In 1419, Sultan Abu Sa'id led an army to reconquer the fallen city, and Moroccans brought cannons and used them in the assault on Ceuta. Finally, hand-held firearms and riflemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against the people of Tangiers. It is clear these weapons had developed into several different forms, from small guns to large artillery pieces.\n\nThe artillery revolution in Europe caught on during the Hundred Years' War and changed the way that battles were fought. In the preceding decades, the English had even used a gunpowder-like weapon in military campaigns against the Scottish. However, at this time, the cannons used in battle were very small and not particularly powerful. Cannons were only useful for the defense of a castle, as demonstrated at Breteuil in 1356, when the besieged English used a cannon to destroy an attacking French assault tower. By the end of the 14th century, cannon were only powerful enough to knock in roofs, and could not penetrate castle walls.\n\nHowever, a major change occurred between 1420 and 1430, when artillery became much more powerful and could now batter strongholds and fortresses quite efficiently. The English, French, and Burgundians all advanced in military technology, and as a result the traditional advantage that went to the defense in a siege was lost. The cannon during this period were elongated, and the recipe for gunpowder was improved to make it three times as powerful as before. These changes led to the increased power in the artillery weapons of the time.\n\nThe Austrian Pumhart von Steyr, the earliest extant supergun.\nJoan of Arc encountered gunpowder weaponry several times. When she led the French against the English at the Battle of Tourelles, in 1430, she faced heavy gunpowder fortifications, and yet her troops prevailed in that battle. In addition, she led assaults against the English-held towns of Jargeau, Meung, and Beaugency, all with the support of large artillery units. When she led the assault on Paris, Joan faced stiff artillery fire, especially from the suburb of St. Denis, which ultimately led to her defeat in this battle. In April 1430, she went to battle against the Burgundians, whose support was purchased by the English. At this time, the Burgundians had the strongest and largest gunpowder arsenal among the European powers, and yet the French, under Joan of Arc's leadership, were able to beat back the Burgundians and defend themselves. As a result, most of the battles of the Hundred Years' War that Joan of Arc participated in were fought with gunpowder artillery.\n\nThe army of Mehmet the Conqueror, which conquered Constantinople in 1453, included both artillery and foot soldiers armed with gunpowder weapons. The Ottomans brought to the siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate batteries and trained them at the walls of the city. The barrage of Ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days, and they are estimated to have fired 19,320 times. Artillery also played a decisive role in the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs of 1444.\n\nThree of the large Korean artillery, Chongtong in the Jinju National Museum. These cannons were made in the mid 16th century. The closest is a \"Cheonja chongtong\"(천자총통, 天字銃筒), the second is a \"Jija chongtong\"(지자총통, 地字銃筒), and the third is a \"Hyeonja chongtong\"(현자총통, 玄字銃筒).\nThe new Ming Dynasty established the \"Divine Engine Battalion\" (神机营), which specialized in various types of artillery. Light cannons and cannons with multiple volleys were developed. In a campaign to suppress a local minority rebellion near today's Burmese border, the Ming army used a 3-line formation of arquebuses/muskets to destroy an elephant formation.\n\nBetween 1593 and 1597, about 200,000 Korean and Chinese troops which fought against Japan in Korea actively used heavy artillery in both siege and field combat. Korean forces mounted artillery in ships as naval guns, providing an advantage against Japanese navy which used ''Kunikuzushi'' (国崩し – Japanese breech-loading swivel gun) and ''Ōzutsu'' (大筒 – large size Tanegashima) as their largest firearms.\n\n===Smoothbores===\n'''Artillery''' with Gabion fortification.\n\nBombards were of value mainly in sieges. A famous Turkish example used at the siege of Constantinople in 1453 weighed 19 tons, took 200 men and sixty oxen to emplace, and could fire just seven times a day. The Fall of Constantinople was perhaps \"the first event of supreme importance whose result was determined by the use of artillery\" when the huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached the city's walls, ending the Byzantine Empire, according to Sir Charles Oman.\n\nBombards developed in Europe were massive smoothbore weapons distinguished by their lack of a field carriage, immobility once emplaced, highly individual design, and noted unreliability (in 1460 James II, King of Scots, was killed when one exploded at the siege of Roxburgh). Their large size precluded the barrels being cast and they were constructed out of metal staves or rods bound together with hoops like a barrel, giving their name to the gun barrel.\n\nThe use of the word \"cannon\" marks the introduction in the 15th century of a dedicated field carriage with axle, trail and animal-drawn limber—this produced mobile field pieces that could move and support an army in action, rather than being found only in siege and static defences. The reduction in the size of the barrel was due to improvements in both iron technology and gunpowder manufacture, while the development of trunnions – projections at the side of the cannon as an integral part of the cast – allowed the barrel to be fixed to a more movable base, and also made raising or lowering the barrel much easier.\n\nThe Tsar Cannon (caliber 890 mm), cast in 1586 in Moscow. It is the largest bombard in the world.\nThe first land-based mobile weapon is usually credited to Jan Žižka, who deployed his oxen-hauled cannon during the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1418–1424). However cannons were still large and cumbersome. With the rise of musketry in the 16th century, cannon were largely (though not entirely) displaced from the battlefield—the cannon were too slow and cumbersome to be used and too easily lost to a rapid enemy advance.\n\nThe combining of shot and powder into a single unit, a cartridge, occurred in the 1620s with a simple fabric bag, and was quickly adopted by all nations. It speeded loading and made it safer, but unexpelled bag fragments were an additional fouling in the gun barrel and a new tool—a worm—was introduced to remove them. Gustavus Adolphus is identified as the general who made cannon an effective force on the battlefield—pushing the development of much lighter and smaller weapons and deploying them in far greater numbers than previously. The outcome of battles was still determined by the clash of infantry.\n\nShells, explosive-filled fused projectiles, were also developed in the 17th century. The development of specialized pieces—shipboard artillery, howitzers and mortars—was also begun in this period. More esoteric designs, like the multi-barrel ''ribauldequin'' (known as \"organ guns\"), were also produced.\n\nThe 1650 book by Kazimierz Siemienowicz ''Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima'' was one of the most important contemporary publications on the subject of artillery. For over two centuries this work was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual.\n\nOne of the most significant effects of artillery during this period was however somewhat more indirect – by easily reducing to rubble any medieval-type fortification or city wall (some which had stood since Roman times), it abolished millennia of siege-warfare strategies and styles of fortification building. This led, among other things, to a frenzy of new bastion-style fortifications to be built all over Europe and in its colonies, but also had a strong integrating effect on emerging nation-states, as kings were able to use their newfound artillery superiority to force any local dukes or lords to submit to their will, setting the stage for the absolutist kingdoms to come.\n\nModern rocket artillery can trace its heritage back to the Mysorean rockets of India. Their first recorded use was in 1780 during the battles of the Second, Third and Fourth Mysore Wars. The wars fought between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore in India made use of the rockets as a weapon. In the Battle of Pollilur, the Siege of Seringapatam (1792) and in Battle of Seringapatam in 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British.\" After the wars, several Mysore rockets were sent to England, and from 1801, William Congreve copied the rockets with minor modifications as the Congreve rocket which were used effectively during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.\n\n===Napoleonic artillery===\nCannons continued to become smaller and lighter—Frederick II of Prussia deployed the first genuine light artillery during the Seven Years' War.\n\nJean-Baptiste de Gribeauval, a French artillery engineer, introduced the standardization of cannon design in the mid-18th century. He developed a field howitzer whose gun barrel, carriage assembly and ammunition specifications were made uniform for all French cannons. The standardized interchangeable parts of these cannons down to the nuts, bolts and screws made their mass production and repair much easier. Another major change at this time was the development of a flintlock firing mechanism for the cannons to replace the old method of igniting powder in the cannon touchhole. The flintlock was a far more reliable (and safe) mechanism.\n\nThese improvements in the French artillery were essential for the later military successes of Napoleon. Napoleon, himself a former artillery officer, perfected the tactic of massed artillery batteries unleashed upon a critical point in his enemies' line as a prelude to a decisive infantry and cavalry assault.\n\n===Modern artillery===\n\n\nPrussian artillery at the Battle of Langensalza (1866)\nThe development of modern artillery occurred in the mid to late 19th century as a result of the convergence of various improvements in the underlying technology. Advances in metallurgy allowed for the construction of breech-loading rifled guns that could fire at a much greater muzzle velocity.\n\nAfter the British artillery was shown up in the Crimean War as having barely changed since the Napoleonic Wars the industrialist William Armstrong was awarded a contract by the government to design a new piece of artillery. Production started in 1855 at the Elswick Ordnance Company and the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, and the outcome was the revolutionary Armstrong Gun, which marked the birth of modern artillery. Three of its features particularly stand out.\n\nArmstrong gun deployed by Japan during the left\nFirst, the piece was rifled, which allowed for a much more accurate and powerful action. Although rifling had been tried on small arms since the 15th century, the necessary machinery to accurately rifle artillery was only available by the mid-19th century. Martin von Wahrendorff, and Joseph Whitworth independently produced rifled cannon in the 1840s, but it was Armstrong's gun that was first to see widespread use during the Crimean War. The cast iron shell of the Armstrong gun was similar in shape to a Minié ball and had a thin lead coating which made it fractionally larger than the gun's bore and which engaged with the gun's rifling grooves to impart spin to the shell. This spin, together with the elimination of windage as a result of the tight fit, enabled the gun to achieve greater range and accuracy than existing smooth-bore muzzle-loaders with a smaller powder charge.\n\n8-inch Armstrong gun during American Civil War, Fort Fisher, 1865.\nHis gun was also a breech-loader. Although attempts at breech-loading mechanisms had been made since medieval times, the essential engineering problem was that the mechanism couldn't withstand the explosive charge. It was only with the advances in metallurgy and precision engineering capabilities during the Industrial Revolution that Armstrong was able to construct a viable solution. The gun combined all the properties that make up an effective artillery piece. The gun was mounted on a carriage in such a way as to return the gun to firing position after the recoil.\n\nWhat made the gun really revolutionary lay in the technique of the construction of the gun barrel that allowed it to withstand much more powerful explosive forces. The \"built-up\" method involved assembling the barrel with wrought-iron (later mild steel was used) tubes of successively smaller diameter. The tube would then be heated to allow it to expand and fit over the previous tube. When it cooled the gun would contract although not back to its original size, which allowed an even pressure along the walls of the gun which was directed inward against the outward forces that the gun firing exerted on the barrel.\n\nAnother innovative feature, more usually associated with 20th-century guns, was what Armstrong called its \"grip\", which was essentially a squeeze bore; the 6 inches of the bore at the muzzle end was of slightly smaller diameter, which centered the shell before it left the barrel and at the same time slightly swaged down its lead coating, reducing its diameter and slightly improving its ballistic qualities.\n\nThe French Canon de 75 modèle 1897, the first modern artillery piece.\nArmstrong's system was adopted in 1858, initially for \"special service in the field\" and initially he only produced smaller artillery pieces, 6-pounder (2.5 in/64 mm) mountain or light field guns, 9-pounder (3 in/76 mm) guns for horse artillery, and 12-pounder (3 inches /76 mm) field guns.\n\nThe first cannon to contain all 'modern' features is generally considered to be the French 75 of 1897. It was the first field gun to include a hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism, which kept the gun's trail and wheels perfectly still during the firing sequence. Since it did not need to be re-aimed after each shot, the crew could fire as soon as the barrel returned to its resting position. In typical use, the French 75 could deliver fifteen rounds per minute on its target, either shrapnel or melinite high-explosive, up to about 5 miles (8,500 m) away. Its firing rate could even reach close to 30 rounds per minute, albeit only for a very short time and with a highly experienced crew. These were rates that contemporary bolt action rifles could not match. The gun used cased ammunition, was breech-loading, had modern sights, a self-contained firing mechanism and hydro-pneumatic recoil dampening.\n\n====Indirect fire====\n\nIndirect fire, the firing of a projectile without relying on direct line of sight between the gun and the target, possibly dates back to the 16th century. Early battlefield use of indirect fire may have occurred at Paltzig in July 1759, when the Russian artillery fired over the tops of trees, and at the Battle of Waterloo, where a battery of the Royal Horse Artillery fired Shrapnel indirectly against advancing French troops.\n\nIn 1882, Russian Lieutenant Colonel KG Guk published ''Indirect Fire for Field Artillery'', which provided a practical method of using aiming points for indirect fire by describing, \"all the essentials of aiming points, crest clearance, and corrections to fire by an observer\".\n\nA few years later, the Richtfläche (lining-plane) sight was invented in Germany and provided a means of indirect laying in azimuth, complementing the clinometers for indirect laying in elevation which already existed. Despite conservative opposition within the German army, indirect fire was adopted as doctrine by the 1890s. In the early 1900s, Goertz in Germany developed an optical sight for azimuth laying. It quickly replaced the lining-plane; in English, it became the 'Dial Sight' (UK) or 'Panoramic Telescope' (US).\n\nThe British halfheartedly experimented with indirect fire techniques since the 1890s, but with the onset of the Boer War, they were the first to apply the theory in practice in 1899, although they had to improvise without a lining-plane sight.\n\nIn the next 15 years leading up to World War I, the techniques of indirect fire became available for all types of artillery. Indirect fire was the defining characteristic of 20th-century artillery and led to undreamt of changes in the amount of artillery, its tactics, organisation, and techniques, most of which occurred during World War I.\n\nAn implication of indirect fire and improving guns was increasing range between gun and target, this increased the time of flight and the vertex of the trajectory. The result was decreasing accuracy (the increasing distance between the target and the mean point of impact of the shells aimed at it) caused by the increasing effects of non-standard conditions. Indirect firing data was based on standard conditions including a specific muzzle velocity, zero wind, air temperature and density, and propellant temperature. In practice, this standard combination of conditions almost never existed, they varied throughout the day and day to day, and the greater the time of flight, the greater the inaccuracy. An added complication was the need for survey to accurately fix the coordinates of the gun position and provide accurate orientation for the guns. Of course, targets had to be accurately located, but by 1916, air photo interpretation techniques enabled this, and ground survey techniques could sometimes be used.\n\n15cm field howitzers during World War IIn 1914, the methods of correcting firing data for the actual conditions were often convoluted, and the availability of data about actual conditions was rudimentary or non-existent, the assumption was that fire would always be ranged (adjusted). British heavy artillery worked energetically to progressively solve all these problems from late 1914 onwards, and by early 1918, had effective processes in place for both field and heavy artillery. These processes enabled 'map-shooting', later called 'predicted fire'; it meant that effective fire could be delivered against an accurately located target without ranging. Nevertheless, the mean point of impact was still some tens of yards from the target-centre aiming point. It was not precision fire, but it was good enough for concentrations and barrages. These processes remain in use into the 21st Century with refinements to calculations enabled by computers and improved data capture about non-standard conditions.\n\nThe British major-general Henry Hugh Tudor pioneered armour and artillery cooperation at the breakthrough Battle of Cambrai. The improvements in providing and using data for non-standard conditions (propellant temperature, muzzle velocity, wind, air temperature, and barometric pressure) were developed by the major combatants throughout the war and enabled effective predicted fire. The effectiveness of this was demonstrated by the British in 1917 (at Cambrai) and by Germany the following year (Operation Michael).\n\nMajor General J. B. A. Bailey, British Army (retired) wrote:\n\n\nAn estimated 75,000 French soldiers were casualties of friendly artillery fire in the four years of World War I.\n\n===Precision-guided artillery===\nM982 Excalibur guided artillery shell\nModern artillery is most obviously distinguished by its long range, firing an explosive shell or rocket and a mobile carriage for firing and transport. However, its most important characteristic is the use of indirect fire, whereby the firing equipment is aimed without seeing the target through its sights. Indirect fire emerged at the beginning of the 20th century and was greatly enhanced by the development of predicted fire methods in World War I. However, indirect fire was area fire; it was and is not suitable for destroying point targets; its primary purpose is area suppression. Nevertheless, by the late 1970s precision-guided munitions started to appear, notably the US 155 mm Copperhead and its Soviet 152 mm equivalent that had success in Indian service. These relied on laser designation to 'illuminate' the target that the shell homed onto. However, in the early 21st Century, the Global Positioning System (GPS) enabled relatively cheap and accurate guidance for shells and missiles, notably the US 155 mm Excalibur and the 227 mm GMLRS rocket. The introduction of these led to a new issue, the need for very accurate three dimensional target coordinates – the mensuration process.\n\nWeapons covered by the term 'modern artillery' include \"cannon\" artillery (such as howitzer, mortar, and field gun) and rocket artillery. Certain smaller-caliber mortars are more properly designated small arms rather than artillery, albeit indirect-fire small arms. This term also came to include coastal artillery which traditionally defended coastal areas against seaborne attack and controlled the passage of ships. With the advent of powered flight at the start of the 20th century, artillery also included ground-based anti-aircraft batteries.\n\nThe term \"artillery\" has traditionally not been used for projectiles with internal guidance systems, preferring the term \"missilery\", though some modern artillery units employ surface-to-surface missiles. Advances in terminal guidance systems for small munitions has allowed large-caliber guided projectiles to be developed, blurring this distinction.\n", "\nOne of the most important roles of logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of artillery consumable, their storage (ammunition dump, arsenal, magazine\n) and the provision of fuses, detonators and warheads at the point where artillery troops will assemble the charge, projectile, bomb or shell.\n\nA round of artillery ammunition comprises four components:\n# Fuze\n# Projectile\n# Propellant\n# Primer\n\n===Fuzes===\n\n\nFuzes are the devices that initiate an artillery projectile, either to detonate its high explosive (HE) filling or eject its cargo (illuminating flare or smoke canisters being examples). The official military spelling is \"fuze\". Broadly there are four main types:\nimpact (including graze and delay)\nmechanical time including airburst\nproximity sensor including airburst\nelectronic time including airburst\n\nMost artillery fuzes are nose fuzes. However, base fuzes have been used with armour piercing shells and for squash head (HESH or HEP) anti-tank shells. At least one nuclear shell and its non-nuclear spotting version also used a multi-deck mechanical time fuze fitted into its base.\n\nImpact fuzes were, and in some armies remain, the standard fuze for HE projectiles. Their default action is normally 'superquick', some have had a 'graze' action which allows them to penetrate light cover and others have 'delay'. Delay fuzes allow the shell to penetrate the ground before exploding. Armor- or concrete-piercing fuzes are specially hardened. During World War I and later, ricochet fire with delay or graze fuzed HE shells, fired with a flat angle of descent, was used to achieve airburst.\n\nHE shells can be fitted with other fuzes. Airburst fuzes usually have a combined airburst and impact function. However, until the introduction of proximity fuzes, the airburst function was mostly used with cargo munitions—for example, shrapnel, illumination, and smoke. The larger calibers of anti-aircraft artillery are almost always used airburst. Airburst fuzes have to have the fuze length (running time) set on them. This is done just before firing using either a wrench or a fuze setter pre-set to the required fuze length.\n\nEarly airburst fuzes used igniferous timers which lasted into the second half of the 20th century. Mechanical time fuzes appeared in the early part of the century. These required a means of powering them. The Thiel mechanism used a spring and escapement (i.e. 'clockwork'), Junghans used centrifugal force and gears, and Dixi used centrifugal force and balls. From about 1980, electronic time fuzes started replacing mechanical ones for use with cargo munitions.\n\nProximity fuzes have been of two types: photo-electric or radar. The former was not very successful and seems only to have been used with British anti-aircraft artillery 'unrotated projectiles' (rockets) in World War II. Radar proximity fuzes were a big improvement over the mechanical (time) fuzes which they replaced. Mechanical time fuzes required an accurate calculation of their running time, which was affected by non-standard conditions. With HE (requiring a burst 20 to above the ground), if this was very slightly wrong the rounds would either hit the ground or burst too high. Accurate running time was less important with cargo munitions that burst much higher.\n\nThe first radar proximity fuzes (codenamed 'VT') were initially used against aircraft in World War II. Their ground use was delayed for fear of the enemy recovering 'blinds' (artillery shells which failed to detonate) and copying the fuze. The first proximity fuzes were designed to detonate about above the ground. These air-bursts are much more lethal against personnel than ground bursts because they deliver a greater proportion of useful fragments and deliver them into terrain where a prone soldier would be protected from ground bursts.\n\nHowever, proximity fuzes can suffer premature detonation because of the moisture in heavy rain clouds. This led to 'controlled variable time' (CVT) after World War II. These fuzes have a mechanical timer that switched on the radar about 5 seconds before expected impact, they also detonated on impact.\n\nThe proximity fuze emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944. They have become known as the U.S. Artillery's \"Christmas present\", and were much appreciated when they arrived during the Battle of the Bulge. They were also used to great effect in anti-aircraft projectiles in the Pacific against ''kamikaze'' as well as in Britain against V-1 flying bombs.\n\nElectronic multi-function fuzes started to appear around 1980. Using solid-state electronics they were relatively cheap and reliable, and became the standard fitted fuze in operational ammunition stocks in some western armies. The early versions were often limited to proximity airburst, albeit with height of burst options, and impact. Some offered a go/no-go functional test through the fuze setter.\n\nLater versions introduced induction fuze setting and testing instead of physically placing a fuze setter on the fuze. The latest, such as Junghan's DM84U provide options giving, superquick, delay, a choice of proximity heights of burst, time and a choice of foliage penetration depths.\n\nA new type of artillery fuze will appear soon. In addition to other functions these offer some course correction capability, not full precision but sufficient to significantly reduce the dispersion of the shells on the ground.\n\n===Projectiles===\n\nnuclear warheads, as seen in this 1953 nuclear test.\nThe projectile is the munition or \"bullet\" fired downrange. This may or may not be an explosive device. Traditionally, projectiles have been classified as \"shot\" or \"shell\", the former being solid and the latter having some form of \"payload\".\n\nShells can also be divided into three configurations: bursting, base ejection or nose ejection. The latter is sometimes called the shrapnel configuration. The most modern is base ejection, which was introduced in World War I. Both base and nose ejection are almost always used with airburst fuzes. Bursting shells use various types of fuze depending on the nature of the payload and the tactical need at the time.\n\nPayloads have included:\nBursting: high-explosive, white phosphorus (\"Willie Pete\" or \"Wilson Picket\"), coloured marker, chemical, nuclear devices; high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and canister may be considered special types of bursting shell.\nBase Ejection: dual purpose improved conventional munitions (DPICM)-bomblets, which arm themselves and function after a set number of rotations after having been ejected from the projectile (this produces unexploded sub-munitions, or \"duds\", which remain dangerous), scatterable mines, illuminating, coloured flare, smoke, incendiary, propaganda, chaff (foil to jam radars: originally known as \"window\") and modern exotics such as electronic payloads and sensor-fuzed munitions.\nNose Ejection: shrapnel, star, incendiary and flechette (a more modern version of shrapnel).\n\n===Stabilization===\n'''Rifled''' Traditionally, artillery projectiles have been spin-stabilised, meaning that they spin in flight so that gyroscopic forces prevent them from tumbling. Spin is induced by gun barrels having rifling which engages a soft metal band around the projectile, called a \"driving band\" (UK) or \"rotating band\" (U.S.). The driving band is usually made of copper, but synthetic materials have also been used.\n'''Smoothbore/Fin-Stabilized''' In modern artillery smoothbore tubes have been used mostly by mortars. These projectiles use fins in the airflow at their rear to maintain correct orientation. The primary benefits over rifled barrels is reduced barrel wear, longer ranges that can be achieved (due to the reduced loss of energy to friction and gas escaping around the projectile via the rifling) and larger explosive cores for a given caliber artillery due to less metal needing to be used to form the case of the projectile because of less force applied to the shell from the non-rifled sides of the barrel of smooth bore guns.\n'''Rifled/Fin-Stabilized''' A combination of the above can be used, where the barrel is rifled, but the projectile also has deployable fins for stabilization, guidance or gliding.\n\n===Propellant===\n152 mm howitzer D-20 during the Iran–Iraq War.\nMost forms of artillery require a propellant to propel the projectile at the target. Propellant is always a low explosive, this means it deflagrates instead of detonating, as with high explosives. The shell is accelerated to a high velocity in a very short time by the rapid generation of gas from the burning propellant. This high pressure is achieved by burning the propellant in a contained area, either the chamber of a gun barrel or the combustion chamber of a rocket motor.\n\nUntil the late 19th century, the only available propellant was black powder. Black powder had many disadvantages as a propellant; it has relatively low power, requiring large amounts of powder to fire projectiles, and created thick clouds of white smoke that would obscure the targets, betray the positions of guns, and make aiming impossible. In 1846, nitrocellulose (also known as guncotton) was discovered, and the high explosive nitroglycerin was discovered at much the same time. Nitrocellulose was significantly more powerful than black powder, and was smokeless. Early guncotton was unstable, however, and burned very fast and hot, leading to greatly increased barrel wear. Widespread introduction of smokeless powder would wait until the advent of the double-base powders, which combine nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin to produce powerful, smokeless, stable propellant.\n\nMany other formulations were developed in the following decades, generally trying to find the optimum characteristics of a good artillery propellant; low temperature, high energy, non-corrosive, highly stable, cheap, and easy to manufacture in large quantities. Broadly, modern gun propellants are divided into three classes: single-base propellants which are mainly or entirely nitrocellulose based, double-base propellants composed of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin, and triple base composed of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin and Nitroguanidine.\n\nArtillery shells fired from a barrel can be assisted to greater range in three ways:\nrocket-assisted projectiles (RAP) enhance and sustain the projectile's velocity by providing additional 'push' from a small rocket motor that is part of the projectile's base.\nBase bleed uses a small pyrotechnic charge at the base of the projectile to introduce sufficient combustion products into the low-pressure region behind the base of the projectile responsible for a large proportion of the drag.\nramjet-assisted, similar to rocket-assisted, but using a ramjet instead of a rocket motor; it is anticipated that a ramjet-assisted 120-mm mortar shell could reach a range of .\n\nPropelling charges for tube artillery can be provided in one of two ways: either as cartridge bags or in metal cartridge cases. Generally, anti-aircraft artillery and smaller-caliber (up to 3\" or 76.2 mm) guns use metal cartridge cases that include the round and propellant, similar to a modern rifle cartridge. This simplifies loading and is necessary for very high rates of fire. Bagged propellant allows the amount of powder to be raised or lowered, depending on the range to the target. It also makes handling of larger shells easier. Each requires a totally different type of breech to the other. A metal case holds an integral primer to initiate the propellant and provides the gas seal to prevent the gases leaking out of the breech; this is called obturation. With bagged charges, the breech itself provides obturation and holds the primer. In either case, the primer is usually percussion, but electrical is also used, and laser ignition is emerging. Modern 155 mm guns have a primer magazine fitted to their breech.\n\nBattleship Ammunition: 16\" artillery shells aboard one of the United States s.\nArtillery ammunition has four classifications according to use:\n'''Service:''' ammunition used in live fire training or for wartime use in a combat zone. Also known as \"warshot\" ammunition.\n'''Practice:''' Ammunition with a non- or minimally-explosive projectile that mimics the characteristics (range, accuracy) of live rounds for use under training conditions. Practice artillery ammunition often utilizes a colored-smoke-generating bursting charge for marking purposes in place of the normal high-explosive charge.\n'''Dummy:''' Ammunition with an inert warhead, inert primer, and no propellant; used for training or display.\n'''Blank:''' Ammunition with live primer, greatly reduced propellant charge (typically black powder), and no projectile; used for training, demonstration or ceremonial use.\n", "\n\n''Cyclone'' of the 320th French Artillery, in Hoogstade, Belgium, September 5, 1917.\nBecause field artillery mostly uses indirect fire the guns have to be part of a system that enables them to attack targets invisible to them in accordance with the combined arms plan.\n\nThe main functions in the field artillery system are:\nCommunications\nCommand: authority to allocate resources;\nTarget acquisition: detect, identify and deduce the location of targets;\nControl: authority to decide which targets to attack and allot fire units to the attack;\nComputation of firing data – to deliver fire from a fire unit onto its target;\nFire units: guns, launchers or mortars grouped together;\nSpecialist services: produce data to support the production of accurate firing data;\nLogistic services: to provide combat supplies, particularly ammunition, and equipment support.\n\nOrganisationally and spatially, these functions can be arranged in many ways. Since the creation of modern indirect fire, different armies have done it differently at different times and in different places. Technology is often a factor, but so are military–social issues, the relationships between artillery and other arms, and the criteria by which military capability, efficiency, and effectiveness are judged. Cost is also an issue because artillery is expensive due to the large quantities of ammunition that it uses and its level of manpower.\n\n'''Communications''' underpin the artillery system, as it must be reliable and available in real-time. During the 20th century communications often used flags, morse code by radio, line and lights (which could include voice and teleprinter, to name a few contrivances). Radio has included HF, VHF, satellite and radio relay as well as modern tactical trunk systems. In western armies radio communications are now usually encrypted.\n\nThe emergence of mobile and man-portable radios after World War I had a major impact on artillery because it enabled fast and mobile operations with observers accompanying the infantry or armoured troops. In World War II, some armies fitted their self-propelled guns with radios. However, sometimes in the first half of the 20th century, hardcopy artillery fire plans and map traces were distributed.\n\nData communications can be especially important for artillery because by using structured messages and defined data types fire control messages can be automatically routed and processed by computers. For example, a target acquisition element can send a message with target details which is automatically routed through the tactical and technical fire control elements to deliver firing data to the gun's laying system and the gun automatically laid. As tactical data networks become pervasive, they will provide any connected soldier with a means for reporting target information and requesting artillery fire.\n\n'''Command''' is the authority to allocate resources, typically by assigning artillery formations or units. Terminology and its implications vary widely. However, very broadly, artillery units are assigned in direct support or in general support. Typically, the former mostly provide close support to manoeuvre units, while the latter may provide close support and or depth fire, notably counter-battery. Generally, 'direct support' also means that the artillery unit provides artillery observation and liaison teams to the supported units. Sometimes, direct support units are placed under command of the regiment/brigade they support. General support units may be grouped into artillery formations; for example, brigades, even divisions, or multi-battalion regiments, and usually under command of division, corps, or higher HQs. General support units tend to be moved to where they are most required at any particular time. Artillery command may impose priorities and constraints to support their combined arms commander's plans.\n\n'''Target acquisition''' can take many forms, it is usually observation in real time, but may be the product of analysis. Artillery observation teams are the most common means of target acquisition. However, air observers have been use since the beginning of indirect fire and were quickly joined by air photography. Target acquisition may also be by anyone that can get the information into the artillery system. Targets may be visible to forward troops or in depth and invisible to them.\n\nObservation equipment can vary widely in its complexity.\nUnmanned air vehicles are the latest form of air observation, having been first introduced in the early 1960s.\nThe equipment available to observation teams has progressed from just prismatic compass, hand-held or tripod mounted binoculars and sometimes optical range-finders.\nSpecial equipment for locating hostile artillery: flash spotting and notably sound ranging appeared in World War I the latter has been undergone increasing refinement as technology has improved. These were joined by radar in World War II.\nIn the mid-1970s several armies started equipping their artillery observation teams with laser rangefinders, ground surveillance radars and night vision devices, these were soon followed by inertial orienting and navigating devices to improve the accuracy of target locations. The Global Positioning System (GPS) provided a smaller and cheaper means of quick and accurate fixation for target acquisition devices.\nSpecialised units with ground surveillance radars, unattended ground sensors or observation patrols operating in depth have also been used.\nTargets in depth may also be 'acquired' by intelligence processes using various sources and agencies such as HUMINT, SIGINT, ELINT and IMINT.\nLaser guided shells require laser target designators, usually with observation teams on the ground but UAV installations are possible.\nSpecialised artillery observation vehicles appeared in World War II and have greatly increased in sophistication since that time.\n\n'''Control''', sometimes called tactical fire control, is primarily concerned with 'targeting' and the allotment of fire units to targets. This is vital when a target is within range of many fire units and the number of fire units needed depends on the nature of the target, and the circumstances and purpose of its engagement. Targeting is concerned with selecting the right weapons in the right quantities to achieve the required effects on the target. Allotment attempts to address the artillery dilemma—important targets are rarely urgent and urgent targets are rarely important. Of course importance is a matter of perspective; what is important to a divisional commander is rarely the same as what is important to an infantry platoon commander.\nAfghans with two captured artillery field guns in Jaji, 1984.\nBroadly, there are two situations: fire against opportunity targets, and targets whose engagement is planned as part of a particular operation. In the latter situation, command assigns fire units to the operation and an overall artillery fire planner makes a plan, possibly delegating resources for some parts of it to other planners. Fire plans may also involve use of non-artillery assets, such as mortars and aircraft.\n\nControl of fire against opportunity targets is an important differentiator between different types of artillery system. In some armies, only designated artillery HQs have the tactical fire control authority to order fire units to engage a target, all 'calls for fire' being requests to these HQs. This authority may also extend to deciding the type and quantity of ammunition to be used. In other armies, an 'authorised observer' (for example, artillery observation team or other target acquisition element) can order fire units to engage. In the latter case, a battery observation team can order fire to their own battery and may be authorised to order fire to their own battalion, and sometimes to many battalions. For example, a divisional artillery commander may authorise selected observers to order fire to the entire divisional artillery. When observers or cells are not authorised, they can still request fire.\n\nArmies that apply forward tactical control generally put the majority of the more senior officers of artillery units forward in command observation posts or with the supported arm. Those that do not use this approach tend to put these officers close to the guns. In either case, the observation element usually controls fire in detail against the target, such as adjusting it onto the target, moving it, and coordinating it with the supported arm as necessary to achieve the required effects.\n\n'''Firing data''' has to be calculated and is the key to indirect fire; the arrangements for this have varied widely. Firing data has two components: quadrant elevation and azimuth, to these may be added the size of propelling charge and the fuze setting. The process to produce firing data is sometimes called technical fire control. Before computers, some armies set the range on the gun's sights, which mechanically corrected it for the gun's muzzle velocity. For the first few decades of indirect fire, firing data were calculated by the observer, who then adjusted the fall of shot onto the target.\n\nThe need to engage targets at night, in depth, or hit the target with the first rounds led to predicted fire being quickly developed in World War I. Predicted fire existed alongside the older method. After World War II, predicted methods were invariably applied, but the fall of shot usually needed adjustment because of inaccuracy in locating the target, the proximity of friendly troops, or the need to engage a moving target. Target location errors were significantly reduced once laser rangefinders, orientation, and navigation devices were issued to observation parties.\n\nIn predicted fire, the basic geospatial data of range, angle of sight, and azimuth between a fire unit and its target was produced and corrected for variations from the 'standard conditions'. These variations included barrel wear, propellant temperature, different projectiles weights that all affected the muzzle velocity, and air temperature, density, wind speed & direction, and rotation of the Earth that affect the shell in flight. The net effect of variations can also be determined by shooting at an accurately known point, a process called 'registration'.\n\nAll these calculations to produce a quadrant elevation (or range) and azimuth were done manually using instruments, tablulated, data of the moment, and approximations until battlefield computers started appearing in the 1960s and 1970s. While some early calculators copied the manual method (typically substituting polynomials for tabulated data), computers use a different approach. They simulate a shell's trajectory by 'flying' it in short steps and applying data about the conditions affecting the trajectory at each step. This simulation is repeated until it produces a quadrant elevation and azimuth that lands the shell within the required 'closing' distance of the target coordinates. \nNATO has a standard ballistic model for computer calculations and has expanded the scope of this into the NATO Armaments Ballistic Kernel (NABK) within the SG2 Shareable (Fire Control) Software Suite (S4).\n\nTechnical fire control has been performed in various places, but mostly in firing batteries. However, in the 1930s, the French moved it to battalion level and combined it with some tactical fire control. This was copied by the US. Nevertheless, most armies seemed to have retained it within firing batteries, and some duplicated the technical fire control teams in a battery to give operational resilience and tactical flexibility. Computers reduced the number of men needed and enabled decentralisation of technical fire control to autonomous sub-battery fire units, such as platoons, troops, or sections, although some armies had sometimes done this with their manual methods. Computation on the gun or launcher, integrated with their laying system, is also possible. MLRS led the way in this.\n3rd Marine Division complete construction of M101 105 mm howitzer positions at a mountain-top fire support base, Vietnam, 1968\n\nA '''fire unit''' is the smallest artillery element, consisting of one or more weapon systems, capable of being employed to execute a fire assigned by a tactical fire controller. Generally it is a battery, but sub-divided batteries are also used. On occasions a battery of 6 guns has been 6 fire units. Fire units may or may not occupy separate positions.\n\n'''Specialist services''' provide data need for predicted fire. Increasingly, they are provided from within firing units. These services include:\nSurvey: accurate fixation and orientation of the guns, historically this involved specialists within field artillery units and specialist units. In some armies mapping and amp supply has also been an artillery responsibility. Survey is also essential for some target acquisition devices. Traditional survey methods of measurement and calculation have been replaced by inertial orientation and navigators and GPS.\nMeteorological data: historically these were usually divisional level specialist teams but advances in technology mean they are now increasingly part of artillery units.\nCalibration: periodically establishing the \"normal\" muzzle velocity of each gun as it wears. Originally this involved special facilities and army level teams. Measurement using Doppler radar, introduced in the 1950s, started to simplify arrangements. Some armies now have a muzzle velocity measuring radar permanently fitted to every gun.\n\n===Logistics===\nSupply of artillery ammunition has always been a major component of military logistics. Up until World War I some armies made artillery responsible for all forward ammunition supply because the load of small arms ammunition was trivial compared to artillery. Different armies use different approaches to ammunition supply, which can vary with the nature of operations. Differences include where the logistic service transfers artillery ammunition to artillery, the amount of ammunition carried in units and extent to which stocks are held at unit or battery level. A key difference is whether supply is 'push' or 'pull'. In the former the 'pipeline' keeps pushing ammunition into formations or units at a defined rate. In the latter units fire as tactically necessary and replenish to maintain or reach their authorised holding (which can vary), so the logistic system has to be able to cope with surge and slack.\n", "Artillery types can be categorised in several ways, for example by type or size of weapon or ordnance, by role or by organizational arrangements.\n\n===Types of ordnance===\nThe types of cannon artillery are generally distinguished by the velocity at which they fire projectiles.\nTypes of artillery:\nGerman Army PzH 2000 self-propelled artillery\nField artillery: mobile weapons used to support armies in the field. Subcategories include:\ninfantry support guns: directly support infantry units.\nmountain guns: lightweight weapons that can be moved through difficult terrain.\nfield guns: capable of long range fire.\nhowitzers: capable of high angle fire, they are most often employed for indirect-fire.\ngun howitzers: capable of high or low angle fire with a long barrel.\nmortars: typically short-barreled, high-trajectory weapons designed primarily for an indirect-fire role.\nanti-tank artillery: weapons, usually mobile, designed for attacking tanks.\nanti-aircraft artillery: weapons, usually mobile, designed for attacking aircraft from the ground. Some guns were suitable for dual-role anti-aircraft and field (anti-tank) use. The World War II German 88 mm gun was a famous example.\nrocket artillery: rocket-launched instead of shot or shell.\nRailway gun: large-caliber weapons that are mounted on, transported by and fired from specially-designed railway wagons.\nNaval piece of artillery, early 19th century\nNaval artillery: guns mounted on warships and used either against other ships or in support of ground forces. The crowning achievement of naval artillery was the battleship, but the advent of airpower and missiles have rendered this type of artillery largely obsolete. They are typically longer-barreled, low-trajectory, high-velocity weapons designed primarily for a direct-fire role.\nCoastal artillery: Fixed-position weapons dedicated to defense of a particular location, usually a coast (for example, the Atlantic Wall in World War II) or harbor. Not needing to be mobile, coastal artillery used to be much larger than equivalent field artillery pieces, giving them longer range and more destructive power. Modern coastal artillery (for example, Russia's \"Bereg\" system) is often self-propelled, (allowing it to avoid counter-battery fire) and fully integrated, meaning that each battery has all of the support systems that it requires (maintenance, targeting radar, etc.) organic to its unit.\n\nModern field artillery can also be split into two other subcategories: towed and self-propelled. As the name suggests, towed artillery has a prime mover, usually an artillery tractor or truck, to move the piece, crew, and ammunition around. Towed artillery is in some cases equipped with an APU for small displacements. Self-propelled artillery is permanently mounted on a carriage or vehicle with room for the crew and ammunition and is thus capable of moving quickly from one firing position to another, both to support the fluid nature of modern combat and to avoid counter-battery fire. It includes mortar carrier vehicles, many of which allow the mortar to be removed from the vehicle and be used dismounted, potentially in terrain in which the vehicle cannot navigate, or in order to avoid detection.\n\n===Organizational types===\nAt the beginning of the modern artillery period, the late 19th century, many armies had three main types of artillery, in some case they were sub-branches within the artillery branch in others they were separate branches or corps. There were also other types excluding the armament fitted to warships:\nHorse-drawn artillery.\nMan-pulled artillery.\nAustralian gunners, wearing gas masks, operate a howitzer during World War I.\nHorse artillery, first formed as regular units in the late 18th century, with the role of supporting cavalry, they were distinguished by the entire crew being mounted.\nField or \"foot\" artillery, the main artillery arm of the field army, using either guns, howitzers or mortars. In World War II this branch again started using rockets and later surface to surface missiles.\nFortress or garrison artillery, manned a nation's fixed defences using guns, howitzers or mortars, either on land or coastal frontiers. Some had deployable elements to provide heavy artillery to the field army. In some nations coast defence artillery was a naval responsibility.\nMountain artillery, a few nations treated mountain artillery as a separate branch, in others it was a speciality in another artillery branch. They used light guns or howitzers, usually designed for pack animal transport and easily broken down into small easily handled loads\nNaval artillery, some nations carried pack artillery on some warships, these were used and manhandled by naval (or marine) landing parties. At times, part of a ship's armament would be unshipped and mated to makeshift carriages and limbers for actions ashore, for example during the Second Boer War, during the First World War the guns from the stricken SMS ''Königsberg'' formed the main artillery strength of the German forces in East Africa.\nFiring of an 18-pound gun, Louis-Philippe Crepin, (1772–1851)\nAfter World War I many nations merged these different artillery branches, in some cases keeping some as sub-branches. Naval artillery disappeared apart from that belonging to marines. However, two new branches of artillery emerged during that war and its aftermath, both used specialised guns (and a few rockets) and used direct not indirect fire, in the 1950s and 1960s both started to make extensive use of missiles:\nAnti-tank artillery, also under various organisational arrangements but typically either field artillery or a specialist branch and additional elements integral to infantry, etc., units. However, in most armies field and anti-aircraft artillery also had at least a secondary anti-tank role. After World War II anti-tank in Western armies became mostly the responsibility of infantry and armoured branches and ceased to be an artillery matter, with some exceptions.\nAnti-aircraft artillery, under various organisational arrangements including being part of artillery, a separate corps, even a separate service or being split between army for the field and airforce for home defence. In some cases infantry and the new armoured corps also operated their own integral light anti-aircraft artillery. Home defence anti-aircraft artillery often used fixed as well as mobile mountings. Some anti-aircraft guns could also be used as field or anti-tank artillery, providing they had suitable sights.\n\nHowever, the general switch by artillery to indirect fire before and during World War I led to a reaction in some armies. The result was accompanying or infantry guns. These were usually small, short range guns, that could be easily man-handled and used mostly for direct fire but some could use indirect fire. Some were operated by the artillery branch but under command of the supported unit. In World War II they were joined by self-propelled assault guns, although other armies adopted infantry or close support tanks in armoured branch units for the same purpose, subsequently tanks generally took on the accompanying role.\n\n===Equipment types===\nContinental Artillery crew from the American Revolution handling a cannon.\nThe three main types of artillery \"gun\" are guns, howitzers and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm had become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti-aircraft and coastal guns. The term \"cannon\" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies.\n\nThe traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern \"howitzers\" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent \"guns\" of the first half of the 20th century.\n\nTrue guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. A British 60-pounder () gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks.\n\nHowitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi-charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately).\n\nThat leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of \"gun\" or \"howitzer\". By the 1960s, most equipments had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi-charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels.\n\nMortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a \"baseplate\" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading.\n\nThere are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called \"QF\" or \"quickfiring\" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called \"BL\" or \"breech loading\" by some nations.\n\nA second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self-propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry.\n\nA variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s.\n\nIn an SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry little or no ammunition. Armoured SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armoured SPs were mostly a \"casemate\" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self-propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine.\n\nTwo other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re-assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super-heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as \"fighting vehicles\" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.\n\n===Caliber categories===\nA third form of artillery typing is to classify it as \"light\", \"medium\", \"heavy\" and various other terms. It appears to have been introduced in World War I, which spawned a very wide array of artillery in all sorts of sizes so a simple categorical system was needed. Some armies defined these categories by bands of calibers. Different bands were used for different types of weapons—field guns, mortars, anti-aircraft guns and coast guns.\n", "Two French Army Giat GCT 155mm (155 mm AUF1) Self-propelled Guns, 40th Regiment d' Artillerie, with IFOR markings are parked at Hekon base, near Mostar, Bosnia-Herzegovina, in support of Operation Joint Endeavor.\n\nList of countries in order of amount of artillery:\n\n# Russia – 26,121\n# Democratic People's Republic of Korea – 17,900+\n# China – 17,700+\n# India – 11,258+\n# Republic of Korea – 10,774+\n# United States – 8,137\n# Turkey – 7,450+\n# Israel – 5,432\n# Egypt – 4,480\n# Pakistan – 9,291+\n# Syria – 3,805+\n# Algeria – 3,465\n# Iran – 3,668+\n# Jordan – 2,339\n# Iraq – 2,300+\n# Finland – 1,398\n# France – 758\n# Brazil – 900\n# Cameroon – 883\n# Morocco – 848\n# Hungary – 835\n\nArtillery is used in a variety of roles depending on its type and caliber. The general role of artillery is to provide ''fire support''—\"the application of fire, coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy, ''neutralize'' or ''suppress'' the enemy\". This NATO definition, of course, makes artillery a supporting arm although not all NATO armies agree with this logic. The ''italicised'' terms are NATO's.\n\nUnlike rockets, guns (or howitzers as some armies still call them) and mortars are suitable for delivering ''close supporting fire''. However, they are all suitable for providing ''deep supporting fire'' although the limited range of many mortars tends to exclude them from the role. Their control arrangements and limited range also mean that mortars are most suited to ''direct supporting fire''. Guns are used either for this or ''general supporting fire'' while rockets are mostly used for the latter. However, lighter rockets may be used for direct fire support. These rules of thumb apply to NATO armies.\n\nModern mortars, because of their lighter weight and simpler, more transportable design, are usually an integral part of infantry and, in some armies, armor units. This means they generally do not have to ''concentrate'' their fire so their shorter range is not a disadvantage. Some armies also consider infantry operated mortars to be more responsive than artillery, but this is a function of the control arrangements and not the case in all armies. However, mortars have always been used by artillery units and remain with them in many armies, including a few in NATO.\n\nIn NATO armies artillery is usually assigned a tactical mission that establishes its relationship and responsibilities to the formation or units it is assigned to. It seems that not all NATO nations use the terms and outside NATO others are probably used. The standard terms are: ''direct support'', ''general support'', ''general support reinforcing'' and ''reinforcing''. These tactical missions are in the context of the command authority: ''operational command'', ''operational control'', ''tactical command'' or ''tactical control''.\n\nIn NATO direct support generally means that the directly supporting artillery unit provides observers and liaison to the manoeuvre troops being supported, typically an artillery battalion or equivalent is assigned to a brigade and its batteries to the brigade's battalions. However, some armies achieve this by placing the assigned artillery units under command of the directly supported formation. Nevertheless, the batteries' fire can be ''concentrated'' onto a single target, as can the fire of units in range and with the other tactical missions.\n\n===Application of fire===\nA 155 mm artillery shell fired by a United States 11th Marine Regiment M-198 howitzer\nThere are several dimensions to this subject. The first is the notion that fire may be against an ''opportunity'' target or may be ''prearranged''. If it is the latter it may be either ''on-call'' or ''scheduled''. Prearranged targets may be part of a ''fire plan''. Fire may be either ''observed'' or ''unobserved'', if the former it may be ''adjusted'', if the latter then it has to be ''predicted''. Observation of adjusted fire may be directly by a forward observer or indirectly via some other ''target acquisition'' system.\n\nNATO also recognises several different types of fire support for tactical purposes:\n''Counterbattery fire'': delivered for the purpose of destroying or ''neutralizing'' the enemy's fire support system.\n''Counterpreparation fire'': intensive prearranged fire delivered when the imminence of the enemy attack is discovered.\n''Covering fire'': used to protect troops when they are within range of enemy small arms.\n''Defensive fire'': delivered by supporting units to assist and protect a unit engaged in a defensive action.\n''Final Protective Fire'': an immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas.\n''Harassing fire'': a random number of shells are fired at random intervals, without any pattern to it that the enemy can predict. This process is designed to hinder enemy forces' movement, and, by the constantly imposed stress, threat of losses and inability of enemy forces to relax or sleep, lowers their morale.\n''Interdiction fire'': placed on an area or point to prevent the enemy from using the area or point.\n''Preparation fire'': delivered before an attack to weaken the enemy position.\n\nThese purposes have existed for most of the 20th century, although their definitions have evolved and will continue to do so, lack of ''suppression'' in ''counterbattery'' is an omission. Broadly they can be defined as either:\n''Deep supporting fire'': directed at objectives not in the immediate vicinity of own force, for neutralizing or destroying enemy reserves and weapons, and interfering with enemy command, supply, communications and observation; or\n''Close supporting fire'': placed on enemy troops, weapons or positions which, because of their proximity present the most immediate and serious threat to the supported unit.\nUSMC M-198 firing outside of Fallujah, Iraq in 2004\nTwo other NATO terms also need definition:\n''Neutralization fire'': delivered to render a target temporarily ineffective or unusable; and\n''Suppression fire'': that degrades the performance of a target below the level needed to fulfill its mission. Suppression is usually only effective for the duration of the fire.\n\nThe tactical purposes also include various \"mission verbs\", a rapidly expanding subject with the modern concept of \"effects based operations\".\n\n''Targeting'' is the process of selecting target and matching the appropriate response to them taking account of operational requirements and capabilities. It requires consideration of the type of fire support required and the extent of coordination with the supported arm. It involves decisions about:\nwhat effects are required, for example, ''neutralization'' or ''suppression'';\nthe proximity of and risks to own troops or non-combatants;\nwhat types of munitions, including their fuzing, are to be used and in what quantities;\nwhen the targets should be attacked and possibly for how long;\nwhat methods should be used, for example, ''converged'' or ''distributed'', whether adjustment is permissible or surprise essential, the need for special procedures such as precision or danger close\nhow many fire units are needed and which ones they should be from those that are available (in range, with the required munitions type and quantity, not allotted to another target, have the most suitable line of fire if there is a risk to own troops or non-combatants);\n\nThe ''targeting'' process is the key aspect of tactical fire control. Depending on the circumstances and national procedures it may all be undertaken in one place or may be distributed. In armies practicing control from the front, most of the process may be undertaken by a forward observer or other target acquirer. This is particularly the case for a smaller target requiring only a few fire units. The extent to which the process is formal or informal and makes use of computer based systems, documented norms or experience and judgement also varies widely armies and other circumstances.\n\nSurprise may be essential or irrelevant. It depends on what effects are required and whether or not the target is likely to move or quickly improve its protective posture. During World War II UK researchers concluded that for impact fuzed munitions the relative risk were as follows:\nmen standing – 1\nmen lying – 1/3\nmen firing from trenches – 1/15–1/50\nmen crouching in trenches – 1/25–1/100\nAirburst munitions significantly increase the relative risk for lying men, etc. Historically most casualties occur in the first 10–15 seconds of fire, i.e. the time needed to react and improve protective posture, however, this is less relevant if airburst is used.\n\nThere are several ways of making best use of this brief window of maximum vulnerability:\nordering the guns to fire together, either by executive order or by a \"fire at\" time. The disadvantage is that if the fire is ''concentrated'' from many dispersed ''fire units'' then there will be different times of flight and the first rounds will be spread in time. To some extent a large concentration offsets the problem because it may mean that only one round is required from each gun and most of these could arrive in the 15 second window.\nburst fire, a rate of fire to deliver three rounds from each gun within 10 or 15 seconds, this reduces the number of guns and hence fire units needed, which means they may be less dispersed and have less variation in their times of flight. Smaller caliber guns, such as 105 mm, have always been able to deliver three rounds in 15 seconds, larger calibers firing fixed rounds could also do it but it wasn't until the 1970s that a multi-charge 155 mm howitzer, FH-70 first gained the capability.\nmultiple round simultaneous impact (MRSI), where a single weapon or multiple individual weapons fire multiple rounds at differing trajectories so that all rounds arrive on target at the same time.\n''time on target'', fire units fire at the time less their time of flight, this works well with prearranged scheduled fire but is less satisfactory for opportunity targets because it means delaying the delivery of fire by selecting a 'safe' time that all or most fire units can achieve. It can be used with both the previous two methods.\n\n===Counter-battery fire===\n\nModern counter-battery fire developed in World War I, with the objective of defeating the enemy's artillery. Typically such fire was used to suppress enemy batteries when they were or were about to interfere with the activities of friendly forces (such as to prevent enemy defensive artillery fire against an impending attack) or to systematically destroy enemy guns. In World War I the latter required air observation. The first indirect counter-battery fire was in May 1900 by an observer in a balloon.\n\nEnemy artillery can be detected in two ways, either by direct observation of the guns from the air or by ground observers (including specialist reconnaissance), or from their firing signatures. This includes radars tracking the shells in flight to determine their place of origin, sound ranging detecting guns firing and resecting their position from pairs of microphones or cross-observation of gun flashes using observation by human observers or opto-electronic devices, although the widespread adoption of 'flashless' propellant limited the effectiveness of the latter.\n\nOnce hostile batteries have been detected they may be engaged immediately by friendly artillery or later at an optimum time, depending on the tactical situation and the counter-battery policy. Air strike is another option. In some situations the task is to locate all active enemy batteries for attack using a counter-battery fire at the appropriate moment in accordance with a plan developed by artillery intelligence staff. In other situations counter-battery fire may occur whenever a battery is located with sufficient accuracy.\n\nModern counter-battery target acquisition uses unmanned aircraft, counter-battery radar, ground reconnaissance and sound-ranging. Counter-battery fire may be adjusted by some of the systems, for example the operator of an unmanned aircraft can 'follow' a battery if it moves. Defensive measures by batteries include frequently changing position or constructing defensive earthworks, the tunnels used by North Korea being an extreme example. Counter-measures include air defence against aircraft and attacking counter-battery radars physically and electronically.\n\nModern artillery ammunition. Caliber 155 mm as used by the PzH 2000\n\n===Field artillery team===\n\n'Field Artillery Team' is a US term and the following description and terminology applies to the US, other armies are broadly similar but differ in significant details. Modern field artillery (post–World War I) has three distinct parts: the forward observer (or FO), the fire direction center (FDC) and the actual guns themselves. The forward observer observes the target using tools such as binoculars, laser rangefinders, designators and call back fire missions on his radio, or relays the data through a portable computer via an encrypted digital radio connection protected from jamming by computerized frequency hopping. A lesser known part of the team is the FAS or Field Artillery Survey team which setups up the \"Gun Line\" for the cannons. Today most artillery battalions use a(n) \"Aiming Circle\" which allows for faster setup and more mobility. FAS teams are still used for checks and balances purposes and if a gun battery has issues with the \"Aiming Circle\" a FAS team will do it for them.\n\nThe FO can communicate directly with the battery FDC, of which there is one per each battery of 4–8 guns. Otherwise the several FOs communicate with a higher FDC such as at a Battalion level, and the higher FDC prioritizes the targets and allocates fires to individual batteries as needed to engage the targets that are spotted by the FOs or to perform preplanned fires.\n\nThe Battery FDC computes firing data—ammunition to be used, powder charge, fuse settings, the direction to the target, and the quadrant elevation to be fired at to reach the target, what gun will fire any rounds needed for adjusting on the target, and the number of rounds to be fired on the target by each gun once the target has been accurately located—to the guns. Traditionally this data is relayed via radio or wire communications as a warning order to the guns, followed by orders specifying the type of ammunition and fuse setting, direction, and the elevation needed to reach the target, and the method of adjustment or orders for fire for effect (FFE). However, in more advanced artillery units, this data is relayed through a digital radio link.\n\nOther parts of the field artillery team include meteorological analysis to determine the temperature, humidity and pressure of the air and wind direction and speed at different altitudes. Also radar is used both for determining the location of enemy artillery and mortar batteries and to determine the precise actual strike points of rounds fired by battery and comparing that location with what was expected to compute a registration allowing future rounds to be fired with much greater accuracy.\n\n=== Time on Target ===\nA technique called Time on Target was developed by the British Army in North Africa at the end of 1941 and early 1942 particularly for counter-battery fire and other concentrations, it proved very popular. It relied on BBC time signals to enable officers to synchronize their watches to the second because this avoided the need to use military radio networks and the possibility of losing surprise, and the need for field telephone networks in the desert. With this technique the time of flight from each fire unit (battery or troop) to the target is taken from the range or firing tables, or the computer and each engaging fire unit subtracts its time of flight from the TOT to determine the time to fire. An executive order to fire is given to all guns in the fire unit at the correct moment to fire. When each fire unit fires their rounds at their individual firing time all the opening rounds will reach the target area almost simultaneously. This is especially effective when combined with techniques that allow fires for effect to be made without preliminary adjusting fires.\n\n===MRSI===\nIllustration of different trajectories used in MRSI: For any muzzle velocity there is a steeper (> 45°, solid line) and a lower (<45°, dashed line) trajectory. On these different trajectories, the shells have different flight times.\n\nThis is a modern version of the earlier \"time on target\" concept in which fire from different weapons was timed to arrive on target at the same time. It is possible for artillery to fire several shells per gun at a target and have all of them arrive simultaneously, which is called MRSI (Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact). This is because there is more than one trajectory for the rounds to fly to any given target: typically one is below 45 degrees from horizontal and the other is above it, and by using different size propelling charges with each shell, it is possible to create multiple trajectories. Because the higher trajectories cause the shells to arc higher into the air, they take longer to reach the target and so if the shells are fired on these trajectories for the first volleys (starting with the shell with the most propellant and working down) and then after the correct pause more volleys are fired on the lower trajectories, the shells will all arrive at the same time. This is useful because many more shells can land on the target with no warning. With traditional volleys along the same trajectory, anybody at the target area may have time (however long it takes to reload and re-fire the guns) to take cover between volleys. However, guns capable of burst fire can deliver several rounds in 10 seconds if they use the same firing data for each, and if guns in more than one location are firing on one target they can use Time on Target procedures so that all their shells arrive at the same time and target.\n\nTo engage targets using MRSI requires two things, firstly guns with the requisite rate of fire and sufficiently different size propelling charges, secondly a fire control computer that has been designed to compute such missions and the data handling capability that allows all the firing data to be produced, sent to each gun and then presented to the gun commander in the correct order. The number of rounds that can be delivered in MRSI depends primarily on the range to the target and the rate of fire, for maximum rounds the range is limited to that of lowest propelling charge that will reach the target.\n\nExamples of guns with a rate of fire that makes them suitable for MRSI includes UK's AS-90, South Africa's Denel G6-52 (which can land six rounds simultaneously at targets at least away), Germany's Panzerhaubitze 2000 (which can land five rounds simultaneously at targets at least away) Slovakia's 155 mm SpGH ZUZANA model 2000. The Archer project (developed by BAE-Systems in Sweden) is a 155 mm howitzer on a wheeled chassis which is claimed to be able to deliver up to six shells on target simultaneously from the same gun. The 120 mm twin barrel AMOS mortar system, joint developed by Hägglunds (Sweden) and Patria (Finland), is capable of 7 + 7 shells MRSI. The United States Crusader program (now cancelled) was slated to have MRSI capability. It is unclear how many fire control computers have the necessary capabilities.\n\nTwo-round MRSI firings were a popular artillery demonstration in the 1960s, where well trained detachments could show off their skills for spectators.\n\n===Air burst===\n\nThe destructiveness of artillery bombardments can be enhanced when some or all of the shells are set for airburst, meaning that they explode in the air above the target instead of upon impact. This can be accomplished either through time fuses or proximity fuses. Time fuses use a precise timer to detonate the shell after a preset delay. This technique is tricky and slight variations in the functioning of the fuse can cause it to explode too high and be ineffective, or to strike the ground instead of exploding above it. Since December 1944 (Battle of the Bulge), proximity fuzed artillery shells have been available that take the guesswork out of this process. These embody a miniature, low powered radar transmitter in the fuse to detect the ground and explode them at a predetermined height above it. The return of the weak radar signal completes an electrical circuit in the fuze which explodes the shell. The proximity fuse itself was developed by the British to increase the effectiveness of anti-aircraft warfare.\n\nThis is a very effective tactic against infantry and light vehicles, because it scatters the fragmentation of the shell over a larger area and prevents it from being blocked by terrain or entrenchments that do not include some form of robust overhead cover. Combined with TOT or MRSI tactics that give no warning of the incoming rounds, these rounds are especially devastating because many enemy soldiers are likely to be caught in the open. This is even more so if the attack is launched against an assembly area or troops moving in the open rather than a unit in an entrenched tactical position.\n", "\n Indirect fire\n* Advanced Gun System\n* Aiming point\n* Artillery battery\n* Artillery fuze\n* Artillery museums\n* Barrage (artillery)\n* Beehive anti-personnel round\n* Combustion light-gas gun\n* Cordite\n* Counter-battery fire\n* Counter-battery radar\n* Fuze\n* Project Babylon\n* Gun laying\n* Howitzer\n* Light-gas gun\n* List of artillery\n* Naval artillery\n* Nuclear artillery\n* Paris Gun\n* Railgun\n* Shell (projectile)\n* Shoot-and-scoot\n* Shrapnel shell\n* Sound ranging\n* Suppressive fire\n\n", "\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n* TM 9-2300\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n", "\n\n\n Portsmouth Action Field Gun Pictures and Video\n* Naval Weapons of the World\n* Cannon Artillery – The Voice of Freedom's Thunder\n* Modern Artillery\n* Evans, Nigel F. (2001–2007) \" British Artillery in World War 2\"\n* Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars\n* Artillery of Napoleon's Imperial Guard\n* French artillery and its ammunition. 14th to the end of the 19th century\n* Historic films showing artillery in World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu\n* Video: Inside shrieking shrapnel. Hear the great sound of shrapnel's – Finnish field artillery fire video year 2013\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Artillery piece", "Etymology", "History", "Ammunition", "Field artillery system", "Classification of artillery", "Modern operations", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Artillery

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