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[ "'''Amalric''' or '''Amalaric''' (also Americ, Almerich, Emeric, Emerick and other variations) is a personal name derived from the tribal name ''Amal'' (referring to the Gothic Amali) and ''ric'' (Gothic ''reiks'') meaning \"ruler, prince\". \n\nEquivalents in different languages include:\nFrench: Amaury (surname/given name), Amalric (surname), Amaurich (surname), Maury (surname)\nGerman: Amalrich, Emmerich\n\nItalian: Amerigo, Arrigo\nHungarian: Imre\nLatin: Amalricus, Americus, Almericus, Emericus\nGreek: Emerikos\nPolish: Amalaryk, Amalryk, Emeryk\nDutch: Emmerik, Amerik, \nPortuguese: Amauri, Américo, América\nSpanish: Américo\nSerbo-Croatian: Mirko\n", " Amalaric (502–531), King of the Visigoths from 526 to 531\n* Malaric (fl. 585), King of the Suevi\n* Amalric of Nesle (fl. 1151–1180), Patriarch of Jerusalem from 1158 to 1180\n* Amalric I of Jerusalem (1136–1174), King of Jerusalem from 1162 to 1174\n* Amalric II of Jerusalem (fl. 1155–1205), King of Jerusalem from 1197 to 1205\n* Amalric of Bena (f. 1200–1204), French theologian\n* Arnaud Amalric (fl. 1196–1225), seventeenth abbot of Citeaux\n* Amaury VI of Montfort (1195–1241), crusader\n* Amalric, Lord of Tyre (c. 1272 – 1310), Governor of Cyprus from 1306 to 1310\n* Amalric Gérard (born 1980), French actor\n", "* Mathieu Amalric (born 1965), French actor and director\n* Leonid Amalrik (1905–1997), Soviet animator\n* Andrei Amalrik (1938–1980), Soviet dissident\n", "* Amaury, a French alternative spelling\n* Emery (name)\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Given name", "Surname", "See also" ]	Amalric
[ "\n\n\n'''Amalric''' (; ; 113611 July 1174) was King of Jerusalem from 1163, and Count of Jaffa and Ascalon before his accession. He was the second son of Melisende and Fulk of Jerusalem, and succeeded his older brother Baldwin III. During his reign, Jerusalem became more closely allied with the Byzantine Empire, and the two states launched an unsuccessful invasion of Egypt. Meanwhile, the Muslim territories surrounding Jerusalem began to be united under Nur ad-Din and later Saladin. He was the father of three future rulers of Jerusalem, Sibylla, Baldwin IV, and Isabella I.\n\nOlder scholarship mistook the two names Amalric and Aimery as variant spellings of the same name, so these historians erroneously added numbers, making Amalric to be '''Amalric I''' (1163–74) and King Aimery (1197–1205) to be \"Amalric II\". Now scholars recognize that the two names were not the same and no longer add the number for either king. Confusion between the two names was common even among contemporaries.\n", "Amalric was born in 1136 to King Fulk, the former count of Anjou who had married the heiress of the kingdom, Melisende, daughter of King Baldwin II. After the death of Fulk in a hunting accident in 1143, the throne passed jointly to Melisende and Amalric's older brother Baldwin III, who was still only 13 years old. Melisende did not step down when Baldwin came of age two years later, and by 1150 the two were becoming increasingly hostile towards each other. In 1152 Baldwin had himself crowned sole king, and civil war broke out, with Melisende retaining Jerusalem while Baldwin held territory further north. Amalric, who had been given the County of Jaffa as an apanage when he reached the age of majority in 1151, remained loyal to Melisende in Jerusalem, and when Baldwin invaded the south, Amalric was besieged in the Tower of David with his mother. Melisende was defeated in this struggle and Baldwin ruled alone thereafter. In 1153 Baldwin captured the Egyptian fortress of Ascalon, which was then added to Amalric's fief of Jaffa (see Battle of Ascalon).\n\nAmalric married Agnes of Courtenay in 1157. Agnes, daughter of Joscelin II of Edessa, had lived in Jerusalem since the western regions of the former crusader County of Edessa were lost in 1150. Patriarch Fulcher objected to the marriage on grounds of consanguinity, as the two shared a great-great-grandfather, Guy I of Montlhéry, and it seems that they waited until Fulcher's death to marry. Agnes bore Amalric three children: Sibylla, the future Baldwin IV (both of whom would come to rule the kingdom in their own right), and Alix, who died in childhood.\n", "Baldwin III died on 10 February 1163 and the kingdom passed to Amalric, although there was some opposition among the nobility to Agnes; they were willing to accept the marriage in 1157 when Baldwin III was still capable of siring an heir, but now the ''Haute Cour'' refused to endorse Amalric as king unless his marriage to Agnes was annulled. The hostility to Agnes, it must be admitted, may be exaggerated by the chronicler William of Tyre, whom she prevented from becoming Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem decades later, as well as from William's continuators like Ernoul, who hints at a slight on her moral character: \"car telle n'est que roine doie iestre di si haute cite comme de Jherusalem\" (\"there should not be such a queen for so holy a city as Jerusalem\"). Nevertheless, consanguinity was enough for the opposition. Amalric agreed and ascended the throne without a wife, although Agnes continued to hold the title Countess of Jaffa and Ascalon and received a pension from that fief's income. Agnes soon thereafter married Hugh of Ibelin, to whom she had been engaged before her marriage with Amalric. The church ruled that Amalric and Agnes' children were legitimate and preserved their place in the order of succession. Through her children Agnes would exert much influence in Jerusalem for almost 20 years.\n", "Tyre in 1167, as depicted in a MS of the ''Histoire d'Outremer'', painted in Paris c. 1295–1300. (''Bibliothèque Municipale'', Epinal).\nDuring Baldwin III's reign, the County of Edessa, the first crusader state established during the First Crusade, was conquered by Zengi, the Turkic emir of Aleppo. Zengi united Aleppo, Mosul, and other cities of northern Syria, and intended to impose his control on Damascus in the south. The Second Crusade in 1148 had failed to conquer Damascus, which soon fell to Zengi's son Nur ad-Din. Jerusalem also lost influence to Byzantium in northern Syria when the Empire imposed its suzerainty over the Principality of Antioch. Jerusalem thus turned its attention to Egypt, where the Fatimid dynasty was suffering from a series of young caliphs and civil wars. The crusaders had wanted to conquer Egypt since the days of Baldwin I, who died during an expedition there. The capture of Ascalon by Baldwin III made the conquest of Egypt more feasible.\n\n===Invasions of Egypt===\n\nAmalric led his first expedition into Egypt in 1163, claiming that the Fatimids had not paid the yearly tribute that had begun during the reign of Baldwin III. The vizier, Dirgham, had recently overthrown the vizier Shawar, and marched out to meet Amalric at Pelusium, but was defeated and forced to retreat to Bilbeis. The Egyptians then opened up the Nile dams and let the river flood, hoping to prevent Amalric from invading any further. Amalric returned home but Shawar fled to the court of Nur ad-Din, who sent his general Shirkuh to settle the dispute in 1164. In response Dirgham sought help from Amalric, but Shirkuh and Shawar arrived before Amalric could intervene and Dirgham was killed. Shawar, however, feared that Shirkuh would seize power for himself, and he too looked to Amalric for assistance. Amalric returned to Egypt in 1164 and besieged Shirkuh in Bilbeis until Shirkuh retreated to Damascus.\n\nAmalric could not follow up on his success in Egypt because Nur ad-Din was active in Syria, having taken Bohemund III of Antioch and Raymond III of Tripoli prisoner at the Battle of Harim during Amalric's absence. Amalric rushed to take up the regency of Antioch and Tripoli and secured Bohemund's ransom in 1165 (Raymond remained in captivity until 1173). The year 1166 was relatively quiet, but Amalric sent envoys to the Byzantine Empire seeking an alliance and a Byzantine wife, and throughout the year had to deal with raids by Nur ad-Din, who captured Banias.\n\nIn 1167, Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh back to Egypt and Amalric once again followed him, establishing a camp near Cairo; Shawar again allied with Amalric and a treaty was signed with the caliph al-Adid himself. Shirkuh encamped on the opposite side of the Nile. After an indecisive battle, Amalric retreated to Cairo and Shirkuh marched north to capture Alexandria; Amalric followed and besieged Shirkuh there, aided by a Pisan fleet from Jerusalem. Shirkuh negotiated for peace and Alexandria was handed over to Amalric. However, Amalric could not remain there indefinitely, and returned to Jerusalem after exacting an enormous tribute.\n\n===Byzantine alliance===\nAfter his return to Jerusalem in 1167, Amalric married Maria Comnena, a great-grandniece of Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus. The negotiations had taken two years, mostly because Amalric insisted that Manuel return Antioch to Jerusalem. Once Amalric gave up on this point he was able to marry Maria in Tyre on August 29, 1167. During this time the queen dowager, Baldwin III's widow Theodora, eloped with her cousin Andronicus to Damascus, and Acre, which had been in her possession, reverted into the royal domain of Jerusalem. It was also around this time that William of Tyre was promoted to archdeacon of Tyre, and was recruited by Amalric to write a history of the kingdom.\n\nIn 1168 Amalric and Manuel negotiated an alliance against Egypt, and William of Tyre was among the ambassadors sent to Constantinople to finalize the treaty. Although Amalric still had a peace treaty with Shawar, Shawar was accused of attempting to ally with Nur ad-Din, and Amalric invaded. The Knights Hospitaller eagerly supported this invasion, while the Knights Templar refused to have any part in it. In October, without waiting for any Byzantine assistance (and in fact without even waiting for the ambassadors to return), Amalric invaded and seized Bilbeis. The inhabitants were either massacred or enslaved. Amalric then marched to Cairo, where Shawar offered Amalric two million pieces of gold. Meanwhile, Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh back to Egypt as well, and upon his arrival Amalric retreated.\n\n===Rise of Saladin===\nIn January 1169 Shirkuh had Shawar assassinated. Shirkuh became vizier, although he himself died in March, and was succeeded by his nephew Saladin. Amalric became alarmed and sent Frederick de la Roche, Archbishop of Tyre, to seek help from the kings and nobles of Europe, but no assistance was forthcoming. Later that year however a Byzantine fleet arrived, and in October Amalric launched yet another invasion and besieged Damietta by sea and by land. The siege was long and famine broke out in the Christian camp; the Byzantines and crusaders blamed each other for the failure, and a truce was signed with Saladin. Amalric returned home.\n\nNow Jerusalem was surrounded by hostile enemies. In 1170 Saladin invaded Jerusalem and took the city of Eilat, severing Jerusalem's connection with the Red Sea. Saladin, who was set up as Vizier of Egypt, was declared Sultan in 1171 upon the death of the last Fatimid caliph. Saladin's rise to Sultan was an unexpected reprieve for Jerusalem, as Nur ad-Din was now preoccupied with reining in his powerful vassal. Nevertheless, in 1171 Amalric visited Constantinople himself and envoys were sent to the kings of Europe for a second time, but again no help was received. Over the next few years the kingdom was threatened not only by Saladin and Nur ad-Din, but also by the Hashshashin; in one episode, the Knights Templar murdered some Hashshashin envoys, leading to further disputes between Amalric and the Templars.\n", "Nur ad-Din died in 1174, upon which Amalric immediately besieged Banias. On the way back after giving up the siege he fell ill from dysentery, which was ameliorated by doctors but turned into a fever in Jerusalem. William of Tyre explains that \"after suffering intolerably from the fever for several days, he ordered physicians of the Greek, Syrian, and other nations noted for skill in diseases to be called and insisted that they give him some purgative remedy.\" Neither they nor Latin doctors could help, and he died on July 11, 1174.\n\nMaria Comnena had borne Amalric two daughters: Isabella, who would eventually marry four husbands in turn and succeed as queen, was born in 1172; and a stillborn child some time later. On his deathbed Amalric bequeathed Nablus to Maria and Isabella, both of whom would retire there. The leprous child Baldwin IV succeeded his father and brought his mother Agnes of Courtenay (now married to her fourth husband) back to court.\n", "William was a good friend of Amalric and described him in great detail. \"He had a slight impediment in his speech, not serious enough to be considered as a defect but sufficient to render him incapable of ready eloquence. He was far better in counsel than in fluent or ornate speech.\" Like his brother Baldwin III, he was more of an academic than a warrior, who studied law and languages in his leisure time: \"He was well skilled in the customary law by which the kingdom was governed – in fact, he was second to no one in this respect.\" He was probably responsible for an assize making all rear-vassals directly subject to the king and eligible to appear at the Haute Cour. Amalric had an enormous curiosity, and William was reportedly astonished to find Amalric questioning, during an illness, the resurrection of the body. He especially enjoyed reading and being read to, spending long hours listening to William read early drafts of his history. He did not enjoy games or spectacles, although he liked to hunt. He was trusting of his officials, perhaps too trusting, and it seems that there were many among the population who despised him, although he refused to take any action against those who insulted him publicly.\n\nHe was tall and fairly handsome; \"he had sparkling eyes of medium size; his nose, like that of his brother, was becomingly aquiline; his hair was blond and grew back somewhat from his forehead. A comely and very full beard covered his cheeks and chin. He had a way of laughing immoderately so that his entire body shook.\" He did not overeat or drink to excess, but his corpulence grew in his later years, decreasing his interest in military operations; according to William, he \"was excessively fat, with breasts like those of a woman hanging down to his waist.\"\nAmalric was pious and attended mass every day, although he also \"is said to have absconded himself without restraint to the sins of the flesh and to have seduced married women...\" Despite his piety he taxed the clergy, which they naturally opposed.\n\nAs William says, \"he was a man of wisdom and discretion, fully competent to hold the reins of government in the kingdom.\" He is considered the last of the \"early\" kings of Jerusalem, after whom there was no king able to save Jerusalem from its eventual collapse. Within a few years, Emperor Manuel died as well, and Saladin remained the only strong leader in the east.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n* Bernard Hamilton, \"Women in the Crusader States: The Queens of Jerusalem\", in Medieval Women, edited by Derek Baker. Ecclesiastical History Society, 1978\n* \n* William of Tyre, ''A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea'', trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey. Columbia University Press, 1943\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Youth", "Succession", "Conflicts with the Muslim states", "Death", "Physical characteristics", "Ancestry", "Sources", "References" ]	Amalric of Jerusalem
[ "\n\n\n'''Aimery of Lusignan''' (; before 11551 April 1205), erroneously referred to as '''Amalric''' or '''Amaury''' in earlier scholarship, was the first King of Cyprus from 1196 to 1205. He was also King of Jerusalem by virtue of being the husband of the queen, Isabella I, from 1197 to 1205. He was the younger son of Hugh VIII of Lusignan, a nobleman in Poitou. After participating in a rebellion against Henry II of England in 1168, he went to the Holy Land and settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.\n\nHis marriage to Eschiva of Ibelin (whose father, Baldwin of Ibelin was an influential nobleman) strengthened his position in the kingdom. His younger brother, Guy, married Sibylla, the sister of and heir to Baldwin IV of Jerusalem. Baldwin made Aimery Constable of Jerusalem around 1180. He was one of the commanders of the Christian army in the Battle of Hattin, which ended with decisive defeat at the hands of the army of Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt and Syria, on 4 July 1187.\n\nAimery supported his brother, Guy, even after Guy had lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem according to most barons of the realm, because of the death of Sibylla and their two daughters. The new king of Jerusalem, Henry of Champagne, arrested him for a short period. After his release, he retired to Jaffa which was the fief of his elder brother, Geoffrey of Lusignan, who had left the Holy Land.\n\nAfter Guy died in May 1194, his vassals in Cyprus elected Aimery as their lord. He accepted the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI. With the emperor's authorization, Aimery was crowned King of Cyprus in September 1197. He soon married Henry of Champagne's widow, Isabella I of Jerusalem. He and his wife were crowned king and queen of Jerusalem in January 1198. He signed a truce with Al-Adil I, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, which secured the Christian possession of the coastline from Acre to Antioch. His rule was a period of peace and stability in both of his realms.\n", "\nAimery was the fifth son of Hugh VIII of Lusignan and his wife, Burgundia of Rancon. His family had been noted for generations of crusaders in their native Poitou. His great-grandfather, Hugh VI of Lusignan, died in the Battle of Ramla in 1102; Aimery's grandfather, Hugh VII of Lusignan, took part in the Second Crusade. Aimery's father also came to the Holy Land and died in a Muslim prison in the 1160s. Earlier scholarship erroneously referred to him as Amalric (or Amaury, its French form), but documentary evidence shows he was actually called ''Aimericus'', which is a distinct name (although it was sometimes confused with ''Amalricus'' already in the Middle Ages). He was born before 1155.\n\nAimery joined a rebellion against Henry II of England (who also ruled Poitou) in 1168, according to Robert of Torigni's chronicle, but Henry crushed the rebellion. Aimery left for the Holy Land and settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. He was captured in a battle and held in captivity in Damascus. A popular tradition (which was first recorded by the 13th-century Philip of Novara and John of Ibelin) held, the king of Jerusalem, Amalric, ransomed him personally.\n\nErnoul (whose reliability is questioned) claimed, Aimery was a lover of Amalric of Jerusalem's former wife, Agnes of Courtenay. Aimery married Eschiva of Ibelin, a daughter of Baldwin of Ibelin, who was one of the most powerful noblemen in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Amalric of Jerusalem, who died on 11 July 1174, was succeeded by his thirteen-year-old son by Agnes of Courtenay, Baldwin IV who suffered from leprosy. Aimery became the member of the royal court with his father-in-law's support.\n\nAimery's youngest brother, Guy, married Baldwin IV's widowed sister, Sibylla, in April 1180. Ernoul wrote, it was Aimery who had spoken of his brother to her and her mother, Agnes of Courtenay, describing him as a handsome and charming young man. Aimery, continued Ernoul, hurried back to Poitou and persuaded Guy to come to the kingdom, although Sibylla had promised herself to Aimery's father-in-law. Another source, William of Tyre, did not mention that Aimery had played any role in the marriage of his brother and the king's sister. Consequently, many elements of Ernoul's report (especially Aimery's alleged journey to Poitou) were most probably invented.\n", "\nMarriage of Aimery's younger brother, Guy of Lusignan, and Sibylla, the sister of Baldwin IV of Jerusalem\nThe crusader states around 1165\n\nAimery was first mentioned as Constable of Jerusalem on 24 February 1182. According to Steven Runciman and Malcolm Barber, he had already been granted the office shortly after his predecessor, Humphrey II of Toron, died in April 1179. Historian Bernard Hamilton writes, Aimery's appointment was the consequence of the growing influence of his brother and he was appointed only around 1181.\n\nSaladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt and Syria, launched a campaign against the Kingdom of Jerusalem on 29 September 1183. Aimery defeated the sultan's troops in a minor skirmish with the support of his father-in-law and his brother, Balian of Ibelin. After the victory, the crusaders' main army could advance as far as a spring near Saladin's camp, forcing him to retreat nine days later. During the campaign, it turned out that most barons of the realm were unwilling to cooperate with Aimery's brother, Guy, who was the designated heir to Baldwin IV. The ailing king dismissed Guy and made his five-year-old nephew (Guy's stepson), Baldwin V, his co-ruler on 20 November 1183.\n\nIn early 1185, Baldwin IV decreed that the pope, the Holy Roman Emperor and the kings of France and England were to be approached to choose between his sister, Sybilla, and their half-sister, Isabella, if Baldwin V died before reaching the age of majority. The leper king died in April or May 1185, his nephew in late summer of 1186. Ignoring Baldwin IV's decree, Sybilla was proclaimed queen by her supporters and she crowned her husband, Guy, king. Aimery was not listed among those who were present at the ceremony, but he obviously supported his brother and sister-in-law, according to Hamilton.\n\nAs constable, Aimery organised the army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem into units before the Battle of Hattin, which ended with the decisive victory of Saladin on 4 July 1187. Along with most commanders of the Christian army, Aimery fell into captivity in the battlefield. During the siege of Ascalon, Saladin promised the defenders that he would set free ten persons whom they named if they surrendered. Aimery and Guy were among those whom the defenders named before surrendering on 4 September, but Saladin postponed their release until the spring of 1188.\n\nAimery remained a loyal supporter of his brother even after Guy had lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem with the death of Sybilla and their two daughters in the autumn of 1190, according to most barons of the realm. Guy's opponents supported Conrad of Montferrat who married Sybilla's half-sister, Isabella in late November. An assembly of the noblemen of the realm unanimously declared Conrad the lawful king on 16 April 1192. Although Conrad was murdered twelve days later, his widow soon married Henry of Champagne, who was elected king of Jerusalem. To compensate Guy for the loss of Jerusalem, Richard I of England authorized him to purchase the island of Cyprus (that Richard had conquered in May 1191) from the Knights Templar. He was also to pay 40,000 bezants to Richard who donated the right to collect the sum from Guy to Henry of Champagne. Guy settled in Cyprus in early May.\n\nAimery remained in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which was reduced to a narrow strip of land along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea from Jaffa to Tyre. Henry of Champagne ordered the expulsion of the merchants from Pisa from Acre in May, because he accused them of plotting with Guy of Lusignan. After Aimery intervened on behalf of the merchants, the king had him arrested. Aimery was only released at the demand of the grand masters of the Templars and the Hospitallers. He retired to Jaffa that Richard of England had granted to Aimery's eldest brother, Geoffrey of Lusignan.\n", "\n=== Lord of Cyprus ===\n\nGuy of Lusignan died in May 1194, and bequeathed Cyprus to his elder brother, Geoffrey. However, Geoffrey had already returned to Poitou, thus Guy's vassals elected Aimery their new lord. Henry of Champagne demanded the right to be consulted about the succession in Cyprus, but the Cypriote noblemen ignored him. Around the same time, Henry of Champagne replaced Aimery with John of Ibelin as constable of Jerusalem.\n\nAimery realized that the treasury of Cyprus was almost empty, because his brother had granted most landed property in the island to his supporters, according to Ernoul. He summoned his vassals to an assembly. After emphasizing that each of them owned more land than he had, he persuaded them one by one \"either by force, or by friendship, or by agreement\" to surrender some their rents and lands.\n\nThe Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI, who authorized the coronation of Aimery in exchange after Aimery acknowledged his suzerainty\n\nAimery dispatched an embassy to Pope Celestine III, asking him to set up Roman Catholic dioceses in Cyprus. He also sent his representative, Rainier of Jebail, to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI, proposing that he would acknowledge the emperor's suzerainty, if the emperor sent a royal crown to him. Aimery primarily wanted to secure the emperor's assistance against a potential Byzantine invasion of Cyprus, but he also wanted to strengthen his own legitimacy as king. Rainier of Jebail swore loyalty to Henry VI on behalf of Aimery in Gelnhausen in October 1196. The emperor who had decided to lead a crusade to the Holy Land promised that he would personally crown Aimery king. He dispatched the archbishops of Brindisi and Trani to take a golden sceptre to Aimery as a symbol of his right to rule Cyprus.\n\n=== King of Cyprus ===\n\nHenry VI's two envoys landed in Cyprus in April or May 1196. Aimery may have adopted the title of king around that time, because Pope Celestin styled him as king already in a letter in December 1196. In the same month, the pope set up a Roman Catholic archdiocese in Nicosia with three suffragan bishops in Famagusta, Limassol and Paphos. The Greek Orthodox bishops were not expelled, but their property and income was seized by the new Catholic prelates.\n\nHenry VI's chancellor, Conrad, Bishop of Hildesheim, crowned Aimery king in Nicosia in September 1197. Aimery did homage to the chancellor. The noblemen who owned fiefs in both Cyprus and the Kingdom of Jerusalem wanted to bring about a reconciliation between Aimery and Henry of Champagne. One of them, Baldwin of Beisan, Constable of Cyprus, persuaded Henry of Champage to visit Cyprus in early 1197. The two kings made peace, agreeing that Aimery's three sons were to marry Henry's three daughters. Henry also renounced the debt that Aimery still owed to him for Cyprus and allowed Aimery to garrison his troops at Jaffa. Aimery sent Reynald Barlais to take possession of Jaffa. Aimery again used the title of Constable of Jerusalem in November 1197, which suggests that he had also recovered that office as a consequence of his treaty with Henry of Champagne.\n\n=== King of two realms ===\n\nHenry of Champagne fell from the window of his palace and died in Acre on 10 September 1197. The aristocratic, but impoverished Raoul of Saint Omer was one of the possible candidates to succeed him, but the grand masters of the military orders opposed him vehemently. A few days later, Al-Adil I, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, occupied Jaffa.\n\nMarriage of Aimery's second wife Isabella I of Jerusalem and her first husband, Humphrey IV of Toron\n\nConrad of Wittelsbach, Archbishop of Mainz, who arrived to Acre on 20 September, was the first to propose that the crown should be offered to Aimery. Since Aimery's first wife had died, he could marry the widowed Isabella I of Jerusalem, who was the queen. Although Aymar, Patriarch of Jerusalem, stated that the marriage would be uncanonical, Joscius, Archbishop of Tyre, started negotiations with Aimery who accepted the offer. The patriarch also withdrew his objections and crowned Aimery and Isabella king and queen in Tyre in January 1198. (Runciman and other modern historians erroneously refer to him as Amalric II of Jerusalem, because they confused his name with that of Amalric \"I\" of Jerusalem.)\n\nThe Cypriot army fought for the Kingdom of Jerusalem during Aimery's rule, but otherwise he administered his two realms separately. Even before his coronation, Aimery united his forces with the German crusaders who were under the command of Henry I, Duke of Brabant to launch a campaign against the Ayyubid troops. They forced Al-Adil to withdraw and captured Beirut on 21 October. He laid siege to Toron, but he had to lift the siege on 2 February, because the German crusaders decided to return to the Holy Roman Empire after learning that Emperor Henry VI had died.\n\nAimery was riding at Tyre when four German knights attacked him in March 1198. His retainers rescued him and captured the four knights. Aimery accused Raoul of Saint Omer of hiring the assailants and sentenced him to banishment without a trial by his peers. At Raoul's demand, the case was submitted to the High Court of Jerusalem which held that Aimery had unlawfully banished Raoul. Nevertheless, Raoul voluntarily left the kingdom and settled in Tripoli, because he knew that he had lost Aimery's goodwill.\n\nAimery signed a truce with Al-Adil on 1 July 1198, securing the possession of the coast from Acre as far as to Antioch for the crusaders for five years and eight months. The Byzantine Emperor, Alexios III Angelos, did not abandon the idea of recovering Cyprus. He promised that he would help a new crusade if Pope Innocent III excommunicated Aimery to enable a Byzantine invasion in 1201, but the pope refuted him, emphasizing that the Byzantines had lost their right to Cyprus when Richard I conquered the island in 1191.\n\nAimery kept the peace with the Muslims, even when Reynald II of Dampierre, who arrived at the head of 300 French crusaders demanded him to launch a campaign against the Muslims in early 1202. After Aimery reminded him that more than 300 soldiers were needed to wage war against the Ayyubids, Reynald left the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the Principality of Antioch. An Egyptian emir seized a fortress near Sidon and made plundering raids against the neighboring territory. After Al-Adil failed to stop the emir, Aimery's fleet captured 20 Egyptian ships and he broke into Al-Adil's realm. In retaliation, Al-Adil's son, Al-Mu'azzam Isa plundered the region of Acre. In May 1204, the fleet of Aimery sack a small town at the Nile Delta in Egypt. The envoys of Aimery and Al-Adil signed a new truce for six years in September 1204. Al-Adil ceded Jaffa and Ramleh to the Kingdom of Jerusalem and simplified the Christian pilgrims' visits in Jerusalem and Nazareth.\n\nAfter eating excess of white mullet, Aimery fell seriously ill. He died after a short illness on 1 April 1205. His six-year-old son, Hugh I, succeeded him in Cyprus; and his widow continued to rule the Kingdom of Jerusalem.\n", "\nHistorian Mary Nickerson Hardwicke described Aimery as a \"self-assured, politically astute, sometimes hard, seldom sentimentally indulgent\" ruler. His rule was a period of peace and consolidation. The lawyers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem especially held him in high esteem. He decided to revise the laws of the Kingdom of Jerusalem to specify royal prerogatives. John of Ibelin emphasized that Aimery had governed both Cyprus and Jerusalem \"well and wisely\" until his death.\n", "\n\n\n\n\nAimery's first wife, Eschiva of Ibelin, was the elder daughter of Baldwin of Ibelin, Lord of Mirabel and Ramleh, and Richelda of Beisan. Their children:\nBurgundia, married Walter of Montbéliard, who was regent for her younger brother, Hugh I of Cyprus, from 1205 to 1210. \nHelvis, was the wife of Raymond-Roupen, who was Prince of Antioch from 1216 to 1219. \nGuy, died young\nJohn, died young\nHugh, married Alice of Champagne\n\nAimery's second wife, Isabella I of Jerusalem, was the only daughter of Amalric I of Jerusalem and Maria Komnene. Their children: \nSybilla, was the second wife of Leo I, King of Armenia. \nMelisende married Bohemond IV of Antioch. \n a son died in childhood, 2 February 1205.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life ", " Constable of Jerusalem ", " Reign ", " Legacy ", " Family ", " References ", " Sources ", " Further reading " ]	Aimery of Cyprus
[ "'''Anthemius of Tralles''' (, Medieval Greek: , ''Anthémios o Trallianós''; – 533 558) was a Greek from Tralles who worked as a geometer and architect in Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. With Isidore of Miletus, he designed the Hagia Sophia for Justinian I.\n\n", "Anthemius was one of the five sons of Stephanus of Tralles, a physician. His brothers were Dioscorus, Alexander, Olympius, and Metrodorus. Dioscorus followed his father's profession in Tralles; Alexander did so in Rome and became one of the most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius became a noted lawyer; and Metrodorus worked as a grammarian in Constantinople.\n\nAnthemius was said to have annoyed his neighbor Zeno in two ways: first, by engineering a miniature earthquake by sending steam through leather tubes he had fixed among the joists and flooring of Zeno's parlor while he was entertaining friends and, second, by simulating thunder and lightning and flashing intolerable light into Zeno's eyes from a slightly hollowed mirror. In addition to his familiarity with steam, some dubious authorities credited Anthemius with a knowledge of gunpowder or other explosive compound.\n", "Anthemius was a capable mathematician. In the course of his treatise \"On Burning Glasses\", intended to facilitate the construction of surfaces to reflect light to a single point, he described the string construction of the ellipse and assumed a property of ellipses not found in Apollonius of Perga's ''Conics'': the equality of the angles subtended at a focus by two tangents drawn from a point. His work also includes the first practical use of the directrix: having given the focus and a double ordinate, he used the focus and directrix to obtain any number of points on a parabola. This work was later known to Arab mathematicians such as Alhazen.\n\nEutocius's commentary on Apollonius's ''Conics'' was dedicated to Anthemius.\nExterior of the Hagia Sophia, 2013\n", "As an architect, Anthemius is best known for his work designing the Hagia Sophia. He was commissioned with Isidore of Miletus by Justinian I shortly after the earlier church on the site burned down in 532 but died early on in the project. He is also said to have repaired the flood defenses at Daras.\n", "* Other Anthemiuses\n", "\n", "* .\n\n'''Attribution:'''\n* \n", "* \n* Editions of Anthemius's \"On Burning-Glasses\":\n:: . \n:: . \n:: . \n", "* .\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Mathematics", "Architecture", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", " External links " ]	Anthemius of Tralles
[ "\n\n\n'''Absalon''' or '''Axel''' (21 March 1201) was a Danish archbishop and statesman, who was the Bishop of Roskilde from 1158 to 1192 and Archbishop of Lund from 1178 until his death. He was the foremost politician and churchfather of Denmark in the second half of the 12th century, and was the closest advisor of King Valdemar I of Denmark. He was a key figure in the Danish policies of territorial expansion in the Baltic Sea, Europeanization in close relationship with the Holy See, and reform in the relation between the Church and the public. He combined the ideals of Gregorian Reform with loyal support of a strong monarchical power.\n\nAbsalon was born into the powerful ''Hvide'' clan, and owned great land possessions. He endowed several church institutions, most prominently his family's Sorø Abbey. He was granted lands by the crown, and built the first fortification of the city that evolved into modern-day Copenhagen. His titles were passed on to his nephews Anders Sunesen and Peder Sunesen. He died in 1201, and was interred at Sorø Abbey.\n", "Absalon was born around 1128 near Sorø, Zealand. Due to a name which is unusual in Denmark, it is speculated that he was christened on the Danish \"Absalon\" name day, October 30. He was the son of Asser Rig, a magnate of the ''Hvide'' clan from Fjenneslev on Zealand, and Inger Eriksdotter. He was also a kinsman of Archbishop Eskil of Lund. He grew up at the castle of his father, and was brought up alongside his older brother Esbern Snare and the young prince Valdemar, who later became King Valdemar I of Denmark. During the civil war following the death of Eric III of Denmark in 1146, Absalon travelled abroad to study theology in Paris, while Esbern fought for Valdemar's ascension to the throne. At Paris, he was influenced by the Gregorian Reform ideals of churchly independence from Monarchical rule. He also befriended the canon William of Æbelholt at the Abbey of St Genevieve, whom he later made abbott of Eskilsø Abbey.\n\nAbsalon first appears in Saxo Grammaticus's contemporary chronicle ''Gesta Danorum'' at the end of the civil war, at the brokering of the peace agreement between Sweyn III and Valdemar at St. Alban's Priory, Odense. He was a guest at following Roskilde banquet given in 1157 by Sweyn to his rivals Canute V and Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped assassination at the hands of Sweyn on this occasion, and escaped to Jutland, whither Sweyn followed them. Absalon probably did not take part in the following battle of Grathe Heath in 1157, in which Sweyn was defeated and slain and led to Valdemar ascending the Danish throne. On Good Friday 1158, bishop Asser of Roskilde died, and Absalon was eventually elected bishop of Roskilde on Zealand with the help of Valdemar, as the king's reward for the ''Hvide'' family support.\n", "Absalon was a close counsellor of Valdemar, and chief promoter of the Danish crusades against the Wends. During the Danish civil war, Denmark had been open to coastal raids by the Wends. It was Absalon's intention to clear the Baltic Sea of the Wendish pirates who inhabited its southern littoral zone which was later called Pomerania. The pirates had raided the Danish coasts during the civil war of Sweyn III, Canute V, and Valdemar, to the point where at the accession of Valdemar one-third of Denmark lay wasted and depopulated. Absalon formed a guardian fleet, built coastal defenses, and led several campaigns against the Wends. He even advocated forgiving the earlier enemies of Valdemar, which helped stabilize Denmark internally.\n\n===Wendish campaigns===\nLaurits Tuxen: Bishop Absalon topples the god Svantevit at Arkona in 1169.\nThe first expedition against the Wends that was conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1160. These expeditions were successful, but brought no lasting victories. What started out as mere retribution, eventually evolved into full-fledged campaigns of expansion with religious motives. In 1164 began twenty years of crusades against the Wends, sometimes with the help of German duke Henry the Lion, sometimes in opposition to him.\n\nIn 1168 the chief Wendish fortress at Arkona in Rügen, containing the sanctuary of their god Svantevit, was conquered. The Wends agreed to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian religion at the same time. From Arkona, Absalon proceeded by sea to Charenza, in the midst of Rügen, the political capital of the Wends and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships. Absalon, with only Bishop Sweyn of Aarhus, and twelve \"housecarls\" thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding to the temple of the seven-headed god Rugievit, caused the idol to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole population of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations of twelve churches in the isle of Rügen. Rügen was then subjected to Absalon's Bishopric of Roskilde.\n\nThe destruction of this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon considerably to reduce the Danish fleet. But he continued to keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 1170 destroyed another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dziwnów on the isle of Wolin. Absalon's last military exploit came in 1184, off Stralsund at Whitsun, when he soundly defeated a Pomeranian fleet that had attacked Denmark's vassal, Jaromar of Rügen.\n\n===Policies===\nAbsalon's main political goal was to free Denmark from entanglements with the Holy Roman Empire. Absalon reformed the Danish church organisation to closer match Holy See praxis, and worked to keep Denmark a close ally of the Holy See. However, during the schism between Pope Alexander III and Antipope Victor IV, Absalon stayed loyal to Valdemar even as he joined the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barberossa in supporting Victor IV. This caused a split within the Danish church, as it possibly forced Eskil into exile around 1161, despite Abaslon's attempts to keep the Danish church united. It was contrary to Absalon's advice and warnings that Valdemar I rendered fealty to the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Dole in 1162. When Valdemar returned to Denmark, he was convinced into strengthening the Danevirke fortifications at the German border, with the support of Absalon.\n\nAbsalon built churches and monasteries, supporting international religious orders like the Cistercians and Augustinians, founding schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and enlightenment. In 1162, Absalon transformed the Sorø Abbey of his family from Benedictine to Cistercian, granting it lands from his personal holdings. In 1167, Absalon was granted the land around the city of \"Havn\" (English: Harbour), and built there a castle in the coastal defense against the Wends. Havn quickly expanded as one of Scandinavia's most important centers of trade, and eventually evolved into modern-day Copenhagen. It was also Absalon who held the first Danish Synod at Lund in 1167. He was also interested in history and culture, and commissioned Saxo Grammaticus to write ''Gesta Danorum'', a comprehensive chronicle of the history of the Danes. In 1171, Absalon issued the \"Zealand church law\" (), which reduced the number of Canonical Law offenses for which the church could fine the public, while instituting the tithe payment system. Eventual violation of the law was specified as subject to a secular legal process.\n", "Archbishop Eskil returned from exile in 1167. Eskil agreed on canonizing Valdemar's father Knud Lavard in 1170, with Absalon assisting him at the feast. When Eskil stepped down as Archbishop of Lund in 1177, he chose Absalon as his successor. Absalon initially resisted the new position, as he did not want to lose his power position on Zealand, but complied with Papal orders to do so in 1178. By a unique Papal dispensation, Absalon was allowed to simultaneously maintain his post as Bishop of Roskilde. As the Archbishop of Lund, Absalon utilized ombudsmen from Zealand, demanded unfree labour from the peasantry, and instituted tithes. He was a harsh and effective ruler, who cleared all Orthodox Christian liturgic remnants in favour of Papal standards. A rebellion in the Scanian peasantry forced him to flee to Zealand in 1180, from where he returned and subdued the Scanians with the help of Valdemar.\n\nWhen Valdemar died in 1182, his son succeeded him as Canute VI, and Absalon served as Canute VI's counsellor. Under Canute VI, Absalon was the chief policymaker in Danish politics. Absalon kept his hostile attitude to the Holy Roman Empire. On the accession of Canute VI in 1182, an imperial ambassador arrived at Roskilde to get the new king to swear fealty to Frederick Barbarossa, but Absalon resolutely withstood him.\n\n===Death===\nAbsalon's gravestone in Sorø Abbey.\nWhen Absalon retired from military service in 1184 at the age of fifty-seven, he resigned the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, the later king Valdemar II. He instead confined himself to the administration of the Danish empire. In 1192, Absalon made his nephew Peder Sunesen his successor as Bishop of Roskilde, while his other nephew Anders Sunesen was named the chancellor of Canute VI. Absalon died at Sorø Abbey on March 21, 1201, 73 years old, with his last will granting his personal holdings to the Abbey, apart from Fjenneslev which went to Esbern Snarre. He had already given Copenhagen to the Bishopric of Roskilde. Absalon was interred at Sorø Abbey, and was succeeded as Archbishop of Lund by Anders Sunesen.\n", "Saxo Grammaticus' ''Gesta Danorum'' was not finished until after the death of Absalon, but Absalon was one of the chief heroic figures of the chronicle, which was to be the main source of knowledge about early Danish history. Absalon left a legacy as the foremost politician and churchfather of Denmark in the 12th century. Absalon was equally great as churchman, statesman and warrior. His policy of expansion was to give Denmark the dominion of the Baltic for three generations. That he enjoyed warfare there can be no doubt; yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole indication of their religious role was to avoid the ''shedding of blood'' by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon never neglected his ecclesiastical duties.\n\nIn the 2000s, \"Absalon\" was adopted as the name for a class of Royal Danish Navy vessels, and the lead vessel of the class. HDMS Absalon (L16) and ''Esbern Snare'' (L17) were launched and commissioned by Denmark in 2004 and 2005. In December 2008, ''HDMS Absalon'' was involved in the rescue of putative Somali pirates 90 miles off Yemen in the Gulf of Aden. The craft from Somalia was reported to hold rocket-propelled grenades and AK-47 assault rifles, and to have been adrift for several days. Also per the report, the ''Absalon'' took the sailors and weapons aboard, sunk the craft, and turned the sailors over to the Yemen coast guard. The ''Absalon'', according to ''The New York Times'' report, \"was deployed in the Gulf of Aden in September '08 as part of an international effort to curb piracy,\" part of Combined Task Force 150.\n", "\n", "* Saxo, ''Gesta Danorum,'' ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books xvi.\n* Steenstrup, ''Danmarks Riges Historie. Oldtiden og den ældre Middelalder,'' pp. 570–735 (Copenhagen, 1897–1905).\n* Absalon's ''Testamentum,'' in Migne, ''Patrologia Latina'' 209,18.\n", "* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Bishop and advisor", "Archbishop of Lund", "Legacy", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Absalon
[ "\n\nVersailles depicting Adhemar of Le Puy (in red to left of Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse). \n'''Adhemar''' (also known as '''Adémar''', '''Aimar''', or '''Aelarz''') '''de Monteil''' (died 1 August 1098) was one of the principal figures of the First Crusade and was bishop of Puy-en-Velay from before 1087. He was the chosen representative of Pope Urban II for the expedition to the Holy Land. Remembered for his martial prowess, he led knights and men into battle and fought beside them, particularly at Dorylaeum and Antioch. Adhemar is said to have carried the Holy Lance in the Crusaders’ desperate breakout at Antioch on 28 June 1098, in which superior Islamic forces under the atabeg Kerbogha were routed, securing the city for the Crusaders.\n", "Born around 1045 into the family of the Counts of Valentinois and elected Bishop of Le Puy around 1080, he was an advocate of the Gregorian Reform, and among his supporters were the future Pope Urban II and Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Count of Toulouse and the richest, most powerful nobleman in France. He was also said to have gone on pilgrimage to Jerusalem around 1086.\n\nAt the Council of Clermont in 1095, Adhemar showed great zeal for the crusade (there is evidence that Urban II had conferred with Adhemar before the council). Adhemar was named apostolic legate and appointed to lead the crusade by Pope Urban II on 27 November 1095. In part, Adhemar was selected to lead because he had already undertaken a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1086 and 1087. Departing on 15 August 1096, he accompanied Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, in his army to the east. Whilst Raymond and the other leaders often quarrelled with each other over the leadership of the crusade, Adhemar was always recognized as the spiritual leader of the crusade.\n\nAdhemar negotiated with Alexius I Comnenus at Constantinople, reestablished some discipline among the crusaders at Nicaea, fought a crucial role at the Battle of Dorylaeum and was largely responsible for sustaining morale during the siege of Antioch through various religious rites including fasting and special observances of holy days. After the capture of the city in June 1098 and the subsequent siege led by Kerbogha, Adhemar organized a procession through the streets and had the gates locked so that the Crusaders, many of whom had begun to panic, would be unable to leave the city. He was extremely skeptical of Peter Bartholomew's discovery in Antioch of the Holy Lance, especially because he knew such a relic already existed in Constantinople; however, he was willing to let the Crusader army believe it was real if it raised their morale. Adhemar was protected by a band of Crusaders led by Henry of Esch to preserve the (albeit suspect) relic.\n\nWhen Kerbogha was defeated, Adhemar organized a council in an attempt to settle the leadership disputes, but he died on 1 August 1098, probably of typhus. The disputes among the higher nobles went unsolved and the march to Jerusalem was delayed for months. However, the lower-class soldiers continued to think of Adhemar as a leader. Some of them claimed to have been visited by his ghost during the siege of Jerusalem and reported that Adhemar instructed them to hold another procession around the walls. This was done and Jerusalem was taken by the Crusaders in 1099.\n", "\n\n===Sources===\n\n\nMurray, Alan V., \"The Army of Godfrey of Bouillon, 1096–1099: Structure and Dynamics of a Contingent on the First Crusade\" (PDF), Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, 1992\nRunciman, Steven, A History of the Crusades, Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1951\nRiley-Smith, The First Crusaders, 1095-1131, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997\n Medieval Lands Project, Herren von Esch\nEdgington, Susan, Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana, History of the Journey to Jerusalem, Clarendon Press, 2007 ( available on Google Books)\n", " Medieval Sourcebook: Speech by Urban II at Council of Clermont, 1095 (Five versions of the Speech)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "References", " External links " ]	Adhemar of Le Puy
[ "__NOTOC__\ncommune of the town of Agen. In this illustration he takes an oath before the consuls with his right hand on the town ordinances, while sitting on a pedestal. The consul administering the oath is forced to go on his knees, symbolising Alphonse's lordship and the town's loyalty.\n\n'''Alphonse''' or '''Alfonso''' (11 November 122021 August 1271) was the Count of Poitou from 1225 and Count of Toulouse (as '''Alphonse II''') from 1249. As count of Toulouse, he also governed the Marquisate of Provence.\n", "===Birth and early life===\nBorn at Poissy, Alphonse was a son of Louis VIII, King of France and Blanche of Castile. He was a younger brother of Louis IX of France and an older brother of Charles I of Sicily. In 1229, his mother, who was regent of France, forced the Treaty of Paris on Raymond VII of Toulouse after his rebellion. It stipulated that a brother of King Louis was to marry Joan of Toulouse, daughter of Raymond VII of Toulouse, and so in 1237 Alphonse married her. Since she was Raymond's only child, they became rulers of Toulouse at Raymond's death in 1249.\n\nBy the terms of his father's will he received an ''appanage'' of Poitou and Auvergne. To enforce this Louis IX won the battle of Taillebourg in the Saintonge War together with Alphonse against a revolt allied with king Henry III of England, who also participated in the battle.\n\n=== Crusades ===\nAlphonse took part in two crusades with his brother, St Louis, in 1248 (the Seventh Crusade) and in 1270 (the Eighth Crusade). For the first of these, he raised a large sum and a substantial force, arriving in Damietta on 24 October 1249, after the town had already been captured. He sailed for home on 10 August 1250. His father-in-law had died while he was away, and he went directly to Toulouse to take possession. There was some resistance to his accession as count, which was suppressed with the help of his mother Blanche of Castile who was acting as regent in the absence of Louis IX. The county of Toulouse, since then, was joined to Alphonse's ''appanage''.\n\n=== Later life ===\nIn 1252, on the death of his mother, Blanche of Castile, Alphonse was joint regent with Charles of Anjou until the return of Louis IX. During that time he took a great part in the campaigns and negotiations which led to the Treaty of Paris in 1259, under which King Henry III of England recognized his loss of continental territory to France (including Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Poitou) in exchange for France withdrawing support from English rebels.\n\nAlphonse's coat of arms was formed of those of France (left) and Castile (right), representing his father and mother respectively: ''Per pale azure semé-de-lis or dimidiating gules semé of castles or''\n\nAside from the crusades, Alphonse stayed primarily in Paris, governing his estates by officials, inspectors who reviewed the officials' work, and a constant stream of messages. His main work was on his own estates. There he repaired the evils of the Albigensian war and made a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing the way for union with the crown. He is remembered for founding the bastide town of Villeneuve-sur-Lot which straddles the River Lot and still contains many of its original structures, including one of the first bridges across the river. The charter known as \"Alphonsine,\" granted to the town of Riom, became the code of public law for Auvergne. Honest and moderate, protecting the middle classes against exactions of the nobles, he exercised a happy influence upon the south, in spite of his naturally despotic character and his continual and pressing need of money. He is noted for ordering the first recorded local expulsion of Jews, when he did so in Poitou in 1249.\n\nWhen Louis IX again engaged in a crusade (the Eighth Crusade), Alphonse again raised a large sum of money and accompanied his brother. This time, however, he did not return to France, dying while on his way back, probably at Savona in Italy, on 21 August 1271.\n", "Alphonse's death without heirs raised some questions as to the succession to his lands. One possibility was that they should revert to the crown, another that they should be redistributed to his family. The latter was claimed by Charles of Anjou, but in 1283 Parlement decided that the County of Toulouse should revert to the crown, if there were no male heirs. Alphonse's wife Joan (who died four days after Alphonse) had attempted to dispose of some of her inherited lands in her will. Joan was the only surviving child and heiress of Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne, and Marquis of Provence, so under Provençal and French law, the lands should have gone to her nearest male relative. But, her will was invalidated by Parlement in 1274. One specific bequest in Alphonse's will, giving his wife's lands in the Comtat Venaissin to the Holy See, was allowed, and it became a Papal territory, a status that it retained until 1791.\n", "\n* Abraham of Aragon\n", "\n\n", "===English-language===\n* (translated by Lionel Butler and R. J. Adam)\n* \n* \n* (translated by E. D. Hunt)\n* \n* This cites Ledain, Bourarie, and Molinier as listed below.\n\n===French-language===\n* B. Ledain, '''' (Poitiers, 1869)\n* E. Bourarie, '''' (Paris, 1870)\n* A. Molinier, '''' (Toulouse, 1880)\n* A. Molinier, '''' in the '''' (Paris, 1894 and 1895).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Death and legacy", "See also", "Notes", "References" ]	Alphonse, Count of Poitiers
[ "Alfonso Jordan, on a historiated initial from the first cartulary of the City of Toulouse, 1205\n'''Alfonso Jordan''' (; ; ; ) (1103–1148) was the Count of Tripoli (1105–09), Count of Rouergue (1109–48) and Count of Toulouse, Margrave of Provence and Duke of Narbonne (1112–48, as '''Alfons I''').\n", "He was the son of Raymond IV of Toulouse by his third wife, Elvira of Castile. He was born in the castle of Mont Pèlerin in Tripoli while his father was on the First Crusade. He was given the name \"Jourdain\" after being baptised in the Jordan River.\n\nAlfonso's father died when he was two years old and he remained under the guardianship of his cousin, William Jordan, Count of Cerdagne, until he was five. He was then taken to Europe, where his half-brother Bertrand had given him the county of Rouergue. Upon Bertrand's death in 1112, Alfonso succeeded to the county of Toulouse and marquisate of Provence. \n\nIn 1114, Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who claimed Toulouse by right of his wife Philippa, daughter of Count William IV, invaded the county and conquered it. Alfonso recovered a part in 1119, but he was not in full control until 1123. When at last successful, he was excommunicated by Pope Callixtus II for having expelled the monks of Saint-Gilles, who had aided his enemies.\n\nDivision of Provence obtained by Alfonso Jordan in 1125. He ruled the marquisate.\nAlfonso next had to fight for his rights in Provence against Count Raymond Berengar III of Barcelona. Not until September 1125 did their war end in \"peace and concord\" (''pax et concordia''). At this stage, Alfonso was master of the regions lying between the Pyrenees and the Alps, the Auvergne and the sea. His ascendancy was, according to one commentator, an unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen years art and industry flourished. \nIn March 1126, Alfonso was at the court of Alfonso VII of León when he acceded to the throne. \nAccording to the ''Chronica Adefonsi imperatoris'', Alfonso and Suero Vermúdez took the city of León from opposition magnates and handed it over to Alfonso VII. Among those who may have accompanied Alfonso on one of his many extended stays in Spain was the troubadour Marcabru.\ndenier'' minted at Narbonne during the minority of Ermengard (1134–43) bearing the obverse inscription DUX ANFOS and on the reverse CIVI NARBON\nAbout 1134 Alfonso seized the viscounty of Narbonne and ruled it during the minority of the Viscountess Ermengarde, only restoring it to her in 1143. \nIn 1141 King Louis VII pressed the claim of Philippa on behalf of his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, even besieging Toulouse, but without result. \nThat same year Alfonso Jordan was again in Spain, making a pilgrimage to Saint James of Compostela, when he proposed a peace between the king of León and García VI of Navarre, which became the basis for subsequent negotiations.\n\nIn 1144, Alfonso again incurred the displeasure of the church by siding with the citizens of Montpellier against their lord. \nIn 1145, Bernard of Clairvaux addressed a letter to him full of concern about a heretic named Henry in the diocese of Toulouse. \nBernard even went there to preach against the heresy, an early expression of Catharism. \nA second time he was excommunicated; but in 1146 he took the cross (i.e., vowed to go on crusade) at a meeting in Vézelay called by Louis VII. \nIn August 1147, he embarked for the near east on the Second Crusade.\nHe lingered on the way in Italy and probably in Constantinople, where he may have met the Emperor Manuel I.\n\nAlfonso finally arrived at Acre in 1148. \nAmong his companions he had made enemies and he was destined to take no share in the crusade he had joined. \nHe died at Caesarea, and there were accusations of poisoning, usually levelled against either by Eleanor of Aquitaine, the wife of Louis, or Melisende, the mother of King Baldwin III of Jerusalem. \nBy his wife since 1125, Faydiva d'Uzès, he left two legitimate sons: Raymond, who succeeded him, and Alfonso. His daughter Faydiva (died 1154) married Count Humbert III of Savoy. He left two other daughters: the legitimate Agnes (died 1187) and the illegitimate Laurentia, who married Count Bernard III of Comminges.\n", "\n'''Attribution:'''\n* This cites ''Histoire générale de Languedoc'' by De Vic and Vaissette, vol. iii. (Toulouse, 1872).\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Notes" ]	Alfonso Jordan
[ "\n'''Ambroise''', sometimes '''Ambroise of Normandy''', (flourished ) was a Norman poet and chronicler of the Third Crusade, author of a work called '''', which describes in rhyming Old French verse the adventures of as a crusader. The poem is known to us only through one Vatican manuscript, and long escaped the notice of historians.\n\nThe credit for detecting its value belongs to Gaston Paris, although his edition (1897) was partially anticipated by the editors of the '''', who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of their Scriptores (1885). Ambroise followed Richard I as a noncombatant, and not improbably as a court-minstrel. He speaks as an eye-witness of the king's doings at Messina, in Cyprus, at the siege of Acre, and in the abortive campaign which followed the capture of that city.\n\nAmbroise is surprisingly accurate in his chronology; though he did not complete his work before 1195, it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the course of his pilgrimage. He shows no greater political insight than we should expect from his position; but relates what he had seen and heard with a naïve vivacity which compels attention. He is by no means an impartial source: he is prejudiced against the Saracens, against the French, and against all the rivals or enemies of his master, including the ''Polein'' party which supported Conrad of Montferrat against Guy of Lusignan. He is rather to be treated as a biographer than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader aspects. Nonetheless he is an interesting primary source for the events of the years 1190–1192 in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.\n\nBooks 2–6 of the ''Itinerarium Regis Ricardi'', a Latin prose narrative of the same events apparently compiled by Richard, a canon of Holy Trinity, London, are closely related to Ambroise's poem. They were formerly sometimes regarded as the first-hand narrative on which Ambroise based his work, but that can no longer be maintained.\n", "\n* Ambroise, ''L´Estoire de la guerre sainte''. Paris, 1897: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6517331f.r\n* Ambroise, ''Itinerarium regis Ricardi''. London, 1920: https://archive.org/details/itinerariumregis00richuoft\n* Ambroise, ''The History of the Holy War'', translated by Marianne Ailes, Boydell Press, 2003.\n", "Anglo-Norman literature\nNorman language\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Published edition", "See also", "Notes" ]	Ambroise
[ "\n\n\n\"Oldskool\" or \"Amiga\" style\n\"Newskool\" style\n\"Block\" or \"High ASCII\" style, cf. ANSI art\nThe alphabet in Newskool (Note: artificially shrunk vertically)\n'''ASCII art''' is a graphic design technique that uses computers for presentation and consists of pictures pieced together from the 95 printable (from a total of 128) characters defined by the ASCII Standard from 1963 and ASCII compliant character sets with proprietary extended characters (beyond the 128 characters of standard 7-bit ASCII). The term is also loosely used to refer to text based visual art in general. ASCII art can be created with any text editor, and is often used with free-form languages. Most examples of ASCII art require a fixed-width font (non-proportional fonts, as on a traditional typewriter) such as Courier for presentation.\n\nAmong the oldest known examples of ASCII art are the\ncreations by computer-art pioneer Kenneth Knowlton from around 1966, who was working for Bell Labs at the time. \"Studies in Perception I\" by Ken Knowlton and Leon Harmon from 1966 shows some examples of their early ASCII art.\n\nASCII art was invented, in large part, because early printers often lacked graphics ability and thus characters were used in place of graphic marks. Also, to mark divisions between different print jobs from different users, bulk printers often used ASCII art to print large banners, making the division easier to spot so that the results could be more easily separated by a computer operator or clerk. ASCII art was also used in early e-mail when images could not be embedded.\n", "constellation \"Sirius\" from a 9th-century astronomical manuscript\n\n===Typewriter art===\nalt=A portion of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, January 6, 1875, showing advertisements made from \"ASCII\" art.\|A portion of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, January 6, 1875, showing advertisements made from \"ASCII\" art. (The term \"ASCII\" was not coined until the 20th century.)\nSince 1867 typewriters have been used for creating visual art.\n\n===TTY and RTTY===\nTTY stands for \"TeleTYpe\" or \"TeleTYpewriter\" and is also known as Teleprinter or Teletype.\nRTTY stands for Radioteletype; character sets such as Baudot code, which predated ASCII, were used. According to a chapter in the \"RTTY Handbook\", text images have been sent via teletypewriter as early as 1923. However, none of the \"old\" RTTY art has been discovered yet. What is known is that text images appeared frequently on radioteletype in the 1960s and the 1970s.\n\n===Line-printer art===\nIn the 1960s, Andries van Dam published a representation of an electronic circuit produced on an IBM 1403 line printer. At the same time, Kenneth Knowlton was producing realistic images, also on line printers, by overprinting several characters on top of one another.\nNote that it was not ASCII art in a sense that the 1403 was driven by an EBCDIC-coded platform and the character sets and trains available on the 1403 were derived from EBCDIC rather than ASCII, despite some glyphs commonalities.\n\n===ASCII art===\nThere are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126.\nThe widespread usage of ASCII art can be traced to the computer bulletin board systems of the late 1970s and early 1980s. The limitations of computers of that time period necessitated the use of text characters to represent images. Along with ASCII's use in communication, however, it also began to appear in the underground online art groups of the period. An ASCII comic is a form of webcomic which uses ASCII text to create images. In place of images in a regular comic, ASCII art is used, with the text or dialog usually placed underneath.\n\nDuring the 1990s, graphical browsing and variable-width fonts became increasingly popular, leading to a decline in ASCII art. Despite this, ASCII art continued to survive through online MUDs, an acronym for \"Multi-User Dungeon\", (which are textual multiplayer role-playing video games), Internet Relay Chat, E-mail, message boards and other forms of online communication which commonly employ the needed fixed-width.\n\n===ANSI===\nASCII and more importantly, ANSI were staples of the early technological era; terminal systems relied on coherent presentation using color and control signals standard in the terminal protocols.\n\nOver the years, warez groups began to enter the ASCII art scene. Warez groups usually release .nfo files with their software, cracks or other general software reverse-engineering releases. The ASCII art will usually include the warez group's name and maybe some ASCII borders on the outsides of the release notes, etc.\n\nBBS systems were based on ASCII and ANSI art, as were most DOS and similar console applications, and the precursor to AOL.\n", "A tank and truck made using ASCII art\nThe \"Roflcopter\" as an example for animated ASCII art\nASCII art is used wherever text can be more readily printed or transmitted than graphics, or in some cases, where the transmission of pictures is not possible. This includes typewriters, teleprinters, non-graphic computer terminals, printer separators, in early computer networking (e.g., BBSes), e-mail, and Usenet news messages. ASCII art is also used within the source code of computer programs for representation of company or product logos, and flow control or other diagrams. In some cases, the entire source code of a program is a piece of ASCII art – for instance, an entry to one of the earlier International Obfuscated C Code Contest is a program that adds numbers, but visually looks like a binary adder drawn in logic ports.\n\nSome electronic schematic archives represent the circuits using ASCII art.\n\nExamples of ASCII-style art predating the modern computer era can be found in the June 1939, July 1948 and October 1948 editions of Popular Mechanics.\n\n\"0verkill\" is a 2D platform multiplayer shooter game designed entirely in color ASCII art. MPlayer and VLC media player can display videos as ASCII art through the AAlib library. ASCII art is used in the making of DOS-based ZZT games.\n\nMany game walkthrough guides come as part of a basic .txt file; this file often contains the name of the game in ASCII art. Such as below, word art is created using backslashes and other ASCII values in order to create the illusion of 3D.\n", "Different techniques could be used in ASCII art to obtain different artistic effects. Electronic circuits and diagrams were implemented by typewriter or teletype and provided the pretense for ASCII.\n\n\"Typewriter-style\" lettering, made from individual letter characters:\nLine art, for creating shapes: \n .--. /\\ ____\n '--' /__\\ (^._.^)~ \n\nSolid art, for creating filled objects:\n .g@8g. db\n 'Y8@P' d88b\n\nShading, using symbols with various intensities for creating gradients or contrasts:\n :$#$: \"4b. ':.\n :$#$: \"4b. ':.\n\nCombinations of the above, often used as signatures, for example, at the end of an email:\n \|\\_/\| **************************** (\\_/)\n / @ @ \\ * \"Purrrfectly pleasant\" * (='.'=)\n ( > º >x\n ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄░▄▄▄▄▄▄▄░▄▄▄▄▄▄░▄▄▄▄▄\n ░░▀███░░░░▀██░░░░██▀░░░░██░░\n ░░░▀██░░░░░▀██░░▄█░░░░░▄█░░░\n ░░░░███░░░░░▀██▄█░░░░░░█░░░░\n ░░░░░███░░░░░▀██░░░░░░█▀░░░░\n ░░░░░░███░░░░▄███░░░░█▀░░░░░\n ░░░░░░░██▄░░▄▀░███░░█▀░░░░░░\n ░░░░░░░▀██▄█▀░░░███▄▀░░░░░░░\n ░░░░░░░░▀██▀░░░░░███░░░░░░░░\n ░░░░░░░░░▀▀░░░░░░░▀░░░░░░░░░\n\n===Emoticons and verticons===\n\nThe simplest forms of ASCII art are combinations of two or three characters for expressing emotion in text. They are commonly referred to as 'emoticon', 'smilie', or 'smiley'.\n\nThere is another type of one-line ASCII art that does not require the mental rotation of pictures, which is widely known in Japan as kaomoji (literally \"face characters\".) Traditionally, they are referred to as \"ASCII face\".\n\nMore complex examples use several lines of text to draw large symbols or more complex figures.\n\n====Popular smileys====\n\nHundreds of different text smileys were developed over time, but only a few were generally accepted, used and understood.\n\n===ASCII comic===\nAn '''ASCII comic''' is a form of webcomic.\n\n====The Adventures of Nerd Boy====\n'''The Adventures of Nerd Boy''', or just '''Nerd Boy''' is an ASCII comic by Joaquim Gândara between 5 August 2001 and 17 July 2007, consisting of 600 strips. They were posted to ASCII art newsgroup alt.ascii-art and on the website. Some strips have been translated to Polish and French.\n\n===Styles of the computer underground text art scene===\n\n====Atari 400/800 ATASCII====\nThe Atari 400/800 which were released in 1979 did not follow the ASCII standard and had its own character set, called ATASCII. The emergence of ATASCII art coincided with the growing popularity of BBS Systems caused by availability of the acoustic couplers that were compatible with the 8-bit home computers. ATASCII text animations are also referred to as \"break animations\" by the Atari sceners.\n\n====C-64 PETSCII====\nThe Commodore 64, which was released in 1982, also did not follow the ASCII standard. The C-64 character set is called PETSCII, an extended form of ASCII-1963. As with the Atari's ATASCII art, C-64 fans developed a similar scene that used PETSCII for their creations.\n\n====\"Block ASCII\" / \"High ASCII\" style ASCII art on the IBM PC====\n\nBlock ASCII display via Notepad versus ACiDView for Windows\nSo-called \"block ASCII\" or \"high ASCII\" uses the extended characters of the 8-bit code page 437, which is a proprietary standard introduced by IBM in 1979 (ANSI Standard x3.16) for the IBM PC DOS and MS-DOS operating systems. \"Block ASCIIs\" were widely used on the PC during the 1990s until the Internet replaced BBSes as the main communication platform. Until then, \"block ASCIIs\" dominated the PC Text Art Scene.\n\nThe first art scene group that focused on the extended character set of the PC in their art work was called \"Aces of ANSI Art,\" or \"AAA.\" Some members left in 1990, and formed a group called ACiD, \"ANSI Creators in Demand.\" In that same year the second major underground art scene group was founded, ICE, \"Insane Creators Enterprise\".\n\nThere is some debate between ASCII and block ASCII artist, with \"Hardcore\" ASCII artists maintaining that block ASCII art is in fact not ANSI art, because it does not use the 128 characters of the original ASCII standard. On the other hand, block ASCII artists argue that if their art uses only characters of the computers character set, then it is to be called ASCII, regardless if the character set is proprietary or not.\n\nMicrosoft Windows does not support the ANSI Standard x3.16. One can view block ASCIIs with a text editor using the font \"Terminal\", but it will not look exactly as it was intended by the artist. With a special ASCII/ANSI viewer, such as ACiDView for Windows (see ASCII and ANSI art viewers), one can see block ASCII and ANSI files properly. An example that illustrates the difference in appearance is part of this article. Alternatively, one could look at the file using the Type command in the command prompt.\n\n====\"Amiga\"/\"Oldskool\" style ASCII art====\nOldschool/Amiga ASCII look on Commodore Amiga Computer versus look on the IBM PC (notice the tight spacing)\nIn the art scene one popular ASCII style that used the 7-bit standard ASCII character set was the so-called \"Oldskool\" Style. It is also called \"Amiga style\", due to its origin and widespread use on the Commodore Amiga Computers. The style uses primarily the characters: _/\\-+=.():. The \"oldskool\" art looks more like the outlined drawings of shapes than real pictures.\nThis is an example of \"Amiga style\" (also referred to as \"old school\" or \"oldskool\" style) scene ASCII art.\n\nThe Amiga ASCII Scene surfaced in 1992, seven years after the introduction of the Commodore Amiga 1000. The Commodore 64 PETSCII scene did not make the transition to the Commodore Amiga as the C64 demo and warez scenes did. Among the first Amiga ASCII art groups were ART, Epsilon Design, Upper Class, Unreal (later known as \"DeZign\"). This means that the text art scene on the Amiga was actually younger than the text art scene on the PC. The Amiga artists also did not call their ASCII art style \"Oldskool\". That term was introduced on the PC. When and by whom is unknown and lost in history.\n\nThe Amiga style ASCII artwork was most often released in the form of a single text file, which included all the artwork (usually requested), with some design parts in between, as opposed to the PC art scene where the art work was released as a ZIP archive with separate text files for each piece. Furthermore, the releases were usually called \"ASCII collections\" and not \"art packs\" like on the IBM PC.\n\n=====In text editors=====\n\n _____ ___ ____ _ _ \n_ \n\n_ \n\n\n\nThis kind of ASCII art is handmade in a text editor. Popular editors used to make this kind of ASCII art include CygnusEditor a.k.a. CED (Amiga) and EditPlus2 (PC).\n\nOldskool font example from the PC, which was taken from the ASCII Editor FIGlet.\n\n====Newskool style ASCII art====\nNewskool ASCII Screenshot\n\"Newskool\" is a popular form of ASCII art which capitalizes on character strings like \"$#Xxo\". In spite of its name, the style is not \"new\"; on the contrary, it was very old but fell out of favor and was replaced by \"Oldskool\" and \"Block\" style ASCII art. It was dubbed \"Newskool\" upon its comeback and renewed popularity at the end of the 1990s.\n\nNewskool changed significantly as the result of the introduction of extended proprietary characters. The classic 7-bit standard ASCII characters remain predominant, but the extended characters are often used for \"fine tuning\" and \"tweaking\". The style developed further after the introduction and adaptation of Unicode.\n", "\n\nWhile some prefer to use a simple text editor to produce ASCII art, specialized programs, such as JavE have been developed that often simulate the features and tools in bitmap image editors. For Block ASCII art and ANSI art the artist almost always uses a special text editor, because to generate the required characters on a standard keyboard, one needs to know the alt code for each character. for example alt+178 will produce ▓, alt+177 will produce ▒ and, alt+8 will produce ◘.\n\nThe special text editors have sets of special characters assigned to existing keys on the keyboard. Popular MS DOS based editors, such as TheDraw and ACiDDraw had multiple sets of different special characters mapped to the F-Keys to make the use of those characters easier for the artist who can switch between individual sets of characters via basic keyboard shortcuts. PabloDraw is one of the very few special ASCII/ANSI art editors that were developed for MS Windows XP.\n\n===Image to text conversion===\nOther programs allow one to automatically convert an image to text characters, which is a special case of vector quantization. A method is to sample the image down to grayscale with less than 8-bit precision, and then assign a character for each value. Such ASCII art generators often allow users to choose the intensity and contrast of the generated image.\n\n3 factors limit the '''fidelity''' of the conversion, especially of photographs:\n* depth (solutions: reduced line spacing; bold style; block elements; colored background; good shading);\n* sharpness (solutions: a longer text, with a smaller font; a greater set of characters; variable width fonts);\n* ratio (solutions with compatibility issues: font with a square grid; stylized without extra line spacing).\n\n'''Examples''' of converted images are given below.\n\nThis is one of the earliest forms of ASCII art, dating back to the early days of the 1960s minicomputers and teletypes. During the 1970s it was popular in US malls to get a t-shirt with a photograph printed in ASCII art on it from an automated kiosk manned by a computer, and London's Science Museum had a similar service to produce printed portraits. With the advent of the web and HTML and CSS, many ASCII conversion programs will now quantize to a full RGB colorspace, enabling colorized ASCII images.\n\n\n\n\n\n 200px \n 200px \n 200px\n\n\n\nStill images or movies can also be converted to ASCII on various UNIX and UNIX-Like systems using the aalib (black and white) or libcaca (colour) graphics device driver, or the VLC media player or mpv under Windows, Linux or macOS; all of which render the screen using ASCII symbols instead of pixels. See also O'Reilly article \"Watch Videos in ASCII art\".\n\nThere are also a number of smartphone '''applications''', such as ASCII cam for Android, that generate ASCII art in real-time using input from the phone's camera. These applications typically allow the ASCII art to be saved as either a text file or as an image made up of ASCII text.\n", "Most ASCII art is created using a monospaced font, where all characters are identical in width (Courier is a popular monospaced font). Early computers in use when ASCII art came into vogue had monospaced fonts for screen and printer displays. Today most of the more commonly used fonts in word processors, web browsers and other programs are proportional fonts, such as Helvetica or Times Roman, where different widths are used for different characters. ASCII art drawn for a fixed width font will usually appear distorted, or even unrecognizable when displayed in a proportional font.\n\nSome ASCII artists have produced art for display in proportional fonts. These ASCIIs, rather than using a purely shade-based correspondence, use characters for slopes and borders and use block shading. These ASCIIs generally offer greater precision and attention to detail than fixed-width ASCIIs for a lower character count, although they are not as universally accessible since they are usually relatively font-specific.\n", "Animated ASCII art started in 1970 from so-called VT100 animations produced on VT100 terminals. These animations were simply text with cursor movement instructions, deleting and erasing the characters necessary to appear animated. Usually, they represented a long hand-crafted process undertaken by a single person to tell a story.\n\nContemporary web browser revitalized animated ASCII art again. It became possible to display animated ASCII art via JavaScript or Java applets. Static ASCII art pictures are loaded and displayed one after another, creating the animation, very similar to how movie projectors unreel film reel and project the individual pictures on the big screen at movie theaters. A new term was born: ''ASCIImation'' – another name of Animated ASCII Art. A seminal work in this arena is the Star Wars ASCIImation. More complicated routines in JavaScript generate more elaborate ASCIImations showing effects like Morphing effects, star field emulations, fading effects and calculated images, such as mandelbrot fractal animations.\n\nThere are now many tools and programs that can transform raster images into text symbols; some of these tools can operate on streaming video. For example, the music video for American singer Beck's song \"Black Tambourine\" is made up entirely of ASCII characters that approximate the original footage. VLC, a media player software, can render any video in colored ASCII through the libcaca module.\n", "There are a variety of other types of art using text symbols from character sets other than ASCII and/or some form of color coding. Despite not being pure ASCII, these are still often referred to as \"ASCII art\". The character set portion designed specifically for drawing is known as the line drawing characters or pseudo-graphics.\n\n===ANSI art===\n\nThe IBM PC graphics hardware in text mode uses 16 bits per character. It supports a variety of configurations, but in its default mode under DOS they are used to give 256 glyphs from one of the IBM PC code pages (Code page 437 by default), 16 foreground colors, eight background colors, and a flash option. Such art can be loaded into screen memory directly. ANSI.SYS, if loaded, also allows such art to be placed on screen by outputting escape sequences that indicate movements of the screen cursor and color/flash changes. If this method is used then the art becomes known as ANSI art. The IBM PC code pages also include characters intended for simple drawing which often made this art appear much cleaner than that made with more traditional character sets. Plain text files are also seen with these characters, though they have become far less common since Windows GUI text editors (using the Windows ANSI code page) have largely replaced DOS based ones.\n\n===Shift_JIS===\n\n Posted on in 2000\n Posted on in 2000\n\nA large character selection and the availability of fixed-width characters allow Japanese users to use Shift JIS as a text-based art on Japanese websites.\n\n====Special circumstances of Japan====\n\nIn Japan, ASCII-art (AA) is mainly known as '''Shift-JIS Art'''.\n\n\n\nIn other words, the word ''ASCII'' is used to refer to the ASCII Corporation, rather than the American Standard Code for Information Interchange.\n\n\n Icon\n Meaning\n\n (^_^) (^^ゞ　(^_^;)　(-_-;)　(~_~;)　(・。・;)　(・_・;)　(・・;)　^^;　^_^; (#^.^#) (^ ^;) \n Smiley, nervous, embarrassed, troubled, shy, sweat drop\n\n\n\n===Unicode===\n\nUnicode would seem to offer the ultimate flexibility in producing text based art with its huge variety of characters. However, finding a suitable fixed-width font is likely to be difficult if a significant subset of Unicode is desired. (Modern UNIX-style operating systems do provide complete fixed-width Unicode fonts, e.g. for xterm. Windows has the Courier New font which includes characters like ┌╥─╨┐♥☺Ƹ̵̡Ӝ̵̨̄Ʒ) Also, the common practice of rendering Unicode with a mixture of variable width fonts is likely to make predictable display hard if more than a tiny subset of Unicode is used. ≽ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ≼ is an adequate representation of a cat's face in a font with varying character widths.\n\n====Control and combining characters====\n\nThe combining characters mechanism of Unicode provides considerable ways of customizing the style, even obfuscating the text (e.g. via an online generator like Obfuscator, which focuses on the filters). '''Glitcher''' is one example of '''Unicode art''', initiated in 2012: « ''These symbols, intruding up and down, are made by combining lots of diacritical marks. It’s a kind of art. There’s quite a lot of artists who use the Internet or specific social networks as their canvas.'' » The corresponding creations are favored in web browsers (thanks to their always better support), as geekily stylized usernames for social networks. With a fair compatibility, and among different online tools, ''' Facebook symbols''' showcases various types of Unicode art, mainly for aesthetic purpose (Ɯıḳĭƥḙȡḯả Wîkipêȡıẚ Ẉǐḳîṗȅḍȉā Ẃįḵįṗẻḑìẵ Ẉĭḵɪṕḗdïą Ẇïƙỉpểɗĭà Ẅȉḱïṕȩđĩẵ etc.). Besides, the creations can be hand-crafted (by programming), or pasted from mobile applications (e.g. the category of 'fancy text' tools on Android). The underlying technique dates back to the old systems that incorporated control characters, though. E.g. the German composite ö would be imitated on ZX Spectrum by overwriting \" after backspace and o. (Cf. below.)\n\n===Overprinting (surprint)===\nIn the 1970s and early 1980s it was popular to produce a kind of text art that relied on overprinting. This could be produced either on a screen or on a printer by typing a character, backing up, and then typing another character, just as on a typewriter. This developed into sophisticated graphics in some cases, such as the PLATO system (c. 1973), where superscript and subscript allowed a wide variety of graphic effects. A common use were for emoticons, with WOBTAX and VICTORY both producing convincing smiley faces. Overprinting had previously been used on typewriters, but the low-resolution pixelation of characters on video terminals meant that overprinting here produced seamless pixel graphics, rather than visibly overstruck combinations of letters on paper.\n\nBeyond pixel graphics, this was also used for printing photographs, as the overall darkness of a particular character space dependent on how many characters, as well as the choice of character, were printed in a particular place. Thanks to the increased granularity of tone, photographs were often converted to this type of printout. Even manual typewriters or daisy wheel printers could be used. The technique has fallen from popularity since all cheap printers can easily print photographs, and a normal text file (or an e-mail message or Usenet posting) cannot represent overprinted text. However, something similar has emerged to replace it: shaded or colored ASCII art, using ANSI video terminal markup or color codes (such as those found in HTML, IRC, and many internet message boards) to add a bit more tone variation. In this way, it is possible to create ASCII art where the characters only differ in color.\n", "\nASCII art text editors are used to create ASCII art from scratch, or to edit existing ASCII art files.\n\nASCII art may be created from an existing digital image using an '''ASCII art converter''', an online tool or a software application that automatically converts an image into ASCII art, using vector quantization. Typically, this is done by sampling the image down to grayscale with less than 8-bit precision, so that each value corresponds to different ASCII character.\n", "* Concrete poetry\n* Fax art\n* Types and styles: ASCII stereogram, Emoticon, FILE ID.DIZ, .nfo (release info file)\n* Box-drawing characters\n* Related art: Text semigraphics, ANSI art, ASCII porn, Shift JIS art\n* Related (context): Text Mode Demo Contest, Bulletin board system (BBS), Computer art scene, :Category:Artscene groups\n* Pre-ASCII history: Typewriter, Teleprinter, Radioteletype, ATASCII, PETSCII\n* Alt code\n* Software: AAlib, cowsay\n* Unicode Homoglyph, Duplicate characters in Unicode\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* (Polish translators: Ania Górecka ag, Asia Mazur as, Błażej Kozłowski bug, Janusz jp, Łukasz Dąbrowski luk, Łukasz Tyrała lt., Łukasz Wilk wilu, Marcin Gliński fsc)\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n TexArt.io ASCII Art collection\n* Textfiles.com archive\n* ASCII art Generator\n* Sixteen Colors ANSI Art and ASCII Art Archive\n* Defacto2.net Scene NFO Files Archive\n* Chris.com ASCII art collection\n* \"As-Pixel Characters\" ASCII art collection\n* ASCII Art Animation of Star Wars, \"ASCIIMATION\"\n* ASCII Keyboard Art Collection\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Uses", "Types and styles", "Methods for generating ASCII art", "Non fixed-width ASCII", "Animated ASCII art", "Other text-based visual art", "Creation", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	ASCII art
[ "\n'''Alexius''' is the Latinized form of the given name '''Alexios''' (, polytonic , \"defender\", cf. Alexander), especially common in the later Byzantine Empire. Variants include '''Alexis''' with the Russian '''Aleksey''' and its Ukrainian counterpart '''Oleksa/Oleksiy''' deriving from this form. The female form is '''Alexia''' () and its variants such as Alessia (which male form is Alessio) in Italian. \n\nIt may refer to:\n", "* Alexios I Komnenos (1048–1118), Byzantine emperor\n* Alexios II Komnenos (1167–1183), Byzantine emperor\n* Alexios III, Byzantine emperor\n* Alexios IV, Byzantine emperor\n* Alexios V, Byzantine emperor\n* Alexios I of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond\n* Alexios II of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond\n* Alexios III of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond\n* Alexios IV of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond\n* Alexius Mikhailovich (1629–1676), Tsar of Russia\n* Alexius Petrovich (1690–1718), Russian tsarevich\n", "* Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow (1354–1378)\n* Patriarch Alexius I of Constantinople (1025–1043)\n* Alexius (c. 1425–1488), Russian archpriest who converted to Judaism\n* Patriarch Alexius I of Moscow and All Russia (r. 1945–1970)\n* Patriarch Alexius II of Moscow and All Russia (r. 1990–2008)\n* Alexius of Nicaea, metropolitan bishop\n* Saint Alexius of Rome, fifth-century eastern saint\n* Alexius, a monk and saint of Kiev - see Abraham and Onesimus of Kiev\n", "* Alexios Apokaukos, Byzantine statesman\n* Alexios Aspietes, Byzantine governor\n* Alexios Branas, Byzantine general\n* Alexios Halebian, American tennis player\n* Alexius Meinong, Austrian philosopher\n* Alexios Mosele (Caesar), Byzantine heir-apparent\n* Alexios Palaiologos (despot), Byzantine heir-apparent\n* Alexios Philanthropenos, Byzantine general\n* Alexios Raoul (protovestiarios), Byzantine general\n* Alexios Strategopoulos, Byzantine general\n* Alexios Xiphias, Byzantine Catepan of Italy\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Rulers ", "Religious figures", "Other people" ]	Alexius
[ "\n\n1871 Boston Red Stockings baseball card.\n\n'''Albert Goodwill Spalding''' (September 2, 1849 – September 9, 1915) was an American pitcher, manager and executive in the early years of professional baseball, and the co-founder of A.G. Spalding sporting goods company. He was born and raised in Byron, Illinois. He played major league baseball between 1871 and 1878. Spalding set a trend when he started wearing a baseball glove, and eventually opened his sporting goods store.\n\nAfter his retirement as a player, Spalding remained active with the Chicago White Stockings as president and part-owner. In the 1880s, he took players on the first world tour of baseball. With William Hulbert, Spalding organized the National League. He later called for the commission that investigated the origins of baseball and credited Abner Doubleday with creating the game. He also wrote the first set of official baseball rules.\n", "\n===Player===\nHaving played baseball throughout his youth, Spalding first played competitively with the Rockford Pioneers, a youth team, which he joined in 1865. After pitching his team to a 26–2 victory over a local men's amateur team (the Mercantiles), he was approached at the age of 15 by another squad, the Forest Citys, for whom he played for two years. In the autumn of 1867 he accepted a $40 per week contract ($ in today's dollars), nominally as a clerk, but really to play professionally for the Chicago Excelsiors, not an uncommon arrangement used to circumvent the rules of the time, which forbade the hiring of professional players. Following the formation of baseball's first professional organization, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (which became known as the National Association, the Association, or NA) in 1871, Spalding joined the Boston Red Stockings (precursor club to the modern Atlanta Braves) and was highly successful; winning 206 games (and losing only 53) as a pitcher and batting .323 as a hitter.\n\nWilliam Hulbert, principal owner of the Chicago White Stockings, did not like the loose organization of the National Association and the gambling element that influenced it, so he decided to create a new organization, which he dubbed the National League of Baseball Clubs. To aid him in this venture, Hulbert enlisted the help of Spalding. Playing to the pitcher's desire to return to his Midwestern roots and challenging Spalding's integrity, Hulbert convinced Spalding to sign a contract to play for the White Stockings (now known as the Chicago Cubs) in 1876. Spalding then coaxed teammates Deacon White, Ross Barnes and Cal McVey, as well as Philadelphia Athletics players Cap Anson and Bob Addy, to sign with Chicago. This was all done under complete secrecy during the playing season because players were all free agents in those days and they did not want their current club and especially the fans to know they were leaving to play elsewhere the next year. News of the signings by the Boston and Philadelphia players leaked to the press before the season ended and all of them faced verbal abuse and physical threats from the fans of those cities.\n\nHe was \"the premier pitcher of the 1870s\", leading the league in victories for each of his six full seasons as a professional. During each of those years he was his team's only pitcher. In 1876, Spalding won 47 games as the prime pitcher for the White Stockings and led them to win the first-ever National League pennant by a wide margin.\n\nIn 1877, Spalding began to use a glove to protect his catching hand. People had used gloves previously, but they were not popular, and Spalding himself was skeptical of wearing one at first. However, once he began donning gloves, he influenced other players to do so.\n\nSpalding retired from playing baseball in 1878 at the age of 27, although he continued as president and part owner of the White Stockings and a major influence on the National League. Spalding's .796 career winning percentage (from an era when teams played about once or twice a week) is the highest ever by a baseball pitcher, far exceeding the second-best .690.\n\n===Organizer and executive===\nIn the months after signing for Chicago, Hulbert and Spalding organized the National League by enlisting the four major teams in the East and the three other top teams in what was then considered to be the West. Joining Chicago initially were the leading teams from Cincinnati, Louisville, and St. Louis. The owners of these western clubs accompanied Hulbert and Spalding to New York where they secretly met with owners from New York City, Philadelphia, Hartford, and Boston. Each signed the league's constitution, and the National League was officially born. \"Spalding was thus involved in the transformation of baseball from a game of gentlemen athletes into a business and a professional sport.\" Although the National Association held on for a few more seasons, it was no longer recognized as the premier organization for professional baseball. Gradually, it faded out of existence and was replaced by myriad minor leagues and associations around the country.\n\nIn 1886, with Spalding as President of the franchise, the Chicago White Stockings, (today's Chicago Cubs), began holding spring training in Hot Springs, Arkansas, which subsequently has been called the \"birthplace\" of spring training baseball. The location and the training concept was the brainchild of Spalding and his player/manager Cap Anson, who saw that the city and the natural springs created positives for their players. They first played in an area called the '''Hot Springs Baseball Grounds'''. Many other teams followed the concept and began training in Hot Springs and other locations.\n\nIn 1905, after Henry Chadwick wrote an article saying that baseball grew from the British sports of cricket and rounders, Spalding called for a commission to find out the real source of baseball. The commission called for citizens who knew anything about the founding of baseball to send in letters. After three years of searching, on December 30, 1907, Spalding received a letter that (erroneously) declared baseball to be the invention of Abner Doubleday. The commission, though, was biased, as Spalding would not appoint anyone to the commission if they believed the sport was somewhat related to the English sport of rounders. Just before the commission, in a letter to sportswriter Tim Murnane, Spalding noted, \"Our good old American game of baseball must have an American Dad.\" The project, later called the Mills Commission, concluded that \"Base Ball had its origins in the United States\" and \"the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence available to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, N.Y., in 1839.\"\n\nReceiving the archives of Henry Chadwick in 1908, Spalding combined these records with his own memories (and biases) to write \"America's National Game\" (published 1911) which, despite its flaws, was probably the first scholarly account of the history of baseball.\n\n===Businessman===\nIn 1874 while Spalding was playing and organizing the league, Spalding and his brother Walter began a sporting goods store in Chicago, which grew rapidly (14 stores by 1901) and expanded into a manufacturer and distributor of all kinds of sporting equipment. The company became \"synonymous with sporting goods\" and is still a going concern.\n\nSpalding published the first official rules guide for baseball. In it he stated that only Spalding balls could be used (previously, the quality of the balls used had been subpar). Spalding also founded the \"Baseball Guide\", which at the time was the most widely read baseball publication.\n\nIn 1888–1889, Spalding took a group of major league players around the world to promote baseball and Spalding sporting goods. This was the first-ever world baseball tour. Playing across the western U.S., the tour made stops in Hawaii (although no game was played), New Zealand, Australia, Ceylon, Egypt, Italy, France, and England. The tour returned to grand receptions in New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. The tour included future Hall of Famers Cap Anson and John Montgomery Ward. While the players were on the tour, the National League instituted new rules regarding player pay that led to a revolt of players, led by Ward, who started the Players' League the following season (1890). The league lasted one year, partially due to the anti-competitive tactics of Spalding to limit its success. The tour and formation of the Player's League is depicted in the 2015 movie \"Deadball.\"\n\nIn 1900 Spalding was appointed by President McKinley as the USA's Commissioner at that year's Summer Olympic Games.\n", "Spalding had been a prominent member of the Theosophical Society under William Quan Judge. In 1900, Spalding moved to San Diego with his newly acquired second wife, Elizabeth and became a prominent member and supporter of the Theosophical community Lomaland, which was being developed on Point Loma by Katherine Tingley. He built an estate in the Sunset Cliffs area of Point Loma where he lived with Elizabeth for the rest of his life. The Spaldings raised race horses and collected Chinese fine furniture and art.\n\nThe Spaldings had an extensive library which included many volumes on Theosophy, art, and literature. In 1907–09 he was the driving force behind the development of a paved road, known as the \"Point Loma boulevard\", from downtown San Diego to Point Loma and Ocean Beach; the road also provided good access to Lomaland. It later provided the basis for California State Route 209. He proposed the project, supervised it on behalf of the city, and paid a portion of the cost out of his own pocket. He joined with George Marston and other civic-minded businessmen to purchase the site of the original Presidio of San Diego, which they developed as a historic park and eventually donated to the city of San Diego. He ran unsuccessfully for the United States Senate in 1910. He helped to organize the 1915 Panama-California Exposition, serving as second vice-president.\n", "He died of a stroke on September 9, 1915 in San Diego, one week after his 66th birthday. His ashes were scattered at his request.\n", "He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee in 1939, as one of the first inductees from the 19th century at that summer's opening ceremonies. His plaque in the Hall of Fame reads \"Albert Goodwill Spalding. Organizational genius of baseball's pioneer days. Star pitcher of Forest City Club in late 1860s, 4-year champion Bostons 1871–75 and manager-pitcher of champion Chicagos in National League's first year. Chicago president for 10 years. Organizer of baseball's first round-the-world tour in 1888.\"\n\nHis nephew, also named Albert Spalding, was a renowned violinist.\n\n\n", "\nList of Major League Baseball career wins leaders\nList of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders\nList of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders\nList of Major League Baseball player-managers\nMajor League Baseball titles leaders\n", "\n", "\n\n", "\n\n \n* Official webpage of Spalding's company\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Baseball career", "Other activities", "Death", "Legacy", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Albert Spalding
[ "\n\nThe '''Africa Alphabet''' (also '''International African Alphabet''' or '''IAI alphabet''') was developed in 1928 under the lead of Diedrich Westermann. He developed it with a group of Africanists at the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures (later the IAI) in London. Its aim was to enable people to write all the African languages for practical and scientific purposes without the need of diacritics. It is based on the International Phonetic Alphabet with a few differences, such as ''j'' and ''y'', which instead have the same (consonant) sound values as in English.\n\nThis alphabet has influenced development of orthographies of many African languages (serving \"as the basis for the transcription\" of about 60, by one count), but not all, and discussions of harmonization of systems of transcription that led to, among other things, adoption of the African reference alphabet.\n\nThe African Alphabet was used, with the International Phonetic Alphabet, as a basis for the World Orthography.\n", "{\|class=\"wikitable Unicode\"\n+Africa Alphabet\n\n uppercase \n A \n B \n Ɓ \n C \n D \n Ɖ \n E \n Ɛ \n Ǝ \n F \n Ƒ \n G \n Ɣ \n H \n X \n I \n J \n K \n L \n M \n N \n Ŋ \n O \n Ɔ \n P \n R \n S \n Ʃ \n T \n U \n V \n Ʋ \n W \n Y \n Z \n Ʒ\n\n lowercase\n a \n b \n ɓ \n c \n d \n ɖ \n e \n ɛ \n ǝ \n f \n ƒ \n g \n ɣ \n h \n x \n i \n j \n k \nl \n m \n n \n ŋ \n o \n ɔ \n p \n r \n s \n ʃ \n t \n u \n v \n ʋ \n w \n y \n z \n ʒ\n\n", "African reference alphabet\nLatin-script alphabet\nDinka alphabet\nISO 6438\nPan-Nigerian alphabet\nStandard Alphabet by Lepsius\n", "\n", "Coulmas, Florian, ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems'', 1996, Blackwell, Oxford\nIIACL, ''Practical Orthography of African Languages'', Revised Edition, London: Oxford University Press, 1930\n*Sow, Alfa I., and Mohamed H. Abdulaziz, \"Language and Social Change,\" Ch. 18 in Ali A. Mazrui (ed.) ''Africa Since 1935'' (UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. 8). University of California Press, 1993.\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Characters ", "See also", "Notes", "References" ]	Africa Alphabet
[ "\n\n\n'''''Acquire''''' is a multi-player mergers and acquisitions themed board game. It is played with tiles representing hotels that are arranged on the board, play money and stock certificates. The object of the game is to earn the most money by developing and merging hotel chains. When a chain in which a player owns stock is acquired by a larger chain, players earn money based on the size of the acquired chain. At the end of the game, all players liquidate their stock in order to determine which player has the most money. It was one of the most popular games in the 1960s 3M bookshelf game series, and the only one still published in the United States.\n", "The following components are included in all versions:\n\n* a compact game board with a hundred spaces (or a few more) in a rectangular array\n* sequenced tiles corresponding to the spaces on the board\n* a number of different colored markers, representing different hotel chains\n* shares of stock for each of the hotel chains\n* A supply of play money, in various denominations from $100 up\n* a set of charts listing the market prices of shares of the chains\n* an instruction manual\n", "Acquire started life as the Milton Bradley gambling-themed board game Lotto played in childhood by Sid Sackson, who went on to become a game designer. He reworked the game into a wargame he called \"Lotto War\". Sackson (along with Alex Randolph) was commissioned by 3M to start a new games division in 1962. When he submitted the game to 3M in 1963, he called the game \"Vacation\". 3M suggested the name change to Acquire, and Sackson agreed. The game was test marketed in several U.S. cities in 1963, and production began in 1964 as a part of the bookshelf games series. The 3M game division was sold to Avalon Hill in 1976 and became part of their bookcase game series. The Avalon brand became part of Hasbro in 1998. Hasbro slightly reworked and reissued the game in 2000, but thereafter discontinued it. In the mid-2000s, the game was transferred to a Hasbro subsidiary Wizards of the Coast. In 2008, Wizards issued a ''50th Anniversary'' edition (though the game wasn't 50 years old). In 2016, the game was transferred back to the Hasbro games division and republished in Nov. 2016 under the Avalon label.\n\nIn most versions, the theme of the game is investing in hotel chains. In the 1990s Hasbro edition, the hotel chains were replaced by fictitious corporations, though the actual gameplay was unchanged. In the current Avalon edition, the companies are once again hotel chains.\n\nThe components of the game have varied over the years. In particular, the tiles have been made from wood, plastic, and cardboard in various editions of the game. In the 2008 version, the tiles were cardboard. In the 2016 version, the tiles are plastic, but the board size was reduced, from 9x12 to 10x10.\n", "A short setup precedes play, wherein each player receives play cash and a small random set of playing tiles and becomes\nthe founder of a nascent hotel chain by drawing and placing a tile representing a hotel on the board. Tiles are\nordered, and correspond to spaces on the board. Position of the starting tiles determines order of play.\n\nPlay consists of placing a tile on the board and optionally buying stock. The placed tile may found a new hotel\nchain, grow an existing one or merge two or more chains. Chains are sets of edge-wise adjacent tiles. Founders\nreceive a share of stock in new chains. A chain can become \"safe\", immune to acquisition, by attaining a specified\nsize. Following placement of a tile, the player may then buy a limited number of shares of stock in existing chains.\nShares have a market value determined by the size and stature of the hotel chain. At the end of his\nturn, the player receives a new tile to replace the one played.\n\nWhen mergers occur, the smaller chain becomes defunct, and its tiles are then part of the acquiring chain. The two\nlargest shareholders in the acquired chain receive cash bonuses; players may sell their shares in the defunct chain,\ntrade them in for shares of the acquiring chain, or keep them. Mergers between 3 or more chains are handled in order \nfrom larger to smaller.\n\nA player during his turn may declare the game at an end if the largest chain exceeds a specified size (about 40%\nof the board), or all chains on the board are too large to be acquired. When the game ends, shareholder bonuses\nare paid to the two largest shareholders of each chain, and players cash out their shares at market price (shares\nin any defunct chains are worthless). The player with the most money wins.\n\nAn interesting and optional aspect of gameplay is whether numbers of players' shares is public or private information.\nThis is negotiated before the game starts. Keeping this information private can greatly extend the game: when players\nare less certain of their status, they are less willing to end the game.\n\nAcquire is for 3 - 6 players, and is shorter than many boardgames, about an hour and a half to play.\n", "The game was short-listed for the first Spiel des Jahres board game awards in 1979.\n\n''GAMES'' magazine has inducted ''Acquire'' into their buyers' guide Hall of Fame. The magazine's stated criteria for the Hall of Fame encompasses \"games that have met or exceeded the highest standards of quality and play value and have been continuously in production for at least 10 years; i.e., classics.\"\n\nIt was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts & Design's Hall of Fame, along with Sackson, in 2011.\n\nAcquire is one of the Mind Sports Olympiad games.\n", "Monopoly, a plausibly similar game of acquiring and merging houses/hotels\n", "\n", " \n* ''Acquire'' Wizards of the Coast page\n* ''Acquire'' Webnoir page\n* \"History of the game of ACQUIRE\" Acquisition Games page\n* \"Lloyd's Rules of ACQUIRE\" Acquisition Games Page\n* \"Review of 2016 Hasbro Game of ACQUIRE\" Acquisition Games Page\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Components", "History", "Gameplay", "Awards", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Acquire
[ "\n\n\n\n'''American Airlines Flight 77''' was a scheduled American Airlines domestic transcontinental passenger flight from Washington Dulles International Airport in Dulles, Virginia, to Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles, California. The Boeing 757-223 aircraft serving the flight was hijacked by five men affiliated with al-Qaeda on September 11, 2001, as part of the September 11 attacks. They deliberately crashed the plane into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, near Washington, D.C., killing all 64 people on board, including the five hijackers and six crew, as well as 125 people in the building.\n\nLess than 35 minutes into the flight, the hijackers stormed the cockpit. They forced the passengers, crew, and pilots to the rear of the aircraft. Hani Hanjour, one of the hijackers who was trained as a pilot, assumed control of the flight. Unknown to the hijackers, passengers aboard made telephone calls to friends and family and relayed information on the hijacking.\n\nThe hijackers crashed the aircraft into the western side of the Pentagon at 09:37 EDT. Many people witnessed the crash, and news sources began reporting on the incident within minutes. The impact severely damaged an area of the Pentagon and caused a large fire. A portion of the building collapsed; firefighters spent days working to fully extinguish the blaze. The damaged sections of the Pentagon were rebuilt in 2002, with occupants moving back into the completed areas that August. The 184 victims of the attack are memorialized in the Pentagon Memorial adjacent to the crash site. The park contains a bench for each of the victims, arranged according to their year of birth and ranging from 1930 to 1998.\n", "The hijackers on American Airlines Flight 77 were led by Hani Hanjour, who piloted the aircraft into the Pentagon. Hanjour first came to the United States in 1990.\n\nHanjour trained at the CRM Airline Training Center in Scottsdale, Arizona, earning his FAA commercial pilot's certificate in April 1999. He had wanted to be a commercial pilot for the Saudi national airline but was rejected when he applied to the civil aviation school in Jeddah in 1999. Hanjour's brother later explained that, frustrated at not finding a job, Hanjour \"increasingly turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers\". Hanjour returned to Saudi Arabia after being certified as a pilot, but left again in late 1999, telling his family that he was going to the United Arab Emirates to work for an airline. Hanjour likely went to Afghanistan, where Al-Qaeda recruits were screened for special skills they might have. Already having selected the Hamburg cell members, Al Qaeda leaders selected Hanjour to lead the fourth team of hijackers.\n\n\n\nAlec Station, the CIA's unit dedicated to tracking Osama bin Laden, had discovered that two of the other hijackers, al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar, had multiple-entry visas to the United States well before 9/11. Two FBI agents inside the unit tried to alert FBI headquarters, but CIA officers rebuffed them.\n\nIn December 2000, Hanjour arrived in San Diego, joining \"muscle\" hijackers Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, who had been there since January 2000. Soon after arriving, Hanjour and Hazmi left for Mesa, Arizona, where Hanjour began refresher training at Arizona Aviation.\n\nIn April 2001, they relocated to Falls Church, Virginia, where they awaited the arrival of the remaining \"muscle\" hijackers. One of these men, Majed Moqed, arrived on May 2, 2001, with Flight 175 hijacker Ahmed al-Ghamdi from Dubai at Dulles International Airport. They moved into an apartment with Hazmi and Hanjour.\n\nOn May 21, 2001, Hanjour rented a room in Paterson, New Jersey, where he stayed with other hijackers through the end of August. The last Flight 77 \"muscle\" hijacker, Salem al-Hazmi, arrived on June 29, 2001, with Abdulaziz al-Omari (a hijacker of Flight 11) at John F. Kennedy International Airport from the United Arab Emirates. They stayed with Hanjour.\n\nHanjour received ground instruction and did practice flights at Air Fleet Training Systems in Teterboro, New Jersey, and at Caldwell Flight Academy in Fairfield, New Jersey. Hanjour moved out of the room in Paterson and arrived at the Valencia Motel in Laurel, Maryland, on September 2, 2001. While in Maryland, Hanjour and fellow hijackers trained at Gold's Gym in Greenbelt. On September 10, he completed a certification flight, using a terrain recognition system for navigation, at Congressional Air Charters in Gaithersburg, Maryland.\n\nOn September 10, Nawaf al-Hazmi—accompanied by other hijackers—checked into the Marriott in Herndon, Virginia, near Dulles Airport.\n\n===Suspected accomplices===\nAccording to a U.S. State Department cable leaked in the WikiLeaks dump in February 2010, the FBI has investigated another suspect, Mohammed al-Mansoori. He had associated with three Qatari citizens who flew from Los Angeles to London (via Washington) and Qatar on the eve of the attacks, after allegedly surveying the World Trade Center and the White House. U.S. law enforcement officials said that the data about the four men was \"just one of many leads that were thoroughly investigated at the time and never led to terrorism charges\". An official added that the three Qatari citizens have never been questioned by the FBI. Eleanor Hill, the former staff director for the congressional joint inquiry on the September 11 attacks, said the cable reinforces questions about the thoroughness of the FBI's investigation. She also said that the inquiry concluded that the hijackers had a support network that helped them in different ways.\n\nThe three Qatari men were booked to fly from Los Angeles to Washington on September 10, 2001, on the same plane that was hijacked and piloted into the Pentagon on the following day. Instead, they flew from Los Angeles to Qatar, via Washington and London. While the cable said that Mansoori was currently under investigation, U.S. law enforcement officials said that there was no active investigation of him or of the Qatari citizens mentioned in the cable.\n", "N644AA in March 1995 at Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport.\n\nThe American Airlines Flight 77 aircraft was a Boeing 757-223 (registration The aircraft was built and had its first flight in 1991. The flight crew included pilot Charles Burlingame (a Naval Academy graduate and former fighter pilot), First Officer David Charlebois, and flight attendants Michele Heidenberger, Jennifer Lewis, Kenneth Lewis, and Renee May. The capacity of the aircraft was 188 passengers, but with 58 passengers on September 11, the load factor was 33 percent. American Airlines said that Tuesdays were the least-traveled day of the week, with the same load factor seen on Tuesdays in the previous three months for Flight 77.\n\n===Boarding and departure===\nOn the morning of September 11, 2001, the five hijackers arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport. At 07:15, Khalid al-Mihdhar and Majed Moqed checked in at the American Airlines ticket counter for Flight 77, arriving at the passenger security checkpoint a few minutes later at 07:18. Both men set off the metal detector and were put through secondary screening. Moqed continued to set off the alarm, so he was searched with a hand wand. The Hazmi brothers checked in together at the ticket counter at 07:29. Hani Hanjour checked in separately and arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at 07:35. Hanjour was followed minutes later at the checkpoint by Salem and Nawaf al-Hazmi, who also set off the metal detector's alarm. The screener at the checkpoint never resolved what set off the alarm. As seen in security footage later released, Nawaf Hazmi appeared to have an unidentified item in his back pocket. Utility knives up to four inches were permitted at the time by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as carry-on items. The passenger security checkpoint at Dulles International Airport was operated by Argenbright Security, under contract with United Airlines.\n\nThe hijackers were all selected for extra screening of their checked bags. Hanjour, al-Mihdhar, and Moqed were chosen by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System criteria, while the brothers Nawaf and Salem al-Hazmi were selected because they did not provide adequate identification and were deemed suspicious by the airline check-in agent. Hanjour, Mihdhar, and Nawaf al-Hazmi did not check any bags for the flight. Checked bags belonging to Moqed and Salem al-Hazmi were held until they boarded the aircraft.\n\nFlight 77 was scheduled to depart for Los Angeles at 08:10; 58 passengers boarded through Gate D26, including the five hijackers. Excluding the hijackers, of the 59 other passengers and crew on board, there were 26 men, 22 women, and five children ranging in age from three to eleven. On the flight, Hani Hanjour was seated up front in 1B, while Salem and Nawaf al-Hazmi were seated in first class in seats 5E and 5F. Majed Moqed and Khalid al-Mihdhar were seated further back in 12A and 12B, in economy class. Flight 77 left the gate on time and took off from Runway 30 at Dulles at 08:20.\n\n===Hijacking===\nThree frames from the security camera video of Flight 77 hitting the Pentagon.\n\nThe 9/11 Commission estimated that the flight was hijacked between 08:51 and 08:54, shortly after American Airlines Flight 11 struck the World Trade Center and not too long after United Airlines Flight 175 had been hijacked. The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08:50:51. Unlike the other three flights, there were no reports of anyone being stabbed or a bomb threat and the pilots were not immediately killed but shoved to the back of the plane with the rest of the passengers. At 08:54, the plane began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south. Two minutes later at 08:56, the plane's transponder was switched off. The hijackers set the flight's autopilot on a course heading east towards Washington, D.C.\n\nThe FAA was aware at this point that there was an emergency on board the airplane. By this time, Flight 11 had already crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center and Flight 175 was known to have been hijacked and was within minutes of striking the South Tower. After learning of this second hijacking involving an American Airlines aircraft and the hijacking involving United Airlines, American Airlines' executive vice president Gerard Arpey ordered a nationwide ground stop for the airline. The Indianapolis Air Traffic Control Center, as well as American Airlines dispatchers, made several failed attempts to contact the aircraft. At the time the airplane was hijacked, it was flying over an area of limited radar coverage. With air controllers unable to contact the flight by radio, an Indianapolis official declared that the Boeing 757 had possibly crashed at 09:09.\n\nTwo people on the aircraft made phone calls to contacts on the ground. At 09:12, flight attendant Renee May called her mother, Nancy May, in Las Vegas. During the call, which lasted nearly two minutes, May said her flight was being hijacked by six persons, and staff and passengers had been moved to the rear of the airplane. May asked her mother to contact American Airlines, which she and her husband promptly did; American Airlines was already aware of the hijacking. Between 09:16 and 09:26, passenger Barbara Olson called her husband, United States Solicitor General Theodore Olson, and reported that the airplane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives. She reported that the passengers, including the pilots, had been moved to the back of the cabin and that the hijackers were unaware of her call. A minute into the conversation, the call was cut off. Theodore Olson contacted the command center at the Department of Justice, and tried unsuccessfully to contact Attorney General John Ashcroft. About five minutes later, Barbara Olson called again, told her husband that the \"pilot\" (possibly Hanjour on the cabin intercom) had announced the flight was hijacked, and asked, \"What do I tell the pilot to do?\" Ted Olson asked her location and she reported the plane was flying low over a residential area. He told her of the attacks on the World Trade Center. Soon afterward, the call cut off again.\n\n\n\nAn airplane was detected again by Dulles controllers on radar screens as it approached Washington, turning and descending rapidly. Controllers initially thought this was a military fighter, due to its high speed and maneuvering. Reagan Airport controllers asked a passing Air National Guard Lockheed C-130 Hercules to identify and follow the aircraft. The pilot, Lt. Col. Steven O'Brien, told them it was a Boeing 757 or 767, and its silver fuselage meant that it was probably an American Airlines jet. He had difficulty picking out the airplane in the \"East Coast haze\", but then saw a \"huge\" fireball, and initially assumed it had hit the ground. Approaching the Pentagon, he saw the impact site on the building's west side and reported to Reagan control, \"Looks like that aircraft crashed into the Pentagon, sir.\"\n\n===Crash===\nSecurity camera footage of Flight 77 hitting the Pentagon. Impact is at 1:27.\n\nAccording to the 9/11 Commission Report, as Flight 77 was west-southwest of the Pentagon, it made a 330-degree turn. At the end of the turn, it was descending through , pointed toward the Pentagon and downtown Washington. Hani Hanjour advanced the throttles to maximum power and dived toward the Pentagon. While level above the ground and seconds from the crash, the wings knocked over five street lampposts and the right wing struck a portable generator, creating a smoke trail seconds before smashing into the Pentagon. Flight 77, flying at 530 mph (853 km/h, 237 m/s, or 460 knots) over the Navy Annex Building adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery, crashed into the western side of the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, just south of Washington, D.C., at 09:37:46. The plane hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level, and at the moment of impact, the airplane was rolled slightly to the left, with the right wing elevated. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact, while the mid and tail sections moved for another fraction of a second, with tail section debris penetrating furthest into the building. In all, the airplane took eight-tenths of a second to fully penetrate into the three outermost of the building's five rings and unleashed a fireball that rose above the building.\n\nDebris from Flight 77 scattered near the Pentagon\nThe Pentagon, minutes after American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into it\n\nAt the time of the attacks, approximately 18,000 people worked in the Pentagon, which was 4,000 fewer than before renovations began in 1998. The section of the Pentagon that was struck, which had recently been renovated at a cost of $250 million, housed the Naval Command Center.\n\nA fire at the Pentagon, with police and EMS in the foreground\n\nIn all, there were 189 deaths at the Pentagon site, including the 125 in the Pentagon building in addition to the 64 on board the aircraft. Passenger Barbara Olson was en route to a recording of the TV show ''Politically Incorrect''. A group of children, their chaperones, and National Geographic Society staff members were also on board, embarking on an educational trip west to the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary near Santa Barbara, California. The fatalities at the Pentagon included 55 military personnel and 70 civilians. Of those 125 killed, 92 were on the first floor, 31 were on the second floor, and two were on the third. Seven Defense Intelligence Agency civilian employees were killed while the Office of the Secretary of Defense lost one contractor. The U.S. Army suffered 75 fatalities—53 civilians (47 employees and six contractors) and 22 soldiers—while the U.S. Navy suffered 42 fatalities—nine civilians (six employees and three contractors) and 33 sailors. Lieutenant General Timothy Maude, an Army Deputy Chief of Staff, was the highest-ranking military officer killed at the Pentagon; also killed was retired Rear Admiral Wilson Flagg, a passenger on the plane. LT Mari-Rae Sopper, JAGC, USNR, was also on board the flight, and was the first Navy Judge Advocate ever to be killed in action. Another 106 were injured on the ground and were treated at area hospitals.\n\n\n\nOn the side where the plane hit, the Pentagon is bordered by Interstate 395 and Washington Boulevard. Motorist Mary Lyman, who was on I-395, saw the airplane pass over at a \"steep angle toward the ground and going fast\" and then saw the cloud of smoke from the Pentagon. Omar Campo, another witness, was cutting the grass on the other side of the road when the airplane flew over his head, and later recalled:\n\n\n\nAfework Hagos, a computer programmer, was on his way to work and stuck in a traffic jam near the Pentagon when the airplane flew over. \"There was a huge screaming noise and I got out of the car as the plane came over. Everybody was running away in different directions. It was tilting its wings up and down like it was trying to balance. It hit some lampposts on the way in.\" Daryl Donley witnessed the crash and took some of the first photographs of the site.\n\nAerial view of the collapsed area and subsequent fire damage\nU.S. Marine flag remained undisturbed amidst the office wreckage a day following the attack.\n\n''USA Today'' reporter Mike Walter was driving on Washington Boulevard when he witnessed the crash, which he recounted,\n\n\n\nTerrance Kean, who lived in a nearby apartment building, heard the noise of loud jet engines, glanced out his window, and saw a \"very, very large passenger jet\". He watched \"it just plow right into the side of the Pentagon. The nose penetrated into the portico. And then it sort of disappeared, and there was fire and smoke everywhere.\" Tim Timmerman, who is a pilot himself, noticed American Airlines markings on the aircraft as he saw it hit the Pentagon. Other drivers on Washington Boulevard, Interstate 395, and Columbia Pike witnessed the crash, as did people in Pentagon City, Crystal City, and other nearby locations.\n\nFormer Georgetown University basketball coach John Thompson had originally booked a ticket on Flight 77. As he would tell the story many times in the following years, including a September 12, 2011 interview on Jim Rome's radio show, he had been scheduled to appear on that show on September 12, 2001. Thompson was planning to be in Las Vegas for a friend's birthday on September 13, and initially insisted on traveling to Rome's Los Angeles studio on the 11th. However, this did not work for the show, which wanted him to travel on the day of the show. After a Rome staffer personally assured Thompson that he would be able to travel from Los Angeles to Las Vegas immediately after the show, Thompson changed his travel plans. He felt the impact from the crash at his home near the Pentagon.\n", "\n\nRescue efforts began immediately after the crash. Almost all the successful rescues of survivors occurred within half an hour of the impact. Initially, rescue efforts were led by the military and civilian employees within the building. Within minutes, the first fire companies arrived and found these volunteers searching near the impact site. The firemen ordered them to leave as they were not properly equipped or trained to deal with the hazards. The Arlington County Fire Department (ACFD) assumed command of the immediate rescue operation within 10 minutes of the crash. ACFD Assistant Chief James Schwartz implemented an incident command system (ICS) to coordinate response efforts among multiple agencies. It took about an hour for the ICS structure to become fully operational. Firefighters from Fort Myer and Reagan National Airport arrived within minutes. Rescue and firefighting efforts were impeded by rumors of additional incoming planes. Chief Schwartz ordered two evacuations during the day in response to these rumors.\n\nAn injured victim being loaded into an ambulance at the Pentagon\n\nAs firefighters attempted to extinguish the fires, they watched the building in fear of a structural collapse. One firefighter remarked that they \"pretty much knew the building was going to collapse because it started making weird sounds and creaking\". Officials saw a cornice of the building move and ordered an evacuation. Minutes later, at 10:10, the upper floors of the damaged area of the Pentagon collapsed. The collapsed area was about at its widest point and at its deepest. The amount of time between impact and collapse allowed everyone on the fourth and fifth levels to evacuate safely before the structure collapsed. After the collapse, the interior fires intensified, spreading through all five floors. After 11:00, firefighters mounted a two-pronged attack against the fires. Officials estimated temperatures of up to . While progress was made against the interior fires by late afternoon, firefighters realized a flammable layer of wood under the Pentagon's slate roof had caught fire and begun to spread. Typical firefighting tactics were rendered useless by the reinforced structure as firefighters were unable to reach the fire to extinguish it. Firefighters instead made firebreaks in the roof on September 12 to prevent further spreading. At 18:00 on the 12th, Arlington County issued a press release stating the fire was \"controlled\" but not fully \"extinguished\". Firefighters continued to put out smaller fires that ignited in the succeeding days.\n\nVarious pieces of aircraft debris were found within the wreckage at the Pentagon. While on fire and escaping from the Navy Command Center, Lt. Kevin Shaeffer observed a chunk of the aircraft's nose cone and the nose landing gear in the service road between rings B and C. Early in the morning on Friday, September 14, Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue Team members Carlton Burkhammer and Brian Moravitz came across an \"intact seat from the plane's cockpit\", while paramedics and firefighters located the two black boxes near the punch out hole in the A-E drive, nearly into the building. The cockpit voice recorder was too badly damaged and charred to retrieve any information, though the flight data recorder yielded useful information. Investigators also found a part of Nawaf al-Hazmi's driver's license in the North Parking Lot rubble pile. Personal effects belonging to victims were found and taken to Fort Myer.\n\n===Remains===\nDiagram of body fragments found in the Pentagon. Most body fragments were found near the impact zone.\n\nArmy engineers determined by 5:30 p.m. on the first day that no one remained alive in the damaged section of the building. In the days after the crash, news reports emerged that up to 800 people had died. Army troops from Fort Belvoir were the first teams to survey the interior of the crash site and noted the presence of human remains. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Urban Search and Rescue teams, including Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue assisted the search for remains, working through the National Interagency Incident Management System (NIIMS). Kevin Rimrodt, a Navy photographer surveying the Navy Command Center after the attacks, remarked that \"there were so many bodies, I'd almost step on them. So I'd have to really take care to look backwards as I'm backing up in the dark, looking with a flashlight, making sure I'm not stepping on somebody\". Debris from the Pentagon was taken to the Pentagon's north parking lot for more detailed search for remains and evidence.\n\nRemains that were recovered from the Pentagon were photographed, and turned over to the Armed Forces Medical Examiner office, located at Dover Air Force Base in Delaware. The medical examiner's office was able to identify remains belonging to 179 of the victims. Investigators eventually identified 184 of the 189 people who died in the attack. The remains of the five hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, and were turned over as evidence to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). On September 21, the ACFD relinquished control of the crime scene to the FBI. The Washington Field Office, National Capital Response Squad (NCRS), and the Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) led the crime scene investigation at the Pentagon.\n\nBy October 2, 2001, the search for evidence and remains was complete and the site was turned over to Pentagon officials. In 2002, the remains of 25 victims were buried collectively at Arlington National Cemetery, with a five-sided granite marker inscribed with the names of all the victims in the Pentagon. The ceremony also honored the five victims whose remains were never found.\n\n===Flight recorders===\nThe cockpit voice recorder from American Airlines Flight 77, as used in an exhibit at the Moussaoui trial\n\nAt around 3:40 a.m. on September 14, a paramedic and a firefighter who were searching through the debris of the impact site found two dark boxes, about by long. They called for an FBI agent, who in turn called for someone from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). The NTSB employee confirmed that these were the flight recorders (\"black boxes\") from American Airlines Flight 77. Dick Bridges, deputy manager for Arlington County, Virginia, said the cockpit voice recorder was damaged on the outside and the flight data recorder was charred. Bridges said the recorders were found \"right where the plane came into the building.\"\n\nThe cockpit voice recorder was transported to the NTSB lab in Washington, D.C., to see what data was salvageable. In its report, the NTSB identified the unit as an L-3 Communications, Fairchild Aviation Recorders model A-100A cockpit voice recorder—a device which records on magnetic tape. No usable segments of tape were found inside the recorder; according to the NTSB's report, \"the majority of the recording tape was fused into a solid block of charred plastic\". On the other hand, all the data from the flight data recorder, which used a solid-state drive, was recovered.\n\n===Continuity of operations===\nAt the moment of impact, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was in his office on the other side of the Pentagon, away from the crash site. He ran to the site and assisted the injured. Rumsfeld returned to his office, and went to a conference room in the Executive Support Center where he joined a secure videoteleconference with Vice President Dick Cheney and other officials. On the day of the attacks, DoD officials considered moving their command operations to Site R, a backup facility in Pennsylvania. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld insisted he remain at the Pentagon, and sent Deputy Secretary Paul Wolfowitz to Site R. The National Military Command Center (NMCC) continued to operate at the Pentagon, even as smoke entered the facility. Engineers and building managers manipulated the ventilation and other building systems that still functioned to draw smoke out of the NMCC and bring in fresh air.\n\nDuring a press conference held inside the Pentagon at 18:42, Rumsfeld announced, \"The Pentagon's functioning. It will be in business tomorrow.\" Pentagon employees returned the next day to offices in mostly unaffected areas of the building. By the end of September, more workers returned to the lightly damaged areas of the Pentagon.\n", "Damaged section of the Pentagon under reconstruction\n\nEarly estimates on rebuilding the damaged section of the Pentagon were that it would take three years to complete. However, the project moved forward at an accelerated pace and was completed by the one-year anniversary of the attack. The rebuilt section of the Pentagon includes a small indoor memorial and chapel at the point of impact. An outdoor memorial, commissioned by the Pentagon and designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman, was completed on schedule for its dedication on September 11, 2008. Since September 11, American Airlines continues to fly from Dulles International Airport to Los Angeles International Airport. As of August 2016, flight number 77 has been renumbered to 2636, now using a Boeing 737-800, departing at 7:40 in the morning.\n\n===Security camera video===\nSecond security camera video; impact is at 0:25\n\nThe Department of Defense released filmed footage on May 16, 2006, that was recorded by a security camera of American Airlines Flight 77 crashing into the Pentagon, with a plane visible in one frame, as a \"thin white blur\" and an explosion following. The images were made public in response to a December 2004 Freedom of Information Act request by Judicial Watch. Some still images from the video had previously been released and publicly circulated, but this was the first official release of the edited video of the crash.\n\nA nearby Citgo service station also had security cameras, but a video released on September 15, 2006 did not show the crash because the camera was pointed away from the crash site.\n\nThe Doubletree Hotel, located nearby in Crystal City, Virginia, also had a security camera video. The FBI released the video on December 4, 2006, in response to a FOIA lawsuit filed by Scott Bingham. The footage is \"grainy and the focus is soft, but a rapidly growing tower of smoke is visible in the distance on the upper edge of the frame as the plane crashes into the building\".\n\n===Memorials===\nPanel S-74 of the National September 11 Memorial's South Pool, one of six on which the names of Pentagon victims are inscribed\n\nA photo of the Pentagon Memorial, shortly before it opened on September 11, 2008.\n\nOn September 12, 2002, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld and General Richard Myers, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, dedicated the Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery. The memorial specifically honors the five individuals for whom no identifiable remains were found. This included Dana Falkenberg, age three, who was aboard American Airlines Flight 77 with her parents and older sister. A portion of the remains of 25 other victims are also buried at the site. The memorial is a pentagonal granite marker high. On five sides of the memorial along the top are inscribed the words \"Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon September 11, 2001\". Aluminum plaques, painted black, are inscribed with the names of the 184 victims of the terrorist attack. The site is located in Section 64, on a slight rise, which gives it a view of the Pentagon.\n\nAt the National September 11 Memorial, the names of the Pentagon victims are inscribed on the South Pool, on Panels S-1 and S-72 – S-76.\n\nThe Pentagon Memorial, located just southwest of The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, is a permanent outdoor memorial to the 184 people who died as victims in the building and on American Airlines Flight 77 during the September 11 attacks. Designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman of the architectural firm of Kaseman Beckman Advanced Strategies with engineers Buro Happold, the memorial opened on September 11, 2008, seven years after the attack.\n", "'''Note:''' This list does not include the nationalities of the five hijackers.\n\n\nNationality\nPassengers\nCrew\nTotal\n\n\n47\n6\n53\n\n\n2\n0\n2\n\n\n1\n0\n1\n\n\n1\n0\n1\n\n\n1\n0\n1\n\n\n1\n0\n1\n\n'''Total'''\n'''53'''\n'''6'''\n'''59'''\n\n", "* American Airlines Flight 11\n* United Airlines Flight 175\n* United Airlines Flight 93\n\n", "\n", "\n* Picture of Aircraft Pre 9-11\n* Arlington County After-Action Report – Arlington County Fire Department, July 23, 2002\n* (September 11, 2001)\n* (September 12, 2001)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Hijackers", "Flight", "Rescue and recovery", "Aftermath", "Nationalities of people on the plane", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	American Airlines Flight 77
[ "\n\nThe Bac Le Ambush: French marine infantry deploy beneath the Nui Dong Nai cliffs in 1884.\npartisans during the January Uprising\nAn '''ambush''' is a long-established military tactic in which combatants take advantage of concealment and the element of surprise to attack unsuspecting enemy combatants from concealed positions, such as among dense underbrush or behind hilltops. Ambushes have been used consistently throughout history, from ancient to modern warfare. In the 20th century, an ambush might involve thousands of soldiers on a large scale, such as over a choke point such as a mountain pass, or a small irregular band or insurgent group attacking a regular armed force patrol.\n", "The use by early humans of the ambush may date as far back as two million years when anthropologists have recently suggested that ambush techniques were used to hunt large game. \n\nOne example from ancient times is the Battle of the Trebia river. Hannibal encamped within striking distance of the Romans with the Trebia River between them, and placed a strong force of cavalry and infantry in concealment, near the battle zone. He had noticed, says Polybius, a \"place between the two camps, flat indeed and treeless, but well adapted for an ambuscade, as it was traversed by a water-course with steep banks, densely overgrown with brambles and other thorny plants, and here he proposed to lay a stratagem to surprise the enemy\". When the Roman infantry became entangled in combat with his army, the hidden ambush force attacked the legionnaires in the rear. The result was slaughter and defeat for the Romans. Nevertheless, the battle also displays the effects of good tactical discipline on the part of the ambushed force. Although most of the legions were lost, about 10,000 Romans cut their way through to safety, maintaining unit cohesion. This ability to maintain discipline and break out or maneuver away from a kill zone is a hallmark of good troops and training in any ambush situation. (See Ranger reference below).\n\nAnother famous ambush was that sprung by Germanic warchief Arminius against the Romans at Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This particular ambush was to affect the course of Western history. The Germanic forces demonstrated several principles needed for a successful ambush. They took cover in difficult forested terrain, allowing the warriors time and space to mass without detection. They had the element of surprise, and this was also aided by the defection of Arminius from Roman ranks prior to the battle. They sprang the attack when the Romans were most vulnerable; when they had left their fortified camp, and were on the march in a pounding rainstorm. \n\nThe Germans did not dawdle at the hour of decision but attacked quickly, using a massive series of short, rapid, vicious charges against the length of the whole Roman line, with charging units sometimes withdrawing to the forest to regroup while others took their place. The Germans also used blocking obstacles, erecting a trench and earthen wall to hinder Roman movement along the route of the killing zone. The result was mass slaughter of the Romans, and the destruction of three legions. The Germanic victory caused a limit on Roman expansion in the West. Ultimately, it established the Rhine as the boundary of the Roman Empire for the next four hundred years, until the decline of the Roman influence in the West. The Roman Empire made no further concerted attempts to conquer Germania beyond the Rhine.\n\n===Arabia during Muhammad's era===\n\nAccording to Muslim tradition, Islamic Prophet Muhammad used ambush tactics in his military campaigns. His first such use was during the Caravan raids, in the Kharrar caravan raid Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas was ordered to lead a raid against the Quraysh. His group consisted of about twenty Muhajirs. This raid was done about a month after the previous. Sa'd, with his soldiers, set up an ambush in the valley of Kharrar on the road to Mecca and waited to raid a returning Meccan caravan from Syria. But the caravan had already passed and the Muslims returned to Medina without any loot.\n\nArab tribes during Muhammad's era also used ambush tactics. One example retold in Muslim tradition is said to have taken place during the First Raid on Banu Thalabah. The Banu Thalabah tribe were already aware of the impending attack; so they lay in wait for the Muslims, and when Muhammad ibn Maslama arrived at the site.The Banu Thalabah, with 100 men ambushed them, while the Muslims were making preparation to sleep; and after a brief resistance killed all of Muhammad ibn Maslama’s men. Muhammad ibn Maslama pretended to be dead. A Muslim who happened to pass that way found him and assisted him to return to Medina. The raid was unsuccessful.\n", "In modern warfare, an ambush is most often employed by ground troops up to platoon size against enemy targets, which may be other ground troops, or possibly vehicles. However, in some situations, especially when deep behind enemy lines, the actual attack will be carried out by a platoon, a company-sized unit will be deployed to support the attack group, setting up and maintaining a forward patrol harbour from which the attacking force will deploy, and to which they will retire after the attack.\n\n===Planning===\nUS Army idealised linear ambush plan\nUS Army idealised L-shaped ambush plan\nAmbushes are complex, multi-phase operations, and are, therefore, usually planned in some detail. First, a suitable killing zone is identified. This is the place where the ambush will be laid. It is generally a place where enemy units are expected to pass, and which gives reasonable cover for the deployment, execution, and extraction phases of the ambush patrol. A path along a wooded valley floor would be a typical example.\n\nAmbush can be described geometrically as:\n* '''Linear''', when a number of firing units are equally distant from the linear kill zone.\n* '''L-shaped''', when a short leg of firing units are placed to enfilade (fire the length of) the sides of the linear kill zone.\n* '''V-shaped''', when the firing units are distant from the kill zone at the end where the enemy enters, so the firing units lay down bands of intersecting and interlocking fire. This ambush is normally triggered only when the enemy is well into the kill zone. The intersecting bands of fire prevent any attempt of moving out of the kill zone.\n===Viet Cong ambush techniques===\nThe VC/NVA prepared the battlefield carefully. Siting automatic weapons at treetop level for example helped shoot down several US helicopters during the Battle of Dak To, 1967 \n\n'''Ambush criteria:''' The terrain for the ambush had to meet strict criteria:\n* provide concealment to prevent detection from the ground or air\n* enable ambush force to deploy, encircle and divide the enemy\n* allow for heavy weapons emplacements to provide sustained fire\n* enable the ambush force to set up observation posts for early detection of the enemy\n* permit the secret movement of troops to the ambush position and the dispersal of troops during withdrawal\n\nOne important feature of the ambush was that the target units should 'pile up' after being attacked, thus preventing them any easy means of withdrawal from the kill zone and hindering their use of heavy weapons and supporting fires. Terrain was usually selected which would facilitate this and slow down the enemy. The terrain around the ambush site which was not favorable to the ambushing force, or which offered some protection to the target, was heavily mined and booby trapped or pre-registered for mortars.\n\n'''Ambush units:''' The NVA/VC ambush formations consisted of:\n* lead-blocking element\n* main-assault element\n* rear-blocking element\n* observation posts\n* command post\n\nOther elements might also be included if the situation demanded, such as a sniper screen along a nearby avenue of approach to delay enemy reinforcement.\n\n'''Command posts:''' When deploying into an ambush site, the NVA first occupied several observation posts, placed to detect the enemy as early as possible and to report on the formation it was using, its strength and firepower, as well as to provide early warning to the unit commander. Usually one main OP and several secondary OP's were established. Runners and occasionally radios were used to communicate between the OP's and the main command post. The OP's were located so that they could observe enemy movement into the ambush and often they would remain in position throughout the ambush in order to report routes of reinforcement and withdrawal by the enemy as well as his maneuver options. Frequently the OP's were reinforced to squad size and served as flank security. The command post was situated in a central location, often on terrain which afforded it a vantage point overlooking the ambush site.\n\n'''Recon methods:''' Recon elements observing a potential ambush target on the move generally stayed 300–500 meters away. Sometimes a \"leapfrogging\" recon technique was used. Surveillance units were echeloned one behind the other. As the enemy drew close to the first, it fell back behind the last recon team, leaving an advance group in its place. This one in turn fell back as the enemy again closed the gap, and the cycle rotated. This method helped keep the enemy under continuous observation from a variety of vantage points, and allowed the recon groups to cover one another.\n", "* Ambush predator\n* Viet Cong and PAVN battle tactics\n* Flanking maneuver\n* Flypaper theory (strategy)\n* List of military tactics\n* Sniper\n\n", "\n* Extract from Lt Col Anthony B. Herbert's Soldiers handbook\n* US Army Ranger Handbook section 5-14 for ambushes and 6-11 for reaction to ambushes\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Procedure", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Ambush
[ "An '''abzyme''' (from antibody and enzyme), also called ''catmab'' (from ''catalytic monoclonal antibody''), and most often called ''catalytic antibody'', is a monoclonal antibody with catalytic activity. Abzymes are usually raised in lab animals immunized against synthetic haptens, but some natural abzymes can be found in normal humans (anti-vasoactive intestinal peptide autoantibodies) and in patients with autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, where they can bind to and hydrolyze DNA. To date abzymes display only weak, modest catalytic activity and have not proved to be of any practical use. They are, however, subjects of considerable academic interest. Studying them has yielded important insights into reaction mechanisms, enzyme structure and function, catalysis, and the immune system itself.\n\nEnzymes function by lowering the activation energy of the transition state of a chemical reaction, thereby enabling the formation of an otherwise less-favorable molecular intermediate between the reactant(s) and the product(s). If an antibody is developed to bind to a molecule that's structurally and electronically similar to the transition state of a given chemical reaction, the developed antibody will bind to, and stabilize, the transition state, just like a natural enzyme, lowering the activation energy of the reaction, and thus catalyzing the reaction. By raising an antibody to bind to a stable transition-state analog, a new and unique type of enzyme is produced.\n\nSo far, all catalytic antibodies produced have displayed only modest, weak catalytic activity. The reasons for low catalytic activity for these molecules have been widely discussed. Possibilities indicate that factors beyond the binding site may play an important, in particular through protein dynamics. Some abzymes have been engineered to use metal ions and other cofactors to improve their catalytic activity.\n", "\nThe possibility of catalyzing a reaction by means of an antibody which binds the transition state was first suggested by William P. Jencks in 1969. In 1994, Peter G. Schultz and Richard A. Lerner received the prestigious Wolf Prize in Chemistry for developing catalytic antibodies for many reactions and popularizing their study into a significant sub-field of enzymology.\n", "\nIn a June 2008 issue of the journal Autoimmunity Review, researchers S Planque, Sudhir Paul, Ph.D, and Yasuhiro Nishiyama, Ph.D of the University Of Texas Medical School at Houston announced that they have engineered an abzyme that degrades the superantigenic region of the gp120 CD4 binding site. This is the one part of the HIV virus outer coating that does not change, because it is the attachment point to T lymphocytes, the key cell in cell-mediated immunity. Once infected by HIV, patients produce antibodies to the more changeable parts of the viral coat. The antibodies are ineffective because of the virus' ability to change their coats rapidly. Because this protein gp120 is necessary for HIV to attach, it does not change across different strains and is a point of vulnerability across the entire range of the HIV variant population.\n\nThe abzyme does more than bind to the site, it catalytically destroys the site, rendering the virus inert, and then can attack other HIV viruses. A single abzyme molecule can destroy thousands of HIV viruses.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Potential HIV treatment", "References" ]	Abzyme
[ "Galápagos Archipelago, are thought to have evolved by an adaptive radiation that diversified their beak shapes to adapt them to different food sources.\n\nIn evolutionary biology, '''adaptive radiation''' is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, creates new challenges, or opens new environmental niches. Starting with a recent single ancestor, this process results in the speciation and phenotypic adaptation of an array of species exhibiting different morphological and physiological traits. An example of adaptive radiation would be the avian species of the Hawaiian honeycreepers. Via natural selection, these birds adapted rapidly and converged based on the different environments of the Hawaiian islands.\n\nMuch research has been done on adaptive radiation due to its dramatic effects on the diversity of a population. However, more research is needed, especially to fully understand the many factors affecting adaptive radiation. Both empirical and theoretical approaches are helpful, though each has its disadvantages. In order to procure the largest amount of data, empirical and theoretical approaches must be united.\n", "Four features can be used to identify an adaptive radiation:\n# A common ancestry of component species: specifically a ''recent'' ancestry. Note that this is not the same as a monophyly in which ''all'' descendants of a common ancestor are included.\n# A phenotype-environment correlation: a ''significant'' association between environments and the morphological and physiological traits used to exploit those environments.\n# Trait utility: the performance or fitness advantages of trait values in their corresponding environments.\n# Rapid speciation: presence of one or more ''bursts'' in the emergence of new species around the time that ecological and phenotypic divergence is underway.\n", "\n===Innovation===\nThe evolution of a novel feature may permit a clade to diversify by making new areas of morphospace accessible. A classic example is the evolution of a fourth cusp in the mammalian tooth. This trait permits a vast increase in the range of foodstuffs which can be fed on. Evolution of this character has thus increased the number of ecological niches available to mammals. The trait arose a number of times in different groups during the Cenozoic, and in each instance was immediately followed by an adaptive radiation. Birds find other ways to provide for each other, i.e. the evolution of flight opened new avenues for evolution to explore, initiating an adaptive radiation.\nOther examples include placental gestation (for eutherian mammals), or bipedal locomotion (in hominins).\n", "\n===Darwin's finches===\nOne famous example where adaptive radiation is seen is with Darwin's finches. It has been observed by many evolutionary biologists that fragmented landscapes are often a prime location for adaptive radiation to occur. The differences in geography throughout disjointed landscapes such as islands are believed to promote such diversification. Darwin's finches occupy the fragmented landscape of the Galápagos Islands and are diversified into many different species which differ in ecology, song, and morphology, specifically the size and shapes of their beaks. The first obvious explanation for these differences is allopatric speciation, speciation that occurs when populations of the same species become isolated geographically and evolve separately. Because the finches are divided amongst the islands, the birds have been evolving separately for several million years. However, this does not account for the fact that many of the species occur in sympatry, with seven or more species inhabiting the same island. This raises the question as to why these species split when living in the same environment with all the same resources. Petren, Grant, Grant, and Keller proposed that the speciation of the finches occurred in two parts: an initial, easily observable allopatric event followed by a less clear sympatric event. This sympatric event which occurred second was adaptive radiation. This occurred largely to promote specialization upon each island. One major morphological difference among species sharing one island is beak size and shape. Adaptive radiation led to the evolution of different beaks which could access different food and resources. Those with short beaks are better adapted to eating seeds on the ground, those with thin, sharp beaks eat insects, and those with long beaks use their beaks to probe for food inside cacti. With these specializations, seven or more species of finches are able to inhabit the same environments without competition or lack of resources killing several off. In other words, these morphological differences in beak size and shape brought about by adaptive radiation allow the island diversification to persist.\n\n===Cichlid fish===\nAnother famous example is the cichlid fishes in lakes of the East African Rift. The lakes in this area are believed to support and sustain about 2,000 different species of these fish, each with different ecological and morphological characteristics such as body size. Like the Galápagos Islands, these lakes form a fragmented landscape that isolates the cichlid fish from one another, allowing them, and many of the organisms they live with, to evolve separately. The diversity of the lakes is in fact quite extraordinary because the adaptive radiations here are sometimes so young. One thing that has interested scientists about the cichlid fish case is the possibility of convergent evolution, or the evolution of analogous structures independently, driven by similar environmental selection pressures. However, quantitative studies on the convergent evolution of the cichlid fish are limited.\n\n===Hawaiian honeycreepers===\nAnother example of an adaptive radiation would be an endemic species of the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian honeycreepers are a large, highly diverse species which have been part of a vast adaptive radiation, that began as the Hawaiian Islands started to form. The honeycreeper species was shaped by island formation and natural selection. The mechanism by which this adaptive radiation occurred can be described as allopatric speciation via the peripheral isolate model. Each time a new island formed, a dispersal event would occur which would result in new community structures on each island. New selection pressures forced the adaptive radiation of the Hawaiian honeycreepers, as they needed to exploit new resources from the different environments of each island. It has been determined that many of the similar morphologies and behaviors of the Hawaiian Honeycreepers, located on distant islands, are due to convergence of analogous traits caused by similar environments.\n\n===Hawaiian silverswords===\nThough the most famously recognized cases of adaptive radiation have occurred in animals such as Darwin's finches or the cichlid fish, adaptive radiation certainly occurs in plant species as well. The most famous example of adaptive radiation in plants is quite possibly the Hawaiian silverswords. The Hawaiian silversword alliance consists of twenty-eight species of Hawaiian plants which range from trees to shrubs to vines. This is exceptional diversification as can be seen through the significant morphological differences between each species of the Hawaiian silverswords. With some species, it is virtually impossible to distinguish visually that they were ever part of one species to begin with. These radiations occurred millions of years ago, but through studies over the past few decades, it has been suggested that the rate of speciation and diversification was extremely high. These high rates, as well as the fragmented landscape of the Hawaiian Islands, are key characteristics which point directly to adaptive radiation.\n\n===Anolis lizards===\nAnolis lizards have been radiating widely in many different environments, including Central and South America, as well as the West Indies and experience great diversity of species just as the finches, cichlid fish, and silverswords. Studies have been done to determine whether radiations occur similarly for these lizards on the mainland as they do on the Caribbean islands or if differences can be observed in how they speciated. It has been observed that in fact, the radiations are very different, and ecological and morphological characteristics that these lizards developed as part of their speciation on the islands and on the mainland are unique. They have clearly evolved differently to the environments they inhabit. The environmental pressures on the Anolis lizards are not the same on the mainland as they are on the islands. There are significantly more predators preying on the Anolis lizards on the mainland. This is but one environmental difference. Other factors play a role in what sort of adaptive radiation will develop. Among the Caribbean islands, a larger perch diameter correlates with longer forelimbs, larger body mass, longer tails, and longer hind limbs. However, on the mainland, a larger perch diameter correlates with shorter tails. This shows that these lizards adapted differently to their environment depending on whether they were located on the mainland or the islands. These differing characteristics reconfirm that most of the adaptive radiation between the mainland and the islands occurred independently. On the islands specifically, species have adapted to certain \"microhabitats\" in which they require different morphological traits to survive. Irschick (1997) divides these microhabitats into six groups: \"trunk–ground, trunk–crown, grass–bush, crown–giant, twig, and trunk.\" Different groups of lizards would acquire traits for one of these particular areas that made them more specialized for survival in this microhabitat and not so much in others. Adaptive radiation allows species to acquire the traits they need to survive in these microhabitats and reduce competition to allow the survival of a greater number of organisms as seen in many of the examples before.\n", "\n* Cambrian explosion—the most notable evolutionary radiation event\n* Evolutionary radiation—a more general term to describe any radiation\n* List of adaptive radiated Hawaiian honeycreepers by form\n* List of adaptive radiated marsupials by form\n", "\n", "* Wilson, E. et al. ''Life on Earth,'' by Wilson, E.; Eisner, T.; Briggs, W.; Dickerson, R.; Metzenberg, R.; O'brien,R.; Susman, M.; Boggs, W.; (Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers, Stamford, Connecticut), c 1974. Chapters: ''The Multiplication of Species; Biogeography,'' pp 824–877. 40 Graphs, w species pictures, also Tables, Photos, etc. Includes Galápagos Islands, Hawaii, and Australia subcontinent, (plus St. Helena Island, etc.).\n* Leakey, Richard. ''The Origin of Humankind''—on adaptive radiation in biology and human evolution, pp. 28–32, 1994, Orion Publishing.\n* Grant, P.R. 1999. The ecology and evolution of Darwin's Finches. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.\n* Mayr, Ernst. 2001. What evolution is. Basic Books, New York, NY.\n* \n* \n* Gavrilets, S. and A. Vose. 2009. ''Dynamic patterns of adaptive radiation: evolution of mating preferences''. In Butlin, RK, J Bridle, and D Schluter (eds) Speciation and Patterns of Diversity, Cambridge University Press, page. 102–126.\n\n\n\n\n\nPinto, Gabriel, Luke Mahler, Luke J. Harmon, and Jonathan B. Losos. \"Testing the Island Effect in Adaptive Radiation: Rates and Patterns of Morphological Diversification in Caribbean and Mainland Anolis Lizards.\" NCBI (2008): n. pag. Web. 28 Oct. 2014.\n\n\nSchluter, Dolph. The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford University Press, 2000.\n*\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Identification ", " Causes ", "Examples", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ]	Adaptive radiation
[ "Digital image of 3 plasmid restriction digests run on a 1% w/v agarose gel, 3 volt/cm, stained with ethidium bromide. The DNA size marker is a commercial 1 kbp ladder. The position of the wells and direction of DNA migration is noted.\n\n'''Agarose gel electrophoresis''' is a method of gel electrophoresis used in biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, and clinical chemistry to separate a mixed population of macromolecules such as DNA or proteins in a matrix of agarose, one of the two main components of agar. The proteins may be separated by charge and/or size (isoelectric focusing agarose electrophoresis is essentially size independent), and the DNA and RNA fragments by length. Biomolecules are separated by applying an electric field to move the charged molecules through an agarose matrix, and the biomolecules are separated by size in the agarose gel matrix.\n\nAgarose gel is easy to cast, has relatively fewer charged groups, and is particularly suitable for separating DNA of size range most often encountered in laboratories, which accounts for the popularity of its use. The separated DNA may be viewed with stain, most commonly under UV light, and the DNA fragments can be extracted from the gel with relative ease. Most agarose gels used are between 0.7 - 2% dissolved in a suitable electrophoresis buffer.\n", "An agarose gel cast in tray used for gel electrophoresis\n\nAgarose gel is a three-dimensional matrix formed of helical agarose molecules in supercoiled bundles that are aggregated into three-dimensional structures with channels and pores through which biomolecules can pass. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state. The melting temperature is different from the gelling temperature, depending on the sources, agarose gel has a gelling temperature of 35-42 °C and a melting temperature of 85-95 °C. Low-melting and low-gelling agaroses made through chemical modifications are also available.\n\nAgarose gel has large pore size and good gel strength, making it suitable as an anticonvection medium for the electrophoresis of DNA and large protein molecules. The pore size of a 1% gel has been estimated from 100 nm to 200-500 nm, and its gel strength allows gels as dilute as 0.15% to form a slab for gel electrophoresis. Low-concentration gels (0.1 - 0.2%) however are fragile and therefore hard to handle. Agarose gel has lower resolving power than polyacrylamide gel for DNA but has a greater range of separation, and is therefore used for DNA fragments of usually 50-20,000 bp in size. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb, but resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large proteins, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5-10 nm. A 0.9% agarose gel has pores large enough for the entry of bacteriophage T4.\n\nThe agarose polymer contains charged groups, in particular pyruvate and sulphate. These negatively charged groups create a flow of water in the opposite direction to the movement of DNA in a process called electroendosmosis (EEO), and can therefore retard the movement of DNA and cause blurring of bands. Higher concentration gel would have higher electroosmotic flow. Low EEO agarose is therefore generally preferred for use in agarose gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids, but high EEO agarose may be used for other purposes. The lower sulphate content of low EEO agarose, particularly low-melting point (LMP) agarose, is also beneficial in cases where the DNA extracted from gel is to be used for further manipulation as the presence of contaminating sulphates may affect some subsequent procedures, such as ligation and PCR. Zero EEO agaroses however are undesirable for some applications as they may be made by adding positively charged groups and such groups can affect subsequent enzyme reactions. Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used in preference to agar as the agaropectin component in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulphate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduce the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum proteins, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropeptin may be added in the gel used.\n", "\n\n===Factors affecting migration of nucleic acid in gel===\nGels of plasmid preparations usually show a major band of supercoiled DNA with other fainter bands in the same lane. Note that by convention DNA gel is displayed with smaller DNA fragments nearer to the bottom of the gel. This is because historically DNA gels were run vertically and the smaller DNA fragments move downwards faster.\n\nA number of factors can affect the migration of nucleic acids: the dimension of the gel pores (gel concentration), size of DNA being electrophoresed, the voltage used, the ionic strength of the buffer, and the concentration of intercalating dye such as ethidium bromide if used during electrophoresis.\n\nSmaller molecules travel faster than larger molecules in gel, and double-stranded DNA moves at a rate that is inversely proportional to the log10 of the number of base pairs. This relationship however breaks down with very large DNA fragments, and separation of very large DNA fragments requires the use of pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE).\n\nFor standard agarose gel electrophoresis, larger molecules are resolved better using a low concentration gel while smaller molecules separate better at high concentration gel. High concentrations gel however requires longer run times (sometimes days).\n\nThe movement of the DNA may be affected by the conformation of the DNA molecule, for example, supercoiled DNA usually moves faster than relaxed DNA because it is tightly coiled and hence more compact. In a normal plasmid DNA preparation, multiple forms of DNA may be present. Gel electrophoresis of the plasmids would normally show the negatively supercoiled form as the main band, while nicked DNA (open circular form) and the relaxed closed circular form appears as minor bands. The rate at which the various forms move however can change using different electrophoresis conditions, and the mobility of larger circular DNA may be more strongly affected than linear DNA by the pore size of the gel.\n\nEthidium bromide which intercalates into circular DNA can change the charge, length, as well as the superhelicity of the DNA molecule, therefore its presence in gel during electrophoresis can affect its movement. Agarose gel electrophoresis can be used to resolve circular DNA with different supercoiling topology.\n\nDNA damage due to increased cross-linking will also reduce electrophoretic DNA migration in a dose-dependent way.\n\nThe rate of migration of the DNA is proportional to the voltage applied, i.e. the higher the voltage, the faster the DNA moves. The resolution of large DNA fragments however is lower at high voltage. The mobility of DNA may also change in an unsteady field - in a field that is periodically reversed, the mobility of DNA of a particular size may drop significantly at a particular cycling frequency. This phenomenon can result in band inversion in field inversion gel electrophoresis (FIGE), whereby larger DNA fragments move faster than smaller ones.\n\n===Migration anomalies===\n* \"Smiley\" gels - this edge effect is caused when the voltage applied is too high for the gel concentration used. \n* Overloading of DNA - overloading of DNA slows down the migration of DNA fragments.\n* Contamination - presence of impurities, such as salts or proteins can affect the movement of the DNA.\n\n===Mechanism of migration and separation===\n\nThe negative charge of its phosphate backbone moves the DNA towards the positively charged anode during electrophoresis. However, the migration of DNA molecules in solution, in the absence of a gel matrix, is independent of molecular weight during electrophoresis. The gel matrix is therefore responsible for the separation of DNA by size during electrophoresis, and a number of models exist to explain the mechanism of separation of biomolecules in gel matrix. A widely accepted one is the Ogston model which treats the polymer matrix as a sieve. A globular protein or a random coil DNA moves through the interconnected pores, and the movement of larger molecules is more likely to be impeded and slowed down by collisions with the gel matrix, and the molecules of different sizes can therefore be separated in this sieving process.\n\nThe Ogston model however breaks down for large molecules whereby the pores are significantly smaller than size of the molecule. For DNA molecules of size greater than 1 kb, a reptation model (or its variants) is most commonly used. This model assumes that the DNA can crawl in a \"snake-like\" fashion (hence \"reptation\") through the pores as an elongated molecule. A biased reptation model applies at higher electric field strength, whereby the leading end of the molecule become strongly biased in the forward direction and pulls the rest of the molecule along. Real-time fluorescence microscopy of stained molecules, however, showed more subtle dynamics during electrophoresis, with the DNA showing considerable elasticity as it alternately stretching in the direction of the applied field and then contracting into a ball, or becoming hooked into a U-shape when it gets caught on the polymer fibres.\n", "\nThe details of an agarose gel electrophoresis experiment may vary depending on methods, but most follow a general procedure.\nVideo showing assembly of the rig and loading/running of the gel.\n\n===Casting of gel===\nLoading DNA samples into the wells of an agarose gel using a multi-channel pipette.\n\nThe gel is prepared by dissolving the agarose powder in an appropriate buffer, such as TAE or TBE, to be used in electrophoresis. The agarose is dispersed in the buffer before heating it to near-boiling point, but avoid boiling. The melted agarose is allowed to cool sufficiently before pouring the solution into a cast as the cast may warp or crack if the agarose solution is too hot. A comb is placed in the cast to create wells for loading sample, and the gel should be completely set before use.\n\nThe concentration of gel affects the resolution of DNA separation. For a standard agarose gel electrophoresis, a 0.8% gives good separation or resolution of large 5–10kb DNA fragments, while 2% gel gives good resolution for small 0.2–1kb fragments. 1% gels is often used for a standard electrophoresis. The concentration is measured in weight of agarose over volume of buffer used (g/ml). High percentage gels are often brittle and may not set evenly, while low percentage gels (0.1-0.2%) are fragile and not easy to handle. Low-melting-point (LMP) agarose gels are also more fragile than normal agarose gel. Low-melting point agarose may be used on its own or simultaneously with standard agarose for the separation and isolation of DNA. PFGE and FIGE are often done with high percentage agarose gels.\n\n===Loading of samples===\nOnce the gel has set, the comb is removed, leaving wells where DNA samples can be loaded. Loading buffer is mixed with the DNA sample before the mixture is loaded into the wells. The loading buffer contains a dense compound, which may be glycerol, sucrose, or Ficoll, that raises the density of the sample so that the DNA sample may sink to the bottom of the well. If the DNA sample contains residual ethanol after its preparation, it may float out of the well. The loading buffer also include colored dyes such as xylene cyanol and bromophenol blue used to monitor the progress of the electrophoresis. The DNA samples are loaded using a pipette.\n\n===Electrophoresis===\nAgarose gel slab in electrophoresis tank with bands of dyes indicating progress of the electrophoresis. The DNA moves towards anode.\nAgarose gel electrophoresis is most commonly done horizontally in a submarine mode whereby the slab gel is completely submerged in buffer during electrophoresis. It is also possible, but less common, to perform the electrophoresis vertically, as well as horizontally with the gel raised on agarose legs using an appropriate apparatus. The buffer used in the gel is the same as the running buffer in the electrophoresis tank, which is why electrophoresis in the submarine mode is possible with agarose gel.\n\nFor optimal resolution of DNA greater than 2kb in size in standard gel electrophoresis, 5 to 8 V/cm is recommended (the distance in cm refers to the distance between electrodes, therefore this recommended voltage would be 5 to 8 multiplied by the distance between the electrodes in cm). Voltage may also be limited by the fact that it heats the gel and may cause the gel to melt if it is run at high voltage for a prolonged period, especially if the gel used is LMP agarose gel. Too high a voltage may also reduce resolution, as well as causing band streaking for large DNA molecules. Too low a voltage may lead to broadening of band for small DNA fragments due to dispersion and diffusion.\n\nSince DNA is not visible in natural light, the progress of the electrophoresis is monitored using colored dyes. Xylene cyanol (light blue color) comigrates large DNA fragments, while Bromophenol blue (dark blue) comigrates with the smaller fragments. Less commonly used dyes include Cresol Red and Orange G which migrate ahead of bromophenol blue. A DNA marker is also run together for the estimation of the molecular weight of the DNA fragments. Note however that the size of a circular DNA like plasmids cannot be accurately gauged using standard markers unless it has been linearized by restriction digest, alternatively a supercoiled DNA marker may be used.\n\n===Staining and visualization===\n The gel with UV illumination: DNA stained with ethidium bromide appears as glowing orange bands.\n\nDNA as well as RNA are normally visualized by staining with ethidium bromide, which intercalates into the major grooves of the DNA and fluoresces under UV light. The ethidium bromide may be added to the agarose solution before it gels, or the DNA gel may be stained later after electrophoresis. Destaining of the gel is not necessary but may produce better images. Other methods of staining are available; examples are SYBR Green, GelRed, methylene blue, brilliant cresyl blue, Nile blue sulphate, and crystal violet. SYBR Green, GelRed and other similar commercial products are sold as safer alternatives to ethidium bromide as it has been shown to be mutagenic in Ames test, although the carcinogenicity of ethidium bromide has not actually been established. SYBR Green requires the use of a blue-light transilluminator. DNA stained with crystal violet can be viewed under natural light without the use of a UV transilluminator which is an advantage, however it may not produce a strong band.\n\nWhen stained with ethidium bromide, the gel is viewed with an ultraviolet (UV) transilluminator. Standard transilluminators use wavelengths of 302/312-nm (UV-B), however exposure of DNA to UV radiation for as little as 45 seconds can produce damage to DNA and affect subsequent procedures, for example reducing the efficiency of transformation, ''in vitro'' transcription, and PCR. Exposure of the DNA to UV radiation therefore should be limited. Using a higher wavelength of 365 nm (UV-A range) causes less damage to the DNA but also produces much weaker fluorescence with ethidium bromide. Where multiple wavelengths can be selected in the transillumintor, the shorter wavelength would be used to capture images, while the longer wavelength should be used if it is necessary to work on the gel for any extended period of time.\n\nThe transilluminator apparatus may also contain image capture devices, such as a digital or polaroid camera, that allow an image of the gel to be taken or printed.\nCutting out agarose gel slices. Protective equipment must be worn when using UV transilluminator.\n\n===Downstream procedures===\nThe separated DNA bands are often used for further procedures, and a DNA band may be cut out of the gel as a slice, dissolved and purified. Contaminants however may affect some downstream procedures such as PCR, and low melting point agarose may be preferred in some cases as it contains fewer of the sulphates that can affect some enzymatic reactions. The gels may also be used for blotting techniques.\n", "In general, the ideal buffer should have good conductivity, produce less heat and have a long life. There are a number of buffers used for agarose electrophoresis; common ones for nucleic acids include Tris/Acetate/EDTA (TAE) and Tris/Borate/EDTA (TBE). Many other buffers have been proposed, e.g. lithium borate (LB), which is almost never used, based on Pubmed citations, iso electric histidine, pK matched goods buffers, etc.; in most cases the purported rationale is lower current (less heat) and or matched ion mobilities, which leads to longer buffer life. Tris-phosphate buffer has high buffering capacity but cannot be used if DNA extracted is to be used in phosphate sensitive reaction. Borate is problematic; Borate can polymerize, and/or interact with cis diols such as those found in RNA. TAE has the lowest buffering capacity but provides the best resolution for larger DNA. This means a lower voltage and more time, but a better product. LB is relatively new and is ineffective in resolving fragments larger than 5 kbp; However, with its low conductivity, a much higher voltage could be used (up to 35 V/cm), which means a shorter analysis time for routine electrophoresis. As low as one base pair size difference could be resolved in 3% agarose gel with an extremely low conductivity medium (1 mM lithium borate). The buffers used contain EDTA to inactivate many nucleases which require divalent cation for their function.\n", "Estimation of the size of DNA molecules following restriction enzyme digestion, e.g. in restriction mapping of cloned DNA.\nAnalysis of PCR products, e.g. in molecular genetic diagnosis or genetic fingerprinting\nSeparation of DNA fragments for extraction and purification.\nSeparation of restricted genomic DNA prior to Southern transfer, or of RNA prior to Northern transfer.\n\nAgarose gels are easily cast and handled compared to other matrices and nucleic acids are not chemically altered during electrophoresis. Samples are also easily recovered. After the experiment is finished, the resulting gel can be stored in a plastic bag in a refrigerator.\n\nElectrophoresis is performed in buffer solutions to reduce pH changes due to the electric field, which is important because the charge of DNA and RNA depends on pH, but running for too long can exhaust the buffering capacity of the solution. Further, different preparations of genetic material may not migrate consistently with each other, for morphological or other reasons.\n", "Gel electrophoresis\nImmunodiffusion, Immunoelectrophoresis\nNorthern blot\nPolymerase chain reaction (PCR)\nRestriction endonuclease\nSDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis\nSouthern blot\n", "\n", " How to run a DNA or RNA gel\n* Animation of gel analysis of DNA restriction fragments\n* Video and article of agarose gel electrophoresis\n* Step by step photos of running a gel and extracting DNA\n* Drinking straw electrophoresis!\n* A typical method from wikiversity\n* Building a gel electrophoresis chamber\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Properties of agarose gel", "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "General procedure", "Buffers", "Applications", "See also", " References ", "External links" ]	Agarose gel electrophoresis
[ "\nAn '''allele''' (/əˈliːl/) is a variant form of a given gene. Sometimes, different alleles can result in different observable phenotypic traits, such as different pigmentation. A good example of this trait of color variation is the work Gregor Mendel did with the white and purple flower colors in pea plants; discovering that each color was the result of a “pure line” trait which could be used as a control for future experiments. However, most genetic variations result in little or no observable variation.\n\nThe word \"allele\" is a short form of '''allelomorph''' (\"other form\", a word coined by William Bateson), which was used in the early days of genetics to describe variant forms of a gene detected as different phenotypes. It derives from the Greek prefix ''ἀλλήλ'', ''allel'', meaning \"reciprocal\" or \"each other\", which itself is related to the Greek adjective ἄλλος (allos; cognate with Latin \"alius\"), meaning \"other\".\n\nMost multicellular organisms have two sets of chromosomes; that is, they are diploid. These chromosomes are referred to as homologous chromosomes. If both alleles at a gene (or locus) on the homologous chromosomes are the same, they and the organism are homozygous with respect to that gene (or locus). If the alleles are different, they and the organism are heterozygous with respect to that gene.\n", "\nIn many cases, genotypic interactions between the two alleles at a locus can be described as leading to dominant or recessive, according to which of the two homozygous phenotypes the heterozygote most resembles. Where the heterozygote is indistinguishable from one of the homozygotes, the allele expressed is the one that leads to the dominant phenotype. The degree and pattern of dominance varies among loci. This type of interaction was first formally described by Gregor Mendel. However, many traits defy this simple categorization and the phenotypes are modeled by co-dominance and polygenic inheritance.\n\nThe term \"wild type\" allele is sometimes used to describe an allele that is thought to contribute to the typical phenotypic character as seen in \"wild\" populations of organisms, such as fruit flies (''Drosophila melanogaster''). Such a \"wild type\" allele was historically regarded as leading to adominant (overpowering - always expressed), common, and normal phenotype, in contrast to \"mutant\" alleles that lead to recessive, rare, and frequently deleterious phenotypes. It was formerly thought that most individuals were homozygous for the \"wild type\" allele at most gene loci, and that any alternative \"mutant\" allele was found in homozygous form in a small minority of \"affected\" individuals, often as genetic diseases, and more frequently in heterozygous form in \"carriers\" for the mutant allele. It is now appreciated that most or all gene loci are highly polymorphic, with multiple alleles, whose frequencies vary from population to population, and that a great deal of genetic variation is hidden in the form of alleles that do not produce obvious phenotypic differences.\n", "\nIn the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi. A person with Type B blood displays B-antigens and may have the genotype IBIB or IBi. A person with Type AB blood displays both A- and B-antigens and has the genotype IAIB and a person with Type O blood, displaying neither antigen, has the genotype ii.\n\nA population or species of organisms typically includes multiple alleles at each locus among various individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as the number of alleles (polymorphism) present, or the proportion of heterozygotes in the population. A null allele is a gene variant that lacks the gene's normal function because it either is not expressed, or the expressed protein is inactive.\n\nFor example, at the gene locus for the ABO blood type carbohydrate antigens in humans, classical genetics recognizes three alleles, IA, IB, and i, that determine compatibility of blood transfusions. Any individual has one of six possible genotypes (IAIA, IAi, IBIB, IBi, IAIB, and ii) that produce one of four possible phenotypes: \"Type A\" (produced by IAIA homozygous and IAi heterozygous genotypes), \"Type B\" (produced by IBIB homozygous and IBi heterozygous genotypes), \"Type AB\" produced by IAIB heterozygous genotype, and \"Type O\" produced by ii homozygous genotype. (It is now known that each of the A, B, and O alleles is actually a class of multiple alleles with different DNA sequences that produce proteins with identical properties: more than 70 alleles are known at the ABO locus. Hence an individual with \"Type A\" blood may be an AO heterozygote, an AA homozygote, or an AA heterozygote with two different \"A\" alleles.)\n", "\nThe frequency of alleles in a diploid population can be used to predict the frequencies of the corresponding genotypes (see Hardy-Weinberg principle). For a simple model, with two alleles:\n\n: \n\n: \n\nwhere ''p'' is the frequency of one allele and ''q'' is the frequency of the alternative allele, which necessarily sum to unity. Then, ''p''2 is the fraction of the population homozygous for the first allele, 2''pq'' is the fraction of heterozygotes, and ''q''2 is the fraction homozygous for the alternative allele. If the first allele is dominant to the second then the fraction of the population that will show the dominant phenotype is ''p''2 + 2''pq'', and the fraction with the recessive phenotype is ''q''2.\n\nWith three alleles:\n\n: and\n\n: \n\nIn the case of multiple alleles at a diploid locus, the number of possible genotypes (G) with a number of alleles (a) is given by the expression:\n\n: \n", "A number of genetic disorders are caused when an individual inherits two recessive alleles for a single-gene trait. Recessive genetic disorders include albinism, cystic fibrosis, galactosemia, phenylketonuria (PKU), and Tay–Sachs disease. Other disorders are also due to recessive alleles, but because the gene locus is located on the X chromosome, so that males have only one copy (that is, they are hemizygous), they are more frequent in males than in females. Examples include red-green color blindness and fragile X syndrome.\n\nOther disorders, such as Huntington disease, occur when an individual inherits only one dominant allele.\n", "While heritable traits are typically studied in terms of genetic alleles, epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation can be inherited at specific genomic regions in certain species, a process termed transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. The term ''epiallele'' is used to distinguish these heritable marks from traditional alleles, which are defined by nucleotide sequence. A specific class of epiallele, the metastable epialleles, has been discovered in mice and in humans which is characterized by stochastic (probabilistic) establishment of epigenetic state that can be mitotically inherited.\n", "\n\n", "\n* National Geographic Society, Alton Biggs, Lucy Daniel, Edward Ortleb, Peter Rillero, Dinah Zike. \"Life Science\". New York, Ohio, California, Illinois: Glencoe McGraw-Hill. 2002\n", "\n* ALFRED: The ALlele FREquency Database\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Alleles that lead to dominant or recessive phenotypes", "Multiple alleles", "Genotype frequencies", "Allelic dominance in genetic disorders", "Epialleles", "See also", "References and notes", "External links" ]	Allele
[ "\n\n\n'''Ampicillin''' is an antibiotic used to prevent and treat a number of bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonellosis, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B streptococcal infection in newborns. It is used by mouth, by injection into a muscle, or intravenously. Like all antibiotics, it is not useful for the treatment of viral infections.\n\n\nCommon side effects include rash, nausea, and diarrhea. It should not be used in people who are allergic to penicillin. Serious side effects may include ''Clostridium difficile'' colitis or anaphylaxis. While usable in those with kidney problems, the dose may need to be decreased. Its use during pregnancy and breastfeeding appears to be generally safe.\n\n\nAmpicillin was discovered in 1958 and came into commercial use in 1961. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Its wholesale cost in the developing world is between US$0.13 and 1.20 for a vial of the intravenous solution as of 2014. In the United States, it is available as a generic medication and 10 days of treatment cost about $13.\n", "Ampicillin is used to treat infections by many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin was the first 'broad spectrum' penicillin with activity against Gram-positive bacteria including ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', ''Streptococcus pyogenes'', some isolates of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (but not penicillin-resistant or methicillin-resistant strains), and some ''Enterococcus''. Activity against Gram-negative bacteria includes ''Neisseria meningitidis'', some ''Haemophilus influenzae'', and some of the Enterobacteriaceae. Its spectrum of activity is enhanced by co-administration of sulbactam, a drug that inhibits beta lactamase, an enzyme produced by bacteria to inactivate ampicillin and related antibiotics. It is sometimes used in combination with other antibiotics that have different mechanisms of action, like vancomycin, linezolid, daptomycin, and tigecycline.\n\nAmpicillin can be administered by mouth, an intramuscular injection (shot) or by intravenous infusion.\n\n===Indications===\nrespiratory infections\nsinusitis\nbronchitis\npharyngitis\notitis media\nbacterial meningitis\n''Salmonella'', ''Shigella'', and ''Listeria'' bacteria.\ngastrointestinal infections caused by contaminated water or food.\nhealthcare-associated infections related to infection from urinary catheter use unresponsive to other medications.\n''Haemophilus influenzae'', ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'' infections.\nGenito-urinary tract infections\nprevent infection (prophylaxis) in those who previously had rheumatic heart disease or are undergoing dental procedures.\n", "Ampicillin is comparatively less toxic than other antibiotics. In very rare cases, it causes severe side effects such as angioedema, anaphylaxis, and ''C. difficile'' infection. Some develop black 'furry' tongue'. The most serious adverse effects are seizures, serum sickness, anaphylaxis, pseudomembranous colitis. The most common side effects to be expected in ten percent of users are diarrhea and rash. Less common side effects can be nausea, vomiting, itching, blood dyscrasias, and mild allergic reactions. Other conditions may develop up several weeks after treatment.\n", "Ampicillin reacts with probenecid to decrease renal excretion. Large doses of ampicillin can increase the risk of bleeding with concurrent use of warfarin. Ampicillin use can make oral contraceptives less effective.\n", "Ampicillin is in the penicillin group of beta-lactam antibiotics and is part of the aminopenicillin family. It is roughly equivalent to amoxicillin in terms of activity.\n\nAmpicillin is able to penetrate Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria. It differs from penicillin G, or benzylpenicillin, only by the presence of an amino group. That amino group helps the drug penetrate the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.\n\nAmpicillin acts as an irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme transpeptidase, which is needed by bacteria to make the cell wall. It inhibits the third and final stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis in binary fission, which ultimately leads to cell lysis; therefore, ampicillin is usually bacteriolytic.\n", "Ampicillin has been used extensively to treat bacterial infections since 1961. Until the introduction of ampicillin by the British company Beecham, penicillin therapies had only been effective against Gram-positive organisms such as staphylococci and streptococci. Ampicillin (originally branded as 'Penbritin') also demonstrated activity against Gram-negative organisms such as ''H. influenzae'', coliforms, and ''Proteus'' spp.\n", "Its wholesale costs is between US$0.13 and 1.20 for a vial of the intravenous solution as of 2014. In the United States, it is available as a generic medication and 10 days of treatment cost about $13.\n", "Amoxycillin (''p''-hydroxy metabolite of ampicillin)\nPivampicillin (special pro-drug of ampicillin)\nAzlocillin and pirbenicillin (urea and amide made from ampicillin)\n", "\n", " Ampicillin bound to proteins in the PDB\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Medical uses", "Side effects", "Interactions", "Mechanisms", "History", "Cost", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Ampicillin
[ "\n'''Annealing''' may refer to:\n\n* Annealing (metallurgy), a heat treatment that alters the microstructure of a material causing changes in properties such as strength, hardness, and ductility\n* Annealing (glass), heating a piece of glass to remove stress\n* Annealing (biology), in genetics, means for complementary sequences of single-stranded DNA or RNA to pair by hydrogen bonds to form a double-stranded polynucleotide \n* Simulated annealing, a numerical optimization technique for searching for a solution in a space otherwise too large for ordinary search methods to yield results\n* Quantum annealing, a method for finding solutions to combinatorial optimisation problems and ground states of glassy systems using quantum fluctuations\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Annealing
[ "\n\nAntibiotic resistance tests: Bacteria are streaked on dishes with white antibiotic-impregnated disks. Clear rings, such as those on the left, show that bacteria have not grown—indicating that the bacteria are not resistant. Those on the right are fully susceptible to only three of the seven antibiotics tested.\n\n\n'''Antimicrobial resistance''' ('''AMR''') is the ability of a microbe to resist the effects of medication previously used to treat them. This broader term also covers '''antibiotic resistance''', which applies to bacteria and antibiotics. Resistance arises through one of three ways: natural resistance in certain types of bacteria, genetic mutation, or by one species acquiring resistance from another. Resistance can appear spontaneously because of random mutations; or more commonly following gradual buildup over time, and because of misuse of antibiotics or antimicrobials. Resistant microbes are increasingly difficult to treat, requiring alternative medications or higher doses, both of which may be more expensive or more toxic. Microbes resistant to multiple antimicrobials are called multidrug resistant (MDR); or sometimes superbugs. Antimicrobial resistance is on the rise with millions of deaths every year. All classes of microbes develop resistance: fungi develop antifungal resistance, viruses develop antiviral resistance, protozoa develop antiprotozoal resistance, and bacteria develop antibiotic resistance.\n\n\nAntibiotics should only be used when needed as prescribed by health professionals. The prescriber should closely adhere to the five rights of drug administration: the right patient, the right drug, the right dose, the right route, and the right time. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad-spectrum antibiotics when possible, as effectively and accurately targeting specific organisms is less likely to cause resistance. Cultures should be taken before treatment when indicated and treatment potentially changed based on the susceptibility report. For people who take these medications at home, education about proper use is essential. Health care providers can minimize spread of resistant infections by use of proper sanitation and hygiene, including handwashing and disinfecting between patients, and should encourage the same of the patient, visitors, and family members.\n\n\nRising drug resistance is caused mainly by improper use of antimicrobials in humans as well as in animals, and spread of resistant strains between the two. Antibiotics increase selective pressure in bacterial populations, causing vulnerable bacteria to die; this increases the percentage of resistant bacteria which continue growing. With resistance to antibiotics becoming more common there is greater need for alternative treatments. Calls for new antibiotic therapies have been issued, but new drug development is becoming rarer.\n\n\nA World Health Organization (WHO) report released April 2014 stated, \"this serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country. Antibiotic resistance—when bacteria change so antibiotics no longer work in people who need them to treat infections—is now a major threat to public health.\" Increasing public calls for global collective action to address the threat include proposals for international treaties on antimicrobial resistance. Worldwide antibiotic resistance is not fully mapped, but poorer countries with weak healthcare systems are more affected. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: \"Each year in the United States, at least 2 million people become infected with bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics and at least 23,000 people die each year as a direct result of these infections.\" There are multiple national and international monitoring programs for drug-resistant threats, including methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant ''S. aureus'' (VRSA), extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL), vancomycin-resistant ''Enterococcus'' (VRE), multidrug-resistant ''A. baumannii'' (MRAB).\n\n", "Diagram showing the difference between non-resistant bacteria and drug resistant bacteria. Non-resistant bacteria multiply, and upon drug treatment, the bacteria die. Drug resistant bacteria multiply as well, but upon drug treatment, the bacteria continue to spread.\nThe WHO defines antimicrobial resistance as a microorganism's resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism.\nA person cannot become resistant to antibiotics. Resistance is a property of the microbe, not a person or other organism infected by a microbe.\n", "390x390px\nBacteria with resistance to antibiotics predate medical use of antibiotics by humans; however, widespread antibiotic use has made more bacteria resistant through the process of evolutionary pressure.\n\nReasons for the widespread use of antibiotics include:\n* increasing global availability over time since the 1950s\n* uncontrolled sale in many low or middle income countries, where they can be obtained over the counter without a prescription, potentially resulting in antibiotics being used when not indicated. This may result in emergence of resistance in any remaining bacteria.\n\nAntibiotic use in livestock feed at low doses for growth promotion is an accepted practice in many industrialized countries and is known to lead to increased levels of resistance. Releasing large quantities of antibiotics into the environment during pharmaceutical manufacturing through inadequate wastewater treatment increases the risk that antibiotic-resistant strains will develop and spread. It is uncertain whether antibacterials in soaps and other products contribute to antibiotic resistance, but they are discouraged for other reasons.\n\n===Human medicine===\n300x300px\nIncreasing bacterial resistance is linked with the volume of antibiotic prescribed, as well as missing doses when taking antibiotics. Inappropriate prescribing of antibiotics has been attributed to a number of causes, including people insisting on antibiotics, physicians prescribing them as they feel they do not have time to explain why they are not necessary, and physicians not knowing when to prescribe antibiotics or being overly cautious for medical and/or legal reasons.\n\nUp to half of antibiotics used in humans are unnecessary and inappropriate. For example, a third of people believe that antibiotics are effective for the common cold, and the common cold is the most common reason antibiotics are prescribed even though antibiotics are useless against viruses. A single regimen of antibiotics even in compliant individuals leads to a greater risk of resistant organisms to that antibiotic in the person for a month to possibly a year.\n\nAntibiotic resistance increases with duration of treatment; therefore, as long as an effective minimum is kept, shorter courses of antibiotics are likely to decrease rates of resistance, reduce cost, and have better outcomes with fewer complications. Short course regimens exist for community-acquired pneumonia spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, suspected lung infections in intense care wards, so-called acute abdomen, middle ear infections, sinusitis and throat infections, and penetrating gut injuries. In some situations a short course may not cure the infection as well as a long course. A BMJ editorial recommended that antibiotics can often be safely stopped 72 hours after symptoms resolve. Because individuals may feel better before the infection is eradicated, doctors must provide instructions to them so they know when it is safe to stop taking a prescription. Some researchers advocate doctors' using a very short course of antibiotics, reevaluating the patient after a few days, and stopping treatment if there are no clinical signs of infection.\n\nCertain antibiotic classes result in resistance more than others. Increased rates of MRSA infections are seen when using glycopeptides, cephalosporins, and quinolone antibiotics. Cephalosporins, and particularly quinolones and clindamycin, are more likely to produce colonisation with ''Clostridium difficile''.\n\nFactors within the intensive care unit setting such as mechanical ventilation and multiple underlying diseases also appear to contribute to bacterial resistance. Poor hand hygiene by hospital staff has been associated with the spread of resistant organisms, and an increase in hand washing compliance results in decreased rates.\n\nImproper use of antibiotics can often be attributed to the presence of structural violence in particular regions. Socioeconomic factors such as race and poverty affect accessibility of and adherence to drug therapy. The efficacy of treatment programs for drug-resistant strains depends on whether or not programmatic improvements take into account the effects of structural violence.\n\n===Veterinary medicine===\n\n\nAll animals carry bacteria in their intestines. Antibiotics are given to animals. Antibiotics kill most bacteria. But resistant bacteria survive and multiply.\nThe World Health Organization concluded that inappropriate use of antibiotics in animal husbandry is an underlying contributor to the emergence and spread of antibiotic-resistant germs, and that the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal feeds should be restricted. The World Organisation for Animal Health has added to the Terrestrial Animal Health Code a series of guidelines with recommendations to its members for the creation and harmonization of national antimicrobial resistance surveillance and monitoring programs, monitoring of the quantities of antibiotics used in animal husbandry, and recommendations to ensure the proper and prudent use of antibiotic substances. Another guideline is to implement methodologies that help to establish associated risk factors and assess the risk of antibiotic resistance.\n\n===United States===\nEighty percent of antibiotics sold in the United States are used on livestock. The majority of these antibiotics are given to animals that are otherwise healthy. Rather, it is normal practice to mix antibiotics with livestock food to promote healthier living conditions and to encourage animal growth. The use of antibiotics in animals is to a large degree involved in the emergence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms. Antibiotics are used in food with the intention of not only preventing, controlling, and treating diseases, but also to promote growth. Antibiotic use in animals can be classified into therapeutic, prophylactic, metaphylactic, and growth promotion uses of antibiotics. All four patterns select for bacterial resistance, since antibiotic resistance is a natural evolutionary process, but the non-therapeutic uses expose larger number of animals, and therefore of bacteria, for more extended periods, and at lower doses. They therefore greatly increase the cross-section for the evolution of resistance.\n\n313x313px Since the last third of the 20th century, antibiotics have been used extensively in animal husbandry. In 2013, 80% of antibiotics used in the US were used in animals and only 20% in humans; in 1997 half were used in humans and half in animals. Some antibiotics are not used and not considered significant for use in humans, because they either lack efficacy or purpose in humans, such as ionophores in ruminants, or because the drug has gone out of use in humans. Others are used in both animals and humans, including penicillin and some forms of tetracycline. Historically, regulation of antibiotic use in food animals has been limited to limiting drug residues in meat, egg, and milk products, rather than by direct concern over the development of antibiotic resistance. This mirrors the primary concerns in human medicine, where, in general, researchers and doctors were more concerned about effective but non-toxic doses of drugs rather than antibiotic resistance.\n\nIn 2001, the Union of Concerned Scientists estimated that greater than 70% of the antibiotics used in the U.S. are given to food animals (for example, chickens, pigs, and cattle), in the absence of disease. The amounts given are termed \"sub-therapeutic\", i.e., insufficient to combat disease. Despite no diagnosis of disease, the administration of these drugs (most of which are not significant to human medicine) results in decreased mortality and morbidity and increased growth in the animals so treated. It is theorized that sub-therapeutic dosages kills some, but not all, of the bacterial organisms in the animal — likely leaving those that are naturally antibiotic-resistant. Studies have shown, however, that, in essence, the overall population levels of bacteria are unchanged; only the mix of bacteria is affected. The actual mechanism by which sub-therapeutic antibiotic feed additives serve as growth promoters is thus unclear. Some people have speculated that animals and fowl may have sub-clinical infections, which would be cured by low levels of antibiotics in feed, thereby allowing the creatures to thrive. No convincing evidence has been advanced for this theory, and the bacterial load in an animal is essentially unchanged by use of antibiotic feed additives. The mechanism of growth promotion is therefore probably something other than \"killing off the bad bugs\".\n\nAntibiotics are used in U.S. animal feed to promote animal productivity. In particular, poultry feed and drinking water is a common route of administration of drugs, because of higher overall costs when drugs are administered by handling animals individually.\n\nIn research studies, occasional animal-to-human spread of antibiotic-resistant organisms has been demonstrated. Resistant bacteria can be transmitted from animals to humans in three ways: by consuming animal products (milk, meat, eggs, etc.), from close or direct contact with animals or other humans, or through the environment. In the first pathway, food preservation methods can help eliminate, decrease, or prevent the growth of bacteria in some food classes. Evidence for the transfer of macrolide-resistant microorganisms from animals to humans has been scant, and most evidence shows that pathogens of concern in human populations originated in humans and are maintained there, with rare cases of transference to humans.\n\n===Natural occurrence===\nThe Evolution of Bacteria on a “Mega-Plate” Petri Dish\nNaturally occurring antibiotic resistance is common. Genes for resistance to antibiotics, like antibiotics themselves, are ancient. The genes that confer resistance are known as the environmental resistome. These genes may be transferred from non-disease-causing bacteria to those that do cause disease, leading to clinically significant antibiotic resistance. In 1952 it was shown that penicillin-resistant bacteria existed before penicillin treatment; and also preexistent bacterial resistance to streptomycin. In 1962, the presence of penicillinase was detected in dormant endospores of ''Bacillus licheniformis'', revived from dried soil on the roots of plants, preserved since 1689 in the British Museum. Six strains of ''Clostridium'', found in the bowels of William Braine and John Hartnell (members of the Franklin Expedition) showed resistance to cefoxitin and clindamycin. Penicillinase may have emerged as a defense mechanism for bacteria in their habitats, such as the case of penicillinase-rich ''Staphylococcus aureus'', living with penicillin-producing ''Trichophyton''; however, this may be circumstantial. Search for a penicillinase ancestor has focused on the class of proteins that must be ''a priori'' capable of specific combination with penicillin. The resistance to cefoxitin and clindamycin in turn was attributed to Braine's and Hartnell's contact with microorganisms that naturally produce them or random mutation in the chromosomes of ''Clostridium'' strains. There is evidence that heavy metals and other pollutants may select for antibiotic-resistant bacteria, generating a constant source of them in small numbers.\n\n===Environmental===\nAntibiotic resistance is a growing problem among humans and wildlife in terrestrial or aquatic environments. In this respect, the spread and contamination of the environment, especially through \"hot spots\" such as hospital wastewater and untreated urban wastewater, is a growing and serious public health problem. Antibiotics have been polluting the environment since their introduction through human waste (medication, farming), animals, and the pharmaceutical industry. Along with antibiotic waste, resistant bacteria follow, thus introducing antibiotic-resistant bacteria into the environment.\n\nAs bacteria replicate quickly, the resistant bacteria that enter the environment replicate their resistance genes as they continue to divide. In addition, bacteria carrying resistance genes have the ability to spread those genes to other species via horizontal gene transfer. Therefore, even if the specific antibiotic is no longer introduced into the environment, antibiotic-resistance genes will persist through the bacteria that have since replicated without continuous exposure. Antibiotic resistance is widespread in marine vertebrates, and they may be important reservoirs of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the marine environment.\n", "Mission Critical: Preventing Antibiotic Resistance (CDC report, 2014)\nAntibiotic stewardship programmes appear useful in reducing rates of antibiotic resistance.\n\nIn 2014, the WHO stated:\n* People can help tackle resistance by:\n using antibiotics only when prescribed by a doctor;\n completing the full prescription, even if they feel better;\n** never sharing antibiotics with others or using leftover prescriptions.\n* Health workers and pharmacists can help tackle resistance by:\n enhancing infection prevention and control;\n only prescribing and dispensing antibiotics when they are truly needed;\n** prescribing and dispensing the right antibiotic(s) to treat the illness.\n* Policymakers can help tackle resistance by:\n strengthening resistance tracking and laboratory capacity;\n regulating and promoting appropriate use of medicines.\n* Policymakers and industry can help tackle resistance by:\n fostering innovation and research and development of new tools;\n promoting cooperation and information sharing among all stakeholders.\n\n===Duration of antibiotics===\nAntibiotic treatment duration should be based on the infection and other health problems a person may have. For many infections once a person has improved there is little evidence that stopping treatment causes more resistance. Some therefore feel that stopping early may be reasonable in some cases. Other infections, however, do require long courses regardless of whether a person feels better.\n\n===Antibiotic usage===\nThe Netherlands has the lowest rate of antibiotic prescribing in the OECD, at a rate of 11.4 defined daily doses (DDD) per 1,000 people per day in 2011. Germany and Sweden also have lower prescribing rates, with Sweden's rate having been declining since 2007. By contrast, Greece, France and Belgium have high prescribing rates of more than 28 DDD. It is unclear if rapid viral testing affects antibiotic use in children.\n\nAbout a third of antibiotic prescriptions written in outpatient settings in the United States were not appropriate in 2010 and 2011. Doctors in the U.S. wrote 506 annual antibiotic scripts for every 1,000 people, with 353 being medically necessary.\n\n===Monitoring===\nResistanceOpen, an online global map of antimicrobial resistance developed by HealthMap, displays aggregated data on antimicrobial resistance from publicly available and user submitted data. The website can display data for a 25-mile radius from a location. Users may submit data from antibiograms for individual hospitals or laboratories. European data is from the EARS-Net (European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network), part of the ECDC. ResistanceMap, by the Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy, also provides data on antimicrobial resistance on a global level.\n\n=== Strategies ===\nExcessive antibiotic use has become one of the top contributors to the development of antibiotic resistance. Since the beginning of the antibiotic era, antibiotics have been used to treat a wide range of disease. Overuse of antibiotics has become the primary cause of rising levels of antibiotic resistance. The main problem is that doctors are willing to prescribe antibiotics to ill-informed individuals who believe that antibiotics can cure nearly all illnesses, including viral infections like the common cold. In an analysis of drug prescriptions, 36% of individuals with a cold or an upper respiratory infection (both viral in origin) were given prescriptions for antibiotics. These prescriptions accomplished nothing other than increasing the risk of further evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria.\n\nIn a recent years, antimicrobial stewardship teams in hospitals have encouraged optimal use of antimicrobials. The goals of antimicrobial stewardship are to help practitioners pick the right drug at the right dose and duration of therapy while preventing misuse and minimizing the development of resistance. Stewardship may reduce the length of stay by an average of slightly over 1 day while not increasing the risk of death.\n\nGiven the volume of care provided in primary care (General Practice), recent strategies have focused on reducing unnecessary antibiotic prescribing in this setting. Simple interventions, such as written information explaining the futility of antibiotics for common infections such as upper respiratory tract infections, have been shown to reduce antibiotic prescribing.\n\nThere have been increasing public calls for global collective action to address the threat, including a proposal for international treaty on antimicrobial resistance. Further detail and attention is still needed in order to recognize and measure trends in resistance on the international level; the idea of a global tracking system has been suggested but implementation has yet to occur. A system of this nature would provide insight to areas of high resistance as well as information necessary for evaluation of programs and other changes made to fight or reverse antibiotic resistance.\n\nOn March 27, 2015, the White House released a comprehensive plan to address the increasing need for agencies to combat the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The Task Force for Combating Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria developed ''The National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria'' with the intent of providing a roadmap to guide the US in the antibiotic resistance challenge and with hopes of saving many lives. This plan outlines steps taken by the Federal government over the next five years needed in order to prevent and contain outbreaks of antibiotic-resistant infections; maintain the efficacy of antibiotics already on the market; and to help to develop future diagnostics, antibiotics, and vaccines.\n\nThe Action Plan was developed around five goals with focuses on strengthening health care, public health veterinary medicine, agriculture, food safety and research, and manufacturing. These goals, as listed by the White House, are as follows:\n* Slow the Emergence of Resistant Bacteria and Prevent the Spread of Resistant Infections\n* Strengthen National One-Health Surveillance Efforts to Combat Resistance\n* Advance Development and use of Rapid and Innovative Diagnostic Tests for Identification and Characterization of Resistant Bacteria\n* Accelerate Basic and Applied Research and Development for New Antibiotics, Other Therapeutics, and Vaccines\n* Improve International Collaboration and Capacities for Antibiotic Resistance Prevention, Surveillance, Control and Antibiotic Research and Development\nThe following are goals set to meet by 2020:\n* Establishment of antimicrobial programs within acute care hospital settings\n* Reduction of inappropriate antibiotic prescription and use by at least 50% in outpatient settings and 20% inpatient settings\n* Establishment of State Antibiotic Resistance (AR) Prevention Programs in all 50 states\n* Elimination of the use of medically important antibiotics for growth promotion in food-producing animals.\n\nThe World Health Organization has promoted the first World Antibiotic Awareness Week running from 16–22 November 2015. The aim of the week is to increase global awareness of antibiotic resistance. It also wants to promote the correct usage of antibiotics across all fields in order to prevent further instances of antibiotic resistance.\n\nAccording to the report, issued in January 2016, the five important strategies needed for minimising antibiotic resistance are as follows:\n* Antibiotic stewardship to maintain the value of existing and future antibiotics\n* The timing of prescription to use the effective antibiotics sooner rather than later\n* To develop and approve ten new antibiotics by 2020\n* Development of a molecular method for detecting antibiotic resistance genes\n* To avoid the delay in distribution of US$2 billion global antibiotic resistance innovation fund.\n\n====Vaccines====\nMicroorganisms do not develop resistance to vaccines because a vaccine enhances the body's immune system, whereas an antibiotic operates separately from the body's normal defenses. Furthermore, if the use of vaccines increase, there is evidence that antibiotic resistant strains of pathogens will decrease; the need for antibiotics will naturally decrease as vaccines prevent infection before it occurs. However, new strains that escape immunity induced by vaccines may evolve; for example, an updated influenza vaccine is needed each year.\n\nWhile theoretically promising, antistaphylococcal vaccines have shown limited efficacy, because of immunological variation between ''Staphylococcus'' species, and the limited duration of effectiveness of the antibodies produced. Development and testing of more effective vaccines is underway.\n\n====Alternating therapy====\nAlternating therapy is a proposed method in which two or three antibiotics are taken in a rotation versus taking just one antibiotic such that bacteria resistant to one antibiotic are killed when the next antibiotic is taken. Studies have found that this method reduces the rate at which antibiotic resistant bacteria emerge in vitro relative to a single drug for the entire duration.\n\n====Development of new drugs====\nSince the discovery of antibiotics, research and development (R&D) efforts have provided new drugs in time to treat bacteria that became resistant to older antibiotics, but in the 2000s there has been concern that development has slowed enough that seriously ill people may run out of treatment options. Another concern is that doctors may become reluctant to perform routine surgeries because of the increased risk of harmful infection. Backup treatments can have serious side-effects; for example, treatment of multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis can cause deafness or psychological disability. The potential crisis at hand is the result of a marked decrease in industry R&D. Poor financial investment in antibiotic research has exacerbated the situation. The pharmaceutical industry has little incentive to invest in antibiotics because of the high risk and because the potential financial returns are less likely to cover the cost of development than for other pharmaceuticals. In 2011, Pfizer, one of the last major pharmaceutical companies developing new antibiotics, shut down its primary research effort, citing poor shareholder returns relative to drugs for chronic illnesses. However, small and medium-sized pharmaceutical companies are still active in antibiotic drug research.\n\nIn the United States, drug companies and the administration of President Barack Obama have been proposing changing the standards by which the FDA approves antibiotics targeted at resistant organisms. On 12 December 2013, the Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act of 2013 was introduced in the U.S. Congress. The ADAPT Act aims to fast-track the drug development in order to combat the growing public health threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, the FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals needed for life-threatening infections based on data from smaller clinical trials. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) will reinforce the monitoring of the use of antibiotics that treat serious and life-threatening infections and the emerging resistance, and make the data publicly available. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints' is also streamlined to allow the most up-to-date and cutting-edge data available to healthcare professionals under the new Act.\n\nOn 18 September 2014 Obama signed an executive order to implement the recommendations proposed in a report by the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) which outlines strategies to stream-line clinical trials and speed up the R&D of new antibiotics. Among the proposals:\n* Create a 'robust, standing national clinical trials network for antibiotic testing' which will promptly enroll patients once identified to be suffering from dangerous bacterial infections. The network will allow testing multiple new agents from different companies simultaneously for their safety and efficacy.\n* Establish a 'Special Medical Use (SMU)' pathway for FDA to approve new antimicrobial agents for use in limited patient populations, shorten the approval timeline for new drug so patients with severe infections could benefit as quickly as possible.\n* Provide economic incentives, especially for development of new classes of antibiotics, to offset the steep R&D costs which drive away the industry to develop antibiotics.\nThe executive order also included a $20 million prize to encourage the development of diagnostic tests to identify highly resistant bacterial infections.\n\nThe U.S. National Institutes of Health plans to fund a new research network on the issue up to $62 million from 2013 to 2019. Using authority created by the Pandemic and All Hazards Preparedness Act of 2006, the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services announced that it will spend between $40 million and $200 million in funding for R&D on new antibiotic drugs under development by GlaxoSmithKline.\n\nOne major cause of antibiotic resistance is the increased pumping activity of microbial ABC transporters, which diminishes the effective drug concentration inside the microbial cell. ABC transporter inhibitors that can be used in combination with current antimicrobials are being tested in clinical trials and are available for therapeutic regimens.\n\n====Phage therapy====\n\nBacteriophages are used against antibiotic resistant bacteria in Georgia (George Eliava Institute) and in 1 institute in Wrocław, Poland.\n\n\n===Animal use===\n\n====Europe====\nIn 1997, European Union health ministers voted to ban avoparcin and four additional antibiotics used to promote animal growth in 1999. In 2006 a ban on the use of antibiotics in European feed, with the exception of two antibiotics in poultry feeds, became effective. In Scandinavia, there is evidence that the ban has led to a lower prevalence of antibiotic resistance in (nonhazardous) animal bacterial populations. As of 2004, several European countries established a decline of antimicrobial resistance in humans through limiting the usage antimicrobials in agriculture and food industries without jeopardizing animal health or economic cost.\n\n====United States====\nThe United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) collect data on antibiotic use in humans and in a more limited fashion in animals.\nThe FDA first determined in 1977 that there is evidence of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains in livestock. The long-established practice of permitting OTC sales of antibiotics (including penicillin and other drugs) to lay animal owners for administration to their own animals nonetheless continued in all states.\nIn 2000, the FDA announced their intention to revoke approval of fluoroquinolone use in poultry production because of substantial evidence linking it to the emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant ''Campylobacter'' infections in humans. Legal challenges from the food animal and pharmaceutical industries delayed the final decision to do so until 2006. Fluroquinolones have been banned from extra-label use in food animals in the USA since 2007. However, they remain widely used in companion and exotic animals.\n\nDuring 2007, two federal bills (S. 549 and H.R. 962) aimed at phasing out \"nontherapeutic\" antibiotics in U.S. food animal production. The Senate bill, introduced by Sen. Edward \"Ted\" Kennedy, died. The House bill, introduced by Rep. Louise Slaughter, died after being referred to Committee.\n\nIn March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock that violated FDA regulations. On April 11, 2012 the FDA announced a voluntary program to phase out unsupervised use of drugs as feed additives and convert approved over-the-counter uses for antibiotics to prescription use only, requiring veterinarian supervision of their use and a prescription. In December 2013, the FDA announced the commencement of these steps to phase out the use of antibiotics for the purposes of promoting livestock growth.\n\nGrowing U.S. consumer concern about using antibiotics in animal feed has led to greater availability of \"antibiotic-free\" animal products. For example, chicken producer Perdue removed all human antibiotics from its feed and launched products labeled “antibiotic free” under the Harvestland brand in 2007. Consumer response was positive, and in 2014 Perdue also phased out ionophores from its hatchery and began using the “antibiotic free” labels on its Harvestland, Simply Smart, and Perfect Portions products.\n", "\nPBP enzymes, which are essential for bacterial life, by permanently binding to their active sites. MRSA, however, expresses a PBP that does not allow the antibiotic into its active site.\n\nThe four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are:\n# Drug inactivation or modification: for example, enzymatic deactivation of ''penicillin'' G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of β-lactamases. The emergence of carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative pathogens poses a serious threat to public health worldwide. ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' carbapenemases (KPCs) and carbapenemases of the oxacillinase-48 (OXA-48) type have been reported worldwide. New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM) carbapenemases were originally identified in Sweden in 2008 and have spread worldwide rapidly. Most commonly, the protective enzymes produced by the bacterial cell will add an acetyl or phosphate group to a specific site on the antibiotic, which will reduce its ability to bind to the bacterial ribosomes and disrupt protein synthesis.\n# Alteration of target- or binding site: for example, alteration of PBP—the binding target site of penicillins—in MRSA and other penicillin-resistant bacteria. Another protective mechanism found among bacterial species is ribosomal protection proteins. These proteins protect the bacterial cell from antibiotics that target the cell’s ribosomes to inhibit protein synthesis. The mechanism involves the binding of the ribosomal protection proteins to the ribosomes of the bacterial cell, which in turn changes its conformational shape. This allows the ribosomes to continue synthesizing proteins essential to the cell while preventing antibiotics from binding to the ribosome to inhibit protein synthesis.\n# Alteration of metabolic pathway: for example, some sulfonamide-resistant bacteria do not require para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acids in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides, instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to using preformed folic acid.\n# Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface These pumps within the cellular membrane of certain bacterial species are used to pump antibiotics out of the cell before they are able to do any damage. They are often activated by a specific substrate associated with an antibiotic. as in fluoroquinolone resistance.\nA number of mechanisms used by common antibiotics to deal with bacteria and ways by which bacteria become resistant to them.\n\nAntibiotic resistance can be a result of horizontal gene transfer, and also of unlinked point mutations in the pathogen genome at a rate of about 1 in 108 per chromosomal replication. Mutations are rare but the fact that bacteria reproduce at such a high rate allows for the effect to be significant. A mutation may produce a change in the binding site of the antibiotic, which may allow the site to continue proper functioning in the presence of the antibiotic or prevent the binding of the antibiotic to the site altogether.\n\nAntibiotic action against a pathogen can be seen as an environmental pressure. Those bacteria with a mutation that allows them to survive will reproduce, pass the trait to their offspring, which leads to the microevolution of a fully resistant colony. Chromosomal mutations providing antibiotic resistance benefit the bacteria but also confer a cost of fitness. For example, a ribosomal mutation may protect a bacterial cell by changing the binding site of an antibiotic but will also slow protein synthesis. manifesting, in slower growth rate.\n\nIn Gram-negative bacteria, plasmid-mediated resistance genes produce proteins that can bind to DNA gyrase, protecting it from the action of quinolones. Finally, mutations at key sites in DNA gyrase or topoisomerase IV can decrease their binding affinity to quinolones, decreasing the drug's effectiveness.\n\nAntibiotic resistance can be introduced artificially into a microorganism through laboratory protocols, sometimes used as a selectable marker to examine the mechanisms of gene transfer or to identify individuals that absorbed a piece of DNA that included the resistance gene and another gene of interest.\n\nRecent findings show no necessity of large populations of bacteria for the appearance of antibiotic resistance. Small populations of E.coli in an antibiotic gradient can become resistant. Any heterogeneous environment with respect to nutrient and antibiotic gradients may facilitate antibiotic resistance in small bacterial populations. Researchers hypothesize that the mechanism of resistance development is based on four SNP mutations in the genome of E.coli produced by the gradient of antibiotic. \n\n=== NDM-1 ===\nNDM-1 is an enzyme that makes bacteria resistant to a broad range of beta-lactam antibiotics.\n\nNDM-1 was first detected in a ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' isolate from a Swedish patient of Indian origin in 2008. It was later detected in bacteria in India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada and Japan.\n\nAccording to A ''Lancet'' study, NDM-1 (New Delhi Metallo-beta-lactamase-1) originated in India. The study came to the conclusion that Indian hospitals are unsafe for treatment as Nosocomial-infections are common and with the new super-bugs on rise in India, it can be dangerous.\n", "\n===Bacteria===\n\n====''Staphylococcus aureus''====\n\n\n''Staphylococcus aureus'' (colloquially known as \"Staph aureus\" or a \"Staph infection\") is one of the major resistant pathogens. Found on the mucous membranes and the human skin of around a third of the population, it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure. It was one of the earlier bacteria in which penicillin resistance was found—in 1947, just four years after the drug started being mass-produced. Methicillin was then the antibiotic of choice, but has since been replaced by oxacillin because of significant kidney toxicity. Methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA) was first detected in Britain in 1961, and is now \"quite common\" in hospitals. MRSA was responsible for 37% of fatal cases of sepsis in the UK in 1999, up from 4% in 1991. Half of all ''S. aureus'' infections in the US are resistant to penicillin, methicillin, tetracycline and erythromycin.\n\nThis left vancomycin as the only effective agent available at the time. However, strains with intermediate (4–8 μg/ml) levels of resistance, termed glycopeptide-intermediate ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (GISA) or vancomycin-intermediate ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (VISA), began appearing in the late 1990s. The first identified case was in Japan in 1996, and strains have since been found in hospitals in England, France and the US. The first documented strain with complete (>16 μg/ml) resistance to vancomycin, termed vancomycin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (VRSA) appeared in the United States in 2002. However, in 2011, a variant of vancomycin has been tested that binds to the lactate variation and also binds well to the original target, thus reinstating potent antimicrobial activity.\n\nA new class of antibiotics, oxazolidinones, became available in the 1990s, and the first commercially available oxazolidinone, linezolid, is comparable to vancomycin in effectiveness against MRSA. Linezolid resistance in ''S. aureus'' was reported in 2001, but infection rates have been at consistently low levels and in the United Kingdom and Ireland, no resistance was found in staphylococci collected from bacteremia cases between 2001 and 2006.\n\nCommunity-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) has now emerged as an epidemic that is responsible for rapidly progressive, fatal diseases, including necrotizing pneumonia, severe sepsis, and necrotizing fasciitis. MRSA is the most frequently identified antimicrobial drug-resistant pathogen in US hospitals. The epidemiology of infections caused by MRSA is rapidly changing. Since 2000, infections caused by this organism have emerged in the community. The two MRSA clones in the United States most closely associated with community outbreaks, USA400 (MW2 strain, ST1 lineage) and USA300, often contain Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) genes and, more frequently, have been associated with skin and soft tissue infections. Outbreaks of CA-MRSA infections have been reported in correctional facilities, among athletic teams, among military recruits, in newborn nurseries, and among men that have sex with men. CA-MRSA infections now appear endemic in many urban regions and cause most CA-''S. aureus'' infections.\n\n====''Streptococcus'' and ''Enterococcus''====\n''Streptococcus pyogenes'' (Group A ''Streptococcus'': GAS) infections can usually be treated with many different antibiotics. Early treatment may reduce the risk of death from invasive group A streptococcal disease. However, even the best medical care does not prevent death in every case. For those with very severe illness, supportive care in an intensive-care unit may be needed. For persons with necrotizing fasciitis, surgery often is needed to remove damaged tissue. Strains of ''S. pyogenes'' resistant to macrolide antibiotics have emerged; however, all strains remain uniformly susceptible to penicillin.\n\nResistance of ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'' to penicillin and other beta-lactams is increasing worldwide. The major mechanism of resistance involves the introduction of mutations in genes encoding penicillin-binding proteins. Selective pressure is thought to play an important role, and use of beta-lactam antibiotics has been implicated as a risk factor for infection and colonization. ''S. pneumoniae'' is responsible for pneumonia, bacteremia, otitis media, meningitis, sinusitis, peritonitis and arthritis.\n\nMultidrug-resistant ''Enterococcus faecalis'' and ''Enterococcus faecium'' are associated with nosocomial infections. These strains include: penicillin-resistant ''Enterococcus'', vancomycin-resistant ''Enterococcus'', and linezolid-resistant ''Enterococcus''.\n\n====''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''====\n''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' is a highly prevalent opportunistic pathogen. One of the most worrisome characteristics of ''P. aeruginosa'' is its low antibiotic susceptibility, which is attributable to a concerted action of multidrug efflux pumps with chromosomally encoded antibiotic resistance genes (e.g., ''mexAB-oprM'', ''mexXY'') and the low permeability of the bacterial cellular envelopes. ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' has the ability to produce 4-hydroxy-2-alkylquinolines (HAQs) and it has been found that HAQs have prooxidant effects, and overexpressing modestly increased susceptibility to antibiotics. The study experimented with the ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' biofilms and found that a disruption of relA and spoT genes produced an inactivation of the Stringent response (SR) in cells with nutrient limitation, which provides cells be more susceptible to antibiotics.\n\n====''Clostridium difficile''====\n''Clostridium difficile'' is a nosocomial pathogen that causes diarrheal disease worldwide. Diarrhea caused by ''C. difficile'' can be life-threatening. Infections are most frequent in people who have had recent medical and/or antibiotic treatment. ''C. difficile'' infections commonly occur during hospitalization.\n\nAccording to a 2015 CDC report, ''C. difficile'' caused almost 500,000 infections in the United States over a year period. Associated with these infections were an estimated 15,000 deaths. The CDC estimates that ''C. difficile'' infection costs could amount to $3.8 billion over a 5-year span.\n\n''C. difficile'' colitis is most strongly associated with fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins, carbapenems, and clindamycin.\n\nSome research suggests the overuse of antibiotics in the raising of livestock is contributing to outbreaks of bacterial infections such as C. difficile.16\n\nAntibiotics, especially those with a broad activity spectrum (such as clindamycin) disrupt normal intestinal flora. This can lead to an overgrowth of C. difficile, which flourishes under these conditions. Pseudomembranous colitis can follow, creating generalized inflammation of the colon and the development of \"pseudomembrane\", a viscous collection of inflammatory cells, fibrin, and necrotic cells.4 Clindamycin-resistant ''C. difficile'' was reported as the causative agent of large outbreaks of diarrheal disease in hospitals in New York, Arizona, Florida and Massachusetts between 1989 and 1992. Geographically dispersed outbreaks of ''C. difficile'' strains resistant to fluoroquinolone antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, were also reported in North America in 2005.\n\n==== Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae ====\nAs of 2013 hard-to-treat or untreatable infections of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) were increasing among patients in medical facilities. CRE are resistant to nearly all available antibiotics. Almost half of hospital patients who get bloodstream CRE infections die from the infection.\n\n==== Multidrug-resistant ''Acinetobacter'' ====\n''Acinetobacter'' is a gram-negative bacteria that causes pneumonia or bloodstream infections in critically ill patients. Multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter have become very resistant to antibiotics.\n\n==== Drug-resistant ''Campylobacter'' ====\n''Campylobacter'' causes diarrhea (often bloody), fever, and abdominal cramps. Serious complications such as temporary paralysis can also occur. Physicians rely on ciprofloxacin and azithromycin for treating patients with severe disease although ''Campylobacter'' is showing resistance to these antibiotics.\n\n====''Salmonella'' and ''E. coli''====\nInfection with ''Escherichia coli'' and ''Salmonella'' can result from the consumption of contaminated food and polluted water. Both of these bacteria are well known for causing nosocomial (hospital-linked) infections, and often, these strains found in hospitals are antibiotic resistant because of adaptations to wide spread antibiotic use. When both bacteria are spread, serious health conditions arise. Many people are hospitalized each year after becoming infected, with some dying as a result. Since 1993, some strains of ''E. coli'' have become resistant to multiple types of fluoroquinolone antibiotics.\n\nAlthough mutation alone plays a huge role in the development of antibiotic resistance, a 2008 study found that high survival rates after exposure to antibiotics could not be accounted for by mutation alone. This study focused on the development of resistance in E. coli to three antibiotic drugs: ampicillin, tetracycline, and nalidixic acid. The researchers found that some antibiotic resistance in E. coli developed because of epigenetic inheritance rather than by direct inheritance of a mutated gene. This was further supported by data showing that reversion to antibiotic sensitivity was relatively common as well. This could only be explained by epigenetics. Epigenetics is a type of inheritance in which gene expression is altered rather than the genetic code itself. There are many modes by which this alteration of gene expression can occur, including methylation of DNA and histone modification; however, the important point is that both inheritance of random mutations and epigenetic markers can result in the expression of antibiotic resistance genes.\n\nResistance to polymyxins first appear in 2011. An easier way for this resistance to spread, a plasmid known as MCR-1 was discovered in 2015.\n\n====''Acinetobacter baumannii''====\nOn November 5, 2004, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported an increasing number of ''Acinetobacter baumannii'' bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the Iraq/Kuwait region during Operation Iraqi Freedom and in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom were treated. Most of these showed multidrug resistance (MRAB), with a few isolates resistant to all drugs tested.\n\n====''Klebsiella pneumoniae''====\nKlebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC)-producing bacteria are a group of emerging highly drug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli causing infections associated with significant morbidity and mortality whose incidence is rapidly increasing in a variety of clinical settings around the world. ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' includes numerous mechanisms for antibiotic resistance, many of which are located on highly mobile genetic elements. Carbapenem antibiotics (heretofore often the treatment of last resort for resistant infections) are generally not effective against KPC-producing organisms.\n\n====''Mycobacterium tuberculosis''====\nTuberculosis is increasing across the globe, especially in developing countries, over the past few years. TB resistant to antibiotics is called MDR TB (Multidrug Resistant TB). Globally, MDR TB causes 150,000 deaths annually. The rise of the HIV/AIDS epidemic has contributed to this.\n\nTB was considered one of the most prevalent diseases, and did not have a cure until the discovery of Streptomycin by Selman Waksman in 1943. However, the bacteria soon developed resistance. Since then, drugs such as isoniazid and rifampin have been used. M. tuberculosis develops resistance to drugs by spontaneous mutations in its genomes. Resistance to one drug is common, and this is why treatment is usually done with more than one drug. Extensively Drug-Resistant TB (XDR TB) is TB that is also resistant to the second line of drugs.\n\nResistance of ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' to isoniazid, rifampin, and other common treatments has become an increasingly relevant clinical challenge. (For more on Drug-Resistant TB, visit the Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis page.) Evidence is lacking for whether these bacteria have plasmids. Also ''M. tuberculosis'' lack the opportunity to interact with other bacteria in order to share plasmids.\n\n====''Neisseria gonorrhoeae''====\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae is a sexually transmitted pathogen that causes gonorrhea, a sexually transmitted disease that can result in discharge and inflammation at the urethra, cervix, pharynx, or rectum. It can cause pelvic pain, pain on urination, penile and vaginal discharge, as well as systemic symptoms. It can also cause severe reproductive complications. The bacteria was first identified in 1879, although some Biblical scholars believe that references to the disease can be found as early as Parshat Metzora of the Old Testament.\n\nIn the 1940s effective treatment with penicillin became available, but by the 1970s resistant strains predominated. Resistance to penicillin has developed through two mechanisms: chromasomally mediated resistance (CMRNG) and penicillinase-mediated resistance (PPNG). CMRNG involves step wise mutation of penA, which codes for the penicillin-binding protein (PBP-2); mtr, which encodes an efflux pump that removes penicillin from the cell; and penB, which encodes the bacterial cell wall porins. PPNG involves the acquisition of a plasmid-borne beta-lactamase. ''N. gonorrheoea'' has a high affinity for horizontal gene transfer, and as a result, the existence of any strain resistant to a given drug could spread easily across strains.\n\nFluoroquinolones were a useful next-line treatment until resistance was achieved through efflux pumps and mutations to the gyrA gene, which encodes DNA gyrase. Third-generation cephalosporins have been used to treat gonorrhoea since 2007, but resistant strains have emerged. As of 2010, the recommended treatment is a single 250 mg intramuscular injection of ceftriaxone, sometimes in combination with azithromycin or doxycycline. However, certain strains of ''N. gonorrhoeae'' can be resistant to antibiotics usually that are normally used to treat it. These include: cefixime (an oral cephalosporin), ceftriaxone (an injectable cephalosporin), azithromycin, aminoglycosides, and tetracycline.\n\n====''Mycoplasma genitalium''====\n''Mycoplasma genitalium'' is a small pathogenic bacterium that lives on the ciliated epithelial cells of the urinary and genital tracts in humans. It is still controversial whether or not this bacterium is to be recognized as a sexually transmitted pathogen. Infection with ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' sometimes produces clinical symptoms, or a combination of symptoms, but sometimes can be asymptomatic. It causes inflammation in the urethra (urethritis) both in men and women, which is associated with mucopurulent discharge in the urinary tract, and burning while urinating.\n\nTreatment of ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' infections is becoming increasingly difficult due to rapidly developing multi-drug resistance, and diagnosis and treatment is further hampered by the fact that ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' infections are not routinely detected. Azithromycin is the most common first-line treatment, but the commonly-used 1 gram single-dose azithromycin treatment can lead to the bacteria commonly developing resistance to azithromycin. An alternative five-day treatment with azithromycin showed no development of antimicrobial resistance. Efficacy of azithromycin against ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' has decreased substantially, which is thought to occur through SNPs in the 23S rRNA gene. The same SNPs are thought to be responsible for resistance against josamycin which is prescribed in some countries. Moxifloxacin can be used as a second-line treatment in case azithromycin is not able to eradicate the infection. However, resistance against moxifloxacin has been observed since 2007, thought to be due to ''parC'' SNPs. Tetracyclines, including doxycycline, have a low clinical eradication rate for ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' infections. \nA few cases have been described where doxycycline, azithromycin and moxifloxacin had all failed, but pristinamycin was still able to eradicate the infection.\n\n===Viruses===\nSpecific antiviral drugs are used to treat some viral infections. These drugs prevent viruses from reproducing by inhibiting essential stages of the virus's replication cycle in infected cells. Antivirals are used to treat HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, influenza, herpes viruses including varicella zoster virus, cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus. With each virus, some strains have become resistant to the administered drugs.\n\nResistance to HIV antivirals is problematic, and even multi-drug resistant strains have evolved. Resistant strains of the HIV virus emerge rapidly if only one antiviral drug is used. Using three or more drugs together has helped to control this problem, but new drugs are needed because of the continuing emergence of drug-resistant HIV strains.\n\n===Fungi===\nInfections by fungi are a cause of high morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised persons, such as those with HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis or receiving chemotherapy. The fungi candida, ''Cryptococcus neoformans'' and ''Aspergillus fumigatus'' cause most of these infections and antifungal resistance occurs in all of them. Multidrug resistance in fungi is increasing because of the widespread use of antifungal drugs to treat infections in immunocompromised individuals.\n\nOf particular note, Fluconazole-resistant Candida species have been highlighted as a growing problem by the CDC. More than 20 Candida species of Candida can cause Candidiasis infection, the most common of which is ''Candida albicans''. Candida yeasts normally inhabit the skin and mucous membranes without causing infection. However, overgrowth of Candida can lead to Candidiasis. Some Candida strains are becoming resistant to first-line and second-line antifungal agents such as azoles and echinocandins.\n\n===Parasites===\n\nThe protozoan parasites that cause the diseases malaria, trypanosomiasis, toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis and leishmaniasis are important human pathogens.\n\nMalarial parasites that are resistant to the drugs that are currently available to infections are common and this has led to increased efforts to develop new drugs. Resistance to recently developed drugs such as artemisinin has also been reported. The problem of drug resistance in malaria has driven efforts to develop vaccines.\n\nTrypanosomes are parasitic protozoa that cause African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis). There are no vaccines to prevent these infections so drugs such as pentamidine and suramin, benznidazole and nifurtimox and used to treat infections. These drugs are effective but infections caused by resistant parasites have been reported.\n\nLeishmaniasis is caused by protozoa and is an important public health problem worldwide, especially in sub-tropical and tropical countries. Drug resistance has \"become a major concern\".\n", "\nAntibiotic resistance is an important tool for genetic engineering. By constructing a plasmid that contains an antibiotic-resistance gene as well as the gene being engineered or expressed, a researcher can ensure that, when bacteria replicate, only the copies that carry the plasmid survive. This ensures that the gene being manipulated passes along when the bacteria replicates.\n\nIn general, the most commonly used antibiotics in genetic engineering are \"older\" antibiotics. These include:\n* ampicillin\n* kanamycin\n* tetracycline\n* chloramphenicol\n\nIn industry, the use of antibiotic resistance is disfavored, since maintaining bacterial cultures would require feeding them large quantities of antibiotics. Instead, the use of auxotrophic bacterial strains (and function-replacement plasmids) is preferred.\n", "For the fiscal year 2016 budget, President Obama has suggested to nearly double the amount of federal funding to \"combat and prevent\" antibiotic resistance to more than $1.2 billion. Many international funding agencies like USAID, DFID, SIDA and Bill & Melinda Gates foundation has pledged money for developing strategies to counter antimicrobial resistance.\n\nSince the mid-1980s pharmaceutical companies have invested in medications for cancer or chronic disease that have greater potential to make money and have \"de-emphasized or dropped development of antibiotics\". On January 20, 2016 at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, more than \"80 pharmaceutical and diagnostic companies\" from around the world called for 'transformational commercial models' at a global level to spur research and development on antibiotics and on the \"enhanced use of diagnostic tests that can rapidly identify the infecting organism\".\n\n===Legal frameworks===\nSome global health scholars have argued that a global, legal framework is needed to prevent and control antimicrobial resistance. For instance, binding global policies could be used to create antimicrobial use standards, regulate antibiotic marketing, and strengthen global surveillance systems. Ensuring compliance of involved parties is a challenge. Global antimicrobial resistance policies could take lessons from the environmental sector by adopting strategies that have made international environmental agreements successful in the past such as: sanctions for non-compliance, assistance for implementation, majority vote decision-making rules, an independent scientific panel, and specific commitments.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n=== Books ===\n* \n* \n\n=== Journals ===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* 16-minute film about a post-antibiotic world. Review: \n", "\n* \n* Animation of Antibiotic Resistance\n* CDC Guideline \"Management of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms in Healthcare Settings, 2006\"\n* Antimicrobial Stewardship Project, at the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP), University of Minnesota\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Definition", "Causes", "Prevention", "Mechanisms", "Organisms", "Applications", "Society and culture", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Antimicrobial resistance
[ "An illustration that shows how antigens induce the immune system response by interacting with an antibody that matches the antigen's molecular structure.\n\nIn immunology, an '''antigen''' is a molecule capable of inducing an immune response (to produce an antibody) in the host organism. Sometimes antigens are part of the host itself in an autoimmune disease.\n\nAntigens are \"targeted\" by antibodies. Each antibody (immune response) is specifically produced by the immune system to match an antigen after cells in the immune system come into contact with it; this allows a precise identification/matching of the antigen and the initiation of a tailored response. The antibody is said to \"match\" the antigen in the sense that it can bind to it due to an adaptation performed to a region of the antibody; because of this, many different antibodies are produced, each with specificity to bind a different antigen while sharing the same basic structure. In most cases, an adapted antibody can only react to and bind one specific antigen; in some instances, however, antibodies may cross-react to and bind more than one antigen.\n\nAlso, an antigen is a molecule that binds to Ag-specific receptors, but cannot necessarily induce an immune response in the body by itself. Antigens are usually peptides (amino acid chains), polysaccharides (chains of monosaccharides/simple sugars) or lipids. In general, saccharides and lipids (as opposed to peptides) qualify as antigens but not as immunogens since they cannot elicit an immune response on their own. Furthermore, for a peptide to induce an immune response (activation of T-cells by antigen-presenting cells) it must be a large enough size, since peptides too small will also not elicit an immune response. The term antigen originally described a structural molecule that binds specifically to an antibody. It was expanded to refer to any molecule or a linear molecular fragment that can be recognized by highly variable antigen receptors (B-cell receptor or T-cell receptor) of the adaptive immune system.\n\nThe antigen may originate from within the body (\"self-antigen\") or from the external environment (\"non-self\"). The immune system usually does not react to self-antigens under normal homeostatic conditions due to negative selection of T cells in the thymus and is supposed to identify and attack \"non-self\" invaders from the outside world or modified/harmful substances present in the body under distressed conditions.\n\nAntigen presenting cells present antigens in the form of peptides on histocompatibility molecules. The T cell/T lymphocyte (a subtype of white blood cell), of the adaptive immune system, selectively recognize the antigens. Depending on the antigen and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, different types of T cells will be activated. For T-Cell Receptor (TCR) recognition, the peptide must be processed into small fragments inside the cell and presented by a major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The antigen cannot elicit the immune response without the help of an immunologic adjuvant. Similarly, the adjuvant component of vaccines plays an essential role in the activation of the innate immune system.\n\nAn immunogen is an antigen substance (or adduct) that is able to trigger a humoral (innate) or cell-mediated immune response. It first initiates an innate immune response, which then causes the activation of the adaptive immune response. An antigen binds the highly variable immunoreceptor products (B-cell receptor or T-cell receptor) once these have been generated. Immunogens are those antigens, termed immunogenic, capable of inducing an immune response.\n\nAt the molecular level, an antigen can be characterized by its ability to bind to an antibody's variable Fab region. Different antibodies have the potential to discriminate among specific epitopes present on the antigen surface. A hapten is a small molecule that changes the structure of an antigenic epitope. In order to induce an immune response, it needs to be attached to a large carrier molecule such as a protein (a complex of peptides). Antigens are usually carried by proteins and polysaccharides, and less frequently, lipids. This includes parts (coats, capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbrae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Lipids and nucleic acids are antigenic only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides. Non-microbial non-self antigens can include pollen, egg white and proteins from transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells. Vaccines are examples of antigens in an immunogenic form, which are intentionally administered to a recipient to induce the memory function of adaptive immune system toward the antigens of the pathogen invading that recipient.\n", "Paul Ehrlich coined the term antibody (in German ''Antikörper'') in his side-chain theory at the end of 19th century. In 1899, Ladislas Deutsch (Laszlo Detre) (1874–1939) named the hypothetical substances halfway between bacterial constituents and antibodies \"substances immunogenes ou antigenes\" (antigenic or immunogenic substances). He originally believed those substances to be precursors of antibodies, just as zymogen is a precursor of an enzyme. But, by 1903, he understood that an antigen induces the production of immune bodies (antibodies) and wrote that the word ''antigen'' is a contraction of antisomatogen (''Immunkörperbildner''). The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' indicates that the logical construction should be \"anti(body)-gen\".\n", "* Epitope – The distinct surface features of an antigen, its ''antigenic determinant''. Antigenic molecules, normally \"large\" biological polymers, usually present surface features that can act as points of interaction for specific antibodies. Any such feature constitutes an epitope. Most antigens have the potential to be bound by multiple antibodies, each of which is specific to one of the antigen's epitopes. Using the \"lock and key\" metaphor, the antigen can be seen as a string of keys (epitopes) each of which matches a different lock (antibody). Different antibody '''idiotypes''', each have distinctly formed complementarity determining regions.\n* Allergen – A substance capable of causing an allergic reaction. The (detrimental) reaction may result after exposure via ingestion, inhalation, injection, or contact with skin.\n* Superantigen – A class of antigens that cause non-specific activation of T-cells, resulting in polyclonal T cell activation and massive cytokine release.\n* Tolerogen – A substance that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its molecular form. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen.\n* Immunoglobulin-binding protein – Proteins such as Protein A, protein G, and protein L that are capable of binding to antibodies at positions outside of the antigen-binding site. While antigens are the \"target\" of antibodies, immunoglobulin-binding proteins \"attack\" antibodies. .\n* T-dependent antigen – Antigens that require the assistance of T cells to induce the formation of specific antibodies.\n* T-independent antigen – Polysaccharides (usually) that stimulate B cells directly.\n* Immunodominant antigens – Antigens that dominate (over all others from a pathogen) in their ability to produce an immune response. T cell responses typically are directed against a relatively few immunodominant epitopes, although in some cases (e.g., infection with the malaria pathogen ''Plasmodium spp.'') it is dispersed over a relatively large number of parasite antigens.\n", "Antigens can be classified according to their source.\n\n===Exogenous antigens===\nExogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation, ingestion or injection. The immune system's response to exogenous antigens is often subclinical. By endocytosis or phagocytosis, exogenous antigens are taken into the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the fragments to T helper cells (CD4+) by the use of class II histocompatibility molecules on their surface. Some T cells are specific for the peptide:MHC complex. They become activated and start to secrete cytokines, substances that activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), antibody-secreting B cells, macrophages and other particles.\n\nSome antigens start out as exogenous, and later become endogenous (for example, intracellular viruses). Intracellular antigens can be returned to circulation upon the destruction of the infected cell.\n\n===Endogenous antigens===\nEndogenous antigens are generated within normal cells as a result of normal cell metabolism, or because of viral or intracellular bacterial infection. The fragments are then presented on the cell surface in the complex with MHC class I molecules. If activated cytotoxic CD8+ T cells recognize them, the T cells secrete various toxins that cause the lysis or apoptosis of the infected cell. In order to keep the cytotoxic cells from killing cells just for presenting self-proteins, the cytotoxic cells (self-reactive T cells) are deleted as a result of tolerance (negative selection). Endogenous antigens include xenogenic (heterologous), autologous and idiotypic or allogenic (homologous) antigens.\n\n===Autoantigens===\nAn autoantigen is usually a normal protein or protein complex (and sometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease. Under normal conditions, these antigens should not be the target of the immune system, but in autoimmune diseases, their associated T cells are not deleted and instead attack.\n\n=== Neoantigens ===\nNeoantigens are those that are entirely absent from the normal human genome. As compared with nonmutated self-antigens, neoantigens are of relevance to tumor control, as the quality of the T cell pool that is available for these antigens is not affected by central T cell tolerance. Technology to systematically analyze T cell reactivity against neoantigens became available only recently.\n\n==== Viral antigens ====\nFor virus-associated tumors, such as cervical cancer and a subset of head and neck cancers, epitopes derived from viral open reading frames contribute to the pool of neoantigens.\n\n====Tumor antigens====\n''Tumor antigens'' are those antigens that are presented by MHC class I or MHC class II molecules on the surface of tumor cells. Antigens found only on such cells are called tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) and generally result from a tumor-specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, called tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). Cytotoxic T lymphocytes that recognize these antigens may be able to destroy tumor cells.\n\nTumor antigens can appear on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, a mutated receptor, in which case they are recognized by B cells.\n\nFor human tumors without a viral etiology, novel peptides (neo-epitopes) are created by tumor-specific DNA alterations.\n\n===== Process=====\nA large fraction of human tumor mutations are effectively patient-specific. Therefore, neoantigens may also be based on individual tumor genomes. Deep-sequencing technologies can identify mutations within the protein-coding part of the genome (the exome) and predict potential neoantigens. In mice models, for all novel protein sequences, potential MHC-binding peptides were predicted. The resulting set of potential neoantigens was used to assess T cell reactivity. Exome–based analyses were exploited in a clinical setting, to assess reactivity in patients treated by either tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) cell therapy or checkpoint blockade. Neoantigen identification was successful for multiple experimental model systems and human malignancies.\n\nThe false-negative rate of cancer exome sequencing is low—i.e.: the majority of neoantigens occur within exonic sequence with sufficient coverage. However, the vast majority of mutations within expressed genes do not produce neoantigens that are recognized by autologous T cells.\n\nAs of 2015 mass spectroscopy resolution is insufficient to exclude many false positives from the pool of peptides that may be presented by MHC molecules. Instead, algorithms are used to identify the most likely candidates. These algorithms consider factors such as the likelihood of proteasomal processing, transport into the endoplasmic reticulum, affinity for the relevant MHC class I alleles and gene expression or protein translation levels.\n\nThe majority of human neoantigens identified in unbiased screens display a high predicted MHC binding affinity. Minor histocompatibility antigens, a conceptually similar antigen class are also correctly identified by MHC binding algorithms. Another potential filter examines whether the mutation is expected to improve MHC binding. The nature of the central TCR-exposed residues of MHC-bound peptides is associated with peptide immunogenicity.\n\n===Nativity===\nA native antigen is an antigen that is not yet processed by an APC to smaller parts. T cells cannot bind native antigens, but require that they be processed by APCs, whereas B cells can be activated by native ones.\n", "Antigenic specificity is the ability of the host cells to recognize an antigen specifically as a unique molecular entity and distinguish it from another with exquisite precision. Antigen specificity is due primarily to the side-chain conformations of the antigen. It is measurable and need not be linear or of a rate-limited step or equation.\n", "\n", "\n", "* Antigen Retrieval Protocol\n* National Library of Medicine/Medline (National Institute of Health) website\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Terminology", "Sources", "Antigenic specificity", "See also", "Notes", "External links" ]	Antigen
[ "\n\nAn '''autosome''' is a chromosome that is not an allosome (a sex chromosome). The members of an autosome pair in a diploid cell have the same morphology unlike those in allosome pairs which may have different structure. The DNA in autosomes is collectively known as '''atDNA''' or '''auDNA'''.\n\nFor example, humans have a diploid genome that usually contains 22 pairs of autosomes and one allosome pair (46 chromosomes total). The autosome pairs are labeled with numbers (1–22 in humans) roughly in order of their sizes in base pairs, while allosomes are labelled with their letters. By contrast, the allosome pair consists of two X chromosomes in females or one X and one Y chromosome in males. (Unusual combinations of XYY, XXY, XXX, XXXX, XXXXX or XXYY, among other allosome combinations, are known to occur and usually cause developmental abnormalities.)\n\nAutosomes still contain sexual determination genes even though they are not sex chromosomes. For example, the SRY gene on the Y chromosome encodes the transcription factor TDF and is vital for male sex determination during development. TDF functions by activating the SOX9 gene on chromosome 17, so mutations of the SOX9 gene can cause humans with a Y chromosome to develop as females.\n\nAll human autosomes have been identified and mapped by extracting the chromosomes from a cell arrested in metaphase or prometaphase and then staining them with some sort of dye (most commonly, Giemsa). These chromosomes are typically viewed as karyograms for easy comparison. Clinical geneticists can compare the karyogram of an individual to a reference karyogram to discover the cytogenetic basis of certain phenotypes. For example, the karyogram of someone with Patau Syndrome would show that they possess three copies of chromosome 13. Karyograms and staining techniques can only detect large-scale disruptions to chromosomes—chromosomal aberrations smaller than a few million base pairs generally cannot be seen on a karyogram.\n\n\n\nKaryotype of human chromosomes\n\nFemale (XX)\nMale (XY)\n\ncenter\ncenter\n\nThere are two copies of each '''autosome''' (chromosomes 1–22) in both females and males. The '''sex chromosomes''' are different: There are two copies of the X-chromosome in females, but males have a single X-chromosome and a Y-chromosome.\n\n", "An illustration of the inheritance pattern and phenotypic effects of an autosomal recessive gene.\nAutosomal genetic disorders can arise due to a number of causes, some of the most common being nondisjunction in parental germ cells or Mendelian inheritance of deleterious alleles from parents. Autosomal genetic disorders which exhibit Mendelian inheritance can be inherited either in an autosomal dominant or recessive fashion. These disorders manifest in and are passed on by either sex with equal frequency. Autosomal dominant disorders are often present in both parent and child, as the child needs to inherit only one copy of the deleterious allele to manifest the disease. Autosomal recessive diseases, however, require two copies of the deleterious allele for the disease to manifest. Because it is possible to possess one copy of a deleterious allele without presenting a disease phenotype, two phenotypically normal parents can have a child with the disease if both parents are carriers (also known as heterozygotes) for the condition.\n\nAutosomal aneuploidy can also result in disease conditions. Aneuploidy of autosomes is not well tolerated and usually results in miscarriage of the developing fetus. Fetuses with aneuploidy of gene-rich chromosomes—such as chromosome 1—never survive to term, and fetuses with aneuploidy of gene-poor chromosomes—such as chromosome 21— are still miscarried over 23% of the time. Possessing a single copy of an autosome (known as a monosomy) is nearly always incompatible with life, though very rarely some monosomies can survive past birth. Having three copies of an autosome (known as a trisomy) is far more compatible with life, however. A common example is Down syndrome, which is caused by possessing three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two.\n\nPartial aneuploidy can also occur as a result of unbalanced translocations during meiosis. Deletions of part of a chromosome cause partial monosomies, while duplications can cause partial trisomies. If the duplication or deletion is large enough, it can be discovered by analyzing a karyogram of the individual. Autosomal translocations can be responsible for a number of diseases, ranging from cancer to schizophrenia. Unlike single gene disorders, diseases caused by aneuploidy are the result of improper gene dosage, not nonfunctional gene product.\n", "* Aneuploidy (abnormal number of chromosomes)\n* Autosomal dominant\n* Autosomal recessive\n* Homologous chromosome\n* Pseudoautosomal region\n* XY sex-determination system\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Autosomal genetic disorders ", "See also", "References" ]	Autosome
[ "'''Antwerp''' is a city in Belgium and capital of the Antwerp province.\n\n'''Antwerp''' may also refer to:\n\n;In Belgium\n* Antwerp (district)\n* Antwerp (province)\n\n;In the United States\n* Antwerp, Ohio\n* Antwerp Township, Michigan\n* Antwerp (village), New York\n* Antwerp (town), New York\n\n;In Australia\nAntwerp, Victoria\n", "Port of Antwerp\nAntwerp (Quest For Glory), a monster in the ''Quest for Glory'' computer role-playing game series\n Antwerp (pigeon), a domestic breed of Rock Pigeon which originated in the Belgian city\nRoyal Antwerp FC, a football club in the Belgian city of Antwerp\n''Antwerp'' (novel), by Roberto Bolaño\n*''Antwerp'' (poem), by Ford Madox Hueffer (later known as Ford Madox Ford)\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Other " ]	Antwerp (disambiguation)
[ "\n'''Aquila''' is the Latin and Romance languages word for ''eagle''. Specifically, it may refer to:\n* Aquila (constellation), the astronomical constellation, the Eagle\n* ''Aquila'' (genus), a genus of birds including some eagles\n* Aquila (name), a given name or surname\n* ''Aquila'' (Roman), a Roman military standard\n\n", "Lucius Pontius Aquila, one of the assassins of Julius Caesar in the 1st century BCE\nGaius Julius Aquila, Roman knight, 1st century CE\nVedius Aquila, an ancient Roman general in the 1st century CE who fought in the Year of the Four Emperors\nJulius Gallus Aquila, Roman jurist, probably 2nd century CE\nAquila Romanus, Latin grammarian, 3rd century CE\nPriscilla and Aquila, early Christian converts who appear in the New Testament\nAquila of Sinope, translator of the Old Testament into Greek\nAquila Chase, early Puritan settler in the American colonies and founder of the influential Chase family\n", "* Aquila, Michoacán, town in Mexico\n* Aquila, Switzerland, former municipality in the canton of Ticino\n* Aquila, Veracruz, municipality in Mexico\n* Aquila Private Game Reserve, South Africa\n* Aquileia, an ancient Roman city in Italy\n* L'Aquila, sometimes Aquila, the regional capital of Abruzzo in Italy\n* Province of L'Aquila, Italy\n", "* ''Aquila'' (journal), an ornithological journal\n* ''Aquila'', book by Andrew Norriss\n* Aquila (children's magazine), a children's magazine\n* ''Aquila'' (TV series), a BBC TV production for children based on the Norriss book\n* Aquila Suite – 12 Arpeggio Concert Etudes for Solo Piano, a piano composition\n* Aquila squadron, the enemy Yellow Squadron in the video game ''Ace Combat 04: Shattered Skies''\n* Aquila Theatre, a theatre company currently of New York\n* Aquila Airways, a British flying boat operator (1948–1958)\n* Aquila, Inc., a former electric and gas utility in Kansas City, Missouri, United States\n* Aquila Italiana, Italian car manufacturer or brand\n* Aquila Capital, an independent investment firm in Hamburg, Germany\n* Aquila racing cars, a Danish firm\n* Hyosung GV250, a cruiser motorcycle nicknamed the \"Aquila\"\n", "* USS ''Aquila'' (AK-47), an Aquila-class cargo ship commissioned by the U.S. Navy for service in World War II\n* USS ''Aquila'' (PHM-4), a hydrofoil formerly operated by the U.S. Navy\n* Italian aircraft carrier ''Aquila'', a World War II Italian aircraft carrier\n", "* Angus Aquila, a British aircraft\n* Aquila, Facebook's design for an atmospheric satellite\n* Aquila A 210, a German lightweight aircraft\n* Bristol Aquila, an aircraft engine\n* Lockheed MQM-105 Aquila, the U.S. Army's first battlefield reconnaissance drone\n", "* Aquilla, a character in the wargame ''Heroscape''\n* Aquila, a game server in the MMORPG ''MapleStory''\n* Aquila, Captain Crowe Almedio's ship in the video game ''Star Ocean: The Last Hope''\n* Imperial Aquila seal, symbol of the Imperium (Warhammer 40,000) in the fictional Warhammer 40,000 universe\n* Aquila, a ship captained by Ratonhnhaké:ton, the protagonist character in the video game ''Assassin's Creed III''\n* Aquila, a weapon available to the player character Dante in the video game ''DmC: Devil May Cry''\n* Aquila, a world available with membership in the computer games ''Wizard101'' and ''Pirate101''\n* Aquila Yuna, one of main characters in the anime ''Saint Seiya Omega''\n", "* Aquilia (disambiguation)\n* Aguila (disambiguation)\n* Aquilinus (disambiguation)\n* Aquilla (disambiguation)\n* Aquillia (gens)\n* Balanus aquila, a species of barnacle\n* Macroglossum aquila, a species of moth\n* Aquila Court Building of Omaha, Nebraska\n* Roman Catholic Archdiocese of L'Aquila, Italy\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "People", "Places", "Work titles and brand names", "Maritime vessels", "Aircraft", "Fiction", "See also" ]	Aquila
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta''' (; 18 February 1745 – 5 March 1827) was an Italian physicist, chemist, and a pioneer of electricity and power, who is credited as the inventor of the electrical battery and the discoverer of methane. He invented the Voltaic pile in 1799, and reported the results of his experiments in 1800 in a two-part letter to the President of the Royal Society. With this invention Volta proved that electricity could be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent theory that electricity was generated solely by living beings. Volta's invention sparked a great amount of scientific excitement and led others to conduct similar experiments which eventually led to the development of the field of electrochemistry.\n\nAlessandro Volta also drew admiration from Napoleon Bonaparte for his invention, and was invited to the Institute of France to demonstrate his invention to the members of the Institute. Volta enjoyed a certain amount of closeness with the Emperor throughout his life and he was conferred numerous honours by him. Alessandro Volta held the chair of experimental physics at the University of Pavia for nearly 40 years and was widely idolised by his students.\n\nDespite his professional success, Volta tended to be a person inclined towards domestic life and this was more apparent in his later years. At this time he tended to live secluded from public life and more for the sake of his family until his eventual death in 1827 from a series of illnesses which began in 1823. The SI unit of electric potential is named in his honour as the volt.\n", "Volta was born in Como, a town in present-day northern Italy (near the Swiss border), on 18 February 1745. In 1794, Volta married an aristocratic lady also from Como, Teresa Peregrini, with whom he raised three sons: Zanino, Flaminio, and Luigi. His father, Filippo Volta, was of noble lineage. His mother, Donna Maddalena, came from the family of the Inzaghis.\n\nIn 1774, he became a professor of physics at the Royal School in Como. A year later, he improved and popularised the electrophorus, a device that produced static electricity. His promotion of it was so extensive that he is often credited with its invention, even though a machine operating on the same principle was described in 1762 by the Swedish experimenter Johan Wilcke. In 1777, he travelled through Switzerland. There he befriended H. B. de Saussure.\n\nIn the years between 1776 and 1778, Volta studied the chemistry of gases. He researched and discovered methane after reading a paper by Benjamin Franklin of the United States on \"flammable air\". In November 1776, he found methane at Lake Maggiore, and by 1778 he managed to isolate methane. He devised experiments such as the ignition of methane by an electric spark in a closed vessel.\n\nVolta also studied what we now call electrical capacitance, developing separate means to study both electrical potential (''V'' ) and charge (''Q'' ), and discovering that for a given object, they are proportional. This is called Volta's Law of Capacitance, and it was for this work the unit of electrical potential has been named the volt.\n\nIn 1779 he became a professor of experimental physics at the University of Pavia, a chair that he occupied for almost 40 years.\n", "Luigi Galvani, Volta's rival\nLuigi Galvani, an Italian physicist, discovered something he named \"animal electricity\" when two different metals were connected in series with a frog's leg and to one another. Volta realised that the frog's leg served as both a conductor of electricity (what we would now call an electrolyte) and as a detector of electricity. He replaced the frog's leg with brine-soaked paper, and detected the flow of electricity by other means familiar to him from his previous studies.\n\nIn this way he discovered the electrochemical series, and the law that the electromotive force (emf) of a galvanic cell, consisting of a pair of metal electrodes separated by electrolyte, is the difference between their two electrode potentials (thus, two identical electrodes and a common electrolyte give zero net emf). This may be called Volta's Law of the electrochemical series.\n\nIn 1800, as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by Galvani, Volta invented the voltaic pile, an early electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was zinc and copper. Initially he experimented with individual cells in series, each cell being a wine goblet filled with brine into which the two dissimilar electrodes were dipped. The voltaic pile replaced the goblets with cardboard soaked in brine.\n", "A voltaic pile\nIn announcing his discovery of the voltaic pile, Volta paid tribute to the influences of William Nicholson, Tiberius Cavallo, and Abraham Bennet.\n\nThe battery made by Volta is credited as one of the first electrochemical cells. It consists of two electrodes: one made of zinc, the other of copper. The electrolyte is either sulfuric acid mixed with water or a form of saltwater brine. The electrolyte exists in the form 2H+ and SO42−. The zinc, which is higher in the electrochemical series than both copper and hydrogen, reacts with the negatively charged sulfate (SO42−). The positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) capture electrons from the copper, forming bubbles of hydrogen gas, H2. This makes the zinc rod the negative electrode and the copper rod the positive electrode.\n\nThus, there are two terminals, and an electric current will flow if they are connected. The chemical reactions in this voltaic cell are as follows:\n\n:Zinc:\n::Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−\n\n:Sulfuric acid:\n::2H+ + 2e− → H2\n\nThe copper does not react, but rather it functions as an electrode for the electric current.\n\nHowever, this cell also has some disadvantages. It is unsafe to handle, since sulfuric acid, even if diluted, can be hazardous. Also, the power of the cell diminishes over time because the hydrogen gas is not released. Instead, it accumulates on the surface of the copper electrode and forms a barrier between the metal and the electrolyte solution.\n", "Napoleon in 1801\n\nIn 1809 Volta became associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. In honour of his work, Volta was made a count by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1810.\n\nVolta retired in 1819 to his estate in Camnago, a frazione of Como, Italy, now named \"Camnago Volta\" in his honour. He died there on 5 March 1827, just after his 82nd birthday. Volta's remains were buried in Camnago Volta.\n\n=== Legacy ===\nVolta's legacy is celebrated by the Tempio Voltiano memorial located in the public gardens by the lake. There is also a museum which has been built in his honour, which exhibits some of the equipment that Volta used to conduct experiments. Nearby stands the Villa Olmo, which houses the Voltian Foundation, an organization promoting scientific activities. Volta carried out his experimental studies and produced his first inventions near Como.\n\nHis image was depicted on the Italian 10,000 lira note (1990-1997) along with a sketch of his voltaic pile.\n", "Volta was raised as a Catholic and for all of his life continued to maintain his belief. Because he was not ordained a clergyman as his family expected, he was sometimes accused of being irreligious and some people have speculated about his possible unbelief, stressing that \"he did not join the Church\", or that he virtually \"ignored the church's call\". Nevertheless, he cast out doubts in a declaration of faith in which he said:\n\nI do not understand how anyone can doubt the sincerity and constancy of my attachment to the religion which I profess, the Roman, Catholic and Apostolic religion in which I was born and brought up, and of which I have always made confession, externally and internally. I have, indeed, and only too often, failed in the performance of those good works which are the mark of a Catholic Christian, and I have been guilty of many sins: but through the special mercy of God I have never, as far as I know, wavered in my faith... In this faith I recognise a pure gift of God, a supernatural grace; but I have not neglected those human means which confirm belief, and overthrow the doubts which at times arise. I studied attentively the grounds and basis of religion, the works of apologists and assailants, the reasons for and against, and I can say that the result of such study is to clothe religion with such a degree of probability, even for the merely natural reason, that every spirit unperverted by sin and passion, every naturally noble spirit must love and accept it. May this confession which has been asked from me and which I willingly give, written and subscribed by my own hand, with authority to show it to whomsoever you will, for I am not ashamed of the Gospel, may it produce some good fruit!\n\n", "''De vi attractiva ignis electrici'' (1769) (''On the attractive force of electric fire'')\n", " Eudiometer\n* History of the battery\n* History of the internal combustion engine\n* Lemon battery\n* Volta (lunar crater)\n* Volta Prize\n", "\n", "\n\n Volta and the \"Pile\"\n* Alessandro Volta Google Doodle\n* Alessandro Volta\n* Count Alessandro Volta\n* Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)\n\n Electrical units history.\n* References to Volta in European historic newspapers\n* Life of Alessandro Volta: Biography; Inventions; Facts\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life and works ", " Volta and Galvani ", " Early battery ", " Last years and retirement ", " Religious beliefs ", " Publications ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Alessandro Volta
[ "The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius\n'''Argo Navis''' (the Ship Argo), or simply '''Argo''', was a large constellation in the southern sky that has since been divided into the three constellations of Carina, Puppis and Vela. The genitive was \"Argus Navis\", abbreviated \"Arg\". Flamsteed and other early modern astronomers called the constellation just '''Navis''' (the Ship), genitive \"Navis\", abbreviated \"Nav\". \n\nIt was identified in Greek mythology with the ''Argo'', the ship used by Jason and the Argonauts that sailed to Colchis in search of the Golden Fleece. The original constellation is presently found near the southern horizon of the Mediterranean sky, becoming visible in springtime and sailed westward, skimming along the southern horizon. Due to precession of the equinoxes, many of the stars of Argo have been shifted farther south since Classical times, and far fewer of its stars are visible today from the latitudes of the Mediterranean. This includes its brightest 1st-magnitude star, Canopus or α Carinae. All the stars of Argo Navis are easily visible south of the equator, and pass near zenith from southern temperate latitudes.\n\nArgo Navis is the only one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy that is no longer officially recognized as a constellation. It was unwieldy due to its enormous size. In his ''Coelum Australe Stelliferum'', published in 1763, the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille explained that there were more than a hundred and sixty stars clearly visible to the naked eye in Navis, and so he used the set of lowercase and uppercase Latin letters three times on portions of the constellation referred to as \"Argûs in carina\" (Carina, the keel or hull), \"Argûs in puppi\" (Puppis, the poop deck or stern), and \"Argûs in velis\" (Vela, the sails). Lacaille replaced Bayer's designations with new ones that followed stellar magnitudes more closely, but used only a single Greek-letter sequence and described the constellation for those stars as \"Argûs\". Similarly, faint non-lettered stars were listed only as in \"Argûs\".\n\nThe final breakup and abolition of Argo Navis was proposed by Sir John Herschel in 1841 and again in 1844, but it was not formalised until 1930 when the IAU defined the 88 modern constellations. Lacaille's designations were kept in the three separate constellations, so Carina has α, β and ε, Vela has γ and δ, Puppis has ζ, and so on.\n\nThe constellation Pyxis (the mariner's compass) occupies an area which in antiquity was considered part of Argo's mast. Some authors state that Pyxis was part of the Greek conception of Argo Navis, but magnetic compasses were unknown in ancient Greek times. Lacaille considered it a separate constellation, representing one of the modern scientific instruments he placed among the constellations (like Microscopium and Telescopium). Pyxis was listed separately, among his 14 new constellations. Lacaille assigned Bayer designations to Pyxis separate from those of Argo, and his illustration shows an isolated instrument not related to the figure of the ship. In 1844, John Herschel suggested formalizing the mast as a new constellation, Malus, to replace Lacaille's Pyxis, but the idea did not catch on.\n\nThe Māori had several names for what was the constellation Argo, including ''Te Waka-o-Tamarereti'', ''Te Kohi-a-Autahi'', and ''Te Kohi''.\n", "Asterism (astronomy)\nList of stars in Argo Navis\n", "\n", "\n* Starry Night Photography : Argo Navis Image\n* Star Tales – Argo Navis\n* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database – Argo (Navis) (over 160 medieval and early modern images of Argo Navis)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Argo Navis
[ "\n''Perseus and Andromeda'' (Andromeda tied to the rock while Perseus on the winged horse Pegasus flies above), by Frederic Leighton\n\nIn Greek mythology, '''Andromeda''' is the daughter of the Aethiopian king Cepheus and his wife Cassiopeia. When Cassiopeia's hubris leads her to boast that Andromeda is more beautiful than the Nereids, Poseidon sends the sea monster Cetus to ravage Aethiopia as divine punishment. Andromeda is stripped and chained naked to a rock as a sacrifice to sate the monster, but is saved from death by Perseus.\n\nHer name is the Latinized form of the Greek (''Androméda'') or (''Andromédē''): \"ruler of men\", from (''anēr, andrós'') \"man\", and ''medon'', \"ruler\".\n\nAs a subject, Andromeda has been popular in art since classical times; it is one of several Greek myths of a Greek hero's rescue of the intended victim of an archaic ''hieros gamos'' (sacred marriage), giving rise to the \"princess and dragon\" motif. From the Renaissance, interest revived in the original story, typically as derived from Ovid's account.\n", "A small Roman fresco from Pompeii\n\nIn Greek mythology, Andromeda was the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia, king and queen of the North African kingdom of Aethiopia.\n\nHer mother Cassiopeia boasted that her daughter was more beautiful than the Nereids, the nymph-daughters of the sea god Nereus and often seen accompanying Poseidon. To punish the queen for her arrogance, Poseidon, brother to Zeus and god of the sea, sent a sea monster named Cetus to ravage the coast of Aethiopia including the kingdom of the vain queen. The desperate king consulted the Oracle of Apollo, who announced that no respite would be found until the king sacrificed his daughter, Andromeda, to the monster. Stripped naked, she was chained to a rock on the coast.\n\nPerseus was returning from having slain the Gorgon, Medusa. After he happened upon the chained Andromeda, he approached Cetus while invisible (for he was wearing Hades's helm), and killed the sea monster. He set Andromeda free, and married her in spite of her having been previously promised to her uncle Phineus. At the wedding a quarrel took place between the rivals and Phineus was turned to stone by the sight of the Gorgon's head.\n\nAndromeda followed her husband, first to his native island of Serifos, where he rescued his mother Danaë, and then to Tiryns in Argos. Together, they became the ancestors of the family of the ''Perseidae'' through the line of their son Perses. Perseus and Andromeda had seven sons: Perses, Alcaeus, Heleus, Mestor, Sthenelus, Electryon, and Cynurus as well as two daughters, Autochthe and Gorgophone. Their descendants ruled Mycenae from Electryon down to Eurystheus, after whom Atreus attained the kingdom, and would also include the great hero Heracles. According to this mythology, Perseus is the ancestor of the Persians.\n\nAt the port city of Jaffa (today part of Tel Aviv) an outcrop of rocks near the harbour has been associated with the place of Andromeda's chaining and rescue by the traveler Pausanias, the geographer Strabo and the historian of the Jews Josephus.\n\nAfter Andromeda's death, as Euripides had promised Athena at the end of his ''Andromeda'', produced in 412 BCE, the goddess placed her among the constellations in the northern sky, near Perseus and Cassiopeia; the constellation Andromeda, so known since antiquity, is named after her.\n", "\n===Constellations===\n''Andromeda'' (1869) Edward Poynter\nAndromeda is represented in the northern sky by the constellation Andromeda, which contains the Andromeda Galaxy.\n\nThe advancement of science and technology allowed the emergence of astrophotography which allowed more concrete observation of the Andromeda constellation and led to the discovery that the galaxy lies within the Andromeda constellation.\n\nFour constellations are associated with the myth. Viewing the fainter stars visible to the naked eye, the constellations are rendered as:\n\n* A huge man wearing a crown, upside down with respect to the ecliptic (the constellation Cepheus)\n* A smaller figure, next to the man, sitting on a chair; as it is near the pole star, it may be seen by observers in the Northern Hemisphere through the whole year, although sometimes upside down (the constellation Cassiopeia)\n* A maiden, chained up, facing or turning away from the ecliptic (the constellation Andromeda), next to Pegasus\n* A whale just under the ecliptic (the constellation Cetus)\n\nOther constellations related to the story are:\n* Perseus\n* The constellation Pegasus, who was born from the stump of Medusa's neck, after Perseus had decapitated her\n* The constellation Pisces, which may have been treated as two fish caught by Dictys the fisherman who was brother of Polydectes, king of Seriphos, the place where Perseus and his mother Danaë were stranded\n\n===In art===\nCesari: ''Perseus saving Andromeda'', 1596, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin\nSophocles and Euripides (and in more modern times, Corneille) made the story the subject of tragedies, and its incidents were represented in numerous ancient works of art, including Greek vases. Jean-Baptiste Lully's opera, ''Persée'', also dramatizes the myth.\n\nAndromeda has been the subject of numerous ancient and modern works of art, which typically show the moment of rescue, with Andromeda usually still chained, and often naked or nearly so. Examples include: one of Titian's ''poesies'' (Wallace Collection), and compositions by Joachim Wtewael (Louvre), Veronese (Rennes), many versions by Rubens, Ingres, and Gustave Moreau. From the Renaissance onward the chained nude figure of Andromeda typically was the centre of interest. Rembrandt's ''Andromeda Chained to the Rocks'' is unusual in showing her alone, fearfully awaiting the monster.\n\n\n\nThe Italian composer Salvatore Sciarrino composed an hour-long operatic drama called ''Perseo e Andromeda'' in 2000.\n\n===In films===\n* In 1973, an animated film called ''Perseus'' (20 minutes) was made in the Soviet Union as part of the Soviet animated film collection called ''Legends and Mуths of Ancient Greece''.\n* The 1981 film ''Clash of the Titans'' retells the story of Perseus, Andromeda, and Cassiopeia, but makes a few changes (notably Cassiopeia boasts that her daughter is more beautiful than Thetis as opposed to the Nereids as a group). Thetis was indeed a Nereid and also the future mother of Achilles. Andromeda and Perseus meet and fall in love after he saves her soul from the enslavement of Thetis' son, Calibos, whereas in the myth, they simply meet as Perseus returns home from having slain Medusa. In the film, the monster is called a kraken, although it is depicted as a lizard-like creature rather than a squid; and combining two elements of the myth, Perseus defeats the sea monster by showing it Medusa's face, turning the monster into stone. Andromeda is depicted as being strong-willed and independent, whereas in the stories she is only really mentioned as being the princess whom Perseus saves from the sea monster. Andromeda was portrayed by Judi Bowker in this film.\n* Andromeda also features in the 2010 film ''Clash of the Titans'', a remake of the 1981 version. Several changes were made in regard to the myth, most notably that Perseus did not marry Andromeda after he rescued her from the sea monster. Andromeda was portrayed by Alexa Davalos. The character was played by Rosamund Pike in the sequel ''Wrath of the Titans'', the second of a planned trilogy. In the end of the sequel, Perseus and Andromeda begin a relationship.\n* In the Japanese anime ''Saint Seiya'' the character, Shun, represents the Andromeda constellation using chains as his main weapons, reminiscent of Andromeda being chained before she was saved by Perseus. In order to attain the Andromeda Cloth, he was chained between two large pillars of rock and he had to overcome the chains before the tide came in and killed him, also reminiscent of this myth.\n* Andromeda appears in Disney's ''Hercules: The Animated Series'' as a new student of \"Prometheus Academy\" which Hercules and other characters from Greek mythology attend.\n\n===In novels===\n* In Rick Riordan's ''Percy Jackson & the Olympians'' series, there are a few references to Andromeda. The most obvious is that the series' lead villains have a cruise ship which serves as their headquarters and is called ''The Princess Andromeda''.\n* Andromeda is the main character in Harry Turtledove's short story \"Miss Manners' Guide to Greek Missology\", published in Esther Friesner's ''Chicks in Chainmail'' series of humorous feminist fantasy collections, and reprinted in other anthologies afterwards. It is a satire filled with role reversals, puns, and deliberate anachronisms relating to pop culture.\n* Andromeda is Anna's full name in Jodi Picoult's ''My Sister's Keeper'', which was turned into a movie in 2010. In the novel there are several references to mythology, as Anna's dad Brian is an astronomer in his free time.\n\n", "\nFile:Perseo y Andrómeda, por Tiziano.jpg\|Titian, Wallace Collection\nFile:Vasari, perseo e andromeda, studiolo.jpg\|Giorgio Vasari, ''Perseus and Andromeda'', 1570\nFile:D'arpino-Andromède.jpg\|Painting by Giuseppe Cesari (1568–1640)\nFile:Persus and Andromeda by Joachim Wtewael.jpg\|Joachim Wtewael, Louvre\nFile:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 011.jpg\|''Andromeda Chained to the Rocks'', Rembrandt (1630)\nFile:Peter Paul Rubens - Andromeda - Google Art Project.jpg\|Andromeda by Rubens\nFile:Mignard-Andromeda and Perseus.jpg\|Andromeda's parents thank Perseus for freeing her; ''La Délivrance d'Andromède'' (1679) Pierre Mignard\nFile:Delacroix Andromeda.jpg\|Painting by Eugène Delacroix\nFile:1840 Chasseriau Theodore - Andromeda Chained to the Rock by the Nereids.jpg\|''Andromeda Chained to the Rock by the Nereids'' (1840) by Théodore Chassériau\nFile:Gustave Doré Andromeda.jpg\|''Andromeda'' (1869) by Paul Gustave Doré\nFile:Andromedasculpt metmuseum.jpg\|A sculpture of Andromeda by Domenico Guidi\nFile:Edward Burne-Jones - Perseus.jpeg\|Painting by Edward Burne-Jones\n\n", "* Atalanta\n* Danaë\n* Ethiopia (Greek mythology)\n* Iphigenia\n", "\n", "* ''Bibliotheca'' II, iv, 3–5.\n* Edith Hamilton, ''Mythology'', Part Three, 204–207.\n* Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'' IV, 668–764.\n\n'''Attribution'''\n* .\n", "\n* .\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Mythology", " Cultural references ", "Gallery", "See also", "Notes", "Sources", "External links" ]	Andromeda (mythology)
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Antlia''' (; from Ancient Greek ''ἀντλία'') is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere. Its name means \"pump\" in Latin; it represents an air pump. Originally '''Antlia Pneumatica''', the constellation was established by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century, though its name was later abbreviated by John Herschel. Located close to the stars forming the old constellation of the ship Argo Navis, Antlia is completely visible from latitudes south of 49 degrees north.\n\nAntlia is a faint constellation; its brightest star is Alpha Antliae, an orange giant that is a suspected variable star, ranging between apparent magnitudes 4.22 and 4.29. S Antliae is an eclipsing binary star system, changing in brightness as one star passes in front of the other. Sharing a common envelope, the stars are so close they will one day merge to form a single star. Two star systems with known exoplanets, HD 93083 and WASP-66, lie within Antlia, as do NGC 2997, a spiral galaxy, and the Antlia Dwarf Galaxy.\n", "Johann Bode's depiction of Antlia as a double-cylinder air pump\nThe French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille first described the constellation in French as ''la Machine Pneumatique'' (the Pneumatic Machine) in 1751–52, commemorating the air pump invented by the French physicist Denis Papin. De Lacaille had observed and catalogued almost 10,000 southern stars during a two-year stay at the Cape of Good Hope, devising fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe. He named all but one in honour of instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment. Lacaille depicted Antlia as a single-cylinder vacuum pump used in Papin's initial experiments, while German astronomer Johann Bode chose the more advanced double-cylinder version. Lacaille Latinised the name to ''Antlia pneumatica'' on his 1763 chart. English astronomer John Herschel proposed shrinking the name to one word in 1844, noting that Lacaille himself had abbreviated his constellations thus on occasion. This was universally adopted. The International Astronomical Union adopted it as one of the 88 modern constellations in 1922.\n\nAlthough above the horizon and hence visible to the Ancient Greeks, Antlia's stars were too faint to have been included in any ancient constellations. The stars that now comprise Antlia lay within an area of the sky covered by the ancient constellation Argo Navis, the Ship of the Argonauts, which due to its immense size was split into several smaller constellations by Lacaille in 1763. Ridpath reports that due to their faintness, the stars of Antlia did not make up part of the classical depiction of Argo Navis.\n\n===In non-Western astronomy===\nChinese astronomers were able to view what is modern Antlia from their latitudes, and incorporated its stars into two different constellations. Several stars in the southern part of Antlia were a portion of \"''Dong'ou''\", which represented an area in southern China. Furthermore, Epsilon, Eta, and Theta Antliae were incorporated into the celestial temple, which also contained stars from modern Pyxis.\n", "Covering 238.9 square degrees and hence 0.579% of the sky, Antlia ranks 62nd of the 88 modern constellations by area. Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 49°N. Hydra the sea snake runs along the length of its northern border, while Pyxis the compass, Vela the sails, and Centaurus the centaur line it to the west, south and east respectively. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union, is Ant. The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of twelve segments (''illustrated in infobox at top-right''). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −24.54° and −40.42°.\n", "The constellation Antlia as seen by the naked eye\n\n===Stars===\n\nLacaille gave nine stars Bayer designations, labelling them Alpha through to Theta, including two stars next to each other as Zeta. Gould later added a tenth, Iota Antliae. Beta and Gamma Antliae (now HR 4339 and HD 90156) ended up in the neighbouring constellation Hydra once the constellation boundaries were delineated in 1930. Within the constellation's borders, there are 42 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.\n\nThe constellation's two brightest stars—Alpha and Epsilon Antliae—shine with a reddish tinge. Alpha is an orange giant of spectral type K4III that is a suspected variable star, ranging between apparent magnitudes 4.22 and 4.29. It is located 370 ± 20 light-years away from Earth. Estimated to be shining with around 480 to 555 times the luminosity of the Sun, it is most likely an ageing star that is brightening and on its way to becoming a Mira variable star, having converted all its core fuel into carbon. Located 710 ± 40 light-years from Earth, Epsilon Antliae is an evolved orange giant star of spectral type K3 IIIa, that has swollen to have a diameter about 69 times that of the Sun, and a luminosity of around 1279 Suns. It is slightly variable. At the other end of Antlia, Iota Antliae is likewise an orange giant of spectral type K1 III.\n\n\nLocated near Alpha is Delta Antliae, a binary star, 430 ± 30 light-years distant from Earth. The primary is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V and magnitude 5.6, and the secondary is a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F9Ve and magnitude 9.6. Zeta Antliae is a wide optical double star. The brighter star—Zeta1 Antliae—is 410 ± 40 light-years distant and has a magnitude of 5.74, though it is a true binary star system composed of two white main sequence stars of magnitudes 6.20 and 7.01 that are separated by 8.042 arcseconds. The fainter star—Zeta2 Antliae—is 380 ± 20 light-years distant and of magnitude 5.9. Eta Antliae is another double composed of a yellow white star of spectral type F1V and magnitude 5.31, with a companion of magnitude 11.3. Theta Antliae is likewise double, most likely composed of an A-type main sequence star and a yellow giant. S Antliae is an eclipsing binary star system that varies in apparent magnitude from 6.27 to 6.83 over a period of 15.6 hours. The system is classed as a W Ursae Majoris variable—the primary is hotter than the secondary and the drop in magnitude is caused by the latter passing in front of the former. Calculating the properties of the component stars from the orbital period indicates that the primary star has a mass 1.94 times and a diameter 2.026 times that of the Sun, and the secondary has a mass 0.76 times and a diameter 1.322 times that of the Sun. The two stars have similar luminosity and spectral type as they have a common envelope and share stellar material. The system is thought to be around 5–6 billion years old. The two stars will eventually merge to form a single fast-spinning star.\n\n\nT Antliae is a yellow-white supergiant of spectral type F6Iab and Classical Cepheid variable ranging between magnitude 8.88 and 9.82 over 5.9 days. U Antliae is a red C-type carbon star and is an irregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 5.27 and 6.04. Approximately 900 light-years distant, it is around 5819 times as luminous as the Sun. BF Antliae is a Delta Scuti variable that varies by 0.01 of a magnitude. HR 4049, also known as AG Antliae, is an unusual hot variable ageing star of spectral type B9.5Ib-II. It is undergoing intense loss of mass and is a unique variable that does not belong to any class of known variable star, ranging between magnitudes 5.29 and 5.83 with a period of 429 days. UX Antliae is an R Coronae Borealis variable with a baseline apparent magnitude of around 11.85, with irregular dimmings down to below magnitude 18.0. A luminous and remote star, it is a supergiant with a spectrum resembling that of a yellow-white F-type star but it has almost no hydrogen.\n\nA composite image of NGC 2997\n\nHD 93083 is an orange dwarf star of spectral type K3V that is smaller and cooler than the Sun. It has a planet that was discovered by the radial velocity method with the HARPS spectrograph in 2005. About as massive as Saturn, the planet orbits its star with a period of 143 days at a mean distance of 0.477 AU. WASP-66 is a sunlike star of spectral type F4V. A planet with 2.3 times the mass of Jupiter orbits it every 4 days, discovered by the transit method in 2012. DEN 1048-3956 is a brown dwarf of spectral type M8 located around 13 light-years distant from Earth. At magnitude 17 it is much too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. It has a surface temperature of about 2500 K. Two powerful flares lasting 4–5 minutes each were detected in 2002. 2MASS 0939-2448 is a system of two cool and faint brown dwarfs, probably with effective temperatures of about 500 and 700 K and masses of about 25 and 40 times that of Jupiter, though it is also possible that both objects have temperatures of 600 K and 30 Jupiter masses.\n\n===Deep-sky objects===\nGalaxy ESO 376-16 is located nearly 23 million light-years from Earth.\nAntlia contains many faint galaxies, the brightest of which is NGC 2997 at magnitude 10.6. It is a loosely wound face-on spiral galaxy of type Sc. Though nondescript in most amateur telescopes, it presents bright clusters of young stars and many dark dust lanes in photographs. Discovered in 1997, the Antlia Dwarf is a 14.8m dwarf spheroidal galaxy that belongs to the Local Group of galaxies.\n\nThe Antlia Cluster, also known as Abell S0636, is a cluster of galaxies located in the Hydra-Centaurus Supercluster. It is the third nearest to the Local Group after the Virgo Cluster and the Fornax Cluster. The cluster's distance from earth is to Located in the southeastern corner of the constellation, it boasts the giant elliptical galaxies NGC 3268 and NGC 3258 as the main members of a southern and northern subgroup respectively, and contains around 234 galaxies in total.\n\n", "'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Citations'''\n\n\n'''Sources'''\n\n* \n* \n\n* \n\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Characteristics", "Features", "References", "External links" ]	Antlia
[ "\n'''Ara''' (Latin: \"The Altar\") is a southern constellation situated between Scorpius and Triangulum Australe. Ara (Greek: Βωμός) was one of the 48 Greek constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union.\n\nThe orange supergiant Beta Arae is the brightest star in the constellation, with an apparent magnitude of 2.85—marginally brighter than the blue-white Alpha Arae. Seven star systems host planets. The sunlike star Mu Arae hosts four planets, while Gliese 676 is a binary red dwarf system with four planets. The Milky Way crosses the northwestern part of Ara.\n", "In ancient Greek mythology, Ara was identified as the altar where the gods first made offerings and formed an alliance before defeating the Titans. The nearby Milky Way represents the smoke rising from the offerings on the altar, \n\nAra is one of the southernmost constellations depicted by Ptolemy. It had been recorded by Aratus in 270 BCE as lying close to the horizon, and the Almagest portrays stars as far south as Gamma Arae. Professor of astronomy Bradley Schaefer has proposed that ancient observers must have been able to see as far south as Zeta Arae to define a pattern that looked like an altar.\n\nJohann Elert Bode's illustration of Ara, from his ''Uranographia'' (1801)\nIn illustrations, Ara is usually depicted as an altar with its smoke 'rising' southward. However, depictions of Ara often vary in their details. In the early days of printing, a 1482 woodcut of Gaius Julius Hyginus's classic ''Poeticon Astronomicon'' depicts the altar as surrounded by demons. Johann Bayer in 1603 depicted Ara as an altar with burning incense; the flames rise southward as in most atlases. Hyginus also depicted Ara as an altar with burning incense, though his Ara featured devils on either side of the flames. However, Willem Blaeu, a Dutch uranographer active in the 16th and 17th centuries, drew Ara as an altar designed for sacrifice, with a burning animal offering. Unlike most depictions, the smoke from Blaeu's Ara rises northward, represented by Alpha Arae.\n\n=== Equivalents ===\nIn Chinese astronomy, the stars of the constellation Ara lie within ''The Azure Dragon of the East'' (東方青龍, ''Dōng Fāng Qīng Lóng''). Five stars of Ara formed Guī (龜), a tortoise, while another three formed Chǔ (杵), a pestle.\n", "Covering 237.1 square degrees and hence 0.575% of the sky, Ara ranks 63rd of the 88 modern constellations by area. Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 22°N. Scorpius runs along the length of its northern border, while Norma and Triangulum Australe border it to the west, Apus to the south, and Pavo and Telescopium to the east respectively. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union, is Ara. The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of twelve segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −45.49° and −67.69°.\n", "The constellation Ara as it can be seen by the naked eye.\n\n=== Stars ===\n\n\nBayer gave eight stars Bayer designations, labelling them Alpha through to Theta, though he had never seen the constellation directly as it never rises above the horizon in Germany. After charting the southern constellations, Lacaille recharted the stars of Ara from Alpha though to Sigma, including three pairs of stars next to each other as Epsilon, Kappa and Nu. \n\nAra contains part of the Milky Way to the south of Scorpius and thus has rich star fields. Within the constellation's borders, there are 71 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.\n\nJust shading Alpha Arae, Beta Arae is the brightest star in the constellation. It is an orange-hued star of spectral type K3Ib-IIa that has been classified as a supergiant or bright giant, that is around 650 light-years from Earth. It is around 8.21 times as massive and 5,636 times as luminous as the Sun. At apparent magnitude 2.85, this difference in brightness between the two is undetectable by the unaided eye. \n\nAlpha Arae is a blue-white main sequence star of magnitude 2.95, that is 270 ± 20 light-years from Earth. This star is around 9.6 times as massive as the Sun, and has an average of 4.5 times its radius. It is 5,800 times as luminous as the Sun, its energy emitted from its outer envelope at an effective temperature of 18,044 K. A Be star, Alpha Arae is surrounded by a dense equatorial disk of material in Keplerian (rather than uniform) rotation. The star is losing mass by a polar stellar wind with a terminal velocity of approximately 1,000 km/s.\n\nAt magnitude 3.13 is Zeta Arae, an orange giant of spectral type K3III that is located 490 ± 10 light-years from Earth. Around 7–8 times as massive as the Sun, it has swollen to a diameter around 114 times that of the Sun and is 3800 times as luminous.\n\nClose to Beta Arae is Gamma Arae, a blue-hued supergiant of spectral type B1Ib. Of apparent magnitude 3.3, it is 1110 ± 60 light-years from Earth. It has been estimated to be between 12.5 and 25 times as massive as the Sun, and have around 120,000 times its luminosity.\n\nDelta Arae is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B8Vn and magnitude 3.6, 198 ± 4 light-years from Earth. It is around 3.56 times as massive as the Sun.\n\nExoplanets have been discovered in seven star systems in the constellation. Mu Arae is a sunlike star that hosts four planets. HD 152079 is a sunlike star with a planet. HD 154672 is an ageing sunlike star with a Hot Jupiter. HD 154857 is a sunlike star with one confirmed and one suspected planet. HD 156411 is a star hotter and larger than the sun with a gas giant planet in orbit. Gliese 674 is a nearby red dwarf star with a planet. Gliese 676 is a binary star system composed of two red dwarves with four planets.\n\n=== Deep-sky objects ===\n\nThe northwest corner of Ara is crossed by the galactic plane of the Milky Way and contains several open clusters (notably NGC 6200) and diffuse nebulae (including the bright cluster/nebula pair NGC 6188 and NGC 6193). The brightest of the globular clusters, sixth magnitude NGC 6397, lies at a distance of just , making it one of the closest globular clusters to the Solar System.\n\nAra also contains Westerlund 1, a super star cluster that contains the red supergiant Westerlund 1-26, one of the largest stars known.\n\nAlthough Ara lies close to the heart of the Milky Way, two spiral galaxies (NGC 6215 and NGC 6221) are visible near star Eta Arae.\n\n==== Open clusters ====\n\n* NGC 6193 is an open cluster containing approximately 30 stars with an overall magnitude of 5.0 and a size of 0.25 square degrees, about half the size of the full Moon. It is approximately 4200 light-years from Earth. It has one bright member, a double star with a blue-white hued primary of magnitude 5.6 and a secondary of magnitude 6.9. NGC 6193 is surrounded by NGC 6188, a faint nebula only normally visible in long-exposure photographs.\n* NGC 6200\n* NGC 6204\n* NGC 6208\n* NGC 6250\n* NGC 6253\n* IC 4651\n\n==== Globular clusters ====\n\n* NGC 6352\n* NGC 6362\n* NGC 6397 is a globular cluster with an overall magnitude of 6.0; it is visible to the naked eye under exceptionally dark skies and is normally visible in binoculars. It is a fairly close globular cluster, at a distance of 10,500 light-years.\n\n=== Planetary Nebulae ===\n\n* The Stingray Nebula (Hen 3-1357), the youngest known planetary nebula as of 2010, formed in Ara; the light from its formation was first observable around 1987.\n* NGC 6326. A planetary nebula that might have a binary system at its center.\n", "\nUSS Ara (AK-136) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship named after the constellation.\n", "\n* Ara (Chinese astronomy)\n", "", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n'''Online sources'''\n\n* \n* \n", "\n\n* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ara\n* Star Tales – Ara\n* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (over 150 medieval and early modern images of Ara)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", "Characteristics", " Features ", " Namesakes ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]	Ara (constellation)
[ "'''Auriga''' can refer to:\n\nAuriga (constellation), a constellation of stars\nAuriga (slave), a Roman slave chauffeur\nHMS ''Auriga'' (P419), a British submarine launched in 1945\n\"Auriga of Delphi\", name of the statue \"Charioteer of Delphi\"\nUSM ''Auriga'', a spaceship in the film ''Alien: Resurrection''\nAuriga (company), a software R&D and IT outsourcing services provider\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Auriga
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Arkansas''' (pronounced ) is a state in the southeastern region of the United States, home to over 3 million people as of 2017. Its name is of Siouan derivation from the language of the Osage denoting their related kin, the Quapaw Indians. The state's diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U.S. Interior Highlands, to the densely forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River and the Arkansas Delta.\n\nArkansas is the 29th largest by area and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States. The capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, such as the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is a population, education, and economic center. The largest city in the state's eastern part is Jonesboro. The largest city in the state's southeastern part is Pine Bluff.\n\nThe Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15, 1836. In 1861 Arkansas withdrew from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Upon returning to the Union in 1868, the state would continue to suffer due to its earlier reliance on slavery and the plantation economy, causing the state to fall behind economically and socially. White rural interests continued to dominate the state's politics until the Civil Rights Movement. Arkansas began to diversify its economy following World War II and relies on its service industry, aircraft, poultry, steel, tourism, cotton, and rice.\n\nThe culture of Arkansas is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants, and athletic venues across the state. Arkansas's enduring image has earned the state \"a special place in the American consciousness\". People such as politician and educational advocate William Fulbright; former President Bill Clinton who served as the 40th and 42nd Governor of Arkansas; his wife, former Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton; former NATO Supreme Allied Commander General Wesley Clark, Walmart magnate Sam Walton; singer-songwriters Johnny Cash and Glen Campbell; the poet C.D. Wright; and physicist William L. McMillan, who was a pioneer in superconductor research; have all lived in Arkansas.\n", "The name Arkansas derives from the same root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains. The word \"Arkansas\" itself is a French pronunciation (\"Arcansas\") of a Quapaw (a related \"Kaw\" tribe) word, ''akakaze'', meaning \"land of downriver people\" or the Sioux word ''akakaze'' meaning \"people of the south wind\".\n\nIn 1881, the pronunciation of Arkansas with the final \"s\" being silent was made official by an act of the state legislature after a dispute arose between Arkansas's two U.S. senators as one favored the pronunciation as while the other favored .\n\nIn 2007, the state legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the state's name to be ''Arkansas's'' which has been followed increasingly by the state government.\n", "\nView from the Ozark Highlands Scenic Byway in Boxley Valley\nThe Ozarks: bend in the Buffalo River from an overlook on the Buffalo River Trail near Steel Creek\nArkansas City are in stark contrast to the northwestern part of the state.\nCedar Falls in Petit Jean State Park\n\n===Boundaries===\nArkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, as well as Tennessee and Mississippi on the east. The United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The Mississippi River forms most of Arkansas's eastern border, except in Clay and Greene, counties where the St. Francis River forms the western boundary of the Missouri Bootheel, and in many places where the channel of the Mississippi has meandered (or been straightened by man) from its original 1836 course.\n\n===Terrain===\nArkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half. The highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta. This dual split can yield to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas. These directionally named regions are broad and not defined along county lines. Arkansas has seven distinct natural regions: the Ozark Mountains, Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas River Valley, Gulf Coastal Plain, Crowley's Ridge, and the Arkansas Delta, with Central Arkansas sometimes included as a blend of multiple regions.\n\nThe southeastern part of Arkansas along the Mississippi Alluvial Plain is sometimes called the Arkansas Delta. This region is a flat landscape of rich alluvial soils formed by repeated flooding of the adjacent Mississippi. Farther away from the river, in the southeast portion of the state, the Grand Prairie consists of a more undulating landscape. Both are fertile agricultural areas. The Delta region is bisected by a geological formation known as Crowley's Ridge. A narrow band of rolling hills, Crowley's Ridge rises from above the surrounding alluvial plain and underlies many of the major towns of eastern Arkansas.\n\nNorthwest Arkansas is part of the Ozark Plateau including the Ozark Mountains, to the south are the Ouachita Mountains, and these regions are divided by the Arkansas River; the southern and eastern parts of Arkansas are called the Lowlands. These mountain ranges are part of the U.S. Interior Highlands region, the only major mountainous region between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains. The highest point in the state is Mount Magazine in the Ouachita Mountains, which rises to above sea level.\n\n===Hydrology===\nThe Buffalo National River is one of many attractions that give the state its nickname, ''The Natural State''.\nArkansas has many rivers, lakes, and reservoirs within or along its borders. Major tributaries of the Mississippi River include the Arkansas River, the White River, and the St. Francis River. The Arkansas is fed by the Mulberry River and the Fourche LaFave River in the Arkansas River Valley, which is also home to Lake Dardanelle. The Buffalo River, Little Red River, Black River and Cache River all serve as tributaries to the White River, which also empties into the Mississippi. The Saline River, Little Missouri River, Bayou Bartholomew, and the Caddo River all serve as tributaries to the Ouachita River in south Arkansas, which eventually empties into the Mississippi in Louisiana. The Red River briefly serves as the state's boundary with Texas. Arkansas has few natural lakes and many reservoirs, such as Bull Shoals Lake, Lake Ouachita, Greers Ferry Lake, Millwood Lake, Beaver Lake, Norfork Lake, DeGray Lake, and Lake Conway.\n\nArkansas is home to many caves, such as Blanchard Springs Caverns. More than 43,000 Native American living, hunting and tool making sites, many of them Pre-Columbian burial mounds and rock shelters, have been cataloged by the State Archeologist. Crater of Diamonds State Park near Murfreesboro is the world's only diamond-bearing site accessible to the public for digging. Arkansas is home to a dozen Wilderness Areas totaling . These areas are set aside for outdoor recreation and are open to hunting, fishing, hiking, and primitive camping. No mechanized vehicles nor developed campgrounds are allowed in these areas.\n\n===Flora and fauna===\nWhite River in eastern Arkansas\nArkansas is divided into three broad ecoregions, the ''Ozark, Ouachita-Appalachian Forests'', ''Mississippi Alluvial and Southeast USA Coastal Plains'', and the ''Southeastern USA Plains''and two biomes, the subtropical coniferous forest and the temperate deciduous forest. The state is further divided into seven subregions: the Arkansas Valley, Boston Mountains, Mississippi Alluvial Plain, Mississippi Valley Loess Plain, Ozark Highlands, Ouachita Mountains, and the South Central Plains. A 2010 United States Forest Service survey determined of Arkansas's land is forestland, or 56% of the state's total area. Dominant species in Arkansas's forests include ''Quercus'' (oak), ''Carya'' (hickory), ''Pinus echinata'' (shortleaf pine) and ''Pinus taeda'' (loblolly pine).\n\nArkansas's plant life varies with its climate and elevation. The pine belt stretching from the Arkansas delta to Texas consists of dense oak-hickory-pine growth. Lumbering and paper milling activity is active throughout the region. In eastern Arkansas, one can find ''Taxodium '' (cypress), ''Quercus nigra'' (water oaks), and hickories with their roots submerged in the Mississippi Valley bayous indicative of the deep south. Nearby Crowley's Ridge is only home of the tulip tree in the state, and generally hosts more northeastern plant life such as the beech tree. The northwestern highlands are covered in an oak-hickory mixture, with Ozark white cedars, ''cornus'' (dogwoods), and ''Cercis canadensis'' (redbuds) also present. The higher peaks in the Arkansas River Valley play host to scores of ferns, including the ''Woodsia scopulina'' and ''Adiantum'' (maidenhair fern) on Mount Magazine.\n\n===Climate===\nDevil's Den State Park is a state park in Washington County for enjoying autumn foliage.\nWinter at Historic Washington State Park, Arkansas\nArkansas generally has a humid subtropical climate. While not bordering the Gulf of Mexico, Arkansas is still close enough to this warm, large body of water for it to influence the weather in the state. Generally, Arkansas has hot, humid summers and slightly drier, mild to cool winters. In Little Rock, the daily high temperatures average around with lows around in July. In January highs average around and lows around . In Siloam Springs in the northwest part of the state, the average high and low temperatures in July are and in January the average high and lows are . Annual precipitation throughout the state averages between about ; somewhat wetter in the south and drier in the northern part of the state. Snowfall is infrequent but most common in the northern half of the state. The half of the state south of Little Rock is more apt to see ice storms. Arkansas's all-time record high is at Ozark on August 10, 1936; the all-time record low is at Gravette, on February 13, 1905.\n\nArkansas is known for extreme weather and frequent storms. A typical year will see thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, snow and ice storms. Between both the Great Plains and the Gulf States, Arkansas receives around 60 days of thunderstorms. Arkansas is located in Tornado Alley, and as a result, a few of the most destructive tornadoes in U.S. history have struck the state. While being sufficiently away from the coast to be safe from a direct hit from a hurricane, Arkansas can often get the remnants of a tropical system which dumps tremendous amounts of rain in a short time and often spawns smaller tornadoes.\n\n\nMonthly Normal High and Low Temperatures For Various Arkansas Cities\n\n City\n Jan\n Feb\n Mar\n Apr\n May\n Jun\n Jul\n Aug\n Sep\n Oct\n Nov\n Dec\n Avg\n\n Fayetteville\n 44/24(7/-4)\n 51/29(10/-2)\n 59/38(15/3)\n 69/46(20/8)\n 76/55(24/13)\n 84/64(29/18)\n 89/69(32/20)\n 89/67(32/19)\n 81/59(27/15)\n 70/47(21/9)\n 57/37(14/3)\n 48/28(9/-2)\n 68/47(20/8)\n\n Jonesboro\n 45/26(7/-3)\n 51/30(11/-1)\n 61/40(16/4)\n 71/49(22/9)\n 80/58(26/15)\n 88/67(31/19)\n 92/71(34/22)\n 91/69(33/20)\n 84/61(29/16)\n 74/49(23/9)\n 60/39(15/4)\n 49/30(10/-1)\n 71/49(21/9)\n\n Little Rock\n 51/31(11/-1)\n 55/35(13/2)\n 64/43(18/6)\n 73/51(23/11)\n 81/61(27/16)\n 89/69(32/21)\n 93/73(34/23)\n 93/72(34/22)\n 86/65(30/18)\n 75/53(24/12)\n 63/42(17/6)\n 52/34(11/1)\n 73/51(23/11)\n\n Texarkana\n 53/31(11/-1)\n 58/34(15/1)\n 67/42(19/5)\n 75/50(24/10)\n 82/60(28/16)\n 89/68(32/20)\n 93/72(34/22)\n 93/71(34/21)\n 86/64(30/18)\n 76/52(25/11)\n 64/41(18/5)\n 55/33(13/1)\n 74/52(23/11)\n\n Monticello\n 52/30(11/-1)\n 58/34(14/1)\n 66/43(19/6)\n 74/49(23/10)\n 82/59(28/15)\n 89/66(32/19)\n 92/70(34/21)\n 92/68(33/20)\n 86/62(30/17)\n 76/50(25/10)\n 64/41(18/5)\n 55/34(13/1)\n 74/51(23/10)\n\n Fort Smith\n 48/27(8/-2)\n 54/32(12/0)\n 64/40(17/4)\n 73/49(22/9)\n 80/58(26/14)\n 87/67(30/19)\n 92/71(33/21)\n 92/70(33/21)\n 84/62(29/17)\n 75/50(23/10)\n 61/39(16/4)\n 50/31(10/0)\n 72/50(22/10)\n\n Average high °F/average low °F (average high °C/average low°C)\n\n", "\n\n===Early Arkansas through territorial period===\nBurial mounds, such as this one at Toltec Mounds Archeological State Park near Scott, were constructed more frequently during the Woodland Period.\nBefore European settlement of North America, Arkansas was inhabited by indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The Caddo, Osage, and Quapaw peoples encountered European explorers. The first of these Europeans was Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto in 1541, who crossed the Mississippi and marched across central Arkansas, the Ozark Mountains, and all the way to Texas. Around McArthur, Arkansas, he led a Spanish raid against the Quigualtam tribe, slaying men, women and children without mercy. De Soto died there the next day, in May 1542, opting for a watery burial in order to hide from the Natives that he was not a deity, and was a mortal. While he was dumped into the Mississippi River, the once rich De Soto's will read: \"four Indian slaves, three horses and 700 hogs\". Later explorers included the French Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet in 1673, and Frenchmen Robert La Salle and Henri de Tonti in 1681. De Tonti established Arkansas Post at a Quapaw village in 1686, making it the first European settlement in the territory. The early Spanish or French explorers of the state gave it its name, which is probably a phonetic spelling of the Illinois tribe's name for the Quapaw people, who lived downriver from them. The name Arkansas has been pronounced and spelled in a variety of fashions. The region was organized as the Territory of Arkansaw on July 4, 1819, with the territory admitted to the United States as the state of Arkansas on June 15, 1836. The name was historically , , and several other variants. Historically and modernly, the people of Arkansas call themselves either \"Arkansans\" or \"Arkansawyers\". In 1881, the Arkansas General Assembly passed Arkansas Code 1-4-105 ( official text):\nWhereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings.\nAnd, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants.\nBe it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the native Indians and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final \"s\" silent, the \"a\" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of \"a\" in \"man\" and the sounding of the terminal \"s\" is an innovation to be discouraged.\nCitizens of the state of Kansas often pronounce the Arkansas River as , in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.\n\nSettlers, such as fur trappers, moved to Arkansas in the early 18th century. These people used Arkansas Post as a home base and entrepôt. During the colonial period, Arkansas changed hands between France and Spain following the Seven Years' War, although neither showed interest in the remote settlement of Arkansas Post. In April 1783, Arkansas saw its only battle of the American Revolutionary War, a brief siege of the post by British Captain James Colbert with the assistance of the Choctaw and Chickasaw.\nEvolution from the Territory of Arkansaw to State of Arkansas, 1819–1836\nNapoleon Bonaparte sold French Louisiana to the United States in 1803, including all of Arkansas, in a transaction known today as the Louisiana Purchase. French soldiers remained as a garrison at Arkansas Post. Following the purchase, the balanced give-and-take relationship between settlers and Native Americans began to change all along the frontier, including in Arkansas. Following a controversy over allowing slavery in the territory, the Territory of Arkansas was organized on July 4, 1819. Gradual emancipation in Arkansas was struck down by one vote, the Speaker of the House Henry Clay, allowing Arkansas to organize as a slave territory.\n\nSlavery became a wedge issue in Arkansas, forming a geographic divide that remained for decades. The owners and operators of the cotton plantation economy in southeast Arkansas firmly supported slavery, as slave labor was perceived by them to be the best or \"only\" economically viable method of harvesting their cotton commodity crops. The \"hill country\" of northwest Arkansas was unable to grow cotton and relied on a cash-scarce, subsistence farming economy.\n\nAs European Americans settled throughout the East Coast and into the Midwest, in the 1830s the United States government forced the removal of many Native American tribes to Arkansas and Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River.\n\nAdditional Native American removals began in earnest during the territorial period, with final Quapaw removal complete by 1833 as they were pushed into Indian Territory. The capital was relocated from Arkansas Post to Little Rock in 1821, during the territorial period.\n\n===Statehood, Civil War and Reconstruction===\nLakeport Plantation, c. 1859 and built south of Lake Village, is the only remaining antebellum plantation house on the Mississippi River in Arkansas. Many planters became wealthy from the cotton industry in southern Arkansas.\nWhen Arkansas applied for statehood, the slavery issue was again raised in Washington, D.C.. Congress eventually approved the Arkansas Constitution after a 25-hour session, admitting Arkansas on June 15, 1836 as the 25th state and the 13th slave state, having a population of about 60,000. Arkansas struggled with taxation to support its new state government, a problem made worse by a state banking scandal and worse yet by the Panic of 1837.\n\nIn early antebellum Arkansas, the southeast Arkansas slave based economy developed rapidly. On the eve of the Civil War in 1860, enslaved African Americans numbered 111,115 people, just over 25% of the state's population. Plantation agriculture would set the state and region behind the nation for decades. The wealth developed among planters of southeast Arkansas caused a political rift to form between the northwest and southeast.\n\nMany politicians were elected to office from the Family, the Southern rights political force in antebellum Arkansas. Residents generally wanted to avoid a civil war. When the Gulf states seceded in early 1861, Arkansas voted to remain in the Union. Arkansas did not secede until Abraham Lincoln demanded Arkansas troops be sent to Fort Sumter to quell the rebellion there. The following month a state convention voted to terminate Arkansas's membership in the Union and join the Confederate States of America.\n\nArkansas held a very important position for the Rebels, maintaining control of the Mississippi River and surrounding Southern states. The bloody Battle of Wilson's Creek just across the border in Missouri shocked many Arkansans who thought the war would be a quick and decisive Southern victory. Battles early in the war took place in northwest Arkansas, including the Battle of Cane Hill, Battle of Pea Ridge, and Battle of Prairie Grove. Union General Samuel Curtis swept across the state to Helena in the Delta in 1862. Little Rock was captured the following year. The government shifted the state Confederate capital to Hot Springs, and then again to Washington from 1863–1865, for the remainder of the war. Throughout the state, guerrilla warfare ravaged the countryside and destroyed cities. Passion for the Confederate cause waned after implementation of programs such as the draft, high taxes, and martial law.\n\nUnder the Military Reconstruction Act, Congress declared Arkansas restored to the Union in June 1868, after the Legislature accepted the 14th Amendment. The Republican-controlled reconstruction legislature established universal male suffrage (though temporarily disfranchising former Confederate Army officers, who were all Democrats), a public education system for blacks and whites, and passed general issues to improve the state and help more of the population. The State soon came under control of the Radical Republicans and Unionists, and led by Governor Powell Clayton, they presided over a time of great upheaval as Confederate sympathizers and the Ku Klux Klan fought the new developments, particularly voting rights for African Americans.\n\nIn 1874, the Brooks-Baxter War, a political struggle between factions of the Republican Party shook Little Rock and the state governorship. It was settled only when President Ulysses S. Grant ordered Joseph Brooks to disperse his militant supporters.\n\nFollowing the Brooks-Baxter War, a new state constitution was ratified, re-enfranchising former Confederates.\n\nIn 1881, the Arkansas state legislature enacted a bill that adopted an official pronunciation of the state's name, to combat a controversy then simmering. (See Law and Government below.)\n\nAfter Reconstruction, the state began to receive more immigrants and migrants. Chinese, Italian, and Syrian men were recruited for farm labor in the developing Delta region. None of these nationalities stayed long at farm labor; the Chinese especially quickly became small merchants in towns around the Delta. Many Chinese became such successful merchants in small towns that they were able to educate their children at college.\n\nSome early 20th-century immigration included people from eastern Europe. Together, these immigrants made the Delta more diverse than the rest of the state. In the same years, some black migrants moved into the area because of opportunities to develop the bottomlands and own their own property.\nWife and children of a sharecropper in Washington County, Arkansas, c. 1935\nConstruction of railroads enabled more farmers to get their products to market. It also brought new development into different parts of the state, including the Ozarks, where some areas were developed as resorts. In a few years at the end of the 19th century, for instance, Eureka Springs in Carroll County grew to 10,000 people, rapidly becoming a tourist destination and the fourth-largest city of the state. It featured newly constructed, elegant resort hotels and spas planned around its natural springs, considered to have healthful properties. The town's attractions included horse racing and other entertainment. It appealed to a wide variety of classes, becoming almost as popular as Hot Springs.\n\nIn the late 1880s, the worsening agricultural depression catalyzed Populist and third party movements, leading to interracial coalitions. Struggling to stay in power, in the 1890s the Democrats in Arkansas followed other Southern states in passing legislation and constitutional amendments that disfranchised blacks and poor whites. Democrats wanted to prevent their alliance. In 1891 state legislators passed a requirement for a literacy test, knowing that many blacks and whites would be excluded, at a time when more than 25% of the population could neither read nor write. In 1892 they amended the state constitution to require a poll tax and more complex residency requirements, both of which adversely affected poor people and sharecroppers, forcing most blacks and many poor whites from voter rolls.\n\nBy 1900 the Democratic Party expanded use of the white primary in county and state elections, further denying blacks a part in the political process. Only in the primary was there any competition among candidates, as Democrats held all the power. The state was a Democratic one-party state for decades, until after passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 to enforce constitutional rights.\n\nBetween 1905 and 1911, Arkansas began to receive a small immigration of German, Slovak, and Scots-Irish from Europe. The German and Slovak peoples settled in the eastern part of the state known as the Prairie, and the Irish founded small communities in the southeast part of the state. The Germans were mostly Lutheran and the Slovaks were primarily Catholic. The Irish were mostly Protestant from Ulster, of Scots and Northern Borders descent.\n\nBased on the order of President Franklin D. Roosevelt given shortly after Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, nearly 16,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from the West Coast of the United States and incarcerated in two internment camp located in the Arkansas Delta. The Rohwer Camp in Desha County operated from September 1942 to November 1945 and its peak interned 8,475 prisoners. The Jerome War Relocation Center in Drew County operated from October 1942 to June 1944 and held c. 8,000 prisoners.\n\nAfter the Supreme Court's decision in ''Brown ''v.'' Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas'' in 1954 that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, some students worked to integrate schools in the state. The Little Rock Nine brought Arkansas to national attention in 1957 when the Federal government had to intervene to protect African-American students trying to integrate a high school in the Arkansas capital. Governor Orval Faubus had ordered the Arkansas National Guard to aid segregationists in preventing nine African-American students from enrolling at Little Rock's Central High School. After attempting three times to contact Faubus, President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent 1000 troops from the active-duty 101st Airborne Division to escort and protect the African-American students as they entered school on September 25, 1957. In defiance of federal court orders to integrate, the governor and city of Little Rock decided to close the high schools for the remainder of the school year. By the fall of 1959, the Little Rock high schools were completely integrated.\n\nBill Clinton, the 42nd President of the United States, was born in Hope, Arkansas. Before his presidency, Clinton served as the 40th and 42nd Governor of Arkansas, a total of nearly 12 years.\n", "Cleveland County Courthouse in Rison\n\nLittle Rock has been Arkansas's capital city since 1821 when it replaced Arkansas Post as the capital of the Territory of Arkansas. The state capitol was moved to Hot Springs and later Washington during the Civil War when the Union armies threatened the city in 1862, and state government did not return to Little Rock until after the war ended. Today, the Little Rock–North Little Rock–Conway metropolitan area is the largest in the state, with a population of 724,385 in 2013.\n\nThe Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area is the second-largest metropolitan area in Arkansas, growing at the fastest rate due to the influx of businesses and the growth of the University of Arkansas and Walmart.\n\nThe state has eight cities with populations above 50,000 (based on 2010 census). In descending order of size, they are: Little Rock, Fort Smith, Fayetteville, Springdale, Jonesboro, North Little Rock, Conway, and Rogers. Of these, only Fort Smith and Jonesboro are outside the two largest metropolitan areas. Other cities are located in Arkansas such as Pine Bluff, Crossett, Bryant, Lake Village, Hot Springs, Bentonville, Texarkana, Sherwood, Jacksonville, Russellville, Bella Vista, West Memphis, Paragould, Cabot, Searcy, Van Buren, El Dorado, Blytheville, Harrison, Dumas, Rison, Warren, and Mountain Home.\n", "\n===Population===\n\n\n\nThe United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Arkansas was 2,978,204 on July 1, 2015, a 2.14% increase since the 2010 United States Census.\n\nAs of 2015, Arkansas has an estimated population of 2,978,204. From fewer than 15,000 in 1820, Arkansas's population grew to 52,240 during a special census in 1835, far exceeding the 40,000 required to apply for statehood. Following statehood in 1836, the population doubled each decade until the 1870 Census conducted following the Civil War. The state recorded growth in each successive decade, although it gradually slowed in the 20th century.\n\nIt recorded population losses in the 1950 and 1960 Censuses. This outmigration was a result of multiple factors, including farm mechanization, decreasing labor demand, and young educated people leaving the state due to a lack of non-farming industry in the state. Arkansas again began to grow, recording positive growth rates ever since and exceeding the 2 million mark during the 1980 Census. Arkansas's rate of change, age distributions, and gender distributions mirror national averages. Minority group data also approximates national averages. There are fewer people in Arkansas of Hispanic or Latino origin than the national average. The center of population of Arkansas for 2000 was located in Perry County, near Nogal.\n\n\n\n===Ancestry===\nIn terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 80.1% white (74.2% non-Hispanic white), 15.6% black or African American, 0.9% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.3% Asian, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 6.6% of the population.\n\nAs of 2011, 39.0% of Arkansas's population younger than age 1 were minorities.\n\n\n+ '''Arkansas Racial Breakdown of Population'''\n\n Racial composition !! 1990 !! 2000!! 2010\n\n White \n 82.7% \n 80.0% \n 77.0%\n\n African American \n 15.9% \n 15.7% \n 15.4%\n\n Asian \n 0.5% \n 0.8% \n 1.2%\n\n Native \n 0.5% \n 0.7% \n 0.8%\n\n Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander \n – \n 0.1% \n 0.2%\n\n Other race \n 0.3% \n 1.5% \n 3.4%\n\n Two or more races \n – \n 1.3% \n 2.0%\n\n\nEuropean Americans have a strong presence in the northwestern Ozarks and the central part of the state. African Americans live mainly in the southern and eastern parts of the state. Arkansans of Irish, English and German ancestry are mostly found in the far northwestern Ozarks near the Missouri border. Ancestors of the Irish in the Ozarks were chiefly Scots-Irish, Protestants from Northern Ireland, the Scottish lowlands and northern England part of the largest group of immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland before the American Revolution. English and Scots-Irish immigrants settled throughout the backcountry of the South and in the more mountainous areas. Americans of English stock are found throughout the state.\n\nThe principal ancestries of Arkansas's residents in 2010 were surveyed to be the following:\n* 15.5% African American\n* 12.3% Irish\n* 11.5% German\n* 11.0% American\n* 10.1% English\n* 4.7% Mexican\n* 2.1% French\n* 1.7% Scottish\n* 1.7% Dutch\n* 1.6% Italian\n* 1.4% Scots-Irish\n\nMost of the people identifying as American are of English descent and/or Scots-Irish descent. Their families have been in the state so long, in many cases since before statehood, that they choose to identify simply as having American ancestry or do not in fact know their own ancestry. Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original 13 colonies and for this reason many of them today simply claim American ancestry. Many people who identify themselves as Irish descent are in fact of Scots-Irish descent.\n\nAccording to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, 93.8% of Arkansas's population (over the age of five) spoke only English at home. About 4.5% of the state's population spoke Spanish at home. About 0.7% of the state's population spoke any other Indo-European languages. About 0.8% of the state's population spoke an Asian language, and 0.2% spoke other languages.\n\n===Religion===\nArkansas, like most other Southern states, is part of the Bible Belt and is predominantly Protestant. The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Southern Baptist Convention with 661,382; the United Methodist Church with 158,574; non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 129,638; and the Catholic Church with 122,662. There are some residents of the state who live by other religions such as Wiccan, Pagan, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or who claim no religious affiliation.\n", "The Simmons Tower is the state's tallest building.\n\nOnce a state with a cashless society in the uplands and plantation agriculture in the lowlands, Arkansas's economy has evolved and diversified. The state's gross domestic product (GDP) was $119 billion in 2015. Six Fortune 500 companies are based in Arkansas, including the world's #1 retailer, Walmart, Tyson Foods, J.B. Hunt, Dillard's, Murphy USA, and Windstream. The per capita personal income in 2015 was $39,107, ranking forty-fifth in the nation. The median household income from 2011–15 was $41,371, ranking forty-ninth in the nation. The state's agriculture outputs are poultry and eggs, soybeans, sorghum, cattle, cotton, rice, hogs, and milk. Its industrial outputs are food processing, electric equipment, fabricated metal products, machinery, and paper products. Mines in Arkansas produce natural gas, oil, crushed stone, bromine, and vanadium. According to CNBC, Arkansas ranks as the 20th best state for business, with the 2nd-lowest cost of doing business, 5th-lowest cost of living, 11th best workforce, 20th-best economic climate, 28th-best educated workforce, 31st-best infrastructure and the 32nd-friendliest regulatory environment. Arkansas gained twelve spots in the best state for business rankings since 2011. As of 2014, Arkansas was found to be the most affordable US state to live in.\n\nAs of November 2016 the state's unemployment rate is 4.0%\n\n===Industry and commerce===\nArkansas's earliest industries were fur trading and agriculture, with development of cotton plantations in the areas near the Mississippi River. They were dependent on slave labor through the American Civil War.\n\nToday only approximately 3% of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, it remains a major part of the state's economy, ranking 13th in the nation in the value of products sold. The state is the U.S.'s largest producer of rice, broilers, and turkeys, and ranks in the top three for cotton, pullets, and aquaculture (catfish). Forestry remains strong in the Arkansas Timberlands, and the state ranks fourth nationally and first in the South in softwood lumber production. Automobile parts manufacturers have opened factories in eastern Arkansas to support auto plants in other states. Bauxite was formerly a large part of the state's economy, mined mostly around Saline County.\n\nTourism is also very important to the Arkansas economy; the official state nickname \"The Natural State\" was created for state tourism advertising in the 1970s, and is still used to this day. The state maintains 52 state parks and the National Park Service maintains seven properties in Arkansas. The completion of the William Jefferson Clinton Presidential Library in Little Rock has drawn many visitors to the city and revitalized the nearby River Market District. Many cities also hold festivals which draw tourists to the culture of Arkansas, such as The Bradley County Pink Tomato Festival in Warren, King Biscuit Blues Festival, Ozark Folk Festival, Toad Suck Daze, and Tontitown Grape Festival.\n", "\n\nAs of 2010 many Arkansas local newspapers are owned by WEHCO Media, Alabama-based Lancaster Management, Kentucky-based Paxton Media Group, Missouri-based Rust Communications, Nevada-based Stephens Media, and New York-based GateHouse Media.\n", "\nOne of the bridge pavilions over Crystal Spring at Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville\n\nThe culture of Arkansas is available to all in various forms, whether it be architecture, literature, or fine and performing arts. The state's culture also includes distinct cuisine, dialect, and traditional festivals. Sports are also very important to the culture of Arkansas, ranging from football, baseball, and basketball to hunting and fishing. Perhaps the best-known piece of Arkansas's culture is the stereotype of its citizens as shiftless hillbillies. The reputation began when the state was characterized by early explorers as a savage wilderness full of outlaws and thieves. The most enduring icon of Arkansas's hillbilly reputation is ''The Arkansas Traveller'', a painted depiction of a folk tale from the 1840s. Although intended to represent the divide between rich southeastern plantation Arkansas planters and the poor northwestern hill country, the meaning was twisted to represent a Northerner lost in the Ozarks on a white horse asking a backwoods Arkansan for directions. The state also suffers from the racial stigma common to former Confederate states, with historical events such as the Little Rock Nine adding to Arkansas's enduring image.\n\nArt and history museums display pieces of cultural value for Arkansans and tourists to enjoy. Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville was visited by 604,000 people in 2012, its first year. The museum includes walking trails and educational opportunities in addition to displaying over 450 works covering five centuries of American art. Several historic town sites have been restored as Arkansas state parks, including Historic Washington State Park, Powhatan Historic State Park, and Davidsonville Historic State Park.\n\nArkansas features a variety of native music across the state, ranging from the blues heritage of West Memphis, Pine Bluff, Helena-West Helena to rockabilly, bluegrass, and folk music from the Ozarks. Festivals such as the King Biscuit Blues Festival and Bikes, Blues, and BBQ pay homage to the history of blues in the state. The Ozark Folk Festival in Mountain View is a celebration of Ozark culture and often features folk and bluegrass musicians. Literature set in Arkansas such as ''I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings'' by Maya Angelou and ''A Painted House'' by John Grisham describe the culture at various time periods.\n\n===Sports and recreation===\nbottomlands of east Arkansas attract wintering waterfowl (Wapanocca National Wildlife Refuge).\nSports have become an integral part of the culture of Arkansas, and her residents enjoy participating in and spectating various events throughout the year.\n\nTeam sports and especially collegiate football have been important to Arkansans. College football in Arkansas began from humble beginnings. The University of Arkansas first fielded a team in 1894 when football was a very dangerous game. Recent studies of the damage to team members from the concussions common in football make it clear that the danger persists.\n\n\"Calling the Hogs\" is a cheer that shows support for the Razorbacks, one of the two NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) teams in the state. High school football also began to grow in Arkansas in the early 20th century. Over the years, many Arkansans have looked to the Razorbacks football team as the public image of the state. Following the Little Rock Nine integration crisis at Little Rock Central High School, Arkansans looked to the successful Razorback teams in the following years to repair the state's reputation. Although the University of Arkansas is based in Fayetteville, the Razorbacks have always played at least one game per season at War Memorial Stadium in Little Rock in an effort to keep fan support in central and south Arkansas.\n\nArkansas State University joined the University of Arkansas in FBS (then known as Division I-A) in 1992 after playing in lower divisions for nearly two decades. The two schools have never played each other, due to the University of Arkansas's policy of not playing intrastate games. Two other campuses of the University of Arkansas System are Division I members. The University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff is a member of the Southwestern Athletic Conference, a league whose members all play football in the second-level Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). The University of Arkansas at Little Rock is a member of the FBS Sun Belt Conference, but is one of two conference schools that has no football program. The state's other Division I member is the University of Central Arkansas, which is a full member (including football) of the FCS Southland Conference.\n\nSeven of Arkansas's smaller colleges play in NCAA Division II, with six in the Great American Conference and one in the Heartland Conference. Two other small Arkansas colleges compete in NCAA Division III, in which athletic scholarships are prohibited.\n\nBaseball runs deep in Arkansas and has been popular before the state hosted Major League Baseball (MLB) spring training in Hot Springs from 1886-1920s. Two minor league teams are based in the state. The Arkansas Travelers play at Dickey-Stephens Park in North Little Rock, and the Northwest Arkansas Naturals play in Arvest Ballpark in Springdale. Both teams compete in the Texas League.\n\nRelated to the state's frontier past, hunting continues in the state. The state created the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission in 1915 to regulate hunting and enforce those regulations. Today a significant portion of Arkansas's population participates in hunting duck in the Mississippi flyway and deer across the state. Millions of acres of public land are available for both bow and modern gun hunters.\n\nFishing has always been popular in Arkansas, and the sport and the state have benefited from the creation of reservoirs across the state. Following the completion of Norfork Dam, the Norfork Tailwater and the White River have become a destination for trout fishers. Several smaller retirement communities such as Bull Shoals, Hot Springs Village, and Fairfield Bay have flourished due to their position on a fishing lake. The Buffalo National River has been preserved in its natural state by the National Park Service and is frequented by fly fishers annually.\n", "UAMS Medical Center, Little Rock\n\nArkansas, as with many Southern states, have a high incidence of premature death, infant mortality, cardiovascular deaths, and occupational fatalities compared to the rest of the United States. The state is tied for 43rd with New York in percentage of adults who regularly exercise. Arkansas is usually ranked as one of the least healthy states due to high obesity, smoking, and sedentary lifestyle rates. In contrast though a Gallup poll demonstrates that Arkansas made the most immediate progress in reducing its number of uninsured residents following the passage of the Affordable Care Act. The percentage of uninsured in Arkansas dropped from 22.5 percent in 2013 to 12.4 percent in August 2014.\n\nThe Arkansas Clean Indoor Air Act went into effect in 2006, a statewide smoking ban excluding bars and some restaurants.\n\nHealthcare in Arkansas is provided by a network of hospitals as members of the Arkansas Hospital Association. Major institutions with multiple branches include Baptist Health, Community Health Systems, and HealthSouth. The University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) in Little Rock operates the UAMS Medical Center, a teaching hospital ranked as high performing nationally in cancer and nephrology. The pediatric division of UAMS Medical Center is known as Arkansas Children's Hospital, nationally ranked in pediatric cardiology and heart surgery. Together, these two institutions are the state's only Level I trauma centers.\n", "\n\nArkansas has 1,064 state-funded kindergartens, elementary, junior- and senior high schools.\n\nThe state supports a network of public universities and colleges, including two major university systems: Arkansas State University System and University of Arkansas System. The University of Arkansas, flagship campus of the University of Arkansas System in Fayetteville was ranked #63 among public schools in the nation by ''U.S. News & World Report''. Other public institutions include University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, Arkansas Tech University, Henderson State University, Southern Arkansas University, and University of Central Arkansas across the state. It is also home to 11 private colleges and universities including Hendrix College, one of the nation's top 100 liberal arts colleges, according to U.S. News & World Report.\n\nIn the 1920s the state required all children to attend public schools. The school year was set at 131 days, although some areas were unable to meet that requirement.\n\nAlthough unusual in the West, school corporal punishment is not uncommon in Arkansas, with 20,083 public school students paddled at least one time, according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year. The rate of corporal punishment in public schools is higher only in Mississippi.\n\n===Educational attainment===\n\nArkansas is one of the most under-educated states in the Union. It ranks near the bottom in terms of percentage of the population with either a high school or college degree. The state's educational system has a history of under-funding, low teachers' salaries and political meddling in the curriculum.\n\nEducational statistics during these early days are fragmentary and unreliable. Many counties did not submit full reports to the Secretary of State who did double-duty as Commissioner of Common Schools. However, the percentage of Whites over twenty years of age who were illiterate was given as:\n* 1840 21%\n* 1850 25%\n* 1860 17%\n\n\nIn 2010 Arkansas students earned an average score of 20.3 on the ACT exam, just below the national average of 21. These results were expected due to the large increase in the number of students taking the exam since the establishment of the Academic Challenge Scholarship. Top high schools receiving recognition from the U.S. News & World Report are spread across the state, including Haas Hall Academy in Fayetteville, KIPP Delta Collegiate in Helena-West Helena, Bentonville, Rogers, Rogers Heritage, Valley Springs, Searcy, and McCrory. A total of 81 Arkansas high schools were ranked by the U.S. News & World Report in 2012.\n\nOld Main, part of the Campus Historic District at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville\n\nArkansas ranks as the 32nd smartest state on the Morgan Quitno Smartest State Award, 44th in percentage of residents with at least a high school diploma, and 48th in percentage of bachelor's degree attainment. Arkansas has been making strides in education reform. ''Education Week'' has praised the state, ranking Arkansas in the top 10 of their Quality Counts Education Rankings every year since 2009 while scoring it in the top 5 during 2012 and 2013. Arkansas specifically received an A in Transition and Policy Making for progress in this area consisting of early-childhood education, college readiness, and career readiness. Governor Mike Beebe has made improving education a major issue through his attempts to spend more on education. Through reforms, the state is a leader in requiring curricula designed to prepare students for postsecondary education, rewarding teachers for student achievement, and providing incentives for principals who work in lower-tier schools.\n\n===Funding===\nAs an organized territory, and later in the early days of statehood, education was funded by the sales of Federally-controlled public lands. This system was inadequate and prone to local graft. In an 1854 message to the Legislature, Governor Elias N. Conway said, \"We have a common-school law intended as a system to establish common schools in all part of the state; but for the want of adequate means there are very few in operation under this law.\" At this time, only about a quarter of children were enrolled in school.\n By the beginning of the American Civil War, the state had only twenty-five publicly-funded common schools.\n\nIn 1867, the state legislature was still controlled by ex-Confederates. It passed a Common Schools Law that allowed public funded but limited schools to White children.\n\nThe 1868 legislature banned former Confederates and passed a more wide-ranging law detailing funding and administrative issues and allowing Black children to attend school. In furtherance of this, the postwar 1868 state constitution was the first to permit a personal-property tax to fund the lands and buildings for public schools. With the 1868 elections, the first county school commissioners took office.\n\nIn 2014, the state spent $9,616 per student, compared with a national average of about $11,000 putting Arkansas in nineteenth place.\n\n===Timeline===\n1829 Territorial legislature permits townships to establish schools. \n\n\n1868 State law required racial segregation of schools.\n\n1871 University of Arkansas established.\n\n1873 University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff established as a school to train Black teachers.\n\n1877 Philander Smith College established as a school for Black students.\n\n1890 Henderson State University established as a private school. The state assumed responsibility for it in 1929 as Henderson State Teachers College.\n\n1885 Arkansas School for the Deaf and Arkansas School for the Blind established.\n\n1909 Arkansas Tech University, Southern Arkansas University, University of Arkansas at Monticello and Arkansas State University established as schools offering high school diplomas and vocational training.\n\n''c.'' 1920 Schooling made compulsory.\n\n1925 University of Central Arkansas established as Arkansas State Normal School established.\n\n1948 University of Arkansas School of Law admits a Black student\n\n1957 Governor Orval Faubus used National Guard troops to oppose racial integration of Little Rock Central High School.\n\n1958 In Cooper v. Aaron the United States Supreme Court ruled the state was bound to integrate school despite the opposition of the governor and legislature. \n\n1983 The Arkansas State Supreme Court ruled the state's funding of education was Constitutionally deficient.\n", "\nThe Greenville Bridge over the Mississippi River, August 2009\nThe Missouri and Northern Arkansas Railroad \nTransportation in Arkansas is overseen by the Arkansas Department of Transportation (ArDOT), headquartered in Little Rock. Several main corridors pass through Little Rock, including Interstate 30 (I-30) and I-40 (the nation's 3rd-busiest trucking corridor). In northeast Arkansas, I-55 travels north from Memphis to Missouri, with a new spur to Jonesboro (I-555). Northwest Arkansas is served by I-540 from Fort Smith to Bella Vista, which is a segment of future I-49. The state also has the 13th largest state highway system in the nation.\n\nArkansas is served by of railroad track divided among twenty-six railroad companies including three Class I railroads. Freight railroads are concentrated in southeast Arkansas to serve the industries in the region. The Texas Eagle, an Amtrak passenger train, serves five stations in the state Walnut Ridge, Little Rock, Malvern, Arkadelphia, and Texarkana.\n\nArkansas also benefits from the use of its rivers for commerce. The Mississippi River and Arkansas River are both major rivers. The United States Army Corps of Engineers maintains the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System, allowing barge traffic up the Arkansas River to the Port of Catoosa in Tulsa, Oklahoma.\n\nThere are four airports with commercial service: Clinton National Airport, Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport, Fort Smith Regional Airport, and Texarkana Regional Airport, with dozens of smaller airports in the state.\n\nPublic transit and community transport services for the elderly or those with developmental disabilities are provided by agencies such as the Central Arkansas Transit Authority and the Ozark Regional Transit, organizations that are part of the Arkansas Transit Association.\n", "\nAs with the federal government of the United States, political power in Arkansas is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Each officer's term is four years long. Office holders are term-limited to two full terms plus any partial terms before the first full term.\n\n===Executive===\n\n\nThe Governor of Arkansas is Asa Hutchinson, a Republican, who was inaugurated on January 13, 2015. The six other elected executive positions in Arkansas are lieutenant governor, secretary of state, attorney general, treasurer, auditor, and land commissioner. The governor also appoints qualified individuals to lead various state boards, committees, and departments. Arkansas governors served two-year terms until a referendum lengthened the term to four years, effective with the 1986 general election.\n\nIn Arkansas, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor and thus can be from a different political party.\n\n===Legislative===\n\nThe Arkansas General Assembly is the state's bicameral bodies of legislators, composed of the Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate contains 35 members from districts of approximately equal population. These districts are redrawn decennially with each US census, and in election years ending in \"2\", the entire body is put up for reelection. Following the election, half of the seats are designated as two-year seats and will be up for reelection again in two years, these \"half-terms\" do not count against a legislator's term limits. The remaining half serve a full four-year term. This staggers elections such that half the body is up for re-election every two years and allows for complete body turnover following redistricting. Arkansas voters selected a 21–14 Republican majority in the Senate in 2012. Arkansas House members can serve a maximum of three two-year terms. House districts are redistricted by the Arkansas Board of Apportionment. Following the 2012 elections, Republicans gained a 51–49 majority in the House of Representatives.\n\nThe Republican Party majority status in the Arkansas State House of Representatives following the 2012 elections is the party's first since 1874. Arkansas was the last state of the old Confederacy to never have Republicans control either chamber of its house since the Civil War.\n\nFollowing the term limits changes, studies have shown that lobbyists have become less influential in state politics. Legislative staff, not subject to term limits, have acquired additional power and influence due to the high rate of elected official turnover.\n\n===Judicial===\n\nArkansas's judicial branch has five court systems: Arkansas Supreme Court, Arkansas Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts, District Courts and City Courts.\n\nMost cases begin in district court, which is subdivided into state district court and local district court. State district courts exercise district-wide jurisdiction over the districts created by the General Assembly, and local district courts are presided over by part-time judges who may privately practice law. There are 25 state district court judges presiding over 15 districts, with more districts to be created in 2013 and 2017. There are 28 judicial circuits of Circuit Court, with each contains five subdivisions: criminal, civil, probate, domestic relations, and juvenile court. The jurisdiction of the Arkansas Court of Appeals is determined by the Arkansas Supreme Court, and there is no right of appeal from the Court of Appeals to the high court. The Arkansas Supreme Court can review Court of Appeals cases upon application by either a party to the litigation, upon request by the Court of Appeals, or if the Arkansas Supreme Court feels the case should have been initially assigned to it. The twelve judges of the Arkansas Court of Appeals are elected from judicial districts to renewable six-year terms.\n\nThe Arkansas Supreme Court is the court of last resort in the state, composed of seven justices elected to eight-year terms. Established by the Arkansas Constitution in 1836, the court's decisions can be appealed to only the Supreme Court of the United States.\n\n===Federal===\nBoth of Arkansas's U.S. Senators, John Boozman and Tom Cotton, are Republicans. The state has four seats in U.S. House of Representatives. All four seats are held by Republicans: Rick Crawford (1st district), French Hill (2nd district), Steve Womack (3rd district), and Bruce Westerman (4th district).\n\n===Politics===\n\n\n+ '''Presidential elections results'''\n\n Year\n Republican\n Democratic\n\n2016\n'''60.57%''' ''684,872 \n33.65% ''380,494 \n\n2012\n'''60.57%''' ''647,744\n36.88% ''394,409\n\n2008\n'''58.72%''' ''638,017\n38.86% ''422,310\n\n2004\n'''54.31%''' ''572,898\n44.55% ''469,953\n\n2000\n'''51.31%''' ''472,940\n45.86% ''422,768\n\n1996\n36.80% ''325,416\n'''53.74%''' ''475,171\n\n1992\n35.48% ''337,324\n'''53.21%''' '' ''505,823\n\n1988\n'''56.37%''' ''466,578\n42.19% ''349,237\n\n1984\n'''60.47%''' ''534,774\n38.29% ''338,646\n\n1980\n'''48.13%''' ''403,164\n47.52% ''398,041\n\n1976\n34.93% ''268,753\n'''64.94%''' ''499,614\n\n1972\n'''68.82%''' ''445,751\n30.71% ''198,899\n\nTreemap of the popular vote by county, 2016 presidential election.\nArkansas Governor Bill Clinton brought national attention to the state with a long speech at the 1988 Democratic National Convention endorsing Michael Dukakis. Some journalist suggested the speech was a threat to his ambitions, Clinton defined it \"a comedy of error, just one of those fluky things\". Clinton won the Democratic nomination for President the following cycle. Presenting himself as a \"New Democrat\" and using incumbent George H. W. Bush's broken promise against him, Clinton won the 1992 presidential election (43.0% of the vote) against Republican Bush (37.4% of the vote) and billionaire populist Ross Perot, who ran as an independent (18.9% of the vote).\n\nMost Republican strength traditionally lied mainly in the northwestern part of the state, particularly Fort Smith and Bentonville, as well as North Central Arkansas around the Mountain Home area. In the latter area, Republicans have been known to get 90 percent or more of the vote, while the rest of the state was more Democratic. After 2010, Republican strength expanded further to the Northeast and Southwest and into the Little Rock suburbs. The Democrats are mostly concentrated to central Little Rock, the Mississippi Delta, the Pine Bluff area, and the areas around the southern border with Louisiana.\n\nArkansas has only elected three Republicans to the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction, Tim Hutchinson, who was defeated after one term by Mark Pryor; John Boozman, who defeated incumbent Blanche Lincoln; and Tom Cotton, who defeated Mark Pryor in the 2014 elections. Before 2013, the General Assembly had not been controlled by the Republican Party since Reconstruction, with the GOP holding a 51-seat majority in the state House and a 21-seat (of 35) in the state Senate following victories in 2012. Arkansas was one of just three states among the states of the former Confederacy that sent two Democrats to the U.S. Senate (the others being Florida and Virginia) for any period during the first decade of the 21st century.\n\nIn 2010, Republicans captured three of the state's four seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. In 2012, Republicans won election for all four House seats. Arkansas held the distinction of having a U.S. House delegation composed entirely of military veterans (Rick Crawford – Army; Tim Griffin – Army Reserve; Steve Womack – Army National Guard, Tom Cotton- Army). In 2014, the last Democrat in Arkansas's Congressional Delegation, Mark Pryor, was defeated in campaign to win a third term in the U.S. Senate, leaving the entire congressional delegation in GOP hands for the first time since Reconstruction.\n\nReflecting the state's large evangelical population, the state has a strong social conservative bent. Under the Arkansas Constitution Arkansas is a right to work state, its voters passed a ban on same-sex marriage with 75% voting yes, and the state is one of a handful with legislation on its books banning abortion in the event ''Roe v. Wade'' is ever overturned.\n\n", "Blanchard Springs Caverns in Stone County is a tourist destination.\nArkansas is home to many areas protected by the National Park System. These include:\n* Arkansas Post National Memorial at Gillett\n* Blanchard Springs Caverns\n* Buffalo National River\n* Fort Smith National Historic Site\n* Hot Springs National Park\n* Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site\n* Pea Ridge National Military Park\n* President William Jefferson Clinton Birthplace Home National Historic Site\n* Arkansas State Capitol Building\n* List of Arkansas state parks\n", "\n* Outline of Arkansas – organized list of topics about Arkansas\n* Index of Arkansas-related articles\n* List of people from Arkansas\n* LGBT rights in Arkansas\n* USS ''Arkansas''\n", "\n", "\n\n===Bibliography===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* Blair, Diane D. & Jay Barth ''Arkansas Politics & Government: Do the People Rule?'' (2005)\n* Deblack, Thomas A. ''With Fire and Sword: Arkansas, 1861–1874'' (2003)\n* Donovan, Timothy P. and Willard B. Gatewood Jr., eds. ''The Governors of Arkansas'' (1981)\n* Dougan, Michael B. ''Confederate Arkansas'' (1982),\n* Duvall, Leland. ed., ''Arkansas: Colony and State'' (1973)\n* Hamilton, Peter Joseph. ''The Reconstruction Period'' (1906), full length history of era; Dunning School approach; 570 pp; ch 13 on Arkansas\n* Hanson, Gerald T. and Carl H. Moneyhon. ''Historical Atlas of Arkansas'' (1992)\n* Key, V. O. ''Southern Politics'' (1949)\n* Kirk, John A., ''Redefining the Color Line: Black Activism in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1940–1970'' (2002).\n* McMath, Sidney S. ''Promises Kept'' (2003)\n* Moore, Waddy W. ed., ''Arkansas in the Gilded Age, 1874–1900'' (1976).\n* Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974).\n* Thompson, Brock. ''The Un-Natural State: Arkansas and the Queer South'' (2010)\n* Thompson, George H. ''Arkansas and Reconstruction'' (1976)\n* Whayne, Jeannie M. ''Arkansas Biography: A Collection of Notable Lives'' (2000)\n* White, Lonnie J. ''Politics on the Southwestern Frontier: Arkansas Territory, 1819–1836'' (1964)\n* Williams, C. Fred. ed. ''A Documentary History Of Arkansas'' (2005)\n\n", "\n* Arkansas.gov – Official State Website\n* Arkansas State Facts from USDA\n* Official State tourism website\n* The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture\n* Energy & Environmental Data for Arkansas\n* U.S. Census Bureau\n* 2000 Census of Population and Housing for Arkansas, U.S. Census Bureau\n* USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Arkansas\n* Arkansas Summer Camps\n* Arkansas Shakespeare Theatre\n* \n* \n* \n* Arkansas State Code (the state statutes of Arkansas)\n* Arkansas State Databases – Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Arkansas state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Geography", "History", "Cities and towns", "Demographics", "Economy", "Media", "Culture", "Health", "Education", "Transportation", "Law and government", "Attractions", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Arkansas
[ "\n\nAn '''atmosphere''' is a gas layer around a celestial body.\n\n'''Atmosphere''' may also refer to:\n* Atmosphere (unit), a unit of pressure\n* Atmosphere of Earth\n* Extraterrestrial atmospheres\n* Stellar atmosphere\n", "* Atmosphere (music group), an American hip-hop duo from Minnesota\n* Atmosphere (Polish band)\n* ''Atmosphères'' (1961), an orchestral piece by György Ligeti\n\n===Albums===\n* ''Atmosphere'' (Atmosphere album) (1997)\n* ''Atmosphere'' (Eloy Fritsch album) (2003)\n* ''Atmosphere'' (Sevenglory album) (2007)\n* ''Atmosphere'' (Kaskade album) (2013), or the title song\n* ''Atmospheres'' (album) (2014)\n\n===Songs===\n* \"Atmosphere\" (Joy Division song) (1980)\n* \"Atmosphere\" (1975), from ''Let's Take It to the Stage'' by Funkadelic\n* \"Atmosphere\" (1984), by Russ Abbot\n", "* Atmosphere (architecture and spatial design)\n* ''Atmosphere'' (journal), an open access scientific journal\n* ''Atmospheres'' (TV series)\n* Atmospheric theatre, a type of cinema architecture\n* Atmosphere Visual Effects, a Canadian company\n* Adobe Atmosphere, a computer graphics platform\n", "\n* Atmosfear (disambiguation)\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Music", "Other uses", "See also" ]	Atmosphere (disambiguation)
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Apus''' is a small constellation in the southern sky. It represents a bird-of-paradise, and its name means \"without feet\" in Greek because the bird-of-paradise was once wrongly believed to lack feet. First depicted on a celestial globe by Petrus Plancius in 1598, it was charted on a star atlas by Johann Bayer in his 1603 ''Uranometria''. The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted and gave the brighter stars their Bayer designations in 1756.\n\nThe five brightest stars are all reddish in hue. Shading the others at apparent magnitude 3.8 is Alpha Apodis, an orange giant that has around 48 times the diameter and 928 times the luminosity of the Sun. Marginally fainter is Gamma Apodis, another ageing giant star. Delta Apodis is a double star, the two components of which are 103 arcseconds apart and visible with the naked eye. Two star systems have been found to have planets.\n", "Apus was one of twelve constellations created by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the ''Eerste Schipvaart'', to the East Indies. It first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius. De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue in 1603 under the Dutch name ''De Paradijs Voghel'', \"The Bird of Paradise\", and Plancius called the constellation ''Paradysvogel Apis Indica''; the first word is Dutch for \"bird of paradise\". ''Apis'' (Latin for \"bee\") is assumed to have been a typographical error for ''avis'' (\"bird\").\nDetail of Johann Bayer's 1603 ''Uranometria'', showing the constellations Apus, Chamaeleon, Musca (as \"Apis\", the Bee), and Triangulum Australe\|alt=A black line drawing on faded brownish paper depicting a stylized bird with no feet and a triangle superimposed on some stars\nAfter its introduction on Plancius's globe, the constellation's first known appearance in a celestial atlas was in German cartographer Johann Bayer's ''Uranometria'' of 1603. Bayer called it ''Apis Indica'' while fellow astronomers Johannes Kepler and his son-in-law Jakob Bartsch called it ''Apus'' or ''Avis Indica''. The name ''Apus'' is derived from the Greek ''apous'', meaning \"without feet\". This referred to the Western misconception that the bird-of-paradise had no feet, which arose because the only specimens available in the West had their feet and wings removed. Such specimens began to arrive in Europe in 1522, when the survivors of Ferdinand Magellan's expedition brought them home. The constellation later lost some of its tail when Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille used those stars to establish Octans in the 1750s.\n", "Covering 206.3 square degrees and hence 0.5002% of the sky, Apus ranks 67th of the 88 modern constellations by area. Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 7°N. It is bordered by Ara, Triangulum Australe and Circinus to the north, Musca and Chamaeleon to the west, Octans to the south, and Pavo to the east. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is 'Aps'. The official constellation boundaries, as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of six segments (''illustrated in infobox''). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −67.48° and −83.12°.\n", "===Stars===\n\nLacaille gave twelve stars Bayer designations, labelling them Alpha through to Kappa, including two stars next to each other as Delta and another two stars near each other as Kappa. Within the constellation's borders, there are 39 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5. Beta, Gamma and Delta Apodis form a narrow triangle, with Alpha Apodis lying to the east. The five brightest stars are all red-tinged, which is unusual among constellations.\n\nAlpha Apodis is an orange giant of spectral type K3III located 447 ± 8 light years away from Earth, with an apparent magnitude of 3.8. It spent much of its life as a blue-white (B-type) main sequence star before expanding, cooling and brightening as it used up its core hydrogen. It has swollen to 48 times the Sun's diameter, and shines with a luminosity approximately 928 times that of the Sun, with a surface temperature of 4312 K. Beta Apodis is an orange giant 157 ± 2 light years away, with a magnitude of 4.2. It is around 1.84 times as massive as the Sun, with a surface temperature of 4677 K. Gamma Apodis is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III located 156 ± 1 light-years away, with a magnitude of 3.87. It is approximately 63 times as luminous the Sun, with a surface temperature of 5279 K. Delta Apodis is a double star, the two components of which are 103 arcseconds apart and visible through binoculars. Delta1 is a red giant star of spectral type M4III located 760 ± 30 light years away. It is a semiregular variable that varies from magnitude +4.66 to +4.87, with pulsations of multiple periods of 68.0, 94.9 and 101.7 days. Delta2 is an orange giant star of spectral type K3III, located 610 ± 30 light years away, with a magnitude of 5.3. The separate components can be resolved with the naked eye.\n\nThe fifth-brightest star is Zeta Apodis at magnitude 4.8, a star that has swollen and cooled to become an orange giant of spectral type K1III, with a surface temperature of 4649 K and a luminosity 133 times that of the Sun. It is 297 ± 8 light-years distant. Near Zeta is Iota Apodis, a binary star system around 1300 light-years distant, that is composed of two blue-white main sequence stars that orbit each other every 59.32 years. Of spectral types B9V and B9.5 V, they are both over three times as massive as the Sun.\n\nEta Apodis is a white main sequence star located 138 ± 1 light-years distant. Of apparent magnitude 4.89, it is 1.77 times as massive, 15.5 times as luminous as the Sun and has 2.13 times its radius. Aged 250 ± 200 million years old, this star is emitting an excess of 24 μm infrared radiation, which may be caused by a debris disk of dust orbiting at a distance of more than 31 astronomical units from it.\n\nTheta Apodis is a cool red giant of spectral type M7 III located 370 ± 20 light years distant. It shines with a luminosity approximately 3879 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3151 K. A semiregular variable, it varies by 0.56 magnitudes with a period of 119 days—or approximately 4 months. It is losing mass at the rate of times the mass of the Sun per year through its stellar wind. Dusty material ejected from this star is interacting with the surrounding interstellar medium, forming a bow shock as the star moves through the galaxy. NO Apodis is a red giant of spectral type M3III that varies between magnitudes 5.71 and 5.95. Located around 883 light-years distant, it shines with a luminosity estimated at 2059 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3568 K. S Apodis is a rare R Coronae Borealis variable, an extremely hydrogen-deficient supergiant thought to have arisen as the result of the merger of two white dwarfs; fewer than 100 have been discovered as of 2012. It has a baseline magnitude of 9.7. R Apodis is a star that was given a variable star designation, yet has turned out not to be variable. Of magnitude 5.3, it is another orange giant.\n\nTwo star systems have had exoplanets discovered by doppler spectroscopy, and the substellar companion of a third star system—the sunlike star HD 131664—has since been found to be a brown dwarf with a calculated mass of the companion to 23 times that of Jupiter (minimum of 18 and maximum of 49 Jovian masses). HD 134606 is a yellow sunlike star of spectral type G6IV that has begun expanding and cooling off the main sequence. Three planets orbit it with periods of 12, 59.5 and 459 days, successively larger as they are further away from the star. HD 137388 is another star—of spectral type K2IV—that is cooler than the Sun and has begun cooling off the main sequence. Around 47% as luminous and 88% as massive as the Sun, with 85% of its diameter, it is thought to be around 7.4 ± 3.9 billion years old. It has a planet that is 79 times as massive as the Earth and orbits its sun every 330 days at an average distance of 0.89 astronomical units (AU).\n\n\n===Deep-sky objects===\nGlobular cluster IC 4499 taken by Hubble Space Telescope.\|alt= a spherical shaped group of a multitude of stars \n\nThe Milky Way covers much of the constellation's area. Of the deep-sky objects in Apus, there are two prominent globular clusters—NGC 6101 and IC 4499—and a large faint nebula that covers several degrees east of Beta and Gamma Apodis. NGC 6101 is a globular cluster of apparent magnitude 9.2 located around 50,000 light-years distant from Earth, which is around 160 light-years across. Around 13 billion years old, it contains a high concentration of massive bright stars known as blue stragglers, thought to be the result of two stars merging. IC 4499 is a loose globular cluster in the medium-far galactic halo; its apparent magnitude is 10.6.\n\nThe galaxies in the constellation are faint. IC 4633 is a very faint spiral galaxy surrounded by a vast amount of Milky Way line-of-sight integrated flux nebulae—large faint clouds thought to be lit by large numbers of stars.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Apus\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Characteristics", "Features", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Apus
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Abadan''' ( ''Ābādān'') is a city in and the capital of Abadan County, Khuzestan Province which is located in central west of Iran. It lies on Abadan Island ( long, 3–19 km or 2–12 miles wide), the island is bounded in the west by the Arvand waterway and to the east by the Bahmanshir outlet of the Karun River (the Shatt al-Arab), from the Persian Gulf, near the Iraqi-Iran border.'''\n", "The earliest mention of the island of Abadan, if not the port itself is found in works of the geographer Marcian, who renders the name \"Apphadana\". Earlier, the classical geographer, Ptolemy notes \"Apphana\" as an island off the mouth of the Tigris (which is, where the modern Island of Abadan is located). An etymology for this name is presented by 'B. Farahvashi'' to be derived from the Persian word \"ab\" (water) and the root \"pā\" (guard, watch) thus \"coastguard station\").\n\nIn the Islamic times, a pseudo-etymology was produced by the historian Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri (d.892) quoting a folk story that the town was presumably founded by one \"''Abbad bin Hosayn\" from the Arabian Tribe of Banu Tamim'', who established a garrison there during the governorship of ''Hajjaj'' in the Ummayad period.\n\nIn the subsequent centuries, the Persian version of the name had begun to come into general use before it was adopted by official decree in 1935.\n", "\n\n+ Population\n year!! people\n\n 1910\n 400\n\n 1956\n 220,000\n\n 1980 \n 300,000\n\n 1986 \n 6\n\n 1991 \n 84,774\n\n 2001 \n 206,073\n\n 2006 \n 217,988\n\n\nThe civilian population of the city dropped close to zero during the eight years of the Iran–Iraq War (1980–88). The 1986 census recorded only 6 people. In 1991, 84,774 had returned to live in the city. By 2001, the population had jumped to 206,073, and it was 217,988, in 48,061 families, according to 2006 census. Abadan Refinery is one of the largest in the world.The population today has reached almost 350,000 people.\n\nOnly 9% of managers (of the oil company) were from Khuzestan. The proportion of natives of Tehran, the Caspian, Azarbaijan and Kurdistan rose from 4% of blue collar workers to 22% of white collar workers to 45% of managers, thus Arabic-speakers were concentrated on the lower rungs of the work force, managers tended to be brought in from some distance. There is also a single Armenian church in the centre of the city.\n", "Abadan is thought to have been further developed into a major port city under the Abbasids' rule. In this time period, it was a commercial source of salt and woven mats. The siltation of the river delta forced the town further away from water; In the 14th century, however, Ibn Battutah described Abadan just as a small port in a flat salty plain. Politically, Abadan was often the subject of dispute between the nearby states; in 1847, Persia acquired it from Turkey, in which state Abadan has remained since. From the 17th century onward, the island of Abadan was part of the lands of the Arab ''Ka'ab'' (Bani Kaab) tribe. One section of this tribe, ''Mohaysen'', had its headquarters at ''Mohammara''(present-day Khorramshahr), until the removal of Shaikh Khaz'al Khan in 1924.\nExploded T-54/55 tank, remains as symbol of Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988).\n\nRuins of a building in Abadan. Abadan had suffered serious damages during Iran–Iraq War (1980–88), including Saddam's deadly chemical weapons.\nIt was not until the 20th century that rich oil fields were discovered in the area. On 16 July 1909, after secret negotiation with the British consul, Percy Cox, assisted by Arnold Wilson, Sheik Khaz'al agreed to a rental agreement for the island including Abadan. The Sheik continued to administer the island until 1924. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company built their first pipeline terminus oil refinery in Abadan, starting in 1909 and completing it in 1912, with oil flowing by August 1912 (see Abadan Refinery). Refinery throughput numbers rose from 33,000 tons in 1912-1913 to 4,338,000 tons in 1931. By 1938, it was the largest in the world.\n\nDuring World War II, Abadan was the site of brief combat between Iranian forces and British and Indian troops during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran. Later, Abadan was a major logistics centre for Lend-Lease aircraft being sent to the Soviet Union by the United States.\n\nIn 1951, Iran nationalized all oil properties and refining ground to a stop on the island. Rioting broke out in Abadan, after the government had decided to nationalize the oil facilities, and three British workers were killed. It was not until 1954, that a settlement was reached, which allowed a consortium of international oil companies to manage the production and refining on the island. This continued until 1973, when the NIOC took over all facilities. After total nationalization, Iran focused on supplying oil domestically and built a pipeline from Abadan to Tehran.\n\nWhereas Abadan was not a major cultural or religious centre, it did play an important role in the Islamic Revolution. On 19 August 1978 the anniversary of the US backed coup d'état which overthrew the nationalist and popular Iranian prime minister, Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh— the Cinema Rex, a movie theatre in Abadan, Iran, was set ablaze. The Cinema Rex Fire caused 430 deaths, but more importantly, it was another event that kept the Islamic Revolution moving ahead. At the time there was much confusion and misinformation about the perpetrators of the incident. The public largely put the blame on the local police chief and also the Shah and SAVAK. The reformist Sobhe Emrooz newspaper in one of its editorials revealed that the Cinema Rex was burned down by the radical Islamists. The newspaper was shut down immediately after. Over time, the true culprits, radical Islamists, were apprehended and the logic behind this act was revealed, as they were trying both to foment the general public to distrust the government even more, and also as they perceived cinema as a link to the Americans. This fire was one of four during a short period in August, with other fires in Mashhad, Rizaiya, and Shiraz.\n\nIn September 1980, Abadan was almost overrun during a surprise attack on Khuzestan by Iraq, marking the beginning of the Iran–Iraq War. For 12 months Abadan was besieged, but never captured, by Iraqi forces, and in September 1981, the Iranians broke the siege of Abadan. Much of the city, including the oil refinery which was the world's largest refinery with capacity of 628,000 barrels per day, was badly damaged or destroyed by the siege and by bombing. Previous to the war, the city's civilian population was about 300,000, but before it was over, almost the entire populace had sought refuge elsewhere in Iran.\n\nAfter the war, the biggest concern was the rebuilding of Abadan's oil refinery, as it was operating at 10% of capacity due to damage. In 1993, the refinery began limited operation and the port reopened. By 1997, the refinery reached the same rate of production as before the war. Recently, Abadan has been the site of major labour activity as workers at the oil refineries in the city have staged walkouts and strikes to protest non-payment of wages and the political situation in the country.\n", "To honour the 100th anniversary of the refining of oil in Abadan, city officials are planning an oil museum. The Abadan oil refinery was featured on the reverse side of Iran's 100-rial banknotes printed in 1965 and from 1971 to 1973. Abadan today has been declared as a free zone city. The healthy relationship between Iran and Iraq has become one of the transit cities connecting both countries through a 40-minute drive.\n", "The climate in Abadan is arid (Köppen climate classification ''BWh'') and similar to Baghdad's, but slightly hotter due to Abadan's lower latitude. Summers are dry and extremely hot, with temperatures above almost daily and temperatures above can be almost common. Abadan is notably one of the few hottest populated places on earth and experiences many sand and dust storms. Winters are mildly wet and spring-like, though subject to cold spells. Winter temperatures are around . The world's highest unconfirmed temperature was a temperature flare up during a heat burst in June 1967, with a temperature of . The lowest recorded temperature in the city range is . which was recorded on January 20, 1964 and February 3, 1967 while the highest is , recorded on July 11, 1951 and August 9, 1981.\n\n\n", "The Abadan Institute of Technology was established in Abadan in 1939. The school specialized in engineering and petroleum chemistry, and was designed to train staff for the refinery in town. The school's name has since changed several times, but since 1989 has been considered a branch campus of the Petroleum University of Technology, centred in Tehran.\n\nThere is an international airport in Abadan. It is represented by the IATA airport code ABD.\n\nThere is a large amount of external investment from East Asian countries that are building oil refineries and developing a lot of real estate.\n", "\n\n===Mosques===\nRangoonis Mosque\n\n===Museums===\n* Abadan Museum\n* Historical and Handwritten Documents Museum\n", ";Sports\nKarim Bavi (b. 1964), retired Iranian footballer\nMahdi Bereihi (b. 1985), Italian pilot\nStefano (b. 1992), falegname\nAbdolreza Barzegari (b. 1958), retired Iranian footballer\nAhmad Reza Abedzadeh (b. 1966), retired Iranian footballer\nParviz Mazloumi (b. 1954), retired Iranian footballer\nGholam Hossein Mazloumi (1950-2014), Iranian footballer\nHassan Nazari (b. 1956), retired Iranian footballer\nPatrik Baboumian (b. 1979), strongman\nBahman Golbarnezhad (1968-2016), Iranian Paralympic cyclist\nHossein Vafaei (b. 1994), professional snooker player\n;Artists\nFarzin (1952-1999), Persian pop singer\nHamid Farrokhnezhad (b. 1969), actor\nNasser Taghvai (b. 1941), film director\nAmir Naderi (b. 1946), film director\nAramazd Stepanian (b. 1951), actor, producer, director and playwright\nNoreen Motamed (b. 1967), painter\n;Academics\nAbie Nathan (1927–2008), Israeli humanitarian and peace activist\nHamid Rashidi (b.1961), lawyer\nGholam Hossein Davani (b.1953), accountant\nGhazal Omid, author and legal scholar\n;Business\nCyma Zarghami (b. 1962/62), television executive\n", "The city is served by Abadan Airport with flights on various commercial airlines.\n", "\n* Abadan Crisis\n* Abadan crisis timeline\n* Battle of Abadan\n* Tidal irrigation at Abadan island, Iran\n* Bechari House\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* \n", "\n\n* Amateur Astronomers Association of Abadan\n* Abadan Oil Refinery – Home page (Persian only)\n* Abadan Photo Gallery from the Khuzestan Governorship\n* Abadan's travel review\n* Petroleum University of Technology (Abadan)\n* Abadan Social Network\n* Abadan Network\n* VISTA Internet Cafe\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Population", "History", "Recent events", "Climate", "Places of interest", "Main sights", "Notable people", "Transportation", "See also", "Notes", "Footnotes", "References", "Additional reading", "External links" ]	Abadan, Iran
[ "\n'''Attorney''' may refer to:\n\n* Lawyer, as a general synonym\n* Attorney at law, an official title of lawyers in some jurisdictions\n* Attorney-in-fact, a holder of a power of attorney who is (though not necessarily a lawyer) able to act on another's behalf in legal and financial contexts\n* ''The Attorney'', a 2013 South Korean film\n* Certain plants in the genus ''Clusia''\n", "* Attorney general, the principal legal officer of (or advisor to) a government\n* \n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " See also " ]	Attorney
[ "\n\n\nNational Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C.\n'''Andrew Carnegie''' ( , but commonly or ; November 25, 1835August 11, 1919) was a Scottish-American industrialist.\n\nCarnegie led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century and is often identified as one of the richest people (and richest Americans) ever. He became a leading philanthropist in the United States, and in the British Empire. During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away about $350 million to charities, foundations, and universitiesalmost 90 percent of his fortune. His 1889 article proclaiming \"The Gospel of Wealth\" called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, and stimulated a wave of philanthropy.\n\nCarnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, and emigrated to the United States with his parents in 1848. Carnegie started work as a telegrapher, and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges, and oil derricks. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman, raising money for American enterprise in Europe. He built Pittsburgh's Carnegie Steel Company, which he sold to J.P. Morgan in 1901 for $480 million. It became the U.S. Steel Corporation. After selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed John D. Rockefeller as the richest American for the next couple of years.\n\nCarnegie devoted the remainder of his life to large-scale philanthropy, with special emphasis on local libraries, world peace, education, and scientific research. With the fortune he made from business, he built Carnegie Hall and the Peace Palace and founded the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, Carnegie Hero Fund, Carnegie Mellon University and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, among others.\n", "Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie in Dunfermline, Scotland\nAndrew Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland in 1835, in a typical weaver's cottage with only one main room, consisting of half the ground floor which was shared with the neighboring weaver's family. The main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom. He was named after his legal grandfather. In 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street (opposite Reid's Park), following the demand for more heavy damask from which his father, William Carnegie, benefited. He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, which had been a gift to the town by the philanthropist Adam Rolland of Gask.\n\nHis uncle, George Lauder Sr., a Scottish political leader, deeply influenced him as a boy by introducing him to the writings of Robert Burns and historical Scottish heroes such as Robert the Bruce, William Wallace, and Rob Roy. Lauder's son, also named George Lauder, grew up with Andrew and would become his business partner. When Carnegie was thirteen, his father had fallen on very hard times as a handloom weaver; making matters worse, the country was in starvation. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother (a cobbler), and by selling potted meats at her \"sweetie shop\". By the 1840s, she was the primary breadwinner. Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies then decided to move with his family to Allegheny, Pennsylvania, in the United States in 1848 for the prospect of a better life.\n\nAndrew's family had to borrow money from the Lauders in order to migrate. Allegheny was a growing industrial area that produced many products including wool and cotton cloth. The \"Made in Allegheny\" label used on these and other diversified products was becoming more and more popular. His first job at age 13 in 1848 was as a bobbin boy, changing spools of thread in a cotton mill 12 hours a day, 6 days a week in a Pittsburgh cotton factory. His starting wage was $1.20 per week ($36.36 in 2017 dollars).\n\n===Railroads===\nCarnegie age 16, with brother Thomas\nIn 1849, Carnegie became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week (or $76 in 2017 dollars), following the recommendation of his uncle. He was a very hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburgh's businesses and the faces of important men. He made many connections this way. He also paid close attention to his work, and quickly learned to distinguish the differing sounds the incoming telegraph signals produced. He developed the ability to translate signals by ear, without using the paper slip, and within a year was promoted to operator. Carnegie's education and passion for reading was given a great boost by Colonel James Anderson, who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night. Carnegie was a consistent borrower and a \"self-made man\" in both his economic development and his intellectual and cultural development. He was so grateful to Colonel Anderson for the use of his library that he \"resolved, if ever wealth came to me, to see to it that other poor boys might receive opportunities similar to those for which we were indebted to the noble man\". His capacity, his willingness for hard work, his perseverance and his alertness soon brought forth opportunities.\n\nStarting in 1853, Thomas A. Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company employed Carnegie as a secretary/telegraph operator at a salary of $4.00 per week ($125.00 in 2017 dollars). Carnegie accepted this job with the railroad as he saw more prospects for career growth and experience with the railroad than with the telegraph company. At age 24, Scott asked Carnegie if he could handle being superintendent of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad. On December 1, 1859, Carnegie officially became superintendent of the Western Division. Carnegie then hired his sixteen-year-old brother, Tom, to be his personal secretary and telegraph operator. Not only did Carnegie hire his brother, but he also hired his cousin, Maria Hogan, who became the first female telegraph operator in the country. As superintendent Carnegie made a salary of fifteen hundred dollars a year ($47,000 in 2017). His employment by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company would be vital to his later success. The railroads were the first big businesses in America, and the Pennsylvania was one of the largest of them all. Carnegie learned much about management and cost control during these years, and from Scott in particular.\n\nScott also helped him with his first investments. Many of these were part of the corruption indulged in by Scott and the Pennsylvania's president, John Edgar Thomson, which consisted of inside trading in companies that the railroad did business with, or payoffs made by contracting parties \"as part of a quid pro quo\". In 1855, Scott made it possible for Carnegie to invest $500 in the Adams Express, which contracted with the Pennsylvania to carry its messengers. The money was secured by his mother's placing a $600 mortgage on the family's $700 home, but the opportunity was available only because of Carnegie's close relationship with Scott. A few years later, he received a few shares in Theodore Tuttle Woodruff's sleeping car company, as a reward for holding shares that Woodruff had given to Scott and Thomson, as a payoff. Reinvesting his returns in such inside investments in railroad-related industries: (iron, bridges, and rails), Carnegie slowly accumulated capital, the basis for his later success. Throughout his later career, he made use of his close connections to Thomson and Scott, as he established businesses that supplied rails and bridges to the railroad, offering the two men a stake in his enterprises.\n\n===1860–1865: The Civil War===\nBefore the Civil War, Carnegie arranged a merger between Woodruff's company and that of George Pullman, the inventor of a sleeping car for first class travel which facilitated business travel at distances over . The investment proved a great success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie continued to work for the Pennsylvania's Tom Scott, and introduced several improvements in the service.\n\nIn spring 1861, Carnegie was appointed by Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, as Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East. Carnegie helped open the rail lines into Washington D.C. that the rebels had cut; he rode the locomotive pulling the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington D.C. Following the defeat of Union forces at Bull Run, he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. Carnegie later joked that he was \"the first casualty of the war\" when he gained a scar on his cheek from freeing a trapped telegraph wire.\n\nDefeat of the Confederacy required vast supplies of munitions, as well as railroads (and telegraph lines) to deliver the goods. The war demonstrated how integral the industries were to American success.\n\n===Keystone Bridge Company===\nIn 1864, Carnegie invested $40,000 in Story Farm on Oil Creek in Venango County, Pennsylvania. In one year, the farm yielded over $1,000,000 in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. The demand for iron products, such as armor for gunboats, cannons, and shells, as well as a hundred other industrial products, made Pittsburgh a center of wartime production. Carnegie worked with others in establishing a steel rolling mill, and steel production and control of industry became the source of his fortune. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war.\n\nAfter the war, Carnegie left the railroads to devote all his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several iron works, eventually forming the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he remained closely connected to its management, namely Thomas A. Scott and J. Edgar Thomson. He used his connection to the two men to acquire contracts for his Keystone Bridge Company and the rails produced by his ironworks. He also gave stock to Scott and Thomson in his businesses, and the Pennsylvania was his best customer. When he built his first steel plant, he made a point of naming it after Thomson. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions—functions that Carnegie exploited to his own advantage.\n\nCarnegie, c. 1878\nCarnegie believed in using his fortune for others and doing more than making money. He wrote: \n\n===Industrialist===\n====1885–1900: Steel empire====\nBessemer converter, schematic diagram\nCarnegie did not want to marry during his mother's lifetime, instead choosing to take care of her in her illness towards the end of her life. After she died in 1886, the 51-year-old Carnegie married Louise Whitfield, who was 21 years his junior. In 1897, the couple had their only child, a daughter, whom they named after Carnegie's mother, Margaret.\n\nCarnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. One of his two great innovations was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel by adopting and adapting the Bessemer process for steel making. Sir Henry Bessemer had invented the furnace which allowed the high carbon content of pig iron to be burnt away in a controlled and rapid way. The steel price dropped as a direct result, and Bessemer steel was rapidly adopted for rails; however, it was not suitable for buildings and bridges.\n\nThe second was in his vertical integration of all suppliers of raw materials. In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and coke in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig metal per day. In 1883, Carnegie bought the rival Homestead Steel Works, which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a long railway, and a line of lake steamships. Carnegie combined his assets and those of his associates in 1892 with the launching of the Carnegie Steel Company.\n\nBy 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the UK, and Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie's empire grew to include the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works in Braddock, (named for John Edgar Thomson, Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark Eads Bridge project across the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology, which marked the opening of a new steel market.\n\n====1901: U.S. Steel====\nSpy for Vanity Fair, 1903\nIn 1901, Carnegie was 66 years of age and considering retirement. He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock corporations as preparation to this end. John Pierpont Morgan was a banker and perhaps America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profit. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers, produce in greater quantities and raise wages to workers. To this end, he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers and integrate them into one company, thereby eliminating duplication and waste. He concluded negotiations on March 2, 1901, and formed the United States Steel Corporation. It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization over $1 billion.\n\nThe buyout, secretly negotiated by Charles M. Schwab (no relation to Charles R. Schwab), was the largest such industrial takeover in United States history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Morgan, and Carnegie retired from business. His steel enterprises were bought out at a figure equivalent to 12 times their annual earnings—$480 million (in , $).\n\nCarnegie's share of this amounted to $225,639,000 (in , $), which was paid to Carnegie in the form of 5%, 50-year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on February 26, 1901. On March 2, the circular formally filing the organization and capitalization (at $1,400,000,000—4% of U.S. national wealth at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of Hoboken, New Jersey, in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230,000,000 worth of bonds. It was said that \"...Carnegie never wanted to see or touch these bonds that represented the fruition of his business career. It was as if he feared that if he looked upon them they might vanish like the gossamer gold of the leprechaun. Let them lie safe in a vault in New Jersey, safe from the New York tax assessors, until he was ready to dispose of them...\" \n\n===Scholar and activist===\n\n====1880–1900====\nCarnegie continued his business career; some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. He befriended English poet Matthew Arnold, English philosopher Herbert Spencer, and American humorist Mark Twain, as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the U.S. Presidents, statesmen, and notable writers.\n\nCarnegie constructed commodious swimming-baths for the people of his hometown in Dunfermline in 1879. In the following year, Carnegie gave £8,000 for the establishment of a Dunfermline Carnegie Library in Scotland. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to Bellevue Hospital Medical College (now part of New York University Medical Center) to found a histological laboratory, now called the Carnegie Laboratory.\n\nIn 1881, Carnegie took his family, including his 70-year-old mother, on a trip to the United Kingdom. They toured Scotland by coach, and enjoyed several receptions en route. The highlight was a return to Dunfermline, where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of a Carnegie library which he funded. Carnegie's criticism of British society did not mean dislike; on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a catalyst for a close association between English-speaking peoples. To this end, in the early 1880s in partnership with Samuel Storey, he purchased numerous newspapers in England, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of \"the British Republic\". Carnegie's charm, aided by his wealth, afforded him many British friends, including Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone.\n\nIn 1886, Carnegie's younger brother Thomas died at age 43. While owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased at low cost the most valuable of the iron ore fields around Lake Superior. The same year Carnegie became a figure of controversy. Following his tour of the UK, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain''.\n\nCarnegie, right, with James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce\nAlthough actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor to numerous magazines, most notably ''The Nineteenth Century'', under the editorship of James Knowles, and the influential ''North American Review'', led by editor Lloyd Bryce.\n\nIn 1886, Carnegie wrote his most radical work to date, entitled ''Triumphant Democracy''. Liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, the book argued his view that the American republican system of government was superior to the British monarchical system. It gave a highly favorable and idealized view of American progress and criticized the British royal family. The cover depicted an upended royal crown and a broken scepter. The book created considerable controversy in the UK. The book made many Americans appreciate their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the US.\n\nIn 1889, Carnegie published \"Wealth\" in the June issue of the ''North American Review''. After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in England, where it appeared as \"The Gospel of Wealth\" in the ''Pall Mall Gazette''. Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. Philanthropy was key to making life worthwhile.\n\nCarnegie was a well-regarded writer. He published three books on travel.\n\n===Anti-imperialism===\nWhile Carnegie did not comment on British imperialism, he very strongly opposed the idea of American colonies. He strongly opposed the annexation of the Philippines, almost to the point of supporting William Jennings Bryan against McKinley in 1900. In 1898, Carnegie tried to arrange for independence for the Philippines. As the end of the Spanish–American War neared, the United States bought the Philippines from Spain for $20 million. To counter what he perceived as imperialism on the part of the United States, Carnegie personally offered $20 million to the Philippines so that the Filipino people could buy their independence from the United States. However, nothing came of the offer. In 1898 Carnegie joined the American Anti-Imperialist League, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines. Its membership included former presidents of the United States Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison and literary figures like Mark Twain.\n\n===1901–1919: Philanthropist===\n\n\n\nAndrew Carnegie's philanthropy. ''Puck'' magazine cartoon by Louis Dalrymple, 1903\nCarnegie spent his last years as a philanthropist. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business acumen which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic projects. He had written about his views on social subjects and the responsibilities of great wealth in ''Triumphant Democracy'' (1886) and ''Gospel of Wealth'' (1889). Carnegie bought Skibo Castle in Scotland, and made his home partly there and partly in his New York mansion located at 2 East 91st Street at Fifth Avenue. The building was built in 1903 and he lived there until his death and Louise until her death in 1946. The building is now the Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum, part of the Smithsonian Institution. The surrounding neighborhood on Manhattan's Upper East Side has come to be called Carnegie Hill. The mansion was named a National Historic Landmark in 1966. He then devoted his life to providing the capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement.\n\nHe was a powerful supporter of the movement for spelling reform as a means of promoting the spread of the English language. His organisation, the Simplified Spelling Board, created the ''Handbook of Simplified Spelling'', which was written wholly in reformed spelling.\n\n====3,000 public libraries====\nAmong his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of public libraries throughout the United States, Britain, Canada and other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. In this special driving interest and project of his he was inspired by a visit and tour he made with Enoch Pratt (1808–1896), formerly of Massachusetts but who made his fortune in Baltimore and ran his various mercantile and financial businesses very thriftily. Pratt in turn had been inspired and helped by his friend and fellow Bay Stater, George Peabody, (1795–1869) who also had made his fortune in the \"Monumental City\" of Baltimore before moving to New York and London to expand his empire as the richest man in America before the Civil War. Later he too endowed several institutions, schools, libraries and foundations in his home commonwealth, and also in Baltimore with his Peabody Institute in 1857, completed in 1866, with added library wings a decade later and several educational foundations throughout the Old South. Several decades later, Carnegie's visit with Mr. Pratt lasted for several days; resting and dining in his city mansion, then touring, visiting and talking with staff and ordinary citizen patrons of the newly established Enoch Pratt Free Library (1886) impressed the Scotsman deeply – years later he was always heard to proclaim that \"Pratt was my guide and inspiration\".\n\n\nThe first Carnegie library opened in 1883 in Dunfermline. His method was to build and equip, but only on condition that the local authority matched that by providing the land and a budget for operation and maintenance. To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh for a public library, and in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City for a music hall and library; and $250,000 to Edinburgh for a free library. In total Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in 47 US states, and also in Canada, the United Kingdom, what is now the Republic of Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the West Indies, and Fiji. He also donated £50,000 to help set up the University of Birmingham in 1899. In the early 20th century, a decade after Mr. Pratt's death, when expansion and city revenues grew tight, Carnegie returned the favor and endowed a large sum to permit the building of many Carnegie Libraries in the Enoch Pratt system in Baltimore and enabled EPFL to expand through the next quarter-century to meet the needs of the growing city and supply neighborhood branches for its annexed suburbs.\n\nAs Van Slyck (1991) showed, the last years of the 19th century saw acceptance of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public. But the design of the idealized free library was the subject of prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two.\n\n==== Investing in education ====\nCarnegie Mellon University.\n\nIn 1900, Carnegie gave $2 million to start the Carnegie Institute of Technology (CIT) at Pittsburgh and the same amount in 1902 to found the Carnegie Institution at Washington, D.C. He later contributed more to these and other schools. CIT is now known as Carnegie Mellon University after it merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research. Carnegie also served on the Boards of Cornell University and Stevens Institute of Technology.\n\nIn 1911, Carnegie became a sympathetic benefactor to George Ellery Hale, who was trying to build the Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson, and donated an additional ten million dollars to the Carnegie Institution with the following suggestion to expedite the construction of the telescope: \"I hope the work at Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed, because I am so anxious to hear the expected results from it. I should like to be satisfied before I depart, that we are going to repay to the old land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more clearly than ever to them the new heavens.\" The telescope saw first light on November 2, 1917, with Carnegie still alive.\n\nPittencrieff Park, Dunfermline.\n\nIn 1901, in Scotland, he gave $10 million to establish the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. It was created by a deed which he signed on June 7, 1901, and it was incorporated by Royal Charter on August 21, 1902. The establishing gift of $10 million was, then, an unprecedented sum: at the time, total government assistance to all four Scottish universities was about £50,000 a year. The aim of the Trust was to improve and extend the opportunities for scientific research in the Scottish universities and to enable the deserving and qualified youth of Scotland to attend a university. He was subsequently elected Lord Rector of University of St. Andrews in December 1901. He also donated large sums of money to Dunfermline, the place of his birth. In addition to a library, Carnegie also bought the private estate which became Pittencrieff Park and opened it to all members of the public, establishing the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust to benefit the people of Dunfermline. A statue of him stands there today.\n\nHe gave a further $10 million in 1913 to endow the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, a grant-making foundation. He transferred to the trust the charge of all his existing and future benefactions, other than university benefactions in the United Kingdom. He gave the trustees a wide discretion, and they inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather than erecting library buildings, and of assisting the musical education of the people rather than granting organs to churches.\n\nIn 1901, Carnegie also established large pension funds for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors. The latter fund evolved into TIAA-CREF. One critical requirement was that church-related schools had to sever their religious connections to get his money.\n\nHis interest in music led him to fund construction of 7,000 church organs. He built and owned Carnegie Hall in New York City.\n\nCarnegie with African-American leader Booker T. Washington (front row, center), seen here in 1906 while visiting Tuskegee Institute.\n\nCarnegie was a large benefactor of the Tuskegee Institute for African-American education under Booker T. Washington. He helped Washington create the National Negro Business League.\n\nAndrew Carnegie, April 1905.\nIn 1904, he founded the Carnegie Hero Fund for the United States and Canada (a few years later also established in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Germany) for the recognition of deeds of heroism. Carnegie contributed $1,500,000 in 1903 for the erection of the Peace Palace at The Hague; and he donated $150,000 for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics.\n\nCarnegie was honored for his philanthropy and support of the arts by initiation as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia Fraternity on October 14, 1917, at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, Massachusetts. The fraternity's mission reflects Carnegie's values by developing young men to share their talents to create harmony in the world.\n\nBy the standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money. \"Maybe with the giving away of his money,\" commented biographer Joseph Wall, \"he would justify what he had done to get that money.\"\n\nTo some, Carnegie represents the idea of the American dream. He was an immigrant from Scotland who came to America and became successful. He is not only known for his successes but his enormous amounts of philanthropist works, not only to charities but also to promote democracy and independence to colonized countries.\n\n===Death===\nNorth Tarrytown, New YorkThe footstone of Andrew Carnegie\nCarnegie died on August 11, 1919, in Lenox, Massachusetts at his Shadow Brook estate, of bronchial pneumonia. He had already given away $350,695,653 (approximately $76.9 billion, adjusted to 2015 share of GDP figures) of his wealth. After his death, his last $30,000,000 was given to foundations, charities, and to pensioners. He was buried at the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in North Tarrytown, New York. The grave site is located on the Arcadia Hebron plot of land at the corner of Summit Avenue and Dingle Road. Carnegie is buried only a few yards away from union organizer Samuel Gompers, another important figure of industry in the Gilded Age.\n", "\n===1889: Johnstown Flood===\n\nCarnegie was one of more than 50 members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, which has been blamed for the Johnstown Flood that killed 2,209 people in 1889.\n\nAt the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Carnegie's partner Henry Clay Frick had formed the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The sixty-odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania and included among their number Frick's best friend, Andrew Mellon, his attorneys Philander Knox and James Hay Reed, as well as Frick's business partner, Carnegie. High above the city, near the small town of South Fork, the South Fork Dam was originally built between 1838 and 1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as part of a canal system to be used as a reservoir for a canal basin in Johnstown. With the coming-of-age of railroads superseding canal barge transport, the lake was abandoned by the Commonwealth, sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and sold again to private interests and eventually came to be owned by the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club in 1881. Prior to the flood, speculators had purchased the abandoned reservoir, made less than well-engineered repairs to the old dam, raised the lake level, built cottages and a clubhouse, and created the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club. Less than 20 miles downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown.\n\nThe dam was high and long. Between 1881 when the club was opened, and 1889, the dam frequently sprang leaks and was patched, mostly with mud and straw. Additionally, a previous owner removed and sold for scrap the 3 cast iron discharge pipes that previously allowed a controlled release of water. There had been some speculation as to the dam's integrity, and concerns had been raised by the head of the Cambria Iron Works downstream in Johnstown. Such repair work, a reduction in height, and unusually high snowmelt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31, 1889 resulting in twenty million tons of water sweeping down the valley causing the Johnstown Flood. When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh, Frick and other members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club's members.\n\nAlthough Cambria Iron and Steel's facilities were heavily damaged by the flood, they returned to full production within a year. After the flood, Carnegie built Johnstown a new library to replace the one built by Cambria's chief legal counsel Cyrus Elder, which was destroyed in the flood. The Carnegie-donated library is now owned by the Johnstown Area Heritage Association, and houses the Flood Museum.\n\n===1892: Homestead Strike===\nThe Homestead Strike\nThe Homestead Strike was a bloody labor confrontation lasting 143 days in 1892, one of the most serious in U.S. history. The conflict was centered on Carnegie Steel's main plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania, and grew out of a dispute between the National Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers of the United States and the Carnegie Steel Company.\n\nCarnegie left on a trip to Scotland before the unrest peaked. In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner Henry Clay Frick. Frick was well known in industrial circles for maintaining staunch anti-union sensibilities.Frick's letter to Carnegie describing the plans and munitions that will be on the barges when the Pinkertons arrive to confront the strikers in Homestead.\n\nAfter a recent increase in profits by 60%, the company refused to raise workers' pay by more than 30%. When some of the workers demanded the full 60%, management locked the union out. Workers considered the stoppage a \"lockout\" by management and not a \"strike\" by workers. As such, the workers would have been well within their rights to protest, and subsequent government action would have been a set of criminal procedures designed to crush what was seen as a pivotal demonstration of the growing labor rights movement, strongly opposed by management. Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and Pinkerton agents to safeguard them.\n\nOn July 6, the arrival of a force of 300 Pinkerton agents from New York City and Chicago resulted in a fight in which 10 men—seven strikers and three Pinkertons—were killed and hundreds were injured. Pennsylvania Governor Robert Pattison ordered two brigades of state militia to the strike site. Then, allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, anarchist Alexander Berkman shot at Frick in an attempted assassination, wounding Frick. While not directly connected to the strike, Berkman was tied in for the assassination attempt. According to Berkman, \"...with the elimination of Frick, responsibility for Homestead conditions would rest with Carnegie.\" Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-union immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned to the United States. However, Carnegie's reputation was permanently damaged by the Homestead events.\n", "\n===Andrew Carnegie Dictum===\nIn his final days, Carnegie suffered from pneumonia. Before his death on August 11, 1919, Carnegie had donated $350,695,654 for various causes. The \"Andrew Carnegie Dictum\" was:\nTo spend the first third of one's life getting all the education one can.\nTo spend the next third making all the money one can.\nTo spend the last third giving it all away for worthwhile causes.\nCarnegie was involved in philanthropic causes, but he kept himself away from religious circles. He wanted to be identified by the world as a \"positivist\". He was highly influenced in public life by John Bright.\n\n===On wealth===\nCarnegie at Skibo Castle, 1914\nStained glass window dedicated to Andrew Carnegie in the National Cathedral\nAs early as 1868, at age 33, he drafted a memo to himself. He wrote: \"...The amassing of wealth is one of the worse species of idolatry. No idol more debasing than the worship of money.\" In order to avoid degrading himself, he wrote in the same memo he would retire at age 35 to pursue the practice of philanthropic giving for \"...the man who dies thus rich dies disgraced.\" However, he did not begin his philanthropic work in all earnest until 1881, with the gift of a library to his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland.\n\nCarnegie wrote \"The Gospel of Wealth\", an article in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society. In that article, Carnegie also expressed sympathy for the ideas of progressive taxation and an estate tax.\n\nThe following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself: \n\n===Intellectual influences===\nCarnegie claimed to be a champion of evolutionary thought particularly the work of Herbert Spencer, even declaring Spencer his teacher. Though Carnegie claims to be a disciple of Spencer many of his actions went against the ideas espoused by Spencer.\n\nSpencerian evolution was for individual rights and against government interference. Furthermore, Spencerian evolution held that those unfit to sustain themselves must be allowed to perish. Spencer believed that just as there were many varieties of beetles, respectively modified to existence in a particular place in nature, so too had human society \"spontaneously fallen into division of labour\". Individuals who survived to this, the latest and highest stage of evolutionary progress would be \"those in whom the power of self-preservation is the greatest—are the select of their generation.\" Moreover, Spencer perceived governmental authority as borrowed from the people to perform the transitory aims of establishing social cohesion, insurance of rights, and security. Spencerian 'survival of the fittest' firmly credits any provisions made to assist the weak, unskilled, poor and distressed to be an imprudent disservice to evolution. Spencer insisted people should resist for the benefit of collective humanity, as severe fate singles out the weak, debauched, and disabled.\n\nAndrew Carnegie's political and economic focus during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the defense of laissez faire economics. Carnegie emphatically resisted government intrusion in commerce, as well as government-sponsored charities. Carnegie believed the concentration of capital was essential for societal progress and should be encouraged. Carnegie was an ardent supporter of commercial \"survival of the fittest\" and sought to attain immunity from business challenges by dominating all phases of the steel manufacturing procedure. Carnegie's determination to lower costs included cutting labor expenses as well. In a notably Spencerian manner, Carnegie argued that unions impeded the natural reduction of prices by pushing up costs, which blocked evolutionary progress. Carnegie felt that unions represented the narrow interest of the few while his actions benefited the entire community.\n\nOn the surface, Andrew Carnegie appears to be a strict laissez-faire capitalist and follower of Herbert Spencer, often referring to himself as a disciple of Spencer. Conversely, Carnegie a titan of industry seems to embody all of the qualities of Spencerian survival of the fittest. The two men enjoyed a mutual respect for one another and maintained correspondence until Spencer's death in 1903. There are however, some major discrepancies between Spencer's capitalist evolutionary conceptions and Andrew Carnegie's capitalist practices.\n\nSpencer wrote that in production the advantages of the superior individual are comparatively minor, and thus acceptable, yet the benefit that dominance provides those who control a large segment of production might be hazardous to competition. Spencer feared that an absence of \"sympathetic self-restraint\" of those with too much power could lead to the ruin of their competitors. He did not think free market competition necessitated competitive warfare. Furthermore, Spencer argued that individuals with superior resources who deliberately used investment schemes to put competitors out of business were committing acts of \"commercial murder\". Carnegie built his wealth in the steel industry by maintaining an extensively integrated operating system. Carnegie also bought out some regional competitors, and merged with others, usually maintaining the majority shares in the companies. Over the course of twenty years, Carnegie's steel properties grew to include the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Lucy Furnace Works, the Union Iron Mills, the Homestead Works, the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines among many other industry related assets. Furthermore, Carnegie's success was due to his convenient relationship with the railroad industries, which not only relied on steel for track, but were also making money from steel transport. The steel and railroad barons worked closely to negotiate prices instead of free market competition determinations.\n\nBesides Carnegie's market manipulation, United States trade tariffs were also working in favor of the steel industry. Carnegie spent energy and resources lobbying congress for a continuation of favorable tariffs from which he earned millions of dollars a year. Carnegie tried to keep this information concealed, but legal documents released in 1900, during proceedings with the ex-chairman of Carnegie Steel, Henry Clay Frick, revealed how favorable the tariffs had been. Herbert Spencer absolutely was against government interference in business in the form of regulatory limitation, taxes, and tariffs as well. Spencer saw tariffs as a form of taxation that levied against the majority in service to \"the benefit of a small minority of manufacturers and artisans\".\n\nDespite Carnegie's personal dedication to Herbert Spencer as a friend, his adherence to Spencer's political and economic ideas is more contentious. In particular, it appears Carnegie either misunderstood or intentionally misrepresented some of Spencer's principal arguments. Spencer remarked upon his first visit to Carnegie's steel mills in Pittsburgh, which Carnegie saw as the manifestation of Spencer's philosophy, \"Six months' residence here would justify suicide.\"\n\n\n\nOn the subject of charity Andrew Carnegie's actions diverged in the most significant and complex manner from Herbert Spencer's philosophies. In his 1854 essay \"Manners and Fashion\", Spencer referred to public education as \"Old schemes\". He went on to declare that public schools and colleges fill the heads of students with inept, useless knowledge and exclude useful knowledge. Spencer stated that he trusted no organization of any kind, \"political, religious, literary, philanthropic\", and believed that as they expanded in influence so too did their regulations expand. In addition, Spencer thought that as all institutions grow they become evermore corrupted by the influence of power and money. The institution eventually loses its \"original spirit, and sinks into a lifeless mechanism\". Spencer insisted that all forms of philanthropy that uplift the poor and downtrodden were reckless and incompetent. Spencer thought any attempt to prevent \"the really salutary sufferings\" of the less fortunate \"bequeath to posterity a continually increasing curse\". Carnegie, a self-proclaimed devotee of Spencer, testified to Congress on February 5, 1915: \"My business is to do as much good in the world as I can; I have retired from all other business.\"\n\nCarnegie held that societal progress relied on individuals who maintained moral obligations to themselves and to society. Furthermore, he believed that charity supplied the means for those who wish to improve themselves to achieve their goals. Carnegie urged other wealthy people to contribute to society in the form of parks, works of art, libraries and other endeavors that improve the community and contribute to the \"lasting good\". Carnegie also held a strong opinion against inherited wealth. Carnegie believed that the sons of prosperous businesspersons were rarely as talented as their fathers. By leaving large sums of money to their children, wealthy business leaders were wasting resources that could be used to benefit society. Most notably, Carnegie believed that the future leaders of society would rise from the ranks of the poor. Carnegie strongly believed in this because he had risen from the bottom. He believed the poor possessed an advantage over the wealthy because they receive greater attention from their parents and are taught better work ethics.\n\n===Religion and worldview===\nCarnegie and his family belonged to the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, also known informally as the Northern Presbyterian Church. In his early life Carnegie was skeptical of Calvinism, and religion as a whole, but reconciled with it later in his life. In his autobiography, Carnegie describes his family as moderate Presbyterian believers, writing that \"there was not one orthodox Presbyterian\" in his family; various members of his family having somewhat distanced themselves from Calvinism, some of them leaning more towards Swedenborgianism. Though, being a child, his family led vigorous theological and political disputes. His mother avoided the topic of religion. His father left the Presbyterian church after a sermon on infant damnation, while, according to Carnegie, still remaining very religious on his own.\n\nWitnessing sectarianism and strife in 19th century Scotland regarding religion and philosophy, Carnegie kept his distance from organized religion and theism. Carnegie instead preferred to see things through naturalistic and scientific terms stating, \"Not only had I got rid of the theology and the supernatural, but I had found the truth of evolution.\"\n\nLater in life, Carnegie's firm opposition to religion softened. For many years he was a member of Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church, pastored from 1905 to 1926 by Social Gospel exponent Henry Sloane Coffin, while his wife and daughter belonged to the Brick Presbyterian Church. He also prepared (but did not deliver) an address in which he professed a belief in \"an Infinite and Eternal Energy from which all things proceed\". Records exist of a short period of correspondence around 1912–1913 between Carnegie and `Abdu'l-Bahá, the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Bahá'í Faith. In these letters, one of which was published in the ''New York Times'' in full text, Carnegie is extolled as a \"lover of the world of humanity and one of the founders of Universal Peace\".\n\n===World peace===\nCarnegie commemorated as an industrialist, philanthropist, and founder of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1960 \nInfluenced by his \"favorite living hero in public life\" John Bright, Carnegie started his efforts in pursuit of world peace at a young age. His motto, \"All is well since all grows better\", served not only as a good rationalization of his successful business career, but also his view of international relations.\n\nDespite his efforts towards international peace, Carnegie faced many dilemmas on his quest. These dilemmas are often regarded as conflicts between his view on international relations and his other loyalties. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, for example, Carnegie allowed his steel works to fill large orders of armor plate for the building of an enlarged and modernized United States Navy, but he opposed American oversea expansion.\n\nDespite that, Carnegie served as a major donor for than newly-established International Court of Arbitration's Peace Palace - brainchild of Russian Tsar Nicolas II.\n\nIn 1913, at the dedication of the Peace Palace in The Hague, Carnegie predicted that the end of war was ‘‘as certain to come, and come soon, as day follows night.’’\n\nIn 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Carnegie founded the Church Peace Union (CPU), a group of leaders in religion, academia, and politics. Through the CPU, Carnegie hoped to mobilize the world's churches, religious organizations, and other spiritual and moral resources to join in promoting moral leadership to put an end to war forever. For its inaugural international event, the CPU sponsored a conference to be held on August 1, 1914, on the shores of Lake Constance in southern Germany. As the delegates made their way to the conference by train, Germany was invading Belgium.\n\nDespite its inauspicious beginning, the CPU thrived. Today its focus is on ethics and it is known as the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, an independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, whose mission is to be the voice for ethics in international affairs.\n\nThe outbreak of the First World War was clearly a shock to Carnegie and his optimistic view on world peace. Although his promotion of anti-imperialism and world peace had all failed, and the Carnegie Endowment had not fulfilled his expectations, his beliefs and ideas on international relations had helped build the foundation of the League of Nations after his death, which took world peace to another level.\n\n===US colonial expansion===\n\nOn the matter of American colonial expansion, Carnegie had always thought it is an unwise gesture for the United States. He did not oppose the annexation of the Hawaiian islands or Puerto Rico, but he opposed the annexation of the Philippines. Carnegie believed that it involved a denial of the fundamental democratic principle, and he also urged William McKinley to withdraw American troops and allow the Filipinos to live with their independence. This act strongly impressed the other American anti-imperialists, who soon elected him vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League.\n\nAfter he sold his steel company in 1901, Carnegie was able to get fully involved in the peace cause, both financially and personally. He gave away much of his fortunes to various peace-keeping agencies in order to keep them growing. When his friend, the British writer William T. Stead, asked him to create a new organization for the goal of a peace and arbitration society, his reply was:\n\n\n\nCarnegie believed that it is the effort and will of the people, that maintains the peace in international relations. Money is just a push for the act. If world peace depended solely on financial support, it would not seem a goal, but more like an act of pity.\n\nLike Stead, he believed that the United States and the British Empire would merge into one nation, telling him \"We are heading straight to the Re-United States\". Carnegie believed that the combined country's power would maintain world peace and disarmament. The creation of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1910 was regarded as a milestone on the road to the ultimate goal of abolition of war. Beyond a gift of $10 million for peace promotion, Carnegie also encouraged the \"scientific\" investigation of the various causes of war, and the adoption of judicial methods that should eventually eliminate them. He believed that the Endowment exists to promote information on the nations' rights and responsibilities under existing international law and to encourage other conferences to codify this law.\n", "Carnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labor issues. In addition to ''Triumphant Democracy'' (1886), and ''The Gospel of Wealth'' (1889), he also wrote ''Our Coaching Trip, Brighton to Inverness'' (1882), ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain'' (1883), ''Round the World'' (1884), ''The Empire of Business'' (1902), ''The Secret of Business is the Management of Men'' (1903) ''James Watt'' (1905) in the Famous Scots Series, ''Problems of Today'' (1907), and his posthumously published ''Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie'' (1920).\n", "The Statue of Andrew Carnegie in his home town of Dunfermline\n\nCarnegie received the honorary Doctor of Laws (DLL) from the University of Glasgow in June 1901, and received the Freedom of the City of Glasgow ''″in recognition of his munificence″'' later the same year. In July 1902 he received the Freedom of the city of St Andrews, ''″in testimony of his great zeal for the welfare of his fellow-men on both sides of the Atlantic.″''\n\nThe dinosaur ''Diplodocus carnegiei'' (Hatcher) was named for Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the Morrison Formation (Jurassic) of Utah. Carnegie was so proud of \"Dippi\" that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe and South America. The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.\n* After the Spanish–American War, Carnegie offered to donate $20 million to the Philippines so they could buy their independence.\nCarnegie, Pennsylvania, and Carnegie, Oklahoma, were named in his honor.\n The Saguaro cactus's scientific name, ''Carnegiea gigantea'', is named after him.\n* The Carnegie Medal for the best children's literature published in the UK was established in his name.\n* The Carnegie Faculty of Sport and Education, at Leeds Beckett University, UK, is named after him.\n* The concert halls in Dunfermline and New York are named after him.\nAt the height of his career, Carnegie was the second-richest person in the world, behind only John D. Rockefeller of Standard Oil.\nCarnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh was named after Carnegie, who founded the institution as the Carnegie Technical Schools.Carnegie Vanguard High School\nLauder College (named after his uncle who encouraged him to get an education) in the Halbeath area of Dunfermline was renamed Carnegie College in 2007.\n A street in Belgrade (Serbia), next to the Belgrade University Library which is one of the Carnegie libraries, is named in his honor.\n* An American high school, Carnegie Vanguard High School in Houston, Texas, is named after him\n\nCarnegie's personal papers are at the Library of Congress Manuscript Division.\nThe Carnegie Collections of the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library consist of the archives of the following organizations founded by Carnegie: The Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY); The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP); the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (CFAT);The Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs (CCEIA). These collections deal primarily with Carnegie philanthropy and have very little personal material related to Carnegie. Carnegie Mellon University and the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh jointly administer the Andrew Carnegie Collection of digitized archives on Carnegie's life.\n", "\n\n* Carnegie (disambiguation)\n* Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps\n* History of public library advocacy\n* List of Carnegie libraries in the United States\n* List of peace activists\n* List of richest Americans in history\n* List of wealthiest historical figures\n* List of universities named after people\n\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n\n==Works== \n\n* ''Round the World.'' New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1884.\n* ''An American Four-in-Hand in Britain.'' New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1886.\n* ''Triumphant Democracy, or, Fifty Years' March of the Republic.'' New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1886.\n* ''The Bugaboo of Trusts.'' Reprinted from ''North American Review,'' vol. 148, no. 377 (Feb. 1889).\n* “Wealth,” ''North American Review,'' vol. 148, no. 381 (June 1889), pp. 653–664. —Original version of “The Gospel of Wealth.”\n* ''The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays.'' New York: The Century Co., 1901.\n* ''Industrial Peace: Address at the Annual Dinner of the National Civic Federation, New York City, December 15, 1904.'' n.c.: National Civic Federation, 1904.\n* ''James Watt.'' New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1905.\n* ''Edwin M. Stanton: An Address by Andrew Carnegie on Stanton Memorial Day at Kenyon College.'' New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1906.\n* ''Problems of Today: Wealth — Labor — Socialism.'' New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1908.\n* ''Speech at the Annual Meeting of the Peace Society, at the Guildhall, London, EC, May 24th, 1910.'' London: The Peace Society, 1910.\n* ''A League of Peace: A Rectorial Address Delivered to the Students in the University of St. Andrews, 17th October 1905.'' New York: New York Peace Society, 1911.\n* ''Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie.'' Boston: Houghton and Mifflin, 1920.\n\n'''Collections'''\n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* Bostaph, Samuel. (2015). ''Andrew Carnegie: An Economic Biography. Lexington Books, Lanham, MD. ; 125pp online review\n* Goldin, Milton. \"Andrew Carnegie and the Robber Baron Myth\". In ''Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II''. 1997. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) Brandywine Press, St. James, NY. \n* Josephson; Matthew. (1938, 1987). ''The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861–1901'' \n* Krass, Peter. (2002). ''Carnegie'' Wiley. \n* \n* Lester, Robert M. (1941). ''Forty Years of Carnegie Giving: A Summary of the Benefactions of Andrew Carnegie and of the Work of the Philanthropic Trusts Which He Created''. C. Scribner's Sons, New York.\n* Livesay, Harold C. (1999). ''Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business'', 2nd Edition. (short biography)\n* \n* Rees, Jonathan. (1997). \"Homestead in Context: Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers.\" ''Pennsylvania History'' '''64'''(4): 509–533. \n* VanSlyck, Abigail A. \"'The Utmost Amount of Effective Accommodation': Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library.\" ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 1991 '''50'''(4): 359–383. (Fulltext: in Jstor)\n* Wall, Joseph Frazier. ''Andrew Carnegie'' (1989). (Along with Nasaw the most detailed scholarly biography)\n", "* Documentary: \"Andrew Carnegie: Rags to Riches, Power to Peace\"\n\n\n\n* Carnegie Birthplace Museum website\n* \n* \n* ''Booknotes'' interview with Peter Krass on ''Carnegie'', November 24, 2002.\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Controversies", "Philosophy", "Writings", "Legacy and honors", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Cited sources", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Andrew Carnegie
[ "\n\n'''Approximants''' are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough nor with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no turbulence. This class of sounds includes lateral approximants like (as in ''less''), non-lateral approximants like (as in ''rest''), and semivowels like and (as in ''yes'' and ''west'', respectively).\n\nBefore Peter Ladefoged coined the term \"approximant\" in the 1960s, the term \"frictionless continuant\" referred to non-lateral approximants.\n", "\nSome approximants resemble vowels in acoustic and articulatory properties and the terms ''semivowel'' and ''glide'' are often used for these non-syllabic vowel-like segments. The correlation between semivowels and vowels is strong enough that cross-language differences between semivowels correspond with the differences between their related vowels.\n\nVowels and their corresponding semivowels alternate in many languages depending on the phonological environment, or for grammatical reasons, as is the case with Indo-European ablaut. Similarly, languages often avoid configurations where a semivowel precedes its corresponding vowel. A number of phoneticians distinguish between semivowels and approximants by their location in a syllable. Although he uses the terms interchangeably, remarks that, for example, the final glides of English ''par'' and ''buy'' differ from French ''par'' ('through') and ''baille'' ('tub') in that, in the latter pair, the approximants appear in the syllable coda, whereas, in the former, they appear in the syllable nucleus. This means that opaque (if not minimal) contrasts can occur in languages like Italian (with the i-like sound of ''piede'' 'foot', appearing in the nucleus: , and that of ''piano'' 'slow', appearing in the syllable onset: ) and Spanish (with a near minimal pair being ''abyecto'' 'abject' and ''abierto'' 'opened').\n:{\|class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\"\n\n+Approximant-vowel correspondences\n Vowel\n Correspondingapproximant\n Place of articulation\n Example\n\n \n \n Palatal \n Spanish ''ampl'''í'''o'' ('I extend') vs. ''ampl'''ió''''' ('he extended')\n\n \n \n Labiopalatal \n French ''aig'''u''''' ('sharp') vs. ''aig'''u'''ille'' ('needle')\n\n \n \n Velar \n \n\n \n \n Labiovelar \n Spanish ''contin'''ú'''o'' ('I continue') vs. ''contin'''u'''ó'' ('he continued')\n\n \n \n Retroflex \nEnglish ''wait'''er''''' vs. ''wait'''r'''ess''\n\n \n \n Pharyngeal \n \n\n\n: Because of the articulatory complexities of the American English rhotic, there is some variation in its phonetic description. A transcription with the IPA character for an alveolar approximant () is common, though the sound is more postalveolar. Actual retroflexion may occur as well and both occur as variations of the same sound. However, makes a distinction between the vowels of American English (which he calls \"rhotacized\") and vowels with \"retroflexion\" such as those that appear in Badaga; , on the other hand, labels both as r-colored and notes that both have a lowered third formant.\n: Because the vowels are articulated with spread lips, spreading is implied for their approximant analogues, . However, these sounds generally have little or no lip-spreading. The fricative letters with a lowering diacritic, , may therefore be justified for a neutral articulation between spread and rounded .\n\nIn articulation and often diachronically, palatal approximants correspond to front vowels, velar approximants to back vowels, and labialized approximants to rounded vowels. In American English, the rhotic approximant corresponds to the rhotic vowel. This can create alternations (as shown in the above table).\n\nIn addition to alternations, glides can be inserted to the left or the right of their corresponding vowels when they occur next to a hiatus. For example, in Ukrainian, medial triggers the formation of an inserted that acts as a syllable onset so that when the affix is added to футбол ('football') to make футболіст 'football player', it is pronounced , but маоїст ('Maoist'), with the same affix, is pronounced with a glide. Dutch for many speakers has a similar process that extends to mid vowels:\n* ''bioscoop'' → ('cinema')\n* ''zee'' + ''en'' → ('seas')\n* ''fluor'' → ('fluor')\n* ''reu'' + ''en'' → ('male dogs')\n* ''Rwanda'' → ('Rwanda')\n* ''Boaz'' → ('Boaz')\n\nSimilarly, vowels can be inserted next to their corresponding glide in certain phonetic environments. Sievers' law describes this behaviour for Germanic.\n\nNon-high semivowels also occur. In colloquial Nepali speech, a process of glide-formation occurs, where one of two adjacent vowels becomes non-syllabic; the process includes mid vowels so that ('cause to wish') features a non-syllabic mid vowel. Spanish features a similar process and even nonsyllabic can occur so that ''ahorita'' ('right away') is pronounced . It is not often clear, however, whether such sequences involve a semivowel (a consonant) or a diphthong (a vowel), and in many cases, it may not be a meaningful distinction.\n\nAlthough many languages have central vowels , which lie between back/velar and front/palatal , there are few cases of a corresponding approximant . One is in the Korean diphthong or though it is more frequently analyzed as velar (as in the table above), and Mapudungun may be another, with three high vowel sounds, , , and three corresponding consonants, , and , and a third one is often described as a voiced unrounded velar fricative; some texts note a correspondence between this approximant and that is parallel to – and –. An example is ''liq'' (?) ('white').\n", "In addition to less turbulence, approximants also differ from fricatives in the precision required to produce them. \nWhen emphasized, approximants may be slightly fricated (that is, the airstream may become slightly turbulent), which is reminiscent of fricatives. For example, the Spanish word ''ayuda'' ('help') features a palatal approximant that is pronounced as a fricative in emphatic speech. Spanish can be analyzed as having a meaningful distinction between fricative, approximant, and intermediate . However, such frication is generally slight and intermittent, unlike the strong turbulence of fricative consonants.\n\nBecause voicelessness has comparatively reduced resistance to air flow from the lungs, the increased air flow creates more turbulence, making acoustic distinctions between voiceless approximants (which are extremely rare cross-linguistically) and voiceless fricatives difficult. This is why, for example, the voiceless labialized velar approximant (also transcribed with the special letter ) has traditionally been labeled a fricative, and no language is known to contrast it with a voiceless labialized velar fricative . Similarly, Standard Tibetan has a voiceless lateral approximant, , and Welsh has a voiceless lateral fricative , but the distinction is not always clear from descriptions of these languages. Again, no language is known to contrast the two. Iaai is reported to have an unusually large number of voiceless approximants, with .\n\nFor places of articulation further back in the mouth, languages do not contrast voiced fricatives and approximants. Therefore, the IPA allows the symbols for the voiced fricatives to double for the approximants, with or without a lowering diacritic.\n\nOccasionally, the glottal \"fricatives\" are called approximants, since typically has no more frication than voiceless approximants, but they are often phonations of the glottis without any accompanying manner or place of articulation.\n", "\nbilabial approximant (usually transcribed )\nlabiodental approximant \ndental approximant (usually transcribed )\nalveolar approximant \nretroflex approximant (a consonantal )\npalatal approximant (a consonantal )\nvelar approximant (a consonantal )\nuvular approximant (usually transcribed )\npharyngeal approximant (a consonantal ; usually transcribed )\nbreathy-voiced glottal approximant \ncreaky-voiced glottal approximant \n", "In lateral approximants, the center of tongue makes solid contact with the roof of the mouth. However, the defining location is the side of the tongue, which only approaches the teeth.\n\n voiceless alveolar lateral approximant \n* voiced alveolar lateral approximant \n* retroflex lateral approximant \n* voiceless palatal lateral approximant \n* voiced palatal lateral approximant \n* velar lateral approximant \n* uvular lateral approximant \n", "\nlabialized velar approximant (a consonantal )\nlabialized palatal approximant (a consonantal )\n", "Voiceless approximants are rarely distinguished from voiceless fricatives. Iaai has an unusually large number of them, with contrasting with (as well as a large number of voiceless nasals). Attested voiceless approximants are:\n\nvoiceless alveolar lateral approximant \nvoiceless velar lateral approximant \nvoiceless labiodental approximant \nvoiceless alveolar approximant \nvoiceless palatal approximant \nvoiceless labialized palatal approximant or \nvoiceless velar approximant \nvoiceless labialized velar approximant or \nvoiceless glottal approximant \nvoiceless nasal glottal approximant \n", "(Not to be confused with 'nasal continuant', which is a synonym for nasal consonant)\n\nExamples are:\nnasal palatal approximant \nnasal labialized velar approximant \nvoiceless nasal glottal approximant \n\nIn Portuguese, the '''nasal glides''' and historically became and in some words. In the Edo, the nasalized allophones of the approximants and are nasal occlusives, and .\n\nWhat are transcribed as nasal approximants may include non-syllabic elements of nasal vowels or diphthongs.\n", "\n List of phonetics topics\n* Semivowel\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Semivowels", "Approximants versus fricatives", "Central approximants", "Lateral approximants", "Coarticulated approximants with dedicated IPA symbols", "Voiceless approximants", "Nasal approximants", "See also", " Notes ", "References" ]	Approximant consonant
[ "\nJohn Flamsteed\n'''Astronomer Royal''' is a senior post in the Royal Households of the United Kingdom. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from 22 June 1675; the second is the Astronomer Royal for Scotland dating from 1834.\n\nThe post was created by King Charles II in 1675, at the same time as he founded the Royal Observatory Greenwich. He appointed John Flamsteed, instructing him \".\"\n\nThe Astronomer Royal was director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich from the establishment of the post in 1675 until 1972. The Astronomer Royal became an honorary title in 1972 without executive responsibilities and a separate post of Director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory was created to manage the institution.\n\nThe Astronomer Royal today receives a stipend of 100 GBP per year and is a member of the Royal Household, under the general authority of the Lord Chamberlain. After the separation of the two offices, the position of Astronomer Royal has been largely honorary, though he remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters, and the office is of great prestige.\n\nThere was also formerly a Royal Astronomer of Ireland.\n", "* 1675–1719 John Flamsteed\n* 1720–1742 Edmond Halley\n* 1742–1762 James Bradley\n* 1762–1764 Nathaniel Bliss\n* 1765–1811 Nevil Maskelyne\n* 1811–1835 John Pond\n* 1835–1881 Sir George Biddell Airy\n* 1881–1910 Sir William Christie\n* 1910–1933 Sir Frank Dyson\n* 1933–1955 Sir Harold Spencer Jones\n* 1956–1971 Sir Richard van Riet Woolley\n* 1972–1982 Sir Martin Ryle\n* 1982–1990 Sir Francis Graham-Smith\n* 1991–1995 Sir Arnold Wolfendale\n* 1995–''present'' Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow\n", "\n", "* Official website\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Astronomers Royal", "References", "External links" ]	Astronomer Royal
[ "\n\n\nThe word '''aeon''' , also spelled '''eon''' (in American English) and '''æon''', originally meant \"life\", \"vital force\" or \"being\", \"generation\" or \"a period of time\", though it tended to be translated as \"age\" in the sense of \"ages\", \"forever\", \"timeless\" or \"for eternity\". It is a Latin transliteration from the koine Greek word (''ho aion''), from the archaic (''aiwon''). In Homer it typically refers to life or lifespan. Its latest meaning is more or less similar to the Sanskrit word ''kalpa'' and Hebrew word ''olam''. A cognate Latin word ''aevum'' or ''aeuum'' (cf. ) for \"age\" is present in words such as ''longevity'' and ''mediaeval''.\n\nAlthough the term aeon may be used in reference to a period of a billion years (especially in geology, cosmology or astronomy), its more common usage is for any long, indefinite, period. Aeon can also refer to the four aeons on the Geologic Time Scale that make up the Earth's history, the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and the current aeon Phanerozoic.\n", "In astronomy an aeon is defined as a billion years (109 years, abbreviated AE).\n \nRoger Penrose uses the word ''aeon'' to describe the period between successive and cyclic big bangs within the context of conformal cyclic cosmology.\n", "\nThe Bible translation is a treatment of the Hebrew word ''olam'' and the Greek word ''aion''. Both these words have similar meaning, and Young's Literal Translation renders them and their derivatives as “age” or “age-during”. Other English versions most often translate them to indicate eternity, being translated as eternal, everlasting, forever, etc. However, there are notable exceptions to this in all major translations, such as : “…I am with you always, to the end of the age” (NRSV), the word “age” being a translation of ''aion''. Rendering ''aion'' to indicate eternality in this verse would result in the contradictory phrase “end of eternity”, so the question arises whether it should ever be so. Proponents of universal reconciliation point out that this has significant implications for the problem of hell. Contrast in well-known English translations with its rendering in Young's Literal Translation:\n\nAnd these shall go away to punishment age-during, but the righteous to life age-during. (YLT)\n\nThen they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life. (NIV)\n\nThese will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life. (NASB)\n\nAnd these shall go away into everlasting punishment, but the righteous into eternal life. (KJV)\n\nAnd these will depart into everlasting cutting-off, but the righteous ones into everlasting life. (NWT)\n", "Plato used the word ''aeon'' to denote the eternal world of ideas, which he conceived was \"behind\" the perceived world, as demonstrated in his famous allegory of the cave.\n\nChristianity's idea of \"eternal life\" comes from the word for life, ''zoe'', and a form of ''aeon'', which could mean life in the next aeon, the Kingdom of God, or Heaven, just as much as immortality, as in .\n\nAccording to the Christian doctrine of universal reconciliation, the Greek New Testament scriptures use the word \"aeon\" to mean a long period (perhaps 1000 years) and the word \"aeonian\" to mean \"during a long period\"; Thus there was a time before the aeons, and the aeonian period is finite. After each man's mortal life ends, he is judged worthy of aeonian life or aeonian punishment. That is, after the period of the aeons, all punishment will cease and death is overcome and then God becomes the all in each one (). This contrasts with the conventional Christian belief in eternal life and eternal punishment.\n\nOccultists of the Thelema and O.T.O. traditions sometimes speak of a \"magical Aeon\" that may last for far less time, perhaps as little as 2,000 years.\n\nThe Order of Nine Angles, A UK-based Left Hand Path/Satanic organisation propose the concept of Aeons are central to the esoteric philosophy developed by the pseudonymous Anton Long, who wrote that \"an aeon is the term used by the O9A to describe a stage or a type of evolution. Evolution itself is taken to result from a certain speciﬁc process - and this process can be described, or explained or 're-presented' via a bifurcation of time. That is, evolution is an expression of how the cosmos changes over or through or because of,'time' - this 'time' having two components. These two components are the causal and the acausal ...\n\n\"An aeon is a manifestation, in the causal, of a particular type of acausal energy. Thisenergy re-orders, or changes, the causal. These changes have certain limits - in bothcausal space and causal time. That is, they have a speciﬁc beginning and a speciﬁcend. A civilization (or rather, a higher or aeonic-civilization) is how this energybecomes ordered or manifests itself in the causal: how this energy is revealed. A civilization represents the practical changes which this energy causes in the causal -in terms of the eﬀect such energy has on individuals and this planet. A civilization is tied to, is born from, a particular aeon. By the nature of this energy, a civilization isan evolution of life - a move toward a more complex, and thus more conscious existence ...\"\n\nAeon may also be an archaic name for omnipotent beings, such as gods.\n\n===Gnosticism===\n\n\nIn many Gnostic systems, the various emanations of God, who is also known by such names as the One, the Monad, ''Aion teleos'' ( \"The Broadest Aeon\"), Bythos (\"depth or profundity\", Greek ), ''Proarkhe'' (\"before the beginning\", Greek ), the ''Arkhe'' (\"the beginning\", Greek ), \"Sophia\" (wisdom), Christos (the Anointed One) are called ''Aeons''. In the different systems these emanations are differently named, classified, and described, but the emanation theory itself is common to all forms of Gnosticism.\n\nIn the Basilidian Gnosis they are called sonships (υἱότητες ''huiotetes''; sing.: ''huiotes''); according to Marcus, they are numbers and sounds; in Valentinianism they form male/female pairs called \"syzygies\" (Greek , from σύζυγοι ''syzygoi'').\n\nSimilarly, in the Greek Magical Papyri, the term \"Aion\" is often used to denote the All, or the supreme aspect of God.\n", "Aion (deity)\nKalpa (aeon)\nPlato\nSaeculum, comparable Latin concept\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Astronomy and cosmology", "Eternity or age", "Philosophy and mysticism", "See also", "References" ]	Aeon
[ "\n\n\nPolet Airlines Antonov An-124 RA-82075 on final approach to Moscow Sheremetyevo airport.\nAir India Boeing 747-400 taxiing\nA British Airways A320 at Berlin Tegel.\nAn '''airline''' is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body.\n\nAirlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or international, and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. The largest airline currently is American Airlines Group.\n", "\n===The first airlines===\nDELAG, ''Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft'' was the world's first airline. It was founded on November 16, 1909, with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1, 1914, from St. Petersburg, Florida, to Tampa, Florida. The four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands' KLM (1919), Colombia's Avianca (1919), Australia's Qantas (1921), and the Czech Republic's Czech Airlines (1923).\n\n===European airline industry===\n\n====Beginnings====\nHandley Page W.8b was used by Handley Page Transport, an early British airline established in 1919.\nThe earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris – Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger.\n\nOn 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force.\n\nOther British competitors were quick to follow – Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 19 passengers, to run a London-Paris passenger service.\n\nThe first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919, by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near Croydon, England. Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and Lesquin Airport, Lille.\n\n Junkers F.13 ''D-190'' of Junkers Luftverkehr\nThe first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.\n\nA 1919 advertisement for the Dutch airline KLM\nThe Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was immediately awarded a \"Royal\" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina. Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.\n\nIn Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September 12, 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on March 14, 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on March 20, 1924, one week later.\n\nIn the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot.\n\nEarly European airlines tend to favour comfort – the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors – over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace.\n\n====Rationalization====\nThe Imperial Airways Empire Terminal, Victoria, London. Trains ran from here to flying boats in Southampton, and to Croydon Airport.\nBy the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport Co Ltd., to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration.\n\nThe first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f ''City of Washington'', delivered on 3 November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film ''The Lost World'' became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route.\n\nTwo French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France, the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 7 October 1933.\n\nGermany's Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. Luft Hansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time.\n\n====Global expansion====\nIn 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne, Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and were extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta, Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.\n\nApril 1935 map showing Imperial Airways' routes from the UK to Australia and South Africa Imperial's aircraft were small, most seating fewer than twenty passengers, and catered for the rich. Only about 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s. Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services within and between British colonies were men doing colonial administration, business or research.\n\nLike Imperial Airways, Air France and KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (North Africa and Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the Dutch). France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged into Air France.\n\nAlthough Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey, on May 6, 1937.\n\nFrom February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean.\n\nBy the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104.\n\n====EU airline deregulation====\nDeregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines.\n\nThere has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, have suffered – particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.\n\n===U.S. airline industry===\n\n\n====Early development====\nTWA Douglas DC-3 in 1940. The DC-3, often regarded as one of the most influential aircraft in the history of commercial aviation, revolutionized air travel.\n\nTony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line. The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each. Chalk's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft. Lauderdale, Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008.\n\nFollowing World War I, the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the United States Postal Service won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service, initially using Curtiss Jenny aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service. Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties. By the mid-1920s, the Postal Service had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco. To supplement this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan Am, Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines.\n\nService during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network.\n\nAt the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s.\n\nWith the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II.\n\n====Development since 1945====\nIn October 1945, the American Export Airlines became the first airline to offer regular commercial flights between North America and Europe. Shown here is Am Ex Boeing 377 ''Stratocruiser'' in 1949.\n\nAs governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom; U.S. airline companies were not as hard-hit as European and the few Asian ones had been. This preference for \"open skies\" operating regimes continues, with limitations, to this day.\n\nWorld War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.\n\nIn the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport.\n\nThe next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody (\"jumbo jet\") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training.\n\n====US airline deregulation====\n\nPan Am Boeing 747 ''Clipper Neptune's Car'' in 1985. The deregulation of the American airline industry increased the financial troubles of the airline which ultimately filed for bankruptcy in December 1991.\n\nThe 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid off staff from other airlines.\n\nMajor airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing. In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality. Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%. So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business. America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.\n\nIn many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak.\n\nBy the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.\n\nToward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called \"legacy airlines\", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries. Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations.\n\nIncreasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR Corporation, among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are the private equity firms which often seize managerial, financial, and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations.\n\nThus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Amongst the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:\n\n\"Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake.\"\n\n====The airline industry bailout====\n\nCongress passed the Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act (P.L. 107-42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31, 2001, as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off.\n\nIn recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by the U.S. Department of Transportation and up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office and the DOT Inspector General.\n\nUltimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.) In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from the U.S. Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees.\n\n===Asian airline industry===\nA Biman Bangladesh Airlines Boeing 777-300ER parked at Shahjalal International Airport, Dhaka. Biman is the flag carrier of Bangladesh.\n\nAlthough Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3, 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation. Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio, making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name. Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on March 15, 1941, with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount.\nPhilippine Airlines Boeing 747-400. Taxiing in Cebu, Philippines\n\nIndia was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation. One of the first Asian airline companies was Air India, which was founded as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government.\n\nWith the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on July 29, 1946, under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International.\n\nOn July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California, from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines.\n\nDuring the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines; founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1949, Japan Airlines in 1951, Thai Airways International in 1960, and Korean National Airlines in 1947.\n\n===Latin American airline industry===\nTAM Airlines is the largest airline in Latin Americaa in terms of number of annual passengers flown.\n\nAmong the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, Cuba with Cubana de Aviación, Colombia with Avianca (the first airline established in the Americas), Argentina with Aerolineas Argentinas, Chile with LAN Chile (today LATAM Airlines), Brazil with Varig, Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación, Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, Puerto Rico with Puertorriquena; and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II. Puerto Rican commercial airlines such as Prinair, Oceanair, Fina Air and Vieques Air Link came much after the second world war, as did several others from other countries like Mexico's Interjet and Volaris, Venezuela's Aserca Airlines and others.\n\nThe air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicate that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region.\n\nThese airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.\n\nOnly two airlines: Avianca and LATAM Airlines have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LATAM with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil and Argentina and formerly with some operations in the Dominican Republic. The AviancaTACA group has control of Avianca Brazil, VIP Ecuador and a strategic alliance with AeroGal.\n", "\n===National===\nGaruda Indonesia Boeing 737-800 parked at Perth International Airport. This Indonesian flag carrier is owned by the Indonesian Government\n\nMany countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.\n\nThe United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have \"deregulated\" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand.\nCyprus Airways, the now defunct national airline of Cyprus\nThe entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.\n\nAs a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.\n\nIn the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers.\n\n===International===\nSingapore Airlines Airbus A380 landing at Changi Airport. Singapore Airlines is the first international airline to operate the A380, the world's largest passenger airliner.\n\nGroups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.\n\nBilateral agreements are based on the \"freedoms of the air\", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.\n\nIn the 1990s, \"open skies\" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.\n", "Juan Trippe, the founder of Pan American World Airways, surveying his globe. The collapse of Pan Am, an airline often credited for shaping the international airline industry, in December 1991 highlighted the financial complexities faced by major airline companies.\n\nHistorically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history, once the costs include subsidies for aircraft development and airport construction.\n\nOne argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world. Although many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit.\n\nIn July 2016, the total airline capacity was 181.1 billion Available Seat Kilometers (+6.9% compared to July 2015): 57.6bn in Asia-Pacific, 47.7bn in Europe, 46.2bn in North America, 12.2bn in Middle East, 12.0bn in Latin America and 5.4bn in Africa.\n\n\n+Top 150 airline groups\n !! 2016 !! 2015 !! 2014 !! 2013 !! 2012 !! 2011 !! 2010 !! 2009 !! 2008\n\n Revenue ($bn) \n 694 \n 698 \n 704 \n 684 \n 663 \n 634 \n 560 \n 481 \n 540\n\n Operating result ($bn)\n 58.9 \n 65.0 \n 30.4 \n 27.5 \n 20.7 \n 21.3 \n 32.4 \n 1.7 \n -15.3\n\n Operating margin (%)\n 8.5% \n 9.3% \n 4.3% \n 4.0% \n 3.1% \n 3.4% \n 5.8% \n 0.4% \n -2.8%\n\n Net result ($bn)\n 34.2 \n 42.4 \n 11.7 \n 15.3 \n 4.6 \n 0.3 \n 19.0 \n -5.7 \n -32.5\n\n Net margin (%)\n 4.9% \n 6.1% \n 1.7% \n 2.2% \n 0.7% \n 0.0% \n 3.4% \n -1.2% \n -6.0%\n\n\n=== Largest airlines ===\nThe world's largest airlines can be defined in several ways. American Airlines Group is the largest by its fleet size, revenue, profit, passengers carried and revenue passenger mile. Delta Air Lines is the largest by assets value and market capitalization. Lufthansa Group is the largest by number of employees, FedEx Express by freight tonne-kilometers, Ryanair by number of international passengers carried and Turkish Airlines by number of countries served.\n\n\n===Ticket revenue===\n\nAirlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems.\n\nBecause of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.\n\nMost airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes.\n\nA complicating factor is that of origin-destination control (\"O&D control\"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily.\nLufthansa Boeing 747-400. Lufthansa is the flag carrier airline of Germany.\n\nThe advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere).\n\nThe intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term \"fare war\" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world.\n\nThe extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in \"legacy\" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.\n\nComputers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for \"no-shows\", but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand.\n\n===Operating costs===\nAn Airbus A340-600 of Virgin Atlantic Airways. In October 2008, Virgin Atlantic offered to combine its operations with BMI in an effort to reduce operating costs.\n\nFull-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.\n\nMoreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country.\n\nAnalysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002)\n\nThe widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they can eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle.\n\nAs a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. American Airlines, United Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of \"undead\" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short lived given that there would be large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankruptcies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the market either as increased fleets for the survivors or the basis of cheap planes for new startups.\n\nWhere an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or \"hub\") for its scheduled flights.\n\n===Assets and financing===\nThe 'Golden Lounge' of Malaysia Airlines at Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA). The airline has ownership of special slots at KLIA, giving it a competitive edge over other airlines operating at the airport.\nAirline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.\n\nA second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period.\n\nIn view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.\n\nIf a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes to Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Dulles International Airport.\n\nOther factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways.\n\n===Airline partnerships===\nHome countries of airlines in the largest airline alliances: Star Alliance (grey), SkyTeam (blue) and Oneworld (purple). IATA codes of founders are outlined in red.\nA Japan Airlines Boeing 777-300 with special Oneworld livery. Oneworld is the third largest airline alliance after Star Alliance and SkyTeam.\n\nCodesharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' (JAL) codesharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on Tokyo–Moscow flights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian–Sabena partnership on the Vienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery.\n\nSince airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as \"show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf\"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.\n\nA more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Alliances of airlines such as Star Alliance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004.\n\nOften the companies combine IT operations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.\n\n===Fuel hedging===\nFuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice.\n\nSouthwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs.\n\n=== Seasonality ===\nAirlines often have a strong seasonality, with traffic low in Winter and peaking in Summer. In Europe the most extreme market are the Greek islands with July/August having more than ten times the winter traffic, as Jet2 is the most seasonal among Low cost carriers with July having seven times the January traffic, whereas legacy carriers are much less with only 85/115% variability.\n", "\nMODIS tracking of contrails generated by air traffic over the southeastern United States on January 29, 2004.\n\nAircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global dimming.\n\nGrowth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions.\n\nDomestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands., according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe. Without even pressure from \"green activists\", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005.\n\nDespite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use.\n\nCO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds). Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet).\n\nIn the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account.\n\nThe airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel:\n\n* Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New Zealand's Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.\n* Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative.\n* KLM has made the first commercial flight with biofuel in 2009.\n\nThere are projects on electric aircraft, and some of them are fully operational as of 2013.\n", "\nEach operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centres. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a ''Speedbird'' call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC, while SkyEurope used ''Relax''.\n", "Air Bishkek Airbus A320 landing at Domodedovo Airport (2012)\nThe various types of airline personnel include:\nFlight operations personnel including flight safety personnel.\n* Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include:\n Pilots (Captain and First Officer: some older aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or a Navigator)\n Flight attendants (led by a purser on larger aircraft)\n** In-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al)\n* Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include:\n Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance\n* Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance\n*Malaysia Airlines Airbus A380-800 departs London Heathrow Airport, England.Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance\n Airframe and powerplant technicians\n Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems\nA Philippine Airlines Airbus A340-300 taxiing to stand at T4.Avionics technicians, responsible for maintenance of avionics\n Flight dispatchers\n Baggage handlers\n Ramp Agents\n Remote centralised weight and balancing\n Gate agents\n Ticket agents\n Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees)\n Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport.\n** Crew schedulers\nAirlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations (including flight safety), and passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the airline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.\n", "Map of scheduled airline traffic in 2009\n\nThe pattern of ownership has been privatized in the recent years, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions. \n\nGrowth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a de-regulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett in 1999 said \"the money that had been made since the dawn of aviation by all of this country's airline companies was zero. Absolutely zero.\" He believes it is one of the hardest businesses to manage. \n\nAs in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since deregulation in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency.\n", "\n\n===Airline related lists===\n\n", "\n", "# \"A history of the world's airlines\", R.E.G. Davies, Oxford U.P, 1964\n# \"The airline encyclopedia, 1909–2000.” Myron J. Smith, Scarecrow Press, 2002\n# \"Flying Off Course: The Economics of International Airlines,\" 3rd edition. Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2002.\n# \"The Airline Business in the 21st Century.\" Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2001.\n", "\n* Chasing the Sun – History of commercial aviation, from PBS\n* Global Aviation Markets Whitepaper on global markets for airlines\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Regulatory considerations", "Economic considerations", "Environmental impacts", "Call signs", "Airline personnel", "Industry trends", "See also", "Notes and references", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Airline
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Australian Democrats''' is an Australian political party in existence since 1977. It was Australia's largest minor party from its formation through to the early 2000s, and frequently held the balance of power in the Senate during that time.\n\nThe party was formed as a merger of the Australia Party and the New Liberal Movement, both of which were descended from Liberal Party splinter groups. The party's inaugural leader was Don Chipp, a former Liberal cabinet minister, who famously promised to \"keep the bastards honest\". At the 1977 federal election, the Democrats polled 11.1 percent of the Senate vote and secured two seats. The party would retain a presence in the Senate for the next 30 years, at its peak (between 1999 and 2002) holding nine out of 76 seats, though never securing a seat in the lower house. Its share of the vote collapsed at the 2004 election and was further diminished in 2007; the party has not mounted a serious nationwide campaign since then, and its last senators left office in 2008. From time to time, Democrats were also elected to the parliaments of four states and the Northern Territory.\n\nDue to the party's numbers in the Senate, both Liberal and Labor governments required the assistance of the Democrats to pass contentious legislation, most notably in the case of the Howard Government's goods and services tax (GST). Ideologically, the Democrats were usually regarded as centrists, occupying the political middle ground between the Liberal Party and the Labor Party. The party had no single base, instead drawing on the support of a sometimes uneasy coalition of political moderates, disaffected major-party voters, civil libertarians, and social activists (including environmentalists and anti-war campaigners). Commonalities included an almost uniform social liberalism and an emphasis on participatory democracy. Within the parliamentary party there was frequent internal conflict, with several senators leaving the party at various stages to sit as independents or to join other parties. After Don Chipp's retirement in 1986, only one subsequent leader (Cheryl Kernot) served for more than four years.\n", "The party was founded on principles of honesty, tolerance, compassion and direct democracy through postal ballots of all members, so that \"there should be no hierarchical structure ... by which a carefully engineered elite could make decisions for the members.\" From the outset, members' participation was fiercely protected in national and divisional constitutions prescribing internal elections, regular meeting protocols, annual conferences—and monthly journals for open discussion and balloting. Dispute resolution procedures were established, with final recourse to a party ombudsman and membership ballot.\n\nPolicies determined by the unique participatory method promoted environmental awareness and sustainability, opposition to the primacy of economic rationalism (Australian neoliberalism), preventative approaches to human health and welfare, animal rights, rejection of nuclear technology and weapons.\n\nThe Australian Democrats were the first representatives of green politics at the federal level in Australia. They played a key role in the ''cause célèbre'' of the Franklin River Dam.\n\nThe party's centrist role made it subject to criticism from both the right and left of the political spectrum. In particular, Chipp's former conservative affiliation was frequently recalled by opponents on the left. This problem was to torment later leaders and strategists who, by 1991, were proclaiming \"the electoral objective\" as a higher priority than the rigorous participatory democracy espoused by the party's founders.\n\nOver three decades, the Australian Democrats achieved representation in the legislatures of the ACT, South Australia, New South Wales, Western Australia and Tasmania as well as Senate seats in all six states. However, at the 2004 and 2007 federal elections, all seven of its Senate seats were lost. The last remaining State parliamentarian, David Winderlich, left the party and was defeated as an independent in 2010.\n", "\n===1977–79===\nDon Chipp, Democrats federal leader 1977–1986\nOn the evening of 29 April 1977, Don Chipp addressed an overflowing Perth Town Hall meeting which unanimously passed a resolution to form a Centre-Line Party, which Chipp was invited to lead—but he firmly declined to reverse his avowed decision to quit politics, having resigned from the Liberal Party and been offered a lucrative position as a radio public affairs commentator. The '''Centre-Line Party''' was the provisional title of the Australian Democrats party. The occasion was a meeting at the Perth Town Hall to which Don Chipp had been invited in the hope that he would accept the position of leader of the new party, which would be an amalgamation of the Australia Party and the New Liberal Movement. On that occasion, Chipp declined to commit himself but did so at a corresponding public meeting in Melbourne on 9 May 1977. Chipp received a standing ovation from over 3,000 people, including former Prime Minister John Gorton, and decided to commit himself to leading the new party which was already being constructed by a national steering committee. The new party was eventually renamed the Australian Democrats by a ballot of its membership. \"Fifty-six suggestions produced by members were listed on the ballot paper, including Uniting Australia Party, Australian Centre Line Party, Dinkum Democrats, Practical Idealists of Australia and People for Sanity Party!! After the ballot, the suggestion of the Steering Committee, 'Australian Democrats', was overwhelmingly accepted.\" The name \"Australian Democrats\" was already in informal currency before this decision.\n\nThe first Australian Democrats (AD) federal parliamentarian was Senator Janine Haines who filled Steele Hall's casual Senate vacancy for South Australia in 1977. Surprisingly, she was not a candidate when the party contested the 1977 federal elections after Don Chipp had agreed to be leader and figurehead. Members and candidates were not lacking in electoral experience, since the Australia Party had been contesting all federal elections since 1969 and the Liberal Movement, in 1974 and 1975. The party's broad aim was to achieve a balance of power in one or more parliaments and to exercise it responsibly in line with policies determined by membership.\n\nThe grassroot support attracted by Chipp's leadership was measurable at the party's first electoral test at the 1977 federal election on 10 December, when 9.38 per cent of the total Lower House vote was polled and 11.13 per cent of the Senate vote. At that time, with five Senate seats being contested in each state, the required quota was a daunting 16.66 per cent. However, the first 6-year-term seats were won by Don Chipp (Vic) and Colin Mason (NSW).\n\n===1980–82===\nThe Australian Democrats' first national conference, on 16–17 February 1980, was opened by the distinguished nuclear physicist and former governor of South Australia, Sir Mark Oliphant, who said: I was privileged to be in the chair at the public meeting in Melbourne when Don Chipp announced formation of a new party, dedicated to preserve what freedoms we still retain, and to increase them. A party in which dictatorship from the top was replaced by consensus. A party not ordered about by big business and the rich, or by union bosses. A party where a man could retain freedom of conscience and not thereby be faced with expulsion. A party to which the intelligent individual could belong without having to subscribe to a dogmatic creed. In other words, a democratic party. \n\nAt a Melbourne media conference on 19 September 1980, in the midst of the 1980 election campaign, Chipp described his party's aim as to \"keep the bastards honest\"—the \"bastards\" being the major parties and/or politicians in general. This became a long-lived slogan for the Democrats.\n\nAt the October 1980 election, the Democrats polled 9.25 per cent of the Senate vote, electing Janine Haines (SA) and two new senators Michael Macklin (Qld) and John Siddons (Vic), bringing the party's strength to five Senate seats from 1 July 1981 .\n\nA by-election in the South Australian state seat of Mitcham (now Waite) saw Heather Southcott retain the seat for the Democrats in 1982. Since 1955 it had been held by conservative lawyer Robin Millhouse whose New Liberal Movement merged into the Democrats in 1977, and who was resigning to take up a senior judicial appointment. Southcott was defeated later that year at the 1982 state election. Mitcham was the only single-member lower-house seat anywhere in Australia to be won by the Democrats.\n\n===1986–90===\nJanine Haines and Don Chipp, the first two leaders of the Australian Democrats\nDon Chipp resigned from the Senate on 18 August 1986, being succeeded as party leader by Janine Haines and replaced as a senator for Victoria by Janet Powell.\n\nAt the 1987 election following a double dissolution, the reduced quota of 7.7% necessary to win a seat assisted the election of three new senators. 6-year terms were won by Paul McLean (NSW) and incumbents Janine Haines (South Australia) and Janet Powell (Victoria). In South Australia, a second senator, John Coulter, was elected for a 3-year term, as were incumbent Michael Macklin (Queensland) and Jean Jenkins (Western Australia).\n\n===1990–91===\n\n1990 saw the voluntary departure from the Senate of Janine Haines (a step with which not all Democrats agreed) and the failure of her strategic goal of winning the House of Representatives seat of Kingston.\n\nThe casual vacancy was filled by Meg Lees several months before the election of Cheryl Kernot in place of retired deputy leader Michael Macklin. The ambitious Kernot immediately contested the party's national parliamentary deputy leadership. Being unemployed at the time, she requested and obtained party funds to pay for her travel to address members in all seven divisions. In the event, Victorian Janet Powell was elected as leader and John Coulter was chosen as deputy leader.\n\nDespite the loss of Haines and the WA Senate seat (through an inconsistent national preference agreement with the ALP), the 1990 federal election heralded something of a rebirth for the party, with a dramatic rise in primary vote. This was at the same time as an economic recession was building, and events such as the Gulf War in Kuwait were beginning to shepherd issues of globalisation and transnational trade on to national government agendas.\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Election Results'''\n'''Senate – National'''\n\n1977: 11.1%\n1980: 9.3%\n1983: 9.6%\n1984: 7.6%\n1987: 8.5%\n1990: 12.6%\n1993: 5.3%\n1996: 10.8%\n1998: 8.4%\n2001: 7.3%\n2004: 2.1%\n2007: 1.3%\n2010: 0.6%\n2013: 0.3%\n\n\nThe Australian Democrats had a long-standing policy to oppose war and so opposed Australia's support of, and participation in, the Gulf War. Whereas the House of Representatives was able to avoid any debate about the war and Australia's participation, the Democrats took full advantage of the opportunity to move for a debate in the Senate.\n\nBecause of the party's pacifist-based opposition to the Gulf War, there was mass-media antipathy and negative publicity which some construed as poor media performance by Janet Powell, the party's standing having stalled at about 10%. Before 12 months of her leadership had passed, the South Australian and Queensland divisions were circulating the party's first-ever petition to criticise and oust the parliamentary leader. The explicit grounds related to Powell's alleged responsibility for poor AD ratings in Gallup and other media surveys of potential voting support. When this charge was deemed insufficient, interested party officers and senators reinforced it with negative media 'leaks' concerning her openly established relationship with Sid Spindler and exposure of administrative failings resulting in excessive overtime to a staff member. With National Executive blessing, the party room pre-empted the ballot by replacing the leader with deputy John Coulter. In the process, severe internal divisions were generated. One major collateral casualty was the party whip Paul McLean who resigned and quit the Senate in disgust at what he perceived as in-fighting between close friends. The casual NSW vacancy created by his resignation was filled by Karin Sowada. Powell duly left the party, along with many leading figures of the Victorian branch of the party, and unsuccessfully stood as an Independent candidate when her term expired. In later years, she campaigned for the Australian Greens.\n", "Senator Natasha Stott Despoja 1995–2008\n\nBecause of their numbers on the cross benches during the Hawke and Keating governments, the Democrats were sometimes regarded as exercising a balance of power—which attracted electoral support from a significant sector of the electorate which had been alienated by both Labor and Coalition policies and practices. The party's parliamentary influence was weakened in 1996 after the Howard Government was elected, and a Labor senator, Mal Colston, resigned from the Labor Party. Since the Democrats now shared the parliamentary balance of power with two Independent senators, the Coalition government was able on occasion to pass legislation by negotiating with Colston and Brian Harradine. Following the 1998 election the Australian Democrats again held the balance of power, until the Coalition gained a Senate majority at the 2004 election.\n\nThe party's integrity as a neutral third party suffered a serious blow from the resignation and defection of leader Cheryl Kernot in October 1997, with revelations of her sexual relationship with Gareth Evans and her aspirations to a ministerial position in a Labor government.\n\nSenator Lyn Allison 1996–2008\n\nUnder Lees' leadership, in the 1998 federal election, the Democrats' candidate John Schumann came within 2 per cent of taking Liberal Foreign Minister Alexander Downer's seat of Mayo in the Adelaide Hills under Australia's preferential voting system. The party's representation increased to nine senators.\n\nInternal conflict and leadership tensions from 2000 to 2002, blamed on the party's support for the Government's Goods and Services Tax (GST), was damaging to the Democrats. Opposed by the Labor Party, the Australian Greens and independent Senator Harradine, the GST required Democrat support to pass. In an election fought on tax, the Democrats publicly stated that they liked neither the Liberal (GST) tax package nor the Labor package, but pledged to work with whichever party was elected to make their tax package better. They campaigned with the slogan \"No GST on food\".\n\nIn 1999, after negotiations with Prime Minister Howard, Meg Lees, Andrew Murray and the party room Senators agreed to support the A New Tax System (ANTS) legislation with exemptions from GST for most food and some medicines, as well as many environmental and social concessions. Five Australian Democrats senators voted in favour. However, two dissident senators on the party's left Natasha Stott Despoja and Andrew Bartlett voted against the GST.\n\nIn 2001, a leadership spill saw Meg Lees replaced as leader by Natasha Stott Despoja after a very public and bitter leadership battle. Despite criticism of Stott Despoja's youth and lack of experience, the 2001 election saw the Democrats receive similar media coverage to the previous election. Despite the internal divisions, the Australian Democrats' election result in 2001 was quite good. However, it was not enough to prevent the loss of Vicki Bourne's Senate seat in NSW.\n\nThe 2002 South Australian state election was the last time an Australian Democrat would be elected to an Australian parliament. Sandra Kanck was re-elected to a second eight-year term from an upper house primary vote of 7.3 percent.\n\nResulting tensions between Stott Despoja and Lees led to Meg Lees leaving the party in 2002, becoming an independent and forming the Australian Progressive Alliance. Stott Despoja stood down from the leadership following a loss of confidence by her party room colleagues. It led to a protracted leadership battle in 2002, which eventually led to the election of Senator Andrew Bartlett as leader. While the public fighting stopped, the public support for the party remained at record lows.\n\nOn 6 December 2003, Bartlett stepped aside temporarily as leader of the party, after an incident in which he swore at Liberal Senator Jeannie Ferris on the floor of Parliament while intoxicated. The party issued a statement stating that deputy leader Lyn Allison would serve as the acting leader of the party. Bartlett apologised to the Democrats, Jeannie Ferris and the Australian public for his behaviour and assured all concerned that it would never happen again. On 29 January 2004, after seeking medical treatment, Bartlett returned to the Australian Democrats leadership, vowing to abstain from alcohol.\n\n===2004===\nSupport for the Australian Democrats fell significantly at the 2004 federal election in which they achieved only 2.4 per cent of the national vote. Nowhere was this more noticeable than in their key support base of suburban Adelaide in South Australia, where they received between 7 and 31 per cent of the Lower House vote in 2001, and between 1 and 4 per cent in 2004. Three incumbent senators were defeated—Aden Ridgeway (NSW), Brian Greig (WA) and John Cherry (Qld). Following the loss, the customary post-election leadership ballot installed Lyn Allison as leader and Andrew Bartlett as her deputy.\n\nFrom 1 July 2005 the Australian Democrats lost official parliamentary party status, being represented by only four senators while the governing Liberal-National Coalition gained a majority and potential control of the Senate—the first time this advantage had been enjoyed by any government since 1980.\n\n===2006===\nOn 5 January 2006, the ABC reported that the Tasmanian Electoral Commission had de-registered that division of the party for failing to provide a list containing the required number of members to be registered for Tasmanian state and local elections.\n\nOn 18 March 2006, at the 2006 South Australian state election, the Australian Democrats were reduced to 1.7 per cent of the Legislative Council (upper house) vote. Their sole councillor up for re-election, Kate Reynolds, was defeated.\n\nAfter the election, South Australian senator Natasha Stott Despoja denied rumours that she was considering quitting the party.\n\nIn early July, Richard Pascoe, national and South Australian party president, resigned, citing slumping opinion polls and the poor result in the 2006 South Australian election as well as South Australian parliamentary leader Sandra Kanck's comments regarding the drug MDMA which he saw as damaging to the party.\n\nOn 5 July 2006, Australian Democrats senator for Western Australia Andrew Murray announced his intention not to contest the 2007 federal election, citing frustration arising from the Howard Government's control of both houses and his unwillingness to serve another six-year term. His term ended on 30 June 2008.\n\nOn 28 August 2006, the founder of the Australian Democrats, Don Chipp, died. Former prime minister Bob Hawke said: \"... there is a coincidental timing almost between the passing of Don Chipp and what I think is the death throes of the Democrats. \"\n\nOn 22 October 2006, Australian Democrats Senator Natasha Stott Despoja announced her intention not to seek re-election at the 2007 federal election due to health concerns. Her term ended on 30 June 2008.\n\nIn November 2006, the Australian Democrats fared very poorly in the Victorian state election, receiving a Legislative Council vote tally of only 0.83%, less than half of the party's result in 2002 (1.79 per cent).\n\n===2007===\nIn the New South Wales state election of March 2007, the Australian Democrats lost their last remaining NSW Upper House representative, Arthur Chesterfield-Evans. The party fared poorly, gaining only 1.8 per cent of the Legislative Council vote. A higher vote was achieved in some of the Legislative Assembly seats selectively contested as compared to 2003. However, the statewide vote share fell because the party was unable to field as many candidates as in 2003.\n\nIn the Victorian state by-election in Albert Park District the Australian Democrats stood candidate Paul Kavanagh, who polled 5.75 per cent of the primary vote, despite a large number of candidates, and all media attention focusing on the battle between Labor and Greens candidates.\n\nOn 13 September 2007, the ACT Democrats (Australian Capital Territory Division of the party) was deregistered by the ACT Electoral Commissioner, being unable to demonstrate a minimum membership of 100 electors.\n\nThe Democrats had no success at the 2007 federal election. Two incumbent senators, Lyn Allison (Victoria) and Andrew Bartlett (Queensland), were defeated, their seats both reverting to major parties. Their two remaining colleagues, Andrew Murray (WA) and Natasha Stott Despoja (SA), did not run for new terms. All four senators' terms expired on 30 June 2008—leaving the Australian Democrats with no federal representation for the first time since its founding in 1977. An ABC report noted that \"on the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) website the party is now referred to just as 'other'\".\n\n===Post-2007===\nMLC Sandra Kanck 1993–2009, the last Democrat to be elected (2002) to an Australian parliament.\nMLC David Winderlich 2009–10, the last Democrat to sit in an Australian parliament. Became an independent later in 2009.\nThe last of the party's state upper-house members, David Winderlich, resigned from the party in October 2009 and was defeated as an independent at the 2010 election.\n\nIn March 2012, the Australian Electoral Commission queried a Democrats submission of 550 names of purported members and proposed deregistering the party for having fewer than 500 members, the threshold needed for registration. The Commission later satisfied itself that the party had sufficient membership to continue its registration.\n\nThe Democrats did not nominate a single candidate in the 2014 South Australian election, in the party's state of origin.\n\nOn 16 April 2015, the Australian Electoral Commission deregistered the Australian Democrats as a political party for failure to demonstrate the requisite 500 members to maintain registration.\n\nThe Australian Democrats have said they will appeal the AEC decision, which under the legislation is reviewable. However the party does not appear on the AEC Current Register of Political Parties and could not contest the 2016 Federal Election. Much of their support in the party's birthplace, South Australia, flowed to the Nick Xenophon Team, which has a very similar platform.\n", "{\| class=wikitable\n\nSenate\n\n Election year\n # ofoverall votes\n % ofoverall vote\n # ofoverall seats won\n # ofoverall seats\n +/–\n Notes\n\n 1977\n 823,550\n 11.13 (#3)\n \n \n align\n \n\n 1980\n 711,805\n 9.25 (#3)\n \n \n 2\n Shared balance of power\n\n 1983\n 764,911\n 9.57 (#3)\n \n \n 0\n Sole balance of power\n\n 1984\n 677,970\n 7.62 (#3)\n \n \n 2\n Sole balance of power\n\n 1987\n 794,107\n 8.47 (#3)\n \n \n 0\n Sole balance of power\n\n 1990\n 1,253,807\n 12.63 (#3)\n \n \n 1\n Sole balance of power\n\n 1993\n 566,944\n 5.31 (#3)\n \n \n 1\n Shared balance of power\n\n 1996\n 1,179,357\n 10.82 (#3)\n \n \n 0\n Shared balance of power\n\n 1998\n 947,940\n 8.45 (#4)\n \n \n 2\n Sole balance of power\n\n 2001\n 843,130\n 7.25 (#3)\n \n \n 1\n Shared balance of power\n\n 2004\n 250,373\n 2.09 (#4)\n \n \n 4\n\n\n 2007\n 162,975\n 1.29 (#5)\n \n \n 4\n\n\n 2010\n 80,645\n 0.63 (#10)\n \n \n 0\n\n\n 2013\n 33,907\n 0.25 (#23)\n \n \n 0\n\n\n", "The party's original support base consisted of voters alienated by perceived unproductive adversarial conflict between the two mainstream parties and an emerging new constituency of people with a desire to participate more effectively in government and to promote concerns for environmental protection and social justice. The party aimed to combine liberal social policies with centrist, particularly neo-Keynesian economics and a progressive environmental platform.\n\nThe original agenda included interventionist economic policies, commitment to environmental causes, support for reconciliation with Australia's indigenous population through such mechanisms as formal treaties, pacifist approaches to international relations, open government, constitutional reform, progressive approaches to social issues such as sexuality and drugs, and strong support for human rights and civil liberties. Its membership largely comprised tertiary-educated and middle-class constituents. The party also appealed to voters opposed to untrammeled government power and wishing to have alternative views aired in parliaments and media.\n\nThe party has a platform of participatory democracy, with policies supporting proportional representation and citizen-initiated referenda. Many important internal issues (such as electoral preselection and leadership) are decided by direct postal ballot of the membership. Although policies are theoretically set in a similar fashion, Australian Democrats parliamentarians generally had extensive freedom in interpreting them.\n\nHowever, by 1980, the Australian Democrats had employed the postal-ballot method at both national at state levels to develop an extensive body of written policy covering not only the political agendas of the day but also innovative and far-sighted policies for environmental and economic sustainability, water and energy conservation, e.g., through development of alternative energy sources, expanded public transport, etc. To the community's growing concerns about human rights, the Australian Democrats added finely detailed policies on animal welfare and species preservation. The material is available in election manifestos and copies of the party's journals, obtainable in major public libraries.\n\nIn a 2009 \"rebuild\" process, the party announced creation of a new policy process, attempts to improve internal communication, and envisaged development of a new party constitution.\n\nPrior to the 2013 federal election, the party, though factionally divided into two separate organisations, was able to publish a comprehensive package of member-balloted policies.\n", "Support for the Democrats historically tended to fluctuate between about 5 and 10 per cent of the population and was geographically concentrated around the wealthy dense CBD and inner-suburban neighbourhoods of the capital cities (especially Adelaide). Therefore, they never managed to win a House of Representatives seat. During the 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s they typically held one or two Senate seats in each state, as well as having some representatives in state parliaments.\n\nFollowing the internal conflict over GST (1998–2001) and resultant leadership changes, a dramatic decline occurred in the Democrats' membership and voting support in all states. Simultaneously, an increase was recorded in support for the Australian Greens who, by 2004, were supplanting the Democrats as a substantial third party. The trend was noted that year by political scientists Dean Jaensch et al. Elsewhere, Jaensch later suggested it was possible the Democrats could make a political comeback in the federal arena.\n\nFollowing Tony Abbott's displacement of Malcolm Turnbull as federal leader of the Liberal Party in 2009, the Democrats sought to attract the support of \"those Liberals who no longer feel they can support their party\".\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable sortable\" width=100%\n\n#\nLeader\nState\nStart\nEnd\nTime in office\nElection(s)\n\n1\nDon Chipp\nVIC\n9 May 1977\n18 August 1986\n\n1977, 1980, 1983, 1984\n\n2\nJanine Haines\nSA\n18 August 1986\n24 March 1990\n\n1987, 1990\n\n–\n''Michael Macklin''\nQLD\n24 March 1990\n30 June 1990\n0 years, \nnone\n\n3\nJanet Powell\nVIC\n1 July 1990\n19 August 1991\n\nnone\n\n4\nJohn Coulter\nSA\n19 August 1991\n29 April 1993\n\n1993\n\n5\nCheryl Kernot\nQLD\n29 April 1993\n15 October 1997\n\n1996\n\n6\nMeg Lees\nSA\n15 October 1997\n6 April 2001\n\n1998\n\n7\nNatasha Stott Despoja\nSA\n6 April 2001\n21 August 2002\n\n2001\n\n–\n''Brian Greig''\nWA\n23 August 2002\n5 October 2002\n0 years, \nnone\n\n8\nAndrew Bartlett\nQLD\n5 October 2002\n3 November 2004\n\n2004\n\n9\nLyn Allison\nVIC\n3 November 2004\n30 June 2008\n\n2007\n\n\n;Notes\n\n", "\n===Senators===\n\n\n\n\n Senator\n State\n Term\n\nJanine Haines\nSouth Australia\n 1977–1978; 1981–1990\n\nDon Chipp\n Victoria\n1978–1986\n\nColin Mason\n New South Wales\n1978–1987\n\nMichael Macklin\n Queensland\n 1981–1990\n\nJohn Siddons\n Victoria\n1981–1983; 1985–1986 (1987)\n\nJack Evans\n Western Australia\n1983–1985\n\nDavid Vigor\n South Australia\n1985–1987\n\nNorm Sanders\n Tasmania\n1985–1990\n\nJanet Powell\n Victoria\n1986–1992 (1993)\n\nJohn Coulter\nSouth Australia\n1987–1995\n\nPaul McLean\n New South Wales\n1987–1991\n\nJean Jenkins\n Western Australia\n1987–1990\n\nVicki Bourne\n New South Wales\n1990–2002\n\nSid Spindler\n Victoria\n1990–1996\n\nCheryl Kernot\n Queensland\n1990–1997\n\nRobert Bell\n Tasmania\n1990–1996\n\nKarin Sowada\n New South Wales\n1991–1993\n\nJohn Woodley\n Queensland\n1993–2001\n\nMeg Lees\n South Australia\n1990–2002 (2005)\n\nNatasha Stott Despoja\n South Australia\n1995–2008\n\nLyn Allison\n Victoria\n1996–2008\n\nAndrew Murray\n Western Australia\n1996–2008\n\nAndrew Bartlett\n Queensland\n1997–2008\n\nAden Ridgeway\n New South Wales\n1999–2005\n\nBrian Greig\n Western Australia\n1999–2005\n\nJohn Cherry\n Queensland\n2001–2005\n\n\n===State and territory members===\n====Australian Capital Territory====\n1979–1985: Ivor Vivian, member of the House of Assembly\n1979–1985: Gordon Walsh, member of the House of Assembly\n2001–2004: Roslyn Dundas, member of the Legislative Assembly\n\n====New South Wales====\n1981–1998: Elisabeth Kirkby, member of the Legislative Council\n1988–1996: Richard Jones, member of the Legislative Council\n1998–2007: Arthur Chesterfield-Evans, member of the Legislative Council\n\n====South Australia====\n1977–1982: Robin Millhouse, member of the House of Assembly\n1979–1985: Lance Milne, member of the Legislative Council\n1982: Heather Southcott, member of the House of Assembly\n1982–1993, 1997–2006: Ian Gilfillan, member of the Legislative Council\n1985–2003: Mike Elliott, member of the Legislative Council\n1993–2009: Sandra Kanck, member of the Legislative Council\n2003–2006: Kate Reynolds, member of the Legislative Council\n2009: David Winderlich, member of the Legislative Council\n\n====Tasmania====\n1980–1982: Norm Sanders, member of the House of Assembly\n\n====Western Australia====\n1997–2001: Helen Hodgson, member of the Legislative Council\n1997–2001: Norm Kelly, member of the Legislative Council\n", "\nSocial liberalism\nLiberalism worldwide\nList of liberal parties\nLiberal democracy\nTimeline of (small-l) liberal parties in Australia\n", "\n", "\n", "Bennett D, Discord in the Democrats PWHCE article, Melbourne 2002\n''Beyond Our Expectations''—Proceedings of the Australian Democrats First National Conference, Canberra, 16–17 February 1980. Papers by: Don Chipp, Sir Mark Oliphant, Prof. Stephen Boyden, Bob Whan, Julian Cribb, Colin Mason, John Siddons, A. McDonald\nChipp D (ed. Larkin J) ''Chipp'', Methuen Haynes, North Ryde NSW, 1987 \nGauja A '' Evaluating the Success and Contribution of a Minor Party: the Case of the Australian Democrats'' Parliamentary Affairs (2010) 63(3): 486-503, 21 January 2010, at Oxford Journals. (Paid subscription, Athens or participating library membership required)\nMadden C ''Australian Democrats: the passing of an era'', Research Paper, Parliamentary Library\nPaul A and Miller L ''The Third Team'' July 2007 A historical essay in ''30 Years—Australian Democrats'' Melbourne 2007. (A 72-page anthology of historical and biographical monographs about the state and federal parliamentary experiences of the Democrats, for the party's 30th anniversary.)\nSugita H ''Challenging 'twopartism'—the contribution of the Australian Democrats to the Australian party system'', PhD thesis, Flinders University of South Australia, July 1995\nWarhurst J (ed.) ''Keeping the bastards honest'' Allen & Unwin Sydney 1997 \nWarhurst J, ''Don Chipp Was The Right Man In The Right Place At The Right Time'' ''Canberra Times'' 7 September 2006\n", " \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Overview", "History", "Electoral fortunes", "Electoral results", "Policy", "Supporter base", "Federal parliamentary leaders", "Parliamentarians", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Australian Democrats
[ "\n\n\n\nThe '''Australian Capital Territory''' ('''ACT'''; known as the '''Federal Capital Territory''' until 1938) is Australia's federal district, located in the south-east of the country and enclaved within the state of New South Wales. It contains Canberra, the capital city of Australia.\n\nGeographically, the territory is bounded by the Goulburn-Cooma railway line in the east, the watershed of Naas Creek in the south, the watershed of the Cotter River in the west, and the watershed of the Molonglo River in the north-east. The ACT also has a small strip of territory around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula, which is the northern headland of Jervis Bay.\n\nThe need for a national territory was flagged by colonial delegates during the Federation conventions of the late 19th century. Section 125 of the Australian Constitution provided that, following Federation in 1901, land would be ceded freely to the new Federal Government. The territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by the state of New South Wales in 1911, two years prior to the naming of Canberra as the national capital in 1913. The floral emblem of the ACT is the royal bluebell and the bird emblem is the gang-gang cockatoo.\n\nThe economic activity of the Australian Capital Territory is heavily concentrated around Canberra. A stable housing market, steady employment and rapid population growth in the 21st century have led to economic prosperity and in 2011 CommSec ranked the ACT as the second best performing economic region in the country. This trend continued into 2016, when the territory was ranked the third best performing out of all of Australia's states and territories. There is a higher proportion of young adults in the region compared with other Australian states or territories. Approximately one-fifth of ACT residents were born outside of Australia, mainly in the United Kingdom. Almost one-fifth speak a language other than English at home, the most common being Chinese.\n", "Location of the ACT and Jervis Bay\nThe ACT is bounded by the Goulburn-Cooma railway line in the east, the watershed of Naas Creek in the south, the watershed of the Cotter River in the west, and the watershed of the Molonglo River in the north-east. The ACT also has a small strip of territory around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula, which is the northern headland of Jervis Bay.\n\nApart from the city of Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land (sheep, dairy cattle, vineyards and small amounts of crops) and a large area of national park (Namadgi National Park), much of it mountainous and forested. Small townships and communities located within the ACT include Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall.\n\nTidbinbilla is a locality to the south-west of Canberra that features the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex, operated by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of its Deep Space Network.\n\nThere are a large range of mountains, rivers and creeks in the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers.\n\n\nThe Molonglo River, located in the north-east of the region.\n\n===Climate===\nBecause of its elevation and distance from the coast, the Australian Capital Territory experiences four distinct seasons, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea. Canberra is noted for its warm to hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the higher mountains in the territory's south-west are snow-covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is , with rainfall highest in spring and summer and lowest in winter.\n\nThe highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971.\n\n===Geology===\n\nNotable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the ''Canberra Formation'', the ''Pittman Formation'', ''Black Mountain Sandstone'' and ''State Circle Shale''.\n\nIn the 1840s fossils of brachiopods and trilobites from the Silurian period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near Duntroon. At the time, these were the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed. Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting and the Deakin anticline.\n\nThe oldest rocks in the ACT date from the Ordovician around 480 million years ago. During this period the region along with most of Eastern Australia was part of the ocean floor; formations from this period include the ''Black Mountain Sandstone'' formation and the ''Pittman Formation'' consisting largely of quartz-rich sandstone, siltstone and shale. These formations became exposed when the ocean floor was raised by a major volcanic activity in the Devonian forming much of the east coast of Australia.\n", "\n\nCanberra, located in the northern end of the territory, is an entirely planned city.\nThe ACT Legislative Assembly building\n\nThe ACT has internal self-government, but Australia's Constitution does not afford the territory government the full legislative independence provided to Australian states. Laws are made in a 25-member Legislative Assembly that combines both state and local government functions (prior to 2016, the Assembly was made up of 17 members).\n\nMembers of the Legislative Assembly are elected via the Hare Clarke system. The ACT Chief Minister (currently Andrew Barr, Australian Labor Party) is elected by members of the ACT Assembly. The ACT Government Chief Minister is a member of the Council of Australian Governments.\n\nUnlike other self-governing Australian territories (for example, the Northern Territory), the ACT does not have an Administrator. The Crown is represented by the Australian Governor-General in the government of the ACT. Until 4 December 2011, the decisions of the assembly could be overruled by the Governor-General (effectively by the national government) under section 35 of the Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988, although the federal parliament voted in 2011 to abolish this veto power, instead requiring a majority of both houses of the federal parliament to override an enactment of the ACT. The Chief Minister performs many of the roles that a state governor normally holds in the context of a state; however, the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly gazettes the laws and summons meetings of the Assembly.\n\nIn Australia's Federal Parliament, the ACT is represented by four federal members: two members of the House of Representatives represent the Division of Fenner and the Division of Canberra and it is one of only two territories to be represented in the Senate, with two Senators (the other being the Northern Territory). The Member for Fenner and the ACT Senators also represent the constituents of the Jervis Bay Territory.\n\nIn 1915 the ''Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915'' created the Jervis Bay Territory as an annexe to the Australian Capital Territory. In 1988, when the ACT gained self-government, Jervis Bay became a separate territory administered by the Australian Government Minister responsible for Territories, presently the Minister for Home Affairs.\n\nThe ACT retains a small area of territory on the coast on the Beecroft Peninsula, consisting of a strip of coastline around the northern headland of Jervis Bay (not to be confused with the Jervis Bay Territory, which is on the southern headland of the Bay). The ACT's land on the Beecroft Peninsula is an \"exclave\", that is, an area of territory not physically connected to the main part of the ACT. Interestingly, this ACT exclave surrounds a small exclave of NSW territory, namely the Point Perpendicular lighthouse which is at the southern tip of the Beecroft Peninsula. The lighthouse and its grounds are New South Wales territory, but cut off from the rest of the state by the strip of ACT land. This is a geographic curiosity: an exclave of NSW land enclosed by an exclave of ACT land.\n\n===Administration===\nACT sign\nACT Ministers implement their executive powers through the following government directorates:\n* Chief Minister, Treasury and Economic Development Directorate\n* Community Services Directorate\n* Health Directorate\n* Education Directorate\n* Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate\n* Justice and Community Safety Directorate\n* Transport Canberra and City Services Directorate\n", "Estimated resident population since 1981\n\n\nAt the , the population of the ACT was 397,397 of whom most lived in Canberra. The ACT median weekly income for people aged over 15 was $1000 while the national average was $662. The average level of degree qualification in the ACT is higher than the national average. Within the ACT 4.5% of the population have a postgraduate degree compared to 1.8% across the whole of Australia.\n\n===Urban structure===\n\nBikepath to Weston Creek\nParliamentary Triangle\nThe Canberra metropolitan area seen from Spot Satellite\n\nCanberra is a planned city that was originally designed by Walter Burley Griffin, a major 20th century American architect. Major roads follow a wheel-and-spoke pattern rather than a grid. The city centre is laid out on two perpendicular axes: a water axis stretching along Lake Burley Griffin, and a ceremonial land axis stretching from Parliament House on Capital Hill north-eastward along Anzac Parade to the Australian War Memorial at the foot of Mount Ainslie.\n\nThe area known as the Parliamentary Triangle is formed by three of Burley Griffin's axes, stretching from Capital Hill along Commonwealth Avenue to the Civic Centre around City Hill, along Constitution Avenue to the Defence precinct on Russell Hill, and along Kings Avenue back to Capital Hill.\n\nThe larger scheme of Canberra's layout is based on the three peaks surrounding the city, Mount Ainslie, Black Mountain, and Red Hill. The main symmetrical axis of the city is along Anzac Parade and roughly on the line between Mount Ainslie and Bimberi Peak. Bimberi Peak being the highest mountain in the ACT approximately south west of Canberra . The precise alignment of Anzac parade is between Mount Ainslie and Capital Hill (formally Kurrajong Hill).\n\nThe Griffins assigned spiritual values to Mount Ainslie, Black Mountain, and Red Hill and originally planned to cover each of these in flowers. That way each hill would be covered with a single, primary color which represented its spiritual value. This part of their plan never came to fruition. In fact, WWI interrupted the construction and some conflicts after the war made it a difficult process for the Griffins. Nevertheless, Canberra stands halfway between the ski slopes and the beach. It enjoys a natural cooling from geophysical factors.\n\nThe urban areas of Canberra are organised into a hierarchy of districts, town centres, group centres, local suburbs as well as other industrial areas and villages. There are seven districts (with an eighth currently under construction), each of which is divided into smaller suburbs, and most of which have a town centre which is the focus of commercial and social activities. The districts were settled in the following chronological order:\n* North Canberra, mostly settled in the 1920s and '30s, with expansion up to the 1960s, now 14 suburbs\n* South Canberra, settled from the 1920s to '60s, 13 suburbs\n* Woden Valley, first settled in 1963, 12 suburbs\n* Belconnen, first settled in 1967, 25 suburbs\n* Weston Creek, settled in 1969, 8 suburbs\n* Tuggeranong, settled in 1974, 19 suburbs\n* Gungahlin, settled in the early 1990s, 18 suburbs although only 15 are developed or under development\n* Molonglo Valley, first suburbs currently under construction\n\nThe North and South Canberra districts are substantially based on Walter Burley Griffin's designs. In 1967 the then National Capital Development Commission adopted the \"Y Plan\" which laid out future urban development in Canberra around a series of central shopping and commercial area known as the 'town centres' linked by freeways, the layout of which roughly resembled the shape of the letter Y, with Tuggeranong at the base of the Y and Belconnen and Gungahlin located at the ends of the arms of the Y.\n\nDevelopment in Canberra has been closely regulated by government, both through the town planning process, but also through the use of crown lease terms that have tightly limited the use of parcels of land. All land in the ACT is held on 99 year leases from the national government, although most leases are now administered by the Territory government.\n\nMost suburbs have their own local shops, and are located close to a larger shopping centre serving a group of suburbs. Community facilities and schools are often also located near local shops or group shopping centres. Many of Canberra's suburbs are named after former Prime Ministers, famous Australians, early settlers, or use Aboriginal words for their title.\n\nStreet names typically follow a particular theme; for example, the streets of Duffy are named after Australian dams and reservoirs, the streets of Dunlop are named after Australian inventions, inventors and artists and the streets of Page are named after biologists and naturalists. Most diplomatic missions are located in the suburbs of Yarralumla, Deakin and O'Malley. There are three light industrial areas: the suburbs of Fyshwick, Mitchell and Hume.\n", "\nThe John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University\nAlmost all educational institutions in the Australian Capital Territory are located within Canberra. The ACT public education system schooling is normally split up into Pre-School, Primary School (K-6), High School (7–10) and College (11–12) followed by studies at university or CIT (Canberra Institute of Technology). Many private high schools include years 11 and 12 and are referred to as colleges. Children are required to attend school until they turn 17 under the ACT Government's \"Learn or Earn\" policy.\n\nIn February 2004 there were 140 public and non-governmental schools in Canberra; 96 were operated by the Government and 44 are non-Government. In 2005 there were 60,275 students in the ACT school system. 59.3% of the students were enrolled in government schools with the remaining 40.7% in non-government schools. There were 30,995 students in primary school, 19,211 in high school, 9,429 in college and a further 340 in special schools.\n\nAs of May 2004, 30% of people in the ACT aged 15–64 had a level of educational attainment equal to at least a bachelor's degree, significantly higher than the national average of 19%. The two main tertiary institutions are the Australian National University (ANU) in Acton and the University of Canberra (UC) in Bruce. There are also two religious university campuses in Canberra: Signadou is a campus of the Australian Catholic University and St Mark's Theological College is a campus of Charles Sturt University. Tertiary level vocational education is also available through the multi-campus Canberra Institute of Technology.\n\nThe Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) and the Royal Military College, Duntroon (RMC) are in the suburb of Campbell in Canberra's inner northeast. ADFA teaches military undergraduates and postgraduates and is officially a campus of the University of New South Wales while Duntroon provides Australian Army Officer training.\n\nThe Academy of Interactive Entertainment (AIE) offers courses in computer game development and 3D animation.\n\n", "\n\n* Book:Australia\n* Community Based Corrections\n* History of the Australian Capital Territory\n* Human Rights Act 2004\n* Index of Australia-related articles\n* Outline of Australia\n* Revenue stamps of the Australian Capital Territory\n* Flag of the Australian Capital Territory\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n", "\n* Statistical Subdivisions of the Australian Capital Territory\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Geography", "Governance", "Demographics", "Education", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Australian Capital Territory
[ "A ''large'' (250 ml) glass of 12% ABV red wine has about three units of alcohol. A ''medium'' (175 ml) glass has about two units.\n\n'''Units of alcohol''' are used in the United Kingdom (UK) as a measure to quantify the actual alcoholic content within a given volume of an alcoholic beverage, in order to provide guidance on total alcohol consumption.\n\nA number of other countries (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the US) use the concept of a ''standard drink'', the definition of which varies from country to country, for the same purpose. ''Standard drinks'' were referred to in the first UK guidelines (1984) that published \"safe limits\" for drinking, but these were replaced by references to \"alcohol units\" in the 1987 guidelines and the latter term has been used in all subsequent UK guidance.\n\nOne '''unit of alcohol''' (UK) is defined as 10 millilitres (8 grams) of pure alcohol. Typical drinks (i.e., typical quantities or servings of common alcoholic beverages) may contain 1–3 units of alcohol.\n\nContainers of alcoholic beverages sold directly to UK consumers are normally labelled to indicate the number of units of alcohol in a typical serving of the beverage (optional) and in the full container (can or bottle), as well as information about responsible drinking.\n\nAs an approximate guideline, a typical healthy adult can metabolise (break down) about one unit of alcohol per hour, although this may vary depending on sex, age, weight, health, and many other factors.\n", "The number of UK units of alcohol in a drink can be determined by multiplying the volume of the drink (in millilitres) by its percentage ABV, and dividing by 1000.\n\nFor example, one imperial pint (568 ml) of beer at 4% alcohol by volume (ABV) contains:\n:\n\nThe formula uses . This results in exactly one unit per percentage point per litre, of any alcoholic beverage.\n\nThe formula can be simplified for everyday use by expressing the serving size in centilitres and the alcohol content literally as a percentage.\n:\n\nThus, a 750 ml bottle of wine at 12% ABV contains 75 cl × 12% = 9 units. Alternatively, the serving size in litres multiplied by the alcohol content as a number, the above example giving 0.75 × 12 = 9 units.\n:\n\nBoth pieces of input data are usually mentioned in this form on the bottle, so is easy to retrieve.\n", "Example of Wine Bottle label in accordance with UK voluntary health labelling scheme\n\nUK alcohol companies pledged in March 2011 to implement an innovative health labelling scheme to provide more information about responsible drinking on alcohol labels and containers. This voluntary scheme is the first of its kind in Europe and has been developed in conjunction with the UK Department of Health. The pledge stated:\n\n: ''\"We will ensure that over 80% of products on shelf (by December 2013) will have labels with clear unit content, NHS guidelines and a warning about drinking when pregnant.\"''\n\nAt the end of 2014, 101 companies had committed to the pledge labelling scheme.\n\nThere are five elements included within the overall labelling scheme, the first three being mandatory, and the last two optional:\n# Unit alcohol content per container ''(mandatory)'', and per serving ''(optional)''\n# Chief Medical Officers' daily guidelines for lower-risk consumption\n# Pregnancy warning (in text or as a graphic)\n# Mention of \"drinkaware.co.uk\" ''(optional)''\n# Responsibility statement (e.g., \"please drink responsibly\") ''(optional)''\n: ''Further detailed specifications about the labelling scheme are available from the \"Alcohol labelling tool kit\".''\n\nDrinks companies had pledged to display the three mandatory items on 80% of drinks containers on shelves in the UK off-trade by the end of December 2013. A report published in Nov 2014, confirmed that UK drinks producers had delivered on that pledge with a 79.3% compliance with the pledge elements as measured by products on shelf. Compared with labels from 2008 on a like-for-like basis, information on Unit alcohol content had increased by 46%; 91% of products displayed alcohol and pregnancy warnings (18% in 2008); and 75% showed the Chief Medical Officers’ lower risk daily guidelines (6% in 2008).\n", "Chart showing alcohol unit count for drink size and ABV\nIt is sometimes misleadingly stated that there is one unit per half-pint of beer, or small glass of wine, or single measure of spirits. However, such statements do not take into account the various strengths and volumes supplied in practice.\n\nFor example, the ABV of beer typically varies from 3.5% to 5.5%. A typical \"medium\" glass of wine with 175 ml at 12% ABV has 2.1 units. And spirits, although typically 35–40% ABV, have single measures of 25 ml or 35 ml (so 1 or 1.4 units) depending on location.\n\nThe misleading nature of \"one unit per half-pint of beer, or small glass of wine, or single measure of spirits\" can lead to people underestimating their alcohol intake.\n\n=== Beers ===\n* Half an imperial pint (284 ml) of beer with 3.5% ABV contains almost exactly one unit; however, most beers are stronger. In pubs in the United Kingdom, beers generally range from 3.5–5.5% ABV, and continental lagers start at around 4% ABV. An imperial pint of such lager (e.g., 568 ml at 5.2%) contains almost 3 units of alcohol rather than the oft-quoted 2 units.\n* Stronger beer (6–12%) may contain 2 units or more per half pint (imperial).\n* A half litre (500 ml) of standard lager or ale (5%) contains 2.5 units.\n* One litre (1000 ml) of typical Oktoberfest beer (5.5–6%) contains 5.5–6 units of alcohol.\n\n=== Wines ===\n* A medium glass (175 ml) of 12% ABV wine contains around two units of alcohol. However, British pubs and restaurants often supply larger quantities (large glass ≈ 250 ml), which contain 3 units. Red wines often have a higher alcohol content (on average 12.5%, sometimes up to 16%).\n* Wine sold by the glass is often served in nearly full glasses. Wine served at home, or when bought by the bottle in, say, a restaurant, is usually served in glasses less than half filled; the capacity of a wine glass is not the only criterion for judging quantity.\n* A 750 ml bottle of 12% ABV wine contains 9 units; 16% ABV wine contains 12 units; a fortified wine such as port at 20% ABV contains 15 units.\n\n=== Fortified wines ===\n* A small glass (50 ml) of sherry, fortified wine, or cream liqueur (≈20% ABV) contains about one unit.\n\n=== Spirits ===\nMost spirits sold in the United Kingdom have 40% ABV or slightly less. In England, a single pub measure (25 ml) of a spirit contains one unit. However, a larger 35 ml measure is increasingly used (and in particular is standard in Northern Ireland ), which contains 1.4 units of alcohol at 40% ABV. Sellers of spirits by the glass must state the capacity of their standard measure in ml.\n\n=== Alcopops ===\n* According to Alcohol and You Northern Ireland resource website, \"Most alcopops contain 1.1–1.5 units per bottle. For example, a normal 275 ml bottle of WKD contains 1.1 units, whereas Bacardi Breezer and Smirnoff Ice both contain 1.5 units of alcohol.\"\n", "On average, it takes about one hour for the body to metabolise (break down) one unit of alcohol. However, this will vary with body weight, sex, age, personal metabolic rate, recent food intake, the type and strength of the alcohol, and medications taken. Alcohol may be metabolised more slowly if liver function is impaired.\n", "\n\nFrom 1992 to 1995, the UK government advised that men should drink no more than 21 units per week, and women no more than 14. (The difference between the sexes was due to the typically lower weight and water-to-body-mass ratio of women.) The Times reported in October 2007 that these limits had been \"plucked out of the air\" and had no scientific basis.\n\nThis was changed after a government study showed that many people were in effect \"saving up\" their units and using them at the end of the week, a phenomenon referred to as binge drinking. Since 1995 the advice was that regular consumption of 3–4 units a day for men, or 2–3 units a day for women, would not pose significant health risks, but that consistently drinking four or more units a day (men), or three or more units a day (women), is not advisable.\n\nAn international study of about 6,000 men and 11,000 women for a total of 75,000 person-years found that people who reported that they drank more than a threshold value of 2 units of alcohol a day had a higher risk of fractures than non-drinkers. For example, those who drank over 3 units a day had nearly twice the risk of a hip fracture.\n", "\n* Standard drink\n* Alcohol equivalence\n", "\n", "\n\n\n", "* Alcohol Labelling, with downloadable \"Alcohol labelling tool kit\" including labelling specifications\n* Online converter between different countries' standard drinks and units\n* Drinkaware\n* NHS Choices: Drinking and alcohol\n* NHS Choices: Alcohol unit calculator\n* Online alcohol demotivator calculator\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Formula ", "Labelling", " Quantities ", "Time to metabolise", " Recommended maximum", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Unit of alcohol
[ "'''''Aotus''''' (the name is derived from the Ancient Greek words for \"earless\" in both cases: the monkey is missing external ears, and the pea is missing earlike bracteoles) may refer to:\n* ''Aotus'' (plant), one of the plant genera commonly known as golden peas in the family Fabaceae (bean family)\n* ''Aotus'' (monkey), the genus of night monkeys in the family Aotidae\n* AOTUS, the acronym for the Archivist of the United States\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Aotus
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''''Ally McBeal''''' is an American legal comedy-drama television series, originally aired on Fox from September 8, 1997 to May 20, 2002. Created by David E. Kelley, the series stars Calista Flockhart in the title role as a lawyer working in the fictional Boston law firm Cage and Fish, with other lawyers whose lives and loves were eccentric, humorous, and dramatic. The series received critical acclaim in its early seasons, winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy in 1997 and 1998, and also winning the Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1999.\n", "The series, set in the fictional Boston law firm Cage and Fish, begins with main character Allison Marie \"Ally\" McBeal joining the firm (co-owned by her law school classmate Richard Fish, played by Greg Germann) after leaving her previous job due to sexual harassment. On her first day Ally is horrified to find that she will be working alongside her ex-boyfriend Billy Thomas (Gil Bellows)—whom she has never gotten over. To make things worse, Billy is now married to fellow lawyer Georgia (Courtney Thorne-Smith), who also later joins Cage and Fish. The triangle among the three forms the basis for the main plot for the show's first three seasons.\n\nAlthough ostensibly a legal drama, the main focus of the series was the romantic and personal lives of the main characters, often using legal proceedings as plot devices to contrast or reinforce a character's drama. For example, bitter divorce litigation of a client might provide a backdrop for Ally's decision to break up with a boyfriend. Legal arguments were also frequently used to explore multiple sides of various social issues.\n\nCage & Fish (which becomes Cage/Fish & McBeal or Cage, Fish, & Associates towards the end of the series), the fictional law firm where most of the characters work, is depicted as a highly sexualized environment symbolized by its unisex restroom. Lawyers and secretaries in the firm routinely date, flirt with, or have a romantic history with each other and frequently run into former or potential romantic interests in the courtroom or on the street outside.\n\nThe series had many offbeat and frequently surreal running gags and themes, such as Ally's tendency to immediately fall over whenever she met somebody she found attractive, or Richard Fish's wattle fetish and humorous mottos (\"Fishisms\" & \"Bygones\"), or John's gymnastic dismounts out of the office's unisex bathroom stalls, or the dancing twins (played by Eric & Steve Cohen) at the bar, that ran through the series. The show used vivid, dramatic fantasy sequences for Ally's and other characters' wishful thinking; particularly notable is the dancing baby.\n\nThe series also featured regular visits to a local bar where singer Vonda Shepard regularly performed (though occasionally handing over the microphone to the characters). The series also took place in the same continuity as David E. Kelley's legal drama ''The Practice'' (which aired on ABC), as the two shows crossed over with one another on occasion, a very rare occurrence for two shows that aired on different networks.\n\nUltimately, in the last installment of the fifth and final season, \"Bygones,\" Ally decided to resign from Cage & Fish, leave Boston, and return to New York City.\n", "Cast of season 4 (''from left''): (''top'') Liu, Downey, Krakowski, Germann, MacNicol; ''(middle)'' Carson, de Rossi, Flockhart; ''(bottom)'' Shepard, LeGros\n\n Actor\n Character\n Seasons\n\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n\n Calista Flockhart\n Ally McBeal\n colspan=\"5\" \n\n Greg Germann\n Richard Fish\n colspan=\"5\" \n\n Jane Krakowski\n Elaine Vassal\n colspan=\"5\" \n\n Peter MacNicol\n John Cage\n colspan=\"5\" \n\n Lisa Nicole Carson\n Renée Raddick\n colspan=\"4\" \n \n\n Gil Bellows\n Billy Allen Thomas\n colspan=\"3\" \n \n \n\n Courtney Thorne-Smith\n Georgia Thomas\n colspan=\"3\" \n colspan=\"2\" \n\n Vonda Shepard\n \n colspan=\"4\" \n\n Portia de Rossi\n Nelle Porter\n \n colspan=\"4\" \n\n Lucy Liu\n Ling Woo\n \n colspan=\"4\" \n\n James LeGros\n Mark Albert\n colspan=\"2\" \n \n \n \n\n Robert Downey, Jr.\n Larry Paul\n colspan=\"3\" \n \n \n\n Regina Hall\n Corretta Lipp\n colspan=\"3\" \n \n \n\n Julianne Nicholson\n Jenny Shaw\n colspan=\"4\" \n \n\n James Marsden\n Glenn Foy\n colspan=\"4\" \n \n\n Josh Hopkins\n Raymond Millbury\n colspan=\"4\" \n \n\n John Michael Higgins\n Steven Milter\n colspan=\"4\" \n \n\n Hayden Panettiere\n Maddie Harrington\n colspan=\"4\" \n \n\n", "\n\n\nIn Australia, ''Ally McBeal'' was aired by the Seven Network from 1997 to 2002. In 2010, it was aired repeatedly by Network Ten.\n\n===Crossovers with ''The Practice''===\n\nSeymore Walsh, a stern judge often exasperated by the eccentricities of the Cage & Fish lawyers and played by actor Albert Hall, was also a recurring character on ''The Practice''. In addition, Judge Jennifer (Whipper) Cone appears on ''The Practice'' episode \"Line of Duty\" (S02 E15), while Judge Roberta Kittelson, a recurring character on ''The Practice'', has a featured guest role in the ''Ally McBeal'' episode \"Do you Wanna Dance?\"\n\nMost of the primary ''Practice'' cast members guest starred in the ''Ally McBeal'' episode \"The Inmates\" (S01 E20), in a storyline that concluded with the ''Practice'' episode \"Axe Murderer\" (S02 E26), featuring Calista Flockhart and Gil Bellows reprising their ''Ally'' characters. What's unusual about this continuing storyline is that ''Ally McBeal'' and ''The Practice'' aired on different networks. Bobby Donnell, the main character of ''The Practice'' played by Dylan McDermott, was featured heavily in both this crossover and another ''Ally McBeal'' episode, \"These are the Days\".\n\nRegular ''Practice'' cast members Lara Flynn Boyle and Michael Badalucco each had a cameo in ''Ally McBeal'' (Boyle as a woman who trades insults with Ally in the episode \"Making Spirits Bright\" and Badalucco as one of Ally's dates in the episode \"I Know him by Heart\") but it is unclear whether they were playing the same characters they play on ''The Practice''.\n", "\nUpon premiering in 1997, the show was an instant hit, averaging around 11 million viewers per episode. The show's second season saw an increase in ratings and soon became a top 20 show, averaging around 13 million viewers per episode. The show's ratings began to decline in the third season, but stabilized in the fourth season after Robert Downey, Jr. joined the regular cast as Ally's boyfriend Larry Paul, and a fresher aesthetic was created by new art director Matthew DeCoste. However, Downey's character was written out after the end of the season due to the actor's troubles with drug addiction.\n\nThe first two seasons, as well as the fourth, remain the most critically acclaimed and saw the most awards success at the Emmys, SAG Awards and the Golden Globes. In 2007 Ally McBeal placed #48 on ''Entertainment Weekly'' 2007 \"New TV Classics\" list.\n", "{\|class=\"wikitable\"\n\nSeason !!U.S. ratings !!Network !!Rank\n\n 1 \n 1997–98 \n11.4 million \nFox \n#59\n\n 2 \n 1998–99 \n13.8 million \nFox \n#20\n\n 3 \n 1999–2000 \n12.4 million \nFox \n#35\n\n 4 \n 2000–01 \n12.0 million \nFox \n#40\n\n 5 \n 2001–02 \n9.4 million \nFox \n#65\n\n", "''Ally McBeal'' received some criticism from TV critics and feminists who found the title character annoying and demeaning to women (specifically regarding professional women) because of her perceived flightiness, lack of demonstrated legal knowledge, short skirts, and emotional instability. Perhaps the most notorious example of the debate sparked by the show was the June 29, 1998 cover story of ''Time'' magazine, which juxtaposed McBeal with three pioneering feminists (Susan B. Anthony, Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem) and asked \"Is Feminism Dead?\" In episode 12 of the second season of the show, Ally talks to her co-worker John Cage about a dream she had, saying \"You know, I had a dream that they put my face on the cover of ''Time'' magazine as 'the face of feminism'.\"\n", "\n\n''Ally McBeal'' was a heavily music-oriented show. Vonda Shepard, a virtually unknown musician at the time, was featured continually on the show. Her song \"Searchin' My Soul\" became the show's theme song. Many of the songs Shepard performed were established hits with lyrics that paralleled the events of the episode, including \"Both Sides Now\", \"Hooked on a Feeling\" and \"Tell Him\". Besides recording background music for the show, Shepard frequently appeared at the ends of episodes as a musician performing at a local piano bar frequented by the main characters. On rare occasions, her character would have conventional dialogue. A portion of \"Searchin' My Soul\" was played at the beginning of each episode, but remarkably the song was never played in its entirety.\n\nSeveral of the characters had a musical leitmotif that played when they appeared. John Cage's was \"You're the First, the Last, My Everything\", Ling Woo's was the Wicked Witch of the West theme from ''The Wizard of Oz'', and Ally McBeal herself picked \"Tell Him\", when told by a psychiatrist that she needed a theme.\n\nDue to the popularity of the show and Shepard's music, a soundtrack titled ''Songs from Ally McBeal'' was released in 1998, as well as a successor soundtrack titled ''Heart and Soul: New Songs From Ally McBeal'' in 1999. Two compilation albums from the show featuring Shepard were also released in 2000 and 2001. A Christmas album was also released under the title ''Ally McBeal: A Very Ally Christmas''. The album received positive reviews, and Shephard’s version of Kay Starr’s Christmas song (Everybody's Waitin' For) The Man with the Bag, received considerable airplay during the holiday season.\n\nOther artists featured on the show include Michael Jackson, Barry White, Al Green, Tina Turner, Macy Gray, Gloria Gaynor, Chayanne, Barry Manilow, Anastacia, Elton John, Sting and Mariah Carey. Josh Groban played the role of Malcolm Wyatt in the May 2001 season finale, performing \"You're Still You\". The series creator, David E. Kelley, was impressed with Groban's performance at The Family Celebration event and based on the audience reaction to Groban's singing, Kelley created a character for him in that finale. The background score for the show was composed by Danny Lux.\n\n\n\nSoundtrack name\nTk#\n Release date\n\n ''Songs from Ally McBeal''\n14\n May 5, 1998\n\n ''Heart and Soul: New Songs from Ally McBeal''\n14\n November 9, 1999\n\n ''Ally McBeal: A Very Ally Christmas''\n14\n November 7, 2000\n\n ''Ally McBeal: For Once in My Life''\n14\n April 24, 2001\n\n ''The Best of Ally McBeal''\n12\n October 6, 2009\n\n", "Due to music licensing issues, none of the seasons of ''Ally McBeal'' were available on DVD in the United States (only 6 random episodes could be found on the R1 edition) until 2009, though the show had been available in Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Japan, Hong Kong, Portugal, Spain, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Mexico, Taiwan, Australia, Brazil, and the Czech Republic with all the show's music intact since 2005. In the UK, Ireland, and Spain all seasons are available in a complete box set.\n\n20th Century Fox released the complete first season on DVD in Region 1 on October 6, 2009. They also released a special complete series edition on the same day. Season 1 does not contain any special features, but the complete series set contains several bonus features, including featurettes, an all-new retrospective, the episode of ''The Practice'' in which Calista Flockhart guest starred, and a bonus disc entitled \"The Best of Ally McBeal Soundtrack.\" In addition, both releases contain all of the original music. Season 2 was released on April 6, 2010. Seasons 3, 4, and 5 were all released on October 5, 2010.\n\n\n\nDVD name\nEp#\n Region 1\n Region 2\n Region 4\n\n The Complete First Season\n23\n October 6, 2009\n February 21, 2005\n April 26, 2006\n\n The Complete Second Season\n23\n April 6, 2010\n February 21, 2005\n April 26, 2006\n\n The Complete Third Season\n21\n October 5, 2010\n February 21, 2005\n April 26, 2006\n\n The Complete Fourth Season\n23\n October 5, 2010\n May 9, 2005\n April 26, 2006\n\n The Complete Fifth and Final Season\n22\n October 5, 2010\n May 9, 2005\n April 26, 2006\n\n The Complete Series\n112\n October 6, 2009\n October 30, 2006\n April 18, 2012\n\n", "In 1999, at the height of the show's popularity, a half-hour version entitled ''Ally'' began airing in parallel with the main program. This version, designed in a sitcom format, used re-edited scenes from the main program, along with previously unseen footage. The intention was to further develop the plots in the comedy-drama in a sitcom style. It also focused only on Ally's personal life, cutting all the courtroom plots. The repackaged show was cancelled partway through its initial run. While 13 episodes of ''Ally'' were produced, only ten aired.\n", "McBeal and 1990s young affluent professional women were parodied in the song ''Ally McBeal'' (tune of \"Like a Rolling Stone\" by Bob Dylan) by a cappella group Da Vinci's Notebook on their album ''The Life and Times of Mike Fanning'', released in 2000.\n\nIn episode 2, season 3 of the British comedy ''The Adam and Joe Show'', the show was parodied as \"Ally McSqeal\" using soft toys.\n\nEpisode 12 of the first season of ''Futurama'', \"When Aliens Attack\", centers on an invasion of Earth by the Omicronians precipitated by a signal loss during the climax of an episode of \"Single Female Lawyer\", whose main character is Jenny McNeal.\n", "\n", "* Other American legal dramedy TV series set in Boston\n ''The Practice'' \n ''Boston Legal'' \n\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Ally McBeal: Woman of the '90s or Retro Airhead\n* Ally McBeal on Paramount Comedy\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Overview", "Main cast", "Episodes", "Reception", "Ratings", "Feminist criticism", "Music", "DVD releases", "''Ally'' (1999)", "In popular culture", "Awards and nominations", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Ally McBeal
[ "\n'''Andreas Capellanus''' (''Capellanus'' meaning \"chaplain\"), also known as '''Andrew the Chaplain''', and occasionally by a French translation of his name, '''André le Chapelain''', was the 12th-century author of a treatise commonly known as ''De amore'' (\"About Love\"), and often known in English, somewhat misleadingly, as ''The Art of Courtly Love'', though its realistic, somewhat cynical tone suggests that it is in some measure an antidote to courtly love. Little is known of Andreas Capellanus's life, but he is presumed to have been a courtier of Marie de Champagne, and probably of French origin.\n", "''De Amore'' was written at the request of Marie de Champagne, daughter of King Louis VII of France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine. In it, the author informs a young pupil, Walter, of the pitfalls of love. A dismissive allusion in the text to the \"wealth of Hungary\" has suggested the hypothesis that it was written after 1184, at the time when Bela III of Hungary had sent to the French court a statement of his income and had proposed marriage to Marie's half-sister Marguerite of France, but before 1186, when his proposal was accepted.\n\n''De Amore'' is made up of three books. The first book covers the etymology and definition of love and is written in the manner of an academic lecture. The second book consists of sample dialogues between members of different social classes; it outlines how the romantic process between the classes should work. Book three is made of stories from actual courts of love presided over by noble women.\n\nJohn Jay Parry, the editor of one modern edition of ''De Amore'', quotes critic Robert Bossuat as describing ''De Amore'' as \"one of those capital works which reflect the thought of a great epoch, which explains the secret of a civilization\". It may be viewed as didactic, mocking, or merely descriptive; in any event it preserves the attitudes and practices that were the foundation of a long and significant tradition in Western literature.\n\nThe social system of \"courtly love\", as gradually elaborated by the Provençal troubadours from the mid twelfth century, soon spread. One of the circles in which this poetry and its ethic were cultivated was the court of Eleanor of Aquitaine (herself the granddaughter of an early troubadour poet, William IX of Aquitaine). It has been claimed that ''De Amore'' codifies the social and sexual life of Eleanor's court at Poitiers between 1170 and 1174, though it was evidently written at least ten years later and, apparently, at Troyes. It deals with several specific themes that were the subject of poetical debate among late twelfth century troubadours and trobairitz.\n\nThe meaning of ''De Amore'' has been debated over the centuries. In the years immediately following its release many people took Andreas’ opinions concerning Courtly Love seriously. In more recent times, however, scholars have come to view the priest’s work as satirical. Many scholars now agree that Andreas was commenting on the materialistic, superficial nature of the nobles of the Middle Ages. Andreas seems to have been warning young Walter, his protege, about love in the Middle Ages.\n", "Andreas Capellanus: ''The Art of Courtly Love'', trans. John Jay Parry. New York: Columbia University Press, 1941. (Reprinted: New York: Norton, 1969.)\nAndreas Capellanus: ''On Love,'' ed. and trans. P. G. Walsh. London: Duckworth, 1982.\n", "Paolo Cherchi: ''Andreas and the Ambiguity of Courtly Love. '' Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994.\nDon Monson: ''Andreas Capellanus, Scholasticism, and the Courtly Tradition. '' Washington, D.C., 2005.\nDonald K. Frank: ''Naturalism and the troubadour ethic''. New York: Lang, 1988. (American university studies: Ser. 19; 10) \n", " Excerpts of ''De Amore'' in English\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "His work", " Bibliography ", "References", " External links " ]	Andreas Capellanus
[ "\n\n\nThe '''American Civil Liberties Union''' ('''ACLU''') is a nonpartisan nonprofit organization whose stated mission is \"to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this country by the Constitution and laws of the United States.\" It works through litigation and lobbying. The ACLU has over 1,000,000 members and an annual budget of over $100 million. Local affiliates of the ACLU are active in almost all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. The ACLU provides legal assistance in cases when it considers civil liberties to be at risk. Legal support from the ACLU can take the form of direct legal representation or preparation of ''amicus curiae'' briefs expressing legal arguments when another law firm is already providing representation.\n\nIn addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits, the ACLU lobbies for policy positions that have been established by its board of directors. Current positions of the ACLU include: opposing the death penalty; supporting same-sex marriage and the right of LGBT people to adopt; supporting birth control and abortion rights; eliminating discrimination against women, minorities, and LGBT people; supporting the rights of prisoners and opposing torture; and opposing government preference for religion over non-religion, or for particular faiths over others.\n\nLegally, the ACLU consists of two separate but closely affiliated nonprofit organizations: the American Civil Liberties Union, a 501(c)(4) social welfare group, and the ACLU Foundation, a 501(c)(3) public charity. Both organizations engage in civil rights litigation, advocacy, and education, but only donations to the 501(c)(3) foundation are tax deductible, and only the 501(c)(4) group can engage in unlimited political lobbying. The two organizations share office space and employees.\n\nThe ACLU was founded in 1920 by Helen Keller, Roger Baldwin, Crystal Eastman, Walter Nelles, Morris Ernst, Albert DeSilver, Arthur Garfield Hays, Jane Addams, Felix Frankfurter, and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, and its focus was on freedom of speech, primarily for anti-war protesters. During the 1920s, the ACLU expanded its scope to include protecting the free speech rights of artists and striking workers, and working with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to decrease racism and discrimination. During the 1930s, the ACLU started to engage in work combating police misconduct and supporting Native American rights. Many of the ACLU's cases involved the defense of Communist party members and Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1940, the ACLU leadership voted to exclude Communists from its leadership positions, a decision rescinded in 1968. During World War II, the ACLU defended Japanese-American citizens, unsuccessfully trying to prevent their forcible relocation to internment camps. During the Cold War, the ACLU headquarters was dominated by anti-Communists, but many local affiliates defended members of the Communist Party.\n\nBy 1964, membership had risen to 80,000, and the ACLU participated in efforts to expand civil liberties. In the 1960s, the ACLU continued its decades-long effort to enforce separation of church and state. It defended several anti-war activists during the Vietnam War. The ACLU was involved in the ''Miranda'' case, which addressed conduct by police during interrogations, and in the ''New York Times'' case, which established new protections for newspapers reporting on government activities. In the 1970s and 1980s, the ACLU ventured into new legal areas, involving the rights of homosexuals, students, prisoners, and the poor. In the twenty-first century, the ACLU has fought the teaching of creationism in public schools and challenged some provisions of anti-terrorism legislation as infringing on privacy and civil liberties. Fundraising and membership spiked after the 2016 election; the ACLU's current membership is more than 1.2 million.\n", "\n===Leadership===\nThe ACLU is led by a president and an executive director, Susan N. Herman and Anthony Romero, respectively, in 2015. The president acts as chairman of the ACLU's board of directors, leads fundraising, and facilitates policy-setting. The executive director manages the day-to-day operations of the organization. The board of directors consists of 80 persons, including representatives from each state affiliate, as well as at-large delegates. The organization has its headquarters in 125 Broad Street, a 40-story skyscraper located in Lower Manhattan, New York City.\n\nThe leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions; differences of opinion within the ACLU leadership have sometimes grown into major debates. In 1937, an internal debate erupted over whether to defend Henry Ford's right to distribute anti-union literature. In 1939, a heated debate took place over whether to prohibit communists from serving in ACLU leadership roles. During the early 1950s and Cold War McCarthyism, the board was divided on whether to defend communists. In 1968, a schism formed over whether to represent Dr. Benjamin Spock's anti-war activism. In 1973, there was internal conflict over whether to call for the impeachment of Richard Nixon. In 2005, there was internal conflict about whether or not a gag rule should be imposed on ACLU employees to prevent publication of internal disputes.\n\n===Funding===\nIn the year ending March 31, 2014, the ACLU and the ACLU Foundation had a combined income from support and revenue of $100.4 million, originating from grants (50.0%), membership donations (25.4%), donated legal services (7.6%), bequests (16.2%), and revenue (0.9%). Membership dues are treated as donations; members choose the amount they pay annually, averaging approximately $50 per member per year. In the year ending March 31, 2014, the combined expenses of the ACLU and ACLU Foundation were $133.4 million, spent on programs (86.2%), management (7.4%), and fundraising (8.2%). (After factoring in other changes in net assets of +$30.9 million, from sources such as investment income, the organization had an overall decrease in net assets of $2.1 million.) Over the period from 2011 to 2014 the ACLU Foundation, on the average, has accounted for roughly 70% of the combined budget, and the ACLU roughly 30%.\n\nThe ACLU solicits donations to its charitable foundation. The ACLU is accredited by the Better Business Bureau, and the Charity Navigator has ranked the ACLU with a four-star rating. The local affiliates solicit their own funding; however, some also receive funds from the national ACLU, with the distribution and amount of such assistance varying from state to state. At its discretion, the national organization provides subsidies to smaller affiliates that lack sufficient resources to be self-sustaining; for example, the Wyoming ACLU chapter received such subsidies until April 2015, when, as part of a round of layoffs at the national ACLU, the Wyoming office was closed.\n\nIn October 2004, the ACLU rejected $1.5 million from both the Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation because the Foundations had adopted language from the USA PATRIOT Act in their donation agreements, including a clause stipulating that none of the money would go to \"underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable activities.\" The ACLU views this clause, both in Federal law and in the donors' agreements, as a threat to civil liberties, saying it is overly broad and ambiguous.\n\nDue to the nature of its legal work, the ACLU is often involved in litigation against governmental bodies, which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgments; a town, state or federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently, but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statutory waiver. In some cases, the law permits plaintiffs who successfully sue government agencies to collect money damages or other monetary relief. In particular, the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Award Act of 1976 leaves the government liable in some civil rights cases. Fee awards under this civil rights statute are considered \"equitable relief\" rather than damages, and government entities are not immune from equitable relief. Under laws such as this, the ACLU and its state affiliates sometimes share in monetary judgments against government agencies. In 2006, the Public Expressions of Religion Protection Act sought to prevent monetary judgments in the particular case of violations of church-state separation.\n\nThe ACLU has received court awarded fees from opponents, for example, the Georgia affiliate was awarded $150,000 in fees after suing a county demanding the removal of a Ten Commandments display from its courthouse; a second Ten Commandments case in the State, in a different county, led to a $74,462 judgment. The State of Tennessee was required to pay $50,000, the State of Alabama $175,000, and the State of Kentucky $121,500, in similar Ten Commandments cases.\n\n===State affiliates===\nGuantanamo Bay detentions with Amnesty International\nMost of the organization's workload is performed by its local affiliates. There is at least one affiliate organization in each state except Wyoming, as well as one in Washington, D.C. and in Puerto Rico. California has three affiliates. The affiliates operate autonomously from the national organization; each affiliate has its own staff, executive director, board of directors, and budget. Each affiliate consists of two non-profit corporations: a 501(c)(3) corporation that does not perform lobbying, and a 501(c)(4) corporation which is entitled to lobby.\n\nACLU affiliates are the basic unit of the ACLU's organization and engage in litigation, lobbying, and public education. For example, in a twenty-month period beginning January 2004, the ACLU's New Jersey chapter was involved in fifty-one cases according to their annual report—thirty-five cases in state courts, and sixteen in federal court. They provided legal representation in thirty-three of those cases, and served as amicus in the remaining eighteen. They listed forty-four volunteer attorneys who assisted them in those cases. \n\n===Positions===\nThe ACLU's official position statements, as of January 2012, included the following policies:\n* '''Affirmative action''' – The ACLU supports affirmative action.\n* '''Birth control and abortion''' – The ACLU supports the right to abortion, as established in the ''Roe v. Wade'' decision. The ACLU believes that everyone should have affordable access to the full range of contraceptive options. The ACLU's Reproductive Freedom Project manages efforts related to reproductive rights.\n* '''Campaign funding''' – The ACLU believes that the current system is badly flawed, and supports a system based on public funding. The ACLU supports full transparency to identify donors. However, the ACLU opposes attempts to control political spending. The ACLU supported the Supreme Court's decision in ''Citizens United v. FEC'', which allowed corporations and unions more political speech rights.\n* '''Child pornography''' – The Arizona chapter of the ACLU believes that production of child pornography should be illegal, but that possessing it is protected by the right to privacy. \"Our policy is that possessing even pornographic material about children should not itself be a crime. The way to deal with this issue is to prosecute the makers of child pornography for exploiting minors.\"\n* '''Criminal law reform''' – The ACLU seeks an end to what it feels are excessively harsh sentences that \"stand in the way of a just and equal society\". The ACLU's Criminal Law Reform Project focuses on this issue.\n* '''Death penalty''' – The ACLU is opposed to the death penalty in all circumstances. The ACLU's Capital Punishment Project focuses on this issue.\n* '''Free speech''' – The ACLU supports free speech, including the right to express unpopular ideas, such as flag desecration.\n* '''Gun rights''' – The national ACLU's position is that the Second Amendment protects a collective right to own guns rather than an individual right, despite the Supreme Court's decision in ''District of Columbia v. Heller'' that the Second Amendment is an individual right. The national organization's position is based on the phrases \"a well regulated Militia\" and \"the security of a free State\". However, the ACLU opposes any effort to create a registry of gun owners and has worked with the National Rifle Association to prevent a registry from being created, and it has favored protecting the right to carry guns under the 4th Amendment.\n* '''HIV/AIDS''' – The policy of the ACLU is to \"create a world in which discrimination based on HIV status has ended, people with HIV have control over their medical information and care, and where the government's HIV policy promotes public health and respect and compassion for people living with HIV and AIDS.\" This effort is managed by the ACLU's AIDS Project.\n* '''Human rights''' – The ACLU's Human Rights project advocates (primarily in an international context) for children's rights, immigrants rights, gay rights, and other international obligations.\n* '''Immigrants' rights''' – The ACLU supports civil liberties for immigrants to the United States.\n* '''Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender rights''' – The ACLU's LGBT Rights Project supports equal rights for all gays and lesbians, and works to eliminate discrimination. The ACLU supports equal employment, housing, civil marriage and adoption rights for LGBT couples.\n* '''National security''' – The ACLU is opposed to compromising civil liberties in the name of national security. In this context, the ACLU has condemned government use of spying, indefinite detention without charge or trial, and government-sponsored torture. This effort is led by the ACLU's National Security Project.\n* '''Prisoners' rights''' – The ACLU's National Prison Project believes that incarceration should only be used as a last resort, and that prisons should focus on rehabilitation. The ACLU works to ensure that prisons treat prisoners in accordance with the Constitution and domestic law.\n* '''Privacy and technology''' – The ACLU's Project on Speech, Privacy, and Technology promotes \"responsible uses of technology that enhance privacy protection\", and opposes uses \"that undermine our freedoms and move us closer to a surveillance society\".\n* '''Racial issues''' – The ACLU's Racial Justice Program combats racial discrimination in all aspects of society, including the educational system, justice system, and the application of the death penalty. However, the ACLU opposes state censorship of the Confederate flag.\n* '''Religion''' – The ACLU supports the right of religious persons to practice their faiths without government interference. The ACLU believes the government should neither prefer religion over non-religion, nor favor particular faiths over others. The ACLU is opposed to school-led prayer, but protects students' right to pray in school.\n* '''Single sex public education''' – The ACLU opposes single sex public education options. It believes that single-sex education contributes to gender stereotyping and compares single-sex education to racial segregation.\n* '''Voting rights''' – The ACLU believes that impediments to voting should be eliminated, particularly if they disproportionately impact minority or poor citizens. The ACLU believes that misdemeanor convictions should not lead to a loss of voting rights. The ACLU's Voting Rights Project leads this effort.\n* '''Women's rights''' – The ACLU works to eliminate discrimination against women in all realms. The ACLU encourages government to be proactive in stopping violence against women. These efforts are led by the ACLU's Women's Rights project.\n\n===Support and opposition===\nThe ACLU is supported by a variety of persons and organizations. There were over 1,000,000 members in 2017, and the ACLU annually receives thousands of grants from hundreds of charitable foundations. Allies of the ACLU in legal actions have included the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the American Jewish Congress, People For the American Way, the National Rifle Association, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Americans United for Separation of Church and State, and the National Organization for Women.\n\nThe ACLU has been criticized by liberals, such as when it excluded Communists from its leadership ranks, when it defended Neo-Nazis, when it declined to defend Paul Robeson, or when it opposed the passage of the National Labor Relations Act. Conversely, it has been criticized by conservatives, such as when it argued against official prayer in public schools, or when it opposed the Patriot Act. The ACLU has supported conservative figures such as Rush Limbaugh, George Wallace, Henry Ford, and Oliver North; and it has supported liberal figures such as Dick Gregory, Rockwell Kent, and Dr. Benjamin Spock.\n\nA major source of criticism are legal cases in which the ACLU represents an individual or organization that promotes offensive or unpopular viewpoints, such as the Ku Klux Klan, Neo-Nazis, Nation of Islam, North American Man/Boy Love Association, or Westboro Baptist Church. The ACLU responded to these criticisms by stating \"It is easy to defend freedom of speech when the message is something many people find at least reasonable. But the defense of freedom of speech is most critical when the message is one most people find repulsive.\"\n", "\n===CLB era===\nCrystal Eastman was one of the co-founders of the CLB, the predecessor to the ACLU\n\nThe ACLU developed from the National Civil Liberties Bureau (CLB), co-founded in 1917 during World War I by Crystal Eastman, an attorney activist, and Roger Nash Baldwin. The focus of the CLB was on freedom of speech, primarily anti-war speech, and on supporting conscientious objectors who did not want to serve in World War I.\n\nThree United States Supreme Court decisions in 1919 each upheld convictions under laws against certain kinds of anti-war speech. In 1919, the Court upheld the conviction of Socialist Party leader Charles Schenck for publishing anti-war literature. In ''Debs v. United States,'' the court upheld the conviction of Eugene Debs. While the Court upheld a conviction a third time in ''Abrams v. United States'', Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote an important dissent which has gradually been absorbed as an American principle: he urged the court to treat freedom of speech as a fundamental right, which should rarely be restricted.\n\nIn 1918 Crystal Eastman resigned from the organization due to health issues. After assuming sole leadership of the CLB, Baldwin insisted that the organization be reorganized. He wanted to change its focus from litigation to direct action and public education.\n\nThe CLB directors concurred, and on January 19, 1920, they formed an organization under a new name, the American Civil Liberties Union. Although a handful of other organizations in the United States at that time focused on civil rights, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and Anti-Defamation League (ADL), the ACLU was the first that did not represent a particular group of persons, or a single theme. Like the CLB, the NAACP pursued litigation to work on civil rights, including efforts to overturn the disfranchisement of African Americans in the South that had taken place since the turn of the century.\n\nDuring the first decades of the ACLU, Baldwin continued as its leader. His charisma and energy attracted many supporters to the ACLU board and leadership ranks. Baldwin was ascetic, wearing hand-me-down clothes, pinching pennies, and living on a very small salary. The ACLU was directed by an executive committee, but it was not particularly democratic or egalitarian. The ACLU's base in New York resulted in its being dominated by people from the city and state. Most ACLU funding came from philanthropies, such as the Garland Fund.\n\n===Free speech era===\nNorman Thomas was one of the early leaders of the ACLU\n\nIn the 1920s, government censorship was commonplace. Magazines were routinely confiscated under the anti-obscenity Comstock laws; permits for labor rallies were often denied; and virtually all anti-war or anti-government literature was outlawed. Right-wing conservatives wielded vast amounts of power, and activists that promoted unionization, socialism, or government reform were often denounced as un-American or unpatriotic. In one typical instance in 1923, author Upton Sinclair was arrested for trying to read the First Amendment during an Industrial Workers of the World rally.\n\nACLU leadership was divided on how to challenge the civil rights violations. One faction, including Baldwin, Arthur Garfield Hays and Norman Thomas, believed that direct, militant action was the best path. Hays was the first of many successful attorneys that relinquished their private practices to work for the ACLU. Another group, including Walter Nelles and Walter Pollak felt that lawsuits taken to the Supreme Court were the best way to achieve change. Both groups worked in tandem, but equally revered the Bill of Rights and the US Constitution.\n\nDuring the 1920s, the ACLU's primary focus was on freedom of speech in general, and speech within the labor movement particularly. Because most of the ACLU's efforts were associated with the labor movement, the ACLU itself came under heavy attack from conservative groups, such as the American Legion, the National Civic Federation, and Industrial Defense Association and the Allied Patriotic Societies.\n\nIn addition to labor, the ACLU also led efforts in non-labor arenas, for example, promoting free speech in public schools. The ACLU itself was banned from speaking in New York public schools in 1921. The ACLU, working with the NAACP, also supported racial discrimination cases. The ACLU defended free speech regardless of the opinions being espoused. For example, the reactionary, anti-Catholic, anti-black Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was a frequent target of ACLU efforts, but the ACLU defended the KKK's right to hold meetings in 1923. There were some civil rights that the ACLU did not make an effort to defend in the 1920s, including censorship of the arts, government search and seizure issues, right to privacy, or wiretapping.\n\nThe Communist Party USA was routinely harassed and oppressed by government officials, leading it to be the primary client of the ACLU. The Communists were very aggressive in their tactics, often engaging in illegal or unethical conduct, and this led to frequent conflicts between the Communists and ACLU. Communist leaders often attacked the ACLU, particularly when the ACLU defended the free speech rights of conservatives. This uneasy relationship between the two groups continued for decades.\n\n===Scopes trial===\nWhen 1925 arrived – five years after the ACLU was formed – the organization had virtually no success to show for its efforts. That changed in 1925, when the ACLU persuaded John T. Scopes to defy Tennessee's anti-evolution law in ''The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes''. Clarence Darrow, a member of the ACLU National Committee, headed Scopes' legal team. The prosecution, led by William Jennings Bryan, contended that the Bible should be interpreted literally in teaching creationism in school. The ACLU lost the case and Scopes was fined $100. The Tennessee Supreme Court later upheld the law but overturned the conviction on a technicality.\n\nThe Scopes trial was a phenomenal public relations success for the ACLU. The ACLU became well known across America, and the case led to the first endorsement of the ACLU by a major U.S. newspaper. The ACLU continued to fight for the separation of church and state in schoolrooms, decade after decade, including the 1982 case ''McLean v. Arkansas'' and the 2005 case ''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District''.\n\nBaldwin himself was involved in an important free speech victory of the 1920s, after he was arrested for attempting to speak at a rally of striking mill workers in New Jersey. Although the decision was limited to the state of New Jersey, the appeals court's judgement in 1928 declared that constitutional guarantees of free speech must be given \"liberal and comprehensive construction\", and it marked a major turning point in the Civil Rights Movement, signaling the shift of judicial opinion in favor of civil rights.\n\nThe most important ACLU case of the 1920s was ''Gitlow v. New York'', in which Benjamin Gitlow was arrested for violating a state law against inciting anarchy and violence, when he distributed literature promoting communism. Although the Supreme Court did not overturn Gitlow's conviction, it adopted the ACLU's stance (later termed the incorporation doctrine) that the First Amendment freedom of speech applied to state laws, as well as federal laws.\n\n===First victories===\nLeaders of the ACLU were divided on the best tactics to use to promote civil liberties. Felix Frankfurter felt that legislation was the best long-term solution, because the Supreme Court could not (andin his opinionshould not) mandate liberal interpretations of the Bill of Rights. But Walter Pollack, Morris Ernst, and other leaders felt that Supreme Court decisions were the best path to guarantee civil liberties. A series of Supreme Court decisions in the 1920s foretold a changing national atmosphere; anti-radical emotions were diminishing, and there was a growing willingness to protect freedom of speech and assembly via court decisions.\n\n===Free speech===\nThe ACLU defended H. L. Mencken when he was arrested for distributing banned literature\n\nCensorship was commonplace in the early 20th century. State laws and city ordinances routinely outlawed speech deemed to be obscene or offensive, and prohibited meetings or literature that promoted unions or labor organization. Starting in 1926, the ACLU began to expand its free speech activities to encompass censorship of art and literature. In that year, H. L. Mencken deliberately broke Boston law by distributing copies of his banned ''American Mercury'' magazine; the ACLU defended him and won an acquittal. The ACLU went on to win additional victories, including the landmark case ''United States v. One Book Called Ulysses'' in 1933, which reversed a ban by the Customs Department against the book ''Ulysses'' by James Joyce. The ACLU only achieved mixed results in the early years, and it was not until 1966 that the Supreme Court finally clarified the obscenity laws in the ''Roth v. United States'' and ''Memoirs v. Massachusetts'' cases.\n\nThe Comstock laws banned distribution of sex education information, based on the premise that it was obscene and led to promiscuous behavior Mary Ware Dennett was fined $300 in 1928, for distributing a pamphlet containing sex education material. The ACLU, led by Morris Ernst, appealed her conviction and won a reversal, in which judge Learned Hand ruled that the pamphlet's main purpose was to \"promote understanding\".\n\nThe success prompted the ACLU to broaden their freedom of speech efforts beyond labor and political speech, to encompass movies, press, radio and literature. The ACLU formed the National Committee on Freedom from Censorship in 1931 to coordinate this effort. By the early 1930s, censorship in the United States was diminishing.\n\nTwo major victories in the 1930s cemented the ACLUs campaign to promote free speech. In ''Stromberg v. California'', decided in 1931, the Supreme Court sided with the ACLU and affirmed the right of a communist party member to salute a communist flag. The result was the first time the Supreme Court used the Due Process Clause of the 14th amendment to subject states to the requirements of the First Amendment. In ''Near v. Minnesota'', also decided in 1931, the Supreme Court ruled that states may not exercise prior restraint and prevent a newspaper from publishing, simply because the newspaper had a reputation for being scandalous.\n", "The late 1930s saw the emergence of a new era of tolerance in the United States. National leaders hailed the Bill of Rights, particularly as it protected minorities, as the essence of democracy. The 1939 Supreme Court decision in ''Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization'' affirmed the right of communists to promote their cause. Even conservative elements, such as the American Bar Association began to campaign for civil liberties, which were long considered to be the domain of left-leaning organizations. By 1940, the ACLU had achieved many of the goals it set in the 1920s, and many of its policies were the law of the land.\n\n===Expansion===\nIn 1929, after the Scopes and Dennett victories, Baldwin perceived that there was vast, untapped support for civil liberties in the United States. Baldwin proposed an expansion program for the ACLU, focusing on police brutality, Native American rights, African American rights, censorship in the arts, and international civil liberties. The board of directors approved Baldwin's expansion plan, except for the international efforts.\n\nThe ACLU played a major role in passing the 1932 Norris–La Guardia Act, a federal law which prohibited employers from preventing employees from joining unions, and stopped the practice of outlawing strikes, unions, and labor organizing activities with the use of injunctions. The ACLU also played a key role in initiating a nationwide effort to reduce misconduct (such as extracting false confessions) within police departments, by publishing the report ''Lawlessness in Law Enforcement'' in 1931, under the auspices of Herbert Hoover's Wickersham Commission. In 1934, the ACLU lobbied for the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act, which restored some autonomy to Native American tribes, and established penalties for kidnapping Native American children.\n\nAlthough the ACLU deferred to the NAACP for litigation promoting civil liberties for African Americans, the ACLU did engage in educational efforts, and published ''Black Justice'' in 1931, a report which documented institutional racism throughout the South, including lack of voting rights, segregation, and discrimination in the justice system. Funded by the Garland Fund, the ACLU also participated in producing the influential Margold Report, which outlined a strategy to fight for civil rights for blacks. The ACLU's plan was to demonstrate that the \"separate but equal\" policies governing the Southern discrimination were illegal because blacks were never, in fact, treated equally.\n\n===Depression era and the New Deal===\nIn 1932twelve years after the ACLU was foundedit had achieved significant success; the Supreme Court had embraced the free speech principles espoused by the ACLU, and the general public was becoming more supportive of civil rights in general. But the Great Depression brought new assaults on civil liberties; the year 1930 saw a large increase in the number of free speech prosecutions, a doubling of the number of lynchings, and all meetings of unemployed persons were banned in Philadelphia.\n\nThe Franklin D. Roosevelt administration proposed the New Deal to combat the depression. ACLU leaders were of mixed opinions about the New Deal, since many felt that it represented an increase in government intervention into personal affairs, and because the National Recovery Administration suspended anti-trust legislation. Roosevelt was not personally interested in civil rights, but did appoint many civil libertarians to key positions, including Interior Secretary Harold Ickes, a member of the ACLU.\n\nThe economic policies of the New Deal leaders were often aligned with ACLU goals, but social goals were not. In particular, movies were subject to a barrage of local ordinances banning screenings that were deemed immoral or obscene. Even public health films portraying pregnancy and birth were banned; as was ''Life'' magazine's April 11, 1938 issue which included photos of the birth process. The ACLU fought these bans, but did not prevail.\n\nThe Catholic Church attained increasing political influence in the 1930s, and used its influence to promote censorship of movies, and to discourage publication of birth control information. This conflict between the ACLU and the Catholic Church led to the resignation of the last Catholic priest from ACLU leadership in 1934; a Catholic priest would not be represented there again until the 1970s.\n\nThe ACLU took no official position on president Franklin Delano Roosevelt's 1937 court-packing plan, which threatened to increase the number of Supreme Court justices, unless the Supreme Court reversed its course and began approving New Deal legislation. The Supreme Court responded by making a major shift in policy, and no longer applied strict constitutional limits to government programs, and also began to take a more active role in protecting civil liberties.\n\nThe first decision that marked the court's new direction was ''De Jonge v. Oregon'', in which a communist labor organizer was arrested for calling a meeting to discuss unionization. The ACLU attorney Osmond Fraenkel, working with International Labor Defense, defended De Jonge in 1937, and won a major victory when the Supreme Court ruled that \"peaceable assembly for lawful discussion cannot be made a crime.\" The De Jonge case marked the start of an era lasting for a dozen years, during which Roosevelt appointees (led by Hugo Black, William O. Douglas, and Frank Murphy) established a body of civil liberties law. In 1938, Justice Harlan F. Stone wrote the famous \"footnote four\" in ''United States v. Carolene Products Co.'' in which he suggested that state laws which impede civil liberties wouldhenceforthrequire compelling justification.\n\nSenator Robert F. Wagner proposed the National Labor Relations Act in 1935, which empowered workers to unionize. Ironically, the ACLU, after 15 years of fighting for workers' rights, initially opposed the act (it later took no stand on the legislation) because some ACLU leaders feared the increased power the bill gave to the government. The newly formed National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) posed a dilemma for the ACLU, because in 1937 it issued an order to Henry Ford, prohibiting Ford from disseminating anti-union literature. Part of the ACLU leadership habitually took the side of labor, and that faction supported the NLRB's action. But part of the ACLU supported Ford's right to free speech. ACLU leader Arthur Garfield Hays proposed a compromise (supporting the auto workers union, yet also endorsing Ford's right to express personal opinions), but the schism highlighted a deeper divide that would become more prominent in the years to come.\n\nThe ACLU's support of the NLRB was a major development for the ACLU, because it marked the first time it accepted that a government agency could be responsible for upholding civil liberties. Until 1937, the ACLU felt that civil rights were best upheld by citizens and private organizations.\n\nSome factions in the ACLU proposed new directions for the organization. In the late 1930s, some local affiliates proposed shifting their emphasis from civil liberties appellate actions, to becoming a legal aid society, centered on store front offices in low income neighborhoods. The ACLU directors rejected that proposal. Other ACLU members wanted the ACLU to shift focus into the political arena, and to be more willing to compromise their ideals in order to strike deals with politicians. This initiative was also rejected by the ACLU leadership.\n\n===Jehovah's Witnesses===\nThe ACLU's support of defendants with unpopular, sometimes extreme, viewpoints have produced many landmark court cases and established new civil liberties. One such defendant was the Jehovah's Witnesses, who were involved in a large number of Supreme Court cases. Cases that the ACLU supported included ''Lovell v. City of Griffin'' (which struck down a city ordinance that required a permit before a person could distribute \"literature of any kind\"); ''Martin v. Struthers'' (which struck down an ordinance prohibiting door-to-door canvassing); and ''Cantwell v. Connecticut'' (which reversed the conviction of a Witness who was reciting offensive speech on a street corner).\n\nThe most important cases involved statutes requiring flag salutes. The Jehovah's Witnesses felt that saluting a flag was contrary to their religious beliefs. Two children were convicted in 1938 of not saluting the flag. The ACLU supported their appeal to the Supreme Court, but the court affirmed the conviction, in 1940. But three years later, in ''West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette'', the Supreme court reversed itself and wrote \"If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein.\" To underscore its decision, the Supreme Court announced it on Flag Day.\n\n===Communism and totalitarianism===\nElizabeth Flynn was voted off the ACLU board in 1940 because of her Communist Party membership, but reinstated posthumously in 1970\n\nThe rise of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Russia, and other countries who rejected freedom of speech and association had a large impact on the civil liberties movement in the U.S.; anti-communist sentiment rose and civil liberties were curtailed.\n\nThe ACLU leadership was divided over whether or not to defend pro-Nazi speech in the United States; pro-labor elements within the ACLU were hostile towards Nazism and fascism, and objected when the ACLU defended Nazis. Several states passed laws outlawing the hate speech directed at ethnic groups. The first person arrested under New Jersey's 1935 hate speech law was a Jehovah's Witness who was charged with disseminating anti-Catholic literature. The ACLU defended the Jehovah's Witnesses, and the charges were dropped. The ACLU proceeded to defend numerous pro-Nazi groups, defending their rights to free speech and free association.\n\nIn the late 1930s, the ACLU allied itself with the Popular Front, a coalition of liberal organizations coordinated by the United States Communist Party. The ACLU benefited because affiliates from the Popular Front could often fight local civil rights battles much more effectively than the New York-based ACLU. The association with the Communist Party led to accusations that the ACLU was a \"communist front\", particularly because Harry F. Ward was both chairman of the ACLU and chairman of the American League Against War and Fascism, a communist organization.\n\nThe House Unamerican Activities Committee (HUAC) was created in 1938 to uncover sedition and treason within the United States. When witnesses testified at its hearings, the ACLU was mentioned several times, leading the HUAC to mention the ACLU prominently in its 1939 report. This damaged the ACLU's reputation severely, even though the report said that it could not \"definitely state whether or not\" the ACLU was a communist organization.\n\nWhile the ACLU rushed to defend its image against allegations of being a communist front, it also worked to protect witnesses who were being harassed by the HUAC. The ACLU was one of the few organizations to protest (unsuccessfully) against passage of the Smith Act in 1940, which would later be used to imprison many persons who supported Communism. The ACLU defended many persons who were prosecuted under the Smith Act, including labor leader Harry Bridges.\n\nACLU leadership was split on whether to purge its leadership of communists. Norman Thomas, John Haynes Holmes, and Morris Ernst were anti-communists who wanted to distance the ACLU from communism; opposing them were Harry Ward, Corliss Lamont and Elizabeth Flynn who rejected any political test for ACLU leadership. A bitter struggle ensued throughout 1939, and the anti-communists prevailed in February 1940, when the board voted to prohibit anyone who supported totalitarianism from ACLU leadership roles. Chairman Harry Ward immediately resigned, andfollowing a contentious six-hour debateElizabeth Flynn was voted off the ACLU's board. The 1940 resolution was considered by many to be a betrayal of its fundamental principles. The resolution was rescinded in 1968, and Flynn was posthumously reinstated to the ACLU in 1970.\n", "\n===World War II===\nforcibly relocated to internment camps\n\nWhen World War II engulfed the United States, the Bill of Rights was enshrined as a hallowed document, and numerous organizations defended civil liberties. Chicago and New York proclaimed \"Civil Rights\" weeks, and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt announced a national Bill of Rights day. Eleanor Roosevelt was the keynote speaker at the 1939 ACLU convention. In spite of this newfound respect for civil rights, Americans were becoming adamantly anti-communist, and believed that excluding communists from American society was an essential step to preserve democracy.\n\nContrasted with World War I, there was relatively little violation of civil liberties during World War II. President Roosevelt was a strong supporter of civil liberties, butmore importantlythere were few anti-war activists during World War II. The most significant exception was the internment of Japanese Americans. Two months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt authorized the creation of military \"exclusion zones\" with Executive Order 9066, paving the way for the detention of all West Coast Japanese Americans in inland camps. In addition to the non-citizen Issei (prohibited from naturalization as members of an \"unassimilable\" race), over two-thirds of those swept up were American-born citizens. The ACLU immediately protested to Roosevelt, comparing the evacuations to Nazi concentration camps. The ACLU was the only major organization to object to the internment plan, and their position was very unpopular, even within the organization. Not all ACLU leaders wanted to defend the Japanese Americans; Roosevelt loyalists such as Morris Ernst wanted to support Roosevelt's war effort, but pacifists such as Baldwin and Norman Thomas felt that Japanese Americans needed access to due process before they could be imprisoned. In a March 20, 1942 letter to Roosevelt, Baldwin called on the administration to allow Japanese Americans to prove their loyalty at individual hearings, describing the constitutionality of the planned removal \"open to grave question.\" His suggestions went nowhere, and opinions within the organization became increasingly divided as the Army began the \"evacuation\" of the West Coast. In May, the two factions, one pushing to fight the exclusion orders then being issued, the other advocating support for the President's policy of removing citizens whose \"presence may endanger national security,\" brought their opposing resolutions to a vote before the board and the ACLU's national leaders. They decided not to challenge the eviction of Japanese American citizens, and on June 22 instructions were sent to West Coast branches not to support cases that argued the government had no constitutional right to do so.\n\nThe ACLU offices on the West Coast had been more directly involved in addressing the tide of anti-Japanese prejudice from the start, as they were geographically closer to the issue, and were already working on cases challenging the exclusion by this time. The Seattle office, assisting in Gordon Hirabayashi's lawsuit, created an unaffiliated committee to continue the work the ACLU had started, while in Los Angeles, attorney A.L. Wirin continued to represent Ernest Kinzo Wakayama but without addressing the case's constitutional questions. (Wirin would lose private clients because of his defense of Wakayama and other Japanese Americans.) However, the San Francisco branch, led by Ernest Besig, refused to discontinue its support for Fred Korematsu, whose case had been taken on prior to the June 22 directive, and attorney Wayne Collins, with Besig's full support, centered his defense on the illegality of Korematsu's exclusion.\n\nThe West Coast offices had wanted a test case to take to court, but had a difficult time finding a Japanese American who was both willing to violate the internment orders and able to meet the ACLU's desired criteria of a sympathetic, Americanized plaintiff. Of the 120,000 Japanese Americans affected by the order, only 12 disobeyed, and Korematsu, Hirabayashi, and two others were the only resisters whose cases eventually made it to the Supreme Court. ''Hirabayashi v. United States'' came before the Court in May 1943, and the justices upheld the government's right to exclude Japanese Americans from the West Coast; although it had earlier forced its local office in L.A. to stop aiding Hirabayashi, the ACLU donated $1,000 to the case (over a third of the legal team's total budget) and submitted an ''amicus'' brief. Besig, dissatisfied with Osmond Fraenkel's tamer defense, filed an additional ''amicus'' brief that directly addressed Hirabayashi's constitutional rights. In the meantime, A.L. Wirin served as one of the attorneys in ''Yasui v. United States'' (decided the same day as the Hirabayashi case, and with the same results), but he kept his arguments within the perimeters established by the national office. The only case to receive a favorable ruling, ''ex parte Endo'', was also aided by two ''amicus'' briefs from the ACLU, one from the more conservative Fraenkel and another from the more putative Wayne Collins.\n\n''Korematsu v. United States'' proved to be the most controversial of these cases, as Besig and Collins refused to bow to national pressure to pursue the case without challenging the government's right to remove citizens from their homes. The ACLU board threatened to revoke the San Francisco branch's national affiliation, while Baldwin tried unsuccessfully to convince Collins to step down so he could replace him as lead attorney in the case. Eventually Collins agreed to present the case alongside Charles Horsky, although their arguments before the Supreme Court remained based in the unconstitutionality of the exclusion order Korematsu had disobeyed. The case was decided in December 1944, when the Court once again upheld the government's right to relocate Japanese Americans, although Korematsu's, Hirabayashi's and Yasui's convictions were later overturned in ''coram nobis'' proceedings in the 1980s.\n\nAlthough the ACLU (somewhat unevenly) defended the Japanese Americans, it was more reluctant to defend anti-war protesters. A majority of the board passed a resolution in 1942 which declared the ACLU unwilling to defend anyone who interfered with the United States' war effort. Included in this group were the thousands of Nisei who renounced their U.S. citizenship during the war but later regretted the decision and tried to revoke their applications for \"repatriation.\" (A significant number of those slated to \"go back\" to Japan had never actually been to the country and were in fact being deported rather than repatriated.) Ernest Besig had in 1944 visited the Tule Lake Segregation Center, where the majority of these \"renunciants\" were concentrated, and subsequently enlisted Wayne Collins' help to file a lawsuit on their behalf, arguing the renunciations had been given under duress. The national organization prohibited local branches from representing the renunciants, forcing Collins to pursue the case on his own, although Besig and the Northern California office provided some support.\n\nWhen the war ended in 1945, the ACLU was 25 years old, and had accumulated an impressive set of legal victories. President Harry S. Truman sent a congratulatory telegram to the ACLU on the occasion of their 25th anniversary. American attitudes had changed since World War I, and dissent by minorities was tolerated with more willingness. The Bill of Rights was more respected, and minority rights were becoming more commonly championed. During their 1945 annual conference, the ACLU leaders composed a list of important civil rights issues to focus on in the future, and the list included racial discrimination and separation of church and state.\n\nThe ACLU supported the African-American defendants in ''Shelley v. Kraemer'', when they tried to occupy a house they had purchased in a neighborhood which had racially restrictive housing covenants. The African-American purchasers won the case in 1945.\n\n===Cold War era===\nAnti-Communist sentiment gripped the United States during the Cold War beginning in 1946. Federal investigations caused many persons with Communist or left-leaning affiliations to lose their jobs, become blacklisted, or be jailed. During the Cold War, although the United States collectively ignored the civil rights of Communists, other civil liberties—such as due process in law and separation of church and state—continued to be reinforced and even expanded.\n\nThe ACLU was internally divided when it purged Communists from its leadership in 1940, and that ambivalence continued as it decided whether to defend alleged Communists during the late 1940s. Some ACLU leaders were anti-Communist, and felt that the ACLU should not defend any victims. Some ACLU leaders felt that Communists were entitled to free speech protections, and the ACLU should defend them. Other ACLU leaders were uncertain about the threat posed by Communists, and tried to establish a compromise between the two extremes. This ambivalent state of affairs would last until 1954, when the civil liberties faction prevailed, leading to the resignation of most of the anti-Communist leaders.\n\nIn 1947, President Truman issued Executive Order 9835, which created the Federal Loyalty Program. This program authorized the Attorney General to create a list of organizations which were deemed to be subversive. Any association with these programs was ground for barring the person from employment. Listed organizations were not notified that they were being considered for the list, nor did they have an opportunity to present counterarguments; nor did the government divulge any factual basis for inclusion in the list. Although ACLU leadership was divided on whether to challenge the Federal Loyalty Program, some challenges were successfully made.\n\nAlso in 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) subpoenaed ten Hollywood directors and writers, the ''Hollywood Ten'', intending to ask them to identify Communists, but the witnesses refused to testify. All were imprisoned for contempt of Congress. The ACLU supported the appeals of several of the artists, but lost on appeal. The Hollywood establishment panicked after the HUAC hearings, and created a blacklist which prohibited anyone with leftist associations from working. The ACLU supported legal challenges to the blacklist, but those challenges failed. The ACLU was more successful with an education effort; the 1952 report ''The Judges and the Judged'', prepared at the ACLU's direction in response to the blacklisting of actress Jean Muir, described the unfair and unethical actions behind the blacklisting process, and it helped gradually turn public opinion against McCarthyism.\n\nThe ACLU chose not to support Eugene Dennis or other leaders of the U.S. Communist Party, and they were all imprisoned, along with their attorneys\nThe federal government took direct aim at the U.S. Communist party in 1948 when it indicted its top twelve leaders in the Foley Square trial. The case hinged on whether or not mere membership in a totalitarian political party was sufficient to conclude that members advocated the overthrow of the United States government. The ACLU chose to not represent any of the defendants, and they were all found guilty and sentenced to three to five years in prison. Their defense attorneys were all cited for contempt, went to prison and were disbarred. When the government indicted additional party members, the defendants could not find attorneys to represent them. Communists protested outside the courthouse; a bill to outlaw picketing of courthouses was introduced in Congress, and the ACLU supported the anti-picketing law.\n\nThe ACLU, in a change of heart, supported the party leaders during their appeal process. The Supreme Court upheld the convictions in the ''Dennis v. United States'' decision by softening the free speech requirements from a \"clear and present danger\" test, to a \"grave and probable\" test. The ACLU issued a public condemnation of the ''Dennis'' decision, and resolved to fight it. One reason for the Supreme Court's support of cold war legislation was the 1949 deaths of Supreme Court justices Frank Murphy and Wiley Rutledge, leaving Hugo Black and William O. Douglas as the only remaining civil libertarians on the Court.\n\nThe ''Dennis'' decision paved the way for the prosecution of hundreds of other Communist party members. The ACLU supported many of the Communists during their appeals (although most of the initiative originated with local ACLU affiliates, not the national headquarters) but most convictions were upheld. The two California affiliates, in particular, felt the national ACLU headquarters was not supporting civil liberties strongly enough, and they initiated more cold war cases than the national headquarters did.\n\nThe ACLU also challenged many loyalty oath requirements across the country, but the courts upheld most of the loyalty oath laws. California ACLU affiliates successfully challenged the California state loyalty oath. The Supreme Court, until 1957, upheld nearly every law which restricted the liberties of Communists.\n\nThe ACLU, even though it scaled back its defense of Communists during the Cold War, still came under heavy criticism as a \"front\" for Communism. Critics included the American Legion, Senator Joseph McCarthy, the HUAC, and the FBI. Several ACLU leaders were sympathetic to the FBI, and as a consequence, the ACLU rarely investigated any of the many complaints alleging abuse of power by the FBI during the Cold War.\n\nIn 1950, Raymond L. Wise, ACLU board member 1933–1951, defended William Perl, one of the other spies embroiled in the atomic espionage cases (made famous by the execution of Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg).\n\n===Organizational change===\nIn 1950, the ACLU board of directors asked executive director Baldwin to resign, feeling that he lacked the organizational skills to lead the 9,000 (and growing) member organization. Baldwin objected, but a majority of the board elected to remove him from the position, and he was replaced by Patrick Murphy Malin. Under Malin's guidance, membership tripled to 30,000 by 1955the start of a 24-year period of continual growth leading to 275,000 members in 1974. Malin also presided over an expansion of local ACLU affiliates.\n\nThe ACLU, which had been controlled by an elite of a few dozen New Yorkers, became more democratic in the 1950s. In 1951, the ACLU amended its bylaws to permit the local affiliates to participate directly in voting on ACLU policy decisions. A bi-annual conference, open to the entire membership, was instituted in the same year, and in later decades it became a pulpit for activist members, who suggested new directions for the ACLU, including abortion rights, death penalty, and rights of the poor.\n\n===McCarthyism era===\nIn the 1950s the ACLU chose to not support Paul Robeson and other leftist defendants, a decision that would be heavily criticized in the future\n\nDuring the early 1950s, the ACLU continued to steer a moderate course through the Cold War. When leftist singer Paul Robeson was denied a passport in 1950, even though he was not accused of any illegal acts, the ACLU chose to not defend him. The ACLU later reversed their stance, and supported William Worthy and Rockwell Kent in their passport confiscation cases, which resulted in legal victories in the late 1950s.\n\nIn response to communist witch-hunts, many witnesses and employees chose to use the fifth amendment protection against self-incrimination to avoid divulging information about their political beliefs. Government agencies and private organizations, in response, established polices which inferred communist party membership for anyone who invoked the fifth amendment. The national ACLU was divided on whether to defend employees who had been fired merely for pleading the fifth amendment, but the New York affiliate successfully assisted teacher Harry Slochower in his Supreme Court case which reversed his termination.\n\nThe fifth amendment issue became the catalyst for a watershed event in 1954, which finally resolved the ACLU's ambivalence by ousting the anti-communists from ACLU leadership. In 1953, the anti-communists, led by Norman Thomas and James Fly, proposed a set of resolutions that inferred guilt of persons that invoked the fifth amendment. These resolutions were the first that fell under the ACLU's new organizational rules permitting local affiliates to participate in the vote; the affiliates outvoted the national headquarters, and rejected the anti-communist resolutions. Anti-communists leaders refused to accept the results of the vote, and brought the issue up for discussion again at the 1954 bi-annual convention. ACLU member Frank Graham, president of the University of North Carolina, attacked the anti-communists with a counter-proposal, which stated that the ACLU \"stands against guilt by association, judgment by accusation, the invasion of privacy of personal opinions and beliefs, and the confusion of dissent with disloyalty.\" The anti-communists continued to battle Graham's proposal, but were outnumbered by the affiliates. The anti-communists finally gave up and departed the board of directors in late 1954 and 1955, ending an eight-year reign of ambivalence within the ACLU leadership ranks. Thereafter, the ACLU proceeded with firmer resolve against Cold War anti-communist legislation. The period from the 1940 resolution (and the purge of Elizabeth Flynn) to the 1954 resignation of the anti-communist leaders is considered by many to be an era in which the ACLU abandoned its core principles.\n\nMcCarthyism declined in late 1954 after television journalist Edward R. Murrow and others publicly chastised McCarthy. The controversies over the Bill of Rights that were generated by the Cold War ushered in a new era in American Civil liberties. In 1954 in ''Brown v. Board of Education'', the Supreme Court unanimously overturned state-sanctioned school segregation, and thereafter a flood of civil rights victories dominated the legal landscape.\n\nThe Supreme Court handed the ACLU two key victories in 1957, in ''Watkins v. United States'' and ''Yates v. United States'', both of which undermined the Smith Act and marked the beginning of the end of communist party membership inquiries. In 1965, the Supreme Court produced some decisions, including ''Lamont v. Postmaster General'' (in which the plaintiff was Corliss Lamont, a former ACLU board member), which upheld fifth amendment protections and brought an end to restrictions on political activity.\n", "The decade from 1954 to 1964 was the most successful period in the ACLU's history. Membership rose from 30,000 to 80,000, and by 1965 it had affiliates in seventeen states. During the ACLU's bi-annual conference in Colorado in 1964, the Supreme Court issued rulings on eight cases in which the ACLU was involved; the ACLU prevailed on seven of the eight. The ACLU played a role in Supreme Court decisions reducing censorship of literature and arts, protecting freedom of association, prohibiting racial segregation, excluding religion from public schools, and providing due process protection to criminal suspects. The ACLU's success arose from changing public attitudes; the American populace was more educated, more tolerant, and more willing to accept unorthodox behavior.\n\n===Separation of church and state===\nSupreme Court justice Hugo Black often endorsed the ACLU's position on the separation of church and state\n\nLegal battles concerning the separation of church and state originated in laws dating to 1938 which required religious instruction in school, or provided state funding for religious schools. The Catholic church was a leading proponent of such laws; and the primary opponents (the \"separationists\") were the ACLU, Americans United for Separation of Church and State, and the American Jewish Congress. The ACLU led the challenge in the 1947 ''Everson v. Board of Education'' case, in which Justice Hugo Black wrote \"the First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state…. That wall must be kept high and impregnable.\" It was not clear that the Bill of Rights forbid state governments from supporting religious education, and strong legal arguments were made by religious proponents, arguing that the Supreme Court should not act as a \"national school board\", and that the Constitution did not govern social issues. However, the ACLU and other advocates of church/state separation persuaded the Court to declare such activities unconstitutional. Historian Samuel Walker writes that the ACLU's \"greatest impact on American life\" was its role in persuading the Supreme Court to \"constitutionalize\" so many public controversies.\n\nIn 1948, the ACLU prevailed in the ''McCollum v. Board of Education'' case, which challenged public school religious classes taught by clergy paid for from private funds. The ACLU also won cases challenging schools in New Mexico which were taught by clergy and had crucifixes hanging in the classrooms. In the 1960s, the ACLU, in response to member insistence, turned its attention to in-class promotion of religion. In 1960, 42 percent of American schools included Bible reading. In 1962, the ACLU published a policy statement condemning in-school prayers, observation of religious holidays, and Bible reading. The Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU's position, when it prohibited New York's in-school prayers in the 1962 ''Engel v. Vitale'' decision. Religious factions across the country rebelled against the anti-prayer decisions, leading them to propose the School Prayer Constitutional Amendment, which declared in-school prayer legal. The ACLU participated in a lobbying effort against the amendment, and the 1966 congressional vote on the amendment failed to obtain the required two-thirds majority.\n\nHowever, not all cases were victories; ACLU lost cases in 1949 and 1961 which challenged state laws requiring commercial businesses to close on Sunday, the Christian Sabbath. The Supreme Court has never overturned such laws, although some states subsequently revoked many of the laws under pressure from commercial interests.\n\n===Freedom of expression===\nDuring the 1940s and 1950s, the ACLU continued its battle against censorship of art and literature. In 1948, the New York affiliate of the ACLU received mixed results from the Supreme Court, winning the appeal of Carl Jacob Kunz, who was convicted for speaking without a police permit, but losing the appeal of Irving Feiner who was arrested to prevent a breach of the peace, based on his oration denouncing president Truman and the American Legion. The ACLU lost the case of Joseph Beahharnais, who was arrested for group libel when he distributed literature impugning the character of African Americans.\n\nCities across America routinely banned movies because they were deemed to be \"harmful\", \"offensive\", or \"immoral\"censorship which was validated by the 1915 ''Mutual v. Ohio'' Supreme Court decision which held movies to be mere commerce, undeserving of first amendment protection. The film ''The Miracle'' was banned in New York in 1951, at the behest of the Catholic Church, but the ACLU supported the film's distributor in an appeal of the ban, and won a major victory in the 1952 decision ''Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson''. The Catholic Church led efforts throughout the 1950s attempting to persuade local prosecutors to ban various books and movies, leading to conflict with the ACLU when the ACLU published it statement condemning the church's tactics. Further legal actions by the ACLU successfully defended films such as ''M'' and ''la Ronde'', leading the eventual dismantling of movie censorship. Hollywood continued employing self-censorship with its own Production Code, but in 1956 the ACLU called on Hollywood to abolish the Code.\n\nThe ACLU defended beat generation artists, including Allen Ginsberg who was prosecuted for his poem \"Howl\"; andin an unorthodox case the ACLU helped a coffee house regain its restaurant license which was revoked because its Beat customers were allegedly disturbing the peace and quiet of the neighborhood.\n\nThe ACLU lost an important press censorship case when, in 1957, the Supreme Court upheld the obscenity conviction of publisher Samuel Roth for distributing adult magazines. As late as 1953, books such as ''Tropic of Cancer'' and ''From Here to Eternity'' were still banned. But public standards rapidly became more liberal though the 1960s, and obscenity was notoriously difficult to define, so by 1971 prosecutions for obscenity had halted.\n\n===Racial discrimination===\nA major aspect of civil liberties progress after World War II was the undoing centuries of racism in federal, state, and local governments an effort generally associated with the Civil Rights Movement. Several civil liberties organizations worked together for progress, including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the ACLU, and the American Jewish Congress. The NAACP took primary responsibility for Supreme Court cases (often led by lead NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall), with the ACLU focusing on police misconduct, and supporting the NAACP with amicus briefs. The NAACP achieved a key victory in 1950 with the ''Henderson v. United States'' decision that ended segregation in interstate bus and rail transportation.\n\nIn 1954, the ACLU filed an amicus brief in the case of ''Brown v. Board of Education'', which led to the ban on racial segregation in U.S. public schools. Southern states instituted a McCarthyism-style witch-hunt against the NAACP, attempting it to disclose membership lists. The ACLU's fight against racism was not limited to segregation; in 1964 the ACLU provided key support to plaintiffs, primarily lower income urban residents, in ''Reynolds v. Sims'', which required states to establish the voting districts in accordance with the \"one person, one vote\" principle.\n\n===Police misconduct===\nThe ACLU regularly tackled police misconduct issues, starting with the 1932 case ''Powell v. Alabama'' (right to an attorney), and including 1942's ''Betts v. Brady'' (right to an attorney), and 1951's ''Rochin v. California'' (involuntary stomach pumping). In the late 1940s, several ACLU local affiliates established permanent committees to address policing issues. During the 1950s and 1960s, the ACLU was responsible for substantially advancing the legal protections against police misconduct. The Philadelphia affiliate was responsible for causing the City of Philadelphia, in 1958, to create the nation's first civilian police review board. In 1959, the Illinois affiliate published the first report in the nation, ''Secret Detention by the Chicago Police'', which documented unlawful detention by police.\n\nSome of the most well known ACLU successes came in the 1960s, when the ACLU prevailed in a string of cases limiting the power of police to gather evidence; in 1961's ''Mapp v. Ohio'', the Supreme court required states to obtain a warrant before searching a person's home. The ''Gideon v. Wainwright'' decision in 1963 provided legal representation to indigents. In 1964, the ACLU persuaded the Court, in ''Escobedo v. Illinois'', to permit suspects to have an attorney present during questioning. And, in 1966, ''Miranda v. Arizona'' federal decision required police to notify suspects of their constitutional rights, which was later extended to juveniles in the following year's ''in re Gault'' (1967) federal ruling. Although many law enforcement officials criticized the ACLU for expanding the rights of suspects, police officers themselves took advantage of the ACLU. For example, when the ACLU represented New York City policemen in their lawsuit which objected to searches of their workplace lockers. In the late 1960s, civilian review boards in New York City and Philadelphia were abolished, over the ACLU's objection.\n\n===Civil liberties revolution of the 1960s===\nThe 1960s was a tumultuous era in the United States, and public interest in civil liberties underwent an explosive growth. Civil liberties actions in the 1960s were often led by young people, and often employed tactics such as sit ins and marches. Protests were often peaceful, but sometimes employed militant tactics. The ACLU played a central role in all major civil liberties debates of the 1960s, including new fields such as gay rights, prisoner's rights, abortion, rights of the poor, and the death penalty. Membership in the ACLU increased from 52,000 at the beginning of the decade, to 104,000 in 1970. In 1960, there were affiliates in seven states, and by 1974 there were affiliates in 46 states. During the 1960s, the ACLU underwent a major transformation tactics; it shifted emphasis from legal appeals (generally involving amicus briefs submitted to the Supreme Court) to direct representation of defendants when they were initially arrested. At the same time, the ACLU transformed its style from \"disengaged and elitist\" to \"emotionally engaged\". The ACLU published a breakthrough document in 1963, titled ''How Americans Protest'', which was borne of frustration with the slow progress in battling racism, and which endorsed aggressive, even militant protest techniques.\n\nAfrican-American protests in the South accelerated in the early 1960s, and the ACLU assisted at every step. After four African-American college students staged a sit-in in a segregated North Carolina department store, the sit-in movement gained momentum across the United States. During 1960-61, the ACLU defended black students arrested for demonstrating in North Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. The ACLU also provided legal help for the Freedom Rides in 1961, the integration of the University of Mississippi, the Birmingham campaign in 1963, and the 1964 Freedom Summer.\n\nThe NAACP was responsible for managing most sit-in related cases that made it to the Supreme Court, winning nearly every decision. But it fell to the ACLU and other legal volunteer efforts to provide legal representation to hundreds of protestorswhite and blackwho were arrested while protesting in the South. The ACLU joined with other civil liberties groups to form the Lawyers Constitutional Defense Committee (LCDC) which subsequently provided legal representation to many of the protesters. The ACLU provided the majority of the funding for the LCDC.\n\nIn 1964, the ACLU opened up a major office in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to serving Southern issues. Much of the ACLU's progress in the South was due to Charles Morgan, Jr., the charismatic leader of the Atlanta office. He was responsible for desegregating juries (''Whitus v. Georgia''), desegregating prisons (''Lee v. Washington''), and reforming election laws. The ACLU's southern office also defended African-American congressman Julian Bond in ''Bond v. Floyd'', when the Georgia congress refused to formally induct Bond into the legislature. Another widely publicized case defended by Morgan was that of Army doctor Howard Levy, who was convicted of refusing to train Green Berets. Despite raising the defense that the Green Berets were committing war crimes in Vietnam, Levy lost on appeal in ''Parker v. Levy'', 417 U.S. 733 (1974).\n\nIn 1969, the ACLU won a major victory for free speech, when it defended Dick Gregory after he was arrested for peacefully protesting against the mayor of Chicago. The court ruled in ''Gregory v. Chicago'' that a speaker cannot be arrested for disturbing the peace when the hostility is initiated by someone in the audience, as that would amount to a \"heckler's veto\".\n\n===Vietnam War===\nThe ACLU was at the center of several legal aspects of the Vietnam war: defending draft resisters, challenging the constitutionality of the war, the potential impeachment of Richard Nixon, and the use of national security concerns to preemptively censor newspapers.\n\nDavid J. Miller was the first person prosecuted for burning his draft card. The New York affiliate of the ACLU appealed his 1965 conviction (367 F.2d 72: ''United States of America v. David J. Miller'', 1966), but the Supreme Court refused to hear the appeal. Two years later, the Massachusetts affiliate took the card-burning case of David O'Brien to the Supreme Court, arguing that the act of burning was a form of symbolic speech, but the Supreme Court upheld the conviction in ''United States v. O'Brien'', 391 US 367 (1968). Thirteen-year-old Junior High student Mary Tinker wore a black armband to school in 1965 to object to the war, and was suspended from school. The ACLU appealed her case to the Supreme Court and won a victory in ''Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District''. This critical case established that the government may not establish \"enclaves\" such as schools or prisons where all rights are forfeit.\n\nThe ACLU contends that the Bill of Rights protects individuals who burn the U.S. flag as a form of expression\nThe ACLU defended Sydney Street, who was arrested for burning an American flag to protest the reported assassination of civil rights leader James Meredith. In the ''Street v. New York'' decision, the court agreed with the ACLU that encouraging the country to abandon one of its national symbols was constitutionally protected form of expression. The ACLU successfully defended Paul Cohen, who was arrested for wearing a jacket with the words \"fuck the draft\" on its back, while he walked through the Los Angeles courthouse. The Supreme Court, in ''Cohen v. California'', held that the vulgarity of the wording was essential to convey the intensity of the message.\n\nNon-war related free speech rights were also advanced during the Vietnam war era; in 1969, the ACLU defended a Ku Klux Klan member who advocated long-term violence against the government, and the Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU's argument in the landmark decision ''Brandenburg v. Ohio'', which held that only speech which advocated ''imminent'' violence could be outlawed.\n\nA major crisis gripped the ACLU in 1968 when a debate erupted over whether to defend Benjamin Spock and the Boston Five against federal charges that they encouraged draftees to avoid the draft. The ACLU board was deeply split over whether to defend the activists; half the board harbored anti-war sentiments, and felt that the ACLU should lend its resources to the cause of the Boston Five. The other half of the board believed that civil liberties were not at stake, and the ACLU would be taking a political stance. Behind the debate was the longstanding ACLU tradition that it was politically impartial, and provided legal advice without regard to the political views of the defendants. The board finally agreed to a compromise solution that permitted the ACLU to defend the anti-war activists, without endorsing the activist's political views. Some critics of the ACLU suggest that the ACLU became a partisan political organization following the Spock case. After the Kent State shootings in 1970, ACLU leaders took another step towards politics by passing a resolution condemning the Vietnam War. The resolution was based in a variety of legal arguments, including civil liberties violations and a claim that the war was illegal.\n\nAlso in 1968, the ACLU held an internal symposium to discuss its dual roles: providing \"direct\" legal support (defense for accused in their initial trial, benefiting only the individual defendant), and appellate support (providing amicus briefs during the appeal process, to establish widespread legal precedent). Historically, the ACLU was known for its appellate work which led to landmark Supreme Court decisions, but by 1968, 90% of the ACLU's legal activities involved direct representation. The symposium concluded that both roles were valid for the ACLU.\n", "\n===Watergate era===\nThe ACLU was the first organization to call for the impeachment of Richard Nixon\n\nThe ACLU supported ''The New York Times'' in its 1971 suit against the government, requesting permission to publish the Pentagon papers. The court upheld the ''Times'' and ACLU in the ''New York Times Co. v. United States'' ruling, which held that the government could not preemptively prohibit the publication of classified information and had to wait until after it was published to take action.\n\nAs the Watergate saga unfolded, the ACLU became the first national organization to call for Nixon's impeachment. This, following the resolution opposing the Vietnam war, was a second major decision that caused critics of the ACLU, particularly conservatives, to claim that the ACLU had evolved into a liberal political organization.\n\n===Enclaves and new civil liberties===\nThe decade from 1965 to 1975 saw an expansion of the field of civil liberties. Administratively, the ACLU responded by appointing Aryeh Neier to take over from Pemberton as Executive Director in 1970. Neier embarked on an ambitious program to expand the ACLU; he created the ACLU Foundation to raise funds, and he created several new programs to focus the ACLU's legal efforts. By 1974, ACLU membership had reached 275,000.\n\nDuring those years, the ACLU led the way in expanding legal rights in three directions: new rights for persons within government-run \"enclaves\", new rights for victim groups, and privacy rights for mainstream citizens. At the same time, the organization grew substantially. The ACLU helped develop the field of constitutional law that governs \"enclaves\", which are groups of persons that live in conditions under government control. Enclaves include mental hospital patients, members of the military, and prisoners, and students (while at school). The term enclave originated with Supreme Court justice Abe Fortas's use of the phrase \"schools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism\" in the ''Tinker v. Des Moines'' decision.\n\nThe ACLU initiated the legal field of student's rights with the ''Tinker v. Des Moines'' case, and expanded it with cases such as ''Goss v. Lopez'' which required schools to provide students an opportunity to appeal suspensions.\n\nAs early as 1945, the ACLU had taken a stand to protect the rights of the mentally ill, when it drafted a model statute governing mental commitments. In the 1960s, the ACLU opposed involuntary commitments, unless it could be demonstrated that the person was a danger to himself or the community. In the landmark 1975 ''O'Connor v. Donaldson'' decision the ACLU represented a non-violent mental health patient who had been confined against his will for 15 years, and persuaded the Supreme Court to rule such involuntary confinements illegal. The ACLU has also defended the rights of mentally ill individuals who are not dangerous, but who create disturbances. The New York chapter of the ACLU defended Billie Boggs, a mentally ill woman who exposed herself and defecated and urinated in public.\n\nPrior to 1960, prisoners had virtually no recourse to the court system, because courts considered prisoners to have no civil rights. That changed in the late 1950s, when the ACLU began representing prisoners that were subject to police brutality, or deprived of religious reading material. In 1968, the ACLU successfully sued to desegregate the Alabama prison system; and in 1969, the New York affiliate adopted a project to represent prisoners in New York prisons. Private attorney Phil Hirschkop discovered degrading conditions in Virginia prisons following the Virginia State Penitentiary strike, and won an important victory in 1971's ''Landman v. Royster'' which prohibited Virginia from treating prisoners in inhumane ways. In 1972, the ACLU consolidated several prison rights efforts across the nation and created the National Prison Project. The ACLU's efforts led to landmark cases such as ''Ruiz v. Estelle'' (requiring reform of the Texas prison system) and in 1996 U.S. Congress enacted the Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) which codified prisoners' rights.\n\n===Victim groups===\nRuth Bader Ginsburg co-founded the ACLU's Women's Rights Project in 1971. She was later appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States by President Bill Clinton.\n\nThe ACLU, during the 1960s and 1970s, expanded its scope to include what it referred to as \"victim groups\", namely women, the poor, and homosexuals. Heeding the call of female members, the ACLU endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment in 1970 and created the Women's Rights Project in 1971. The Women's Rights Project dominated the legal field, handling more than twice as many cases as the National Organization for Women, including breakthrough cases such as ''Reed v. Reed'', ''Frontiero v. Richardson'', and '' Taylor v. Louisiana''.\n\nACLU leader Harriet Pilpel raised the issue of the rights of homosexuals in 1964, and two years later the ACLU formally endorsed gay rights. In 1972, ACLU cooperating attorneys in Oregon filed the first federal civil rights case involving a claim of unconstitutional discrimination against a gay or lesbian public school teacher. The U.S. District Court held that a state statute that authorized school districts to fire teachers for \"immorality\" was unconstitutionally vague, and awarded monetary damages to the teacher. The court refused to reinstate the teacher, and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed that refusal by a 2 to 1 vote. ''Burton v. Cascade School District'', 353 F. Supp. 254 (D. Or. 1972), aff'd 512 F.2d 850 (1975). In 1973 the ACLU created the Sexual Privacy Project (later the Gay and Lesbian Rights Project) which combated discrimination against homosexuals. This support continues even today. After then-Senator Larry Craig was arrested for soliciting sex in a public restroom, the ACLU wrote an amicus brief for Craig, saying that sex between consenting adults in public places was protected under privacy rights.\n\nRights of the poor was another area that was expanded by the ACLU. In 1966 and again in 1968, activists within the ACLU encouraged the organization to adopt a policy overhauling the welfare system, and guaranteeing low-income families a baseline income; but the ACLU board did not approve the proposals. The ACLU played a key role in the 1968 ''King v. Smith'' decision, where the Supreme Court ruled that welfare benefits for children could not be denied by a state simply because the mother cohabited with a boyfriend.\n\n=== The Reproductive Freedom Project ===\n====History====\n\nThe Reproductive Freedom Project is an institution founded in 1974 (within the larger context of ACLU) that is committed to defend individuals who feel abused by the government, especially with cases pertaining to a lack of access to abortions, birth control, or sexual education.\n\nThe ACLU continues to defend individuals who feel abused or improperly treated by the government. Often the American Civil Liberties Union is the group to stand up for an individual when being discriminated against because of their religion, sex, gender, sexuality, race, or class, even when they are not the popular opinion. The Reproductive Freedom Project, however, goes deeper than the ACLU. The Project promotes sexual and reproductive health by providing lessons about contraception, knowing about one's reproductive rights and assisting with the financial burdens of abortions and all of the logistics that may go into that.\n\n====Mission====\n\nThe Reproductive Freedom Project of ACLU, according to their mission statement, actively works provide access to any and all reproductive health care for any human, regardless of race, gender, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, or political standing. In some cases, Reproductive Freedom Programs fund ultrasounds and abortions and any lodging, meals, or transportation that go with that. Because women have reported finding it necessary to cross state lines or wait weeks for an abortion, The Reproductive Freedom Project states that they want to fight for individuals \"state by state and law by law\" until every individual can pursue the kind of lifestyle they want. As stated on their website, \"states have enacted more restrictions to abortion than they did in the previous 10 years combined\"2. The ACLU claims to be committed to fighting injustices with access to education on what accessibilities one has to abortions, birth control, religious rights, as well as trying to diminish abstinence-only sexual education, for ACLU claims that abstinence only education promotes a lack of willingness to use contraceptives.\n\n====Major Accomplishments Pertaining to Reproductive Justice====\n\nAs referenced in the larger ACLU article, in 1929, the ACLU defended Margaret Sanger's right to educate the general public about forms of birth control. In 1980, the Project filed Poe v. Lynchburg Training School after 8,000 women had been sterilized without their authorization. In 1985, the state decided to provide counseling and medical treatment for problems caused by what had happened 5 years prior. In 1977, the ACLU took part in and litigated Walker v. Pierce, the Supreme Court case that created federal regulations to prevent Medicaid patients from being sterilized without their knowledge or consent. In 1981-1990, the Project litigated Hodgson v. Minnesota, a case defending the rights of teenagers who chose not to comply with a state law requiring them to receive parental permission for an abortion. In the 1990s, the Project provided legal assistance and resource kits to those who were being attacked for educating about sexuality and AIDS. In 1995, the Project filed Curtis v. School Committee of Falmouth, the U.S.'s first condom availability program.\n\n====Current Initiatives====\n\nThe Reproductive Freedom Project is presently working on three ideas: (1) to \"reverse the shortage of trained abortion providers throughout the country\" (2) to \"block state and federal welfare \"reform\" proposals that cut off benefits for children who are born to women already receiving welfare, unmarried women, or teenagers\" and (3) to \"stop the elimination of vital reproductive health services as a result of hospital mergers and health care networks4. The Project says they are hoping to achieve these goals through legal action and litigation.\n\n===Privacy===\nThe right to privacy is not explicitly identified in the U.S. Constitution, but the ACLU led the charge to establish such rights in the indecisive 1961 ''Poe v. Ullman'' case, which addressed a state statute outlawing contraception. The issue arose again in ''Griswold v. Connecticut'' (1965), and this time the Supreme Court adopted the ACLU's position, and formally declared a right to privacy. The New York affiliate of the ACLU pushed to eliminate anti-abortion laws starting in 1964, a year before ''Griswold'' was decided, and in 1967 the ACLU itself formally adopted the right to abortion as a policy. The ACLU led the defense in ''United States v. Vuitch'' which expanded the right of physicians to determine when abortions were necessary. These efforts culminated in one of the most controversial Supreme Court decisions of all time, ''Roe v. Wade'', which legalized abortion in the first three months of pregnancy. The ACLU successfully argued against state bans on interracial marriage, in the case of ''Loving v. Virginia'' (1967).\n\nRelated to privacy, the ACLU engaged in several battles to ensure that government records about individuals were kept private, and to give individuals the right to review their records. The ACLU supported several measures, including the 1970 Fair Credit Reporting Act required credit agencies to divulge credit information to individuals; the 1973 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, which provided students the right to access their records; and the 1974 Privacy Act which prevented the federal government from disclosing personal information without good cause.\n\n===Allegations of bias===\nIn the early 1970s, conservatives and libertarians began to criticize the ACLU for being too political and too liberal. Legal scholar Joseph W. Bishop wrote that the ACLU's trend to partisanship started with its defense of Dr. Spock's anti-war protests. Critics also blamed the ACLU for encouraging the Supreme Court to embrace judicial activism. Critics claimed that the ACLU's support of controversial decisions like ''Roe v. Wade'' and ''Griswold v. Connecticut'' violated the intention of the authors of the Bill of Rights. The ACLU became an issue in the 1988 presidential campaign, when Republican candidate George H. W. Bush accused Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis (a member of the ACLU) of being a \"card carrying member of the ACLU\".\n\n===The Skokie case===\n\nIt is the policy of the ACLU to support the civil liberties of defendants regardless of their ideological stance. The ACLU takes pride in defending individuals with unpopular viewpoints, such as George Wallace, George Lincoln Rockwell, and KKK members. The ACLU has defended American Nazis many times, and their actions often brought protests, particularly from American Jews.\n\nIn 1977, a small group of American Nazis, led by Frank Collin, applied to the town of Skokie, Illinois for permission to hold a demonstration in the town park. Skokie at the time had a majority population of Jews, totaling 40,000 of 70,000 citizens, some of whom were survivors of Nazi concentration camps. Skokie refused to grant permission, and an Illinois judge supported Skokie and prohibited the demonstration. Skokie immediately passed three ordinances aimed at preventing the group from meeting in Skokie. The ACLU assisted Collin and appealed to federal court. The appeal dragged on for a year, and the ACLU eventually prevailed in ''Smith v. Collin'', 447 F.Supp. 676.The federal appeal case was ''Smith v. Collin'' 447 F.Supp. 676. See also Supreme Court: ''Smith v. Collin'', 439 U.S. 916 (1978), and National Socialist Party v. Skokie, 432 U.S. 43 (1977).\n\nThe Skokie case was heavily publicized across America, partially because Jewish groups such as the Jewish Defense League and Anti Defamation League strenuously objected to the demonstration, leading many members of the ACLU to cancel their memberships. The Illinois affiliate of the ACLU lost about 25% of its membership and nearly one-third of its budget. The financial strain from the controversy led to layoffs at local chapters. After the membership crisis died down, the ACLU sent out a fund-raising appeal which explained their rationale for the Skokie case, and raised over $500,000 ($ in dollars).\n\n===Reagan era===\nThe ACLU defended Oliver North in 1990, arguing that his conviction was tainted by coerced testimony\n\nThe inauguration of Ronald Reagan as president in 1981, ushered in an eight-year period of conservative leadership in the U.S. government. Under his leadership, the government pushed a conservative social agenda, including outlawing abortion, inserting prayer in schools, banning pornography, and resisting gay rights.\n\nFifty years after the Scopes trial, the ACLU found itself fighting another classroom case, the Arkansas 1981 creationism statute, which required schools to teach the biblical account of creation as a scientific alternative to evolution. The ACLU won the case in the ''McLean v. Arkansas'' decision.''McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education'', 529 F. Supp. 1255 (E.D. Ark. 1982) ( \"transcription\" by Clark Dorman, January 30, 1996, at TalkOrigins).\n\nIn 1982, the ACLU became involved in a case involving the distribution of child pornography (''New York v. Ferber''). In an amicus brief, the ACLU argued that child pornography that violates the three prong obscenity test should be outlawed, but that the law in question was overly restrictive because it outlawed artistic displays and otherwise non-obscene material. The court did not adopt the ACLU's position.\n\nDuring the 1988 presidential election, Vice President George H. W. Bush noted that his opponent Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis had described himself as a \"card-carrying member of the ACLU\" and used that as evidence that Dukakis was \"a strong, passionate liberal\" and \"out of the mainstream\". The phrase subsequently was used by the organization in an advertising campaign.\n\nIn 1990 the ACLU defended Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, whose conviction was tainted by coerced testimonya violation of his fifth amendment rightsduring the Iran–Contra affair, where Oliver North was involved in illegal weapons sales to Iran in order to illegally fund the Contra guerillas.\n", "\n===1990 to 2000===\nMt. Soledad Cross from public lands in San Diego\n\nIn 1997, ruling unanimously in the case of ''Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union'', the Supreme Court voted down anti-indecency provisions of the Communications Decency Act (the CDA), finding they violated the freedom of speech provisions of the First Amendment. In their decision, the Supreme Court held that the CDA's \"use of the undefined terms 'indecent' and 'patently offensive' will provoke uncertainty among speakers about how the two standards relate to each other and just what they mean.\"\n\nIn 2000, Marvin Johnson, a legislative counsel for the ACLU, stated that proposed anti-spam legislation infringed on free speech by denying anonymity and by forcing spam to be labeled as such, \"Standardized labeling is compelled speech.\" He also stated, \"It's relatively simple to click and delete.\" The debate found the ACLU joining with the Direct Marketing Association and the Center for Democracy and Technology in 2000 in criticizing a bipartisan bill in the House of Representatives. As early as 1997, the ACLU had taken a strong position that nearly all spam legislation was improper, although it has supported \"opt-out\" requirements in some cases. The ACLU opposed the 2003 CAN-SPAM act suggesting that it could have a chilling effect on speech in cyberspace. It has been criticized for this position.\n\nIn November 2000, 15 African-American residents of Hearne, Texas, were indicted on drug charges after being arrested in a series of \"drug sweeps\". The ACLU filed a class-action lawsuit, ''Kelly v. Paschall'', on their behalf, alleging that the arrests were unlawful. The ACLU contended that 15 percent of Hearne's male African-American population aged 18 to 34 were arrested based only on the \"uncorroborated word of a single unreliable confidential informant coerced by police to make cases.\" On May 11, 2005, the ACLU and Robertson County announced a confidential settlement of the lawsuit, an outcome which \"both sides stated that they were satisfied with.\" The District Attorney dismissed the charges against the plaintiffs of the suit. The 2009 film ''American Violet'' depicts this case.\n\nIn 2000, the ACLU's Massachusetts affiliate represented the North American Man Boy Love Association (NAMBLA), on first amendment grounds, in the ''Curley v. NAMBLA'' wrongful death civil suit. The organization was sued because a man who raped and murdered a child had visited the NAMBLA website. Also in 2000, the ACLU lost the ''Boy Scouts of America v. Dale'' case, which had asked the Supreme Court to require the Boy Scouts of America to drop their policy of prohibiting homosexuals from becoming Boy Scout leaders.\n\n===Twenty-first century===\nIn March 2004, the ACLU, along with Lambda Legal and the National Center for Lesbian Rights, sued the state of California on behalf of six same-sex couples who were denied marriage licenses. That case, ''Woo v. Lockyer'', was eventually consolidated into ''In re Marriage Cases'', the California Supreme Court case which led to same-sex marriage being available in that state from June 16, 2008 until Proposition 8 was passed on November 4, 2008.\nThe ACLU submitted arguments supporting Rush Limbaugh's right to privacy during the criminal investigation of his alleged drug use\nDuring the 2004 trial regarding allegations of Rush Limbaugh's drug abuse, the ACLU argued that his privacy should not have been compromised by allowing law enforcement examination of his medical records. In June 2004, the school district in Dover, Pennsylvania, required that its high school biology students listen to a statement which asserted that the theory of evolution is not fact and mentioning intelligent design as an alternative theory. Several parents called the ACLU to complain, because they believed that the school was promoting a religious idea in the classroom and violating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The ACLU, joined by Americans United for Separation of Church and State, represented the parents in a lawsuit against the school district. After a lengthy trial, Judge John E. Jones III ruled in favor of the parents in the ''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District'' decision, finding that intelligent design is not science and permanently forbidding the Dover school system from teaching intelligent design in science classes.\n\nIn April 2006, Edward Jones and the ACLU sued the City of Los Angeles, on behalf of Robert Lee Purrie and five other homeless people, for the city's violation of the 8th and 14th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, and Article I, sections 7 and 17 of the California Constitution (supporting due process and equal protection, and prohibiting cruel and unusual punishment). The Court ruled in favor of the ACLU, stating that, \"the LAPD cannot arrest people for sitting, lying, or sleeping on public sidewalks in Skid Row.\" Enforcement of section 41.18(d) 24 hours a day against persons who have nowhere else to sit, lie, or sleep, other than on public streets and sidewalks, is breaking these amendments. The Court said that the anti-camping ordinance is \"one of the most restrictive municipal laws regulating public spaces in the United States\". Jones and the ACLU wanted a compromise in which the LAPD is barred from enforcing section 41.18(d) (arrest, seizure, and imprisonment) in Skid Row between the hours of 9:00 p.m. and 6:30 am. The compromise plan permits the homeless to sleep on the sidewalk, provided they are not \"within 10 feet of any business or residential entrance\" and only between these hours. One of the motivations for the compromise is the shortage of space in the prison system. Downtown development business interests and the Central City Association (CCA) were against the compromise. Police Chief William Bratton said the case had slowed the police effort to fight crime and clean up Skid Row, and that when he was allowed to clean up Skid Row, real estate profited. On September 20, 2006, the Los Angeles City Council voted to reject the compromise. On October 3, 2006, police arrested Skid Row's transients for sleeping on the streets for the first time in months.\n\nIn 2006, the ACLU of Washington State joined with a pro-gun rights organization, the Second Amendment Foundation, and prevailed in a lawsuit against the North Central Regional Library District (NCRL) in Washington for its policy of refusing to disable restrictions upon an adult patron's request. Library patrons attempting to access pro-gun web sites were blocked, and the library refused to remove the blocks. In 2012, the ACLU sued the same library system for refusing to temporarily, at the request of an adult patron, disable Internet filters which blocked access to Google Images.\n\nIn 2006, the ACLU challenged a Missouri law that prohibited picketing outside of veterans' funerals. The suit was filed in support of the Westboro Baptist Church and Shirley Phelps-Roper, who were threatened with arrest. The Westboro Baptist Church is well known for their picket signs that contain messages such as, \"God Hates Fags\", \"Thank God for Dead Soldiers\" and \"Thank God for 9/11\". The ACLU issued a statement calling the legislation a \"law that infringes on Shirley Phelps-Roper's rights to religious liberty and free speech\". The ACLU prevailed in the lawsuit. In 2008, the ACLU was part of a consortium of legal advocates, including Lambda Legal and the National Center for Lesbian Rights, that challenged California's Proposition 8, which declared same-sex marriages illegal. The ACLU and its allies prevailed.\n\nIn light of the Supreme Court's ''Heller'' decision recognizing that the Constitution protects an individual right to bear arms, ACLU of Nevada took a position of supporting \"the individual's right to bear arms subject to constitutionally permissible regulations\" and pledged to \"defend this right as it defends other constitutional rights\". Since 2008, the ACLU has increasingly assisted gun owners recover firearms that have been seized illegally by law enforcement.\n\nIn 2009, the ACLU filed an amicus brief in ''Citizens United v. FEC'', arguing that the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 violated the First Amendment right to free speech by curtailing political speech. This stance on the landmark ''Citizens United'' case caused considerable disagreement within the organization, resulting in a discussion about its future stance during a quarterly board meeting in 2010. On March 27, 2012, the ACLU reaffirmed its stance in support of the Supreme Court's ''Citizens United'' ruling, at the same time voicing support for expanded public financing of election campaigns and stating the organization would firmly oppose any future constitutional amendment limiting free speech.\n\nIn 2010 the ACLU of Illinois was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame as a Friend of the Community.\n\nIn 2011 the ACLU started its Don't Filter Me project, countering LGBT-related Internet censorship in public schools in the United States.\n\nOn January 7, 2013, the ACLU reached a settlement with the federal government in ''Collins v. United States'' that provided for the payment of full separation pay to servicemembers discharged under \"don't ask, don't tell\" since November 10, 2004, who had previously been granted only half that. Some 181 were expected to receive about $13,000 each.\n\n===Anti-terrorism issues===\nThe ACLU represented Internet service provider Nicholas Merrill in a 2004 lawsuit which challenged the government's right to secretly gather information about Internet access\n\nAfter the September 11 attacks, the federal government instituted a broad range of new measures to combat terrorism, including the passage of the Patriot Act. The ACLU challenged many of the measures, claiming that they violated rights regarding due process, privacy, illegal searches, and cruel and unusual punishment. An ACLU policy statement states:\n\nOur way forward lies in decisively turning our backs on the policies and practices that violate our greatest strength: our Constitution and the commitment it embodies to the rule of law. Liberty and security do not compete in a zero-sum game; our freedoms are the very foundation of our strength and security. The ACLU's National Security Project advocates for national security policies that are consistent with the Constitution, the rule of law, and fundamental human rights. The Project litigates cases relating to detention, torture, discrimination, surveillance, censorship, and secrecy.\n\nDuring the ensuing debate regarding the proper balance of civil liberties and security, the membership of the ACLU increased by 20%, bringing the group's total enrollment to 330,000. The growth continued, and by August 2008 ACLU membership was greater than 500,000. It remained at that level through 2011.\n\nThe ACLU has been a vocal opponent of the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, the PATRIOT 2 Act of 2003, and associated legislation made in response to the threat of domestic terrorism. In response to a requirement of the USA PATRIOT Act, the ACLU withdrew from the Combined Federal Campaign charity drive. The campaign imposed a requirement that ACLU employees must be checked against a federal anti-terrorism watch list. The ACLU has stated that it would \"reject $500,000 in contributions from private individuals rather than submit to a government 'blacklist' policy.\"\n\nIn 2004, the ACLU sued the federal government in ''American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft'' on behalf of Nicholas Merrill, owner of an Internet service provider. Under the provisions of the Patriot Act, the government had issued national security letters to Merrill to compel him to provide private Internet access information from some of his customers. In addition, the government placed a gag order on Merrill, forbidding him from discussing the matter with anyone.\n\nIn January 2006, the ACLU filed a lawsuit, ''ACLU v. NSA'', in a federal district court in Michigan, challenging government spying in the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy. On August 17, 2006, that court ruled that the warrantless wiretapping program is unconstitutional and ordered it ended immediately. However, the order was stayed pending an appeal. The Bush administration did suspend the program while the appeal was being heard. In February 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court turned down an appeal from the ACLU to let it pursue a lawsuit against the program that began shortly after the September 11 terror attacks.\n\nThe ACLU and other organizations also filed separate lawsuits around the country against telecommunications companies. The ACLU filed a lawsuit in Illinois (''Terkel v. AT&T'') which was dismissed because of the state secrets privilege and two others in California requesting injunctions against AT&T and Verizon. On August 10, 2006, the lawsuits against the telecommunications companies were transferred to a federal judge in San Francisco.\n\nThe ACLU represents a Muslim-American who was detained but never accused of a crime in ''Ashcroft v. al-Kidd'', a civil suit against former Attorney General John Ashcroft. In January 2010, the American military released the names of 645 detainees held at the Bagram Theater Internment Facility in Afghanistan, modifying its long-held position against publicizing such information. This list was prompted by a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit filed in September 2009 by the ACLU, whose lawyers had also requested detailed information about conditions, rules and regulations.\n\nThe ACLU has also criticized targeted killings of American citizens who fight against the United States. In 2011 the ACLU criticized the killing of radical Muslim cleric Anwar al-Awlaki on the basis that it was a violation of his Fifth Amendment right to not be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.\n\n=== Trump administration ===\nAbdi Soltani, executive director of Northern California ACLU, speaks at a San Francisco protest of the U.S. immigration ban.\nFollowing Donald Trump's election as President on November 8, 2016, the ACLU responded on Twitter saying: \"Should President-elect Donald Trump attempt to implement his unconstitutional campaign promises, we'll see him in court.\" On January 27, 2017, President Trump signed an executive order indefinitely barring \"Syrian refugees from entering the United States, suspended all refugee admissions for 120 days and blocked citizens of seven Muslim-majority countries, refugees or otherwise, from entering the United States for 90 days: Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen\". The ACLU responded by filing a lawsuit against the ban on behalf of Hameed Khalid Darweesh and Haider Sameer Abdulkhaleq Alshawi, who had been detained at JFK International Airport. On January 28, 2017, a US District Court Judge Ann Donnelly granted a temporary injunction against the immigration order, saying it was difficult to see any harm from allowing the newly arrived immigrants from entering the country.\n \nIn response to Trump's order, the ACLU raised more than $24 million from more than 350,000 individual online donations in a two-day period. This amounted to six times what the ACLU normally receives in online donations in a year. Celebrities donating included Chris Sacca (who offered to match other people's donations and ultimately gave $150,000), Rosie O'Donnell, Judd Apatow, Sia, John Legend, and Adele. The number of members of the ACLU doubled in the time from the election to end of January to 1 million.\n\n===Shooting of Jocques Clemmons===\nThe ACLU of Tennessee protested the shooting of Jocques Clemmons which occurred in Nashville, Tennessee on February 10, 2017. On May 11, 2017, as Glenn Funk, the district attorney of Davidson County, decided not to prosecute police officer Joshua Lippert, they called for an independent community review board and for Nashville police officers to wear body cameras.\n", "\n\n* American Civil Rights Union\n* British Columbia Civil Liberties Association\n* Canadian Civil Liberties Association\n* Civil libertarianism\n* Institute for Justice\n* Liberty, a British equivalent\n* List of court cases involving the American Civil Liberties Union\n* National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee\n* New York Civil Liberties Union\n* Political freedom\n* Southern Poverty Law Center\n\n", "\n", "* Bodenhamer, David, and Ely, James, Editors (2008). ''The Bill of Rights in Modern America'', second edition. Indiana University Press. .\n* Donohue, William (1985). ''The Politics of the American Civil Liberties Union''. Transaction Books. .\n* Kaminer, Wendy (2009). ''Worst Instincts: Cowardice, Conformity, and the ACLU''. Beacon Press. . A dissident member of the ACLU criticizes its post-9/11 actions as betraying core principles of its founders.\n* Lamson, Peggy (1976). ''Roger Baldwin: Founder of the American Civil Liberties Union''. Houghton Mifflin Company. .\n* Walker, Samuel (1990). ''In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU''. Oxford University Press. .\n", "* Klein Woody, and Baldwin, Roger Nash (2006). ''Liberties lost: the endangered legacy of the ACLU''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. A collection of essays by Baldwin, each accompanied by commentary from a modern analyst.\n* Krannawitter, Thomas L. and Palm, Daniel C. (2005). ''A Nation Under God?: The ACLU and religion in American politics''. Rowman & Littlefield.\n* Sears, Alan, and Osten, Craig (2005). ''The ACLU vs America: Exposing the Agenda to Redefine Moral Values''. B&H Publishing Group.\n* Smith, Frank LaGard (1996). ''ACLU: The Devil's Advocate: The Seduction of Civil Liberties in America''. Marcon Publishers.\n\n===Archives===\n* American Civil Liberties Union of Washington. 1942–1996. 136.66 cubic feet (including 13 microfilm reels and 1 videocassette) plus 62 cartons and 2 rolled posters. ''Labor Archives of Washington''. University of Washington Special Collections.\n* American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan: Detroit Branch Records 1952-1966. This collection documents the early years of the Detroit ACLU branch. The collection contains documents related to academic freedom; censorship; church and state; civil liberties; police brutality; HUAC; and legal assistance to prisoners. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit, Michigan.\n* American Civil Liberties Union of Oakland County, Michigan 1970-1984. This collection illustrates that the branch was formed to address issues such as Oakland County jail conditions, lie detector use, senior housing rights, and attempts to reinstate the death penalty. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit, Michigan.\n\n===Selected works sponsored or published by the ACLU===\n* ''Annual Report - American Civil Liberties Union'', American Civil Liberties Union, 1921.\n* ''Black Justice'', ACLU, 1931.\n* ''How Americans Protest'', American Civil Liberties Union, 1963.\n* ''Secret detention by the Chicago police: a report'', American Civil Liberties Union, 1959.\n* ''Report on lawlessness in law enforcement'', Wickersham Commission, Patterson Smith, 1931. This report was written by the ACLU but published under the auspices of the Wickersham Commission.\n* Miller, Merle, (1952), '' The Judges and the Judged'', Doubleday.\n* '' ACLU organization records, 1947–1995''. Princeton University Library, Mudd Manuscript Library.\n* ''The Dangers of Domestic Spying by Federal Law Enforcement'', American Civil Liberties Union, 2002.\n", "\n\n* \n* American Civil Liberties Union Records, Princeton University. Document archive 1917–1950, including the history of the ACLU.\n* ''The ACLU Freedom Files'' TV series\n* Debs Pamphlet Collection, Indiana State University Library. An array of annual ACLU reports in PDF.\n* List of 100 most important ACLU victories, New Hampshire Civil Liberties Union.\n* De-classified FBI records on the ACLU\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Organization", "Early years", "1930s", "Mid-century", "1960s", "1970s and 1980s", "Post-Cold War era", "See also", "Footnotes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	American Civil Liberties Union
[ " \n\n\n\n\n'''Adobe Systems Incorporated''' ( ) is an American multinational computer software company. The company is headquartered in San Jose, California, United States. Adobe has historically focused upon the creation of multimedia and creativity software products, with a more recent foray towards rich Internet application software development. It is best known for Photoshop, an image editing software, Acrobat Reader, the Portable Document Format (PDF) and Adobe Creative Suite, as well as its successor Adobe Creative Cloud.\n\nAdobe was founded in December 1982 by John Warnock and Charles Geschke, who established the company after leaving Xerox PARC in order to develop and sell the PostScript page description language. In 1985, Apple Computer licensed PostScript for use in its LaserWriter printers, which helped spark the desktop publishing revolution.\n\n, Adobe Systems has about 15,000 employees worldwide, about 40% of whom work in San Jose. Adobe also has major development operations in Newton, Massachusetts; New York City, New York; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Lehi, Utah; Seattle, Washington; San Francisco and San Luis Obispo, California in the United States.\n", "\nThe company was started in John Warnock's garage. The name of the company, ''Adobe'', comes from Adobe Creek in Los Altos, California, which ran behind Warnock's house. Adobe's corporate logo features a stylized \"A\" and was designed by the wife of John Warnock, Marva Warnock, who is a graphic designer.\n\nSteve Jobs asked to buy the company for five million dollars in 1982, but Warnock and Geschke refused. Their investors urged them to work something out with Jobs, so they agreed to sell him shares worth 19 percent of the company, for which Jobs paid a five-times multiple of their company's valuation at the time, plus a five-year license fee for PostScript, in advance. The purchase and advance made Adobe the first company in the history of Silicon Valley to become profitable in its first year.\n\nWarnock and Geschke considered various business options including a copy-service business and a turnkey system for office printing. Then they chose to focus on developing specialized printing software, and created the Adobe PostScript page description language.\n\nPostScript was the first truly international standard for computer printing as it included algorithms describing the letter-forms of many languages. Adobe added kanji printer products in 1988. Warnock and Geschke were also able to bolster the credibility of Postscript by connecting with a typesetting manufacturer. They weren't able to work with Compugraphic, but then worked with Linotype to license the Helvetica and Times Roman fonts (through the Linotron 100). By 1987, PostScript had become the industry-standard printer language with more than 400 third-party software programs and licensing agreements with 19 printer companies.\n\nWarnock described the language as \"extensible\", in its ability to apply graphic arts standards to office printing.\n\nAdobe's first products after PostScript were digital fonts, which they released in a proprietary format called Type 1. Apple subsequently developed a competing standard, TrueType, which provided full scalability and precise control of the pixel pattern created by the font's outlines, and licensed it to Microsoft.\n\nIn the mid-1980s, Adobe entered the consumer software market with Illustrator, a vector-based drawing program for the Apple Macintosh. Illustrator, which grew from the firm's in-house font-development software, helped popularize PostScript-enabled laser printers.\n\nAdobe Systems entered NASDAQ in August 1986. Its revenue has grown from roughly $1 billion in 1999 to roughly $4 billion in 2012. Adobe's fiscal years run from December to November. For example, the 2007 fiscal year ended on November 30, 2007.\n\nIn 1989, Adobe introduced what was to become its flagship product, a graphics editing program for the Macintosh called Photoshop. Stable and full-featured, Photoshop 1.0 was ably marketed by Adobe and soon dominated the market.\n\nIn 1993, Adobe introduced PDF, the Portable Document Format, and its Adobe Acrobat and Reader software. PDF is now an International Standard: ISO 32000-1:2008.\n\nIn December 1991, Adobe released Adobe Premiere, which Adobe rebranded as Adobe Premiere Pro in 2003. In 1992, Adobe acquired OCR Systems, Inc. In 1994, Adobe acquired Aldus and added PageMaker and After Effects to its product line later in the year; it also controls the TIFF file format. In the same year, Adobe acquired LaserTools Corp and Compution Inc. In 1995, Adobe added FrameMaker, the long-document DTP application, to its product line after Adobe acquired Frame Technology Corp. In 1996, Adobe Systems Inc added Ares Software Corp. In 2002, Adobe acquired Canadian company Accelio (also known as JetForm).\nAdobe Systems Canada in Ottawa, Ontario (not far from archrival Corel).On December 12, 2005, Adobe acquired its main rival, Macromedia, in a stock swap valued at about $3.4 billion, adding ColdFusion, Contribute, Captivate, Acrobat Connect (formerly Macromedia Breeze), Director, Dreamweaver, Fireworks, Flash, FlashPaper, Flex, FreeHand, HomeSite, JRun, Presenter, and Authorware to Adobe's product line.\n\nAdobe released Adobe Media Player in April 2008. On April 27, Adobe discontinued development and sales of its older HTML/web development software, GoLive in favor of Dreamweaver. Adobe offered a discount on Dreamweaver for GoLive users and supports those who still use GoLive with online tutorials and migration assistance. On June 1, Adobe launched Acrobat.com, a series of web applications geared for collaborative work. Creative Suite 4, which includes Design, Web, Production Premium and Master Collection came out in October 2008 in six configurations at prices from about USD $1,700 to $2,500 or by individual application. The Windows version of Photoshop includes 64-bit processing. On December 3, 2008, Adobe laid off 600 of its employees (8% of the worldwide staff) citing the weak economic environment.\n\nOn November 10, 2009, the company laid off a further 680 employees. Adobe announced it was investigating a \"coordinated attack\" against corporate network systems in China, managed by the company.\n\nAdobe's 2010 was marked by continuing front-and-back arguments with Apple over the latter's non-support for Adobe Flash on its iPhone, iPad and other products. Former Apple CEO Steve Jobs claimed that Flash was not reliable or secure enough, while Adobe executives have argued that Apple wish to maintain control over the iOS platform. In April 2010, Steve Jobs published a post titled \"Thoughts on Flash\" where he outlined his thoughts on Flash and the rise of HTML 5.\nIn July 2010, Adobe bought Day Software integrating their line of CQ Products: WCM, DAM, SOCO, and Mobile\n\nIn January 2011, Adobe acquired DemDex, Inc. with the intent of adding DemDex's audience-optimization software to its online marketing suite. At Photoshop World 2011, Adobe unveiled a new mobile photo service. Carousel is a new application for iPhone, iPad and Mac that uses Photoshop Lightroom technology for users to adjust and fine-tune images on all platforms. Carousel will also allow users to automatically sync, share and browse photos. The service was later renamed to \"Adobe Revel\".\n\nIn October 2011, Adobe acquired Nitobi Software, the makers of the mobile application development framework ''PhoneGap''. As part of the acquisition, the source code of PhoneGap was submitted to the Apache Foundation, where it became Apache Cordova.\n\nOn November 9, 2011, Adobe announced that they would cease development of Flash for mobile devices following version 11.1. Instead it would focus on HTML 5 for mobile devices. On December 1, 2011, Adobe announced that it entered into a definitive agreement to acquire privately held Efficient Frontier.\n\nIn December 2012, Adobe opened a new 280,000 square foot corporate campus in Lehi, Utah.\n\n\nIn 2013, Adobe Systems endured a major security breach. Vast portions of the source code for the company's software were stolen and posted online and over 150 million records of Adobe's customers have been made readily available for download. In 2012, about 40 million sets of payment card information were compromised by a hack of Adobe.\n\nA class-action lawsuit alleging that the company suppressed employee compensation was filed against Adobe, and three other Silicon Valley-based companies in a California federal district court in 2013. In May 2014, it was revealed the four companies, Adobe, Apple, Google, and Intel had reached agreement with the plaintiffs, 64,000 employees of the four companies, to pay a sum of $324.5 million to settle the suit.\n", "\n\n; Graphic design software\n: Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Lightroom, Adobe InDesign, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Acrobat\n; Web design programs\n: Adobe Dreamweaver, Adobe Contribute, Adobe Muse, Adobe Flash Builder, Adobe Flash, and Adobe Edge\n; Video editing and visual effects\n: Adobe Premiere Pro, Adobe Premiere Elements, Adobe After Effects, Adobe Prelude, Adobe Spark Video\n; Audio editing software\n: Adobe Audition\n; eLearning software\n: Adobe Captivate Adobe Presenter Video Express and Adobe Connect (also a webconferencing platform)\n;Digital Marketing Management Software\n: Adobe Marketing Cloud, Adobe Experience Manager (AEM 6.2), Mixamo\n; Server software\n: Adobe ColdFusion, Adobe Content Server and Adobe LiveCycle Enterprise Suite, Adobe BlazeDS\n; Formats\n: Portable Document Format (PDF), PDF's predecessor PostScript, ActionScript, Shockwave Flash (SWF), Flash Video (FLV), and ''Filmstrip'' (.flm)\n; Web-hosted services\n: Adobe Color, Photoshop Express, Acrobat.com, and Adobe Spark\n'''Fotolia by Adobe''' – a microstock agency that presently provides over 57 million high-resolution, royalty-free images and videos available to license (via subscription or credit purchase methods). On December 11, 2014, Adobe announced it was buying Fotolia for $800 million in cash, aiming at integrating the service to its Creative Cloud solution. The purchase was completed in January 2015. It is run as a stand-alone website.\n", "Since 1995, ''Fortune'' has ranked Adobe as an outstanding place to work. Adobe was rated the 5th best U.S. company to work for in 2003, 6th in 2004, 31st in 2007, 40th in 2008, 11th in 2009, 42nd in 2010, 65th in 2011, 41st in 2012, and 83rd in 2013.\nIn 2015, Adobe Systems India was ranked 21st of great places to work in India. In June 2014, it was ranked 6th of great places to work in India., In October 2008, Adobe Systems Canada Inc. was named one of \"Canada's Top 100 Employers\" by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in ''Maclean's'' newsmagazine.\n", "\n===Pricing===\n\nAdobe has been criticized for its pricing practices, with retail prices being up to twice as much in non-US countries. As pointed out by many, it is significantly cheaper to pay for a return airfare ticket to the United States and purchase one particular collection of Adobe's software there than to buy it locally in Australia.\n\nAfter Adobe revealed the pricing for the Creative Suite 3 Master Collection, which was £1,000 higher for European customers, a petition to protest over \"unfair pricing\" was published and signed by 10,000 users. In June 2009, Adobe further increased its prices in the UK by 10% in spite of weakening of the pound against the dollar, and UK users are not allowed to buy from the US store.\n\nAdobe's Reader and Flash were listed on ''The 10 most hated programs of all time'' on TechRadar.com.\n\n=== Security ===\nHackers have exploited vulnerabilities in Adobe programs, such as Adobe Reader, to gain unauthorized access to computers. Adobe's Flash Player has also been criticized for, among other things, suffering from performance, memory usage and security problems (see criticism of Flash Player). A report by security researchers from Kaspersky Lab criticized Adobe for producing the products having top 10 security vulnerabilities.\n\nObservers noted that Adobe was spying on its customers by including spyware in the Creative Suite 3 software and quietly sending user data to a firm named Omniture. When users became aware, Adobe explained what the suspicious software did and admitted that they: \"could and should do a better job taking security concerns into account\". When a security flaw was later discovered in Photoshop CS5, Adobe sparked outrage by saying it would leave the flaw unpatched, so anyone who wanted to use the software securely would have to pay for an upgrade. Following a fierce backlash Adobe decided to provide the software patch.\n\nAdobe has been criticized for pushing unwanted software including third-party browser toolbars and free virus scanners, usually as part of the Flash update process, and for pushing a third-party scareware program designed to scare users into paying for unneeded system repairs.\n\n===Customer data breach===\n\nOn October 3, 2013, the company initially revealed that 2.9 million customers' sensitive and personal data was stolen in security breach which included encrypted credit card information. Adobe later admitted that 38 million active users have been affected and the attackers obtained access to their IDs and encrypted passwords, as well as to many inactive Adobe accounts. The company did not make it clear if all the personal information was encrypted, such as email addresses and physical addresses, though data privacy laws in 44 states require this information to be encrypted.\n\nA 3.8 GB file stolen from Adobe and containing 152 million usernames, reversibly encrypted passwords and unencrypted password hints was posted on AnonNews.org. LastPass, a password security firm, said that Adobe failed to use best practices for securing the passwords and has not salted them. Another security firm, Sophos, showed that Adobe used a weak encryption method permitting the recovery of a lot of information with very little effort. According to an IT expert Simon Bain, Adobe has failed its customers and ‘should hang their heads in shame’.\n\nMany of the credit cards were tied to the Creative Cloud software-by-subscription service. Adobe offered its affected US customers a free membership in a credit monitoring service, but no similar arrangements have been made for non-US customers. When a data breach occurs in the US, penalties depend on the state where the victim resides, not where the company is based.\n\nAfter stealing the customers' data, cyber-thieves also accessed Adobe's source code repository, likely in mid-August 2013. Because hackers acquired copies of the source code of Adobe proprietary products, they could find and exploit any potential weaknesses in its security, computer experts warned. Security researcher Alex Holden, chief information security officer of Hold Security, characterized this Adobe breach, which affected Acrobat, ColdFusion and numerous other applications, as \"one of the worst in US history\". Adobe also announced that hackers stole parts of the source code of Photoshop, which according to commentators could allow programmers to copy its engineering techniques and would make it easier to pirate Adobe's expensive products.\n\nPublished on a server of a Russian-speaking hacker group, the \"disclosure of encryption algorithms, other security schemes, and software vulnerabilities can be used to bypass protections for individual and corporate data\" and may have opened the gateway to new generation zero-day attacks. Hackers already used ColdFusion exploits to make off with usernames and encrypted passwords of PR Newswire's customers, which has been tied to the Adobe security breach. They also used a ColdFusion exploit to breach Washington state court and expose up to 160,000 Social Security numbers.\n\n\n\n===Anti-competitive practices===\nAdobe acquired Aldus Corp. in 1994, a software vendor that sold FreeHand, a competing product. Freehand was direct competition to Adobe Illustrator, Adobe's flagship vector-graphics editor. The Federal Trade Commission intervened and forced Adobe to sell FreeHand back to Altsys, and also banned Adobe from buying back FreeHand or any similar program for the next 10 years (1994-2004). Altsys was then bought by Macromedia, which released versions 5 to 11. When Adobe acquired Macromedia in December 2005, it stalled development of Freehand in 2007, effectively rendering it obsolete. With FreeHand and Illustrator, Adobe controlled the only two products that compete in the professional illustration program market for Macintosh operating systems.\n\nIn 2011, a group of 5,000 Freehand graphic designers convened under the banner ''Free Freehand'', and filed a civil antitrust complaint in the US District Court for the Northern District of California against Adobe. The suit alleged that ''Adobe has violated federal and state antitrust laws by abusing its dominant position in the professional vector graphic illustration software market'' and that ''Adobe has engaged in a series of exclusionary and anti-competitive acts and strategies designed to kill FreeHand, the dominant competitor to Adobe’s Illustrator software product, instead of competing on the basis of product merit according to the principals of free market capitalism.'' Adobe had no response to the claims and the lawsuit was eventually settled. The FreeHand community believes Adobe should release the product to an open-source community if it cannot update it internally.\n\nAs of 2010, on its FreeHand product page Adobe stated ''\"While we recognize FreeHand has a loyal customer base, we encourage users to migrate to the new Adobe Illustrator CS4 software which supports both PowerPC and Intel-based Macs and Microsoft Windows XP and Windows Vista.\"'' As of 2016, the Freehand page no longer exists and simply redirects to the Illustrator page. Adobe's software FTP server still contains a directory for FreeHand, but it is empty.\n", "\n\n* Adobe MAX\n* Adobe Solutions Network\n* Digital rights management (DRM)\n* List of acquisitions by Adobe Systems\n* List of Adobe software\n* ''US v. ElcomSoft Sklyarov''\n", "\n", "\n* \n\n* \n* \n* The Real Lesson in the Adobe Announcement - Lenswork Daily: Podcast\n* \n* San Jose Semaphore on Adobe's building\n* \n* Adobe Systems Video and Audio on MarketWatch\n* Tech's greatest arguments: Apple vs. Adobe Flash\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Products", "Reception", " Criticisms ", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Adobe Systems
[ "\nThe '''Alexander Technique''' ('''A.T.'''), named after Frederick Matthias Alexander, is an educational process that attempts to develop the ability to avoid unnecessary muscular tension by retraining physical movement reactions. Alexander believed the individual's spatial self-awareness was related to psychological conditioning; questionably trained foundation habits of posture can be unsuitably added into procedural skills. Alexander observed that those whose goals justified it necessary to have trained themselves to overcompensate could not trust their judgment of physical orientation and required effort, (their \"sensory appreciation.\").\n\nAlexander developed his technique's principles in the 1890s in an attempt to address voice loss during public speaking, from unintentionally retaining childhood asthma breathing problems. He credited his method with allowing him to pursue his passion for reciting in Shakespearean theater.\n\nSome proponents of the Alexander Technique observe that it addresses a variety of health conditions related to cumulative action. However, , the sparse supporting medical evidence was of moderate quality and overall, the effectiveness of the Alexander Technique is uncertain because of insufficient evidence and that it relies on education and sustained use by the patient. There is evidence suggesting the Alexander Technique is so far helpful for long-term back pain, long-term neck pain, and may help people cope with Parkinson's disease.\n", "Frederick Matthias Alexander (1869–1955) was a Shakespearean orator who developed voice loss during his unamplified performances. After doctors found no physical cause, Alexander reasoned that he was inadvertently damaging himself while speaking. He observed himself in multiple mirrors and saw that he was contracting his posture prior to in preparation for any phonation. He hypothesized that a habitual conditioned pattern (of pulling his head backwards and downwards) needlessly was disrupting the normal working of his total postural, breathing, and vocal processes.\n\nWith experimentation, Alexander developed the ability to stop the unnecessary and habitual contracting in his neck, displacement of his head, and shortening of his stature. As he solved issues about how to do what he imagined was possible, he found that his problem with recurrent voice loss were resolved. While on a recital tour in New Zealand (1895) he began to understand the wider significance of improved carriage for overall physical functioning. Further, Alexander observed that many individuals commonly tightened their musculature in the similar pattern as he had done, in anticipation of many other activities besides speech.\n\nAlexander believed his work could be applied to improve talent. He further refined his method of self-observation and re-training to teach his discoveries to others. As part of his teaching method, he also developed a form of guided modeling, that imparted the improved kinesthetic and proprioceptive experience to his students. This approach to showing the student what he meant also allowed him to re-arrange the working of a person's entire supportive musculature as it functions in relation to gravity from moment to moment. He explained his reasoning and answers in four books published in 1918, 1923, 1931 (1932 in the UK) and 1942.\n\nHe also trained teachers to teach his work and to use their hands in this unique way from 1930 until his death in 1955. Teacher training was continued during World War II between 1941 and 1943, when Alexander accompanied children and teachers of the Little School to Stow, Massachusetts to join his brother, A. R. Alexander. The American teacher training course included Frank Pierce Jones, who went on to conduct scientific research work to explore aspects of the Alexander Technique at the Tufts Institute for Psychological Research. Jones published many of his studies in professional journals.\n\nSince the 1960s, training schools for teachers of the Alexander Technique were begun in the United States and world-wide. Most were based upon the standards of training laid down by the Society of Teachers of the Alexander Technique that was established in England after Alexander's death in 1955. Quality of training time usually requires 1600 hours of daily teaching experience, because of the challenges of surpassing conditioning. All \"Alexander teachers\" who have the support of their peers are deemed equally qualified, despite differing training methods, because they all agree on F.M. Alexander's principles. \n\n===Influence===\n\nThe American philosopher and educator John Dewey became impressed with the Alexander Technique after his headaches, neck pains, blurred vision, and stress symptoms largely improved during the time he used Alexander's advice to change his posture. In 1923, Dewey wrote the introduction to Alexander's ''Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual''.\n\nAldous Huxley had transformative lessons with Alexander, and continued doing so with other teachers after moving to the US. He rated Alexander's work highly enough to base the character of the doctor who saves the protagonist in 'Eyeless in Gaza' (an experimental form of autobiographical work) on F.M. Alexander, putting many of his phrases into the character's mouth. Huxley's work 'The Art of Seeing' also discusses his views on the technique.\n\nSir Stafford Cripps, George Bernard Shaw, Henry Irving and other stage grandees, Lord Lytton and other eminent people of the era also wrote positive appreciations of his work after taking lessons with Alexander.\n\nSince Alexander's work in the field came at the start of the 20th century, his ideas influenced many originators in the field of mind-body improvement. Fritz Perls, who originated Gestalt therapy, credited Alexander as an inspiration for his psychological work. The Mitzvah Technique was influenced by the Alexander Technique; as was the Feldenkrais Method - who expanded on the one exercise in Alexander Technique called \"The Whispered Ah.\"\n", "\nAlexander's approach emphasizes awareness strategies applied to conducting oneself while in action, (which could be now called 'mindful' action, though in his four books he did not use that term.) \n\nActions such as sitting, squatting, lunging or walking are often selected by the teacher. Other actions may be selected by the student that is tailored to their interests or work activities: hobbies, computer use, lifting, driving or artistic performance or practice, sports, speech or horseback riding. Alexander teachers often use themselves as examples. They demonstrate, explain, and analyze a student's moment-to-moment responses as well as using mirrors, video feedback or classmate observations. Guided modelling with a highly skilled light hand contact is the primary tool for detecting and guiding the student into a more coordinated state in movement and at rest during in-person lessons. Suggestions for improvements are often student-specific, as everyone starts out with slightly different habits.\n\nExercise as a teaching tool is deliberately omitted because of a common mistaken assumption that there exists a \"correct\" position. There are only two specific procedures that are practiced by the student; the first is lying semi-supine. Resting in this way uses \"mechanical advantage\" as a means of redirecting long-term and short-term accumulated muscular tension into a more integrated and balanced state. This position is sometimes referred to as \"constructive rest\", or \"the balanced resting state\". It's also a specific time to practice Alexander's principle of conscious \"directing\" without \"doing\". The second exercise is the \"Whispered Ah\", which is used to co-ordinate freer breathing and vocal production.\n\nFreedom, efficiency and patience are the prescribed values. Proscribed are unnecessary effort, self-limiting habits as well as mistaken perceptual conclusions about the nature of training and experimentation. Students are led to change their largely automatic routines that are interpreted by the teacher to currently or cumulatively be physically limiting, inefficient, or not in keeping with best \"use\" of themselves as a whole. The Alexander teacher provides verbal coaching while monitoring, guiding and preventing unnecessary habits at their source with a specialized hands-on assistance.\n\nThis specialized hands-on skill also allows Alexander teachers to bring about a balanced working of the student's supportive musculature as it relates to gravity's downward pull from moment to moment. Often, students require a great deal of hands-on work in order to first gain an experience of a fully poised relation to gravity and themselves. The hands-on skill requires Alexander teachers to maintain in themselves from moment-to-moment their own improved psycho-physical co-ordination that the teacher is communicating to the student.\n\nAn illustration of alignment.\n\nAlexander developed terminology to describe his methods, outlined in his four books that explain the experience of learning and substituting new improvements.\n\n;Constructive Conscious Control\n:Alexander insisted on the need for strategic reasoning because kinesthetic and proprioceptive sensory awareness are relative senses, not truthful indicators of a person's factual relationships within him/herself or within the environment. A person's habitual neuro-muscular relation to gravity is habitually sensed internally as \"normal,\" despite being inefficient. Alexander's term, \"debauched sensory appreciation\" describes how the repetition of an action or response encourages the formation of habits as a person adapts to various circumstances or builds skills. Once trained and forgotten, completed habits may be used without feedback sensations that these habits are in effect, (even when only thinking about the situations that elicit them.) Short-sighted habits are capable of becoming harmfully exaggerated over time, such as restricted breathing or other habitually assumed adaptations to past circumstances. Even exaggerated habits will stop after learning to perceive and prevent them.\n\n;End-gaining\n:Another example is the term \"end-gaining\". This term means to focus on a goal so as to lose sight of the \"means-whereby\" the goal could be most appropriately achieved. According to Alexander teachers, \"end-gaining\" increases the likelihood of automatically selecting older or multiple conflicting coping strategies. End-gaining is usually carried out because an imperative priority of impatience or frustration justifies it. Excessive speed in thinking and acting often facilitates end-gaining. Going slowly is a strategy to undo \"end-gaining.\" \n\n;Inhibition\n:In the Alexander Technique lexicon, the principle of \"inhibition\" is considered by teachers to be the most important to gaining improved \"use.\" F.M. Alexander's selection of this word predates the meaning of the word originated by Sigmund Freud. Inhibition, or 'intentional inhibition'. It is the act of refraining from responding in one's habitual manner - in particular, imposed tension in neck muscles (see Primary Control). Inhibition describes a moment of conscious awareness of a choice to interrupt, stop or entirely prevent an unnecessary habitual \"misuse\". As unnecessary habits are prevented or interrupted, a freer capacity and range of motion resumes and a more spontaneous choice of action or behavior can be discovered, which is experienced by the student as a state of \"non-doing\" or \"allowing.\" \n\n;Primary control\n:How the eyes and head initiate movement governs the training of ourselves in relationship to gravity. Our responses are influenced for good or ill by the qualities of head and eye direction at the inception of any reaction. The qualities and direction of our \"primary control\" occur in every waking moment in response to the stimulus to 'do\" - everything. A person can learn to influence their primary control, improving effortlessness. This influence involves the education of a particular quality of head, neck, torso, and limb relationship that works as we move and respond. A student learns to pay attention during action, without imposing expectations. \n\n;Directions\n:To continue to select and reinforce the often less dominant new ways, it is recommended to repeatedly suggest, by thinking to oneself, a particular series of \"Orders\" or \"Directions.\" \"Giving Directions\" is the expression used for thinking and projecting the positive aspect of how one's self might be used in the most unified psycho-physical way as conveyed by the teacher's hands during a lesson. \n\"Directing\" serves to counteract the common backward and downward pull and shortening in stature that can be detected at the beginning of every movement - particularly addressing a startle pattern of \"fight, flight or freeze.\" A mere thought, as a projection of intention, shapes preparatory movement below the level of sensing it. Alexander used these words for reshaping these subliminal preparations: \"The neck to be free, the head to go forward and up, the back to lengthen and widen.\" Some teachers have shortened this to a suggestion of, \"Freer?\" Negative directions (that use Alexander's other preventive principle of \"inhibition\") have also been found to be effective, because negative directions leave the positive response open-ended.\nWhichever is used, all \"Directing\" is suggestively thought, (rather than willfully accomplished.) This is because the neuro-muscular responses to \"Directing\" often occur underneath one's ability to perceive how they are actually carried out neuro-physiologically and neuro-cognitively. As freedom of expression or movement is the objective, the most appropriate responses cannot be anticipated or expected, only observed and chosen in the moment. \nTeacher trainees gradually learn to include a constant attending to their lengthening in stature in every movement. It becomes a basis for initiating and continuing every action, every response to stimuli or while remaining constructively at rest.\n\n;Psycho-physical unity\n:Global concepts such as \"Psycho-physical Unity\" and \"Use\" describe how thinking strategies and attention work together during preparation for an action or for withholding one. They connote the general sequence of how intention joins together with execution to directly affect the perception of events and the outcome of intended results.\n", "\nThe Alexander Technique is used and taught by classically trained vocal coaches and musicians in schools and private lessons. Its advocates state that it allows for a balanced use of all aspects of the vocal tract by consciously increasing air-flow, allowing improved vocal skill and tone. The method is said by actors to reduce stage fright and to increase spontaneity.\n\nThe Alexander Technique is a frequent component in acting training, because it allows actors to assume the mannerisms of different characters. \n\nAccording to Alexander Technique instructor Michael J. Gelb, people tend to study the Alexander Technique for reasons of personal development.\n", "\nThe Alexander Technique is most commonly taught privately in a series of 10 to 40 private lessons which may last from 30 minutes to an hour. Students are often performers, such as actors, dancers, musicians, athletes and public speakers, or people who work on computers, or who are in frequent pain for other reasons. Instructors observe their students, then show them how to move with better poise and less strain. Sessions include chair work and table work, often in front of a mirror, during which the instructor and the student will stand, sit and lie down, moving efficiently while maintaining a comfortable relationship between the head, neck and spine.\n\nTo qualify as a teacher of Alexander Technique, instructors are required to complete 1,600 hours, spanning three years, of supervised teacher training. The result must be satisfactory to qualified peers to gain membership in professional societies.\n", "Some advocates for the Alexander technique have claimed it can help people with many kinds of health conditions. \n\nOne example is a claim that it can benefit people with asthma. A 2012 Cochrane systematic review found that there is no conclusive evidence that the Alexander technique is effective for treating asthma, and randomized clinical trials are needed in order to assess the effectiveness of this type of treatment approach. \n\nA review by Aetna last updated in 2016 stated: \"Aetna considers the following alternative medicine interventions experimental and investigational, because there is inadequate evidence in the peer-reviewed published medical literature of their effectiveness.\" Included is Alexander technique in that list.\n\nA review published in 2015 and conducted for the Australia Department of Health in order to determine what services the Australian government should pay for, reviewed clinical trials published to date and found that: \"Overall, the evidence was limited by the small number of participants in the intervention arms, wide confidence intervals or a lack of replication of results.\" It concluded that: \"The Alexander technique may improve short-term pain and disability in people with low back pain, but the longer-term effects remain uncertain. For all other clinical conditions, the effectiveness of Alexander technique was deemed to be uncertain, due to insufficient evidence.\" It also noted that: \"Evidence for the safety of\nAlexander technique was lacking, with most trials not reporting on this outcome. \n\nA review of evidence for Alexander Technique for various health conditions provided by UK NHS Choices last updated in July 2015 found that:\nThere's evidence suggesting the Alexander technique can help people with:\n* long-term back pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced back pain-associated disability and reduce how often you feel pain for up to a year or more\n* long-term neck pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced neck pain and associated disability for up to a year or more\n* Parkinson's disease – lessons in the technique may help you carry out everyday tasks more easily and improve how you feel about your condition\n\n''NHS Choices'' also states that \"some research has also suggested the Alexander technique may improve general long-term pain, stammering and balance skills in elderly people to help them avoid falls. But the evidence in these areas is limited and more studies are needed. There's currently little evidence to suggest the Alexander technique can help improve other health conditions, including asthma, headaches, osteoarthritis, difficulty sleeping (insomnia) and stress.\"\n\nA review published in ''BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' in 2014 focused on \"the evidence for the effectiveness of AT sessions on musicians' performance, anxiety, respiratory function and posture\" concluded that: \"Evidence from RCTs and CTs suggests that AT sessions may improve performance anxiety in musicians. Effects on music performance, respiratory function and posture yet remain inconclusive.\"\n\nA review published in the ''International Journal of Clinical Practice'' in 2012 found: \"Strong evidence exists for the effectiveness of Alexander Technique lessons for chronic back pain and moderate evidence in Parkinson’s-associated disability. Preliminary evidence suggests that Alexander Technique lessons may lead to improvements in balance skills in the elderly, in general chronic pain, posture, respiratory function and stuttering, but there is insufficient evidence to support recommendations in these areas.\"\n", "Psychomotor learning\n", "\n", " Alexander, FM ''Man's Supreme Inheritance'', Methuen (London, 1910), revised and enlarged (New York, 1918), later editions 1941, 1946, 1957, Mouritz (UK, 1996), reprinted 2002. \n* Alexander, FM ''Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual'', Centerline Press (USA,1923), revised 1946, Mouritz (UK, 2004) \n* Alexander, FM ''The Use of the Self'', E. P. Dutton (New York, 1932), republished by Orion Publishing, 2001, \n* Alexander, FM ''The Universal Constant in Living'', Dutton (New York, 1941), Chaterson (London, 1942), later editions 1943, 1946, Centerline Press (USA, 1941, 1986), Mouritz (UK, 2000) , , \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Process", "Uses", " Method ", "Health effects", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ]	Alexander Technique
[ "Portrait of Andrea Alciato, reproduced from the 1584 edition of his emblem bookEngraving of Andrea Alciato\n\n'''Andrea Alciato''' (8 May 149212 January 1550), commonly known as '''Alciati''' ('''Andreas Alciatus'''), was an Italian jurist and writer. He is regarded as the founder of the French school of legal humanists.\n", "Alciati was born in Alzate Brianza, near Milan, and settled in France in the early 16th century. He displayed great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was one of the first to interpret the civil law by the history, languages and literature of antiquity, and to substitute original research for the servile interpretations of the glossators. He published many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus and accumulated a sylloge of Roman inscriptions from Milan and its territories, as part of his preparation for his history of Milan, written in 1504-05.\n\nAlciati is most famous for his ''Emblemata,'' published in dozens of editions from 1531 onward. This collection of short Latin verse texts and accompanying woodcuts created an entire European genre, the emblem book, which attained enormous popularity in continental Europe and Great Britain.\n\nAlciati died at Pavia in 1550.\n", "Emblem 189: ''Mentem, non formam, plus pollere'' (mind, not outward form, prevails)\n* ''Annotationes in tres libros Codicis'' (1515)\n* ''Emblematum libellus'' (1531)\n* ''Opera omnia'' (Basel 1546-49)\n* ''Rerum Patriae, seu Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri IV'' (Milan, 1625) a history of Milan, written in 1504-05.\n* ''De formula Romani Imperii'' (1559, ''editio princeps'')\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* Alciato at Glasgow - Reproductions of 22 editions of Alciato's emblems from 1531 to 1621\n* Description, Reproduction and translation Memorial University of Newfoundland\n* Emblemata Latin text, Antwerp 1577, full digital facsimile, CAMENA Project\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Works", "Quotation", "References", "External links" ]	Andrea Alciato
[ "\nAsteroid 65 Cybele and two stars, with their magnitudes labeled\n\nThe '''apparent magnitude''' ('''''') of a celestial object is a number that is a measure of its brightness as seen by an observer on Earth. The brighter an object appears, the lower its magnitude value (i.e. inverse relation). The Sun, at apparent magnitude of −27, is the brightest object in the sky. It is adjusted to the value it would have in the absence of the atmosphere. Furthermore, the magnitude scale is logarithmic; a difference of one in magnitude corresponds to a change in brightness by a factor of , or about 2.512.\n\nThe measurement of apparent magnitudes or brightnesses of celestial objects is known as photometry. Apparent magnitudes are used to quantify the brightness of sources at ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavelengths. An apparent magnitude is usually measured in a specific passband corresponding to some photometric system such as the UBV system. In standard astronomical notation, an apparent magnitude in the V (\"visual\") filter band would be denoted either as ''m''V or often simply as ''V'', as in \"''m''''V'' = 15\" or \"''V'' = 15\" to describe a 15th-magnitude object.\n", "\n\n Visible totypicalhumaneye\n Apparentmagnitude\n Bright-nessrelativeto Vega\n Number of stars brighter thanapparent magnitudein the night sky\n\n Yes\n−1.0 \n 250% \n1 (Sirius)\n\n0.0 \n 100% \n4\n\n1.0 \n 40% \n15\n\n2.0 \n 16% \n48\n\n3.0 \n 6.3% \n171\n\n4.0 \n 2.5% \n513\n\n5.0 \n 1.0% \n\n\n6.0 \n 0.4% \n\n\n6.5 \n 0.25% \n\n\n No\n7.0 \n 0.16% \n\n\n8.0 \n 0.063% \n\n\n9.0 \n 0.025% \n\n\n10.0 \n 0.010% \n\n\n\nThe scale used to indicate magnitude originates in the Hellenistic practice of dividing stars visible to the naked eye into six ''magnitudes''. The brightest stars in the night sky were said to be of first magnitude ( = 1), whereas the faintest were of sixth magnitude ( = 6), which is the limit of human visual perception (without the aid of a telescope). Each grade of magnitude was considered twice the brightness of the following grade (a logarithmic scale), although that ratio was subjective as no photodetectors existed. This rather crude scale for the brightness of stars was popularized by Ptolemy in his ''Almagest'', and is generally believed to have originated with Hipparchus.\n\nIn 1856, Norman Robert Pogson formalized the system by defining a first magnitude star as a star that is 100 times as bright as a sixth-magnitude star, thereby establishing the logarithmic scale still in use today. This implies that a star of magnitude is 2.512 times as bright as a star of magnitude . This figure, the fifth root of 100, became known as Pogson's Ratio. The zero point of Pogson's scale was originally defined by assigning Polaris a magnitude of exactly 2. Astronomers later discovered that Polaris is slightly variable, so they switched to Vega as the standard reference star, assigning the brightness of Vega as the definition of zero magnitude at any specified wavelength.\n\nApart from small corrections, the brightness of Vega still serves as the definition of zero magnitude for visible and near infrared wavelengths, where its spectral energy distribution (SED) closely approximates that of a black body for a temperature of . However, with the advent of infrared astronomy it was revealed that Vega's radiation includes an Infrared excess presumably due to a circumstellar disk consisting of dust at warm temperatures (but much cooler than the star's surface). At shorter (e.g. visible) wavelengths, there is negligible emission from dust at these temperatures. However, in order to properly extend the magnitude scale further into the infrared, this peculiarity of Vega should not affect the definition of the magnitude scale. Therefore, the magnitude scale was extrapolated to ''all'' wavelengths on the basis of the black body radiation curve for an ideal stellar surface at uncontaminated by circumstellar radiation. On this basis the spectral irradiance (usually expressed in janskys) for the zero magnitude point, as a function of wavelength can be computed. Small deviations are specified between systems using measurement apparatuses developed independently so that data obtained by different astronomers can be properly compared; of greater practical importance is the definition of magnitude not at a single wavelength but applying to the response of standard spectral filters used in photometry over various wavelength bands.\n\nWith the modern magnitude systems, brightness over a very wide range is specified according to the logarithmic definition detailed below, using this zero reference. In practice such apparent magnitudes do not exceed 30 (for detectable measurements). The brightness of Vega is exceeded by four stars in the night sky at visible wavelengths (and more at infrared wavelengths) as well as bright planets such as Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, and these must be described by ''negative'' magnitudes. For example, Sirius, the brightest star of the celestial sphere, has an apparent magnitude of −1.4 in the visible; negative magnitudes for other very bright astronomical objects can be found in the table below.\n\nAstronomers have developed other photometric zeropoint systems as alternatives to the Vega system. The most widely used is the AB magnitude system, in which photometric zeropoints are based on a hypothetical reference spectrum having constant flux per unit frequency interval, rather than using a stellar spectrum or blackbody curve as the reference. The AB magnitude zeropoint is defined such that an object's AB and Vega-based magnitudes will be approximately equal in the V filter band.\n", "30 Doradus image taken by ESO's VISTA. This nebula has an apparent magnitude of 8.\nA graph of apparent magnitude against brightness\n\nAs the amount of light actually received by a telescope is reduced by transmission through the Earth's atmosphere, any measurement of apparent magnitude is corrected for what it would have been as seen from above the atmosphere. The dimmer an object appears, the higher the numerical value given to its apparent magnitude, with a difference of 5 magnitudes corresponding to a brightness factor of exactly 100. Therefore, the apparent magnitude , in the spectral band , would be given by\n\n:\n\nwhich is more commonly expressed in terms of common (base-10) logarithms as\n\n:\n\nwhere is the observed flux using spectral filter , and is the reference flux (zero-point) for that photometric filter. Since an increase of 5 magnitudes corresponds to a decrease in brightness by a factor of exactly 100, each magnitude increase implies a decrease in brightness by the factor ≈ 2.512 (Pogson's ratio). Inverting the above formula, a magnitude difference implies a brightness factor of\n\n:\n\n=== Example: Sun and Moon ===\n''What is the ratio in brightness between the Sun and the full Moon?''\n\nThe apparent magnitude of the Sun is −26.74 (brighter), and the mean apparent magnitude of the full moon is −12.74 (dimmer).\n\nDifference in magnitude: \n:\n\nBrightness factor: \n:\n\nThe Sun appears about times brighter than the full moon.\n\n===Magnitude addition===\nSometimes one might wish to add brightnesses. For example, photometry on closely separated double stars may only be able to produce a measurement of their combined light output. How would we reckon the combined magnitude of that double star knowing only the magnitudes of the individual components? This can be done by adding the brightnesses (in linear units) corresponding to each magnitude.\n:\n\nSolving for yields\n:\n\nwhere is the resulting magnitude after adding the brightnesses referred to by and .\n\n===Absolute magnitude===\n\nSince flux decreases with distance according to the inverse-square law, a particular apparent magnitude could equally well refer to a star at one distance, or a star four times brighter at twice that distance, and so on. When one is not interested in the brightness as viewed from Earth, but the ''intrinsic'' brightness of an astronomical object, then one refers not to the apparent magnitude but the absolute magnitude. The absolute magnitude , of a star or astronomical object is defined as the apparent magnitude it would have as seen from a distance of 10 parsecs (about 32.6 light-years). The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83 in the V band (yellow) and 5.48 in the B band (blue). In the case of a planet or asteroid, the absolute magnitude rather means the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 1 astronomical unit from both the observer and the Sun, and fully illuminated (a geometrically impossible configuration).\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable floatright\" style=\"text-align:center;\"\n+ Standard apparent magnitudes and fluxes for typical bands\n\n Band\n (μm)\n (FWHM)\n Flux at , \n\n\n Jy\n 10−20 erg/(s·cm2·Hz)\n\n U \n 0.36 \n 0.15 \n 1810 \n 1.81\n\n B \n 0.44 \n 0.22 \n 4260 \n 4.26\n\n V \n 0.55 \n 0.16 \n 3640 \n 3.64\n\n R \n 0.64 \n 0.23 \n 3080 \n 3.08\n\n I \n 0.79 \n 0.19 \n 2550 \n 2.55\n\n J \n 1.26 \n 0.16 \n 1600 \n 1.60\n\n H \n 1.60 \n 0.23 \n 1080 \n 1.08\n\n K \n 2.22 \n 0.23 \n 670 \n 0.67\n\n L \n 3.50 \n \n \n\n\n g \n 0.52 \n 0.14 \n 3730 \n 3.73\n\n r \n 0.67 \n 0.14 \n 4490 \n 4.49\n\n i \n 0.79 \n 0.16 \n 4760 \n 4.76\n\n z \n 0.91 \n 0.13 \n 4810 \n 4.81\n\n\n\nIt is important to note that the scale is logarithmic: the relative brightness of two objects is determined by the difference of their magnitudes. For example, a difference of 3.2 means that one object is about 19 times as bright as the other, because Pogson's Ratio raised to the power 3.2 is approximately 19.05.\n\nA common misconception is that the logarithmic nature of the scale is because the human eye itself has a logarithmic response. In Pogson's time this was thought to be true (see Weber–Fechner law), but it is now believed that the response is a power law (see Stevens' power law).\n\nMagnitude is complicated by the fact that light is not monochromatic. The sensitivity of a light detector varies according to the wavelength of the light, and the way it varies depends on the type of light detector. For this reason, it is necessary to specify how the magnitude is measured for the value to be meaningful. For this purpose the UBV system is widely used, in which the magnitude is measured in three different wavelength bands: U (centred at about 350 nm, in the near ultraviolet), B (about 435 nm, in the blue region) and V (about 555 nm, in the middle of the human visual range in daylight). The V band was chosen for spectral purposes and gives magnitudes closely corresponding to those seen by the light-adapted human eye, and when an apparent magnitude is given without any further qualification, it is usually the V magnitude that is meant, more or less the same as visual magnitude.\n\nBecause cooler stars, such as red giants and red dwarfs, emit little energy in the blue and UV regions of the spectrum their power is often under-represented by the UBV scale. Indeed, some L and T class stars have an estimated magnitude of well over 100, because they emit extremely little visible light, but are strongest in infrared.\n\nMeasures of magnitude need cautious treatment and it is extremely important to measure like with like. On early 20th century and older orthochromatic (blue-sensitive) photographic film, the relative brightnesses of the blue supergiant Rigel and the red supergiant Betelgeuse irregular variable star (at maximum) are reversed compared to what human eyes perceive, because this archaic film is more sensitive to blue light than it is to red light. Magnitudes obtained from this method are known as photographic magnitudes, and are now considered obsolete.\n\nFor objects within the Milky Way with a given absolute magnitude, 5 is added to the apparent magnitude for every tenfold increase in the distance to the object. For objects at very great distances (far beyond the Milky Way), this relationship must be adjusted for redshifts and for non-Euclidean distance measures due to general relativity.\n\nFor planets and other Solar System bodies the apparent magnitude is derived from its phase curve and the distances to the Sun and observer.\n\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n+Apparent visual magnitudes of known celestial objects\n App.mag.(V)\n Celestial object ...\n ... as seen from\n\n −38.00 \n star Rigel \n as seen from 1 AU. It would be seen as a large very bright bluish disk of 35° apparent diameter.\n\n −30.30 \n star Sirius \n as seen from 1 AU.\n\n −29.30 \n star Sun \n as seen from Mercury at perihelion\n\n −27.40 \n star Sun \n as seen from Venus at perihelion\n\n −26.74 \n star Sun \n as seen from Earth (about 400,000 times brighter than mean full moon)\n\n −25.60 \n star Sun \n as seen from Mars at aphelion\n\n −25.00 \n ''Minimum brightness that causes the typical eye slight pain to look at''\n\n −23.00 \n star Sun \n as seen from Jupiter at aphelion\n\n −21.70 \n star Sun \n as seen from Saturn at aphelion\n\n −20.20 \n star Sun \n as seen from Uranus at aphelion\n\n −19.30 \n star Sun \n as seen from Neptune\n\n −18.20 \n star Sun \n as seen from Pluto at aphelion\n\n −16.70 \n star Sun \n as seen from Eris at aphelion\n\n −14.20 \n ''An illumination level of 1 lux''\n\n −12.90 \n full moon \n maximum brightness of perigee+perihelion full moon (mean distance value is −12.74, though both values are about 0.18 magnitude brighter when including the opposition effect)\n\n −11.20 \n star Sun \n as seen from Sedna at aphelion\n\n −10.00 \n Comet Ikeya–Seki (1965) \n which was the brightest Kreutz Sungrazer of modern times\n\n −9.50\n Iridium (satellite) flare \n maximum brightness\n\n −7.50\n supernova of 1006 \n the brightest stellar event in recorded history (7200 light-years away)\n\n −6.50\n ''The total integrated magnitude of the night sky \n as seen from Earth''\n\n −6.00\n Crab Supernova of 1054 \n (6500 light-years away)\n\n −5.90\n International Space Station \n when the ISS is at its perigee and fully lit by the Sun\n\n −4.89\n planet Venus \n maximum brightness when illuminated as a crescent\n\n −4 \n ''Faintest objects observable during the day with naked eye when Sun is high''\n\n −3.99\n star Epsilon Canis Majoris \n maximum brightness of 4.7 million years ago, the historical brightest star of the last and next five million years\n\n −3.82\n planet Venus \n minimum brightness when it is on the far side of the Sun\n\n −2.94\n planet Jupiter \n maximum brightness \n\n −2.91\n planet Mars \n maximum brightness\n\n −2.5 \n ''Faintest objects visible during the day with naked eye when Sun is less than 10° above the horizon''\n\n −2.50\n new moon \n minimum brightness\n\n −2.45\n planet Mercury \n maximum brightness at superior conjunction (unlike Venus, Mercury is at its brightest when on the far side of the Sun, the reason being their different phase curves)\n\n −1.61\n planet Jupiter \n minimum brightness \n\n −1.47\n star Sirius \n Brightest star (except for the Sun) at visible wavelengths\n\n −0.83\n star Eta Carinae \n apparent brightness as a supernova impostor in April 1843\n\n −0.72\n star Canopus \n 2nd brightest star\n\n −0.49\n planet Saturn \n maximum brightness at opposition and perihelion when the rings are full open (2003)\n\n −0.27\n star system Alpha Centauri AB \n The total magnitude (3rd brightest star to the naked eye)\n\n −0.04\n star Arcturus \n 4th brightest star to the naked eye \n\n −0.01\n star Alpha Centauri A \n 4th brightest ''individual'' star visible telescopically in the sky \n\n +0.03\n star Vega \n which was originally chosen as a definition of the zero point\n\n +0.50\n star Sun \n as seen from Alpha Centauri\n\n +1.47\n planet Saturn \n minimum brightness \n\n +1.84\n planet Mars \n minimum brightness\n\n +3.03\n supernova SN 1987A \n in the Large Magellanic Cloud (160,000 light-years away)\n\n 3...4\n ''Faintest stars visible in an urban neighborhood with naked eye''\n\n3.44\n Andromeda Galaxy \n M31\n\n4.38\n moon Ganymede \n maximum brightness (moon of Jupiter and the largest moon in the Solar System)\n\n4.50\n open cluster M41 \n an open cluster that may have been seen by Aristotle\n\n5.20\n asteroid Vesta \n maximum brightness \n\n5.32\n planet Uranus \n maximum brightness\n\n5.72\n spiral galaxy M33 \n which is used as a test for naked eye seeing under dark skies\n\n5.73\n planet Mercury \n minimum brightness\n\n5.8 \n gamma-ray burst GRB 080319B \n Peak visual magnitude (the \"Clarke Event\") seen on Earth on March 19, 2008 from a distance of 7.5 billion light-years.\n\n5.95\n planet Uranus \n minimum brightness \n\n6.49\n asteroid Pallas \n maximum brightness\n\n6.5 \n ''Approximate limit of stars observed by a '''mean''' naked eye observer under very good conditions. There are about 9,500 stars visible to mag 6.5.''\n\n6.64\n dwarf planet Ceres \n maximum brightness\n\n6.75\n asteroid Iris \n maximum brightness\n\n6.90\n spiral galaxy M81 \n This is an extreme naked-eye target that pushes human eyesight and the Bortle scale to the limit\n\n 7...8\n ''Extreme naked-eye limit, Class 1 on Bortle scale, the darkest skies available on Earth''\n\n7.78\n planet Neptune \n maximum brightness\n\n8.02\n planet Neptune \n minimum brightness\n\n8.10\n moon Titan \n maximum brightness of largest moon of Saturn mean opposition magnitude 8.4\n\n8.94\n asteroid 10 Hygiea \n maximum brightness\n\n9.50\n ''Faintest objects visible using common 7×50 binoculars under typical conditions''\n\n 10.20\n moon Iapetus \n maximum brightness, brightest when west of Saturn and takes 40 days to switch sides\n\n 12.91\n quasar 3C 273 \n brightest (luminosity distance of 2.4 billion light years)\n\n 13.42\n moon Triton \n Maximum brightness\n\n 13.65\n dwarf planet Pluto \n maximum brightness, 725 times fainter than magnitude 6.5 naked eye skies\n\n 15.4 \n centaur Chiron \n maximum brightness\n\n 15.55\n moon Charon \n maximum brightness (the large moon of Pluto)\n\n 16.8 \n dwarf planet Makemake \n Current opposition brightness\n\n 17.27\n dwarf planet Haumea \n Current opposition brightness of\n\n 18.7 \n dwarf planet Eris \n Current opposition brightness\n\n 20.7 \n moon Callirrhoe \n (small ~8 km satellite of Jupiter)\n\n 22 \n ''Faintest objects observable in visible light with a 600 mm (24″) Ritchey-Chrétien telescope with 30 minutes of stacked images (6 subframes at 5 minutes each) using a CCD detector''\n\n 22.91\n moon Hydra \n maximum brightness of Pluto's moon \n\n 23.38\n moon Nix \n maximum brightness of Pluto's moon \n\n 25.0 \n moon Fenrir \n (small ~4 km satellite of Saturn)\n\n 27.6 \n planet Jupiter \n if it were located 5000 AU from the Sun still visiting from our earth\n\n 27.7 \n ''Faintest objects observable with an 8-meter class ground-based telescope such as the Subaru Telescope in a 10-hour image''\n\n 28.2 \n Halley's Comet \n in 2003 when it was 28 AU from the Sun\n\n 31.5 \n ''Faintest objects observable in visible light with Hubble Space Telescope''\n\n 34 \n ''Faintest objects observable in visible light with James Webb Space Telescope\n\n 35 \n star LBV 1806-20 \n a luminous blue variable star, expected magnitude at visible wavelengths due to interstellar extinction\n\n \n\n\nSome of the above magnitudes are only approximate. Telescope sensitivity also depends on observing time, optical bandpass, and interfering light from scattering and airglow.\n", "\nAbsolute magnitude\nMagnitude (astronomy)\nPhotographic magnitude\nLuminosity in astronomy\nList of brightest stars\nList of nearest bright stars\nList of nearest stars\nLux\nSurface brightness\nDistance modulus\n\n", "\n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Calculations ", " Standard reference values ", "Table of notable celestial objects", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Apparent magnitude
[ "\n\n'''Absolute magnitude''' is a measure of the luminosity of a celestial object, on a logarithmic astronomical magnitude scale. An object's absolute magnitude is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if were viewed from a distance of exactly 10 parsecs (32.6 light years), with no extinction (or dimming) of its light due to absorption by interstellar dust particles. By hypothetically placing all objects at a standard reference distance from the observer, their luminosities can be directly compared on a magnitude scale. As with all astronomical magnitudes, the absolute magnitude can be specified for different wavelength ranges corresponding to specified filter bands or passbands; for stars a commonly quoted absolute magnitude is the '''absolute visual magnitude''', which uses the visual (V) band of the spectrum (in the UBV photometric system). Absolute magnitudes are denoted by a capital M, with a subscript representing the filter band used for measurement, such as MV for absolute magnitude in the V band.\n\nThe more luminous an object, the smaller the numerical value of its absolute magnitude. A difference of 5 magnitudes between the absolute magnitudes of two objects corresponds to a ratio of 100 in their luminosities, and a difference of n magnitudes in absolute magnitude corresponds to a luminosity ratio of 100(n/5). For example, a star of absolute magnitude MV=3 would be 100 times more luminous than a star of absolute magnitude MV=8 as measured in the V filter band. The Sun has absolute magnitude MV=+4.83. Highly luminous objects can have negative absolute magnitudes: for example, the Milky Way galaxy has an absolute B magnitude of about −20.8.\n\nAn object's '''absolute bolometric magnitude''' represents its total luminosity over all wavelengths, rather than in a single filter band, as expressed on a logarithmic magnitude scale. To convert from an absolute magnitude in a specific filter band to absolute bolometric magnitude, a bolometric correction is applied.\n\nFor Solar System bodies that shine in reflected light, a different definition of absolute magnitude (H) is used, based on a standard reference distance of one astronomical unit.\n", "In stellar and galactic astronomy, the standard distance is 10 parsecs (about 32.616 light years, 308.57 petameters or 308.57 trillion kilometres). A star at 10 parsecs has a parallax of 0.1″ (100 milliarcseconds). Galaxies (and other extended objects) are much larger than 10 parsecs, their light is radiated over an extended patch of sky, and their overall brightness cannot be directly observed from relatively short distances, but the same convention is used. A galaxy's magnitude is defined by measuring all the light radiated over the entire object, treating that integrated brightness as the brightness of a single point-like or star-like source, and computing the magnitude of that point-like source as it would appear if observed at the standard 10 parsecs distance. Consequently, the absolute magnitude of any object ''equals'' the apparent magnitude it ''would have'' if it were 10 parsecs away.\n\nThe measurement of absolute magnitude is made with an instrument called a bolometer. When using an absolute magnitude, one must specify the type of electromagnetic radiation being measured. When referring to total energy output, the proper term is bolometric magnitude. The bolometric magnitude usually is computed from the visual magnitude plus a bolometric correction, . This correction is needed because very hot stars radiate mostly ultraviolet radiation, whereas very cool stars radiate mostly infrared radiation (see Planck's law).\n\nAll stars visible to the naked eye have such a low absolute magnitude that they would appear bright enough to outshine the planets and cast shadows if they were at 10 parsecs from the Earth. Examples include Rigel (−7.0), Deneb (−7.2), Naos (−6.0), and Betelgeuse (−5.6). For comparison, Sirius has an absolute magnitude of 1.4, which is brighter than the Sun, whose absolute visual magnitude is 4.83 (it actually serves as a reference point). The Sun's absolute bolometric magnitude is set arbitrarily, usually at 4.75.\nAbsolute magnitudes of stars generally range from −10 to +17. The absolute magnitudes of galaxies can be much lower (brighter). For example, the giant elliptical galaxy M87 has an absolute magnitude of −22 (i.e. as bright as about 60,000 stars of magnitude −10).\n\n=== Apparent magnitude ===\n\n\nThe Greek astronomer Hipparchus established a numerical scale to describe the brightness of each star appeared in the sky. The brightest stars in the sky were assigned an apparent magnitude , and the dimmest stars visible to the naked eye are assigned . The difference between them corresponds to a factor of 100 in brightness. For objects within the Milky Way, the absolute magnitude and apparent magnitude from any distance (in parsecs) is related by:\n\n:\n\nwhere is the radiant flux measured at distance (in parsecs), the radiant flux measured at distance . The relation can be written in terms of logarithm:\n\n:\n\nwhere the insignificance of extinction by gas and dust is assumed. Typical extinction rates within the galaxy are 1 to 2 magnitudes per kiloparsec, when dark clouds are taken into account.\n\nFor objects at very large distances (outside the Milky Way) the luminosity distance must be used instead of (in parsecs), because the Euclidean approximation is invalid for distant objects and general relativity must be taken into account. Moreover, the cosmological redshift complicates the relation between absolute and apparent magnitude, because the radiation observed was shifted into the red range of the spectrum. To compare the magnitudes of very distant objects with those of local objects, a K correction might have to be applied to the magnitudes of the distant objects.\n\nThe absolute magnitude can also be approximated using apparent magnitude and stellar parallax :\n\n:\n\nor using apparent magnitude and distance modulus :\n\n:.\n\n==== Examples ====\nRigel has a visual magnitude of 0.12 and distance about 860 light-years\n:\n\nVega has a parallax of 0.129″, and an apparent magnitude of 0.03\n:\n\nAlpha Centauri A has a parallax of 0.742″ and an apparent magnitude of −0.01\n:\n\nThe Black Eye Galaxy has a visual magnitude of 9.36 and a distance modulus of 31.06\n:\n\n=== Bolometric magnitude ===\n\nThe bolometric magnitude , takes into account electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths. It includes those unobserved due to instrumental pass-band, the Earth's atmospheric absorption, and extinction by interstellar dust. It is defined based on the luminosity of the stars. In the case of stars with few observations, it must be computed assuming an effective temperature.\n\nClassically, the difference in bolometric magnitude is related to the luminosity ratio according to:\n\n:\n\nwhich makes by inversion:\n\n:\n\nwhere\n: is the Sun's luminosity (bolometric luminosity)\n: is the star's luminosity (bolometric luminosity)\n: is the bolometric magnitude of the Sun\n: is the bolometric magnitude of the star.\n\nIn August 2015, the International Astronomical Union passed Resolution B2 defining the zero points of the absolute and apparent bolometric magnitude scales in SI units for power (watts) and irradiance (W/m2), respectively. Although bolometric magnitudes had been used by astronomers for many decades, there had been systematic differences in the absolute magnitude-luminosity scales presented in various astronomical references, and no international standardization. This led to systematic differences in bolometric corrections scales, which when combined with incorrect assumed absolute bolometric magnitudes for the Sun could lead to systematic errors in estimated stellar luminosities (and stellar properties calculated which rely on stellar luminosity, such as radii, ages, and so on).\n\nResolution B2 defines an absolute bolometric magnitude scale where corresponds to luminosity , with the zero point luminosity set such that the Sun (with nominal luminosity ) corresponds to absolute bolometric magnitude 4.74. Placing a radiation source (e.g. star) at the standard distance of 10 parsecs, it follows that the zero point of the apparent bolometric magnitude scale corresponds to irradiance . Using the IAU 2015 scale, the nominal total solar irradiance (\"solar constant\") measured at 1 astronomical unit () corresponds to an apparent bolometric magnitude of the Sun of −26.832.\n\nFollowing Resolution B2, the relation between a star's absolute bolometric magnitude and its luminosity is no longer directly tied to the Sun's (variable) luminosity:\n\n:\n\nwhere\n: is the star's luminosity (bolometric luminosity) in watts\n: is the zero point luminosity \n: is the bolometric magnitude of the star\n\nThe new IAU absolute magnitude scale permanently disconnects the scale from the variable Sun. However, on this SI power scale, the nominal solar luminosity corresponds closely to 4.74, a value that was commonly adopted by astronomers before the 2015 IAU resolution.\n\nThe luminosity of the star in watts can be calculated as a function of its absolute bolometric magnitude as:\n\n:\n\nusing the variables as defined previously.\n\n\n", "For planets and asteroids a definition of absolute magnitude that is more meaningful for non-stellar objects is used.\n\nIn this case, the absolute magnitude () is defined as the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were one astronomical unit (AU) from both the Sun and the observer, and in conditions of ideal solar opposition. In fact, one has to take into account that Solar System bodies are illuminated by the Sun, therefore the magnitude varies as a function of illumination conditions, described by the phase angle. This relationship is referred to as the phase curve. The absolute magnitude \nis defined for the ideal case of phase angle equal to zero.\n\nTo convert a stellar or galactic absolute magnitude into a planetary one, subtract 31.57. A comet's nuclear magnitude () is a different scale and can not be used for a size comparison with an asteroid's () magnitude.\n\n=== Apparent magnitude ===\nDiffuse reflection on sphere and flat disk\nThe absolute magnitude ''H'' can be used to help calculate the apparent magnitude of a body under different conditions.\n:\nwhere is 1 AU, is the phase angle, the angle between the body-Sun and body–observer lines. By the law of cosines, we have:\n:\n is the phase integral (integration of reflected light; a number in the 0 to 1 range).\n\nExample: Ideal diffuse reflecting sphere. A reasonable first approximation for planetary bodies\n:\nA full-phase diffuse sphere reflects as much light as a diffuse disc of the same diameter.\n\nDistances:\n* is the distance between the observer and the body\n* is the distance between the Sun and the body\n* is the distance between the observer and the Sun\n\nNote: because Solar System bodies are never perfect diffuse reflectors, astronomers use empirically derived relationships to predict apparent magnitudes when accuracy is required.\n\n==== Example ====\nMoon:\n* = +0.25\n* = = 1 AU\n* = = \nHow bright is the Moon from Earth?\n* Full moon: , \n: \n: Actual value: −12.7. A full Moon reflects 30% more light than a perfect diffuse reflector predicts.\n* Quarter moon: , (if diffuse reflector)\n: \n: Actual value: approximately −11. The diffuse reflector formula does well for smaller phases.\n", "For a meteor, the standard distance for measurement of magnitudes is at an altitude of at the observer's zenith.\n", "* Photographic magnitude\n* Hertzsprung–Russell diagram – relates absolute magnitude or luminosity versus spectral color or surface temperature.\n* Jansky radio astronomer's preferred unit – linear in power/unit area\n* Surface brightness – the ''magnitude'' for extended objects\n* List of most luminous stars\n", "\n", "* Reference zero-magnitude fluxes\n* International Astronomical Union\n* Absolute Magnitude of a Star calculator\n* The Magnitude system\n* About stellar magnitudes\n* Obtain the magnitude of any star – SIMBAD\n* Converting magnitude of minor planets to diameter\n* Another table for converting asteroid magnitude to estimated diameter\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Stars and galaxies ({{mvar\|''M''}}) ", " Solar System bodies ({{mvar\|''H''}}) ", " Meteors ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Absolute magnitude
[ "\n\n\n'''Apollo 1''', initially designated '''AS-204''', was the first manned mission of the United States Apollo program, which had as its ultimate goal a manned lunar landing. The low Earth orbital test of the Apollo Command/Service Module never made its target launch date of February 21, 1967. A cabin fire during a launch rehearsal test on January 27 at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 killed all three crew members—Command Pilot Virgil I. \"Gus\" Grissom, Senior Pilot Edward H. White II, and Pilot Roger B. Chaffee—and destroyed the Command Module (CM). The name ''Apollo 1'', chosen by the crew, was officially retired by NASA in commemoration of them on April 24, 1967.\n\nImmediately after the fire, NASA convened the ''Apollo 204 Accident Review Board'' to determine the cause of the fire, and both houses of the United States Congress conducted their own committee inquiries to oversee NASA's investigation. The ignition source of the fire was determined to be electrical, and the fire spread rapidly due to combustible nylon material, and the high pressure, pure oxygen cabin atmosphere. The astronauts' rescue was prevented by the plug door hatch, which could not be opened against the higher internal pressure of the cabin. A failure to identify the test as hazardous (because the rocket was unfueled) led to the rescue being hampered by poor emergency preparedness.\n\nDuring the Congressional investigation, then-Senator Walter Mondale publicly revealed a NASA internal document citing problems with prime Apollo contractor North American Aviation, which became known as the \"Phillips Report\". This disclosure embarrassed NASA Administrator James E. Webb, who was unaware of the document's existence, and attracted controversy to the Apollo program. Despite congressional displeasure at NASA's lack of openness, both congressional committees ruled that the issues raised in the report had no bearing on the accident.\n\nManned Apollo flights were suspended for 20 months while the Command Module's hazards were addressed. However, the development and unmanned testing of the Lunar Module (LM) and Saturn V Moon rocket continued. The Saturn IB launch vehicle for Apollo 1, AS-204, was used for the first LM test flight, Apollo 5. The first successful manned Apollo mission was flown by Apollo 1's backup crew on Apollo 7 in October 1968.\n", "\n\n=== First backup crew (April – December 1966) ===\n\n\n=== Second backup crew (December 1966 – January 1967) ===\n\n", "Official portrait of prime and backup crews for AS-204, as of April 1, 1966. The backup crew (standing) of McDivitt (center), Scott (left) and Schweickart were replaced by Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham in December 1966.\nAS-204 was to be the first manned test flight of the Apollo Command/Service Module (CSM) to Earth orbit, launched on a Saturn IB rocket. AS-204 was to test launch operations, ground tracking and control facilities and the performance of the Apollo-Saturn launch assembly and would have lasted up to two weeks, depending on how the spacecraft performed.\n\nThe CSM for this flight, number 012 built by North American Aviation (NAA), was a Block I version designed before the lunar orbit rendezvous landing strategy was chosen; therefore it lacked capability of docking with the Lunar Module. This was incorporated into the Block II CSM design, along with lessons learned in Block I. Block II would be test-flown with the LM when the latter was ready, and would be used on the Moon landing flights.\n\nDirector of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on January 27. Slayton replaced him with Chaffee, and NASA announced the crew selection on March 21, 1966. James McDivitt, David Scott and Russell Schweickart were named as the backup crew.\n\nOn September 29, Walter Schirra, Eisele, and Walter Cunningham were named as the prime crew for a second Block I CSM flight, AS-205. NASA planned to follow this with an unmanned test flight of the LM (AS-206), then the third manned mission would be a dual flight designated AS-278 (or AS-207/208), in which AS-207 would launch the first manned Block II CSM, which would then rendezvous and dock with the LM launched unmanned on AS-208.\n\nIn March, NASA was studying the possibility of flying the first Apollo mission as a joint space rendezvous with the final Project Gemini mission, Gemini 12 in November 1966. But by May, delays in making Apollo ready for flight just by itself, and the extra time needed to incorporate compatibility with the Gemini, made that impractical. This became moot when slippage in readiness of the AS-204 spacecraft caused the last-quarter 1966 target date to be missed, and the mission was rescheduled for February 21, 1967.\n", "\nCommand Module 012, labeled ''Apollo One'', arrives at Kennedy Space Center, August 26, 1966\nGrissom declared his intent to keep his craft in orbit for a full 14 days. A newspaper article published on August 4, 1966, referred to the flight as \"Apollo 1\". CM-012 arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on August 26, labeled ''Apollo One'' by NAA on its packaging.\n\nIn October 1966, NASA announced the flight would carry a small television camera to broadcast live from the Command Module. The camera would also be used to allow flight controllers to monitor the spacecraft's instrument panel in flight. Television cameras were carried aboard all manned Apollo missions.\n\n=== Insignia ===\nGrissom's crew received approval in June 1966 to design a mission patch with the name ''Apollo 1''. The design's center depicts a Command/Service Module flying over the southeastern United States with Florida (the launch point) prominent. The Moon is seen in the distance, symbolic of the eventual program goal. A yellow border carries the mission and astronaut names with another border set with stars and stripes, trimmed in gold. The insignia was designed by the crew, with the artwork done by North American Aviation employee Allen Stevens.\n\n\n=== Spacecraft preparation ===\nThe Apollo 1 crew expressed their concerns about their spacecraft's problems by presenting this parody of their crew portrait to ASPO manager Joseph Shea on August 19, 1966.\nThe Apollo Command/Service Module was much bigger and far more complex than any previously implemented spacecraft design. In October 1963, Joseph F. Shea was named Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) manager, responsible for managing the design and construction of both the CSM and the LM.\nIn a spacecraft review meeting held with Shea on August 19, 1966 (a week before delivery), the crew expressed concern about the amount of flammable material (mainly nylon netting and Velcro) in the cabin, which both astronauts and technicians found convenient for holding tools and equipment in place. Though Shea gave the spacecraft a passing grade, after the meeting they gave him a crew portrait they had posed with heads bowed and hands clasped in prayer, with the inscription:\nIt isn't that we don't trust you, Joe, but this time we've decided to go over your head.\nShea gave his staff orders to tell North American to remove the flammables from the cabin, but did not supervise the issue personally.\n\nNorth American shipped spacecraft CM-012 to Kennedy Space Center on August 26, 1966 under a conditional Certificate of Flight Worthiness: 113 significant incomplete planned engineering changes had to be completed at KSC. But that was not all; an additional 623 engineering change orders were made and completed after delivery. Grissom became so frustrated with the inability of the training simulator engineers to keep up with the spacecraft changes, that he took a lemon from a tree by his house and hung it on the simulator.\n\nThe Command and Service Modules were mated in the KSC altitude chamber in September, and combined system testing was performed. Altitude testing was performed first unmanned, then with both the prime and backup crews, from October 10 through December 30. During this testing, the Environmental Control Unit in the Command Module was found to have a design flaw, and was sent back to the manufacturer for design changes and rework. The returned ECU then leaked water/glycol coolant, and had to be returned a second time. Also during this time, a propellant tank in Service Module 017 had ruptured during testing at NAA, prompting the separation of the modules and removal from the chamber so the Service Module could be tested for signs of the tank problem. These tests were negative.\n\nMcDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were training for the second Apollo mission on January 26, 1967, in the first block II Command Module, wearing early blue versions of the block II pressure suit.\nIn December, the second Block I flight AS-205 was canceled as unnecessary; and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the backup crew for Apollo 1. McDivitt's crew was now promoted to prime crew of the Block II / LM mission, re-designated AS-258 because the AS-205 launch vehicle would be used in place of AS-207. A third manned mission was planned to launch the CSM and LM together on a Saturn V (AS-503) to an elliptical medium Earth orbit (MEO), to be crewed by Frank Borman, Michael Collins and William Anders. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart had started their training for AS-258 in CM-101 at the NAA plant in Downey, California, when the Apollo 1 accident occurred.\n\nOnce all outstanding CSM-012 hardware problems were fixed, the reassembled spacecraft finally completed a successful altitude chamber test with Schirra's backup crew on December 30. According to the final report of the accident investigation board, \"At the post-test debriefing the backup flight crew expressed their satisfaction with the condition and performance of the spacecraft.\" This would appear to contradict the account given in ''Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13'' by Jeffrey Kluger and astronaut James Lovell, that \"When the trio climbed out of the ship, … Schirra made it clear that he was not pleased with what he had seen,\" and that he later warned Grissom and Shea that \"there's nothing wrong with this ship that I can point to, but it just makes me uncomfortable. Something about it just doesn't ring right,\" and that Grissom should get out at the first sign of trouble.\n\nFollowing the successful altitude tests, the spacecraft was removed from the altitude chamber on January 3, 1967, and mated to its Saturn IB launch vehicle on pad 34 on January 6.\n\n\n", "\n=== Plugs-out test ===\nChaffee, White, and Grissom training in a simulator of their Command Module cabin, January 19, 1967\nThe launch simulation on January 27, 1967, on pad 34, was a \"plugs-out\" test to determine whether the spacecraft would operate nominally on (simulated) internal power while detached from all cables and umbilicals. Passing this test was essential to making the February 21 launch date. The test was considered non-hazardous because neither the launch vehicle nor the spacecraft was loaded with fuel or cryogenics, and all pyrotechnic systems (explosive bolts) were disabled.\n\nAt 1:00 pm EST (1800 GMT) on January 27, first Grissom, then Chaffee, and White entered the Command Module fully pressure-suited, and were strapped into their seats and hooked up to the spacecraft's oxygen and communication systems. Grissom immediately noticed a strange odor in the air circulating through his suit which he compared to \"sour buttermilk\", and the simulated countdown was held at 1:20 pm, while air samples were taken. No cause of the odor could be found, and the countdown was resumed at 2:42 pm. The accident investigation found this odor not to be related to the fire.\n\nThree minutes after the count was resumed, the hatch installation was started. The hatch consisted of three parts: a removable inner hatch, which stayed inside the cabin; a hinged outer hatch, which was part of the spacecraft's heat shield; and an outer hatch cover, which was part of the boost protective cover enveloping the entire Command Module to protect it from aerodynamic heating during launch, and from launch escape rocket exhaust in the event of a launch abort. The boost hatch cover was partially, but not fully, latched in place because the flexible boost protective cover was slightly distorted by some cabling run under it to provide the simulated internal power. (The spacecraft's fuel cell reactants were not loaded for this test.) After the hatches were sealed, the air in the cabin was replaced with pure oxygen at , higher than atmospheric pressure.\n\nAudio recording from the ground loop, starting from Grissom's \"talk between buildings\" remark. First mention of fire is heard at 1:05.\nMovement by the astronauts was detected by the spacecraft's inertial measurement unit and the astronaut's biomedical sensors, and also indicated by increases in oxygen spacesuit flow, and sounds from Grissom's stuck-open microphone. There was no evidence to identify the movement, or whether it was related to the fire. The stuck microphone was part of a problem with the communications loop connecting the crew, the Operations and Checkout Building, and the Complex 34 blockhouse control room. The poor communications led Grissom to remark: \"How are we going to get to the Moon if we can't talk between two or three buildings?\" The simulated countdown was held again at 5:40 pm while attempts were made to troubleshoot the communications problem. All countdown functions up to the simulated internal power transfer had been successfully completed by 6:20 pm, but at 6:30 the count remained on hold at T minus 10 minutes.\n\n=== Fire ===\nExterior of the Command Module was blackened from eruption of the fire after the cabin wall failed\nThe crew members were using the time to run through their checklist again, when a momentary increase in AC Bus 2 voltage occurred. Nine seconds later (at 6:31:04.7), one of the astronauts (some listeners and laboratory analysis indicate Grissom) exclaimed \"Hey!\" or \"Fire!\"; this was followed by two seconds of scuffling sounds through Grissom's open microphone. This was immediately followed at 6:31:06.2 (23:31:06.2 GMT) by someone (believed by most listeners, and supported by laboratory analysis, to be Chaffee) saying, \"I've, or We've got a fire in the cockpit.\" After 6.8 seconds of silence, a second, badly garbled transmission occurred, interpreted by various listeners as:\n* \"They're fighting a bad fire—Let's get out ....Open 'er up\"\n* \"We've got a bad fire—Let's get out ....We're burning up\", or\n* \"I'm reporting a bad fire ....I'm getting out ....\".\nThis transmission, believed by some listeners to be White, lasted 5.0 seconds and ended with a cry of pain.\n\nSome blockhouse witnesses said that they saw White on the television monitors, reaching for the inner hatch release handle as flames in the cabin spread from left to right.\n\nThe intensity of the fire fed by pure oxygen caused the pressure to rise to , which ruptured the Command Module's inner wall at 6:31:19 (23:31:19 GMT, initial phase of the fire). Flames and gases then rushed outside the Command Module through open access panels to two levels of the pad service structure. Intense heat, dense smoke, and ineffective gas masks designed for toxic fumes rather than heavy smoke hampered the ground crew's attempts to rescue the men. There were fears the Command Module had exploded, or soon would, and that the fire might ignite the solid fuel rocket in the launch escape tower above the Command Module, which would have likely killed nearby ground personnel, and possibly have destroyed the pad.\n\nAs the pressure was released by the cabin rupture, the convective rush of air caused the flames to spread across the cabin, beginning the second phase. The third phase began when most of the oxygen was consumed and was replaced with atmospheric air, essentially quenching the fire, but causing high concentrations of carbon monoxide and heavy smoke to fill the cabin, and large amounts of soot to be deposited on surfaces as they cooled.\n\nIt took five minutes for the pad workers to open all three hatch layers, and they could not drop the inner hatch to the cabin floor as intended, so they pushed it out of the way to one side. Although the cabin lights remained lit, they were at first unable to find the astronauts through the dense smoke. As the smoke cleared, they found the bodies, but were not able to remove them. The fire had partly melted Grissom's and White's nylon space suits and the hoses connecting them to the life support system. Grissom had removed his restraints and was lying on the floor of the spacecraft. White's restraints were burned through, and he was found lying sideways just below the hatch. It was determined that he had tried to open the hatch per the emergency procedure, but was not able to do so against the internal pressure. Chaffee was found strapped into his right-hand seat, as procedure called for him to maintain communication until White opened the hatch. Because of the large strands of melted nylon fusing the astronauts to the cabin interior, removing the bodies took nearly 90 minutes.\n", "The charred remains of the Apollo 1 cabin interior\nAs a result of the in-flight failure of the Gemini 8 mission on March 17, 1966, NASA Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans wrote and implemented ''Management Instruction 8621.1'' on April 14, 1966, defining ''Mission Failure Investigation Policy And Procedures''. This modified NASA's existing accident procedures, based on military aircraft accident investigation, by giving the Deputy Administrator the option of performing independent investigations of major failures, beyond those for which the various Program Office officials were normally responsible. It declared, \"It is NASA policy to investigate and document the causes of all major mission failures which occur in the conduct of its space and aeronautical activities and to take appropriate corrective actions as a result of the findings and recommendations.\"\n\nImmediately after the Apollo 1 fire, to avoid appearance of a conflict of interest, NASA Administrator James E. Webb asked President Lyndon B. Johnson to allow NASA to handle the investigation according to its established procedure, promising to be truthful in assessing blame, and to keep the appropriate leaders of Congress informed. Seamans then directed establishment of the ''Apollo 204 Review Board'' chaired by Langley Research Center director Floyd L. Thompson, which included astronaut Frank Borman, spacecraft designer Maxime Faget, and six others. On February 1, Cornell University professor Frank A. Long left the board, and was replaced by Dr. Robert W. Van Dolah, of the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The next day, North American's Chief engineer for Apollo, George Jeffs, also left.\n\nSeamans immediately ordered all Apollo 1 hardware and software impounded, to be released only under control of the board. After thorough stereo photographic documentation of the CM-012 interior, the board ordered its disassembly using procedures tested by disassembling the identical CM-014, and conducted a thorough investigation of every part. The board also reviewed the astronauts' autopsy results and interviewed witnesses. Seamans sent Webb weekly status reports of the investigation's progress, and the board issued its final report on April 5, 1967.\n\n===Cause of death===\nAccording to the Board, Grissom suffered severe third degree burns on over one-third of his body and his spacesuit was mostly destroyed. White suffered third degree burns on almost half of his body and a quarter of his spacesuit had melted away. Chaffee suffered third degree burns over almost a quarter of his body and a small portion of his spacesuit was damaged. The autopsy report confirmed that the primary cause of death for all three astronauts was cardiac arrest caused by high concentrations of carbon monoxide. Burns suffered by the crew were not believed to be major factors, and it was concluded that most of them had occurred postmortem. Asphyxiation happened after the fire melted the astronauts' suits and oxygen tubes, exposing them to the lethal atmosphere of the cabin.\n\n===Major causes of accident===\nThe review board identified several major factors which combined to cause the fire and the astronauts' deaths:\n* An ''ignition source'' most probably related to \"vulnerable wiring carrying spacecraft power\" and \"vulnerable plumbing carrying a combustible and corrosive coolant\"\n* A ''pure oxygen atmosphere'' at higher than atmospheric pressure\n* A ''cabin sealed with a hatch cover'' which could not be quickly removed at high pressure\n* An extensive distribution of ''combustible materials'' in the cabin\n* ''Inadequate emergency preparedness'' (rescue or medical assistance, and crew escape)\n\n==== Ignition source ====\nThe review board determined that the electrical power momentarily failed at 23:30:55 GMT, and found evidence of several electric arcs in the interior equipment. They were unable to conclusively identify a single ignition source. They determined that the fire most likely started near the floor in the lower left section of the cabin, close to the Environmental Control Unit. It spread from the left wall of the cabin to the right, with the floor being affected only briefly.\n\nThe board noted that a silver-plated copper wire, running through an environmental control unit near the center couch, had become stripped of its Teflon insulation and abraded by repeated opening and closing of a small access door.\n\nThis weak point in the wiring also ran near a junction in an ethylene glycol/water cooling line that had been prone to leaks. The electrolysis of ethylene glycol solution with the silver anode was discovered at MSC on May 29, 1967 to be a hazard capable of causing a violent exothermic reaction, igniting the ethylene glycol mixture in the CM's pure oxygen atmosphere. Experiments at the Illinois Institute of Technology confirmed the hazard existed for silver-plated wires, but not for copper-only or nickel-plated copper. In July, ASPO directed both North American and Grumman to ensure no silver or silver-coated electrical contacts existed in the vicinity of possible glycol spills in the Apollo spacecraft.\n\n==== Pure oxygen atmosphere ====\nThe Apollo 1 crewmen enter their spacecraft in the altitude chamber at Kennedy Space Center, October 18, 1966\nThe plugs-out test had been run to simulate the launch procedure, with the cabin pressurized with pure oxygen at the nominal launch level of , above standard sea level atmospheric pressure. This is more than five times the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere, and provides an environment in which materials not normally considered highly flammable will burst into flame.\n\nThe high-pressure oxygen atmosphere was consistent with that that had been used successfully in the Mercury and Gemini programs. The pressure before launch was deliberately greater than ambient in order to drive out the nitrogen-containing air and replace it with pure oxygen, and also to seal the plug door hatch cover. During launch, the pressure would have been gradually reduced to the in-flight level of , providing sufficient oxygen for the astronauts to breathe while reducing the fire risk. The Apollo 1 crew had successfully tested this procedure with their spacecraft in the Operations and Checkout Building altitude (vacuum) chamber on October 18 and 19, 1966, and the backup crew of Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham had repeated it on December 30. The investigation board noted that, during these tests, the Command Module had been fully pressurized with pure oxygen four times, for a total of six hours and fifteen minutes, two and a half hours longer than it had been during the plugs-out test.\n\n==== Flammable materials in the cabin ====\nThe review board cited \"many types and classes of combustible material\" close to ignition sources. The NASA crew systems department had installed of Velcro throughout the spacecraft, almost like carpeting. This Velcro was found to be flammable in a high-pressure 100% oxygen environment. Astronaut Buzz Aldrin states in his book ''Men From Earth'' that the flammable material had been removed per the crew's August 19 complaints and Joseph Shea's order, but was replaced before the August 26 delivery to Cape Kennedy.\n\n==== Hatch design ====\nThe Block I hatch, as used on Apollo 1, consisted of two pieces, and required pressure inside the cabin be no greater than atmospheric in order to open. A third outer layer, the boost protective hatch cover, is not shown.\nThe inner hatch cover used a plug door design, sealed by higher pressure inside the cabin than outside. The normal pressure level used for launch ( above ambient) created sufficient force to prevent removing the cover until the excess pressure was vented. Emergency procedure called for Grissom to open the cabin vent valve first, allowing White to remove the cover, but Grissom was prevented from doing this because the valve was located to the left, behind the initial wall of flames. Also, while the system could easily vent the normal pressure, its flow capacity was utterly incapable of handling the rapid increase to absolute caused by the intense heat of the fire.\n\nNorth American had originally suggested the hatch open outward and use explosive bolts to blow the hatch in case of emergency, as had been done in Project Mercury. NASA did not agree, arguing the hatch could accidentally open, as it had on Grissom's ''Liberty Bell 7'' flight, so the Manned Spacecraft Center designers rejected the explosive design in favor of a mechanically operated one for the Gemini and Apollo programs. Before the fire, the Apollo astronauts had recommended changing the design to an outward-opening hatch, and this was already slated for inclusion in the Block II Command Module design. According to Donald K. Slayton's testimony before the House investigation of the accident, this was based on ease of exit for spacewalks and at the end of flight, rather than for emergency exit.\n\n==== Emergency preparedness ====\nThe board noted that: the test planners had failed to identify the test as hazardous; the emergency equipment (such as gas masks) were inadequate to handle this type of fire; that fire, rescue, and medical teams were not in attendance; and that the spacecraft work and access areas contained many hindrances to emergency response such as steps, sliding doors, and sharp turns.\n", "When designing the Mercury spacecraft, NASA had considered using a nitrogen/oxygen mixture to reduce the fire risk near launch, but rejected it based on two considerations. First, nitrogen used with the in-flight pressure reduction carried the risk of decompression sickness (known as \"the bends\"). But the decision to eliminate the use of any gas but oxygen was crystalized when a serious accident occurred on April 21, 1960, in which McDonnell Aircraft test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin / spacesuit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber. The problem was found to be nitrogen-rich (oxygen-poor) air leaking from the cabin into his spacesuit feed. North American Aviation had suggested using an oxygen/nitrogen mixture for Apollo, but NASA overruled this. The pure oxygen design was judged to be safer, less complicated, and lighter in weight.\n\nIn his monograph ''Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions'', Deputy Administrator Seamans wrote that NASA's single worst mistake in engineering judgment was not to run a fire test on the Command Module before the plugs-out test. In the first episode of the 2009 BBC documentary series ''NASA: Triumph and Tragedy'', Jim McDivitt said that NASA had no idea how a 100% oxygen atmosphere would influence burning. Similar remarks by other astronauts were expressed in the 2007 documentary film ''In the Shadow of the Moon''.\n\n=== Other oxygen incidents ===\n\nSeveral fires in high-oxygen test environments had occurred before the Apollo fire. In 1962, USAF Colonel B. Dean Smith was conducting a test of the Gemini space suit with a colleague in a pure oxygen chamber at Brooks Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas when a fire broke out, destroying the chamber. Smith and his partner narrowly escaped.\n\nOther oxygen fire occurrences are documented in reports archived in the National Air and Space Museum, such as:\n* Selection of Space Cabin Atmospheres. Part II: Fire and Blast Hazaards in Space Cabins. (Emanuel M. Roth; Dept of Aeronautics Medicine and Bioastronautics, Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and Research. c.1964–1966.)\n* \"Fire Prevention in Manned Spacecraft and Test Chamber Oxygen Atmospheres.\" (MSC. NASA General Working Paper 10 063. October 10, 1966)\n\nIncidents had also occurred in the Soviet space program, but due to the government's policy of secrecy, these were not disclosed until well after the Apollo 1 fire. Cosmonaut Valentin Bondarenko died on March 23, 1961, from burns sustained in a fire while participating in a 15-day endurance experiment in a high-oxygen isolation chamber, less than three weeks before the first Vostok manned space flight; this was disclosed on January 28, 1986.\n\nDuring the Voskhod 2 mission in March 1965, cosmonauts Pavel Belyayev and Alexey Leonov could not completely seal the spacecraft hatch after Leonov's historic first walk in space. The spacecraft's environmental control system responded to the leaking air by adding more oxygen to the cabin, causing the concentration level to rise as high as 45%. The crew and ground controllers worried about the possibility of fire, remembering Bondarenko's death four years earlier.\n", "George E. Mueller, and Apollo Program Director Phillips testify before a Senate hearing on the Apollo accident\nCommittees in both houses of the United States Congress with oversight of the space program soon launched investigations, including the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, chaired by Senator Clinton P. Anderson. Seamans, Webb, Manned Space Flight Administrator Dr. George E. Mueller, and Apollo Program Director Maj Gen Samuel C. Phillips were called to testify before Anderson's committee.\n\nIn the February 27 hearing, Senator Walter F. Mondale asked Webb if he knew of a report of extraordinary problems with the performance of North American Aviation on the Apollo contract. Webb replied he did not, and deferred to his subordinates on the witness panel. Mueller and Phillips responded they too were unaware of any such \"report\".\n\nHowever, in late 1965, just over a year before the accident, Phillips had headed a \"tiger team\" investigating the causes of inadequate quality, schedule delays, and cost overruns in both the Apollo CSM and the Saturn V second stage (for which North American was also prime contractor). He gave an oral presentation (with transparencies) of his team's findings to Mueller and Seamans, and also presented them in a memo to North American president John L. Atwood, to which Mueller appended his own strongly worded memo to Atwood.\n\nDuring Mondale's 1967 questioning about what was to become known as the \"Phillips Report\", Seamans was afraid Mondale might actually have seen a hard copy of Phillips' presentation, and responded that contractors have occasionally been subjected to on-site progress reviews; perhaps this was what Mondale's information referred to. Mondale continued to refer to \"the Report\" despite Phillips' refusal to characterize it as such, and angered by what he perceived as Webb's deception and concealment of important program problems from Congress, he questioned NASA's selection of North American as prime contractor. Seamans later wrote that Webb roundly chastised him in the cab ride leaving the hearing, for volunteering information which led to the disclosure of Phillips' memo.\n\nOn May 11, Webb issued a statement defending NASA's November 1961 selection of North American as the prime contractor for Apollo. This was followed on June 9 by Seamans filing a seven-page memorandum documenting the selection process. Webb eventually provided a controlled copy of Phillips' memo to Congress. The Senate committee noted in its final report NASA's testimony that \"the findings of the Phillips task force had no effect on the accident, did not lead to the accident, and were not related to the accident\", but stated in its recommendations:\nNotwithstanding that in NASA's judgment the contractor later made significant progress in overcoming the problems, the committee believes it should have been informed of the situation. The committee does not object to the position of the Administrator of NASA, that all details of Government/contractor relationships should not be put in the public domain. However, that position in no way can be used as an argument for not bringing this or other serious situations to the attention of the committee.\n\nFreshman Senators Edward W. Brooke III and Charles H. Percy jointly wrote an ''Additional Views'' section appended to the committee report, chastising NASA more strongly than Anderson for not having disclosed the Phillips review to Congress. Mondale wrote his own, even more strongly worded Additional View, accusing NASA of \"evasiveness, … lack of candor, … patronizing attitude toward Congress, … refusal to respond fully and forthrightly to legitimate Congressional inquiries, and … solicitous concern for corporate sensitivities at a time of national tragedy.\"\n\nThe potential political threat to Apollo blew over, due in large part to the support of President Lyndon B. Johnson, who at the time still wielded a measure of influence with the Congress from his own Senatorial experience. He was a staunch supporter of NASA since its inception, had even recommended the Moon program to President John F. Kennedy in 1961, and was skilled at portraying it as part of Kennedy's legacy.\n\nRelations between NASA and North American deteriorated over assignment of blame. North American argued unsuccessfully it was not responsible for the fatal error in spacecraft atmosphere design. Finally, Webb contacted Atwood, and demanded either he or Chief Engineer Harrison A. Storms resign. Atwood elected to fire Storms.\n\nOn the NASA side, Joseph Shea resorted to barbiturates and alcohol in order to help him cope. NASA administrator James Webb became increasingly worried about Shea's mental state. Shea was asked to take an extended voluntary leave of absence, but Shea refused, threatening to resign rather than take leave. As a compromise, he agreed to meet with a psychiatrist and to abide by an independent assessment of his psychological fitness. This approach to remove Shea from his position was also unsuccessful. Finally, six months after the fire, Shea's superiors reassigned him to NASA headquarters in Washington, D.C. Shea felt that his new post was a \"non-job,\" and left after only two months.\n", "\nGene Kranz called a meeting of his staff in Mission Control three days after the accident, delivering a speech which has subsequently become one of NASA's principles. Speaking of the errors and overall attitude surrounding the Apollo program before the accident, he stated: \"We were too 'gung-ho' about the schedule and we blocked out all of the problems we saw each day in our work. Every element of the program was in trouble and so were we.\" He reminded the team of the perils and mercilessness of their endeavor, and stated the new requirement that every member of every team in mission control be \"tough and competent\", requiring nothing less than perfection throughout NASA's programs. In 2003, following the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster, NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe quoted Kranz's speech, applying it to the ''Columbia'' crew.\n\n=== Command Module redesign ===\nAfter the fire, the Apollo program was grounded for review and redesign. The Command Module was found to be extremely hazardous and, in some instances, carelessly assembled (for example, a misplaced socket wrench was found in the cabin).\n\nIt was decided that remaining Block I spacecraft would be used only for unmanned Saturn V test flights. All manned missions would use the Block II spacecraft, to which many Command Module design changes were made:\n* The cabin atmosphere at launch was adjusted to 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen at sea-level pressure: . During ascent the cabin rapidly vented down to , releasing approximately 2/3 of the gas originally present at launch. The vent then closed and the environmental control system maintained a nominal cabin pressure of as the spacecraft continued into vacuum. The cabin was then very slowly purged (vented to space and simultaneously replaced with 100% oxygen), so the nitrogen concentration fell asymptotically to zero over the next day. Although the new cabin launch atmosphere was significantly safer than 100% oxygen, it still contained almost three times the amount of oxygen present in ordinary sea level air (20.9% oxygen). This was necessary to ensure a sufficient partial pressure of oxygen when the astronauts removed their helmets after reaching orbit. (60% of 5 psi is 3 psi, compared to 20.9% of , or in sea-level air.)\n* The environment within the astronauts' pressure suits was not changed. Because of the rapid drop in cabin (and suit) pressures during ascent, decompression sickness was likely unless the nitrogen had been purged from the astronauts' tissues before launch. They would still breathe pure oxygen, starting several hours before launch, until they removed their helmets on orbit. Avoiding the \"bends\" was considered worth the residual risk of an oxygen-accelerated fire within a suit.\n* Nylon used in the Block I suits was replaced in the Block II suits with Beta cloth, a non-flammable, highly melt-resistant fabric woven from fiberglass and coated with Teflon.\n* Block II had already been planned to use a completely redesigned hatch which opened outward, and could be opened in less than five seconds. Concerns of accidental opening were addressed by using a cartridge of pressurized nitrogen to drive the release mechanism in an emergency, instead of the explosive bolts used on Project Mercury.\n* Flammable materials in the cabin were replaced with self-extinguishing versions.\n* Plumbing and wiring were covered with protective insulation. Aluminum tubing was replaced with stainless steel tubing that used brazed joints when possible.\n\nThorough protocols were implemented for documenting spacecraft construction and maintenance.\n\n=== New mission naming scheme ===\nThe astronauts' widows asked that ''Apollo 1'' be reserved for the flight their husbands never made, and on April 24, 1967, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, Dr. George E. Mueller, announced this change officially: AS-204 would be recorded as Apollo 1, \"first manned Apollo Saturn flight – failed on ground test\". Even though three unmanned Apollo missions (AS-201, AS-202, and AS-203) had previously occurred, only AS-201 and AS-202 carried spacecraft. Therefore, the next mission, the first unmanned Saturn V test flight (AS-501) would be designated Apollo 4, with all subsequent flights numbered sequentially in the order flown. The first three flights would not be renumbered, and the names ''Apollo 2'' and ''Apollo 3'' would officially go unused. Dr. Mueller considered AS-201 and AS-202, the first and second flights of the Apollo Block I CSM, as Apollo 2 and 3 respectively.\n\nThe manned flight hiatus allowed work to catch up on the Saturn V and Lunar Module, which were encountering their own delays. Apollo 4 flew in November 1967. Apollo 1's (AS-204) Saturn IB rocket was taken down from Launch Complex 34, later reassembled at Launch complex 37B and used to launch Apollo 5, an unmanned Earth orbital test flight of the first Lunar Module LM-1, in January 1968. A second unmanned Saturn V AS-502 flew as Apollo 6 in April 1968, and Grissom's backup crew of Wally Schirra, Don Eisele, and Walter Cunningham, finally flew the orbital test mission as Apollo 7 (AS-205), in a Block II CSM in October 1968.\n", "The Space Mirror Memorial at the Kennedy Space Center bears the names of Grissom, White, and Chaffee at the bottom middle\nGus Grissom and Roger Chaffee were buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Ed White was buried at West Point Cemetery on the grounds of the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York. Their names are among those of several astronauts and cosmonauts who have died in the line of duty, listed on the Space Mirror Memorial at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Merritt Island, Florida. President Jimmy Carter awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor posthumously to Grissom on October 1, 1978. President Bill Clinton awarded it to White and Chaffee on December 17, 1997.\nFliteline medallion flown on Apollo 9 by Jim McDivitt\n\nAn Apollo 1 mission patch was left on the Moon's surface after the first manned lunar landing by Apollo 11 crew members Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. The Apollo 15 mission left on the surface of the Moon a tiny memorial statue, ''Fallen Astronaut'', along with a plaque containing the names of the Apollo 1 astronauts, among others including Soviet cosmonauts, who perished in the pursuit of human space flight.\n\n=== Launch Complex 34 ===\n\n\nAfter the Apollo 1 fire, Launch Complex 34 was subsequently used only for the launch of Apollo 7 and later dismantled down to the concrete launch pedestal, which remains at the site () along with a few other concrete and steel-reinforced structures. The pedestal bears two plaques commemorating the crew. Each year the families of the Apollo 1 crew are invited to the site for a memorial, and the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex includes the site during the tour of the historic Cape Canaveral launch sites.\n\nIn January 2005, three granite benches, built by a college classmate of one of the astronauts, were installed at the site on the southern edge of the launch pad. Each bears the name of one of the astronauts and his military service insignia.\n\n \|- align=\"center\"\n150px\n150px\n150px\n150px\n150px\n\nLaunch pedestal, with dedication plaque on rear of right post\nMemorial kiosk\nDedication plaque attached to launch platform\nMemorial plaque attached to launch platform\nGranite memorial benches on the edge of the launch pad\n\n\n=== Stars, landmarks on the Moon and Mars ===\n* Apollo astronauts frequently aligned their spacecraft inertial navigation platforms and determined their positions relative to the Earth and Moon by sighting sets of stars with optical instruments. As a practical joke, the Apollo 1 crew named three of the stars in the Apollo catalog after themselves and introduced them into NASA documentation. Gamma Cassiopeiae became ''Navi'' – Ivan (Gus Grissom's middle name) spelled backwards. Iota Ursae Majoris became ''Dnoces'' – \"Second\" spelled backwards, for Edward H. White II. And Gamma Velorum became ''Regor'' – Roger (Chaffee) spelled backwards. These names quickly stuck after the Apollo 1 accident and were regularly used by later Apollo crews.\n* Craters on the Moon and hills on Mars are named after the three Apollo 1 astronauts.\n\n=== Civic and other memorials ===\n* Three public schools in Huntsville, Alabama (home of George C. Marshall Space Flight Center and the U.S. Space & Rocket Center): Virgil I. Grissom High School, Ed White Middle School, and the Chaffee Elementary School\n* Virgil I. Grissom Middle Schools in Mishawaka, Indiana, Sterling Heights, Michigan, and Tinley Park, Illinois.\n* Virgil Grissom Elementary School in Princeton, Iowa, and the Edward White Elementary School in Eldridge, Iowa, are both part of the North Scott Community School District also naming the other three elementary schools after astronauts Neil Armstrong, John Glenn, and Alan Shepard\n* School #7 in Rochester, New York is also known as the Virgil I. Grissom School. (www.rcsdk12.org). \n* Three streets in Amherst, New York are named for Roger Chaffee, Edward White, and Gus Grissom Drive. A street was named for Virgil I. Grissom at the same time, but when no homes were built on it by 1991, the street sign was removed. (www.amherst.wgrz.com) (https://www.google.com/maps/place/Gus+Grissom+Dr,+Buffalo,+NY+14228/@43.0135412,-78.8221272,17z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x89d3721e0b21bc39:0xc231682fdc2b60b8!8m2!3d43.0124295!4d-78.8210757?hl=en&authuser=)\n* Three man-made oil drilling islands in the harbor off Long Beach, California, are named Grissom, White and Chaffee. A fourth island is named for Theodore Freeman, an astronaut chosen from the USAF in 1963, killed in a 1964 T-38 jet crash at Ellington Air Force Base.\n* The Roger B. Chaffee Planetarium is located at the Grand Rapids Public Museum\n* Roger B. Chaffee Scholarship Fund in Grand Rapids, Michigan each year in memory of Chaffee honors one student who intends to pursue a career in engineering or the sciences\n* Three adjacent parks in Fullerton, California, are each named for Grissom, Chaffee and White. The parks are located near a former Hughes Aircraft research and development facility. A Hughes subsidiary, Hughes Space and Communications Company, built components for the Apollo program.\n* Two buildings on the campus of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, are named for Grissom and Chaffee (both Purdue alumni). Grissom Hall houses the School of Industrial Engineering (and was home to the School of Aeronautics and Astronautics before it moved into the new Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering). Chaffee Hall, constructed in 1965, is the administration complex of Maurice J. Zucrow Laboratories where combustion, propulsion, gas dynamics, and related fields are studied. The Chaffee Hall contains a 72 seat auditorium, offices, and administrative staff.\n* A tree for each astronaut was planted in NASA's Astronaut Memorial Grove at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, not far from the Saturn V building, along with trees for each astronaut from the ''Challenger'' and ''Columbia'' disasters. Tours of the space center pause briefly near the grove for a moment of silence, and the trees can be seen from nearby NASA Road 1.\n", "The Apollo 1 Command Module has never been on public display. After the accident, the spacecraft was removed and taken to Kennedy Space Center to facilitate the review board's disassembly in order to investigate the cause of the fire. When the investigation was complete, it was moved to the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, and placed in a secured storage warehouse.\nOn February 17, 2007, the parts of CM-012 were moved approximately to a newer, environmentally controlled warehouse. Only a few weeks earlier, Gus Grissom's brother Lowell publicly suggested CM-012 be permanently entombed in the concrete remains of Launch Complex 34.\n\nOn January 27, 2017, the 50th anniversary of the fire, NASA put the hatch from Apollo 1 on display alongside the remains of ''Challenger'' and ''Columbia''. “This is way, way, way long overdue. But we’re excited about it,” said Scott Grissom, Gus Grissom's older son.\n", "\n\n* The accident and its aftermath are the subject of episode 2 \"Apollo One\", of the 1998 HBO miniseries ''From the Earth to the Moon''.\n* The mission and accident are covered in the 2015 ABC television series, ''The Astronaut Wives Club'', episodes 8 \"Rendezvous\", and 9 \"Abort\".\n* The incident is the subject of the Public Service Broadcasting track ''Fire in the Cockpit'' from their 2015 album The Race for Space.\n", "* List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents\nSTS-1\n", "'''Notes'''\n\n'''Citations'''\n\n\n", " \n* \n* \n* \n", "* \n* Baron testimony at investigation before Olin Teague, 21. April 1967\n* ''Apollo 204 Review Board Final Report'', NASA's final report on its investigation, April 5, 1967\n* Final report of the U.S. Senate investigation, January 30, 1968\n* \n* Apollo Operations Handbook, Command and Service Module, Spacecraft 012 (The flight manual for CSM 012)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Crew ", " Apollo manned test flight plans ", " Mission background ", " Accident ", " Investigation ", " Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere ", " Political fallout ", " Program recovery ", " Memorials ", " Remains of CM-012 ", " In popular culture ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Apollo 1
[ "\n\n\n'''Apollo 10''' was the fourth manned mission in the United States Apollo space program, and the second (after Apollo 8) to orbit the Moon. Launched on May 18, 1969, it was the F mission: a \"dress rehearsal\" for the first Moon landing, testing all of the components and procedures, just short of actually landing. The Lunar Module (LM) followed a descent orbit to within of the lunar surface, at the point where powered descent for landing would normally begin. Its success enabled the first landing to be attempted on the Apollo 11 mission two months later.\n\nAccording to the 2002 ''Guinness World Records'', Apollo 10 set the record for the highest speed attained by a manned vehicle: 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph) on May 26, 1969, during the return from the Moon.\n\nThe mission's call signs included the names of the ''Peanuts'' characters Charlie Brown and Snoopy, which became Apollo 10's semi-official mascots. ''Peanuts'' creator Charles Schulz also drew some mission-related artwork for NASA.\n", "\n\n===Backup crew===\n\n\n===Support crew===\nCharles M. Duke, Jr.\nJoseph H. Engle\nJames B. Irwin\nJack R. Lousma\nBruce McCandless II\n\n===Flight directors===\nGlynn Lunney, Black team\nGerry Griffin, Gold team\nMilton Windler, Maroon team\nPete Frank, Orange team\n\n===Crew notes===\nApollo 10, along with Apollo 11, were the only Apollo missions whose crew were all veterans of spaceflight. Thomas P. Stafford had flown on Gemini 6 and Gemini 9; John W. Young had flown on Gemini 3 and Gemini 10, and Eugene A. Cernan had flown with Stafford on Gemini 9.\n\nIn addition, Apollo 10 was the only Saturn V flight from Launch Complex 39B, as preparations for Apollo 11 at LC-39A had begun in March almost immediately after Apollo 9's launch.\n\nThey were also the only Apollo crew all of whose members went on to fly subsequent missions aboard Apollo spacecraft: Young later commanded Apollo 16, Cernan commanded Apollo 17 and Stafford commanded the U.S. vehicle on the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project. It was on this flight that John Young became the first human to fly solo around the Moon, while Stafford & Cernan flew the LM in lunar orbit as part of the preparations for Apollo 11.\n\nThe Apollo 10 crew are also the humans who have traveled the farthest away from home, some from their homes and families in Houston. While most Apollo missions orbited the Moon at the same from the lunar surface, the distance between the Earth and Moon varies by about , between perigee and apogee, throughout the year, and the Earth's rotation make the distance to Houston vary by another each day. The Apollo 10 crew reached the farthest point in their orbit around the far side of the Moon at about the same time Earth's rotation put Houston nearly a full Earth diameter away.\n\nBy the normal rotation in place during Apollo, the backup crew would have been scheduled to fly on Apollo 13. However, Alan Shepard was given the Apollo 13 command slot instead. L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., Commander of the Apollo 10 backup crew, was enraged and resigned from NASA. Later, Shepard's crew was forced to switch places with Jim Lovell's tentative Apollo 14 crew.\n\nDeke Slayton wrote in his memoirs that Cooper and Donn F. Eisele were never intended to rotate to another mission as both were out of favor with NASA management for various reasons (Cooper for his lax attitude towards training and Eisele for incidents aboard Apollo 7 and an extramarital affair) and were assigned to the backup crew simply because of a lack of qualified manpower in the Astronaut Office at the time the assignment needed to be made. Cooper, Slayton noted, had a very small chance of receiving the Apollo 13 command if he did an outstanding job with the assignment, which he did not. Eisele, despite his issues with management, was always intended for future assignment to the Apollo Applications Program (which was eventually cut down to only the Skylab component) and not a lunar mission.\n", "Earthrise video captured by Apollo 10 crew\nThis dress rehearsal for a Moon landing brought the Apollo Lunar Module to from the lunar surface, at the point where powered descent would begin on the actual landing. Practicing this approach orbit would refine knowledge of the lunar gravitational field needed to calibrate the powered descent guidance system to within (LR altitude update lock) needed for a landing. Earth-based observations, unmanned spacecraft, and Apollo 8 had respectively allowed calibration to within , , and . Except for this final stretch, the mission was designed to duplicate how a landing would have gone, both in space and for ground control, putting NASA's flight controllers and extensive tracking and control network through a rehearsal.\n", "'''Mass:''' CSM ; LM \n\n===Earth parking orbit===\n'''Perigee:''' \n'''Apogee:''' \n'''Inclination:''' 32.5°\n'''Period:''' 88.1 min\n\n===Lunar orbit===\n'''Perilune:''' \n'''Apolune:''' \n'''Inclination:''' 1.2°\n'''Period:''' 2.15 hours\n\n===LM – CSM docking===\n'''Undocked''': May 22, 1969 – 19:00:57 UTC\n'''Redocked''': May 23, 1969 – 03:11:02 UTC\n\n===LM closest approach to lunar surface===\nMay 22, 1969, 21:29:43 UTC\n\nOn May 22, 1969 at 20:35:02 UTC, a 27.4 second LM Descent Propulsion System burn inserted the LM into a descent orbit of so that the resulting lowest point in the orbit occurred about 15° from lunar landing site 2 (the Apollo 11 landing site). The lowest measured point in the trajectory was above the lunar surface at 21:29:43 UTC.\n", "Shortly after trans-lunar injection, Young performed the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver, separating the Command/Service Module (CSM) from the S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking its nose to the top of the Lunar Module (LM), before separating from the S-IVB. Apollo 10 was the first mission to carry a color television camera inside the spacecraft, and made the first live color TV transmissions from space.\n\nLM ''Snoopy'' containing Stafford and Cernan, as inspected by Young after separation from ''Charlie Brown''\nAfter reaching lunar orbit three days later, Young remained in the Command Module (CM) ''Charlie Brown'' while Stafford and Cernan entered the LM ''Snoopy'' and flew it separately. The LM crew performed the descent orbit insertion maneuver by firing their descent engine, and tested their craft's landing radar as they approached the altitude where powered descent would begin on Apollo 11. They surveyed the landing site in the Sea of Tranquility, then separated the descent stage and fired the ascent engine to return to ''Charlie Brown''. The descent stage was left in orbit, but eventually crashed onto the lunar surface because of the Moon's non-uniform gravitational field; its location was not tracked.\n\nUpon descent stage separation and ascent engine ignition, the Lunar Module began to roll violently because the crew accidentally duplicated commands into the flight computer which took the LM out of abort mode, the correct configuration for this maneuver. The live network broadcasts caught Cernan and Stafford uttering several expletives before regaining control of the LM. Cernan has said he observed the horizon spinning eight times over, indicating eight rolls of the spacecraft under ascent engine power. While the incident was downplayed by NASA, the roll was just several revolutions from being unrecoverable, which would have resulted in the LM crashing into the lunar surface.\n\nThe ascent stage was loaded with the amount of fuel it would have had remaining if it had lifted off from the surface and reached the altitude at which the Apollo 10 ascent stage fired. The fueled LM weighed , compared to for the Apollo 11 LM which made the first landing. Craig Nelson wrote in his book ''Rocket Men'' that NASA took special precaution to ensure Stafford and Cernan would not attempt to make the first landing. Nelson quoted Cernan as saying \"A lot of people thought about the kind of people we were: 'Don't give those guys an opportunity to land, 'cause they might!' So the ascent module, the part we lifted off the lunar surface with, was short-fueled. The fuel tanks weren't full. So had we literally tried to land on the Moon, we couldn't have gotten off.\" In his own memoir, Cernan wrote \"Our lander, LM-4...was still too heavy to guarantee safe margins for a moon landing.\"\n\nAfter being jettisoned, ''Snoopy's'' ascent stage engine was fired to fuel depletion, sending it on a trajectory past the Moon into a heliocentric orbit. The Apollo 11 ascent stage was left in lunar orbit to eventually crash; all subsequent ascent stages were intentionally steered into the Moon to obtain readings from seismometers placed on the surface, except for the one on Apollo 13, which did not land but was used as a \"life boat\" to get the crew back to Earth, and burned up in Earth's atmosphere.\n''Snoopy'''s ascent stage orbit was not tracked after 1969, and its current location is unknown. In 2011, a group of amateur astronomers in the UK started a project to search for it.\n\nSplashdown occurred in the Pacific Ocean on May 26, 1969, at 16:52:23 UTC, about east of American Samoa. The astronauts were recovered by , and subsequently flown to Pago Pago International Airport in Tafuna for a greeting reception, before being flown on a C-141 cargo plane to Honolulu.\n\nAfter Apollo 10, NASA required astronauts to choose more \"dignified\" names for their Command and Lunar Modules. This proved unenforceable: Apollo 16 astronauts Young, Mattingly and Duke chose ''Casper'', as in Casper the Friendly Ghost, for their Command Module name. The idea was to give children a way to identify with the mission by using humor.\n", "The Command Module ''Charlie Brown'' is currently on loan to the Science Museum in London, where it is on display. ''Charlie Brown'''s Service Module (SM) was jettisoned just before re-entry and burned up in the Earth's atmosphere.\n\nAfter the insertion into trans-Lunar orbit, the Saturn IVB third stage was accelerated past Earth escape velocity and became a derelict object where it would continue to orbit the Sun for many years. , it remains in orbit.\n", "Robbins medallion\nThe shield-shaped emblem for the flight shows a large, three-dimensional Roman numeral X sitting on the Moon's surface, in Stafford's words, \"to show that we had left our mark.\" Although it did not land on the Moon, the prominence of the number represents the significant contributions the mission made to the Apollo program. A CSM circles the Moon as an LM ascent stage flies up from its low pass over the lunar surface with its engine firing. The Earth is visible in the background. On the mission patch, a wide, light blue border carries the word APOLLO at the top and the crew names around the bottom. The patch is trimmed in gold. The insignia was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.\n", "In February 2016 Discovery Channel broadcast a TV show suggesting that the mission witnessed mysterious or alien signals while on the far side of the Moon. The astronomers mention the odd whistling sound that lasted nearly an hour. It was speculated that this is an evidence for UFO coverup.\nAccording to space journalist James Oberg the sound was most probably radio interference between the Command Module and the Lunar Module landing vehicles. Describing it as \"outer-space type music\" was most probably due to priming, as suggested by Benjamin Radford.\n", "\nImage:Ap10-KSC-68C-7912.jpg\|The S-IC first stage in the VAB\nImage:Ap10-KSC-69PC-110.jpg\|Apollo 10 during rollout\nImage:Apollo 10 Prime Crew - GPN-2000-001501.jpg\|The crew poses with their launch vehicle. Left to right, Cernan, Young, Stafford\nImage:Apollo 10 Stafford and Cernan in White Room.jpg\|Crew boarding the Command Module before launch\nImage:Apollo-10-Lancering.jpg\|Apollo 10 launch\nImage:Apollo 10 earthrise.jpg\|Apollo 10 view of Earth rise\nFile:AS10-34-5087.jpg\|Lunar Module ''Snoopy'' during post-undocking inspection\nFile:Apollo 10 command module.jpg\|CSM ''Charlie Brown''\nImage:Apollo 10 Lunar Module Rendezvous.jpg\|Lunar Module about to dock with the Command Module\nImage:Apollo 10 Helicopter Recovery - GPN-2000-001143.jpg\|Recovery by a SH-3D of HS-4 from USS ''Princeton''\nFile:Apollo 10 Command Module 1.jpg\|Command Module at London Science Museum (May 2009)\nFile:Arago crater as10-31-4630.jpg\|Arago crater\nFile:Triesnecker crater AS10-32-4819.jpg\|Triesnecker crater and Triesnecker rilles\nFile:Censorinus crater as10-30-4372.jpg\|Censorinus crater, with bright ray system\nFile:Necho crater as10-33-4989.jpg\|Necho crater on the far side of the moon\nFile:Swirls_near_Firsov_crater_AS10-30-4365HR.jpg\|High-albedo swirls within unnamed crater east of Firsov\n\n", " List of artificial objects on the Moon\n* List of vehicle speed records\n* Splashdown (spacecraft landing)\n", "\n\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \"Apollo 10\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica\n* NSSDC Master Catalog at NASA\n* Apollo 10 Flight Journal\n'''NASA reports'''\n* Apollo 10 Press Kit (PDF), NASA, Release No. 69-68, May 7, 1969 (from NASA Program History Office)\n* Apollo 10 Press Kit (PDF), NASA, Release No. 69-68, May 7, 1969 (from NASA Technical Reports Server)\n* ''The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology'' NASA, NASA SP-4009\n* \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975\n* \"Table 2-38. Apollo 10 Characteristics\" from NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978 by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA History Series (1988)\n\n'''Multimedia'''\n'' Apollo 10: \"To Sort Out the Unknowns\"'' Official NASA/JSC documentary film, JSC-519 (1969)\n Apollo 10 16mm onboard film part 1, part 2 raw footage taken from Apollo 10\n* Apollo 10 Moon Orbit Orbital footage of Moon from Apollo 10\n* Mission Transcripts: Apollo 10 at NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC)\n* Images from Apollo 10\n* Apollo launch and mission videos at ApolloTV.net\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Crew", "Objectives", "Mission parameters", "Mission highlights", "Hardware disposition", "Mission insignia", "'Space Music mystery'", "Images", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Apollo 10
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Apollo 12''' was the sixth manned flight in the United States Apollo program and the second to land on the Moon (an H type mission). It was launched on November 14, 1969, from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, four months after Apollo 11. Mission commander Charles \"Pete\" Conrad and Lunar Module Pilot Alan L. Bean performed just over one day and seven hours of lunar surface activity while Command Module Pilot Richard F. Gordon remained in lunar orbit. The landing site for the mission was located in the southeastern portion of the Ocean of Storms.\n\nUnlike the first landing on Apollo 11, Conrad and Bean achieved a precise landing at their expected location, the site of the ''Surveyor 3'' unmanned probe, which had landed on April 20, 1967. They carried the first color television camera to the lunar surface on an Apollo flight, but transmission was lost after Bean accidentally destroyed the camera by pointing it at the Sun. On one of two moonwalks, they visited the ''Surveyor'' and removed some parts for return to Earth. The mission ended on November 24 with a successful splashdown.\n", "\n\n===Backup crew===\n\n\n===Support crew===\nGerald P. Carr\nEdward G. Gibson\nPaul J. Weitz\n\n===Flight directors===\nGerry Griffin, Gold team\nPete Frank, Orange team\nCliff Charlesworth, Green team\nMilton Windler, Maroon team\n", "'''Landing Site:''' W\n\n===LM–CSM docking===\n'''Undocked''': November 19, 1969 – 04:16:02 UTC\n'''Redocked''': November 20, 1969 – 17:58:20 UTC\n\n===Extravehicular Activities (EVAs)===\n\n====EVA 1 start: November 19, 1969, 11:32:35 UTC====\n* ''Conrad'' — EVA 1\n'''Stepped onto Moon''': 11:44:22 UTC\n'''LM ingress''': 15:27:17 UTC\n* ''Bean'' — EVA 1\n'''Stepped onto Moon''': 12:13:50 UTC\n'''LM ingress''': 15:14:18 UTC\n\n====EVA 1 end: November 19, 15:28:38 UTC====\n'''Duration''': 3 hours, 56 minutes, 03 seconds\n\n====EVA 2 start: November 20, 1969, 03:54:45 UTC====\n ''Conrad'' — EVA 2\n'''Stepped onto Moon''': 03:59:00 UTC\n'''LM ingress''': 07:42:00 UTC\n* ''Bean'' — EVA 2\n'''Stepped onto Moon''': 04:06:00 UTC\n'''LM ingress''': 07:30:00 UTC\n\n====EVA 2 end: November 20, 07:44:00 UTC====\n'''Duration''': 3 hours, 49 minutes, 15 seconds\n\n", "{\| style=\"float: right\"\n\nLunar Module (LM)\n\nAlan Bean pictured by Pete Conrad (reflected in Bean's helmet)\n\nConrad, ''Surveyor 3'' and the LM ''Intrepid''\n\nReplica of the plaque attached to the Apollo 12 LM\n\n\n===Launch and transfer===\nApollo 12 launches from Kennedy Space Center, November 14, 1969\nApollo 12 launched on schedule from Kennedy Space Center, during a rainstorm. It was the first rocket launch attended by an incumbent US president, Richard Nixon. Thirty-six-and-a-half seconds after lift-off, the vehicle triggered a lightning discharge through itself and down to the Earth through the Saturn's ionized plume. Protective circuits on the fuel cells in the Service Module (SM) falsely detected overloads and took all three fuel cells offline, along with much of the Command/Service Module (CSM) instrumentation. A second strike at 52 seconds after launch knocked out the \"8-ball\" attitude indicator. The telemetry stream at Mission Control was garbled. However, the vehicle continued to fly correctly; the strikes had not affected the Saturn V Instrument Unit.\n\nThe loss of all three fuel cells put the CSM entirely on batteries, which were unable to maintain normal 75-ampere launch loads on the 28-volt DC bus. One of the AC inverters dropped offline. These power supply problems lit nearly every warning light on the control panel and caused much of the instrumentation to malfunction.\n\nElectrical, Environmental and Consumables Manager (EECOM) John Aaron remembered the telemetry failure pattern from an earlier test when a power supply malfunctioned in the CSM Signal Conditioning Electronics (SCE), which converted raw signals from instrumentation to standard voltages for the spacecraft instrument displays and telemetry encoders.\n\nAaron made a call, \"Try SCE to aux,\" which switched the SCE to a backup power supply. The switch was fairly obscure, and neither Flight Director Gerald Griffin, CAPCOM Gerald Carr, nor Mission Commander Pete Conrad immediately recognized it. Lunar Module Pilot Alan Bean, flying in the right seat as the spacecraft systems engineer, remembered the SCE switch from a training incident a year earlier when the same failure had been simulated. Aaron's quick thinking and Bean's memory saved what could have been an aborted mission, and earned Aaron the reputation of a \"steely-eyed missile man\". Bean put the fuel cells back on line, and with telemetry restored, the launch continued successfully. Once in Earth parking orbit, the crew carefully checked out their spacecraft before re-igniting the S-IVB third stage for trans-lunar injection. The lightning strikes had caused no serious permanent damage.\n\nInitially, it was feared that the lightning strike could have caused the Command Module's (CM) parachute mechanism to prematurely fire, disabling the explosive bolts that open the parachute compartment to deploy them. If they were indeed disabled, the Command Module would have crashed uncontrollably into the Pacific Ocean and killed the crew instantly. Since there was no way to figure out whether or not this was the case, ground controllers decided not to tell the astronauts about the possibility. The parachutes deployed and functioned normally at the end of the mission.\n\nAfter Lunar Module (LM) separation, the S-IVB was intended to fly into solar orbit. The S-IVB auxiliary propulsion system was fired, and the remaining propellants vented to slow it down to fly past the Moon's trailing edge (the Apollo spacecraft always approached the Moon's leading edge). The Moon's gravity would then slingshot the stage into solar orbit. However, a small error in the state vector in the Saturn's guidance system caused the S-IVB to fly past the Moon at too high an altitude to achieve Earth escape velocity. It remained in a semi-stable Earth orbit after passing the Moon on November 18, 1969. It finally escaped Earth orbit in 1971 but was briefly recaptured in Earth orbit 31 years later. It was discovered by amateur astronomer Bill Yeung who gave it the temporary designation J002E3 before it was determined to be an artificial object.\n\n===Moon landing===\nLunar Module above the Moon\nHigh-resolution Lunar Orbiter 3 image of the Apollo 12 landing site at center, used in mission planning. The area shown is approximately 1.75 x 1.75 km.\nLanding site photographed by Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in 2011\nThe Apollo 12 mission landed on November 19, 1969, on an area of the Ocean of Storms that had been visited earlier by several unmanned missions (''Luna 5'', ''Surveyor 3'', and ''Ranger 7''). The International Astronomical Union, recognizing this, christened this region ''Mare Cognitum (Known Sea)''. The Lunar coordinates of the landing site were 3.01239° S latitude, 23.42157° W longitude. The landing site would thereafter be listed as ''Statio Cognitum'' on lunar maps. Conrad and Bean did not formally name their landing site, though Conrad nicknamed the intended touchdown area \"Pete's Parking Lot\".\n\nThe second lunar landing was an exercise in precision targeting, which would be needed for future Apollo missions. Most of the descent was automatic, with manual control assumed by Conrad during the final few hundred feet of descent. Unlike Apollo 11, where Neil Armstrong had to use the manual control to direct his lander downrange of the computer's target which was strewn with boulders, Apollo 12 succeeded in landing at its intended target – within walking distance of the ''Surveyor 3'' probe, which had landed on the Moon in April 1967. This was the first – and, to date, only – occasion in which humans have \"caught up\" to a probe sent to land on another world.\n\nConrad actually landed ''Intrepid'' short of \"Pete's Parking Lot\", because it looked rougher during final approach than anticipated, and was a little under from ''Surveyor 3'', a distance that was chosen to eliminate the possibility of lunar dust (being kicked up by ''Intrepid's'' descent engine during landing) from covering ''Surveyor 3''. But the actual touchdown point–approximately from ''Surveyor 3''–did cause high velocity sandblasting of the probe. It was later determined that the sandblasting removed more dust than it delivered onto the ''Surveyor'', because the probe was covered by a thin layer that gave it a tan hue as observed by the astronauts, and every portion of the surface exposed to the direct sandblasting was lightened back toward the original white color through the removal of lunar dust.\n\n===EVAs===\nWhen Conrad, who was somewhat shorter than Neil Armstrong, stepped onto the lunar surface, his first words were \"Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.\" This was not an off-the-cuff remark: Conrad had made a bet with reporter Oriana Fallaci he would say these words, after she had queried whether NASA had instructed Neil Armstrong what to say as he stepped onto the Moon. Conrad later said he was never able to collect the money.\n\nTo improve the quality of television pictures from the Moon, a color camera was carried on Apollo 12 (unlike the monochrome camera that was used on Apollo 11). Unfortunately, when Bean carried the camera to the place near the Lunar Module where it was to be set up, he inadvertently pointed it directly into the Sun, destroying the Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) tube. Television coverage of this mission was thus terminated almost immediately. See also: Apollo TV camera.\n\nApollo 12 successfully landed within walking distance of the Surveyor 3 probe. Conrad and Bean removed pieces of the probe to be taken back to Earth for analysis. It is claimed that the common bacterium ''Streptococcus mitis'' was found to have accidentally contaminated the spacecraft's camera prior to launch and survived dormant in this harsh environment for two and a half years. However, this finding has since been disputed: see Reports of ''Streptococcus mitis'' on the Moon.\n\nAstronauts Conrad and Bean also collected rocks and set up equipment that took measurements of the Moon's seismicity, solar wind flux and magnetic field, and relayed the measurements to Earth. The instruments were part of the first complete nuclear-powered ALSEP station set up by astronauts on the Moon to relay long-term data from the lunar surface. The instruments on Apollo 11 were not as extensive or designed to operate long term. The astronauts also took photographs, although by accident Bean left several rolls of exposed film on the lunar surface. Meanwhile, Gordon, on board the ''Yankee Clipper'' in lunar orbit, took multi-spectral photographs of the surface.\n\nThe lunar plaque attached to the descent stage of ''Intrepid'' is unique in that unlike the other plaques, it (a) did not have a depiction of the Earth, and (b) it was textured differently (the other plaques had black lettering on polished stainless steel while the Apollo 12 plaque had the lettering in polished stainless steel while the background was brushed flat).\n\n===Return===\nApollo 12 recovery by \n\n''Intrepid's'' ascent stage was dropped (per normal procedures) after Conrad and Bean rejoined Gordon in orbit. It impacted the Moon on November 20, 1969, at . The seismometers the astronauts had left on the lunar surface registered the vibrations for more than an hour.\n\nThe crew stayed an extra day in lunar orbit taking photographs, for a total lunar surface stay of 31 and a half hours and a total time in lunar orbit of eighty-nine hours.\n\nOn the return flight to Earth after leaving lunar orbit, the crew of Apollo 12 witnessed (and photographed) a solar eclipse, though this one was of the Earth eclipsing the Sun.\n\n===Splashdown===\n''Yankee Clipper'' returned to Earth on November 24, 1969 at 20:58 UTC (3:58pm EST, 10:58am HST), in the Pacific Ocean, approximately 500 nautical miles (800 km) east of American Samoa. During splashdown, a 16 mm film camera dislodged from storage and struck Bean in the forehead, rendering him briefly unconscious. He suffered a mild concussion and needed six stitches. After recovery by , they were flown to Pago Pago International Airport in Tafuna for a reception, before being flown on a C-141 cargo plane to Honolulu.\n", "Alan Bean smuggled a camera-shutter self-timer device on to the mission with the intent of taking a photograph with himself, Pete Conrad and the ''Surveyor 3'' probe in the frame. As the timer was not part of their standard equipment, such an image would have thrown post-mission photo analysts into confusion over how the photo was taken. However, the self-timer was misplaced during the extra-vehicular activity (EVA) and the plan was never executed.\nAs one of the many pranks pulled during the friendly rivalry between the all-Navy prime crew and the all-Air Force backup crew, the Apollo 12 backup crew managed to insert into the astronauts' lunar checklist (attached to the wrists of Conrad's and Bean's space suits) reduced-sized pictures of ''Playboy'' Playmates, surprising Conrad and Bean when they looked through the checklist flip-book during their first EVA. The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal website contains a PDF file with the photocopies of their cuff checklists showing these photos. Appearing in Conrad's checklist were Angela Dorian, Miss September 1967 (with the caption \"SEEN ANY INTERESTING HILLS & VALLEYS ?\") and Reagan Wilson, Miss October 1967 (\"PREFERRED TETHER PARTNER,\" referring to a special procedure that would require the sharing of life support resources). The photos in Bean's cuff checklist were of Cynthia Myers, Miss December 1968 (\"DON'T FORGET – DESCRIBE THE PROTUBERANCES\") and Leslie Bianchini, Miss January 1969 (\"SURVEY – HER ACTIVITY,\" in pun of ''Surveyor''). The backup crew who did this later flew to the Moon themselves on Apollo 15. At the back of Conrad's checklist they had also prepared two pages of complex geological terminology, added as a joke to give him the option to sound to Mission Control like he was as skilled as a professional career geologist. The third crewmember orbiting the Moon was not left out of the ''Playboy'' prank, as a November 1969 calendar featuring DeDe Lind, Miss August 1967, had been stowed in a locker that Dick Gordon found while his crewmates were on the lunar surface. In 2011, he put this calendar up for auction. Its value was estimated by RR Auction at . While the Command Module Pilot calendar was in full color, the lunar checklists carried black & white photocopies (although these were dramatized in ''From the Earth to the Moon'' as full color photos in the checklists).\n Artist Forrest \"Frosty\" Myers claims to have installed the art piece ''Moon Museum'' on \"a leg of the Intrepid landing module with the help of an unnamed engineer at the Grumman Corporation after attempts to move the project forward through NASA's official channels were unsuccessful.\"\n* Alan Bean left a memento on the Moon: his silver astronaut pin. This pin signified an astronaut who completed training but had not yet flown in space; he had worn it for six years. He was to get a gold astronaut pin for successfully completing the mission after the flight and felt he wouldn't need the silver pin thereafter. Tossing his pin into a lunar crater extended the common tradition among military pilots to ceremonially dispose of their originally awarded flight wings.\n", "Robbins medallion\nThe Apollo 12 mission patch shows the crew's navy background; all three astronauts at the time of the mission were U.S. Navy commanders. It features a clipper ship arriving at the Moon, representing the Command Module ''Yankee Clipper''. The ship trails fire, and flies the flag of the United States. The mission name APOLLO XII and the crew names are on a wide gold border, with a small blue trim. Blue and gold are traditional U.S. Navy colors. The patch has four stars on it — one each for the three astronauts who flew the mission and one for Clifton Williams, a U.S. Marine Corps aviator and astronaut who was killed on October 5, 1967, after a mechanical failure caused the controls of his T-38 trainer to stop responding, resulting in a crash. He trained with Conrad and Gordon as part of the backup crew for what would be the Apollo 9 mission, and would have been assigned as Lunar Module Pilot for Apollo 12.\n", "Apollo 12 Command Module ''Yankee Clipper'' on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center in Hampton, Virginia\n\nThe Apollo 12 Command Module ''Yankee Clipper'' is on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center in Hampton, Virginia.\n\nIn 2002, astronomers thought they might have discovered another moon orbiting Earth, which they designated J002E3, that turned out to be the S-IVB third stage of the Apollo 12 Saturn V rocket.\nLRO images showing a day at the Apollo 12 landing site, with the flag still standing\nThe Lunar Module ''Intrepid'' impacted the Moon November 20, 1969 at 22:17:17.7 UT (5:17 PM EST) . In 2009, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) photographed the Apollo 12 landing site. The ''Intrepid'' Lunar Module descent stage, experiment package (ALSEP), ''Surveyor 3'' spacecraft, and astronaut footpaths are all visible. In 2011, the LRO returned to the landing site at a lower altitude to take higher resolution photographs.\n", "Portions of the Apollo 12 mission are dramatized in the miniseries ''From the Earth to the Moon'' episode entitled \"That's All There Is\". Conrad, Gordon, and Bean were portrayed by Paul McCrane, Tom Verica, and Dave Foley, respectively. Conrad had been portrayed by a different actor, Peter Scolari, in the first episode.\n\n\n", "* Extra-vehicular activity\n* Google Moon\n* List of man-made objects on the Moon\n* List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999\n* Splashdown\n", "\n\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \"Apollo 12\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica\n* \"Apollo 12\" at NASA's National Space Science Data Center\n* Apollo 12 Science Experiments at the Lunar and Planetary Institute\n* \"Apollo 12 Traverse Map\" at the USGS Astrogeology Science Center\n* Lunar Orbiter 3 Image 154 H2, used for planning the mission (landing site is left of center).\n\n'''NASA reports'''\n* \"Apollo 12 Mission Report\" (PDF), NASA, MSC-01855, March 1970\n* \"Apollo 12 Preliminary Science Report\" (PDF), NASA, NASA SP-235, 1970\n* NASA Apollo 12 Press Kit (PDF), NASA, Release No. 69-148, November 5, 1969\n* \"Analysis of Apollo 12 Lightning Incident\", (PDF) February 1970\n* \"Analysis of ''Surveyor 3'' material and photographs returned by Apollo 12\" (PDF) 1972\n* \"Examination of ''Surveyor 3'' surface sampler scoop returned by Apollo 12 mission\" (PDF) 1971\n* \"Table 2-40. Apollo 12 Characteristics\" from ''NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978'' by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA History Series (1988) \n* ''The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology'' NASA, NASA SP-4009\n* \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975\n\n'''Multimedia'''\n\n \"Apollo 12 – The Bernie Scrivener Audio Tapes\" – Apollo 12 audio recordings at the Apollo 12 Flight Journal\n* \"Apollo 12: There and Back Again\" – Image slideshow by ''Life'' magazine\n* Apollo 12 patch – Image of Apollo 12 mission patch\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Crew", "Mission parameters", "Mission highlights", "Stunts and mementos", " Mission insignia ", "Spacecraft location", "Depiction in media", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Apollo 12
[ "\n\n'''Apollo 14''' was the eighth manned mission in the United States Apollo program, and the third to land on the Moon. It was the last of the \"H missions,\" targeted landings with two-day stays on the Moon with two lunar EVAs, or moonwalks.\n\nCommander Alan Shepard, Command Module Pilot Stuart Roosa, and Lunar Module Pilot Edgar Mitchell launched on their nine-day mission on January 31, 1971 at 4:04:02 p.m. local time after a 40-minute, 2 second delay due to launch site weather restrictions, the first such delay in the Apollo program. Shepard and Mitchell made their lunar landing on February 5 in the Fra Mauro formation - originally the target of the aborted Apollo 13 mission. During the two lunar EVAs, of Moon rocks were collected, and several scientific experiments were performed. Shepard hit two golf balls on the lunar surface with a makeshift club he had brought with him. Shepard and Mitchell spent 33½ hours on the Moon, with almost 9½ hours of EVA.\n\nIn the aftermath of Apollo 13, several modifications had been made to the Service Module electrical power system to prevent a repeat of that accident, including a redesign of the oxygen tanks and the addition of a third tank.\n\nWhile Shepard and Mitchell were on the surface, Roosa remained in lunar orbit aboard the Command/Service Module ''Kitty Hawk'', performing scientific experiments and photographing the Moon, including the landing site of the future Apollo 16 mission. He took several hundred seeds on the mission, many of which were germinated on return, resulting in the so-called Moon trees. Shepard, Roosa, and Mitchell landed in the Pacific Ocean on February 9.\n", "\n\nShepard was the oldest U.S. astronaut when he made his trip aboard Apollo 14. He is the only astronaut from Project Mercury (the original Mercury Seven astronauts) to reach the Moon. Another of the original seven, Gordon Cooper, had (as Apollo 10's backup commander) tentatively been scheduled to command the mission, but according to author Andrew Chaikin, his casual attitude toward training, along with problems with NASA hierarchy (reaching all the way back to the Mercury-Atlas 9 flight), resulted in his removal.\n\nThe mission was a personal triumph for Shepard, who had battled back from Ménière's disease which grounded him from 1964 to 1968. He and his crew were originally scheduled to fly on Apollo 13, but in 1969 NASA officials switched the scheduled crews for Apollos 13 and 14. This was done to allow Shepard more time to train for his flight, as he had been grounded for four years.\n\n=== Backup crew ===\n\n\n=== Support crew ===\nPhilip K. Chapman\nBruce McCandless, II\nWilliam R. Pogue\nC. Gordon Fullerton\n\n=== Flight directors ===\nPete Frank, Orange team\nGlynn Lunney, Black team\nMilton Windler, Maroon team\nGerald D. Griffin, Gold team\n", "Geocentric:\n'''Mass:''' CSM 29,240 kg; LM 15,264 kg\n'''Perigee:''' 183.2 km\n'''Apogee:''' 188.9 km\n'''Orbital inclination:''' 31.12°\n'''Orbital period:''' 88.18 min\nSelenocentric:\n'''Periselene:''' 108.2 km\n'''Aposelene:''' 314.1 km\n'''Orbital inclination:''' °\n'''Orbital period:''' 120 min\n'''Landing Site:''' 3.64530° S – 17.47136° W or3° 38' 43.08\" S – 17° 28' 16.90\" W\n\n=== LM – CSM docking ===\n'''Undocked''': February 5, 1971 – 04:50:43 UTC\n'''Docked''': February 6, 1971 – 20:35:42 UTC\n\n=== EVAs ===\n; EVA 1 \n* '''Start''': February 5, 1971, 14:42:13 UTC \n* ''Shepard '' – EVA 1\n'''Stepped onto Moon''': 14:54 UTC\n'''LM ingress''': 19:22 UTC\n* ''Mitchell'' – EVA 1\n'''Stepped onto Moon''': 14:58 UTC\n'''LM ingress''': 19:18 UTC\n'''End''': February 5, 19:30:50 UTC\n'''Duration''': 4 hours, 47 minutes, 50 seconds\n\n; EVA 2 \n '''Start''': February 6, 1971, 08:11:15 UTC \n* ''Shepard '' – EVA 2\n'''Stepped onto Moon''': 08:16 UTC\n'''LM ingress''': 12:38 UTC\n* ''Mitchell'' – EVA 2\n'''Stepped onto Moon''': 08:23 UTC\n'''LM ingress''': 12:28 UTC\n'''End''': February 6, 12:45:56 UTC\n'''Duration''': 4 hours, 34 minutes, 41 seconds\n", "Launch of Apollo 14\n\n===Launch and flight to lunar orbit===\nApollo 14 launched during heavy cloud cover and the Saturn V booster quickly disappeared from view. NASA's long-range cameras, based 60 miles south in Vero Beach, had a clear shot of the remainder of the launch. Following the launch, the Launch Control Center at Kennedy Space Center was visited by U.S. Vice President Spiro T. Agnew, Prince Juan Carlos of Spain, and his wife, Princess Sofía.\n\nAt the beginning of the mission, the CSM ''Kitty Hawk'' had difficulty achieving capture and docking with the LM ''Antares''. Repeated attempts to dock went on for 1 hour and 42 minutes, until it was suggested that Roosa hold ''Kitty Hawk'' against ''Antares'' using its thrusters, then the docking probe would be retracted out of the way, hopefully triggering the docking latches. The sixth attempt was successful, and no further docking problems were encountered during the mission.\n\n===Lunar descent===\nAfter separating from the Command Module in lunar orbit, the LM ''Antares'' also had two serious problems. First, the LM computer began getting an ABORT signal from a faulty switch. NASA believed that the computer might be getting erroneous readings like this if a tiny ball of solder had shaken loose and was floating between the switch and the contact, closing the circuit. The immediate solution — tapping on the panel next to the switch — did work briefly, but the circuit soon closed again. If the problem recurred after the descent engine fired, the computer would think the signal was real and would initiate an auto-abort, causing the ascent stage to separate from the descent stage and climb back into orbit. NASA and the software teams at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology scrambled to find a solution, and determined the fix would involve reprogramming the flight software to ignore the false signal. The software modifications were transmitted to the crew via voice communication, and Mitchell manually entered the changes (amounting to over 80 keystrokes on the LM computer pad) just in time.\n\nA second problem occurred during the powered descent, when the LM landing radar failed to lock automatically onto the Moon's surface, depriving the navigation computer of vital information on the vehicle's altitude and vertical descent speed (this was not a result of the modifications to the ABORT command; rather, the post-mission report indicated it was an unrelated bug in the radar's operation). After the astronauts cycled the landing radar breaker, the unit successfully acquired a signal near , again just in time. Shepard then manually landed the LM closer to its intended target than any of the other six Moon landing missions. Mitchell believed that Shepard would have continued with the landing attempt without the radar, using the LM inertial guidance system and visual cues. A post-flight review of the descent data showed the inertial system alone would have been inadequate, and the astronauts probably would have been forced to abort the landing as they approached the surface.\n\n===Lunar surface operations===\nplaque left on the Moon by Apollo 14\nShepard and Mitchell named their landing site ''Fra Mauro Base'', and this designation is recognized by the International Astronomical Union (depicted in Latin on lunar maps as ''Statio Fra Mauro'').\n\nShepard's first words, after stepping onto the lunar surface were, \"And it's been a long way, but we're here.\" Unlike Neil Armstrong on Apollo 11 and Pete Conrad on Apollo 12, Shepard had already stepped off the LM footpad and was a few yards (meters) away before he spoke.\n\nShepard's moonwalking suit was the first to utilize red stripes on the arms and legs and on the top of the lunar EVA sunshade \"hood,\" so as to allow easy identification between the commander and LM pilot on the surface; on the Apollo 12 pictures, it had been almost impossible to distinguish between the two crewmen, causing a great deal of confusion. This feature was included on Jim Lovell's Apollo 13 suit; because no landing was made on that mission, Apollo 14 was the first to make use of it. This feature was used for the remaining Apollo missions, and for the EVAs of Space Shuttle flights afterwards, and it is still in use today on both the U.S. and Russian space suits on the International Space Station.\n\nAfter landing in the Fra Mauro formation—the destination for Apollo 13—Shepard and Mitchell took two moonwalks, adding new seismic studies to the by now familiar Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP), and using the Modular Equipment Transporter (MET), a pull-cart for carrying equipment and samples, nicknamed \"lunar rickshaw\". Roosa, meanwhile, took pictures from on board Command Module ''Kitty Hawk'' in lunar orbit.\n\nThe second moonwalk, or EVA, was intended to reach the rim of the wide Cone Crater. The two astronauts were not able to find the rim amid the rolling terrain of the crater's slopes. They became physically exhausted from the attempt and with their suits' oxygen supplies starting to run low, the effort was called off. Later analysis, using the pictures that they took, determined that they had come within an estimated of the crater's rim. Images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) show the tracks of the astronauts and the MET come to within 30 m of the rim.\ntelevision broadcast Alan Shepard taking a couple of golf swings on the Moon\n\nShepard and Mitchell deployed and activated various scientific instruments and experiments and collected almost of lunar samples for return to Earth. Other Apollo 14 achievements included the only use of MET; longest distance traversed by foot on the lunar surface; first use of shortened lunar orbit rendezvous techniques; and the first extensive orbital science period conducted during CSM solo operations.\n\nThe astronauts also engaged in less serious activities on the Moon. Shepard brought along a six iron golf club head which he could attach to the handle of a lunar excavation tool, and two golf balls, and took several one-handed swings (due to the limited flexibility of the EVA suit). He exuberantly exclaimed that the second ball went \"miles and miles and miles\" in the low lunar gravity, but later estimated the distance as . Mitchell then threw a lunar scoop handle as if it were a javelin.\n\n===Return, splashdown and quarantine===\nApollo 14 landing\nOn the way back to Earth, the crew conducted the first U.S. materials processing experiments in space.\n\nThe Command Module ''Kitty Hawk'' splashed down in the South Pacific Ocean on February 9, 1971 at 21:05 UTC, approximately south of American Samoa. After recovery by the ship USS ''New Orleans'', the crew was flown to Pago Pago International Airport in Tafuna for a reception before being flown on a C-141 cargo plane to Honolulu. The Apollo 14 astronauts were the last lunar explorers to be quarantined on their return from the Moon.\n\nRoosa, who worked in forestry in his youth, took several hundred tree seeds on the flight. These were germinated after the return to Earth, and widely distributed around the world as commemorative Moon trees.\n\n", "Robbins medallion\nThe oval insignia shows a gold NASA Astronaut Pin, given to U.S. astronauts upon completing their first space flight, traveling from the Earth to the Moon. A gold band around the edge includes the mission and astronaut names. The designer was Jean Beaulieu.\n\nThe backup crew spoofed the patch with its own version, with revised artwork showing a Wile E. Coyote cartoon character depicted as gray-bearded (for Shepard, who was 47 at the time of the mission and the oldest man on the Moon), pot-bellied (for Mitchell, who had a pudgy appearance) and red furred (for Roosa's red hair), still on the way to the Moon, while Road Runner (for the backup crew) is already on the Moon, holding a U.S. flag and a flag labeled \"1st Team.\" The flight name is replaced by \"BEEP BEEP\" and the backup crew's names are given. Several of these patches were hidden by the backup crew and found during the flight by the crew in notebooks and storage lockers in both the CSM ''Kitty Hawk'' and the LM ''Antares'' spacecraft, and one patch was even stored on the MET lunar hand cart.\n\n", "The Command Module back on Earth\nThe Apollo 14 Command Module ''Kitty Hawk'' is on display at the Apollo/Saturn V Center building at the Kennedy Space Center after being on display at the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame near Titusville, Florida, for several years.\n\nThe ascent stage of Lunar Module ''Antares'' impacted the Moon on February 7, 1971 at 00:45:25.7 UT (February 6, 7:45 PM EST) . ''Antares''' descent stage and the mission's other equipment remain at Fra Mauro at .\n\nPhotographs taken in 2009 by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter were released on July 17, and the Fra Mauro equipment was the most visible Apollo hardware at that time, owing to particularly good lighting conditions. In 2011, the LRO returned to the landing site at a lower altitude to take higher resolution photographs.\n", "\nFile:Apollo 14 footage of the astronauts climbing down from the lunar lander and planting an American flag.ogv\|Apollo 14 astronaut Ed Mitchell sets foot on the Moon\nFile:Ap14 flag.ogv\|Shepard and Mitchell erect a U.S. flag on the lunar surface\nFile:Apollo 14 landing site 3133 h2.jpg\|Reprocessed Lunar Orbiter 3 image taken in 1967, used in mission planning. The image is somewhat oblique and facing south at an illumination angle of about 34 degrees from the left (east).\nFile:Apollo 14 landing site AS16-M-1419.jpg\|Apollo 16 image showing the Apollo 14 landing site at the green dot near center. The hummocky terrain stretching from the lower left to the upper right is the approximate extent of the Fra Mauro formation.\nFile:LRO Apollo14 landing site 369228main ap14labeled 540.jpg\|Apollo 14 landing site, photograph by LRO\nFile:Apollo14LRO2.png\|Later photo of landing site taken by LRO\n\n", "\n Extravehicular activity\n* Google Moon\n* List of artificial objects on the Moon\n* List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999\n* Moon tree\n* Splashdown\n", "\n\n", "\n* Brzostowski, M.A., and Brzostowski, A.C., ''Archiving the Apollo active seismic data'', The Leading Edge, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, April, 2009.\n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \"Apollo 14\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica\n* – United States Geological Survey (USGS)\n* – Several maps showing routes of moonwalks\n* Apollo 14 Science Experiments at the Lunar and Planetary Institute\n\n'''NASA reports'''\n* Apollo 14 Press Kit (PDF), NASA, Release No. 71-3K, January 21, 1971\n* \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975\n* ''The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology'' NASA, NASA SP-4009\n* \"Table 2-42. Apollo 14 Characteristics\" from NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978 by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA History Series (1988)\n* \"Masking the Abort Discrete\" – by Paul Fjeld at the Apollo 14 Lunar Surface Journal. NASA. Detailed technical article describing the ABORT signal problem and its solution\n* \"Apollo 14 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription\" (PDF) Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA, February 1971\n* NSSDC Master Catalog at NASA\n\n'''Multimedia'''\n\n – slideshow by ''Life'' magazine\n* \"The Apollo Astronauts\" – Interview with the Apollo 14 astronauts, March 31, 1971, from the Commonwealth Club of California Records at the Hoover Institution Archives\n* \"Apollo 14 Lunar Liftoff - Video\" at Maniac World\n* Apollo 12 photographic sequence of Apollo 14 landing site, with Cone crater\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Crew ", " Mission parameters ", " Mission highlights ", " Mission insignia ", " Spacecraft locations ", "Gallery", " See also ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]	Apollo 14
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Apollo 15''' was the ninth manned mission in the United States' Apollo program, the fourth to land on the Moon, and the eighth successful manned mission. It was the first of what were termed \"J missions\", long stays on the Moon, with a greater focus on science than had been possible on previous missions. It was also the first mission on which the Lunar Roving Vehicle was used.\n\nThe mission began on July 26, 1971, and ended on August 7. At the time, NASA called it the most successful manned flight ever achieved.\n\nCommander David Scott and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin spent three days on the Moon, including 18½ hours outside the spacecraft on lunar extra-vehicular activity (EVA). The mission landed near Hadley rille, in an area of the Mare Imbrium called ''Palus Putredinus'' (Marsh of Decay). The crew explored the area using the first lunar rover, which allowed them to travel much farther from the Lunar Module (LM) than had been possible on missions without the rover. They collected of lunar surface material. At the same time, Command Module Pilot Alfred Worden orbited the Moon, using a Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) in the Service Module (SM) to study the lunar surface and environment in great detail with a panoramic camera, a gamma-ray spectrometer, a mapping camera, a laser altimeter, a mass spectrometer, and a lunar sub-satellite deployed at the end of Apollo 15's stay in lunar orbit (an Apollo program first).\n\nThe mission successfully accomplished its objectives, but was marred by negative publicity that accompanied disclosure of the crew carrying unauthorized postage stamps which they had planned to sell after their return. Ironically, this mission was one of very few that had been honored with the issue of a commemorative US stamp, with this first use of a lunar rover happening one decade after the first Mercury astronaut launch.\n", "\n\nAll three astronauts on the all-United States Air Force crew received an honorary degree or master's degree from the University of Michigan, including Scott's honorary degree, awarded in the spring of 1971, months before the launch. Scott had attended the University of Michigan, but left before graduating to accept an appointment to the United States Military Academy. The crewmen did their undergraduate work at either the United States Military Academy or the United States Naval Academy.\n\n=== Backup crew ===\n\n\nSchmitt was the first member of Group 4 to be selected as a prime or backup crew member for an Apollo flight; from Group 4 he was the only astronaut to make it to the Moon, with the last Apollo mission at the end of 1972.\n\n=== Support crew ===\n* C. Gordon Fullerton\n* Joseph P. Allen\n* Robert A. Parker\n* Karl G. Henize\n\n=== Flight directors ===\n* Gerry Griffin, Gold team\n* Milton Windler, Maroon team\n* Glynn Lunney, Black team\n* Gene Kranz, White team\n", "* '''Mass:'''\n Launch mass: 2,945,816 kg\n Total spacecraft: 46,782 kg\n* CSM mass: 30,354 kg, of which CM was 5840 kg, SM 24,523 kg\n* LM mass: 16,428 kg, ascent stage at lunar liftoff 4,951 kg\n* '''Earth orbits:''' 3 before leaving for Moon\n* '''Lunar orbits:''' 74\n\n=== Earth parking orbit ===\n* '''Perigee:''' 169.5 km\n* '''Apogee:''' 171.3 km\n* '''Inclination:''' 29.679°\n* '''Period:''' 87.84 min\n\n=== LM-CSM docking ===\n* '''Undocked''': July 30, 1971 - 18:13:16 UTC\n* '''Docked''': August 2, 1971 - 19:10:25 UTC\n\n=== EVAs ===\n* '''''Scott''''' - Stand up EVA - LM upper hatch\n* '''Start Stand Up EVA''': July 31, 1971, 00:16:49 UTC\n* '''End Stand Up EVA''': July 31, 00:49:56 UTC\n* '''Duration''': 33 minutes, 07 seconds\n* '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 1\n* '''EVA 1 Start''': July 31, 1971, 13:12:17 UTC\n* '''EVA 1 End''': July 31, 19:45:59 UTC\n* '''Duration''': 6 hours, 32 minutes, 42 seconds\n* '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 2\n* '''EVA 2 Start''': August 1, 1971, 11:48:48 UTC\n* '''EVA 2 End''': August 1, 19:01:02 UTC\n* '''Duration''': 7 hours, 12 minutes, 14 seconds\n* '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 3\n* '''EVA 3 Start''': August 2, 1971, 08:52:14 UTC\n* '''EVA 3 End''': August 2, 13:42:04 UTC\n* '''Duration''': 4 hours, 49 minutes, 50 seconds\n* ''''' Worden ''''' (''Irwin'' - Stand up) - Transearth EVA 4\n* '''EVA 4 Start''': August 5, 1971, 15:31:12 UTC\n* '''EVA 4 End''': August 5, 16:10:19 UTC\n* '''Duration''': 39 minutes, 07 seconds\n", "\nCommander David Scott during geology training in New Mexico on March 19, 1971\n\nThe crew for Apollo 15 had previously served as the backup crew for Apollo 12. There had been a friendly rivalry between that prime and backup crew on that mission, with the prime being all United States Navy, and the backup all United States Air Force.\n\nOriginally Apollo 15 would have been an H mission, like Apollos 12, 13 and 14. But on September 2, 1970, NASA announced it was canceling what were to be the current incarnations of the Apollo 15 and Apollo 19 missions. To maximize the return from the remaining missions, Apollo 15 would now fly as a J mission and have the honor of carrying the first lunar rover.\n\nOne of the major changes in the training for Apollo 15 was the geology training. Although on previous flights the crews had been trained in field geology, for the first time Apollo 15 would make it a high priority. Scott and Irwin would train with Leon Silver, a Caltech geologist who on Earth was interested in the Precambrian. Silver had been suggested by Harrison Schmitt as an alternative to the classroom lecturers that NASA had previously used. Among other things, Silver had made important refinements to the methods for dating rocks using the decay of uranium into lead in the late 1950s.\n\nAt first Silver would take the prime and backup crews to various geological sites in Arizona and New Mexico as if for a normal field geology lesson, but as launch time approached, these trips became more realistic. Crews began to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry, and communicate using walkie-talkies to a CAPCOM in a tent. (During a mission the Capsule Communicators (CAPCOMs), always fellow astronauts, were the only people who normally would speak to the crew.) The CAPCOM was accompanied by a group of geologists unfamiliar with the area who would rely on the astronauts' descriptions to interpret the findings.\n\nThe decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970. The Site Selection Committees had narrowed the field down to two sites — Hadley Rille or the crater Marius, near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway. To David Scott the choice was clear, with Hadley, being \"exploration at its finest.\"\n\nCommand Module Pilot Alfred Worden undertook a different kind of geology training. Working with an Egyptian-born geologist, Farouk El-Baz, he flew over areas in an airplane simulating the speed at which terrain would pass below him while in the Apollo Command/Service Module (CSM) in orbit. He became quite adept at making geologic observations as objects passed below.\n", "\n===Launch and outbound trip===\nApollo 15 launches on July 26, 1971\n\nApollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, at 9:34 AM EDT from the Kennedy Space Center at Merritt Island, Florida. During the launch, the S-IC did not completely shut off following staging for four seconds, creating the possibility of the spent stage banging into the S-II engines, damaging them and forcing an abort (the S-II exhaust also struck a telemetry package on the S-IC and caused it to fail). Despite this, the third stage and spacecraft reached its planned Earth parking orbit. A couple of hours into the mission, the third stage reignited to propel the spacecraft out of Earth orbit and on to the Moon.\n\nA few days after launching from Florida, the spacecraft passed behind the far side of the Moon, where the Service Propulsion System (SPS) engine on the CSM ignited for a six-minute burn, to slow the craft down into an initial lunar orbit. Once the lowest point of altitude in the orbit was reached, the SPS engine was fired again, to place the spacecraft into the proper descent orbit for the Lunar Module landing at Hadley.\n\n===Moon landing===\nMost of the first part of the day after arriving in lunar orbit on July 30 was spent in preparing the Lunar Module for descent to the lunar surface later on that day. When preparations were complete, un-docking from the CSM was attempted; it did not occur, because of a faulty seal in the hatch mechanism. The Command Module Pilot, Alfred Worden, re-sealed the hatch; the LM then separated from the CSM. David Scott and James Irwin continued preparations for the descent while Worden remained in the CSM, returning to a higher orbit to perform lunar observations and await his crewmates' return a few days later.\n\nSoon, Scott and Irwin began the descent to the Hadley landing site. Several minutes after descent was initiated, at pitch-over and the beginning of the approach phase of the landing, the LM was six kilometers east of the pre-selected landing target. On learning this, Scott altered the flight path of the LM. They touched down at 22:16:29 UTC on July 30 at Hadley, within a few hundred meters of the planned landing site. One of the legs of the LM landed in a small crater so the module was tilted by 10° – the maximum acceptable was 15°. While previous crews had exited the Lunar Module shortly after landing, the crew of Apollo 15 elected to spend the rest of the day inside the LM, waiting until the next day to perform the first of three EVAs, or moonwalks, in order to preserve their sleep rhythm on a mission on which they were to spend a significantly longer time on the surface than previous crews had spent. Before they slept, Scott performed a stand-up EVA, during which the LM was depressurized and he photographed their surroundings from the top docking hatch.\n\n===Lunar surface===\nUnited States flag on the Moon on August 1, 1971\nOlivine basalt collected during Apollo 15\n\nThroughout the sleep period, Mission Control, in Houston, monitored a slow but steady oxygen leak. The data output of the onboard telemetry computers was limited during the night to conserve energy, so controllers could not determine the exact cause of the leak without awaking the crew. Scott and Irwin eventually were awakened an hour early, and the source of the leak was found to be an open valve on the urine transfer device. After the problem was solved, the crew began preparation for the first Moon walk.\n\nFour hours later, Scott and Irwin became the seventh and eighth humans, respectively, to walk on the Moon. After unloading the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV), the two drove to the first moonwalk's primary destination, Elbow Crater, along the edge of Hadley Rille. On returning to the LM ''Falcon'', Scott and Irwin deployed the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP). The first EVA lasted about 6½ hours.\n\nThe target of the second EVA, the next day, was the edge of Mount Hadley Delta, where the pair sampled boulders and craters along the Apennine Front. During this moonwalk, the astronauts recovered what came to be one of the more famous lunar samples collected on the Moon during Apollo, sample #15415, more commonly known as the \"Genesis Rock.\" Once back at the landing site, Scott continued to try to drill holes for an experiment at the ALSEP site, with which he had struggled the day before. After conducting soil-mechanics experiments and erecting a U.S. flag, Scott and Irwin returned to the LM. EVA 2 lasted 7 hours and 12 minutes.\n\nDuring EVA 3, the third and final moonwalk of the mission, the crew again ventured to the edge of Hadley Rille, this time to the northwest of the immediate landing site. After returning to the LM's location, Scott performed an experiment in view of the television camera, using a feather and hammer to demonstrate Galileo's theory that all objects in a given gravity field fall at the same rate, regardless of mass (in the absence of aerodynamic drag). He dropped the hammer and feather at the same time; because of the negligible lunar atmosphere, there was no drag on the feather, which hit the ground at the same time as the hammer.\n\nScott then drove the rover to a position away from the LM, where the television camera could be used to observe the lunar liftoff. Before the mission, the crew had contacted Belgian sculptor Paul Van Hoeydonck to create a small aluminum statuette called \"Fallen Astronaut\" to commemorate those astronauts and cosmonauts who lost their lives in the pursuit of space exploration. Scott left the sculpture by the rover, along with a plaque bearing the names of 14 known American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts deceased by that time. The memorial was left while the television camera was turned off; only Irwin knew what Scott was doing at the time. Scott told mission control he was doing some cleanup activities around the rover.\n\nThe EVA lasted 4 hours and 50 minutes. In total, the two astronauts spent 18½ hours outside the LM and collected approximately of lunar samples.\n\n===Return to Earth===\nApollo 15 descends with two good parachutes into the Pacific Ocean on August 7, 1971\n\nAfter lifting off from the lunar surface 2 days and 18 hours after landing, the LM ascent stage rendezvoused and re-docked with the CSM with Worden aboard in orbit. After transferring samples and other items from the LM to the CSM, the LM was sealed off, jettisoned, and intentionally crashed into the lunar surface. After completing more observations of the Moon from orbit and releasing the sub-satellite, the three-person crew departed lunar orbit with another burn of the SPS engine.\n\nThe next day, on the return trip to Earth, Worden performed a spacewalk in deep space, the first of its kind, to retrieve exposed film from the SIM bay. Later on in the day, the crew set a record for the longest Apollo flight to that point.\n\nOn approach to Earth the next day, August 7, the Service Module was jettisoned, and the Command Module (CM) reentered the Earth's atmosphere. Although one of the three parachutes on the CM failed to deploy properly, only two were required for a safe landing (one extra for redundancy). Upon landing in the North Pacific Ocean, the crew were recovered and taken aboard the recovery ship, after a mission lasting 12 days, 7 hours, 11 minutes, and 53 seconds.\n", "\n===Spacecraft===\nApollo 15 SM SIM bay\nCommand Module on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force \nApollo 15 used Command/Service Module CSM-112, which was given the call sign ''Endeavour'', named after the HMS ''Endeavour'' and Lunar Module LM-10, call sign ''Falcon'', named after the United States Air Force Academy mascot. If Apollo 15 had flown as an H mission, it would have been with CSM-111 and LM-9. That CSM was used by the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project in 1975, but the Lunar Module went unused and is now on display at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex.\n\nTechnicians at the Kennedy Space Center had many problems with the SIM bay in the Service Module. It was the first time it had flown and experienced problems from the start. Problems came from the fact the instruments were designed to operate in zero gravity, but had to be tested in the 1 g on the surface of the Earth. As such, things like the 7.5 m booms for the mass and gamma ray spectrometers could only be tested using railings that tried to mimic the space environment, and so they never worked particularly well. When the technicians tried to integrate the entire bay into the rest of the spacecraft, data streams would not synchronize, and lead investigators of the instruments would want to make last minute checks and changes. When it came time to test the operation of the gamma-ray spectrometer, it was necessary to stop every engine within of the test site.\n\nOn the Lunar Module, the fuel and oxidizer tanks were enlarged on both the descent and ascent stages and the engine bell on the descent stage was extended. Batteries and solar cells were added for increased electrical power. In all this increased the weight of the Lunar Module to , heavier than previous models.\n\n''Endeavour'' is currently on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio.\n\n===Lunar Rover===\nThe Lunar Roving Vehicle had been in development since May 1969, with the contract awarded to Boeing. It could be folded into a space 5 ft by 20 in (1.5 m by 0.5 m). Unloaded it weighed 460 lb (209 kg) and when carrying two astronauts and their equipment, 1500 lb (700 kg). Each wheel was independently driven by a ¼ horsepower (200 W) electric motor. Although it could be driven by either astronaut, the Commander always drove. Travelling at speeds up to 6 to 8 mph (10 to 12 km/h), it meant that for the first time the astronauts could travel far afield from their lander and still have enough time to do some scientific experiments.\n\n===Lunar subsatellite===\nArtist's conception of subsatellite deployment\nThe Apollo 15 subsatellite (PFS-1) was a small satellite released into lunar orbit from the SIM bay. Its main objectives were to study the plasma, particle, and magnetic field environment of the Moon and map the lunar gravity field. Specifically, it measured plasma and energetic particle intensities and vector magnetic fields, and facilitated tracking of the satellite velocity to high precision. A basic requirement was that the satellite acquire fields and particle data everywhere on the orbit around the Moon. The Moon's roughly circular orbit about the Earth at ~380,000 km (60 Earth radii) carried the subsatellite into both interplanetary space and various regions of the Earth's magnetosphere. The satellite orbited the Moon and returned data from August 4, 1971 until January 1973.\n\nIn later years, through a study of many lunar orbiting satellites, scientists came to discover that most low lunar orbits (LLO) are unstable. Fortunately, PFS-1 had been placed, unknown to mission planners at the time, very near to one of only four lunar ''frozen orbits'', where a lunar satellite may remain indefinitely.\n\nReleasing the subsatellite was the crew's final activity in lunar orbit, occurring an hour before the burn to take them back to Earth. A \nvirtually identical subsatellite was deployed by Apollo 16.\n\n===Launch vehicle===\nThe Saturn V that launched Apollo 15 was designated SA-510, the tenth flight-ready model of the rocket. As the payload of the rocket was greater, changes were made to its launch trajectory and Saturn V itself. The rocket was launched in a more southerly direction (80–100 degrees azimuth) and the Earth parking orbit lowered to above the Earth's surface. These two changes meant more could be launched. The propellant reserves were reduced and the number of retrorockets on the S-IC first stage (used to separate the spent first stage from the S-II second stage) reduced from eight to four. The four outboard engines of the S-IC would be burned longer and the center engine would also burn longer before being shut down (see Saturn V for more information on the launch sequence). Changes were also made to the S-II to stop pogo oscillations.\n\nOnce all the various components had been installed on the Saturn V, it was moved to the launch site, Launch Complex 39A. During late June and early July 1971, the rocket and Launch Umbilical Tower (LUT) were struck by lightning at least four times. All was well however, with only minor damage suffered.\n\n===Space suits===\nNASM\nThe astronauts themselves wore new space suits. On all previous Apollo flights, including the non-lunar flights, the commander and lunar module pilot had worn suits with the life support, liquid cooling, and communications connections in two parallel rows of three. On Apollo 15, the new suits, dubbed the \"A7LB,\" had the connectors situated in triangular pairs. This new arrangement, along with the relocation of the entry zipper (which went in an up-down motion on the old suits), from the right shoulder to the left hip, allowed the inclusion of a new waist joint, allowing the astronauts to bend completely over and to sit on the rover. Upgraded backpacks allowed for longer-duration moonwalks, and the Command Module Pilot, who wore a suit with three connectors, would wear a five-connector version of the old Moon suit — the liquid cooling water connector being removed, as the Command Module Pilot would make a \"deep-space EVA\" to retrieve film cartridges on the flight home.\n", "\n\nAfter a successful mission, the reputations of the crew and NASA were tarnished by a deal the crew had made with a German stamp dealer. H. Walter Eiermann, who had many professional and social contacts with NASA employees and the astronaut corps, arranged for Scott to carry unauthorized commemorative postal covers in his space suit, in addition to the postal covers NASA had contracted to carry for the United States Postal Service. Eiermann had promised each astronaut $7,000 in the form of savings accounts in return for 100 covers signed after having been on the Moon. He told the astronauts that he would not advertise or sell the covers until the end of the Apollo program. Irwin wrote in his book ''To Rule the Night'' that the astronauts had agreed to the deal as a way to help finance their children's college tuition.\n\nAnother controversy arose after the flight, caused by the \"Fallen Astronaut\" statuette that Scott had left on the Moon. The crew claim they had agreed with the sculptor, Paul Van Hoeydonck, that no replicas were to be made, in order to satisfy NASA's aversion to commercial exploitation of the space program. After the sculpture's existence was publicly disclosed during their post-flight press conference, the National Air and Space Museum contacted the crew asking for a replica made for the museum. Van Hoeydonck, whose account of the agreement contradicts Scott's, subsequently advertised replicas for sale to the public. Under pressure from NASA, Van Hoeydonck withdrew the sale offer.\n", "Robbins medallion\nThe three astronauts of Apollo 15 were all United States Air Force active duty officers, and their patch carries Air Force motifs (just as the Apollo 12 all-Navy crew's patch had featured a sailing ship). The circular patch features stylized red, white and blue birds flying over the Hadley Rille section of the Moon. Immediately behind the birds, a line of craters form the Roman numeral XV. The artwork is circled in red, with a white band giving the mission and crew names and a blue border. Scott contacted fashion designer Emilio Pucci to design the patch, who came up with the basic idea of the three-bird motif on a square patch. The crew changed the shape to round and the colors from blues and greens to a patriotic red, white and blue. Worden stated that each bird also represented an astronaut, white being his own color (and as Command Module Pilot, uppermost), with Scott the blue bird and Irwin the red. The Roman numeral design was created when NASA insisted that the mission number be displayed in Arabic numerals.\n", "The halo area of the Apollo 15 landing site, generated by the LM's exhaust plume, was observed by a camera aboard the Japanese lunar orbiter SELENE and confirmed by comparative analysis of photographs in May 2008. This corresponds well to photographs taken from the Apollo 15 Command Module showing a change in surface reflectivity due to the plume, and was the first visible trace of manned landings on the Moon seen from space since the close of the Apollo program.\n", "\nImage:Apollo 15 Lunar Rover training.ogg \|'''Rover Training''' - Scott and Irwin train on Earth to use the lunar rover. (2.57 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nImage:Apollo 15 launch.ogg \|'''Launch of Apollo 15''' - Launch of Apollo 15 running from T-30s through to T+40s. (1.29 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nimage:Apollo 15 TandD.ogg \|'''Transposition, Docking and Extraction''' - ''Endeavour'' comes into dock with ''Falcon'' (3.03 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nimage:Apollo 15 CSM moving away from LM.ogv \|'''CSM moving away''' - ''Endeavour'' filmed from ''Falcon'' after undocking. (3.05 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nimage:Apollo 15 landing on the Moon.ogg \|'''Landing on the Moon'''- The landing on the Moon at Hadley seen from the perspective of the Lunar Module Pilot. Starts at about 5000 feet. (5.47 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nimage:Apollo 15 lunar rover EVA2.ogg \|'''On board the Lunar Rover''' - 16 mm film sequence of driving the lunar rover. (3.26 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nimage:Apollo 15 feather and hammer drop.ogg\|'''Hammer and Feather Drop''' - Scott demonstrates that Galileo was right. (1.38 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nimage: Apollo 15 liftoff from the Moon.ogg \|'''Liftoff from the Moon''' - The liftoff from the Moon as seen by the TV camera on the lunar rover. (2.31 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nimage:Apollo 15 liftoff from inside LM.ogg \|'''Liftoff from the Moon''' - The liftoff from the Moon as from the perspective of the Lunar Module Pilot. (1.18 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nimage: Apollo 15 Worden EVA.ogg \|'''Worden's EVA''' - Worden undertakes an EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the Science Instrument Module. (2.81 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nimage: Apollo 15 splashdown.ogg \|'''Splashdown''' - Descent and splashdown of Apollo 15. (3.67 MB, ogg/Theora format)\nImage:Cylcotron beam experiment at LBNL for apollo space program eye flash investigations.jpg\|An experiment at LBNL involving high energy particles from a cyclotron used to investigate the origin of the flashes of light seen by Apollo astronauts on their way to the Moon. Experiments were conducted on board Apollos 15, 16 and 17 and Skylab to investigate this phenomenon; with the \"Light Flashes Experiment Package\" (a box of instrumentation worn on the head during light flash count sequences) flying on Apollos 16 and 17\n\n", "* The Apollo 15 mission is dramatized in the episode \"Galileo was Right\", of the 1998 HBO miniseries ''From the Earth to the Moon''.\n* The lunar rover from Apollo 15 is featured in the PlayStation 3 sim racing game ''Gran Turismo 6''.\n* In the classic Avengers story arc, \"The Kree-Skrull War\" (issues #89-97), published by Marvel Comics in 1971-1972, Captain Marvel attempts to steal the Apollo 15 Saturn V, modify it, and return to the Kree home world to stop Ronan the Accuser.\n", "\n\n* Extra-vehicular activity\n* Google Moon\n* List of man-made objects on the Moon\n* List of spacewalks\n* Splashdown\n* List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents\n", "\n\n\n=== Apollo Lunar Surface Journal ===\n\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \"To see Earth and Moon in a single glance: An interview with Apollo 15 Astronaut Al Worden, on the 45th anniversary of his epic voyage to the Moon\"\n* \"Apollo 15\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica\n* \"Apollo 15 Command and Service Module (CSM)\" at the National Space Science Data Center, NASA\n\n\n'''NASA reports'''\n Apollo 15 Press Kit (PDF), NASA, Release No. 71-119K, July 15, 1971\n* ''Apollo 15 Preliminary Science Report'' (PDF), NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center. NASA SP-289, 1972\n* \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975\n* ''Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations'' by Charles D. Benson and William Barnaby Faherty. NASA SP-4204, 1978\n* \"Articles Carried on Manned Space Flights\" NASA News Release 72-189, September 15, 1972. Reprinted at collectSPACE.com\n* Apollo 15 Flight Journal\n* Apollo 15 Lunar Surface Journal\n\n'''Multimedia'''\n* ''Apollo 15: In the Mountains of the Moon'' (Part 1) \| (Part 2) NASA documentary film HQ-217 on the Apollo 15 mission at the Internet Archive\n* \"Episode 45: 4th July 2011: Apollo 15 Command Module Pilot Al Worden\" Interview with AstrotalkUK (Podcast), recorded in London on May 22, 2011\n* \"Apollo 15 Launch - Video\" at Maniac World\n* Apollo launch and mission videos at ApolloTV.net\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Crew ", " Mission parameters ", " Planning and training ", " Mission highlights ", " Hardware ", " Scandals ", " Mission insignia ", " Visibility from space ", " Multimedia ", " Depiction in popular culture ", " See also ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]	Apollo 15
[ "\n\n\n'''Apollo 16''' was the tenth manned mission in the United States Apollo space program, the fifth and penultimate to land on the Moon and the first to land in the lunar highlands. The second of the so-called \"J missions,\" it was crewed by Commander John Young, Lunar Module Pilot Charles Duke and Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly. Launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 12:54 PM EST on April 16, 1972, the mission lasted 11 days, 1 hour, and 51 minutes, and concluded at 2:45 PM EST on April 27.\n\nYoung and Duke spent 71 hours—just under three days—on the lunar surface, during which they conducted three extra-vehicular activities or moonwalks, totaling 20 hours and 14 minutes. The pair drove the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV), the second produced and used on the Moon, . On the surface, Young and Duke collected of lunar samples for return to Earth, while Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly orbited in the Command/Service Module (CSM) above to perform observations. Mattingly spent 126 hours and 64 revolutions in lunar orbit. After Young and Duke rejoined Mattingly in lunar orbit, the crew released a subsatellite from the Service Module (SM). During the return trip to Earth, Mattingly performed a one-hour spacewalk to retrieve several film cassettes from the exterior of the Service Module.\n\nApollo 16's landing spot in the highlands was chosen to allow the astronauts to gather geologically older lunar material than the samples obtained in the first four landings, which were in or near lunar maria. Samples from the Descartes Formation and the Cayley Formation disproved a hypothesis that the formations were volcanic in origin.\n", "\n\nMattingly had originally been assigned to the prime crew of Apollo 13, but was exposed to the measles through Duke, at that time on the back-up crew for Apollo 13, who had caught it from one of his children. He never contracted the illness, but was nevertheless removed from the crew and replaced by his backup, Jack Swigert, three days before the launch. Young, a captain in the United States Navy, had flown on three spaceflights prior to Apollo 16: Gemini 3, Gemini 10 and Apollo 10, which orbited the Moon. One of 19 astronauts selected by NASA in April 1966, Duke had never flown in space before Apollo 16. He served on the support crew of Apollo 10 and was a Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) for Apollo 11.\n\n===Backup crew===\n\n\nAlthough not officially announced, the original backup crew consisted of Fred W. Haise (CDR), William R. Pogue (CMP) and Gerald P. Carr (LMP), who were targeted for the prime crew assignment on Apollo 19. However, after the cancellations of Apollos 18 and 19 were finalized in September 1970 this crew would not rotate to a lunar mission as planned. Subsequently, Roosa and Mitchell were recycled to serve as members of the backup crew after returning from Apollo 14, while Pogue and Carr were reassigned to the Skylab program where they flew on Skylab 4.\n\n===Support crew===\n* Anthony W. England\n* Karl G. Henize\n* Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr.\n* Robert F. Overmyer\n* Donald H. Peterson\n\n===Mission insignia===\nThe insignia of Apollo 16 is dominated by a rendering of an American eagle and a red, white and blue shield, representing the people of the United States, over a gray background representing the lunar surface. Overlaying the shield is a gold NASA vector, orbiting the Moon. On its gold-outlined blue border, there are 16 stars, representing the mission number, and the names of the crew members: Young, Mattingly, Duke. The insignia was designed from ideas originally submitted by the crew of the mission.\nsilver Robbins medallion.\n\n", "\n===Landing site selection===\n\nApollo 16 was the second of the Apollo type J missions, featuring the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle, increased scientific capability, and lunar surface stays of three days. As Apollo 16 was the penultimate mission in the Apollo program and there was no new hardware or procedures to test on the lunar surface, the last two missions (the other being Apollo 17) presented opportunities for astronauts to clear up some uncertainties in understanding the Moon's properties. Although previous Apollo expeditions, including Apollo 14 and Apollo 15, obtained samples of pre-mare lunar material, before lava began to upwell from the Moon's interior and flood the low areas and basins, none had actually visited the lunar highlands.\n\nApollo 14 had visited and sampled a ridge of material that had been ejected by the impact that created the Mare Imbrium impact basin. Likewise, Apollo 15 had also sampled material in the region of Imbrium, visiting the basin's edge. There remained the possibility, because the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 landing sites were closely associated with the Imbrium basin, that different geologic processes were prevalent in areas of the lunar highlands far from Mare Imbrium. Several members of the scientific community remarked that the central lunar highlands resembled regions on Earth that were created by volcanic processes and hypothesized the same might be true on the Moon. They had hoped that scientific output from the Apollo 16 mission would provide an answer.\n\nLocation of the Apollo 16 landing site\nOblique closeup of the proposed Apollo 16 landing site as photographed by Apollo 14 from lunar orbit. North Ray crater is at left and South Ray crater is at right, with bright rays.\n\nTwo locations on the Moon were given primary consideration for exploration by the Apollo 16 expedition: the Descartes Highlands region west of Mare Nectaris and the crater Alphonsus. At Descartes, the Cayley and Descartes formations were the primary areas of interest in that scientists suspected, based on telescopic and orbital imagery, that the terrain found there was formed by magma more viscous than that which formed the lunar maria. The Cayley Formation's age was approximated to be about the same as Mare Imbrium based on the local frequency of impact craters. The considerable distance between the Descartes site and previous Apollo landing sites would be beneficial for the network of geophysical instruments, portions of which were deployed on each Apollo expedition beginning with Apollo 12.\n\nAt the Alphonsus, three scientific objectives were determined to be of primary interest and paramount importance: the possibility of old, pre-Imbrium impact material from within the crater's wall, the composition of the crater's interior and the possibility of past volcanic activity on the floor of the crater at several smaller \"dark halo\" craters. Geologists feared, however, that samples obtained from the crater might have been contaminated by the Imbrium impact, thus preventing Apollo 16 from obtaining samples of pre-Imbrium material. There also remained the distinct possibility that this objective had already been satisfied by the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 missions, as the Apollo 14 samples had not yet been completely analyzed and samples from Apollo 15 had not yet been obtained.\n\nIt was decided to target the Apollo 16 mission for the Descartes site. Following the decision, the Alphonsus site was considered the most likely candidate for Apollo 17, but was eventually rejected. With the assistance of orbital photography obtained on the Apollo 14 mission, the Descartes site was determined to be safe enough for a manned landing. The specific landing site was between two young impact craters, North Ray and South Ray craters – in diameter, respectively – which provided \"natural drill holes\" which penetrated through the lunar regolith at the site, thus leaving exposed bedrock that could be sampled by the crew.\n\nJohn Young and Charles Duke train at the Rio Grande Gorge in New Mexico\n\nAfter selecting the landing site for Apollo 16, sampling the Descartes and Cayley formations, two geologic units of the lunar highlands, was determined by mission planners to be the primary sampling interest of the mission. It was these formations that the scientific community widely suspected were formed by lunar volcanism, but this hypothesis was proven incorrect by the composition of lunar samples from the mission.\n\n===Training===\nIn preparing for their mission, in addition to the usual Apollo spacecraft training, Young and Duke, along with backup commander Fred Haise, underwent an extensive geological training program that included several field trips to introduce them to concepts and techniques they would use in analyzing features and collecting samples on the lunar surface. During these trips, they visited and provided scientific descriptions of geologic features they were likely to encounter. In July 1971, they visited Sudbury, Ontario, Canada for geology training exercises, the first time U.S. astronauts did so. Geologists chose the area because of a wide crater created about 1.8 billion years ago by a large meteorite. The Sudbury Basin shows evidence of shatter cone geology familiarizing the Apollo crew with geologic evidence of a meteor impact. During the training exercises the astronauts did not wear space suits, but carried radio equipment to converse with each other and scientist-astronaut Anthony W. England, practicing procedures they would use on the lunar surface.\n\nIn addition to the field geology training, Young and Duke also trained to use their EVA space suits, adapt to the reduced lunar gravity, collect samples, and drive the Lunar Roving Vehicle. They also received survival training and preparation for other technical aspects of the mission.\n\nCommand Module pilot Mattingly also received training in recognizing geological features from orbit by flying over the field areas in an airplane, and trained to operate the Scientific Instrument Module from lunar orbit.\n", "\n===Launch and outbound trip===\n\nApollo 16 launches from the Kennedy Space Center on April 16, 1972\n\nThe launch of Apollo 16 was delayed one month from March 17 to April 16. This was the first launch delay in the Apollo program due to a technical problem. During the delay, the space suits, a spacecraft separation mechanism and batteries in the Lunar Module (LM) were modified and tested. There were concerns that the explosive mechanism designed to separate the docking ring from the Command Module (CM) would not create enough pressure to completely sever the ring. This, along with a dexterity issue in Young's space suit and fluctuations in the capacity of the Lunar Module batteries, required investigation and trouble-shooting. In January 1972, three months before the planned April launch date, a fuel tank in the Command Module was accidentally damaged during a routine test. The rocket was returned to the Vertical Assembly Building (VAB) and the fuel tank replaced, and the rocket returned to the launch pad in February in time for the scheduled launch.\n\nThe official mission countdown began on Monday, April 10, 1972, at 8:30 AM, six days before the launch. At this point the Saturn V rocket's three stages were powered up and drinking water was pumped into the spacecraft. As the countdown began, the crew of Apollo 16 was participating in final training exercises in anticipation of a launch on April 16. The astronauts underwent their final preflight physical examination on April 11. On April 15, liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants were pumped into the spacecraft, while the astronauts rested in anticipation of their launch the next day.\n\nThe Apollo 16 mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 12:54 PM EST on April 16, 1972. The launch was nominal; the crew experienced vibration similar to that of previous crews. The first and second stages of the Saturn V rocket performed nominally; the spacecraft entered orbit around Earth just under 12 minutes after lift-off. After reaching orbit, the crew spent time adapting to the zero-gravity environment and preparing the spacecraft for Trans Lunar Injection (TLI), the burn of the third-stage rocket that would propel them to the Moon. In Earth orbit, the crew faced minor technical issues, including a potential problem with the environmental control system and the S-IVB third stage's attitude control system, but eventually resolved or compensated for them as they prepared to depart towards the Moon. After two orbits, the rocket's third stage reignited for just over five minutes, propelling the craft towards the Moon at about . Six minutes after the burn of the S-IVB, the Command/Service Module, containing the crew, separated from the rocket and traveled for before turning around and retrieving the Lunar Module from inside the expended rocket stage. The maneuver, known as transposition, went smoothly and the LM was extracted from the S-IVB. Following transposition and docking, the crew noticed the exterior surface of the Lunar Module was giving off particles from a spot where the LM's skin appeared torn or shredded; at one point, Duke estimated they were seeing about five to ten particles per second. The crew entered the Lunar Module through the docking tunnel connecting it with the Command Module to inspect its systems, at which time they did not spot any major issues. Once on course towards the Moon, the crew put the spacecraft into a rotisserie \"barbecue\" mode in which the craft rotated along its long axis three times per hour to ensure even heat distribution about the spacecraft from the Sun. After further preparing the craft for the voyage, the crew began the first sleep period of the mission just under 15 hours after launch.\nEarth from Apollo 16 during the trans-lunar coast\nBy the time Mission Control issued the wake-up call to the crew for flight day two, the spacecraft was about away from the Earth, traveling at about . As it was not due to arrive in lunar orbit until flight day four, flight days two and three were largely preparatory days, consisting of spacecraft maintenance and scientific research. On day two, the crew performed an electrophoresis experiment, also performed on Apollo 14, in which they attempted to prove the higher purity of particle migrations in the zero-gravity environment. The remainder of day two included a two-second mid-course correction burn performed by the Command/Service Module's Service Propulsion System engine to tweak the spacecraft's trajectory. Later in the day, the astronauts entered the Lunar Module for the second time in the mission to further inspect the landing craft's systems. The crew reported they had observed additional paint peeling from a portion of the LM's outer aluminum skin. Despite this, the crew discovered that the spacecraft's systems were performing nominally. Following the LM inspection, the crew reviewed checklists and procedures for the following days in anticipation of their arrival and the Lunar Orbit Insertion burn. Command Module Pilot Mattingly reported a \"gimbal lock\" warning light, indicating the craft was not reporting an attitude. Mattingly alleviated this by realigning the guidance system using the Sun and Moon. At the end of day two, Apollo 16 was about away from Earth.\n\nAt the beginning of day three, the spacecraft was about away from the Earth. The velocity of the craft steadily decreased, as it had not yet reached the lunar sphere of gravitational influence. The early part of day three was largely housekeeping, spacecraft maintenance and exchanging status reports with Mission Control in Houston. The crew performed the Apollo light flash experiment, or ALFMED, to investigate \"light flashes\" that were seen by the astronauts when the spacecraft was dark, regardless of whether or not their eyes were open, on Apollo lunar flights. This was thought to be caused by the penetration of the eye by cosmic ray particles. During the second half of the day, Young and Duke again entered the Lunar Module to power it up and check its systems, and perform housekeeping tasks in preparation for lunar landing. The systems were found to be functioning as expected. Following this, the crew donned their space suits and rehearsed procedures that would be used on landing day. Just before the end of flight day three at 59 hours, 19 minutes, 45 seconds after liftoff, while from the Earth and from the Moon, the spacecraft's velocity began increasing as it accelerated towards the Moon after entering the lunar sphere of influence.\n\nAfter waking up on flight day four, the crew began preparations for the maneuver that would brake the spacecraft into orbit around the Moon, or lunar orbit insertion. At a distance of from the Moon, the Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) bay cover was jettisoned. At just over 74 hours into the mission, the spacecraft passed behind the Moon, losing direct contact with Mission Control. While over the far side of the Moon, the Command/Service Module's Service Propulsion System engine burned for 6 minutes and 15 seconds, braking the spacecraft into an orbit around the Moon with a low point (pericynthion) of 58.3 and a high point (apocynthion) of 170.4 nautical miles (108.0 and 315.6 km, respectively). After entering lunar orbit, the crew began preparations for the Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI) maneuver to further modify the spacecraft's orbital trajectory. The maneuver was successful, decreasing the craft's pericynthion to . The remainder of flight day four was spent making observations and preparing for activation of the Lunar Module, undocking, and landing the next day.\n\n===Lunar surface===\n\nLunar Module window shortly after landing\n\nThe crew continued preparing for Lunar Module activation and undocking shortly after waking up to begin flight day five. The boom that extended the mass spectrometer out from the Command/Service Module's Scientific Instruments Bay was stuck in a semi-deployed position. It was decided that Young and Duke would visually inspect the boom after undocking from the CSM in the LM. They entered the LM for activation and checkout of the spacecraft's systems. Despite entering the LM 40 minutes ahead of schedule, they completed preparations only 10 minutes early due to numerous delays in the process. With the preparations finished, they undocked in the LM ''Orion'' from Mattingly in the Command/Service Module ''Casper'' 96 hours, 13 minutes, 13 seconds into the mission. For the rest of the two crafts' passes over the near side of the Moon, Mattingly prepared to shift ''Casper'' to a circular orbit while Young and Duke prepared ''Orion'' for the descent to the lunar surface. At this point, during tests of the CSM's steerable rocket engine in preparation for the burn to modify the craft's orbit, a malfunction occurred in the engine's backup system. According to mission rules, ''Orion'' would have then re-docked with ''Casper'', in case Mission Control decided to abort the landing and use the Lunar Module's engines for the return trip to Earth. After several hours of analysis, however, mission controllers determined that the malfunction could be worked around and Young and Duke could proceed with the landing. As a result of this, powered descent to the lunar surface began about six hours behind schedule. Because of the delay, Young and Duke began their descent to the surface at an altitude higher than that of any previous mission, at . At an altitude of about , Young was able to view the landing site in its entirety. Throttle-down of the LM's landing engine occurred on time and the spacecraft tilted forward to its landing orientation at an altitude of . The LM landed north and west of the planned landing site at 104 hours, 29 minutes, and 35 seconds into the mission, at 2:23:35 UTC on April 21.\n\nAfter landing, Young and Duke began powering down some of the LM's systems to conserve battery power. Upon completing their initial adjustments, the pair configured ''Orion'' for their three-day stay on the lunar surface, removed their space suits and took initial geological observations of the immediate landing site. They then settled down for their first meal on the surface. After eating, they configured the cabin for their first sleep period on the Moon. The landing delay caused by the malfunction in the Command/Service Module's main engine necessitated significant modifications to the mission schedule. Apollo 16 would spend one less day in lunar orbit after surface exploration had been completed to afford the crew contingency time to compensate for any further problems and to conserve expendables. In order to improve Young's and Duke's sleep schedule, the third and final moonwalk of the mission was trimmed from seven hours to five.\n\nThe next morning, flight day five, Young and Duke ate breakfast and began preparations for the first extra-vehicular activity (EVA), or moonwalk. After the pair donned and pressurized their space suits and depressurized the Lunar Module cabin, Young climbed out onto the \"porch\" of the LM, a small platform above the ladder. Duke handed Young a jettison bag full of trash to dispose of on the surface. Young then lowered the equipment transfer bag (ETB), containing equipment for use during the EVA, to the surface. Young descended the ladder and, upon setting foot on the lunar surface, became the ninth human to walk on the Moon. Upon stepping onto the surface, Young expressed his sentiments about being there: \"There you are: Mysterious and Unknown Descartes. Highland plains. Apollo 16 is gonna change your image. I'm sure glad they got ol' Brer Rabbit, here, back in the briar patch where he belongs.\" Duke soon descended the ladder and joined Young on the surface, becoming the tenth and youngest human to walk on the Moon, at age 36. After setting foot on the lunar surface, Duke expressed his excitement, commenting: \"Fantastic! Oh, that first foot on the lunar surface is super, Tony!\" The pair's first task of the moonwalk was to unload the Lunar Roving Vehicle, the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph (UVC), and other equipment, from the Lunar Module. This was done without problems. On first driving the lunar rover, Young discovered that the rear steering was not working. He alerted Mission Control to the problem before setting up the television camera and planting the flag of the United States with Duke. The day's next task was to deploy the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP); while they were parking the lunar rover, on which the TV camera was mounted, to observe the deployment, the rear steering began functioning without explanation. While deploying a heat-flow experiment (that had burned up with the Lunar Module ''Aquarius'' on Apollo 13 and had been attempted with limited success on Apollo 15), a cable was inadvertently snapped after getting caught around Young's foot. After ALSEP deployment, they collected samples in the vicinity. About four hours after the beginning of EVA-1, they mounted the lunar rover and drove to the first geologic stop, Plum Crater, a crater on the rim of Flag crater, about across. There, at a distance of from the LM, they sampled material from the vicinity of Flag Crater, which scientists believed penetrated through the upper regolith layer to the underlying Cayley Formation. It was there that Duke retrieved, at the request of Mission Control, the largest rock returned by an Apollo mission, a breccia nicknamed Big Muley after mission geology principal investigator William R. Muehlberger. The next stop of the day was Buster Crater, about from the LM. There, Duke took pictures of Stone Mountain and South Ray Crater while Young deployed a magnetic field experiment. At that point, scientists began to reconsider their pre-mission hypothesis that Descartes had been the setting of ancient volcanic activity, as the two astronauts had yet to find any volcanic material. Following their stop at Buster, Young did a demonstration drive of the lunar rover while Duke filmed with a 16 mm movie camera. After completing more tasks at the ALSEP, they returned to the LM to close out the moonwalk. They reentered the LM 7 hours, 6 minutes, and 56 seconds after the start of the EVA. Once inside, they pressurized the LM cabin, went through a half-hour briefing with scientists in Mission Control, and configured the cabin for the sleep period.\n\nThe view from the side of Stone Mountain\n\nShortly after waking up on the morning of flight day six three and a half minutes early, they discussed with Mission Control in Houston the day's timeline of events. The second lunar excursion's primary objective was to visit Stone Mountain to climb up the slope of about 20 degrees to reach a cluster of five craters known as \"Cinco Craters.\" After preparations for the day's moonwalk were completed, the astronauts climbed out of the Lunar Module. After departing the immediate landing site in the lunar rover, they arrived at the day's first destination, the Cinco Craters, from the LM. At above the valley floor, the pair were at the highest elevation above the LM of any Apollo mission. After marveling at the view (including South Ray) from the side of Stone Mountain, which Duke described as \"spectacular,\" the astronauts gathered samples in the vicinity. After spending 54 minutes on the slope, they climbed aboard the lunar rover en route to the day's second stop, station five, a crater across. There, they hoped to find Descartes material that had not been contaminated by ejecta from South Ray Crater, a large crater south of the landing site. The samples they collected there, although their origin is still not certain, are, according to geologist Don Wilhelms, \"a reasonable bet to be Descartes.\" The next stop, station six, was a blocky crater, where the astronauts believed they could sample the Cayley Formation as evidenced by the firmer soil found there. Bypassing station seven to save time, they arrived at station eight on the lower flank of Stone Mountain, where they sampled material on a ray from South Ray Crater for about an hour. There, they collected black and white breccias and smaller, crystalline rocks rich in plagioclase. At station nine, an area known as the \"Vacant Lot,\" which was believed to be free of ejecta from South Ray, they spent about 40 minutes gathering samples. Twenty-five minutes after departing station nine, they arrived at the final stop of the day, halfway between the ALSEP site and the LM. There, they dug a double core and conducted several penetrometer tests along a line stretching east of the ALSEP. At the request of Young and Duke, the moonwalk was extended by ten minutes. After returning to the LM to wrap up the second lunar excursion, they climbed back inside the landing craft's cabin, sealing and pressurizing the interior after 7 hours, 23 minutes, and 26 seconds of EVA time, breaking a record that had been set on Apollo 15. After eating a meal and proceeding with a debriefing on the day's activities with Mission Control, they reconfigured the LM cabin and prepared for the sleep period.\n\nJohn Young stands in the shadow of Shadow Rock\nHouse Rock\nCharlie Duke left a photo of his family on the Moon. Cat Crater at Station 14 was named for sons ''C''harles ''A''nd ''T''om. Dot Crater at Station 16 was named for his wife.\n\nFlight day seven was their third and final day on the lunar surface, returning to orbit to rejoin Mattingly in the Command/Service Module following the day's moonwalk. During the third and final lunar excursion, they were to explore North Ray Crater, the largest of any of the craters any Apollo expedition had visited. After exiting ''Orion'', the pair drove the lunar rover away from the LM before adjusting their heading to travel to North Ray Crater. The drive was smoother than that of the previous day, as the craters were shallower and boulders were less abundant north of the immediate landing site. After passing Palmetto crater, boulders gradually became larger and more abundant as they approached North Ray in the lunar rover. Upon arriving at the rim of North Ray crater, they were away from the LM. After their arrival, the duo took photographs of the wide and deep crater. They visited a large boulder, taller than a four-story building, which became known as 'House Rock'. Samples obtained from this boulder delivered the final blow to the pre-mission volcanic hypothesis, proving it incorrect. House Rock had numerous bullet hole-like marks where micrometeoroids from space had impacted the rock. About 1 hour and 22 minutes after arriving, they departed for station 13, a large boulder field about from North Ray. On the way, they set a lunar speed record, traveling at an estimated downhill. They arrived at a high boulder, which they called 'Shadow Rock'. Here, they sampled permanently shadowed soil. During this time, Mattingly was preparing the Command/Service Module in anticipation of their return approximately six hours later. After three hours and six minutes, they returned to the LM, where they completed several experiments and offloaded the rover. A short distance from the LM, Duke placed a photograph of his family and a United States Air Force commemorative medallion on the surface. Young drove the rover to a point about east of the LM, known as the 'VIP site,' so its television camera, controlled remotely by Mission Control, could observe Apollo 16's liftoff from the Moon. They then reentered the LM after a 5-hour and 40 minute final excursion. After pressurizing the LM cabin, the crew began preparing to return to lunar orbit.\n\n===Return to Earth===\nLaunch of the ascent stage of the Apollo 16 Lunar Module from the lunar surface\nEight minutes before departing the lunar surface, CAPCOM James Irwin notified Young and Duke from Mission Control that they were go for liftoff. Two minutes before launch, they activated the \"Master Arm\" switch and then the \"Abort Stage\" button, after which they awaited ignition of ''Orion''’s ascent stage engine. When the ascent stage ignited, small explosive charges severed the ascent stage from the descent stage and cables connecting the two were severed by a guillotine-like mechanism. Six minutes after liftoff, at a speed of about , Young and Duke reached lunar orbit. Young and Duke successfully rendezvoused and re-docked with Mattingly in the Command/Service Module. To minimize the transfer of lunar dust from the LM cabin into the CSM, Young and Duke cleaned the cabin before opening the hatch separating the two spacecraft. After opening the hatch and reuniting with Mattingly, the crew transferred the samples Young and Duke had collected on the surface into the CSM for transfer to Earth. After transfers were completed, the crew would sleep before jettisoning the empty Lunar Module ascent stage the next day, when it was to be crashed intentionally into the lunar surface.\n\nThe next day, after final checks were completed, the expended LM ascent stage was jettisoned. Because of a failure by the crew to activate a certain switch in the LM before sealing it off, it initially tumbled after separation and did not execute the rocket burn necessary for the craft's intentional de-orbit. The ascent stage eventually crashed into the lunar surface nearly a year after the mission. The crew's next task, after jettisoning the Lunar Module ascent stage, was to release a subsatellite into lunar orbit from the CSM's Scientific Instrument Bay. The burn to alter the CSM's orbit to that desired for the subsatellite had been cancelled; as a result, the subsatellite lasted half of its anticipated lifetime. Just under five hours later, on the CSM's 65th orbit around the Moon, its Service Propulsion System main engine was reignited to propel the craft on a trajectory that would return it to Earth. The SPS engine performed the burn flawlessly despite the malfunction that had delayed the lunar landing several days before.\n\nKen Mattingly performs his deep-space EVA, retrieving film cassettes from the CSM's exterior\n\nAt a distance of about from Earth, Mattingly performed a \"deep-space\" extra-vehicular activity, or spacewalk, during which he retrieved several film cassettes from the CSM's SIM bay. While outside the spacecraft, Mattingly set up a biological experiment, the Microbial Ecology Evaluation Device (MEED). The MEED experiment was only performed on Apollo 16. The crew carried out various housekeeping and maintenance tasks aboard the spacecraft and ate a meal before concluding the day.\n\nThe penultimate day of the flight was largely spent performing experiments, aside from a twenty-minute press conference during the second half of the day. During the press conference, the astronauts answered questions pertaining to several technical and non-technical aspects of the mission prepared and listed by priority at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston by journalists covering the flight. In addition to numerous housekeeping tasks, the astronauts prepared the spacecraft for its atmospheric reentry the next day. At the end of the crew's final full day in space, the spacecraft was approximately from Earth and closing at a rate of about .\n\nWhen the wake-up call was issued to the crew for their final day in space by CAPCOM Tony England, it was about out from Earth, traveling just over . Just over three hours before splashdown in the Pacific Ocean, the crew performed a final course correction burn, changing their velocity by . Approximately ten minutes before reentry into Earth's atmosphere, the cone-shaped Command Module containing the three crewmembers separated from the Service Module, which would burn up during reentry. At 265 hours and 37 minutes into the mission, at a velocity of about , Apollo 16 began atmospheric reentry. At its maximum, the temperature of the heat shield was between . After successful parachute deployment and less than 14 minutes after reentry began, the Command Module splashed down in the Pacific Ocean southeast of the island of Kiritimati (or \"Christmas Island\"), 290 hours, 37 minutes, 6 seconds after liftoff. The spacecraft and its crew was retrieved by . They were safely aboard the ''Ticonderoga'' 37 minutes after splashdown.\n", "Artist's conception of subsatellite deployment\nThe Apollo 16 subsatellite (PFS-2) was a small satellite released into lunar orbit from the Service Module. Its principal objective was to measure charged particles and magnetic fields all around the Moon as the Moon orbited Earth, similar to its sister spacecraft, PFS-1, released eight months earlier by Apollo 15. \"The low orbits of both subsatellites were to be similar ellipses, ranging from above the lunar surface.\"\n\n\"Instead, something bizarre happened. The orbit of PFS-2 rapidly changed shape and distance from the Moon. In 2-1/2 weeks the satellite was swooping to within a hair-raising of the lunar surface at closest approach. As the orbit kept changing, PFS-2 backed off again, until it seemed to be a safe 30 miles away. But not for long: inexorably, the subsatellite's orbit carried it back toward the Moon. And on May 29, 1972—only 35 days and 425 orbits after its release\"—PFS-2 crashed into the Lunar surface.\n\nIn later years, through a study of many lunar orbiting satellites, scientists came to discover that most low lunar orbits (LLO) are unstable. PFS-2 had been placed, unknown to mission planners at the time, squarely into one of the most unstable of orbits, at 11 degrees orbital inclination, far from the four ''frozen lunar orbits'' discovered only later at 27°, 50°, 76°, and 86° inclination.\n", "\n\n\nThe aircraft carrier USS ''Ticonderoga'' delivered the Apollo 16 Command Module to the North Island Naval Air Station, near San Diego, California, on Friday, May 5, 1972. On Monday, May 8, 1972, ground service equipment being used to empty the residual toxic reaction control system fuel in the Command Module tanks exploded in a Naval Air Station hangar. Forty-six people were sent to the hospital for 24 to 48 hours observation, most suffering from inhalation of toxic fumes. Most seriously injured was a technician who suffered a fractured kneecap when the GSE cart overturned on him. A hole was blown in the hangar roof 250 feet above; about 40 windows in the hangar were shattered. The Command Module suffered a three-inch gash in one panel.\n\nThe Apollo 16 Command Module ''Casper'' is on display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama. The Lunar Module ascent stage separated 24 April 1972 but a loss of attitude control rendered it out of control. It orbited the Moon for about a year. Its impact site remains unknown. The S-IVB was deliberately crashed into the moon. However, due to a communication failure before impact the exact location was unknown until January 2016, when it was discovered within Mare Insularum by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, approximately southwest of Copernicus Crater.\n\nDuke donated some flown items, including a lunar map, to Kennesaw State University in Kennesaw, Georgia. He left two items on the Moon, both of which he photographed. The most famous is a plastic-encased photo portrait of his family (NASA Photo AS16-117-18841). The reverse of the photo is signed by Duke's family and bears this message: \"This is the family of Astronaut Duke from Planet Earth. Landed on the Moon, April 1972.\" The other item was a commemorative medal issued by the United States Air Force, which was celebrating its 25th anniversary in 1972. He took two medals, leaving one on the Moon and donating the other to the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base museum.\n\nIn 2006, shortly after Hurricane Ernesto affected Bath, North Carolina, eleven-year-old Kevin Schanze discovered a piece of metal debris on the ground near his beach home. Schanze and a friend discovered a \"stamp\" on the flat metal sheet, which upon further inspection turned out to be a faded copy of the Apollo 16 mission insignia. NASA later confirmed the object to be a piece of the first stage of the Saturn V rocket that launched Apollo 16 into space. In July 2011, after returning the piece of debris at NASA's request, 16-year-old Schanze was given an all-access tour of the Kennedy Space Center and VIP seating for the launch of STS-135, the final mission of the Space Shuttle program.\n", "\n* List of man-made objects on the Moon\n* List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999\n", "\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n* Brzostowski, M.A., and Brzostowski, A.C., ''Archiving the Apollo active seismic data'', The Leading Edge, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, April, 2009.\n* \n* \n\n", "\n* Apollo 16 Traverses, Lunar Photomap 78D2S2(25)\n* Apollo 16 Press Kit – NASA, Release No. 72-64K, 6 April 1972\n* ''On the Moon with Apollo 16: A guidebook to the Descartes Region'' by Gene Simmons, NASA, EP-95, 1972\n* ''Apollo 16: \"Nothing so hidden...\"'' (Part 1) – NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission at the Internet Archive\n* ''Apollo 16: \"Nothing so hidden...\"'' (Part 2) – NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission at the Internet Archive\n* Apollo Lunar Surface VR Panoramas – QTVR panoramas at moonpans.com\n* Apollo 16 Science Experiments at the Lunar and Planetary Institute\n* Audio recording of Apollo 16 landing as recorded at the Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station\n* Apollo launch and mission videos ApolloTV.net\n* Interview with the Apollo 16 Astronauts (28 June 1972) from the Commonwealth Club of California Records at the Hoover Institution Archives\n* \"Apollo 16: Driving on the Moon\" – Apollo 16 film footage of lunar rover at the Astronomy Picture of the Day, 29 January 2013\n* Astronaut's Eye View of Apollo 16 Site, from LROC\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Crew", "Planning and training", "Mission highlights", "Lunar subsatellite PFS-2", "Spacecraft locations", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Apollo 16
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Apollo 17''' was the final mission of NASA's Apollo program. Launched at 12:33 a.m. Eastern Standard Time (EST) on December 7, 1972, with a crew made up of Commander Eugene Cernan, Command Module Pilot Ronald Evans, and Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt, it was the last use of Apollo hardware for its original purpose; after Apollo 17, extra Apollo spacecraft were used in the Skylab and Apollo–Soyuz programs.\n\nApollo 17 was the first night launch of a U.S. human spaceflight and the final manned launch of a Saturn V rocket. It was a \"J-type mission\" which included three days on the lunar surface, extended scientific capability, and the third Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). While Evans remained in lunar orbit in the Command/Service Module (CSM), Cernan and Schmitt spent just over three days on the moon in the Taurus–Littrow valley and completed three moonwalks, taking lunar samples and deploying scientific instruments. Evans took scientific measurements and photographs from orbit using a Scientific Instruments Module mounted in the Service Module.\n\nThe landing site was chosen with the primary objectives of Apollo 17 in mind: to sample lunar highland material older than the impact that formed Mare Imbrium, and investigate the possibility of relatively new volcanic activity in the same area. Cernan, Evans and Schmitt returned to Earth on December 19 after a 12-day mission.\n\nApollo 17 is the most recent manned Moon landing and was the last time humans travelled beyond low Earth orbit. It was also the first mission to be commanded by a person with no background as a test pilot, and the first to have no one on board who had been a test pilot; X-15 test pilot Joe Engle lost the lunar module pilot assignment to Schmitt, a scientist. The mission broke several records: the longest moon landing, longest total extravehicular activities (moonwalks), largest lunar sample, and longest time in lunar orbit.\n", "\n\nEugene Cernan, Ronald Evans, and former X-15 pilot Joe Engle were assigned to the backup crew of Apollo 14. Engle flew sixteen X-15 flights, three of which exceeded the border of space. Following the rotation pattern that a backup crew would fly as the prime crew three missions later, Cernan, Evans, and Engle would have flown Apollo 17. Harrison Schmitt served on the backup crew of Apollo 15 and, following the crew rotation cycle, was slated to fly as Lunar Module Pilot on Apollo 18. However, Apollo 18 was cancelled in September 1970. Following this decision, the scientific community pressured NASA to assign a geologist to an Apollo landing, as opposed to a pilot trained in geology. In light of this pressure, Harrison Schmitt, a professional geologist, was assigned the Lunar Module Pilot position on Apollo 17. Scientist-astronaut Curt Michel believed that it was his own decision to resign, after it became clear that he would not be given a flight assignment, that mobilized this action.\n\nSubsequent to the decision to assign Schmitt to Apollo 17, there remained the question of which crew (the full backup crew of Apollo 15, Dick Gordon, Vance Brand, and Schmitt, or the backup crew of Apollo 14) would become prime crew of the mission. NASA Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton ultimately assigned the backup crew of Apollo 14 (Cernan and Evans), along with Schmitt, to the prime crew of Apollo 17.\n\n=== Backup crew ===\n\n====Original====\n\n\n====Replacement====\n\n\nThe Apollo 15 prime crew received the backup assignment since this was to be the last lunar mission and the backup crew would not rotate to another mission. However, when the Apollo 15 postage stamp incident became public in early 1972 the crew was reprimanded by NASA and the United States Air Force (they were active duty officers). Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton removed them from flight status and replaced them with Young and Duke from the Apollo 16 prime crew and Roosa from the Apollo 14 prime and Apollo 16 backup crews.\n\n=== Support crew ===\n* Robert F. Overmyer\n* Robert A. Parker\n* C. Gordon Fullerton\n\n=== Mission insignia ===\nRobbins medallion\nThe insignia's most prominent feature is an image of the Greek sun god Apollo backdropped by a rendering of an American eagle, the red bars on the eagle mirroring those on the flag of the United States. Three white stars above the red bars represent the three crewmen of the mission. The background includes the Moon, the planet Saturn and a galaxy or nebula. The wing of the eagle partially overlays the Moon, suggesting man's established presence there. The gaze of Apollo and the direction of the eagle's motion embody man's intention to explore further destinations in space.\n\nThe patch includes, along with the colors of the U.S. flag (red, white, and blue), the color gold, representative of a \"golden age\" of spaceflight that was to begin with Apollo 17. The image of Apollo in the mission insignia is a rendering of the ''Apollo Belvedere'' sculpture. The insignia was designed by Robert McCall, with input from the crew.\n", "Sudbury, Ontario in May 1972\nLike Apollo 15 and Apollo 16, Apollo 17 was slated to be a \"J-mission,\" an Apollo mission type that featured lunar surface stays of three days, higher scientific capability, and the usage of the Lunar Roving Vehicle. Since Apollo 17 was to be the final lunar landing of the Apollo program, high-priority landing sites that had not been visited previously were given consideration for potential exploration. A landing in the crater Copernicus was considered, but was ultimately rejected because Apollo 12 had already obtained samples from that impact, and three other Apollo expeditions had already visited the vicinity of Mare Imbrium. A landing in the lunar highlands near the crater Tycho was also considered, but was rejected because of the rough terrain found there and a landing on the lunar far side in the crater Tsiolkovskiy was rejected due to technical considerations and the operational costs of maintaining communication during surface operations. A landing in a region southwest of Mare Crisium was also considered, but rejected on the grounds that a Soviet spacecraft could easily access the site; Luna 21 eventually did so shortly after the Apollo 17 site selection was made.\n\nAfter the elimination of several sites, three sites made the final consideration for Apollo 17: Alphonsus crater, Gassendi crater, and the Taurus-Littrow valley. In making the final landing site decision, mission planners took into consideration the primary objectives for Apollo 17: obtaining old highlands material from a substantial distance from Mare Imbrium, sampling material from young volcanic activity (i.e., less than three billion years), and having minimal ground overlap with the orbital ground tracks of Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 to maximize the amount of new data obtained.\n\nThe Taurus-Littrow site was selected with the prediction that the crew would be able to obtain samples of old highland material from the remnants of a landslide event that occurred on the south wall of the valley and the possibility of relatively young, explosive volcanic activity in the area. Although the valley is similar to the landing site of Apollo 15 in that it is on the border of a lunar mare, the advantages of Taurus-Littrow were believed to outweigh the drawbacks, thus leading to its selection as the Apollo 17 landing site.\n\nApollo 17 was the only lunar landing mission to carry the Traverse Gravimeter Experiment (TGE), an experiment built by Draper Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology designed to provide relative gravity measurements throughout the landing site at various locations during the mission's moonwalks. Scientists would then use this data to gather information about the geological substructure of the landing site and the surrounding vicinity.\n\nAs with previous lunar landings, the Apollo 17 astronauts underwent an extensive training program that included training to collect samples on the surface, usage of the spacesuits, navigation in the Lunar Roving Vehicle, field geology training, survival training, splashdown and recovery training, and equipment training.\n", "\n=== Traverse Gravimeter ===\n\nApollo 17 was the only Apollo lunar landing mission to carry the Traverse Gravimeter Experiment. As gravimeters had proven to be useful in the geologic investigation of the Earth, the objective of this experiment was to determine the feasibility of using the same techniques on the Moon to learn about its internal structure. The gravimeter was used to obtain readings at the landing site in the immediate vicinity of the Lunar Module (LM), as well as various locations on the mission's traverse routes. The TGE was carried on the Lunar Roving Vehicle; measurements were taken by the astronauts while the LRV was not in motion or after the gravimeter was placed on the surface.\n\nA total of twenty-six measurements were taken with the TGE during the mission's three moonwalks, with productive results. As part of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP), the astronauts also deployed the Lunar Surface Gravimeter, a similar experiment, which ultimately failed to function properly.\n\n=== Scientific Instrument Module ===\n\nService Module, seen from the Lunar Module in orbit around the Moon\n\nSector one of the Apollo 17 Service Module (SM) contained the Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) bay. The SIM bay housed three experiments for use in lunar orbit: a lunar sounder, an infrared scanning radiometer, and a far-ultraviolet spectrometer. A mapping camera, panoramic camera, and a laser altimeter were also included in the SIM bay.\n\nThe lunar sounder beamed electromagnetic impulses toward the lunar surface, which were designed with the objective of obtaining data to assist in developing a geological model of the interior of the Moon to an approximate depth of .\n\nThe Infrared Scanning Radiometer was designed with the objective of generating a temperature map of the lunar surface to aid in locating surface features such as rock fields, structural differences in the lunar crust, and volcanic activity.\n\nThe Far-Ultraviolet Spectrometer was to be used to obtain data pertaining to the composition, density, and constituency of the lunar atmosphere. The spectrometer was also designed to detect far-UV radiation emitted by the Sun that has been reflected off the lunar surface.\n\nThe Laser Altimeter was designed with the intention of measuring the altitude of the spacecraft above the lunar surface within approximately , and providing altitude information to the panoramic and mapping cameras.\n\n=== Light flash phenomenon ===\n\n\nThroughout the Apollo lunar missions, the crew members observed light flashes that penetrated closed eyelids. These flashes, described as \"streaks\" or \"specks\" of light, were usually observed by astronauts while the spacecraft was darkened during a sleep period. These flashes, while not observed on the lunar surface, would average about two per minute and were observed by the crew members during the trip out to the Moon, back to Earth, and in lunar orbit.\n\nThe Apollo 17 crew conducted an experiment, also conducted on Apollo 16, with the objective of linking these light flashes with cosmic rays. As part of an experiment conducted by NASA and the University of Houston, one astronaut wore a device that recorded the time, strength, and path of high-energy atomic particles that penetrated the device. Analysis of the results concluded that the evidence supported the hypothesis that the flashes occurred when charged particles travelled through the retina in the eye.\n\n=== Surface Electrical Properties Experiment ===\n\nApollo 17 lunar rover at its final resting place on the Moon. The Surface Electrical Properties (SEP) receiver is the antenna on the right-rear of the vehicle\n\nApollo 17 was the only lunar surface expedition to include the Surface Electrical Properties (SEP) experiment. The experiment included two major components: a transmitting antenna deployed near the Lunar Module and a receiving antenna located on the Lunar Roving Vehicle. At different stops during the mission's traverses, electrical signals traveled from the transmitting device, through the ground, and received at the LRV. The electrical properties of the lunar soil could be determined by comparison of the transmitted and received electrical signals. The results of this experiment, which are consistent with lunar rock composition, show that the top of the Moon are extremely dry.\n\n=== Lunar Roving Vehicle ===\n\nApollo 17 was the third mission (the others being Apollo 15 and Apollo 16) to make use of a Lunar Roving Vehicle. The LRV, in addition to being used by the astronauts for transport from station to station on the mission's three moonwalks, was used to transport the astronauts' tools, communications equipment, and samples. The Apollo 17 LRV was also used to carry experiments unique to the mission, such as the Traverse Gravimeter and Surface Electrical Properties experiment. The Apollo 17 LRV traveled a cumulative distance of approximately in a total drive time of about four hours and twenty-six minutes; the greatest distance Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt traveled from the Lunar Module was about .\n\n=== Biological cosmic ray experiment ===\nApollo 17 included a biological cosmic ray experiment (BIOCORE), carrying mice that had been implanted with radiation monitors to see whether they suffered damage from cosmic rays.\n\nFive pocket mice (''Perognathus longimembris'') were implanted with radiation monitors under their scalps and flown on the mission. The species was chosen because it was well-documented, small, easy to maintain in an isolated state (not requiring drinking water for the duration of the mission and with highly concentrated waste), and for its ability to withstand environmental stress. Four of the five mice survived the flight; the cause of death of the fifth mouse was not determined.\n\nThe study found lesions in the scalp itself and liver. The scalp lesions and liver lesions appeared to be unrelated to one another, and were not thought to be the result of cosmic rays. No damage was found in the mice's retinas or viscera. At the time of the publication of the Apollo 17 Preliminary Science Report, the mouse brains had not yet been examined. However, subsequent studies showed no significant effect on the brains.\n\nOfficially, the mice—four male and one female—were assigned the identification numbers A3326, A3400, A3305, A3356 and A3352. Unofficially, according to Cernan, the Apollo 17 crew dubbed them \"Fe\", \"Fi\", \"Fo\", \"Fum\" and \"Phooey\".\n", "\n=== Launch and outbound trip ===\n\nApollo 17 launches on December 7, 1972\n\nApollo 17 was the last manned Saturn V launch and the only night launch. The launch was delayed by two hours and forty minutes due to an automatic cutoff in the launch sequencer at the T-30 second mark in the countdown. The issue was quickly determined to be a minor technical error. The clock was reset and held at the T-22 minute mark while technicians worked around the malfunction in order to continue with the launch. This pause was the only launch delay in the Apollo program caused by this type of hardware failure. The count then resumed, and the liftoff occurred at 12:33 am EST.\n\nApproximately 500,000 people were estimated to have observed the launch in the immediate vicinity of Kennedy Space Center, despite the early morning hour. The launch was visible as far away as ; observers in Miami, Florida, saw a \"red streak\" crossing the northern sky.\n\nAt 3:46 am EST, the S-IVB third stage was re-ignited to propel the spacecraft towards the Moon.\n\nAt approximately 2:47 pm EST on December 10, the Service Propulsion System engine on the Command/Service Module ignited to slow down the CSM/Lunar Module stack into lunar orbit. Following orbit insertion and orbital stabilization, the crew began preparations for landing in the Taurus-Littrow valley.\n\n=== Moon landing ===\n\nAfter separating from the Command/Service Module, the Lunar Module ''Challenger'' and its crew of two, Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt, adjusted their orbit and began preparations for the descent to Taurus-Littrow. While Cernan and Schmitt prepared for landing, Command Module Pilot Ron Evans remained in orbit to take observations, perform experiments and await the return of his crew-mates a few days later.\n\nSoon after completing their preparations for landing, Cernan and Schmitt began their descent to the Taurus-Littrow valley on the lunar surface. Several minutes after the descent phase was initiated, the Lunar Module pitched over, giving the crew their first look at the landing site during the descent phase and allowing Cernan to guide the spacecraft to a desirable landing target while Schmitt provided data from the flight computer essential for landing. The LM touched down on the lunar surface at 2:55 pm EST on December 11. Shortly thereafter, the two astronauts began re-configuring the LM for their stay on the surface and began preparations for the first moonwalk of the mission, or EVA-1.\n\n=== Lunar surface ===\n\nEugene Cernan on the lunar surface, December 13, 1972\n\nThe first moonwalk (EVA) of the mission began approximately four hours after landing, at about 6:55 pm on December 11. The first task of the first lunar excursion was to offload the Lunar Roving Vehicle and other equipment from the Lunar Module. While working near the rover, a fender was accidentally broken off when Gene Cernan brushed up against it, his hammer getting caught under the right-rear fender, breaking off the rear extension. The same incident had also occurred on Apollo 16 as Commander John Young maneuvered around the rover. Although this was not a mission-critical issue, the loss of the fender caused Cernan and Schmitt to be covered with dust thrown up when the rover was in motion. The crew used duct tape to fix the problem by attaching a map to the damaged fender, but the dust picked up on the tape surface prevented it from sticking properly and the first fix was short lived. After an overnight rethink by the flight controllers, a better method of applying the tape resulted in a satisfactory fix that lasted for the length of the exploration. The crew then deployed the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) west of the immediate landing site. After completing this, Cernan and Schmitt departed on the first geologic traverse of the mission towards Steno crater to the south of the landing site, during which they gathered of samples; took seven gravimeter measurements; and deployed two explosive packages, which were later detonated remotely to test geophones that had been placed by the astronauts and seismometers that had been placed on previous Apollo missions. The EVA ended after seven hours and twelve minutes.\n\nApollo 17 landing site, photographed in 2011 by Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter\nLunar Regolith collected during Apollo 17\nOn December 12, at 6:28 pm EST, Cernan and Schmitt began their second lunar excursion. One of the first tasks of the EVA was repairing the right-rear fender on the LRV, the rearward extension of which had been broken off the previous day. The pair did this by taping together four cronopaque maps with duct tape and clamping the replacement fender extension to the fender, thus providing a means of preventing dust from raining down upon them while in motion. During this EVA, the pair sampled several different types of geologic deposits found in the valley, including the avalanche at the base of the South Massif, orange-colored soil at Shorty crater, and ejecta of Camelot crater. The crew completed this moonwalk after seven hours and thirty-seven minutes. They collected of samples, deployed three more explosive packages and took seven gravimeter measurements.\n\nThe third moonwalk, the last of the Apollo program, began at 5:26 pm EST on December 13. During this excursion, the crew collected of lunar samples and took nine gravimeter measurements. They drove the rover to the north and east of the landing site and explored the base of the North Massif, the Sculptured Hills, and the unusual crater Van Serg. Before ending the moonwalk, the crew collected a rock, a breccia, and dedicated it to several different nations which were represented in Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, at the time. A plaque located on the Lunar Module, commemorating the achievements made during the Apollo program, was then unveiled. Before reentering the LM for the final time, Gene Cernan expressed his thoughts:\n\n\n\nCernan then followed Schmitt into the Lunar Module after spending approximately seven hours and 15 minutes outside during the mission's final lunar excursion.\n\n=== Return to Earth ===\n\nApollo 17 post-landing recovery operationsApollo 17 Command Module after splashdown, with in background.\n\nEugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt successfully lifted off from the lunar surface in the ascent stage of the Lunar Module on December 14, at 5:55 pm EST. After a successful rendezvous and docking with Ron Evans in the Command/Service Module in orbit, the crew transferred equipment and lunar samples between the LM and the CSM for return to Earth. Following this, the LM ascent stage was sealed off and jettisoned at 1:31 am on December 15. The ascent stage was then deliberately crashed into the Moon in a collision recorded by seismometers deployed on Apollo 17 and previous Apollo expeditions.\n\nOn December 17, during the trip back to Earth, at 3:27 pm EST, Ron Evans successfully conducted a one-hour and seven minute spacewalk to retrieve exposed film from the instrument bay on the exterior of the CSM.\n\nOn December 19, the crew jettisoned the no-longer-needed Service Module, leaving only the Command Module for return to Earth. The Apollo 17 spacecraft reentered Earth's atmosphere and landed safely in the Pacific Ocean at 2:25 pm, from the recovery ship, . Cernan, Evans and Schmitt were then retrieved by a recovery helicopter and were safely aboard the recovery ship 52 minutes after landing.\n", "Apollo 17 Command Module, on display at Space Center Houston.The Command Module ''America'' is currently on display at Space Center Houston at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.\n\nThe ascent stage of lunar module ''Challenger'' impacted the Moon December 15, 1972 at 06:50:20.8 UT (1:50 am EST), at . The descent stage remains on the Moon at the landing site, .\n\nIn 2009 and again in 2011, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter photographed the landing site from increasingly low orbits.\n", "\nPortions of the Apollo 17 mission are dramatized in the 1998 HBO miniseries ''From the Earth to the Moon'' episode entitled \"Le Voyage dans la Lune.\"\n\nThe prologue to the 1999 novel ''Back to the Moon'', by Homer Hickam, begins with a dramatized depiction of the end of the second Apollo 17 EVA. The orange soil then becomes the major driver of the plot of the rest of the story.\n\nThe 2005 novel ''Tyrannosaur Canyon'' by Douglas Preston opens with a depiction of the Apollo 17 moonwalks using quotes taken from the official mission transcript.\n\nAdditionally, there have been fictional astronauts in film, literature and television who have been described as \"the last man to walk on the Moon,\" implying they were crew members on Apollo 17. One such character was Steve Austin in the television series ''The Six Million Dollar Man''. In the 1972 novel ''Cyborg'', upon which the series was based, Austin remembers watching the Earth \"fall away during Apollo XVII.\" In the 1998 film ''Deep Impact'' fictional astronaut Spurgeon \"Fish\" Tanner, portrayed by Robert Duvall, was described at a Presidential press conference as the \"last man to walk on the moon\" by the President of the United States, portrayed by Morgan Freeman.\n\nIn the Anime Aldnoah.Zero, the Apollo 17 mission locates an ancient transporter gate leading to Mars left by an unknown, extinct alien race. This discovery is the divergence point for the story's alternate history.\n\nThe song \"Contact\" from Daft Punk includes audio from the Apollo 17 mission, courtesy of NASA and Captain Eugene Cernan.\n", "\n\nimage:Apollo 17 The Last Moon Shot Edit1.jpg\|The Apollo 17 Saturn V awaits launch\nimage:Spiro Agnew Congratulates Launch Control After Launch of Apollo 17 - GPN-2002-000058.jpg\|Vice President Spiro Agnew congratulates launch control after the launch\nimage:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg\|Apollo 17 photo of the Earth as the spacecraft heads for the Moon (known as \"''The Blue Marble'' photo\")\nFile:Taurus-Littrow valley 4078 h3.jpg\|Lunar Orbiter 4 image of the Taurus-Littrow valley, with the landing site near center.\nimage:Ap17 schmitt falls.ogg\|Astronaut Harrison Schmitt falls while on a moonwalk\nimage:Astronaut Harrison 'Jack' Schmitt, American Flag, and Earth (Apollo 17 EVA-1).jpg\|Harrison Schmitt poses with the American flag and Earth in the background during Apollo 17's first EVA. Eugene Cernan is visible reflected in Schmitt's helmet visor\nimage:Waning crescent earth seen from the moon.jpg\|View of the waning crescent Earth seen rising above the lunar horizon over the Ritz Crater\nimage:Moon-apollo17-schmitt boulder.jpg\|Schmitt stands next to a large boulder during EVA-3. He is looking in the direction of the LM which is visible beyond the right limb of the boulder.\nimage:AS17-145-22224.jpg\|Cernan in the Lunar Module after EVA-3\nimage:Harrison Schmitt inside LM on surface, Apollo 17.jpg\|Schmitt in the Lunar Module after EVA-3\nimage:Ap17-ascent.ogv\|Apollo 17's Lunar Module blasts off and leaves the Moon\nFile:Apollo 17 astronaut Ronald E. Evans performs an extravehicular activity during the trans-Earth coast.jpg\|Evans performs an EVA before returning home\nimage:A17-plaque.JPG\|The plaque left on the Moon by Apollo 17\nimage:Apollo17UV.jpg\|A model of the UV spectrometer used to take the first accurate measurements of the constituents of the Moon's atmosphere\nimage:Challenger 4x.png\|Landing site, as imaged by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in 2009\nimage:Apollo 17 LM Challenger LRO.png\|Narrow-angle image of the LM ''Challenger'' descent stage surrounded by LRV tracks and footprints, as imaged by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in 2011\n\n", "\n\n* Apollo Command/Service Module\n* Apollo Lunar Module\n* Apollo program\n* List of Apollo missions\n* List of Apollo mission types\n* List of astronauts by year of selection\n* List of human spaceflights\n* List of human spaceflight programs\n* List of landings on extraterrestrial bodies\n* List of manned spacecraft\n* List of NASA missions\n* List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999\n* Moon landing\n* Saturn V\n* Taurus–Littrow\n* ''The Case of the Missing Moon Rocks''\n\n\n", "\n\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \"Apollo 17\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica\n* \"Apollo 17\" Detailed mission information by Dr. David R. Williams, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center\n* Apollo 17 Press Kit (PDF) NASA, Release No. 72-220K, 26 November 1972\n* \"Table 2-45. Apollo 17 Characteristics\" from ''NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978'' by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA SP-4012, NASA History Series (1988)\n* Apollo 17 Lunar Surface Journal\n* \"Apollo 17 Real-Time Mission Experience\" - All mission audio, film, video and photography presented in real-time.\n* Apollo 17 Mission Experiments Overview at the Lunar and Planetary Institute\n* ''Apollo 17 Voice Transcript Pertaining to the Geology of the Landing Site'' (PDF) by N. G. Bailey and G. E. Ulrich, United States Geological Survey, 1975\n* \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975\n* \"Development of Manned Space Flight, American and Soviet\" from ''The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project'' by Edward Clinton Ezell and Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA SP-4209, NASA History Series (1978)\n* ''The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology'' NASA, NASA SP-4009\n\n \"The Final Flight\" – excerpt from the September 1973 issue of ''National Geographic'' magazine\n* \"Apollo 17 Final Reflections on Apollo\" at Maniac World\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Crew ", " Planning and training ", " Mission hardware and experiments ", " Mission highlights ", " Spacecraft locations ", " Depiction of mission in fiction and popular culture ", " Multimedia ", " See also ", " References ", " Bibliography ", "External links" ]	Apollo 17
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "1080 – Harald III of Denmark dies and is succeeded by Canute IV, who would later be the first Dane to be canonized.\n1349 – The rule of the Bavand dynasty in Mazandaran is brought to an end by the murder of Hasan II.\n1362 – Kaunas Castle falls to the Teutonic Order after a month-long siege.\n1397 – Geoffrey Chaucer tells ''The Canterbury Tales'' for the first time at the court of Richard II. Chaucer scholars have also identified this date (in 1387) as the start of the book's pilgrimage to Canterbury.\n1492 – Spain and Christopher Columbus sign the Capitulations of Santa Fe for his voyage to Asia to acquire spices.\n1521 – Trial of Martin Luther over his teachings begins during the assembly of the Diet of Worms. Initially intimidated, he asks for time to reflect before answering and is given a stay of one day.\n1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano reaches New York harbor.\n1797 – Sir Ralph Abercromby attacks San Juan, Puerto Rico, in what would be one of the largest invasions of the Spanish territories in the Americas. \n* 1797 – Citizens of Verona begin an unsuccessful eight-day rebellion against the French occupying forces.\n1861 – The state of Virginia's secession convention votes to secede from the United States, becoming the 8th state to join the Confederate States of America.\n1863 – American Civil War: Grierson's Raid begins: Troops under Union Army Colonel Benjamin Grierson attack central Mississippi.\n1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Plymouth begins: Confederate forces attack Plymouth, North Carolina.\n1895 – The Treaty of Shimonoseki between China and Japan is signed. This marks the end of the First Sino-Japanese War, and the defeated Qing Empire is forced to renounce its claims on Korea and to concede the southern portion of the Fengtien province, Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands to Japan.\n1905 – The Supreme Court of the United States decides ''Lochner v. New York'', which holds that the \"right to free contract\" is implicit in the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.\n1907 – The Ellis Island immigration center processes 11,747 people, more than on any other day.\n1912 – Russian troops open fire on striking goldfield workers in northeast Siberia, killing at least 150.\n1941 – World War II: The Kingdom of Yugoslavia surrenders to Germany.\n1942 – French prisoner of war General Henri Giraud escapes from his castle prison in Königstein Fortress.\n1944 – Forces of the Communist-controlled Greek People's Liberation Army attack the smaller National and Social Liberation resistance group, which surrenders. Its leader Dimitrios Psarros is murdered.\n1945 – World War II: Montese, Italy, is liberated from Nazi forces.\n1946 – The last French troops are withdrawn from Syria.\n1949 – At midnight 26 Irish counties officially leave the British Commonwealth. A 21-gun salute on O'Connell Bridge, Dublin, ushers in the Republic of Ireland.\n1951 – The Peak District becomes the United Kingdom's first National Park.\n1961 – Bay of Pigs Invasion: A group of Cuban exiles financed and trained by the CIA lands at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba with the aim of ousting Fidel Castro.\n1969 – Sirhan Sirhan is convicted of assassinating Robert F. Kennedy.\n* 1969 – Communist Party of Czechoslovakia chairman Alexander Dubček is deposed.\n1970 – Apollo program: The ill-fated Apollo 13 spacecraft returns to Earth safely.\n1971 – The People's Republic of Bangladesh is formed.\n1975 – The Cambodian Civil War ends. The Khmer Rouge captures the capital Phnom Penh and Cambodian government forces surrender.\n1978 – Mir Akbar Khyber is assassinated, provoking a communist coup d'état in Afghanistan.\n1982 – Patriation of the Canadian constitution in Ottawa by Proclamation of Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada.\n2006 – A Palestinian suicide bomber detonates an explosive device in a Tel Aviv restaurant, killing 11 people and injuring 70.\n2013 – An explosion at a fertilizer plant in the city of West, Texas, kills 15 people and injures 160 others.\n2014 – NASA's Kepler space observatory confirms the discovery of the first Earth-size planet in the habitable zone of another star.\n", "AD 44 – Pope Evaristus (d. 107)\n1277 – Michael IX Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (d. 1320)\n1497 – Pedro de Valdivia, Spanish conquistador, conquered northern Chile (d. 1553)\n1573 – Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria (d. 1651)\n1586 – John Ford, English poet and playwright (d. 1639)\n1598 – Giovanni Battista Riccioli, Italian priest and astronomer (d. 1671)\n1620 – Marguerite Bourgeoys, French-Canadian nun and saint, founded the Congregation of Notre Dame of Montreal (d. 1700)\n1622 – Henry Vaughan, Welsh physician, author, and poet (d. 1695)\n1635 – Edward Stillingfleet, British theologian and scholar (d. 1699)\n1676 – Frederick I of Sweden (d. 1751)\n1683 – Johann David Heinichen, German composer and theorist (d. 1729)\n1710 – Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan, Scottish politician (d. 1767)\n1741 – Samuel Chase, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1811)\n1750 – François de Neufchâteau, French academic and politician, French Minister of the Interior (d. 1828)\n1756 – Dheeran Chinnamalai, Indian commander (d. 1805)\n1766 – Collin McKinney, American surveyor, merchant, and politician (d. 1861)\n1794 – Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, German botanist and explorer (d. 1868)\n1798 – Étienne Bobillier, French mathematician and academic (d. 1840)\n1814 – Josif Pančić, Serbian botanist and academic (d. 1888)\n1816 – Thomas Hazlehurst, English architect and philanthropist (d. 1876)\n1820 – Alexander Cartwright, American firefighter and inventor of baseball (d. 1892)\n1833 – Jean-Baptiste Accolay, Belgian violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1900)\n1837 – J. P. Morgan, American banker and financier, founded J.P. Morgan & Co. (d. 1913)\n1842 – Maurice Rouvier, French businessman and politician, 53rd Prime Minister of France (d. 1911)\n1849 – William R. Day, American jurist and politician, 36th United States Secretary of State (d. 1923)\n1852 – Cap Anson, American baseball player and manager (d. 1922)\n1863 – Augustus Edward Hough Love, English mathematician and theorist (d. 1940)\n1865 – Ursula Ledóchowska, Polish-Austrian nun and saint, founded the Congregation of the Ursulines of the Agonizing Heart of Jesus (d. 1939)\n1866 – Ernest Starling, English physiologist and academic (d. 1927)\n1875 – Aleksander Tõnisson, Estonian general and politician, 5th Estonian Minister of War (d. 1941)\n1877 – Matsudaira Tsuneo, Japanese diplomat (d. 1949)\n1878 – Emil Fuchs, German-American lawyer and businessman (d. 1961)\n* 1878 – Demetrios Petrokokkinos, Greek tennis player (d. 1942)\n1879 – Henri Tauzin, French hurdler (d. 1918)\n1882 – Artur Schnabel, Jewish-Polish pianist and composer (d. 1951)\n1888 – Herms Niel, German soldier, trombonist, and composer (d. 1954)\n1891 – George Adamski, Polish-American ufologist and author (d. 1965)\n1895 – Robert Dean Frisbie, American soldier and author (d. 1948)\n1896 – Señor Wences, Spanish-American ventriloquist (d. 1999)\n1897 – Nisargadatta Maharaj, Indian philosopher and educator (d. 1981)\n 1897 – Thornton Wilder, American novelist and playwright (d. 1975)\n* 1897 – Edouard Wyss-Dunant, Swiss physician and mountaineer (d. 1983)\n1899 – Aleksander Klumberg, Estonian decathlete and coach (d. 1958)\n1903 – Nicolas Nabokov, Russian-American composer and educator (d. 1978)\n* 1903 – Gregor Piatigorsky, Ukrainian-American cellist and educator (d. 1976)\n* 1903 – Morgan Taylor, American hurdler and coach (d. 1975)\n1905 – Louis Jean Heydt, American journalist and actor (d. 1960)\n 1905 – Arthur Lake, American actor (d. 1987)\n1906 – Sidney Garfield, American physician, co-founded Kaiser Permanente (d. 1984)\n1909 – Alain Poher, French politician, President of France (d. 1996)\n1910 – Evangelos Averoff, Greek historian and politician, Greek Minister of Defence (d. 1990)\n 1910 – Ivan Goff, Australian screenwriter and producer (d. 1999)\n* 1910 – Helenio Herrera, French footballer and manager (d. 1997)\n1911 – Hervé Bazin, French author and poet (d. 1996)\n 1911 – Lester Rodney, American soldier and journalist (d. 2009)\n1912 – Marta Eggerth, Jewish-Hungarian-American actress and singer (d. 2013)\n1914 – George Davis, American art director (d. 1984)\n* 1914 – Mac Raboy, American illustrator (d. 1967)\n1915 – Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Sri Lankan politician, 6th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (d. 2000)\n 1915 – Martin Clemens, Scottish soldier (d. 2009)\n* 1915 – Joe Foss, American general and politician, 20th Governor of South Dakota (d. 2003)\n* 1915 – Regina Ghazaryan, Armenian painter (d. 1999)\n1916 – Win Maung, 3rd President of Union of Myanmar (d. 1989)\n 1916 – A. Thiagarajah, Sri Lankan educator and politician (d. 1981)\n1918 – William Holden, American actor (d. 1981)\n1919 – Gilles Lamontagne, Canadian lieutenant and politician, 24th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 2016)\n* 1919 – Chavela Vargas, Costa Rican-Mexican singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2012)\n1920 – Edmonde Charles-Roux, French journalist and author (d. 2016)\n1923 – Lindsay Anderson, English actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1994)\n* 1923 – Solly Hemus, American baseball player, coach, and manager\n* 1923 – Neville McNamara, Australian air marshal (d. 2014)\n* 1923 – Gianni Raimondi, Italian lyric tenor (d. 2008)\n* 1923 – Harry Reasoner, American soldier and journalist (d. 1991)\n1924 – Kenneth Norman Jones, Australian public servant\n 1924 – Donald Richie, American-Japanese author and critic (d. 2013)\n* 1925 – René Moawad, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 13th President of Lebanon (d. 1989)\n1926 – Joan Lorring, British actress (d. 2014)\n 1926 – Gerry McNeil, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 2004)\n1927 – Margot Honecker, East German politician and First Lady (d. 2016)\n1928 – Victor Lownes, American businessman (d. 2017)\n* 1928 – Cynthia Ozick, American short story writer, novelist, and essayist\n* 1928 – Heinz Putzl, Austrian fencer\n* 1928 – Fabien Roy, Canadian accountant and politician\n1929 – James Last, German-American bassist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2015)\n1930 – Chris Barber, English trombonist and bandleader\n1931 – John Barrett, English tennis player and sportscaster\n 1931 – Malcolm Browne, American journalist and photographer (d. 2012)\n1934 – Don Kirshner, American songwriter and producer (d. 2011)\n 1934 – Peter Morris, Australian-English surgeon and academic\n1935 – Bud Paxson, American broadcaster, founded Home Shopping Network and Pax TV (d. 2015)\n1937 – Ronald Hamowy, Canadian historian and academic (d. 2012)\n* 1937 – Ferdinand Piëch, Austrian-German engineer and businessman\n1938 – Ben Barnes, American businessman and politician, 36th Lieutenant Governor of Texas\n 1938 – Doug Lewis, Canadian lawyer and politician, 41st Canadian Minister of Justice\n* 1938 – Ronald H. Miller, American theologian, author, and academic (d. 2011)\n* 1938 – Kerry Wendell Thornley, American theorist and author (d. 1988)\n1939 – Robert Miller, American art dealer (d. 2011)\n1940 – Eric Dancer, English businessman and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Devon\n* 1940 – Billy Fury, English singer-songwriter (d. 1983)\n* 1940 – John McCririck, English journalist\n* 1940 – Chuck Menville, American animator and screenwriter (d. 1992)\n* 1940 – Anja Silja, German soprano and actress\n* 1940 – Agostino Vallini, Italian cardinal and vicar general of Rome\n1941 – Lagle Parek, Estonian architect and politician, Estonian Minister of the Interior\n1942 – Buster Williams, American jazz musician \n1943 – Richard Allen Epstein, American lawyer, author, and academic\n1946 – Clare Francis, English sailor and author\n1947 – Nigel Emslie, Lord Emslie, Scottish lawyer and judge\n 1947 – Richard Field, English lawyer and judge\n* 1947 – Sherrie Levine, American photographer\n* 1947 – Tsutomu Wakamatsu, Japanese baseball player, coach, and manager\n1948 – Jan Hammer, Czech pianist, composer, and producer\n 1948 – Alice Harden, American educator and politician (d. 2012)\n* 1948 – Pekka Vasala, Finnish runner\n1951 – Olivia Hussey, Argentinian-English actress\n 1951 – Börje Salming, Swedish ice hockey player and businessman\n1952 – Joe Alaskey, American voice actor (d. 2016)\n 1952 – Pierre Guité, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1952 – John McColl, English general and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Jersey\n* 1952 – Željko Ražnatović, Serbian commander (d. 2000)\n* 1952 – John Robertson, Scottish businessman and politician\n1954 – Riccardo Patrese, Italian race car driver\n 1954 – Roddy Piper, Canadian professional wrestler and actor (d. 2015)\n* 1954 – Michael Sembello, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1955 – Todd Lickliter, American basketball player and coach\n 1955 – Pete Shelley, English singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1955 – Mike Stroud, English physician and explorer\n1956 – Colin Tyre, Lord Tyre, Scottish lawyer and judge\n1957 – Teri Austin, Canadian actress\n* 1957 – Afrika Bambaataa, American disc jockey\n* 1957 – Nick Hornby, English novelist, essayist, lyricist, and screenwriter\n* 1957 – Julia Macur, English lawyer and judge\n* 1957 – Frank McDonough, British historian\n1958 – Laslo Babits, Canadian javelin thrower (d. 2013)\n1959 – Sean Bean, English actor\n* 1959 – Jimmy Mann, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1959 – Li Meisu, Chinese shot putter\n1960 – Vladimir Polyakov, Russian pole vaulter\n1961 – Frank J. Christensen, American labor union leader\n* 1961 – Norman Cowans, Jamaican-English cricketer\n* 1961 – Boomer Esiason, American football player and sportscaster\n* 1961 – Bella Freud, English fashion designer\n1962 – Paul Nicholls, English jockey and trainer\n1964 – Ken Daneyko, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster\n* 1964 – Maynard James Keenan, American singer-songwriter and producer \n* 1964 – Rachel Notley, Canadian politician\n* 1964 – Lela Rochon, American actress \n1967 – Kimberly Elise, American actress\n 1967 – Marquis Grissom, American baseball player and coach\n* 1967 – Ian Jones, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1967 – Barnaby Joyce, Australian politician, 17th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia\n* 1967 – Liz Phair, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1968 – Julie Fagerholt, Danish fashion designer\n 1968 – Phil Henderson, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)\n* 1968 – Eric Lamaze, Canadian jockey\n* 1968 – Roger Twose, New Zealand cricketer\n* 1968 – Richie Woodhall, English boxer and trainer\n1970 – Redman, American rapper, producer, and actor \n1971 – Claire Sweeney, English actress \n1972 – Gary Bennett, American baseball player\n 1972 – Tony Boselli, American football player and sportscaster\n* 1972 – Jennifer Garner, American actress \n* 1972 – Muttiah Muralitharan, Sri Lankan cricketer\n* 1972 – Yuichi Nishimura, Japanese footballer and referee\n* 1972 – Terran Sandwith, Canadian ice hockey player\n1973 – Katrin Koov, Estonian architect\n 1973 – Brett Maher, Australian basketball player and sportscaster\n* 1973 – Theo Ratliff, American basketball player\n1974 – Mikael Åkerfeldt, Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n 1974 – Victoria Beckham, English singer and fashion designer \n1975 – Heidi Alexander, English politician\n 1975 – Travis Roy, American ice hockey player\n1976 – Maurice Wignall, Jamaican hurdler and long jumper\n1977 – Chad Hedrick, American speed skater\n* 1977 – Phil Jamieson, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1977 – Frederik Magle, Danish composer, organist, and pianist\n1978 – Lindsay Hartley, American actress\n 1978 – Jason White, Scottish rugby player\n1979 – Eric Brewer, Canadian ice hockey player\n 1979 – Marija Šestak, Serbian-Slovenian triple jumper\n1980 – Fabián Vargas, Colombian footballer\n 1980 – Curtis Woodhouse, English footballer, boxer, and manager\n1981 – Jenny Meadows, English runner\n 1981 – Hanna Pakarinen, Finnish singer-songwriter\n* 1981 – Ryan Raburn, American baseball player\n* 1981 – Chris Thompson, English runner\n* 1981 – Zhang Yaokun, Chinese footballer\n1982 – Brad Boyes, Canadian ice hockey player\n 1982 – Chuck Kobasew, Canadian ice hockey player\n1983 – Stanislav Chistov, Russian ice hockey player\n 1983 – Roberto Jiménez, Peruvian footballer\n* 1983 – Andrea Marcato, Italian rugby player\n1984 – Pablo Sebastián Álvarez, Argentinian footballer\n 1984 – Jed Lowrie, American baseball player\n* 1984 – Raffaele Palladino, Italian footballer\n1985 – Rooney Mara, American actress\n 1985 – Luke Mitchell, Australian actor and model\n* 1985 – Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, French tennis player\n1986 – Romain Grosjean, French race car driver\n1988 – Takahiro Moriuchi, Japanese singer-songwriter \n1989 – Paraskevi Papachristou, Greek triple jumper\n1990 – Jonathan Brown, Welsh footballer\n1992 – Lachlan Maranta, Australian rugby league footballer\n\n", " 485 – Proclus, Greek mathematician and philosopher (b. 412)\n* 617 – Donnán of Eigg, Irish priest and saint\n* 648 – Xiao, empress of the Sui Dynasty\n* 744 – Al-Walid II, Umayyad caliph (b. 706)\n* 818 – Bernard of Italy, Frankish king (b. 797)\n* 858 – Benedict III, pope of the Catholic Church\n1080 – Harald III of Denmark (b. 1041)\n1111 – Robert of Molesme, Christian saint and abbot (b. 1027)\n1298 – Árni Þorláksson, Icelandic bishop (b. 1237)\n1321 – Infanta Branca of Portugal, daughter of King Afonso III of Portugal (b. 1259)\n1331 – Robert de Vere, 6th Earl of Oxford, English nobleman (b. 1257)\n1344 – Constantine II, King of Armenia\n1355 – Marin Falier, Doge of Venice (b. 1285)\n1427 – John IV, Duke of Brabant (b. 1403)\n1539 – George, Duke of Saxony (b. 1471)\n1574 – Joachim Camerarius, German scholar and translator (b. 1500)\n1669 – Antonio Bertali, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1605)\n1680 – Kateri Tekakwitha, Mohawk-born Native American saint (b. 1656)\n1695 – Juana Inés de la Cruz, Mexican poet and scholar (b. 1651)\n1696 – Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné, French author (b. 1626)\n1711 – Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1678)\n1713 – David Hollatz, Polish pastor and theologian (b. 1648)\n1742 – Arvid Horn, Swedish general and politician (b. 1664)\n1764 – Johann Mattheson, German lexicographer and composer (b. 1681)\n1790 – Benjamin Franklin, American inventor, publisher, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (b. 1706)\n1799 – Richard Jupp, English surveyor and architect (b. 1728)\n1840 – Hannah Webster Foster, American journalist and author (b. 1758)\n1843 – Samuel Morey, American engineer (b. 1762)\n1882 – George Jennings, English engineer and plumber, invented the Flush toilet (b. 1810)\n1888 – E. G. Squier, American archaeologist and journalist (b. 1821)\n1892 – Alexander Mackenzie, Scottish-Canadian journalist and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1822)\n1921 – Manwel Dimech, Maltese journalist, author, and philosopher (b. 1860)\n1923 – Laurence Ginnell, Irish lawyer and politician (b. 1852)\n1930 – Alexander Golovin, Russian painter and stage designer (b. 1863)\n1933 – Kote Marjanishvili, Georgian director and playwright (b. 1872)\n1936 – Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck, Dutch lawyer and politician, 28th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1873)\n1942 – Jean Baptiste Perrin, French-American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870)\n1944 – J. T. Hearne, English cricketer and coach (b. 1867)\n* 1944 – Dimitrios Psarros, Greek lieutenant, founded the National and Social Liberation (b. 1893)\n1948 – Suzuki Kantarō, Japanese admiral and politician, 42nd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1868)\n1954 – Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu, Romanian lawyer and politician, Romanian Minister of Justice (b. 1900)\n1960 – Eddie Cochran, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1938)\n1961 – Elda Anderson''',''' American physicist and health researcher (b. 1899)\n1967 – Red Allen, American singer and trumpet player (b. 1908)\n1975 – Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian philosopher and politician, 2nd President of India (b. 1888)\n1976 – Henrik Dam, Danish biochemist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1895)\n1977 – William Conway, Irish cardinal (b. 1913)\n1983 – Felix Pappalardi, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (b. 1939)\n1984 – Claude Provost, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1933)\n1987 – Cecil Harmsworth King, English publisher (b. 1901)\n 1987 – Dick Shawn, American actor (b. 1923)\n1988 – Louise Nevelson, Ukrainian-American sculptor and educator (b. 1900)\n1990 – Ralph Abernathy, American minister and activist (b. 1936)\n1993 – Turgut Özal, Turkish engineer and politician, 8th president of Turkey (b. 1927)\n1994 – Roger Wolcott Sperry, American psychologist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1913)\n1995 – Frank E. Resnik, American sergeant and businessman (b. 1928)\n1996 – Piet Hein, Danish poet and mathematician (b. 1905)\n1997 – Chaim Herzog, Israeli general, lawyer, and politician, 6th President of Israel (b. 1918)\n1998 – Linda McCartney, American photographer, activist, and musician (b. 1941)\n2003 – Robert Atkins, American physician and cardiologist, created the Atkins diet (b. 1930)\n 2003 – H. B. Bailey, American race car driver (b. 1936)\n* 2003 – John Paul Getty, Jr., American-English philanthropist (b. 1932)\n* 2003 – Earl King, American blues singer, guitarist and songwriter (b. 1934)\n* 2003 – Yiannis Latsis, Greek businessman (b. 1910)\n2004 – Edmond Pidoux, Swiss author and poet (b. 1908)\n2006 – Jean Bernard, French physician and haematologist (b. 1907)\n* 2006 – Scott Brazil, American director and producer (b. 1955)\n* 2006 – Henderson Forsythe, American actor (b. 1917)\n2007 – Kitty Carlisle, American actress, singer, socialite and game show panelist (b. 1910)\n2008 – Aimé Césaire, Caribbean-French poet and politician (b. 1913)\n* 2008 – Danny Federici, American organist and accordion player (b. 1950)\n2011 – Eric Gross, Austrian-Australian pianist and composer (b. 1926)\n 2011 – Michael Sarrazin, Canadian actor (b. 1940)\n* 2011 – Robert Vickrey, American artist and author (b. 1926)\n2012 – Leila Berg, English journalist and author (b. 1917)\n 2012 – J. Quinn Brisben, American educator and politician (b. 1934)\n* 2012 – Dimitris Mitropanos, Greek singer (b. 1948)\n* 2012 – Nityananda Mohapatra, Indian journalist, poet, and politician (b. 1912)\n* 2012 – Jonathan V. Plaut, American rabbi and author (b. 1942)\n* 2012 – Stanley Rogers Resor, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 9th United States Secretary of the Army (b. 1917)\n2013 – Carlos Graça, São Toméan politician, Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe (b. 1931)\n 2013 – Yngve Moe, Norwegian bass player and songwriter (b. 1957)\n* 2013 – V. S. Ramadevi, Indian politician, 13th Governor of Karnataka (b. 1934)\n2014 – Gabriel García Márquez, Colombian journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1927)\n 2014 – Bernat Klein, Serbian-Scottish fashion designer and painter (b. 1922)\n* 2014 – Wojciech Leśnikowski, Polish–American architect and academic (b. 1938)\n* 2014 – Karpal Singh, Malaysian lawyer and politician (b. 1940)\n2015 – Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, Iraqi field marshal and politician (b. 1942)\n 2015 – Francis George, American cardinal (b. 1937)\n* 2015 – Robert P. Griffin, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1923)\n* 2015 – Scotty Probasco, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1928)\n* 2015 – Jeremiah J. Rodell, American general (b. 1921)\n* 2015 – A. Alfred Taubman, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1924)\n2016 – Doris Roberts, American actress (b. 1925)\n\n", "Christian feast day:\nKateri Tekakwitha (Canada)\nStephen Harding\n*April 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nEarliest day on which Store Bededag or General Prayer Day can fall, while May 13 is the latest; observed on the 4th Friday after Easter. (Denmark)\nEvacuation Day (Syria), celebrates the recognition of the independence of Syria from France in 1946.\nFAO Day (Iraq)\nFlag Day (American Samoa)\nMalbec World Day \nWomen's Day (Gabon)\nWorld Hemophilia Day\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	April 17
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Alpha Centauri''' ('''α Centauri''', abbreviated '''Alpha Cen''', '''α Cen''') is the closest star system to the Solar System, being from the Sun. It consists of three stars: Alpha Centauri A (also named Rigil Kentaurus) and Alpha Centauri B, which form the binary star Alpha Centauri AB, and a small and faint red dwarf, Alpha Centauri C (also named Proxima Centauri), which is loosely gravitationally bound and orbiting the other two at a current distance of about . To the unaided eye, the two main components appear as a single point of light with an apparent visual magnitude of −0.27, forming the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus and is the third-brightest star in the night sky, outshone only by Sirius and Canopus.\n\nAlpha Centauri A (α Cen A) has 1.1 times the mass and 1.519 times the luminosity of the Sun, while Alpha Centauri B (α Cen B) is smaller and cooler, at 0.907 times the Sun's mass and 0.445 times its visual luminosity. During the pair's 79.91-year orbit about a common centre, the distance between them varies from nearly that between Pluto and the Sun (35.6 AU) to that between Saturn and the Sun (11.2 AU).\n\nProxima Centauri (α Cen C) is at the slightly smaller distance of from the Sun, making it the closest star to the Sun, even though it is not visible to the naked eye. The separation of Proxima from Alpha Centauri AB is about , equivalent to about 430 times the size of Neptune's orbit. Proxima Centauri b, an Earth-sized exoplanet in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri, was discovered in 2016.\n", "''α Centauri'' (Latinised to ''Alpha Centauri'') is the system's Bayer designation. It bore the traditional name ''Rigil Kentaurus'', which is a latinisation of the Arabic name ''Rijl al-Qanṭūris,'' meaning \"Foot of the Centaur\".\n\n''Alpha Centauri C'' was discovered in 1915 by the Scottish astronomer Robert Innes, Director of the Union Observatory in Johannesburg, South Africa, who suggested that it be named ''Proxima Centauri'' (actually ''Proxima Centaurus''). The name is .\n\nIn 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN states that in the case of multiple stars the name should be understood to be attributed to the brightest component by visual brightness. The WGSN approved the name ''Proxima Centauri'' for ''Alpha Centauri C'' on 21 August 2016 and the name ''Rigil Kentaurus'' for ''Alpha Centauri A'' on 6 November 2016. They are now both so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.\n", "\nThe relative sizes and colours of stars in the Alpha Centauri system, compared to the Sun\n\nAlpha Centauri is the name given to what appears as a single star to the naked eye and the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus. At −0.27 apparent visual magnitude (calculated from A and B magnitudes), it is fainter only than Sirius and Canopus. The next-brightest star in the night sky is Arcturus. Alpha Centauri is a multiple-star system, with its two main stars being Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B , usually defined to identify them as the different components of the binary . A third companion—Proxima Centauri (or Proxima or )—is much further away than the distance between stars A and B, but is still gravitationally associated with the AB system. As viewed from Earth, it is located at an angular separation of 2.2° from the two main stars. Proxima Centauri would appear to the naked eye as a separate star from if it were bright enough to be seen without a telescope. Alpha Centauri AB and Proxima Centauri form a ''visual'' double star. Together, the three components make a triple star system, referred to by double-star observers as the triple star (or multiple star), .\n\nTogether, the bright visible components of the binary star system are called Alpha Centauri AB . This \"AB\" designation denotes the apparent gravitational centre of the main binary system relative to other companion star(s) in any multiple star system. \"AB-C\" refers to the orbit of Proxima around the central binary, being the distance between the centre of gravity and the outlying companion. Some older references use the confusing and now discontinued designation of A×B. Because the distance between the Sun and Alpha Centauri AB does not differ significantly from either star, gravitationally this binary system is considered as if it were one object.\n\nAsteroseismic studies, chromospheric activity, and stellar rotation (gyrochronology), are all consistent with the α Cen system being similar in age to, or slightly older than, the Sun, with typical ages quoted between 4.5 and 7 billion years (Gyr). Asteroseismic analyses that incorporate the tight observational constraints on the stellar parameters for α Cen A and/or B have yielded age estimates of Gyr, Gyr, 5.2–7.1 Gyr, 6.4 Gyr, and Gyr. Age estimates for stars A and B based on chromospheric activity (Calcium H & K emission) yield 4.4–6.5 Gyr, whereas gyrochronology yields Gyr.\n\n=== Alpha Centauri A ===\n\nAlpha Centauri A, also known as Rigil Kentaurus, is the principal member, or ''primary'', of the binary system, being slightly larger and more luminous than the Sun. It is a solar-like main-sequence star with a similar yellowish colour, whose stellar classification is spectral type G2 V. From the determined mutual orbital parameters, Alpha Centauri A is about 10 percent more massive than the Sun, with a radius about 22 percent larger. The projected rotational velocity of this star is , resulting in an estimated rotational period of 22 days, which gives it a slightly faster rotational period than the Sun's 25 days. When considered among the individual brightest stars in the sky (excluding the Sun), Alpha Centauri A is the fourth brightest at an apparent visual magnitude of +0.01, being fractionally fainter than Arcturus at an apparent visual magnitude of −0.04.\n\n=== Alpha Centauri B ===\n\nAlpha Centauri B is the companion star, or ''secondary'', of the binary system, and is slightly smaller and less luminous than the Sun. It is a main-sequence star of spectral type K1 V, making it more an orange colour than the primary star. Alpha Centauri B is about 90 percent the mass of the Sun and 14 percent smaller in radius. The projected rotational velocity is , resulting in an estimated rotational period of 41 days. (An earlier, 1995 estimate gave a similar rotation period of 36.8 days.) Although it has a lower luminosity than component A, star B emits more energy in the X-ray band. The light curve of B varies on a short time scale and there has been at least one observed flare. Alpha Centauri B at an apparent visual magnitude of 1.33 would be twenty-first in brightness if it could be seen independently of Alpha Centauri A.\n\n=== Alpha Centauri C (Proxima Centauri) ===\n\nAlpha Centauri C, also known as Proxima Centauri, is of spectral class M6 Ve, a small main-sequence star (Type V) with emission lines. Its B−V colour index is +1.82 and its mass is about 0.123 solar masses (), or 129 Jupiter masses.\n", "\n\nThe two Alpha Centauri AB binary stars are too close together to be resolved by the naked eye, because the angular separation varies between 2 and 22 arcsec (the naked eye has a resolution of 60 arcsec), but through much of the orbit, both are easily resolved in binoculars or small telescopes.\n\nIn the southern hemisphere, Alpha Centauri forms the outer star of ''The Pointers'' or ''The Southern Pointers'', so called because the line through Beta Centauri (Hadar/Agena),\nsome 4.5° west, points directly to the constellation Crux—the Southern Cross. The Pointers easily distinguish the true Southern Cross from the fainter asterism known as the False Cross.\n\nThe two bright stars at the lower right are Alpha (right) and Beta Centauri (left, above antenna). A line drawn through them points to the four bright stars of the Southern Cross, just to the right of the dome of La Silla Observatory.\n\nSouth of about 29° S latitude, Alpha Centauri is circumpolar and never sets below the horizon. Both stars and Crux are too far south to be visible for mid-latitude northern observers. Below about 29° N latitude to the equator (roughly Hermosillo, Chihuahua City in Mexico, Galveston, Texas, Ocala, Florida and Lanzarote, the Canary Islands of Spain) during the northern summer, Alpha Centauri lies close to the southern horizon. The star culminates each year at midnight on 24 April or 9 p.m. on 8 June.\n\nAs seen from Earth, Proxima Centauri is 2.2° southwest from Alpha Centauri AB. This is about four times the angular diameter of the Full Moon, and almost exactly half the distance between Alpha Centauri AB and Beta Centauri. Proxima usually appears as a deep-red star of an apparent visual magnitude of 11.1 in a sparsely populated star field, requiring moderately sized telescopes to see. Listed as V645 Cen in the ''General Catalogue of Variable Stars (G.C.V.S.) Version 4.2'', this UV Ceti-type flare star can unexpectedly brighten rapidly by as much as 0.6 magnitudes at visual wavelengths, then fade after only a few minutes. Some amateur and professional astronomers regularly monitor for outbursts using either optical or radio telescopes. In August 2015 the largest recorded flares of the star occurred, with the star becoming 8.3 times brighter than normal on August 13.\n", "View of Alpha Centauri from the Digitized Sky Survey 2\n\nEnglish explorer Robert Hues brought Alpha Centauri to the attention of European observers in his 1592 work ''Tractatus de Globis'', along with Canopus and Achernar, noting \"Now, therefore, there are but three Stars of the first magnitude that I could perceive in all those parts which are never seene here in England. The first of these is that bright Star in the sterne of Argo which they call Canobus. The second is in the end of Eridanus. The third Alpha Centauri is in the right foote of the Centaure.\"\n\nThe binary nature of Alpha Centauri AB was first recognized in December 1689 by astronomer and Jesuit priest Jean Richaud. The finding was made incidentally while observing a passing comet from his station in Puducherry. Alpha Centauri was only the second binary star system to be discovered, preceded by Alpha Crucis.\n\nBy 1752, French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille made astrometric positional measurements using state-of-the-art instruments of that time. Its large proper motion was discovered by Manuel John Johnson, observing from Saint Helena, who informed Thomas Henderson at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope of it. The parallax of Alpha Centauri was subsequently determined by Henderson from many exacting positional observations of the AB system between April 1832 and May 1833. He withheld his results, however, because he suspected they were too large to be true, but eventually published them in 1839 after Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel released his own accurately determined parallax for 61 Cygni in 1838. For this reason, Alpha Centauri is sometimes considered as the second star to have its distance measured because Henderson's work was not fully recognized at first. (The distance of Alpha is now reckoned at .)\n\nLater, John Herschel made the first micrometrical observations in 1834. Since the early 20th century, measures have been made with photographic plates.\n\nCompared to the Sun, Alpha Centauri A is of the same stellar type G2, while Alpha Centauri B is a K1-type star.\n\nBy 1926, South African astronomer William Stephen Finsen calculated the approximate orbit elements close to those now accepted for this system. All future positions are now sufficiently accurate for visual observers to determine the relative places of the stars from a binary star ephemeris. Others, like the Belgian astronomer D. Pourbaix (2002), have regularly refined the precision of any new published orbital elements.\n\nAlpha Centauri is inside the G-cloud, and the nearest known system to it is the binary brown dwarf system Luhman 16 at .\n\nScottish astronomer Robert T. A. Innes discovered Proxima Centauri in 1915 by blinking photographic plates taken at different times during a dedicated proper motion survey. This showed the large proper motion and parallax of the star was similar in both size and direction to those of Alpha Centauri AB, suggesting immediately it was part of the system and slightly closer to Earth than Alpha Centauri AB. Lying away, Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to the Sun. All current derived distances for the three stars are from the parallaxes obtained from the Hipparcos star catalogue (HIP) and the Hubble Space Telescope.\n", "\nApparent and true orbits of Alpha Centauri. The A component is held stationary and the relative orbital motion of the B component is shown. The apparent orbit (thin ellipse) is the shape of the orbit as seen by an observer on Earth. The true orbit is the shape of the orbit viewed perpendicular to the plane of the orbital motion. According to the radial velocity vs. time the radial separation of A and B along the line of sight had reached a maximum in 2007 with B being behind A. The orbit is divided here into 80 points, each step refers to a timestep of approx. 0.99888 years or 364.84 days.\n\nWith the orbital period of 79.91 years, the A and B components of this binary star can approach each other to , or about the mean distance between the Sun and Saturn; and may recede as far as , approximately the distance from the Sun to Pluto. This is a consequence of the binary's moderate orbital eccentricity ''e'' = 0.5179. From the orbital elements, the total mass of both stars is about —or twice that of the Sun. The average individual stellar masses are and , respectively, though slightly higher masses have been quoted in recent years, such as and , or totalling . Alpha Centauri A and B have absolute magnitudes of +4.38 and +5.71, respectively. Stellar evolution theory implies both stars are slightly older than the Sun at 5 to 6 billion years, as derived by both mass and their spectral characteristics.\n\nViewed from Earth, the ''apparent orbit'' of this binary star means that its separation and position angle (PA) are in continuous change throughout its projected orbit. Observed stellar positions in 2010 are separated by 6.74 arcsec through the PA of 245.7°, reducing to 6.04 arcsec through 251.8° in 2011. The closest recent approach was in February 2016, at 4.0 arcsec through 300°. The observed maximum separation of these stars is about 22 arcsec, while the minimum distance is 1.7 arcsec. The widest separation occurred during February 1976 and the next will be in January 2056.\n\nIn the ''true orbit'', closest approach or periastron was in August 1955, and next in May 2035. Furthest orbital separation at apastron last occurred in May 1995 and the next will be in 2075. The apparent distance between the two stars is rapidly decreasing, at least until 2019.\n\n=== Proxima Centauri ===\n\n\nThe much fainter red dwarf Proxima Centauri, or simply Proxima, is about 13,000 astronomical units (AU) away from Alpha Centauri AB. This is equivalent to —about 5% the distance between Alpha Centauri AB and the Sun. Due to the large distance between Proxima and Alpha, it was long unknown whether they were gravitationally bound. The true orbital speed is necessarily small, and it was necessary to measure the speeds of Proxima and Alpha with a great precision. Otherwise it was impossible to ascertain whether Proxima is bound to Alpha or whether it is a completely unrelated star that happens to be undergoing a close approach at a low relative speed. Probability suggested that such low speed approaches would be rare and unlikely, but it could not be ruled out.\n\nIt was only in 2017 that a paper by Kervella, et al., showed that, based on high precision radial velocity measurements and with a high degree of confidence, Proxima and Alpha Centauri are in fact gravitationally bound. The orbital period of Proxima is approximately 550,000 years, with an eccentricity of . Proxima comes within of Alpha Centauri AB at periastron, and the apastron occurs at .\n\nRelative positions of Sun, Alpha Centauri AB and Proxima Centauri. Grey dot is projection of Proxima Centauri, located at the same distance as Alpha Centauri AB.\n\n\nProxima is a red dwarf of spectral class M6 Ve with an absolute magnitude of +15.60, which is only a small fraction of the Sun's luminosity. By mass, Proxima is calculated as (rounded to ) or about one-eighth that of the Sun.\n", "Stars closest to the Sun, including ''Alpha Centauri'' (25 April 2014).\n\nAll components of Alpha Centauri display significant proper motions against the background sky, similar to the first-magnitude stars Sirius and Arcturus. Over the centuries, this causes the apparent stellar positions to slowly change. Such motions define the ''high-proper-motion stars''. These stellar motions were unknown to ancient astronomers. Most assumed that all stars were immortal and permanently fixed on the celestial sphere, as stated in the works of the philosopher Aristotle.\n\nEdmond Halley in 1718 found that some stars had significantly moved from their ancient astrometric positions. For example, the bright star Arcturus (α Boo) in the constellation of Boötes showed an almost 0.5° difference in 1800 years, as did the brightest star, Sirius, in Canis Major (α CMa). Halley's positional comparison was Ptolemy's catalogue of stars contained in the Almagest whose original data included portions from an earlier catalogue by Hipparchos during the . Halley's proper motions were mostly for northern stars, so the southern star Alpha Centauri was not determined until the early 19th century.\n\nScottish-born observer Thomas Henderson in the 1830s at the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope discovered the true distance to Alpha Centauri. He soon realized this system displayed an unusually high proper motion, and therefore its observed true velocity through space should be much larger. In this case, the apparent stellar motion was found using Nicolas Louis de Lacaille's astrometric observations of 1751–1752, by the observed differences between the two measured positions in different epochs. Using the Hipparcos Star Catalogue (HIP) data, the mean individual proper motions are −3678 mas/yr or −3.678 arcsec per year in right ascension and +481.84 mas/yr or 0.48184 arcsec per year in declination. As proper motions are cumulative, the motion of Alpha Centauri is about 6.1 arcmin each century, and 61.3 arcmin or 1.02° each millennium. These motions are about one-fifth and twice, respectively, the diameter of the full Moon. Using spectroscopy the mean radial velocity has been determined to be around 20 km/s towards the Solar System.\n\nAs the stars of Alpha Centauri approach the Solar System, the measured proper motion and trigonometric parallax slowly increase. Changes are also observed in the size of the semi-major axis of the orbital ellipse, increasing by 0.03 arcsec per century. This small effect is gradually decreasing until the star system is at its closest to Earth, and is then reversed as the distance increases again. Consequently, the observed position angles of the stars are subject to changes in the orbital elements over time, as first determined by W. H. van den Bos in 1926. Some slight differences of about 0.5 percent in the measured proper motions are caused by Alpha Centauri AB's orbital motion.\n\nApparent motion of Alpha Centauri relative to Beta Centauri\n\nBased on these observed proper motions and radial velocities, Alpha Centauri will continue to gradually brighten, passing just north of the Southern Cross or Crux, before moving northwest and up towards the celestial equator and away from the galactic plane. By about 29,700 AD, in the present-day constellation of Hydra, Alpha Centauri will be away. Then it will reach the stationary radial velocity (RVel) of 0.0 km/s and the maximum apparent magnitude of −0.86v (which is comparable to present-day magnitude of Canopus). Even during the time of this nearest approach, however, the apparent magnitude of Alpha Centauri will still not surpass that of Sirius, which will brighten incrementally over the next 60,000 years, and will continue to be the brightest star as seen from Earth for the next 210,000 years.\n\nThe Alpha Centauri system will then begin to move away from the Solar System, showing a positive radial velocity. Because of visual perspective, about 100,000 years from now, these stars will reach a final vanishing point and slowly disappear among the countless stars of the Milky Way. Here this once bright yellow star will fall below naked-eye visibility somewhere in the faint present day southern constellation of Telescopium. This unusual location results from the fact that Alpha Centauri's orbit around the galactic centre is highly tilted with respect to the plane of the Milky Way.\n\nIn about 4000 years, the proper motion of Alpha Centauri will mean that from the point of view of Earth it will appear close enough to Beta Centauri to form an optical double star. Beta Centauri is in reality far more distant than Alpha Centauri.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n=== Proxima Centauri b ===\n\n\nIn August 2016, the European Southern Observatory announced the discovery of a planet slightly larger than the Earth orbiting Proxima Centauri. Proxima Centauri b was found using the radial velocity method, where periodic Doppler shifts of spectral lines of the host star suggest an orbiting object. From these readings, the radial velocity of the parent star relative to the Earth is varying with an amplitude of about per second. The planet lies in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri, but it is possible that the planet is tidally locked to the star, resulting in temperature extremes that would be difficult for life to overcome.\n\n=== Alpha Centauri Bb ===\n\nIn 2012, a planet around Alpha Centauri B was announced, but in 2015 a new analysis concluded that it almost certainly does not exist and was just a spurious artefact of the data analysis.\n\n=== Possible detection of another planet ===\nOn 25 March 2015, a scientific paper by Demory and colleagues published transit results for Alpha Centauri B using the Hubble Space Telescope for a total of 40 hours. They evidenced a transit event possibly corresponding to a planetary body with a radius around . This planet would most likely orbit Alpha Centauri B with an orbital period of 20.4 days or less, with only a 5 percent chance of it having a longer orbit. The median average of the likely orbits is 12.4 days with an impact parameter of around 0–0.3. Its orbit would likely have an eccentricity of 0.24 or less. Like the probably spurious Alpha Centauri Bb, it likely has lakes of molten lava and would be far too close to Alpha Centauri B to harbour life.\n\n=== Possibility of additional planets ===\n\nThe discovery of planets orbiting other star systems, including similar binary systems (Gamma Cephei), raises the possibility that additional planets may exist in the Alpha Centauri system. Such planets could orbit Alpha Centauri A or Alpha Centauri B individually, or be on large orbits around the binary Alpha Centauri AB. Because both the principal stars are fairly similar to the Sun (for example, in age and metallicity), astronomers have been especially interested in making detailed searches for planets in the Alpha Centauri system. Several established planet-hunting teams have used various radial velocity or star transit methods in their searches around these two bright stars. All the observational studies have so far failed to find any evidence for brown dwarfs or gas giants.\n\nIn 2009, computer simulations showed that a planet might have been able to form near the inner edge of Alpha Centauri B's habitable zone, which extends from 0.5 to 0.9 AU from the star. Certain special assumptions, such as considering that Alpha Centauri A and B may have initially formed with a wider separation and later moved closer to each other (as might be possible if they formed in a dense star cluster) would permit an accretion-friendly environment farther from the star. Bodies around A would be able to orbit at slightly farther distances due to A's stronger gravity. In addition, the lack of any brown dwarfs or gas giants in close orbits around A or B make the likelihood of terrestrial planets greater than otherwise. Theoretical studies on the detectability via radial velocity analysis have shown that a dedicated campaign of high-cadence observations with a 1-meter class telescope can reliably detect a hypothetical planet of in the habitable zone of B within three years.\n\nRadial velocity measurements of Alpha Centauri B with High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher spectrograph ruled out planets of more than to the distance of the habitable zone of the star (orbital period P = 200 days).\n\nCurrent estimates place the probability of finding an earth-like planet around Alpha Centauri A or B at roughly 85%, although this number remains uncertain.\n\n=== Theoretical planets ===\nEarly computer-generated models of planetary formation predicted the existence of terrestrial planets around both Alpha Centauri A and B, but most recent numerical investigations have shown that the gravitational pull of the companion star renders the accretion of planets very difficult. Despite these difficulties, given the similarities to the Sun in spectral types, star type, age and probable stability of the orbits, it has been suggested that this stellar system could hold one of the best possibilities for harbouring extraterrestrial life on a potential planet.\n\nIn the Solar System both Jupiter and Saturn were probably crucial in perturbing comets into the inner Solar System. Here, the comets provided the inner planets with their own source of water and various other ices. In the Alpha Centauri system, Proxima Centauri may have influenced the planetary disk as the Alpha Centauri system was forming, enriching the area around Alpha Centauri A and B with volatile materials. This would be discounted if, for example, Alpha Centauri B happened to have gas giants orbiting Alpha Centauri A (or conversely, Alpha Centauri A for Alpha Centauri B), or if the stars B and A themselves were able to perturb comets into each other's inner system as Jupiter and Saturn presumably have done in the Solar System. Such icy bodies probably also reside in Oort clouds of other planetary systems, when they are influenced gravitationally by either the gas giants or disruptions by passing nearby stars many of these icy bodies then travel starwards. There is no direct evidence yet of the existence of such an Oort cloud around Alpha Centauri AB, and theoretically this may have been totally destroyed during the system's formation.\n\nTo be in the star's habitable zone, any suspected planet around Alpha Centauri A would have to be optimally placed about 1.25 AU away – about halfway between the distances of Earth's orbit and Mars's orbit in the Solar System – so as to have similar planetary temperatures and conditions for liquid water to exist. For the slightly less luminous and cooler Alpha Centauri B, the habitable zone would lie closer at about , approximately the distance that Venus is from the Sun.\n\nWith the goal of finding evidence of such planets, both Proxima Centauri and Alpha Centauri AB were among the listed \"Tier 1\" target stars for NASA's Space Interferometry Mission (SIM). Detecting planets as small as three Earth-masses or smaller within two astronomical units of a \"Tier 1\" target would have been possible with this new instrument. The SIM mission, however, was cancelled due to financial issues in 2010.\n\n=== Circumstellar discs ===\nBased on observations between 2007 and 2012, a study found a slight excess of emissions in the 24 µm (mid/far-infrared) band surrounding , which may be interpreted as evidence for a sparse circumstellar disc or dense interplanetary dust. The total mass was estimated to be between to the mass of the Moon, or 10-100 times the mass of the Solar System's zodiacal cloud. If such a disc existed around both stars, disc would likely be stable to 2.8 AU, and would likely be stable to 2.5 AU. This would put A's disc entirely within the frost line, and a small part of B's outer disc just outside.\n", "Looking towards the sky around Orion from Alpha Centauri with Sirius near Betelgeuse, Procyon in Gemini, and the Sun between Perseus and Cassiopeia generated by Celestia\nViewed from near the Alpha Centauri system, the sky would appear very much as it does for an observer on Earth, except that Centaurus would be missing its brightest star. The Sun would be a yellow star of an apparent visual magnitude of +0.5 in eastern Cassiopeia, at the antipodal point of Alpha Centauri's current right ascension and declination, at (2000). This place is close to the 3.4-magnitude star ε Cassiopeiae. Because of the placement of the Sun, an interstellar or alien observer would find the \\/\\/ of Cassiopeia had become a /\\/\\/ shape nearly in front of the Heart Nebula in Cassiopeia. Sirius lies less than a degree from Betelgeuse in the otherwise unmodified Orion and with a magnitude of −1.2 is a little fainter than from Earth but still the brightest star in the Alpha Centauri sky. Procyon is also displaced into the middle of Gemini, outshining Pollux, whereas both Vega and Altair are shifted northwestward relative to Deneb (which barely moves, due to its great distance), giving the Summer Triangle a more equilateral appearance.\n\n=== View from Proxima Centauri b ===\nFrom Proxima Centauri b, Alpha Centauri AB would appear like two close bright stars with the combined apparent magnitude of −6.8. Depending on the binary's orbital position, the bright stars would appear noticeably divisible to the naked eye, or occasionally, but briefly, as a single unresolved star. Based on the calculated absolute magnitudes, the visual apparent magnitudes of Alpha Centauri A and B would be −6.5 and −5.2, respectively.\n\n=== View from a hypothetical A or B planet ===\nArtist's rendition of the view from a hypothetical airless planet orbiting Alpha Centauri A\n\nAn observer on a hypothetical planet orbiting around either Alpha Centauri A or Alpha Centauri B would see the other star of the binary system as an intensely bright object in the night sky, showing a small but discernible disk while near periapse: A up to 210 arc seconds, B up to 155 arc seconds. Near apoapse, the disc would shrink to 60 arc seconds for A, 43 arc seconds for B, being too small to resolve by naked eye. In any case, the dazzling surface brightness could make the discs harder to resolve than a similarly sized less bright object.\n\nFor example, some theoretical planet orbiting about 1.25 AU from Alpha Centauri A (so that the star appears roughly as bright as the Sun viewed from the Earth) would see Alpha Centauri B orbit the entire sky once roughly every one year and three months (or 1.3(4) a), the planet's own orbital period. Added to this would be the changing apparent position of Alpha Centauri B during its long eighty-year elliptical orbit with respect to Alpha Centauri A. (The average speed, at 4.5 degrees per Earth year, is comparable in speed to Uranus here. With the eccentricity of the orbit, the maximum speed near periapse, about 18 degrees per Earth year, is faster than Saturn, but slower than Jupiter. The minimum speed near apoapse, about 1.8 degrees per Earth year, is slower than Neptune.) Depending on its and the planet's position on their respective orbits, Alpha Centauri B would vary in apparent magnitude between −18.2 (dimmest) and −21.0 (brightest). These visual apparent magnitudes are much dimmer than the apparent magnitude of the Sun as viewed from the Earth (−26.7). The difference of 5.7 to 8.6 magnitudes means Alpha Centauri B would appear, on a linear scale, 2500 to 190 times dimmer than Alpha Centauri A (or the Sun viewed from the Earth), but also 190 to 2500 times brighter than the full Moon as seen from the Earth (−12.5).\n\nAlso, if another similar planet orbited at 0.71 AU from Alpha Centauri B (so that in turn Alpha Centauri B appeared as bright as the Sun seen from the Earth), this hypothetical planet would receive slightly more light from the more luminous Alpha Centauri A, which would shine 4.7 to 7.3 magnitudes dimmer than Alpha Centauri B (or the Sun seen from the Earth), ranging in apparent magnitude between −19.4 (dimmest) and −22.1 (brightest). Thus Alpha Centauri A would appear between 830 and 70 times dimmer than the Sun but some 580 to 6900 times brighter than the full Moon. During the orbital period of such a planet of 0.6(3) a, an observer on the planet would see this intensely bright companion star circle the sky just as humans see with the Solar System's planets. Furthermore, Alpha Centauri A's sidereal period of approximately eighty years means that this star would move through the local ecliptic as slowly as Uranus with its eighty-four year period, but as the orbit of Alpha Centauri A is more elliptical, its apparent magnitude will be far more variable. Although intensely bright to the eye, the overall illumination would not significantly affect climate nor influence normal plant photosynthesis.\n\nAn observer on the hypothetical planet would notice a change in orientation to very-long-baseline interferometry reference points commensurate with the binary orbit periodicity plus or minus any local effects such as precession or nutation.\n\nAssuming this hypothetical planet had a low orbital inclination with respect to the mutual orbit of Alpha Centauri A and B, then the secondary star would start beside the primary at \"stellar\" conjunction. Half the period later, at \"stellar\" opposition, both stars would be opposite each other in the sky. As a net result, both the local sun and the other star would each be in the sky for half a day, like Sun and Moon are both above the horizon for half a day. But during stellar conjunction, the other star being \"new\" would be in the sky during daytime, while during the opposition, the other star being \"full\" would be in the sky for the whole night. In an Earth-like atmosphere, the light of the other star would be appreciably scattered, causing the sky to be perceptibly blue though darker than during daytime, like during twilight or total solar eclipse. Humans could easily walk around and clearly see the surrounding terrain, and reading a book would be quite possible without any artificial light. Over the following half period, the secondary star would be in the sky for a progressively decreasing part of the night (and an increasing part of the day) until at the next conjunction the secondary star would only be in the sky during daytime near the primary star.\n\nFrom a planet orbiting Alpha Centauri A or B, Proxima Centauri would appear as a fourth to fifth magnitude star, as bright as the faint stars of the constellation of Ursa Minor.\n\n", "nearest stars from 20,000 years ago until 80,000 years in the future\n\nIn modern literature, ''Rigil Kent'' (also ''Rigel Kent'' and variants; ) and ''Toliman'', were cited as colloquial alternative names of Alpha Centauri.\n\n''Rigil Kent'' is short for ''Rigil Kentaurus'', which is sometimes further abbreviated to ''Rigil'' or ''Rigel'', though that is ambiguous with Beta Orionis, which is also called Rigel. Although the short form ''Rigel Kent'' is often cited as an alternative name, the star system is most widely referred to by its Bayer designation ''Alpha Centauri.''\n\nThe name ''Toliman'' originates with Jacobus Golius' edition of Al-Farghani's ''Compendium'' (published posthumously in 1669). ''Tolimân'' is Golius' latinization of the Arabic name \"the ostriches\", the name of an asterism of which Alpha Centauri formed the main star.\n\nDuring the 19th century, the northern amateur popularist Elijah H. Burritt used the now-obscure name ''Bungula'', possibly coined from \"β\" and the Latin ''ungula'' (\"hoof\").\n\nTogether, Alpha and Beta Centauri form the \"Southern Pointers\" or \"The Pointers\", as they point towards the Southern Cross, the asterism of the constellation of Crux.\n\nIn Standard Mandarin Chinese, ''Nán Mén'', meaning ''Southern Gate'', refers to an asterism consisting of α Centauri and ε Centauri. Consequently, α Centauri itself is known as ''Nán Mén Èr'', the Second Star of the Southern Gate.\n\nTo the Australian aboriginal Boorong people of northwestern Victoria, Alpha and Beta Centauri are ''Bermbermgle'', two brothers noted for their courage and destructiveness, who speared and killed ''Tchingal'' \"The Emu\" (the Coalsack Nebula). The form in Wotjobaluk is ''Bram-bram-bult''.\n\n", "The Very Large Telescope and star system Alpha Centauri.\n\nAlpha Centauri is envisioned as a likely first target for manned or unmanned interstellar exploration. Crossing the huge distance between the Sun and Alpha Centauri using current spacecraft technologies would take several millennia, though the possibility of nuclear pulse propulsion or laser light sail technology, as considered in the Breakthrough Starshot program, could reduce the journey time to a matter of decades.\n\nBreakthrough Starshot is a proof-of-concept initiative to send a fleet of ultra-fast light-driven nanocraft to explore the Alpha Centauri system, which could pave the way for a first launch within the next generation. An objective of the mission would be to make a fly-by of, and possibly photograph, any planets that might exist in the system. Proxima Centauri b, announced by the European Southern Observatory (ESO) in August 2016, would be a target for the Starshot program.\n\nIn January 2017, Breakthrough Initiatives and the ESO entered a collaboration to enable and implement a search for habitable planets in the Alpha Centauri system. The agreement involves Breakthrough Initiatives providing funding for an upgrade to the VISIR (VLT Imager and Spectrometer for mid-Infrared) instrument on ESO's Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile. This upgrade will greatly increase the likelihood of planet detection in the system.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n+ Alpha Centauri AB distance estimates\n\n Source !! Parallax, mas !! Distance, pc !! Distance, ly !! Distance, Pm !! Ref.\n\nHenderson (1839)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nHenderson (1842)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nMaclear (1851)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nMoesta (1868)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nGill & Elkin (1885)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRoberts (1895)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWoolley ''et al.'' (1970)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nGliese & Jahreiß (1991)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nvan Altena ''et al.'' (1995)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPerryman ''et al.'' (1997) (A and B)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSöderhjelm (1999)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nvan Leeuwen (2007) (A)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nvan Leeuwen (2007) (B)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRECONS TOP100 (2012)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "* Alpha Centauri in fiction\n* List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs\n* Project Longshot\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* SIMBAD observational data\n* Sixth Catalogue of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars U.S.N.O.\n* The Imperial Star – Alpha Centauri\n* Alpha Centauri – A Voyage to Alpha Centauri\n* Immediate History of Alpha Centauri\n* eSky : Alpha Centauri\n* Alpha Centauri at Constellation Guide\n\n=== Hypothetical planets or exploration ===\n* \n* Alpha Centauri System\n* O Sistema Alpha Centauri (Portuguese)\n* Alpha Centauri – Associação de Astronomia (Portuguese)\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nhttps://ms.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusajishi_Yachiru\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Nomenclature ", " Nature and components ", " Observation ", " Observational history ", " Binary system ", " Kinematics ", " Planets ", " View from this system ", " Other names ", " Exploration ", " Distance ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]	Alpha Centauri
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Amiga''' is a family of personal computers sold by Commodore starting in 1985. The original model was part of a wave of 16 and 32 bit computers that featured 256KB or more of RAM, mouse-based GUIs, and significantly improved graphics and audio over 8-bit systems. This wave included the Atari ST—released the same year—Apple's Macintosh, and later the Apple IIGS. Based on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, the Amiga differed from its contemporaries through the inclusion of custom hardware to accelerate graphics and sound, including sprites and a blitter, and a pre-emptive multitasking operating system called AmigaOS.\n\nThe Amiga 1000 was officially released in July 1985, but a series of production problems kept it from becoming widely available until early 1986. The best selling model, the Amiga 500, was introduced in 1987 and became one of the leading home computers of the late 1980s and early 1990s with four to six million sold. The A3000, introduced in 1990, started the second generation of Amiga systems, followed by the A500+, and the A600 in March 1992. Finally, as the third generation, the A1200 and the A4000 were released in late 1992. The platform became particularly popular for gaming and programming demos. It also found a prominent role in the desktop video, video production, and show control business, leading to video editing systems such as the Video Toaster. The Amiga's native ability to simultaneously play back multiple digital sound samples made it a popular platform for early tracker music software. The relatively powerful processor and ability to access several megabytes of memory led to the development of several 3D rendering packages, including LightWave 3D, Imagine, Aladdin4D, and TurboSilver.\n\nAlthough early Commodore advertisements attempt to cast the computer as an all-purpose business machine, especially when outfitted with the Amiga Sidecar PC compatibility add-on, the Amiga was most commercially successful as a home computer, with a wide range of games and creative software. Poor marketing and the failure of the later models to repeat the technological advances of the first systems meant that the Amiga quickly lost its market share to competing platforms, such as the fourth generation game consoles, Macintosh, and the rapidly dropping prices of IBM PC compatibles which gained 256 color VGA graphics in 1987. Commodore ultimately went bankrupt in April 1994 after the Amiga CD32 model failed in the marketplace.\n\nSince the demise of Commodore, various groups have marketed successors to the original Amiga line, including Genesi, Eyetech, ACube Systems Srl and A-EON Technology. Likewise, AmigaOS has influenced replacements, clones and compatible systems such as MorphOS, AmigaOS 4 and AROS.\n", "\n\n\n\n===Concept and early development===\nJay Miner joined Atari in the 1970s to develop custom integrated circuits, and led development of the Atari 2600's TIA. Almost as soon as its development was complete, the team began developing a much more sophisticated set of chips, CTIA, ANTIC and POKEY, that formed the basis of the Atari 8-bit family.\n\nWith the 8-bit line's launch in 1979, the team once again started looking at a next generation chipset. Nolan Bushnell had sold the company to Warner Communications in 1978, and the new management was much more interested in the existing lines than development of new products that might cut into their sales. Miner wanted to start work with the new Motorola 68000, but management was only interested in another 6502 based system. Miner left the company, and the industry.\n\nIn 1979, Larry Kaplan left Atari and founded Activision. In 1982, Kaplan was approached by a number of investors who wanted to develop a new game platform. Kaplan hired Miner to run the hardware side of the newly formed company, \"Hi-Toro\". The system was code-named \"Lorraine\" in keeping with Miner's policy of giving systems female names, in this case the company president's wife, Lorraine Morse. When Kaplan left the company late in 1982, Miner was promoted to head engineer and the company relaunched as Amiga Corporation.\n\nA breadboard prototype was largely completed by late 1983, and shown at the January 1984 Consumer Electronics Show (CES) with the Boing Ball demo. A further developed version was demonstrated at the June 1984 CES and shown to many companies in hopes of garnering further funding, but found little interest in a market that was in the final stages of the North American video game crash of 1983.\n\nIn March, Atari expressed a tepid interest in Lorraine for its potential use in a games console or home computer tentatively known as the 1850XLD. But the talks were progressing slowly, and Amiga was running out of money. A temporary arrangement led to a $500,000 loan from Atari to Amiga to keep the company going. The terms required the loan to be repaid in one month, otherwise Amiga would forfeit the Lorraine design to Atari.\n\n===Commodore launch===\nDuring 1983, Atari lost over $1 million a week, due to the combined effects of the crash and the ongoing price war in the home computer market. Warner became desperate to sell the company. Jack Tramiel resigned from Commodore in January 1984 due to internal battles over the future direction of the company. In June, Tramiel arranged a no-cash deal to take over Atari and reformed it as Atari Corporation.\n\nTramiel's purchase of Atari resulted in a considerable number of Commodore employees following him, including a number of the senior technical staff. This left Commodore with no workable path to a next generation computer. The company approached Amiga offering to fund development as a home computer system. They quickly arranged to repay the Atari loan, ending that threat. The two companies were initially arranging a $4 million license agreement before Commodore offered $24 million to purchase Amiga outright.\n\nBy late 1984 the prototype breadboard chipset had successfully been turned into integrated circuits, and the system hardware was being readied for production. At this time the operating system (OS) was not as ready, and led to a deal to port an OS known as TRIPOS to the platform. TRIPOS was a multitasking system that had been written in BCPL during the 1970s for minicomputer systems like the PDP-11, but later experimentally ported to the 68000. This early version was known as AmigaDOS and the GUI as Workbench. The BCPL parts were later rewritten in the C language, and the entire system became AmigaOS.\n\nIn common with many contemporaneous Unix workstations, the system was enclosed in a pizza box form factor case; a late change was the introduction of vertical supports on either side of the case to provide a \"garage\" under the main section of the system where the keyboard could be stored.\n\nThe first model was announced in 1985 as simply \"The Amiga from Commodore\", later to be retroactively dubbed the Amiga 1000. They were first offered for sale in August, but by October only 50 had been built, all of which were used by Commodore. Machines only began to arrive in quantity in mid-November, meaning they missed the Christmas buying rush. By the end of the year, they had sold 35,000 machines, and severe cashflow problems made the company pull out of the January 1986 CES. Bad or entirely missing marketing, forcing the development team to move to the east coast, notorious stability problems and other blunders limited sales in early 1986 to between 10,000 and 15,000 units a month.\n\n===Commercial success===\nIn late 1985 Thomas Rattigan was promoted to COO of Commodore, and then to CEO in February 1986. He immediately implemented an ambitious plan that covered almost all of the company's operations. Among these were the long overdue cancelation of the now outdated PET and VIC-20 lines, as well as a variety of poorly selling Commodore 64 offshoots and the Commodore 900 workstation effort.\n\nAnother of the changes was to split the Amiga into two products, a new high-end version of the Amiga aimed at the creative market, and a cost-reduced version that would take over for the Commodore 64 in the low-end market. These new designs were released in 1987 as the Amiga 2000 and Amiga 500, the latter of which went on to widespread success and became their best selling model.\n\nSimilar high-end/low-end models would make up the Amiga line for the rest of its history; follow-on designs included the Amiga 3000/Amiga 500 Plus/Amiga 600, and the Amiga 4000/Amiga 1200. These models incorporated a series of technical upgrades known as the ECS and AGA, which added higher resolution displays among many other improvements and simplifications.\n\nUltimately the Amiga line would sell an estimated 4,850,000 machines over its lifetime. The machines were most popular in the UK and Germany, with about 1.5 million sold in each country, and sales in the high hundreds of thousands in other European nations. The machine was less popular in North America, where an estimated 700,000 were sold. In particular, in the U.S. the Amiga did not achieve any success outside of Commodore's traditional enthusiast market except in vertical markets for video processing and editing.\n\n===Bankruptcy ===\nIn spite of his successes in making the company profitable and bringing the Amiga line to market, Rattigan was soon forced out in a power struggle with majority shareholder, Irving Gould. This is widely regarded as the turning point, as further improvements to the Amiga were eroded by rapid improvements in other platforms.\n\nIn 1994, Commodore filed for bankruptcy and its assets were purchased by Escom, a German PC manufacturer, who created the subsidiary company Amiga Technologies. They re-released the A1200 and A4000T, and introduced a new 68060 version of the A4000T. However, Escom in turn went bankrupt in 1997.\n\nThe Amiga brand was then sold to a US Wintel PC manufacturer, Gateway 2000, which had announced grand plans for it. However, in 2000, Gateway sold the Amiga brand without having released any products. The current owner of the trademark, Amiga, Inc., licensed the rights to sell hardware using the Amiga or AmigaOne brand to Eyetech Group, Hyperion Entertainment and Commodore USA.\n", "Amiga 1000\nAmiga 600\nAmiga 1200\nAmiga CD32\nAmiga diskette containing the Deluxe Paint bitmap graphics editing program\nAt its core, the Amiga has a custom chipset consisting of several coprocessors, which handle audio, video and direct memory access independently of the Central Processing Unit (CPU). This architecture freed up the Amiga's processor for other tasks and gave the Amiga a performance edge over its competitors, particularly in terms of video-intensive applications and games.\n\nThe general Amiga architecture uses two distinct bus subsystems, namely, the chipset bus and the CPU bus. The chipset bus allows the custom coprocessors and CPU to address \"Chip RAM\". The CPU bus provides addressing to other subsystems, such as conventional RAM, ROM and the Zorro II or Zorro III expansion subsystems. This architecture enables independent operation of the subsystems; the CPU \"Fast\" bus can be much faster than the chipset bus. CPU expansion boards may provide additional custom buses. Additionally, \"busboards\" or \"bridgeboards\" may provide ISA or PCI buses.\n\n=== Central processing unit ===\nThe Motorola 68000 series of microprocessors was used in all Amiga models from Commodore. While all CPU in the 68000 family have a 32-bit ISA design (programmer uses and sees a 32-bit model), the MC68000 used in the most popular models is a 16-bit (or 16/32-bit) processor because its ALU operates in 16-bit (32-bit operations require additional clock cycles, consuming more time). The MC68000 has a 16-bit external data bus so 32-bits of data is transferred in two consecutive steps, a technique called multiplexing. This is transparent to the software, which was 32-bit from the beginning. The MC68000 can address 16 MB of physical memory. Later Amiga models featured higher-speed, full 32-bit CPUs with a larger address space and instruction pipeline facilities.\n\nCPU upgrades were offered by both Commodore and third-party manufacturers. Most Amiga models can be upgraded either by direct CPU replacement or through expansion boards. Such boards often featured faster and higher capacity memory interfaces and hard disk controllers.\n\nTowards the end of Commodore's time in charge of Amiga development there were suggestions that Commodore intended to move away from the 68000 series to higher performance RISC processors, such as the PA-RISC. However, these ideas were never developed before Commodore filed for bankruptcy. Despite this, third-party manufacturers designed upgrades featuring a combination of 68000 series and PowerPC processors along with a PowerPC native microkernel and software. Later Amiga clones featured PowerPC processors only.\n\n=== Custom chipset ===\nThe custom chipset at the core of the Amiga design appeared in three distinct generations, with a large degree of backward-compatibility. The Original Chip Set (OCS) appeared with the launch of the A1000 in 1985. OCS was eventually followed by the modestly improved Enhanced Chip Set (ECS) in 1990 and finally by the partly 32-bit Advanced Graphics Architecture (AGA) in 1992. Each chipset consists of several coprocessors which handle graphics acceleration, digital audio, direct memory access and communication between various peripherals (e.g., CPU, memory and floppy disks). In addition, some models featured auxiliary custom chips which performed tasks such as SCSI control and display de-interlacing.\n\n==== Graphics ====\nHAM picture created with Photon Paint in 1989\n\nAll Amiga systems can display full-screen animated graphics with 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 (EHB Mode), or 4096 colors (HAM Mode). Models with the AGA chipset (A1200 and A4000) also have non-EHB 64, 128, 256, and (HAM8 Mode) color modes and a palette expanded from 4096 to 16.8 million colors.\n\nThe Amiga chipset can ''genlock'', which is the ability to adjust its own screen refresh timing to match an incoming NTSC or PAL video signal. When combined with setting transparency, this allows an Amiga to overlay an external video source with graphics. This ability made the Amiga popular for many applications, and provides the ability to do character generation and CGI effects far more cheaply than earlier systems. This ability has been frequently utilized by wedding videographers, TV stations and their weather forecasting divisions (for weather graphics and radar), advertising channels, music video production, and desktop videographers. The NewTek Video Toaster was made possible by the genlock ability of the Amiga.\n\nIn 1988, the release of the Amiga A2024 fixed-frequency monochrome monitor with built-in framebuffer and flicker fixer hardware provided the Amiga with a choice of high-resolution graphic modes (1024×800 for NTSC and 1024×1024 for PAL).\n\n==== ReTargetable Graphics ====\n\n\nReTargetable Graphics is an API for device drivers mainly used by 3rd party graphics hardware to interface with AmigaOS via a set of libraries. The software libraries may include software tools to adjust resolution, screen colors, pointers and screenmodes. The standard Intuition interface is limited to display depths of 8-bits, while RTG makes it possible to handle higher depths like 24-bits.\n\n==== Sound ====\nThe sound chip, named Paula, supports four PCM-sample-based sound channels (two for the left speaker and two for the right) with 8-bit resolution for each channel and a 6-bit volume control per channel. The analog output is connected to a low-pass filter, which filters out high-frequency aliases when the Amiga is using a lower sampling rate (see Nyquist frequency). The brightness of the Amiga's power LED is used to indicate the status of the Amiga's low-pass filter. The filter is active when the LED is at normal brightness, and deactivated when dimmed (or off on older A500 Amigas). On Amiga 1000 (and first Amiga 500 and Amiga 2000 model), the power LED had no relation to the filter's status, and a wire needed to be manually soldered between pins on the sound chip to disable the filter. Paula can read directly from the system's RAM, using direct memory access (DMA), making sound playback without CPU intervention possible.\n\nAlthough the hardware is limited to four separate sound channels, software such as ''OctaMED'' uses software mixing to allow eight or more virtual channels, and it was possible for software to mix two hardware channels to achieve a single 14-bit resolution channel by playing with the volumes of the channels in such a way that one of the source channels contributes the most significant bits and the other the least.\n\nThe quality of the Amiga's sound output, and the fact that the hardware is ubiquitous and easily addressed by software, were standout features of Amiga hardware unavailable on PC platforms for years. Third-party sound cards exist that provide DSP functions, multi-track direct-to-disk recording, multiple hardware sound channels and 16-bit and beyond resolutions. A retargetable sound API called AHI was developed allowing these cards to be used transparently by the OS and software.\n\n=== Kickstart firmware ===\n\n\nKickstart is the firmware upon which AmigaOS is bootstrapped. Its purpose is to initialize the Amiga hardware and core components of AmigaOS and then attempt to boot from a bootable volume, such as a floppy disk or hard disk drive. Most models (excluding the Amiga 1000) come equipped with Kickstart on an embedded ROM-chip.\n\n=== Keyboard and mouse ===\nAmiga mouse\n\nThe keyboard on Amiga computers is similar to that found on a mid 80s IBM PC: Ten function keys, a numeric keypad, and four separate directional arrow keys. Caps Lock and Control share space to the left of A. Missing are the Home, End, Page Up, and Page Down keys: These are accomplished on Amigas by pressing shift and the appropriate arrow key. The Amiga keyboard adds a Help key, which a function key usually acts as on PCs (usually F1). In addition to the Control and Alt modifier keys, the Amiga has 2 'Amiga' keys, rendered as 'Open Amiga' and 'Closed Amiga' similar to the Open/Closed Apple logo keys on Apple II keyboards. The left is used to manipulate the operating system (moving screens and the like) and the right delivered commands to the application. The absence of Num lock frees space for more math symbols around the number pad. Contemporary Macintosh computers, for comparison, lack function keys completely.\n\nThe mouse has two buttons like Windows, but unlike Windows pressing and holding the right button replaces the system status line at the top of the screen with a Maclike menu bar. As with Apple's Mac OS prior to Mac OS 8, menu options are selected by releasing the button over that option, not by left clicking.\n\nThe mouse plugs into one of two Atari joystick ports used for joysticks, game paddles, and graphics tablets. Although compatible with analog joysticks, Atari-style digital joysticks became standard.\n\n=== Other peripherals and expansions ===\n8-bit sound sampling hardware for the Amiga\n\nThe Amiga was one of the first computers for which inexpensive sound sampling and video digitization accessories were available. As a result of this and the Amiga's audio and video capabilities, the Amiga became a popular system for editing and producing both music and video.\n\nMany expansion boards were produced for Amiga computers to improve the performance and capability of the hardware, such as memory expansions, SCSI controllers, CPU boards, and graphics boards. Other upgrades include genlocks, network cards for Ethernet, modems, sound cards and samplers, video digitizers, extra serial ports, and IDE controllers. Additions after the demise of Commodore company are USB cards. The most popular upgrades were memory, SCSI controllers and CPU accelerator cards. These were sometimes combined into the one device.\n\nEarly CPU accelerator cards feature full 32-bit CPUs of the 68000 family such as the Motorola 68020 and Motorola 68030, almost always with 32-bit memory and usually with FPUs and MMUs or the facility to add them. Later designs feature the Motorola 68040 or Motorola 68060. Both CPUs feature integrated FPUs and MMUs. Many CPU accelerator cards also had integrated SCSI controllers.\n\nPhase5 designed the PowerUP boards (Blizzard PPC and CyberStorm PPC) featuring both a 68k (a 68040 or 68060) and a PowerPC (603 or 604) CPU, which are able to run the two CPUs at the same time and share the system memory. The PowerPC CPU on PowerUP boards is usually used as a coprocessor for heavy computations; a powerful CPU is needed to run MAME for example, but even decoding JPEG pictures and MP3 audio was considered heavy computation at the time. It is also possible to ignore the 68k CPU and run Linux on the PPC via project Linux APUS, but a PowerPC-native AmigaOS promised by Amiga Technologies GmbH was not available when the PowerUP boards first appeared.\n\n24-bit graphics cards and video cards were also available. Graphics cards were designed primarily for 2D artwork production, workstation use, and later, gaming. Video cards are designed for inputting and outputting video signals, and processing and manipulating video.\n\nIn the North American market, the ''NewTek Video Toaster'' was a video effects board which turned the Amiga into an affordable video processing computer which found its way into many professional video environments. One particularly well-known use was to create the special effects in early series of ''Babylon 5''. Due to its NTSC-only design, it did not find a market in countries that used the PAL standard, such as in Europe. In those countries, the ''OpalVision'' card was popular, although less featured and supported than the Video Toaster. Low-cost time base correctors (TBC) specifically designed to work with the Toaster quickly came to market, most of which were designed as standard Amiga bus cards.\n\nVarious manufacturers started producing PCI busboards for the A1200, A3000 and A4000, allowing standard Amiga computers to use PCI cards such as graphics cards, Sound Blaster sound cards, 10/100 Ethernet cards, USB cards, and television tuner cards. Other manufacturers produced hybrid boards which contained an Intel x86 series chip, allowing the Amiga to emulate a PC.\n\nPowerPC upgrades with Wide SCSI controllers, PCI busboards with Ethernet, sound and 3D graphics cards, and tower cases allowed the A1200 and A4000 to survive well into the late nineties.\n\nExpansion boards were made by Richmond Sound Design that allow their show control and sound design software to communicate with their custom hardware frames either by either ribbon cable or fiber optic cable for long distances, allowing the Amiga to control up to eight million digitally controlled external audio, lighting, automation, relay and voltage control channels spread around a large theme park, for example. See Amiga software for more information on these applications.\n\nOther popular devices included the following:\n* Amiga 501 with 512 KB RAM and real-time clock\n* Trumpcard 500 Zorro-II SCSI interface\n* GVP A530 Turbo, accelerator, RAM expansion, PC emulator\n* A2091 / A590 SCSI hard disk controller + 2 MB RAM expansion\n* A3070 SCSI tape backup unit with a capacity of , OEM Archive Viper 1/4-inch\n* A2065 Ethernet Zorro-II interface – the first Ethernet interface for Amiga; uses the AMD Am7990 chip The same interface chip is used in DECstation as well.\n* Ariadne Zorro-II Ethernet interface using the AMD Am7990\n* A4066 Zorro II Ethernet interface using the SMC 91C90QF\n* X-Surf from Individual Computers using the Realtek 8019AS\n* A2060 Arcnet\n* A1010 floppy disk drive - consists of a 3.5-inch double density (DD), , drive unit connected via DB-23 connector; track-to-track delay is on the order of . The default capacity is . Many clone drives were available, and products such as the Catweasel and KryoFlux make it possible to read and write Amiga and other special disc formats on standard x86 PCs.\n* NE2000-compatible PCMCIA Ethernet cards for Amiga 600 and Amiga 1200\n\n==== Serial ports ====\nThe Commodore A2232 board provides serial ports in addition to the Amiga's built-in serial port. Each port can be driven independently at speeds of There is however a driver available on Aminet that allows two of the serial ports to be driven at The serial card used the 65CE02 CPU clocked at . This CPU was also part of the CSG 4510 CPU core that was used in the Commodore 65 computer.\n\n==== Networking ====\nAmiga has three networking interface APIs:\n* AS225: the official Commodore TCP/IP stack API with hard-coded drivers in revision 1 (AS225r1) for the A2065 Ethernet and the A2060 Arcnet interfaces. In revision 2, (AS225r2) the SANA-II interface was used.\n* SANA-II: a standardized API for hardware of network interfaces. It uses an inefficient buffer handling scheme, and lacks proper support for promiscuous and multicast modes.\n* Miami Network Interface (MNI): an API that doesn't have the problems which SANA-II suffers from. It requires AmigaOS v2.04 or higher.\n\nDifferent network media were used:\n\n\n\n Type !! Speed !! Example\n\n Ethernet\n 10,000 kbit/s\n A2065\n\n ARCNET\n 2,500 kbit/s\n A560, A2060\n\n Floppy disk controller\n 250 kbit/s\n Amitrix: Amiga-Link\n\n Serial port\n \n RS-232\n\n Parallel port\n ≈1,600 kbit/s\n Village Tronic: Liana\n\n Token ring\n 1,500 kbit/s\n Nine Tiles: AmigaLink (9 Tiles)\n\n AppleTalk / LocalTalk\n \n PPS-Doubletalk\n\n", "\n\nThe original Amiga models were produced from 1985 to 1996. They are, in order of production: 1000, 2000, 500, 1500, 2500, 3000, 3000UX, 3000T, CDTV, 500+, 600, 4000, 1200, CD32, and 4000T. The PowerPC based AmigaOne computers were later marketed since 2002. Several companies and private persons have also released Amiga clones and still do so today.\n\n=== Commodore Amiga ===\nThe Amiga 1000 (1985) was the first model released.\nThe Amiga 4000 (1992) was the last desktop computer made by Commodore.\n\nThe first Amiga model, the Amiga 1000, was launched in 1985 and became popular for its impressive graphics, video and audio capabilities. In 2006, PC World rated the Amiga 1000 as the seventh greatest PC of all time, stating \"''Years ahead of its time, the Amiga was the world's first multimedia, multitasking personal computer''\".\n\nFollowing the A1000, Commodore updated the desktop line of Amiga computers with the Amiga 2000 in 1987, the Amiga 3000 in 1990, and the Amiga 4000 in 1992, each offering improved capabilities and expansion options. However, the best selling models were the budget models, particularly the highly successful Amiga 500 (1987) and the Amiga 1200 (1992). The Amiga 500+ (1991) was the shortest lived model, replacing the Amiga 500 and lasting only six months until it was phased out and replaced with the Amiga 600 (1992), which in turn was also quickly replaced by the Amiga 1200.\n\nThe CDTV, launched in 1991, was a CD-ROM based all-in-one multimedia system. It was an early attempt at a multi-purpose multimedia appliance in an era before multimedia consoles and CD-ROM drives were common. Unfortunately for Commodore, the system never achieved any real commercial success. Like the Commodore 64GS that was a video game console based on a computer, the CDTV was designed as a video game console and multimedia platform. It had existed before the Sony PlayStation and Sega Saturn, but had influenced them. It competed with the Turbo-Grafx CD and Sega CD system add ons when it was being sold.\n\nCommodore's last Amiga offering before filing for bankruptcy was an attempt to capture a portion of the highly competitive 1990s console market with the Amiga CD32 (1993), a 32-bit CD-ROM games console. Though discontinued after Commodore's demise it met with moderate commercial success in Europe. The CD32 was a next generation CDTV, and it was designed to save Commodore by entering the growing video game console market.\n\nFollowing purchase of Commodore's assets by Escom in 1995, the A1200 and A4000T continued to be sold in small quantities until 1996, though the ground lost since the initial launch and the prohibitive expense of these units meant that the Amiga line never regained any real popularity.\n\nSeveral Amiga models contained references to songs by the rock band The B-52's. Early A500 units, at least, had the words \"B52/ROCK LOBSTER\" silk-screen printed onto their printed circuit board, a reference to the popular song \"Rock Lobster\" The Amiga 600 referenced \"JUNE BUG\" (after the song \"Junebug\") and the Amiga 1200 had \"CHANNEL Z\" (after \"Channel Z\")., and the CD-32 had \"Spellbound\".\n\nMost original casing was made from ABS plastics which may become brown with time. This can be reversed by using the public domain chemical mix \"Retr0bright\".\n\n=== AmigaOS 4 systems ===\n\n\nAmigaOS 4 is designed for PowerPC Amiga systems. It is mainly based on AmigaOS 3.1 source code, with some parts of version 3.9. Currently runs on both Amigas equipped with CyberstormPPC or BlizzardPPC accelerator boards, on the Teron series based AmigaOne computers built by Eyetech under license by Amiga, Inc., on the Pegasos II from Genesi/bPlan GmbH, on the ACube Systems Srl Sam440ep / Sam460ex / AmigaOne 500 systems and on the A-EON AmigaOne X1000.\n\nAmigaOS 4.0 had been available only in developer pre-releases for numerous years until it was officially released in December 2006. Due to the nature of some provisions of the contract between Amiga Inc. and Hyperion Entertainment (the Belgian company which is developing the OS), the commercial AmigaOS 4 had been available only to licensed buyers of AmigaOne motherboards.\n\nAmigaOS 4.0 for Amigas equipped with PowerUP accelerator boards was released in November 2007. Version 4.1 was released in August 2008 for AmigaOne systems, and in May 2011 for Amigas equipped with PowerUP accelerator boards. The most recent release of AmigaOS for all supported platforms is 4.1 update 5. Starting with release 4.1 update 4 there is an Emulation drawer containing official AmigaOS 3.x ROMs (all classic Amiga models including CD32) and relative Workbench files.\n\nAcube Systems entered an agreement with Hyperion under which it has ported AmigaOS 4 to its Sam440ep and Sam460ex line of PowerPC-based motherboards. In 2009 a version for Pegasos II was released in co-operation with Acube Systems. In 2012, A-EON Technology Ltd manufactured and released the AmigaOne X1000 to consumers through their partner, Amiga Kit who provided end-user support, assembly and worldwide distribution of the new system.\n\n=== Amiga hardware clones ===\nLong-time Amiga developer MacroSystem entered the Amiga-clone market with their DraCo non-linear video editing system. It appears in two versions, initially a tower model and later a cube. DraCo expanded upon and combined a number of earlier expansion cards developed for Amiga (VLabMotion, Toccata, WarpEngine, RetinaIII) into a true Amiga-clone powered by the Motorola 68060 processor. The DraCo can run AmigaOS 3.1 up through AmigaOS 3.9. It is the only Amiga-based system to support FireWire for video I/O. DraCo also offers an Amiga-compatible Zorro-II expansion bus and introduced a faster custom DraCoBus, capable of transfer rates (faster than Commodore's Zorro-III). The technology was later used in the Casablanca system, a set-top-box also designed for non-linear video editing.\n\nIn 1998, Index Information released the Access, an Amiga-clone similar to the Amiga 1200, but on a motherboard which could fit into a standard 5¼\" drive bay. It features either a 68020 or 68030 CPU, with a redesigned AGA chipset, and runs AmigaOS 3.1.\n\nIn 1998, former Amiga employees (John Smith, Peter Kittel, Dave Haynie and Andy Finkel to mention few) formed a new company called PIOS. Their hardware platform, PIOS One, was aimed at Amiga, Atari and Macintosh users. The company was renamed to Met@box in 1999 until it folded.\n\nThe NatAmi (short for ''Native Amiga'') hardware project began in 2005 with the aim of designing and building an Amiga clone motherboard that is enhanced with modern features. The NatAmi motherboard is a standard Mini-ITX-compatible form factor computer motherboard, powered by a Motorola/Freescale 68060 and its chipset. It is compatible with the original Amiga chipset, which has been inscribed on a programmable FPGA Altera chip on the board. The NatAmi is the second Amiga clone project after the Minimig motherboard, and its history is very similar to that of the C-One mainboard developed by Jeri Ellsworth and Jens Schönfeld. From a commercial point of view, Natami's circuitry and design are currently closed source. One goal of the NatAmi project is to design an Amiga-compatible motherboard that includes up-to-date features but that does not rely on emulation (as in WinUAE), modern PC Intel components, or a modern PowerPC mainboard. As such, NatAmi is not intended to become another evolutionary heir to classic Amigas, such as with AmigaOne or Pegasos computers. This \"purist\" philosophy essentially limits the resulting processor speed but puts the focus on bandwidth and low latencies. The developers also recreated the entire Amiga chipset, freeing it from legacy Amiga limitations such as two megabytes of audio and video graphics RAM as in the AGA chipset, and rebuilt this new chipset by programming a modern FPGA Altera Cyclone IV chip. Later, the developers decided to create from scratch a new software-form processor chip, codenamed \"N68050\" that resides in the physical Altera FPGA programmable chip.\n\nIn 2006, two new Amiga clones were announced, both using FPGA based hardware synthesis to replace the Amiga OCS custom chipset. The first, the Minimig, is a personal project of Dutch engineer Dennis van Weeren. Referred to as \"new Amiga hardware\", the original model was built on a Xilinx Spartan-3 development board, but soon a dedicated board was developed. The minimig uses the FPGA to reproduce the custom Denise, Agnus, Paula and Gary chips as well as both 8520 CIAs and implements a simple version of Amber. The rest of the chips are an actual 68000 CPU, ram chips, and a PIC microcontroller for BIOS control. The design for Minimig was released as open-source on July 25, 2007. In February 2008, an Italian company Acube Systems began selling Minimig boards. A third party upgrade replaces the PIC microcontroller with a more powerful ARM processor, providing more functionality such as write access and support for hard disk images. The Minimig core has been ported to the FPGArcade \"Replay\" board. The Replay uses an FPGA with about more capacity and which does support the AGA chipset and a 68020 soft core with 68030 capabilities. The Replay board is designed to implement many older computers and classic arcade machines.\n\nThe second is the Clone-A system announced by Individual Computers. As of mid 2007 it has been shown in its development form, with FPGA-based boards replacing the Amiga chipset and mounted on an Amiga 500 motherboard.\n\n=== Emulation ===\n\n\nLike many popular but discontinued platforms, the Amiga has been emulated so that software developed for the Amiga can be run on other computer platforms without the original hardware. Such emulators attempt to replicate the functionality of the Amiga architecture in software. As mentioned above, attempts have also been made to replicate the Amiga chipset in FPGA chips.\n\nOne of the most challenging aspects of emulation is the design of the Amiga chipset, which relies on cycle-critical timings. As a result, early emulators did not always achieve the intended results though later emulator versions can now accurately reproduce the behavior of Amiga systems.\n", "\n=== AmigaOS ===\nAmigaOne X1000 running AmigaOS 4.1\n\n\n\n\nAmigaOS is a single-user multitasking operating system. It was developed first by Commodore International, and initially introduced in 1985 with the Amiga 1000. Original versions run on the Motorola 68000 series of microprocessors, while AmigaOS 4 runs only on PowerPC microprocessors. At the time of release AmigaOS put an operating system that was well ahead of its time into the hands of the average consumer. It was one of the first commercially available consumer operating systems for personal computers to implement preemptive multitasking.\n\nAnother notable feature was the combined use of both a command-line interface and graphical user interface. AmigaDOS was the disk operating system and command line portion of the OS and Workbench the native graphical windowing, icons, menu and pointer environment for file management and launching applications. Notably, AmigaDOS allowed long filenames (up to 107 characters) with whitespace and did not require filename extensions. The windowing system and user interface engine which handles all input events is called Intuition.\n\nThe multi-tasking kernel is called Exec. It acts as a scheduler for tasks running on the system, providing pre-emptive multitasking with prioritised round-robin scheduling. It enabled true pre-emptive multitasking in as little as 256 KB of free memory.\n\nAmigaOS is one of the few microkernel-based operating systems not to implement memory protection, though this lack is common amongst many of its contemporary operating systems. The lack of memory protection is because the 68000 CPU does not include a memory management unit and therefore there is no way to enforce protection of memory. Although this speeds and eases inter-process communication because programs can communicate by simply passing a pointer back and forth, the lack of memory protection made the AmigaOS more vulnerable to crashes from badly behaving programs than other multitasking systems that did implement memory protection, and Amiga OS is fundamentally incapable of enforcing any form of security model since any program had full access to the system. A co-operational memory protection feature was implemented in AmigaOS 4 and could be retrofitted to old AmigaOS systems using Enforcer or CyberGuard tools.\n\nThe problem was somewhat exacerbated by Commodore's initial decision to release documentation relating not only to the OS's underlying software routines, but also to the hardware itself, enabling intrepid programmers who had developed their skills on the Commodore 64 to POKE the hardware directly, as was done on the older platform. While the decision to release the documentation was a popular one and allowed the creation of fast, sophisticated sound and graphics routines in games and demos, it also contributed to system instability as some programmers lacked the expertise to program at this level. For this reason, when the new AGA chipset was released, Commodore declined to release low-level documentation in an attempt to force developers into using the approved software routines.\n\n==== Influence on other operating systems ====\nAmigaOS directly or indirectly inspired the development of various operating systems. MorphOS and AROS clearly inherit heavily from the structure of AmigaOS as explained directly in articles regarding these two operating systems. AmigaOS also influenced BeOS, which featured a centralized system of Datatypes, similar to that present in AmigaOS. Likewise, DragonFly BSD was also inspired by AmigaOS as stated by Dragonfly developer Matthew Dillon who is a former Amiga developer. WindowLab and amiwm are among several window managers for the X Window System seek to mimic the Workbench interface. IBM licensed the Amiga GUI from Commodore in exchange for the REXX language license. This allowed OS/2 to have the WPS (Work Place Shell) GUI shell for OS/2 2.0 a 32-bit operating system.\n\n=== Unix and Unix-like systems ===\nCommodore-Amiga produced Amiga Unix, informally known as Amix, based on AT&T SVR4. It supports the Amiga 2500 and Amiga 3000 and is included with the Amiga 3000UX. Among other unusual features of Amix is a hardware-accelerated windowing system which can scroll windows without copying data. Amix is not supported on the later Amiga systems based on 68040 or 68060 processors.\n\nOther, still maintained, operating systems are available for the classic Amiga platform, including Linux and NetBSD. Both require a CPU with MMU such as the 68020 with 68851 or full versions of the 68030, 68040 or 68060. There is also a version of Linux for Amigas with PowerPC accelerator cards. Debian and Yellow Dog Linux can run on the AmigaOne.\n\nThere is an official, older version of OpenBSD. The last Amiga release is 3.2. MINIX 1.5.10 also runs on Amiga.\n\n=== Emulating other systems ===\n\n\nThe Amiga is able to emulate other computer platforms ranging from many 8-bit systems such as the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Nintendo Game Boy, Nintendo Entertainment System, Apple II and the TRS-80. The Commodore PC-Transformer software emulated an IBM 5150 at 1 MHz in Monochrome mode. Later PC-Bridgecards were a full hardware PC on a card with 8086/80286/80386 Intel chips running MS-DOS and Windows in an Amiga window. A-Max emulated an Apple Macintosh using a serial port dongle that had a Macintosh ROM on it. The Amiga had the same 68000 CPU as the Macintosh and, using a Macintosh emulator, could run Mac 68K operating systems and programs. However, the Amiga could not directly read Macintosh 3.5\" floppies due to their proprietary format. Further, it required a compatible Macintosh for a copy of its ROM. The Atari ST was also emulated. MAME (the arcade machine emulator) is also available for Amiga systems with PPC accelerator card upgrades.\n", "\n\nIn the late 1980s and early 1990s the platform became particularly popular for gaming, demoscene activities and creative software uses. During this time commercial developers marketed a wide range of games and creative software, often developing titles simultaneously for the Atari ST due to the similar hardware architecture. Popular creative software included 3D rendering (ray-tracing) packages, bitmap graphics editors, desktop video software, software development packages and \"tracker\" music editors.\n\nUntil the late 1990s the Amiga remained a popular platform for non-commercial software, often developed by enthusiasts, and much of which was freely redistributable. An on-line archive, Aminet, was created in 1992 and until around 1996 was the largest public archive of software, art and documents for any platform.\n", "Logo used in the US on some product packaging for the Amiga 500\nAmiga Technologies logo incorporating the \"Boing Ball\" (1996)\n\nThe name ''Amiga'' was chosen by the developers from the Spanish word for a female friend, because they knew Spanish, and because it occurred before Apple and Atari alphabetically. It also conveyed the message that the Amiga computer line was \"user friendly\" as a pun or play on words.\n\nThe first official Amiga logo was a rainbow-colored double check mark. In later marketing material Commodore largely dropped the checkmark and used logos styled with various typefaces. Though it was never adopted as a trademark by Commodore, the \"Boing Ball\" has been synonymous with Amiga since its launch. It became an unofficial and enduring theme after a visually impressive animated demonstration at the 1984 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1984 showing a checkered ball bouncing and rotating. Following Escom's purchase of Commodore in 1996, the Boing Ball theme was incorporated into a new logo.\n\nEarly Commodore advertisements attempted to cast the computer as an all-purpose business machine, though the Amiga was most commercially successful as a home computer. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s Commodore primarily placed advertising in computer magazines and occasionally in national newspapers and on television.\n", "Since the demise of Commodore, various groups have marketed successors to the original Amiga line:\n\n* Genesi sold PowerPC based hardware under the Pegasos brand running AmigaOS and MorphOS;\n* Eyetech sold PowerPC based hardware under the AmigaOne brand from 2002 to 2005 running AmigaOS 4;\n* Amiga Kit distributes and sells PowerPC based hardware under the AmigaOne brand from 2010 to present day running AmigaOS 4;\n* ACube Systems sells the AmigaOS 3 compatible Minimig system with a Freescale MC68SEC000 CPU (Motorola 68000 compatible) and AmigaOS 4 compatible Sam440 / Sam460 / AmigaOne 500 systems with PowerPC processors;\n* A-EON Technology Ltd sells the AmigaOS 4 compatible AmigaOne X1000 system with P.A. Semi PWRficient PA6T-1682M processor.\n* Amiga Kit Amiga Store, ASB Computer and Vesalia Computer sell numerous items from aftermarket components to refurbished classic systems.\n\nAmigaOS and MorphOS are commercial proprietary operating systems. AmigaOS 4, based on AmigaOS 3.1 source code with some parts of version 3.9, is developed by Hyperion Entertainment and runs on PowerPC based hardware. MorphOS, based on some parts of AROS source code, is developed by MorphOS Team and is continued on Apple and other PowerPC based hardware.\n\nThere is also AROS, a free and open source operating system (re-implementation of the AmigaOS 3.1 APIs), for Amiga 68k, x86 and ARM hardware (one version runs Linux-hosted on the Raspberry Pi). In particular, AROS for Amiga 68k hardware aims to create an open source Kickstart ROM replacement for emulation purpose and/or for use on real \"classic\" hardware.\n", "After Commodore went bankrupt in 1994, there remained a very active Amiga community, which continued to support the platform long after mainstream commercial vendors abandoned it. The most popular Amiga magazine, ''Amiga Format'', continued to publish editions until 2000, some six years after Commodore filed for bankruptcy. Another magazine, ''Amiga Active'', was launched in 1999 and was published until 2001. Several notable magazines are in publication today: ''Amiga Future'', which is available in both English and German; ''Bitplane.it'', a bi-monthly magazine in Italian; and ''AmigaPower'', a long-running French magazine.\n\nIn spite of declining interest in the platform there was a bi-weekly specialist column in the UK weekly magazine Micro Mart. There is also a fan website, that has served as a community discussion and support resource since the 1994 bankruptcy. Other popular English-language ''forums'' also exist, particularly amiga.org since 1994 and amigaworld.net and English Amiga Board.\n", "\n\nThe Amiga series of computers found a place in early computer graphic design and television presentation. Below are some examples of notable uses and users:\n* Season 1 and part of season 2 of the television series ''Babylon 5'' were rendered in LightWave 3D on Amigas. Other television series using Amigas for special effects included ''SeaQuest DSV'' and ''Max Headroom''.\n\nIn addition, many other celebrities and notable individuals have made use of the Amiga:\n\n* Andy Warhol was an early user of the Amiga and appeared at the launch, where he made a computer artwork of Debbie Harry. Warhol used the Amiga to create a new style of art made with computers, and was the author of a multimedia opera called ''You Are the One'' which consists of an animated sequence featuring images of actress Marilyn Monroe assembled in a short movie with a soundtrack. The video was discovered on two old Amiga floppies in a drawer in Warhol's studio and repaired in 2006 by the Detroit Museum of New Art. The pop artist has been quoted as saying: ''\"The thing I like most about doing this kind of work on the Amiga is that it looks like my work in other media\"''.\n* Artist Jean \"Moebius\" Giraud credits the Amiga he bought for his son as a bridge to learning about \"using paint box programs\". He uploaded some of his early experiments to the file sharing forums on CompuServe.\n* The \"Weird Al\" Yankovic film ''UHF'' contains a computer animated music video parody of the Dire Straits song \"Money for Nothing\", titled \"Money for Nothing/Beverly Hillbillies\". According to the DVD commentary track, this spoof was created on an Amiga home computer.\n Rolf Harris used an Amiga to digitize his hand-drawn art work for animation on his television series, ''Rolf's Cartoon Club''.\n* Todd Rundgren's video \"Change Myself\" was produced with Toaster and Lightwave.\n* Scottish pop artist Calvin Harris composed his 2007 debut album ''I Created Disco'' with an Amiga 1200.\n* Susumu Hirasawa, a Japanese progressive-electronic artist is known for using Amigas to compose and perform music, aid his live shows and make his promotional videos. He has also been inspired by the Amiga, and has referenced it in his lyrics. His December 13, 1994 \"Adios Jay\" Interactive Live Show was dedicated to (then recently deceased) Jay Miner. He also used the Amiga to create the virtual drummer TAINACO, who was a CG rendered figure whose performance was made with Elan Performer and was projected with DCTV. He also composed and performed \"Eastern-boot\", the AmigaOS 4 boot jingle.\n* Electronic musician Max Tundra also created his three albums with an Amiga 500.\n* Bob Casale, keyboardist and guitarist of the new wave band Devo used Amiga computer graphics on the album cover to Devo's album ''Total Devo''\n* Eric Schwartz, a furry animator and enthusiast who creates cartoons.\n* Most of ''Pokémon Gold'' and ''Silver'''s music was created on an Amiga computer, converted to MIDI, and then reconverted to the game's music format.\n\n=== Other uses ===\nThe Amiga was also used in a number of special purpose applications:\n* Amigas were used in various NASA laboratories to keep track of low orbiting satellites, and were still used up to 2003/2004 (dismissed and sold in 2006). This is another example of long lifetime reliability of Amiga hardware, as well as professional use. Amigas were also used at Kennedy Space Center to run strip-chart recorders, to format and display data, and control stations of platforms for Delta rocket launches.\n* Palomar Observatory used Amigas to calibrate and control the CCDs in their telescopes, as well as to display and store the digitized images they collected.\n* London Transport Museum developed their own interactive multi-media software for the CD32. The software included a walkthrough of various exhibits and a virtual tour of the museum.\n* Amiga 500 motherboards were used, in conjunction with a LaserDisc player and genlock device, in arcade games manufactured by American Laser Games.\n* A custom Amiga 4000T motherboard was used in the HDI 1000 medical ultrasound system built by Advanced Technology Labs (now part of Philips Medical Systems).\n* Four Amiga 2000s were used from 1988 to 1991 to develop the digital displays panels installed in the M1-A2 Abrams Main Battle Tank built by General Dynamics Land Systems. In the General Dynamics Simulation Laboratory, the Amigas interfaced with a central simulation environment computer and produced graphics for the display panels. During demonstrations at Fort Knox, the Amigas did not interact with each other, but instead operated in \"remote mode\" because the simulation environment computer was not portable.\nAs of 2015, the Grand Rapids Public School district still uses a Commodore Amiga 2000 computer, complete with 1200 baud modem, to automate its air conditioning and heating systems for the 19 schools covered by the GRPS district. \"The system controls the start/stop of boilers, the start/stop of fans, pumps, it monitors space temperatures, and so on.\" The system has been running day and night for decades.\n", "\n List of Amiga games\n* Aminet\n* Hold-And-Modify\n* Minimig\n* UAE (emulator)\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* Official AmigaOS website\n* History of the Amiga at ''Ars Technica''\n* Amiga, Inc\n* Amiga Software Database\n* Amiga Hardware Database\n* Lemon Amiga: Amiga games database\n* Big Book of Amiga Hardware\n* \n* Amiga.org: community forums and support\n* RUN Magazine Issue 21, September 1985 article on the introduction of the Amiga\n* The Amiga Museum\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Hardware ", " Models and variants ", " Operating systems ", " Amiga software ", " Marketing ", " Legacy ", " Amiga community ", " Notable historic uses ", " See also ", "Notes", " References ", " External links " ]	Amiga
[ "\n\n'''Absorption''' may refer to:\n\n", "\n* Absorption (chemistry), absorption of particles of gas or liquid in liquid or solid materials\n* Absorption (skin), a route by which substances can enter the body through the skin\n* Absorption (pharmacokinetics), absorption of drugs in body\n* CO2 scrubber, the absorbent in a rebreather\n* Absorption (small intestine)\n* Absorption (biology)\n", "\n* Absorption (electromagnetic radiation), absorption of light or other electromagnetic radiation by a material\n* Absorption (acoustics), absorption of sound waves by a material\n* Dielectric absorption, the inability of a charged capacitor to completely discharge when briefly discharged\n* Absorption refrigerator, a refrigerator that runs on surplus heat rather than electricity\n* Absorption air conditioning, a type of solar air conditioning\n", "\n* Absorption law, in mathematics, an identity linking a pair of binary operations\n* Absorbing element, in mathematics, an element that does not change when it is combined in a binary operation with some other element\n* Absorption (economics), the total demand of an economy for goods and services both from within and without\n* Absorption costing, or total absorption costing, a method for appraising or valuing a firm's total inventory by including all the manufacturing costs incurred to produce those goods\n", "* Absorption (logic), one of the rules of inference\n", "\n* Adsorption, the formation of a gas or liquid film on a solid surface\n* Digestion, the uptake of substances by the gastrointestinal tract\n* Absorption (psychology), a state of becoming absorbed by mental imagery or fantasy\n* Flow (psychology), a state of total mental \"absorption\"\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Chemistry and biology ", " Physics and mechanical engineering ", " Mathematics and economics ", "Logic", " See also " ]	Absorption
[ "\n\nThe '''actinophryids''' are small, familiar group of heliozoans. They are the most common heliozoa in fresh water, and are especially frequent in lakes and rivers, but a few are found in marine and soil habitats as well. Each actinophryid are unicellular and roughly spherical in shape, without any shell or test, and with many pseudopodia supported by axopods radiating outward from the cell body, which adhere to passing prey and allows it to roll or float about. The outer portion of the cell, or ectoplasm, is distinct and is filled with many tiny vacuoles. The organism regulates buoyancy and maintains homeostasis through the use of contractile vacuoles, which are visible as clear bulges when full.\n\nThere are two genera included here. ''Actinophrys'' have a single, central nucleus. Most are around 40-50 μm in diameter, with axopods up to 100 μm in length, though this varies. ''Actinosphaerium'' are several times larger, from 200-1000 μm in diameter, with many nuclei, and are found exclusively in fresh water. Two other genera, ''Echinosphaerium'' and ''Camptonema'', have been described but appear to be synonyms.\n\nReproduction takes place by fission, with open mitosis. Under unfavourable conditions, the organism will form a cyst, which is multi-walled and covered in spikes. While encysted it may undergo a peculiar process of autogamy or self-fertilization, where it goes through meiosis and divides to form two gametes, which then fuse together again. This is the only form of sexual reproduction that occurs within the group, though it is really more genetic reorganization than reproduction.\n\nThe axopods are supported by microtubules arranged in a unique and characteristic double-coil pattern. In ''Actinophrys'', these arise from the nuclear membrane, while in ''Actinosphaerium'' some do and others don't. Other heliozoa where the microtubules arise from the nucleus have been considered possible relatives, and it now appears that the actinophryids developed from axodines such as ''Pedinella''. These are specialized heterokont algae, related to golden algae, diatoms, brown algae, and the like, which have microtubule-supported tentacles.\n\nActinophyrys feeds on small flagellates, cilates, and algae, etc.\n\nOriginally placed in Heliozoa (Sarcodina), the group was moved to Actinochrysophyceae (Axodines), or to Raphidomonadea.\n", "Classification based on Cavalier-Smith and Scoble 2013\n* In class Raphidomonadea Silva 1980 emend. Cavalier-Smith 2013 Raphidophyceae Chadefaud 1950 emend. Silva 1980 s.l.\n In subclass Raphopoda Cavalier-Smith 2013\n* Order '''Actinophyrida''' Hartmann 1913 Actinophrydia Kühn 1926; Actinophrydea Hartmann 1913\n** Family Actinosphaeriidae Cavalier-Smith 2013\n* Genus ''Actinosphaerium'' Ritter von Stein 1857 ''Camptonema'' Schaudinn 1894; ''Echinosphaerium'' Hovasse 1965 \n Family Helioraphidae Cavalier-Smith 2013\n* Genus ''Heliorapha'' Cavalier-Smith 2013\n Family Actinophryidae Dujardin 1841\n*** Genus ''Actinophrys'' Ehrenberg 1830 ''Trichoda'' Müller 1773 nomen oblitum; ''Peritricha'' Bory de St.Vincent 1824 nomen dubium non Stein 1859\n", "", "\n\nFile:Heliozoen.jpg\|''Actinophrys''\nFile:Acti1000.webm\|''Actinosphaerium''\nFile:A sol mit Paramecium.jpg\|''Actinophrys'' and ''Paramecium''\nFile:Axopodium Mikrotubuli.jpg\|Microtubules structure from an axopodium\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Taxonomy", " References ", " Gallery" ]	Actinophryid
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Abel Janszoon Tasman''' (; 1603 – 10 October 1659) was a Dutch seafarer, explorer, and merchant, best known for his voyages of 1642 and 1644 in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). He was the first known European explorer to reach the islands of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) and New Zealand, and to sight the Fiji islands.\n", "Portrait of Abel Tasman, his wife and daughter. Attributed to Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp, 1637 (not authenticated).\n\nAbel Jans Tasman was born in 1603 in Lutjegast, a small village in the province of Groningen, in the north of the Netherlands. The oldest available source mentioning him dates 27 December 1631 when, as a seafarer living in Amsterdam, the 28-year-old became engaged to marry 21-year-old Jannetje Tjaers from the Jordaan district of the city. In 1633 he sailed from Texel to Batavia in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), taking the southern Brouwer Route. Tasman took part in a voyage to Seram Island; the locals had sold spices to others than the Dutch. He had a narrow escape from death, when in an incautious landing several of his companions were killed by people of Seram. In August 1637 he was back in Amsterdam, and the following year he signed on for another ten years and took his wife with him to Batavia. On 25 March 1638 he tried to sell his property in the Jordaan, but the purchase was cancelled. In 1639 he was second-in-command of an exploration expedition in the north Pacific under Matthijs Quast. The fleet included the ships ''Engel'' and ''Gracht'' and reached Fort Zeelandia (Dutch Formosa) and Deshima.\n\nIn August 1642, the Council of the Indies, consisting of Antonie van Diemen, Cornelis van der Lijn, Joan Maetsuycker, Justus Schouten, Salomon Sweers, Cornelis Witsen, and Pieter Boreel in Batavia despatched Tasman and Franchoijs Visscher on a voyage of which one of the objects was to obtain knowledge of \"all the totally unknown provinces of Beach\". This expedition used two small ships, the ''Heemskerck'' and the ''Zeehaen''.\n\n===Beach and Terra Australis===\nThe route of the first and second voyage\n''Beach'' appeared on maps of the time, notably that of Abraham Ortelius of 1570 and that of Jan Huygen van Linschoten of 1596, as the northernmost part of the southern continent, the ''Terra Australis'', along with ''Locach''. According to Marco Polo, ''Locach'' was a kingdom where gold was “so plentiful that no one who did not see it could believe it”. ''Beach'' was in fact a mistranscription of ''Locach''. Locach was Marco Polo’s name for the southern Thai kingdom of Lavo, or Lop Buri, the “city of Lavo”, (ลพบุรี, after Lavo, the son of Rama in Hindu mythology). In Chinese (Cantonese), Lavo was pronounced “Lo-huk” (羅斛), from which Marco Polo took his rendition of the name. In the German cursive script, “Locach” and “Boeach” look similar, and in the 1532 edition of Marco Polo’s ''Travels'' his Locach was changed to ''Boëach'', later shortened to ''Beach''.\n\nThey seem to have drawn on the map of the world published in Florence in 1489 by Henricus Martellus, in which ''provincia boëach'' appears as the southern neighbour of ''provincia ciamba''. Book III of Marco Polo’s ''Il Milione'' described his journey by sea from China to India by way of Champa (= Southern Vietnam), Java (which he called ''Java Major''), Locach and Sumatra (called ''Java Minor''). After a chapter describing the kingdom of Champa there follows a chapter describing Java (which he did not visit himself). The narrative then resumes, describing the route southward from Champa toward Sumatra, but by a slip of the pen the name “Java” was substituted for “Champa” as the point of departure, locating Sumatra 1,300 miles to the south of Java instead of Champa. Locach, located between Champa and Sumatra, was likewise misplaced far to the south of Java, by some geographers on or near an extension of the ''Terra Australis''.\n\nAs explained by Sir Henry Yule, the editor of an English edition of Marco Polo’s ''Travels'': “Some geographers of the 16th century, following the old editions which carried the travellers south-east of Java to the land of “Boeach” (or Locac), introduced in their maps a continent in that situation”. Gerard Mercator did just that on his 1541 globe, placing ''Beach provincia aurifera'' (“Beach the gold-bearing province”) in the northernmost part of the ''Terra Australis'' in accordance with the faulty text of Marco Polo’s ''Travels''.\n\nIt remained in this location on his world map of 1569, with the amplified description, quoting Marco Polo, ''Beach provincia aurifera quam pauci ex alienis regionibus adeunt propter gentis inhumanitatem'' (“Beach the gold-bearing province, whither few go from other countries because of the inhumanity of its people”) with ''Lucach regnum'' shown somewhat to its south west. Following Mercator, Abraham Ortelius also showed ''BEACH'' and ''LVCACH'' in these locations on his world map of 1571. Likewise, Linschoten’s very popular 1596 map of the East Indies showed ''BEACH'' projecting from the map’s southern edge, leading (or misleading) Visscher and Tasman in their voyage of 1642 to seek Beach with its plentiful gold in a location to the south of the Solomon Islands somewhere between Staten Land near Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope.\n\nConfirmation that land existed where the maps showed ''Beach'' to be had come from Dirk Hartog’s landing in October 1616 on its west coast, which he called Eendrachtsland after the name of his ship.\n\n===Mauritius===\n\nIn accordance with Visscher's directions, Tasman sailed from Batavia on 14 August 1642 and arrived at Mauritius on 5 September 1642, according to the captain's journal. The reason for this was the crew could be fed well on the island; there was plenty of fresh water and timber to repair the ships. Tasman got the assistance of the governor Adriaan van der Stel. Because of the prevailing winds Mauritius was chosen as a turning point. After a four-week stay on the island both ships left on 8 October using the Roaring Forties to sail east as fast as possible. (No one had gone as far as Pieter Nuyts in 1626/27.) On 7 November snow and hail influenced the ship's council to alter course to a more north-eastern direction, expecting to arrive one day at the Solomon Islands.\n\n=== Tasmania ===\nCoastal cliffs of Tasman Peninsula\n\nOn 24 November 1642 Abel Tasman reached and sighted the west coast of Tasmania, north of Macquarie Harbour. He named his discovery Van Diemen's Land after Antonio van Diemen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. Proceeding south he skirted the southern end of Tasmania and turned north-east. Tasman then tried to work his two ships into Adventure Bay on the east coast of South Bruny Island where he was blown out to sea by a storm. This area he named Storm Bay. Two days later Tasman anchored to the north of Cape Frederick Hendrick just north of the Forestier Peninsula. Tasman then landed in Blackman Bay – in the larger Marion Bay. The next day, an attempt was made to land in North Bay. However, because the sea was too rough the carpenter swam through the surf and planted the Dutch flag. Tasman then claimed formal possession of the land on 3 December 1642.\n\n=== New Zealand ===\nMurderers' Bay, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans\nMāori haka\n\nAfter some exploration, Tasman had intended to proceed in a northerly direction but as the wind was unfavourable he steered east. Tasman endured a very rough journey from Tasmania to New Zealand. In one of his diary entries Tasman credits his compass, claiming it was the only thing that kept him alive. On 13 December they sighted land on the north-west coast of the South Island, New Zealand, becoming the first Europeans to do so. Tasman named it ''Staten Landt'' on the assumption that it was connected to an island (Staten Island, Argentina) at the south of the tip of South America. He sailed north, then east and five days later anchored about 7 km from the coast. He sent ship's boats to gather water, but one of his boats was attacked by Māori in a double hulled waka (canoe) and four of his men were attacked and killed by mere.\n\n\n\nAs Tasman sailed out of the bay he observed 22 waka near the shore, of which \"eleven swarming with people came off towards us.\" The waka approached the ''Zeehaen'' which fired and hit a man in the largest waka holding a small white flag. Canister shot also hit the side of a waka.\n\nArcheological research has shown the Dutch had tried to land at a major agricultural area, which the Māori may have been trying to protect. Tasman named the bay ''Murderers' Bay'' (now known as Golden Bay) and sailed north, but mistook Cook Strait for a bight (naming it ''Zeehaen's Bight''). Two names he gave to New Zealand landmarks still endure, Cape Maria van Diemen and Three Kings Islands, but ''Kaap Pieter Boreels'' was renamed by Cook 125 years later to Cape Egmont.\n\n=== The return voyage ===\n\nTongatapu, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans\nThe bay of Tongatapu with the two ships, drawing by Isaack Gilsemans\n\nEn route back to Batavia, Tasman came across the Tongan archipelago on 20 January 1643. While passing the Fiji Islands Tasman's ships came close to being wrecked on the dangerous reefs of the north-eastern part of the Fiji group. He charted the eastern tip of Vanua Levu and Cikobia before making his way back into the open sea. He eventually turned north-west to New Guinea, and arrived at Batavia on 15 June 1643.\n", "Tasman left Batavia on January 30, 1644 on his second voyage with three ships (''Limmen'', ''Zeemeeuw'' and the tender ''Braek''). He followed the south coast of New Guinea eastwards in an attempt to find a passage to the eastern side of New Holland. However, he missed the Torres Strait between New Guinea and Australia, probably due to the numerous reefs and islands obscuring potential routes, and continued his voyage by following the shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria westwards along the north Australian coast. He mapped the north coast of Australia making observations on New Holland, and its people. He arrived back in Batavia in August 1644.\n\nFrom the point of view of the Dutch East India Company, Tasman's explorations were a disappointment: he had neither found a promising area for trade nor a useful new shipping route. Although received modestly, the company was upset to a degree that Tasman didn't fully explore the lands he found, and decided that a more \"persistent explorer\" should be chosen for any future expeditions. For over a century, until the era of James Cook, Tasmania and New Zealand were not visited by Europeans – mainland Australia was visited, but usually only by accident.\n", "On 2 November 1644 Abel Tasman was appointed a member of the Council of Justice at Batavia. He went to Sumatra in 1646, and in August 1647 to Siam (now Thailand) with letters from the company to the King. In May 1648 he was in charge of an expedition sent to Manila to try to intercept and loot the Spanish silver ships coming from America, but he had no success and returned to Batavia in January 1649. In November 1649 he was charged and found guilty of having in the previous year hanged one of his men without trial, was suspended from his office of commander, fined, and made to pay compensation to the relatives of the sailor. On 5 January 1651 he was formally reinstated in his rank and spent his remaining years at Batavia. He was in good circumstances, being one of the larger landowners in the town. He died at Batavia on 10 October 1659 and was survived by his second wife and a daughter by his first wife. His property was divided between his wife and his daughter by his first marriage. In his testimony (dating from 1657) he left only 25 guilders to the poor of his village Lutjegast.\n\nAlthough Tasman's pilot, Frans Visscher, published ''Memoir concerning the discovery of the South land'' in 1642, Tasman's detailed journal was not published until 1898; however, some of his charts and maps were in general circulation and used by subsequent explorers.\n", "Abel Tasman National Park\n\nMultiple places have been named after Tasman, including:\nthe Australian island Tasmania, renamed after him, formerly Van Diemen's land. It includes features such as:\nthe Tasman Peninsula\nthe Tasman Bridge\nthe Tasman Highway\nthe Tasman Sea\nin New Zealand:\nthe Tasman Glacier\nTasman Lake\nthe Tasman River\nMount Tasman\nthe Abel Tasman National Park\nTasman Bay\nthe Tasman District\n\n\nAlso named after Tasman are:\nAbel Tasman Drive, in Takaka.\nthe Abel Tasman Memorial in Takaka.\nThe former passenger/vehicle ferry ''Abel Tasman''\nThe Able Tasmans – an indie band from Auckland, New Zealand.\nJansz, a sparkling wine in NE Tasmania\nTasman, a layout engine for Internet Explorer\n 6594 Tasman (1987 MM1), a main-belt asteroid\n* Tasman Drive in San Jose, California and its Tasman light rail station\n* Tasman Road in Claremont, Cape Town, South Africa\n\n\nHis portrait has been on 4 New Zealand postage stamp issues, on a 1992 5 NZD coin, and on one 1985 Australian postage stamp\n", "\nThe Abel Tasman map, circa 1644, also known as the Tasman 'Bonaparte' map.\nState Library of New South Wales vestibule showing the Tasman map\n\nThe original Tasman Map is held in the collection of the State Library of New South Wales. The map is also known as the Bonaparte map, as it was once owned by Prince Roland Bonaparte, the great-nephew of Napoleon. The map was completed sometime after 1644 and is based on the original charts drawn during Tasman’s first and second voyages. As none of the journals or logs composed during Tasman’s second voyage have survived, the Bonaparte map remains as an important contemporary artefact of Tasman’s voyage to the northern coast of the Australian continent.\n\nThe Tasman map largely reveals the extent of understanding the Dutch had of the Australian continent at the time. The map includes the western and southern coasts of Australia, accidentally encountered by Dutch voyagers as they journeyed by way of the Cape of Good Hope to the VOC headquarters in Batavia. In addition, the map shows the tracks of Tasman’s two voyages . Of his second voyage, the map shows the area of the Banda Islands, the southern coast of New Guinea and much of the northern coast of Australia. However, the area of the Torres Strait is shown unexamined; this is despite having been given orders by VOC Council at Batavia to explore the possibility of a channel between New Guinea and the Australian continent.\n\nThere is debate as to the origin of the map. It is widely believed that the map was produced in Batavia, however, it has also been argued that the map was produced in Amsterdam. The authorship of the map has also been debated, while the map is commonly attributed to Tasman, it is now thought to have been the result of a collaboration, probably involving Franchoijs Visscher and Isaack Gilseman, who took part in both of Tasman’s voyages. Whether the map was produced in 1644 is also subject to debate, as a VOC company report in December 1644 suggests that at that time no maps showing Tasman’s voyages were yet complete.\n\nIn 1943, a mosaic version of the map, composed of coloured marble and brass, was inlaid into the vestibule floor of the Mitchell Library. The work was commissioned by the Principal Librarian William Ifould, and completed by the Melocco Brothers of Annandale, who also worked on ANZAC War Memorial in Hyde Park and the crypt at St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney.\n", "* Willem Janszoon\n* Janszoon voyage of 1605-6\n* Dirk Hartog\n* Dieppe maps\n* Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia\n", "\n", "\nEdward Duyker (ed.) The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne 1642 & 1772, St David's Park Publishing/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, Hobart, 1992, pp. 106, .\n\n\n", "\n\n* A transcript of a paper on the voyages of Tasman, read to the Royal Society of Tasmania in 1895\n* The Tasman page at Project Gutenberg of Australia This page has links to Tasman's journal and other important documents relating to Tasman\n* The Huydecoper journal – Abel Tasman – The State Library of NSW\n* J. W. Forsyth, 'Tasman, Abel Janszoon (1603? – 1659)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, Melbourne University Press, 1967, pp 503–504.\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " First Pacific voyage ", " Second Pacific voyage ", " Later life ", "Legacy", "Tasman Map", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Abel Tasman
[ "\n\n'''ASP''' may refer to:\n\n", "* ASP pistol, a 9 mm pistol based on the S&W Model 39\n* ASP, Inc. the manufacturer of ASP batons\n** A type of extending baton often carried by police forces\n* Ammunition supply point or ammunition dump\n", "* Active Server Pages, a web-scripting interface by Microsoft\n* Advanced Simple Profile, an MPEG-4 video codec profile\n* Answer set programming, a declarative programming paradigm\n* Application service provider, a business that provides computer-based services to customers over a network\n* Apple System Profiler, Apple Computer's system profiler\n* AppleTalk Session Protocol, a session layer protocol used by the AppleTalk suite of protocols\n* Association of Shareware Professionals\n* Attached Support Processor, a job queue manager from which Job Entry Subsystem 3 descended\n* Auxiliary storage pool, a group of disk drives in the IBM i (a.k.a. OS/400) operating system\n", "* American School of Palestine\n* American School of Paris\n* Australian Student Prize\n* Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, Kraków, Poland\n", "* Analog signal processing, processing electronic signals that represent continuous variables by use of analog circuitry\n* Audio Signal Processor, a digital signal processor developed by James A. Moorer at Lucasfilm\n* Anti-skip protection or electronic skip protection, a protection of an audio compact disc playback\n* Angle–sensitive pixel, a CMOS device that relates angle information about the incident light field\n", "* ASP (band), a German rock band\n* All Shall Perish, a deathcore band\n* Archaia Studios Press, an American comic publisher\n* Adult service provider (disambiguation)\n* Amy Sherman-Palladino, creator and former executive producer and writer on the television show ''Gilmore Girls''\n* Apparent Sensory Perception, or Simstim, a fictional thought recording and reproduction device in William Gibson's Sprawl trilogy.\n", "* Aspartic acid\n* Acylation stimulating protein\n* Agouti signaling peptide\n* American Society for Photobiology\n* Amnesic shellfish poisoning\n* Complement component 3, a protein in the Complement system\n", "* Act of the Scottish Parliament, usually written in the lower case as ''asp''\n* American Solidarity Party\n* Australian Sex Party\n* Australian Sports Party\n* Afro-Shirazi Party\n* Assembly for the Sovereignty of the Peoples, a political party in Bolivia\n* Assembly of States Parties, the legislative body of the International Criminal Court\n", "* Association of Surfing Professionals, now World Surf League\n* American Soccer Pyramid\n* AS Poissy, a French football club in Poissy (Yvelines)\n", "* Activated sludge process, A process for treatment of water\n* Airborne Surveillance Platform, an airborne early warning airplane design of India\n* ''Albany Student Press''\n* Alice Springs Airport (IATA airport code)\n* Allegany State Park\n* Alternate-side parking\n* Appalachia Service Project, a Christian organization operating in Central Appalachia\n* ASP, Inc., Armament Systems and Procedures, suppliers of batons and other law enforcement equipment\n* Asociación de Scouts del Perú\n* Aspatria railway station (National Rail code), a train station in the United Kingdom\n* Assault system pod, a fictional weapon in the G.I. Joe universe\n* Assistant Superintendent of Police, a police rank\n* Association of Surfing Professionals\n* Astronomical Society of the Pacific\n* Avenal State Prison in California, USA\n* Average selling price, the average price at which a product is sold\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Combat", "Computing", "Education", "Electronics", "Entertainment", "Medicine and biology", "Politics", "Sports", "Other uses" ]	ASP
[ "\n\n\nThis Togliatti surface is an algebraic surface of degree five. The picture represents a portion of its real locus.\n\n\n'''Algebraic geometry''' is a branch of mathematics, classically studying zeros of multivariate polynomials. Modern algebraic geometry is based on the use of abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, for solving geometrical problems about these sets of zeros.\n\nThe fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.\n\nAlgebraic geometry occupies a central place in modern mathematics and has multiple conceptual connections with such diverse fields as complex analysis, topology and number theory. Initially a study of systems of polynomial equations in several variables, the subject of algebraic geometry starts where equation solving leaves off, and it becomes even more important to understand the intrinsic properties of the totality of solutions of a system of equations, than to find a specific solution; this leads into some of the deepest areas in all of mathematics, both conceptually and in terms of technique.\n\n\nIn the 20th century, algebraic geometry split into several subareas.\n* The mainstream of algebraic geometry is devoted to the study of the complex points of the algebraic varieties and more generally to the points with coordinates in an algebraically closed field.\n* The study of the points of an algebraic variety with coordinates in the field of the rational numbers or in a number field became arithmetic geometry (or more classically Diophantine geometry), a subfield of algebraic number theory.\n* The study of the real points of an algebraic variety is the subject of real algebraic geometry.\n* A large part of singularity theory is devoted to the singularities of algebraic varieties.\n* With the rise of the computers, a computational algebraic geometry area has emerged, which lies at the intersection of algebraic geometry and computer algebra. It consists essentially in developing algorithms and software for studying and finding the properties of explicitly given algebraic varieties.\n\nMuch of the development of the mainstream of algebraic geometry in the 20th century occurred within an abstract algebraic framework, with increasing emphasis being placed on \"intrinsic\" properties of algebraic varieties not dependent on any particular way of embedding the variety in an ambient coordinate space; this parallels developments in topology, differential and complex geometry. One key achievement of this abstract algebraic geometry is Grothendieck's scheme theory which allows one to use sheaf theory to study algebraic varieties in a way which is very similar to its use in the study of differential and analytic manifolds. This is obtained by extending the notion of point: In classical algebraic geometry, a point of an affine variety may be identified, through Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, with a maximal ideal of the coordinate ring, while the points of the corresponding affine scheme are all prime ideals of this ring. This means that a point of such a scheme may be either a usual point or a subvariety. This approach also enables a unification of the language and the tools of classical algebraic geometry, mainly concerned with complex points, and of algebraic number theory. Wiles's proof of the longstanding conjecture called Fermat's last theorem is an example of the power of this approach.\n", "\n\n=== Zeros of simultaneous polynomials ===\nSphere and slanted circle\nIn classical algebraic geometry, the main objects of interest are the vanishing sets of collections of polynomials, meaning the set of all points that simultaneously satisfy one or more polynomial equations. For instance, the two-dimensional sphere in three-dimensional Euclidean space '''R'''3 could be defined as the set of all points (''x'',''y'',''z'') with\n\n:\n\nA \"slanted\" circle in '''R'''3 can be defined as the set of all points (''x'',''y'',''z'') which satisfy the two polynomial equations\n\n:\n:\n\n=== Affine varieties ===\n\n\nFirst we start with a field ''k''. In classical algebraic geometry, this field was always the complex numbers '''C''', but many of the same results are true if we assume only that ''k'' is algebraically closed. We consider the affine space of dimension ''n'' over ''k'', denoted '''A'''n(''k'') (or more simply '''A'''''n'', when ''k'' is clear from the context). When one fixes a coordinates system, one may identify '''A'''n(''k'') with ''k''''n''. The purpose of not working with ''k''''n'' is to emphasize that one \"forgets\" the vector space structure that ''k''n carries.\n\nA function ''f'' : '''A'''''n'' → '''A'''1 is said to be ''polynomial'' (or ''regular'') if it can be written as a polynomial, that is, if there is a polynomial ''p'' in ''k''''x''1,...,''x''''n'' such that ''f''(''M'') = ''p''(''t''1,...,''t''''n'') for every point ''M'' with coordinates (''t''1,...,''t''''n'') in '''A'''''n''. The property of a function to be polynomial (or regular) does not depend on the choice of a coordinate system in '''A'''''n''.\n\nWhen a coordinate system is chosen, the regular functions on the affine ''n''-space may be identified with the ring of polynomial functions in ''n'' variables over ''k''. Therefore, the set of the regular functions on '''A'''''n'' is a ring, which is denoted ''k'''''A'''''n''.\n\nWe say that a polynomial ''vanishes'' at a point if evaluating it at that point gives zero. Let ''S'' be a set of polynomials in ''k'''''A'''n. The ''vanishing set of S'' (or ''vanishing locus'' or ''zero set'') is the set ''V''(''S'') of all points in '''A'''''n'' where every polynomial in ''S'' vanishes. Symbolically,\n\n:\n\nA subset of '''A'''''n'' which is ''V''(''S''), for some ''S'', is called an ''algebraic set''. The ''V'' stands for ''variety'' (a specific type of algebraic set to be defined below).\n\nGiven a subset ''U'' of '''A'''''n'', can one recover the set of polynomials which generate it? If ''U'' is ''any'' subset of '''A'''''n'', define ''I''(''U'') to be the set of all polynomials whose vanishing set contains ''U''. The ''I'' stands for ideal: if two polynomials ''f'' and ''g'' both vanish on ''U'', then ''f''+''g'' vanishes on ''U'', and if ''h'' is any polynomial, then ''hf'' vanishes on ''U'', so ''I''(''U'') is always an ideal of the polynomial ring ''k'''''A'''''n''.\n\nTwo natural questions to ask are:\n* Given a subset ''U'' of '''A'''''n'', when is ''U'' = ''V''(''I''(''U''))?\n* Given a set ''S'' of polynomials, when is ''S'' = ''I''(''V''(''S''))?\n\nThe answer to the first question is provided by introducing the Zariski topology, a topology on '''A'''''n'' whose closed sets are the algebraic sets, and which directly reflects the algebraic structure of ''k'''''A'''''n''. Then ''U'' = ''V''(''I''(''U'')) if and only if ''U'' is an algebraic set or equivalently a Zariski-closed set. The answer to the second question is given by Hilbert's Nullstellensatz. In one of its forms, it says that ''I''(''V''(''S'')) is the radical of the ideal generated by ''S''. In more abstract language, there is a Galois connection, giving rise to two closure operators; they can be identified, and naturally play a basic role in the theory; the example is elaborated at Galois connection.\n\nFor various reasons we may not always want to work with the entire ideal corresponding to an algebraic set ''U''. Hilbert's basis theorem implies that ideals in ''k'''''A'''''n'' are always finitely generated.\n\nAn algebraic set is called ''irreducible'' if it cannot be written as the union of two smaller algebraic sets. Any algebraic set is a finite union of irreducible algebraic sets and this decomposition is unique. Thus its elements are called the ''irreducible components'' of the algebraic set. An irreducible algebraic set is also called a ''variety''. It turns out that an algebraic set is a variety if and only if it may be defined as the vanishing set of a prime ideal of the polynomial ring.\n\nSome authors do not make a clear distinction between algebraic sets and varieties and use ''irreducible variety'' to make the distinction when needed.\n\n=== Regular functions ===\n\n\nJust as continuous functions are the natural maps on topological spaces and smooth functions are the natural maps on differentiable manifolds, there is a natural class of functions on an algebraic set, called ''regular functions'' or ''polynomial functions''. A regular function on an algebraic set ''V'' contained in '''A'''''n'' is the restriction to ''V'' of a regular function on '''A'''''n''. For an algebraic set defined on the field of the complex numbers, the regular functions are smooth and even analytic.\n\nIt may seem unnaturally restrictive to require that a regular function always extend to the ambient space, but it is very similar to the situation in a normal topological space, where the Tietze extension theorem guarantees that a continuous function on a closed subset always extends to the ambient topological space.\n\nJust as with the regular functions on affine space, the regular functions on ''V'' form a ring, which we denote by ''k''''V''. This ring is called the ''coordinate ring of V''.\n\nSince regular functions on V come from regular functions on '''A'''''n'', there is a relationship between the coordinate rings. Specifically, if a regular function on ''V'' is the restriction of two functions ''f'' and ''g'' in ''k'''''A'''''n'', then ''f'' − ''g'' is a polynomial function which is null on ''V'' and thus belongs to ''I''(''V''). Thus ''k''''V'' may be identified with ''k'''''A'''''n''/''I''(''V'').\n\n=== Morphism of affine varieties ===\nUsing regular functions from an affine variety to '''A'''1, we can define regular maps from one affine variety to another. First we will define a regular map from a variety into affine space: Let ''V'' be a variety contained in '''A'''''n''. Choose ''m'' regular functions on ''V'', and call them ''f''1, ..., ''f''''m''. We define a ''regular map'' ''f'' from ''V'' to '''A'''''m'' by letting . In other words, each ''f''''i'' determines one coordinate of the range of ''f''.\n\nIf ''V''′ is a variety contained in '''A'''''m'', we say that ''f'' is a ''regular map'' from ''V'' to ''V''′ if the range of ''f'' is contained in ''V''′.\n\nThe definition of the regular maps apply also to algebraic sets.\nThe regular maps are also called ''morphisms'', as they make the collection of all affine algebraic sets into a category, where the objects are the affine algebraic sets and the morphisms are the regular maps. The affine varieties is a subcategory of the category of the algebraic sets.\n\nGiven a regular map ''g'' from ''V'' to ''V''′ and a regular function ''f'' of ''k''''V''′, then . The map is a ring homomorphism from ''k''''V''′ to ''k''''V''. Conversely, every ring homomorphism from ''k''''V''′ to ''k''''V'' defines a regular map from ''V'' to ''V''′. This defines an equivalence of categories between the category of algebraic sets and the opposite category of the finitely generated reduced ''k''-algebras. This equivalence is one of the starting points of scheme theory.\n\n=== Rational function and birational equivalence ===\n\nContrarily to the preceding ones, this section concerns only varieties and not algebraic sets. On the other hand, the definitions extend naturally to projective varieties (next section), as an affine variety and its projective completion have the same field of functions.\n\nIf ''V'' is an affine variety, its coordinate ring is an integral domain and has thus a field of fractions which is denoted ''k''(''V'') and called the ''field of the rational functions'' on ''V'' or, shortly, the ''function field'' of ''V''. Its elements are the restrictions to ''V'' of the rational functions over the affine space containing ''V''. The domain of a rational function ''f'' is not ''V'' but the complement of the subvariety (a hypersurface) where the denominator of ''f'' vanishes.\n\nLike for regular maps, one may define a ''rational map'' from a variety ''V'' to a variety ''V''. Like for the regular maps, the rational maps from ''V'' to ''V'' may be identified to the field homomorphisms from ''k''(''V'') to ''k''(''V'').\n\nTwo affine varieties are ''birationally equivalent'' if there are two rational functions between them which are inverse one to the other in the regions where both are defined. Equivalently, they are birationally equivalent if their function fields are isomorphic.\n\nAn affine variety is a ''rational variety'' if it is birationally equivalent to an affine space. This means that the variety admits a rational parameterization. For example, the circle of equation is a rational curve, as it has the parameterization\n:\n:\nwhich may also be viewed as a rational map from the line to the circle.\n\nThe problem of resolution of singularities is to know if every algebraic variety is birationally equivalent to a variety whose projective completion is nonsingular (see also smooth completion). It has been positively solved in characteristic 0 by Heisuke Hironaka in 1964 and is yet unsolved in finite characteristic.\n\n=== Projective variety ===\n\n\nparabola (, red) and cubic (, blue) in projective space\nJust as the formulas for the roots of 2nd, 3rd and 4th degree polynomials suggest extending real numbers to the more algebraically complete setting of the complex numbers, many properties of algebraic varieties suggest extending affine space to a more geometrically complete projective space. Whereas the complex numbers are obtained by adding the number ''i'', a root of the polynomial , projective space is obtained by adding in appropriate points \"at infinity\", points where parallel lines may meet.\n\nTo see how this might come about, consider the variety . If we draw it, we get a parabola. As ''x'' goes to positive infinity, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (''x'', ''x''2) also goes to positive infinity. As ''x'' goes to negative infinity, the slope of the same line goes to negative infinity.\n\nCompare this to the variety ''V''(''y'' − ''x''3). This is a cubic curve. As ''x'' goes to positive infinity, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (''x'', ''x''3) goes to positive infinity just as before. But unlike before, as ''x'' goes to negative infinity, the slope of the same line goes to positive infinity as well; the exact opposite of the parabola. So the behavior \"at infinity\" of ''V''(''y'' − ''x''3) is different from the behavior \"at infinity\" of ''V''(''y'' − ''x''2).\n\nThe consideration of the ''projective completion'' of the two curves, which is their prolongation \"at infinity\" in the projective plane, allows to quantify this difference: the point at infinity of the parabola is a regular point, whose tangent is the line at infinity, while the point at infinity of the cubic curve is a cusp. Also, both curves are rational, as they are parameterized by ''x'', and Riemann-Roch theorem implies that the cubic curve must have a singularity, which must be at infinity, as all its points in the affine space are regular.\n\nThus many of the properties of algebraic varieties, including birational equivalence and all the topological properties, depend on the behavior \"at infinity\" and so it is natural to study the varieties in projective space. Furthermore, the introduction of projective techniques made many theorems in algebraic geometry simpler and sharper: For example, Bézout's theorem on the number of intersection points between two varieties can be stated in its sharpest form only in projective space. For these reasons, projective space plays a fundamental role in algebraic geometry.\n\nNowadays, the ''projective space'' '''P'''''n'' of dimension ''n'' is usually defined as the set of the lines passing through a point, considered as the origin, in the affine space of dimension , or equivalently to the set of the vector lines in a vector space of dimension . When a coordinate system has been chosen in the space of dimension , all the points of a line have the same set of coordinates, up to the multiplication by an element of ''k''. This defines the homogeneous coordinates of a point of '''P'''''n'' as a sequence of elements of the base field ''k'', defined up to the multiplication by a nonzero element of ''k'' (the same for the whole sequence).\n\nGiven a polynomial in variables, it vanishes at all points of a line passing through the origin if and only if it is homogeneous. In this case, one says that the polynomial ''vanishes'' at the corresponding point of '''P'''''n''. This allows to define a ''projective algebraic set'' in '''P'''''n'' as the set , where a finite set of homogeneous polynomials vanishes. Like for affine algebraic sets, there is a bijection between the projective algebraic sets and the reduced homogeneous ideals which define them. The ''projective varieties'' are the projective algebraic sets whose defining ideal is prime. In other words, a projective variety is a projective algebraic set, whose homogeneous coordinate ring is an integral domain, the ''projective coordinates ring'' being defined as the quotient of the graded ring or the polynomials in variables by the homogeneous (reduced) ideal defining the variety. Every projective algebraic set may be uniquely decomposed into a finite union of projective varieties.\n\nThe only regular functions which may be defined properly on a projective variety are the constant functions. Thus this notion is not used in projective situations. On the other hand, the ''field of the rational functions'' or ''function field '' is a useful notion, which, similarly as in the affine case, is defined as the set of the quotients of two homogeneous elements of the same degree in the homogeneous coordinate ring.\n", "\n\nReal algebraic geometry is the study of the real points of algebraic geometry.\n\nThe fact that the field of the real numbers is an ordered field cannot be ignored in such a study. For example, the curve of equation is a circle if , but does not have any real point if . It follows that real algebraic geometry is not only the study of the real algebraic varieties, but has been generalized to the study of the ''semi-algebraic sets'', which are the solutions of systems of polynomial equations and polynomial inequalities. For example, a branch of the hyperbola of equation is not an algebraic variety, but is a semi-algebraic set defined by and or by and .\n\nOne of the challenging problems of real algebraic geometry is the unsolved Hilbert's sixteenth problem: Decide which respective positions are possible for the ovals of a nonsingular plane curve of degree 8.\n", "One may date the origin of computational algebraic geometry to meeting EUROSAM'79 (International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation) held at Marseille, France in June 1979. At this meeting,\n* Dennis S. Arnon showed that George E. Collins's Cylindrical algebraic decomposition (CAD) allows the computation of the topology of semi-algebraic sets,\n* Bruno Buchberger presented the Gröbner bases and his algorithm to compute them,\n* Daniel Lazard presented a new algorithm for solving systems of homogeneous polynomial equations with a computational complexity which is essentially polynomial in the expected number of solutions and thus simply exponential in the number of the unknowns. This algorithm is strongly related with Macaulay's multivariate resultant.\n\nSince then, most results in this area are related to one or several of these items either by using or improving one of these algorithms, or by finding algorithms whose complexity is simply exponential in the number of the variables\n\nA body of mathematical theory complementary to symbolic methods called numerical algebraic geometry has been developed over the last several decades. The main computational method is homotopy continuation. This supports, for example, a model of floating point computation for solving problems of algebraic geometry.\n\n===Gröbner basis===\n\n\n\nA Gröbner basis is a system of generators of a polynomial ideal whose computation allows the deduction of many properties of the affine algebraic variety defined by the ideal.\n\nGiven an ideal ''I'' defining an algebraic set ''V'':\n* ''V'' is empty (over an algebraically closed extension of the basis field), if and only if the Gröbner basis for any monomial ordering is reduced to {1}.\n* By means of the Hilbert series one may compute the dimension and the degree of ''V'' from any Gröbner basis of ''I'' for a monomial ordering refining the total degree.\n* If the dimension of ''V'' is 0, one may compute the points (finite in number) of ''V'' from any Gröbner basis of ''I'' (see systems of polynomial equations).\n* A Gröbner basis computation allows to remove from ''V'' all irreducible components which are contained in a given hyper surface.\n* A Gröbner basis computation allows to compute the Zariski closure of the image of ''V'' by the projection on the ''k'' first coordinates, and the subset of the image where the projection is not proper.\n* More generally Gröbner basis computations allows to compute the Zariski closure of the image and the critical points of a rational function of ''V'' into another affine variety.\n\nGröbner basis computations do not allow to compute directly the primary decomposition of ''I'' nor the prime ideals defining the irreducible components of ''V'', but most algorithms for this involve Gröbner basis computation. The algorithms which are not based on Gröbner bases use regular chains but may need Gröbner bases in some exceptional situations.\n\nGröbner base are deemed to be difficult to compute. In fact they may contain, in the worst case, polynomials whose degree is doubly exponential in the number of variables and a number of polynomials which is also doubly exponential. However, this is only a worst case complexity, and the complexity bound of Lazard's algorithm of 1979 may frequently apply. Faugère's F4 and F5 algorithms realize this complexity, as F5 algorithm may be viewed as an improvement of Lazard's 1979 algorithm. It follows that the best implementations allow to compute almost routinely with algebraic sets of degree more than 100. This means that, presently, the difficulty of computing a Gröbner basis is strongly related to the intrinsic difficulty of the problem.\n\n===Cylindrical algebraic decomposition (CAD)===\nCAD is an algorithm which had been introduced in 1973 by G. Collins to implement with an acceptable complexity the Tarski–Seidenberg theorem on quantifier elimination over the real numbers.\n\nThis theorem concerns the formulas of the first-order logic whose atomic formulas are polynomial equalities or inequalities between polynomials with real coefficients. These formulas are thus the formulas which may be constructed from the atomic formulas by the logical operators ''and'' (∧), ''or'' (∨), ''not'' (¬), ''for all'' (∀) and ''exists'' (∃). Tarski's theorem asserts that, from such a formula, one may compute an equivalent formula without quantifier (∀, ∃).\n\nThe complexity of CAD is doubly exponential in the number of variables. This means that CAD allows, in theory, to solve every problem of real algebraic geometry which may be expressed by such a formula, that is almost every problem concerning explicitly given varieties and semi-algebraic sets.\n\nWhile Gröbner basis computation has doubly exponential complexity only in rare cases, CAD has almost always this high complexity. This implies that, unless if most polynomials appearing in the input are linear, it may not solve problems with more than four variables.\n\nSince 1973, most of the research on this subject is devoted either to improve CAD or to find alternate algorithms in special cases of general interest.\n\nAs an example of the state of art, there are efficient algorithms to find at least a point in every connected component of a semi-algebraic set, and thus to test if a semi-algebraic set is empty. On the other hand, CAD is yet, in practice, the best algorithm to count the number of connected components.\n\n=== Asymptotic complexity vs. practical efficiency ===\nThe basic general algorithms of computational geometry have a double exponential worst case complexity. More precisely, if ''d'' is the maximal degree of the input polynomials and ''n'' the number of variables, their complexity is at most for some constant ''c'', and, for some inputs, the complexity is at least for another constant ''c''′.\n\nDuring the last 20 years of 20th century, various algorithms have been introduced to solve specific subproblems with a better complexity. Most of these algorithms have a complexity .\n\nAmong these algorithms which solve a sub problem of the problems solved by Gröbner bases, one may cite ''testing if an affine variety is empty'' and ''solving nonhomogeneous polynomial systems which have a finite number of solutions.'' Such algorithms are rarely implemented because, on most entries Faugère's F4 and F5 algorithms have a better practical efficiency and probably a similar or better complexity (''probably'' because the evaluation of the complexity of Gröbner basis algorithms on a particular class of entries is a difficult task which has been done only in a few special cases).\n\nThe main algorithms of real algebraic geometry which solve a problem solved by CAD are related to the topology of semi-algebraic sets. One may cite ''counting the number of connected components'', ''testing if two points are in the same components'' or ''computing a Whitney stratification of a real algebraic set''. They have a complexity of\n, but the constant involved by ''O'' notation is so high that using them to solve any nontrivial problem effectively solved by CAD, is impossible even if one could use all the existing computing power in the world. Therefore, these algorithms have never been implemented and this is an active research area to search for algorithms with have together a good asymptotic complexity and a good practical efficiency.\n", "The modern approaches to algebraic geometry redefine and effectively extend the range of basic objects in various levels of generality to schemes, formal schemes, ind-schemes, algebraic spaces, algebraic stacks and so on. The need for this arises already from the useful ideas within theory of varieties, e.g. the formal functions of Zariski can be accommodated by introducing nilpotent elements in structure rings; considering spaces of loops and arcs, constructing quotients by group actions and developing formal grounds for natural intersection theory and deformation theory lead to some of the further extensions.\n\nMost remarkably, in late 1950s, algebraic varieties were subsumed into Alexander Grothendieck's concept of a scheme. Their local objects are affine schemes or prime spectra which are locally ringed spaces which form a category which is antiequivalent to the category of commutative unital rings, extending the duality between the category of affine algebraic varieties over a field ''k'', and the category of finitely generated reduced ''k''-algebras. The gluing is along Zariski topology; one can glue within the category of locally ringed spaces, but also, using the Yoneda embedding, within the more abstract category of presheaves of sets over the category of affine schemes. The Zariski topology in the set theoretic sense is then replaced by a Grothendieck topology. Grothendieck introduced Grothendieck topologies having in mind more exotic but geometrically finer and more sensitive examples than the crude Zariski topology, namely the étale topology, and the two flat Grothendieck topologies: fppf and fpqc; nowadays some other examples became prominent including Nisnevich topology. Sheaves can be furthermore generalized to stacks in the sense of Grothendieck, usually with some additional representability conditions leading to Artin stacks and, even finer, Deligne-Mumford stacks, both often called algebraic stacks.\n\nSometimes other algebraic sites replace the category of affine schemes. For example, Nikolai Durov has introduced commutative algebraic monads as a generalization of local objects in a generalized algebraic geometry. Versions of a tropical geometry, of an absolute geometry over a field of one element and an algebraic analogue of Arakelov's geometry were realized in this setup.\n\nAnother formal generalization is possible to universal algebraic geometry in which every variety of algebras has its own algebraic geometry. The term ''variety of algebras'' should not be confused with ''algebraic variety''.\n\nThe language of schemes, stacks and generalizations has proved to be a valuable way of dealing with geometric concepts and became cornerstones of modern algebraic geometry.\n\nAlgebraic stacks can be further generalized and for many practical questions like deformation theory and intersection theory, this is often the most natural approach. One can extend the Grothendieck site of affine schemes to a higher categorical site of derived affine schemes, by replacing the commutative rings with an infinity category of differential graded commutative algebras, or of simplicial commutative rings or a similar category with an appropriate variant of a Grothendieck topology. One can also replace presheaves of sets by presheaves of simplicial sets (or of infinity groupoids). Then, in presence of an appropriate homotopic machinery one can develop a notion of derived stack as such a presheaf on the infinity category of derived affine schemes, which is satisfying certain infinite categorical version of a sheaf axiom (and to be algebraic, inductively a sequence of representability conditions). Quillen model categories, Segal categories and quasicategories are some of the most often used tools to formalize this yielding the ''derived algebraic geometry'', introduced by the school of Carlos Simpson, including Andre Hirschowitz, Bertrand Toën, Gabrielle Vezzosi, Michel Vaquié and others; and developed further by Jacob Lurie, Bertrand Toën, and Gabrielle Vezzosi. Another (noncommutative) version of derived algebraic geometry, using A-infinity categories has been developed from early 1990s by Maxim Kontsevich and followers.\n", "\n===Before the 16th century===\nSome of the roots of algebraic geometry date back to the work of the Hellenistic Greeks from the 5th century BC. The Delian problem, for instance, was to construct a length ''x'' so that the cube of side ''x'' contained the same volume as the rectangular box ''a''2''b'' for given sides ''a'' and ''b''. Menaechmus (circa 350 BC) considered the problem geometrically by intersecting the pair of plane conics ''ay'' = ''x''2 and ''xy'' = ''ab''. The later work, in the 3rd century BC, of Archimedes and Apollonius studied more systematically problems on conic sections, and also involved the use of coordinates. The Arab mathematicians were able to solve by purely algebraic means certain cubic equations, and then to interpret the results geometrically. This was done, for instance, by Ibn al-Haytham in the 10th century AD. Subsequently, Persian mathematician Omar Khayyám (born 1048 A.D.) discovered the general method of solving cubic equations by intersecting a parabola with a circle. Each of these early developments in algebraic geometry dealt with questions of finding and describing the intersections of algebraic curves.\n\n===Renaissance===\n\nSuch techniques of applying geometrical constructions to algebraic problems were also adopted by a number of Renaissance mathematicians such as Gerolamo Cardano and Niccolò Fontana \"Tartaglia\" on their studies of the cubic equation. The geometrical approach to construction problems, rather than the algebraic one, was favored by most 16th and 17th century mathematicians, notably Blaise Pascal who argued against the use of algebraic and analytical methods in geometry. The French mathematicians Franciscus Vieta and later René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat revolutionized the conventional way of thinking about construction problems through the introduction of coordinate geometry. They were interested primarily in the properties of ''algebraic curves'', such as those defined by Diophantine equations (in the case of Fermat), and the algebraic reformulation of the classical Greek works on conics and cubics (in the case of Descartes).\n\nDuring the same period, Blaise Pascal and Gérard Desargues approached geometry from a different perspective, developing the synthetic notions of projective geometry. Pascal and Desargues also studied curves, but from the purely geometrical point of view: the analog of the Greek ''ruler and compass construction''. Ultimately, the analytic geometry of Descartes and Fermat won out, for it supplied the 18th century mathematicians with concrete quantitative tools needed to study physical problems using the new calculus of Newton and Leibniz. However, by the end of the 18th century, most of the algebraic character of coordinate geometry was subsumed by the ''calculus of infinitesimals'' of Lagrange and Euler.\n\n===19th and early 20th century===\nIt took the simultaneous 19th century developments of non-Euclidean geometry and Abelian integrals in order to bring the old algebraic ideas back into the geometrical fold. The first of these new developments was seized up by Edmond Laguerre and Arthur Cayley, who attempted to ascertain the generalized metric properties of projective space. Cayley introduced the idea of ''homogeneous polynomial forms'', and more specifically quadratic forms, on projective space. Subsequently, Felix Klein studied projective geometry (along with other types of geometry) from the viewpoint that the geometry on a space is encoded in a certain class of transformations on the space. By the end of the 19th century, projective geometers were studying more general kinds of transformations on figures in projective space. Rather than the projective linear transformations which were normally regarded as giving the fundamental Kleinian geometry on projective space, they concerned themselves also with the higher degree birational transformations. This weaker notion of congruence would later lead members of the 20th century Italian school of algebraic geometry to classify algebraic surfaces up to birational isomorphism.\n\nThe second early 19th century development, that of Abelian integrals, would lead Bernhard Riemann to the development of Riemann surfaces.\n\nIn the same period began the algebraization of the algebraic geometry through commutative algebra. The prominent results in this direction are Hilbert's basis theorem and Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, which are the basis of the connexion between algebraic geometry and commutative algebra, and Macaulay's multivariate resultant, which is the basis of elimination theory. Probably because of the size of the computation which is implied by multivariate resultants, elimination theory was forgotten during the middle of the 20th century until it was renewed by singularity theory and computational algebraic geometry.\n\n===20th century===\nB. L. van der Waerden, Oscar Zariski and André Weil developed a foundation for algebraic geometry based on contemporary commutative algebra, including valuation theory and the theory of ideals. One of the goals was to give a rigorous framework for proving the results of Italian school of algebraic geometry. In particular, this school used systematically the notion of generic point without any precise definition, which was first given by these authors during the 1930s.\n\nIn the 1950s and 1960s Jean-Pierre Serre and Alexander Grothendieck recast the foundations making use of sheaf theory. Later, from about 1960, and largely led by Grothendieck, the idea of schemes was worked out, in conjunction with a very refined apparatus of homological techniques. After a decade of rapid development the field stabilized in the 1970s, and new applications were made, both to number theory and to more classical geometric questions on algebraic varieties, singularities and moduli.\n\nAn important class of varieties, not easily understood directly from their defining equations, are the abelian varieties, which are the projective varieties whose points form an abelian group. The prototypical examples are the elliptic curves, which have a rich theory. They were instrumental in the proof of Fermat's last theorem and are also used in elliptic curve cryptography.\n\nIn parallel with the abstract trend of the algebraic geometry, which is concerned with general statements about varieties, methods for effective computation with concretely-given varieties have also been developed, which lead to the new area of computational algebraic geometry. One of the founding methods of this area is the theory of Gröbner bases, introduced by Bruno Buchberger in 1965. Another founding method, more specially devoted to real algebraic geometry, is the cylindrical algebraic decomposition, introduced by George E. Collins in 1973.\n\nSee also: derived algebraic geometry.\n", "An '''analytic variety''' is defined locally as the set of common solutions of several equations involving analytic functions. It is analogous to the included concept of real or complex algebraic variety. Any complex manifold is an analytic variety. Since analytic varieties may have singular points, not all analytic varieties are manifolds.\n\nModern analytic geometry is essentially equivalent to real and complex algebraic geometry, as has been shown by Jean-Pierre Serre in his paper ''GAGA'', the name of which is French for ''Algebraic geometry and analytic geometry''. Nevertheless, the two fields remain distinct, as the methods of proof are quite different and algebraic geometry includes also geometry in finite characteristic.\n", "Algebraic geometry now finds applications in statistics, control theory, robotics, error-correcting codes, phylogenetics and geometric modelling. There are also connections to string theory, game theory, graph matchings, solitons and integer programming.\n", "* Algebraic statistics\n* Differential geometry\n* Geometric algebra\n* Glossary of classical algebraic geometry\n* Intersection theory\n* Important publications in algebraic geometry\n* List of algebraic surfaces\n* Noncommutative algebraic geometry\n* Differential algebraic geometry\n* Real algebraic geometry\n", "\n", ";Some classic textbooks that predate schemes:\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n;Modern textbooks that do not use the language of schemes:\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n;Textbooks in computational algebraic geometry\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n;Textbooks and references for schemes:\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* ''Foundations of Algebraic Geometry'' by Ravi Vakil, 764 pp.\n* ''Algebraic geometry'' entry on PlanetMath\n* English translation of the van der Waerden textbook\n* The History of Algebraic Geometry (1.425 Gigabyte MOV file), a 1972 talk by Jean Dieudonné at the Department of Mathematics of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee\n* The Stacks Project, an open source textbook and reference work on algebraic stacks and algebraic geometry\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Basic notions", "Real algebraic geometry", " Computational algebraic geometry ", " Abstract modern viewpoint ", " History ", "Analytic geometry", "Applications", "See also", "Notes", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Algebraic geometry
[ "\n\n\nThe '''argument from morality''' is an argument for the existence of God. Arguments from morality tend to be based on moral normativity or moral order. Arguments from moral normativity observe some aspect of morality and argue that God is the best or only explanation for this, concluding that God must exist. Arguments from moral order are based on the asserted need for moral order to exist in the universe. They claim that, for this moral order to exist, God must exist to support it. The argument from morality is noteworthy in that one cannot evaluate the soundness of the argument without attending to almost every important philosophical issue in meta-ethics.\n\nGerman philosopher Immanuel Kant devised an argument from morality based on practical reason. Kant argued that the goal of humanity is to achieve perfect happiness and virtue (the summum bonum) and believed that an afterlife must exist in order for this to be possible, and that God must exist to provide this. In his book ''Mere Christianity'', C. S. Lewis argued that \"conscience reveals to us a moral law whose source cannot be found in the natural world, thus pointing to a supernatural Lawgiver.\" Lewis argued that accepting the validity of human reason as a given must include accepting the validity of practical reason, which could not be valid without reference to a higher cosmic moral order which could not exist without a God to create and/or establish it. A related argument is from conscience; John Henry Newman argued that the conscience supports the claim that objective moral truths exist because it drives people to act morally even when it is not in their own interest. Newman argued that, because the conscience suggests the existence of objective moral truths, God must exist to give authority to these truths.\n", "All variations of the argument from morality begin with an observation about moral thought or experiences and conclude with the existence of God. Some of these arguments propose moral facts which they claim evident through human experience, arguing that God is the best explanation for these. Other versions describe some end which humans should strive to attain, only possible if God exists.\n\nMany arguments from morality are based on moral normativity, which suggests that objective moral truths exist and require God's existence to give them authority. Often, they consider that morality seems to be binding – obligations are seen to convey more than just a preference, but imply that the obligation will stand, regardless of other factors or interests. For morality to be binding, God must exist. In its most general form, the argument from moral normativity is:\n\n#A human experience of morality is observed.\n#God is the best or only explanation for this moral experience.\n#Therefore, God exists.\n\nSome arguments from moral order suggest that morality is based on rationality and that this can only be the case if there is a moral order in the universe. The arguments propose that only the existence of God as orthodoxly conceived could support the existence of moral order in the universe, so God must exist. Alternative arguments from moral order have proposed that we have an obligation to attain the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue. They attest that whatever we are obliged to do must be possible, and achieving the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue is only possible if a natural moral order exists. A natural moral order requires the existence of God as orthodoxly conceived, so God must exist.\n", "\n===Practical Reason===\nPortrait of Immanuel Kant, who proposed an argument for the existence of God from morality\nIn his ''Critique of Pure Reason'', German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated that no successful argument for God's existence arises from reason alone. In his ''Critique of Practical Reason'' he went on to argue that, despite the failure of these arguments, morality requires that God's existence is assumed, owing to practical reason. Rather than proving the existence of God, Kant was attempting to demonstrate that all moral thought requires the assumption that God exists. Kant argued that humans are obliged to bring about the ''summum bonum'': the two central aims of moral virtue and happiness, where happiness arises out of virtue. As ought implies can, Kant argued, it must be possible for the ''summum bonum'' to be achieved. He accepted that it is not within the power of humans to bring the ''summum bonum'' about, because we cannot ensure that virtue always leads to happiness, so there must be a higher power who has the power to create an afterlife where virtue can be rewarded by happiness.\n\nPhilosopher G. H. R. Parkinson notes a common objection to Kant's argument: that what ought to be done does not necessarily entail that it is possible. He also argues that alternative conceptions of morality exist which do not rely on the assumptions that Kant makes – he cites utilitarianism as an example which does not require the ''summum bonum''. Nicholas Everitt argues that much moral guidance is unattainable, such as the Biblical command to be Christ-like. He proposes that Kant's first two premises only entail that we must try to achieve the perfect good, not that it is actually attainable.\n\n===Argument from objective moral truths===\nBoth theists and non-theists have accepted that the existence of objective moral truths might entail the existence of God. Atheist philosopher J. L. Mackie accepted that, if objective moral truths existed, they would warrant a supernatural explanation. Scottish philosopher W. R. Sorley presented the following argument:\n#If morality is objective and absolute, God must exist.\n#Morality is objective and absolute.\n#Therefore, God must exist.\n\nMany critics have challenged the second premise of this argument, by offering a biological and sociological account of the development of human morality which suggests that it is neither objective nor absolute. This account, supported by biologist E. O. Wilson and philosopher Michael Ruse, proposes that the human experience of morality is a by-product of natural selection, a theory philosopher Mark D. Linville calls evolutionary naturalism. According to the theory, the human experience of moral obligations was the result of evolutionary pressures, which attached a sense of morality to human psychology because it was useful for moral development; this entails that moral values do not exist independently of the human mind. Morality might be better understood as an evolutionary imperative in order to propagate genes and ultimately reproduce. No human society today advocates immorality, such as theft or murder, because it would undoubtedly lead to the end of that particular society and any chance for future survival of offspring. Scottish empiricist David Hume made a similar argument, that belief in objective moral truths is unwarranted and to discuss them is meaningless.\n\nBecause evolutionary naturalism proposes an empirical account of morality, it does not require morality to exist objectively; Linville considers the view that this will lead to moral scepticism or antirealism. C. S. Lewis argued that, if evolutionary naturalism is accepted, human morality cannot be described as absolute and objective because moral statements cannot be right or wrong. Despite this, Lewis argued, those who accept evolutionary naturalism still act as if objective moral truths exist, leading Lewis to reject naturalism as incoherent. As an alternative ethical theory, Lewis offered a form of divine command theory which equated God with goodness and treated goodness as an essential part of reality, thus asserting God's existence.\n\nJ.C.A. Gaskin challenges the first premise of the argument from moral objectivity, arguing that it must be shown why absolute and objective morality entails that morality is commanded by God, rather than simply a human invention. It could be the consent of humanity that gives it moral force, for example. American philosopher Michael Martin argues that it is not necessarily true that objective moral truths must entail the existence of God, suggesting that there could be alternative explanations: he argues that naturalism may be an acceptable explanation and, even if a supernatural explanation is necessary, it does not have to be God (polytheism is a viable alternative). Martin also argues that a non-objective account of ethics might be acceptable and challenges the view that a subjective account of morality would lead to moral anarchy.\n\n===Conscience===\nPortrait of John Henry Newman, who used the conscience as evidence of the existence of God\nRelated to the argument from morality is the argument from conscience, associated with eighteenth-century bishop Joseph Butler and nineteenth-century cardinal John Henry Newman. Newman proposed that the conscience, as well as giving moral guidance, provides evidence of objective moral truths which must be supported by the divine. He argued that emotivism is an inadequate explanation of the human experience of morality because people avoid acting immorally, even when it might be in their interests. Newman proposed that, to explain the conscience, God must exist.\n\nBritish philosopher John Locke argued that moral rules cannot be established from conscience because the differences in people's consciences would lead to contradictions. Locke also noted that the conscience is influenced by \"education, company, and customs of the country\", a criticism mounted by J. L. Mackie, who argued that the conscience should be seen as an \"introjection\" of other people into an agent's mind. Michael Martin challenges the argument from conscience with a naturalistic account of conscience, arguing that naturalism provides an adequate explanation for the conscience without the need for God's existence. He uses the example of the internalisation by humans of social pressures, which leads to the fear of going against these norms. Even if a supernatural cause is required, he argues, it could be something other than God; this would mean that the phenomenon of the conscience is no more supportive of monotheism than polytheism.\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "Evans, C. Stephen (2014) Moral Arguments for the Existence of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, June 12, 2014.\n \"Kant's 'Appropriation' of Lampe's God\", ''Harvard Theological Review'' 85:1 (January 1992), pp. 85–108; revised and reprinted as Chapter IV in Stephen Palmquist, Kant's Critical Religion (Ashgate, 2000).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "General form", "Variations", "Notes and references", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Argument from morality
[ "\n\n'''ASL''' is a common initialism for American Sign Language, the sign language of the United States and Canada, and may also refer to:\n\n", "\n=== Sport ===\n* American Soccer League (1921-1933), American professional soccer league from 1921 to 1933\n* American Soccer League (1933-1983), American professional soccer league from 1933 to 1983\n* American Soccer League (1988-1989), American professional soccer league from 1988 to 1989\n* American Soccer League (2014), American professional soccer league that began playing in August 2014\n* ''Australia's Surfing Life'', surf magazine\n* Axpo Super League, the highest Soccer League in Switzerland\n\n=== Other uses ===\n* A Static Lullaby, a post-hardcore band from Chino Hills, California, USA\n* Advanced Squad Leader, a tactical board wargame\n* \"age/sex/location\", commonly used in personal advertisements etc.\n* Average shot length, in film editing\n", "\n===Aviation===\n* Aeronautical Syndicate Ltd, British pioneer aeroplane manufacturer.\n* Air Serbia, ICAO airline code\n* ASL Aviation Group, a Belgian air taxi and charter airline\n\n=== Biology and medicine ===\n* American Society of Lymphology\n* Argininosuccinate lyase, an enzyme\n\n=== Computing ===\n* ACPI Source Language, for ACPI tables\n* Adobe Source Libraries, open-source GUI software libraries\n* Advanced Simulation Library, open-source hardware-accelerated multiphysics simulation software\n* AMPL Solver Library, an open-source automatic differentiation library\n* Apache Software License, an open-source license for software\n* Application Services Library, a process model for the maintenance of software applications\n\n=== Other uses ===\n* Above sea level, an altitude measurement\n* Association for Symbolic Logic, of specialists in mathematical logic and philosophical logic\n* Airbus Safran Launchers, European aerospace joint venture producing Ariane rockets\n", "\n=== Education ===\n* The American School in London, an independent K–12 international school\n* Appalachian School of Law, a law school in Grundy, Virginia, USA\n* One of several institutions with the name ''Art Students’ League'', including:\n Art Students League of New York\n Art Students' League of Philadelphia\n\n=== Other uses ===\n* Advanced stop line, a type of road marking used at signalised road junctions\n* American Sign Language, used in North America and elsewhere\n* Artists' Suffrage League, former British universal suffrage organisation\n* Autobacs Sportscar Laboratory, of Autobacs Seven, Japan\n* Ansar al-Sharia in Libya, a Salafist Islamist militia group\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Culture ", " Science and technology ", " Society " ]	ASL (disambiguation)
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Auschwitz concentration camp''' (, , also '''' or '''') was a network of German Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps built and operated by the Third Reich in Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany during World War II. It consisted of '''''' (the original camp), '''Auschwitz II–Birkenau''' (a combination concentration/extermination camp), (a labor camp to staff an IG Farben factory), and 45 satellite camps.\n\nAuschwitz I was first constructed to hold Polish political prisoners, who began to arrive in May 1940. The first extermination of prisoners took place in September 1941, and Auschwitz II–Birkenau went on to become a major site of the Nazi Final Solution to the Jewish Question. From early 1942 until late 1944, transport trains delivered Jews to the camp's gas chambers from all over German-occupied Europe, where they were killed en masse with the pesticide Zyklon B. An estimated 1.3 million people were sent to the camp, of whom at least 1.1 million died. Around 90 percent of those killed were Jewish; approximately 1 in 6 Jews killed in the Holocaust died at the camp. Others deported to Auschwitz included 150,000 Poles, 23,000 Romani and Sinti, 15,000 Soviet prisoners of war, 400 Jehovah's Witnesses, and tens of thousands of others of diverse nationalities, including an unknown number of homosexuals. Many of those not killed in the gas chambers died of starvation, forced labor, infectious diseases, individual executions, and medical experiments.\n\nIn the course of the war, the camp was staffed by 7,000 members of the German ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS), approximately 12 percent of whom were later convicted of war crimes. Some, including camp commandant Rudolf Höss, were executed. The Allied Powers refused to believe early reports of the atrocities at the camp, and their failure to bomb the camp or its railways remains controversial. One hundred forty-four prisoners are known to have escaped from Auschwitz successfully, and on 7 October 1944, two ''Sonderkommando'' units—prisoners assigned to staff the gas chambers—launched a brief, unsuccessful uprising.\n\nAs Soviet troops approached Auschwitz in January 1945, most of its population was sent west on a death march. The prisoners remaining at the camp were liberated on 27 January 1945, a day now commemorated as International Holocaust Remembrance Day. In the following decades, survivors, such as Primo Levi, Viktor Frankl, and Elie Wiesel, wrote memoirs of their experiences in Auschwitz, and the camp became a dominant symbol of the Holocaust. In 1947, Poland founded the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum on the site of Auschwitz I and II, and in 1979, it was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.\n", "\n===Background===\n\nThe ideology of Nazism brought together elements of anti-Semitism, racial hygiene, and eugenics, and combined them with pan-Germanism and territorial expansionism with the goal of obtaining more ''Lebensraum'' (living space) for the Germanic people. Immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany, acts of violence perpetrated against Jews became ubiquitous. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933 excluded most Jews from the legal profession and the civil service. Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of the right to practise. Harassment and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to leave the country voluntarily. Their businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden to advertise in newspapers, and deprived of government contracts. German Jews were subjected to violent attacks and boycotts. \n\nIn September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were enacted. These laws prohibited marriages between Jews and people of Germanic extraction, extramarital relations between Jews and Germans, and the employment of German women under the age of 45 as domestic servants in Jewish households. The Reich Citizenship Law stated that only those of Germanic or related blood were defined as citizens. Thus Jews and other minority groups were stripped of their German citizenship. The laws were expanded on 26 November 1935 to include Romani people and Afro-Germans. This supplementary decree defined Gypsies as \"enemies of the race-based state\", the same category as Jews. By the start of World War II in 1939, around 250,000 of Germany's 437,000 Jews had emigrated to the United States, Palestine, the United Kingdom, and other countries. \n\nNazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. German dictator Adolf Hitler ordered that the Polish leadership and intelligentsia be destroyed. Approximately 65,000 civilians, who were viewed as being inferior to the Aryan master race, were killed by the end of 1939. In addition to leaders of Polish society, the Nazis killed Jews, prostitutes, Romani, and the mentally ill. SS-''Obergruppenführer'' Reinhard Heydrich, then head of the Gestapo, ordered on 21 September that Polish Jews should be rounded up and concentrated into cities with good rail links. Initially the intention was to deport the Jews to points further east, or possibly to Madagascar. Two years later, in an attempt to obtain new territory, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, intending to deport or kill the Jews and Slavs living there.\n\n===Auschwitz I===\nAuschwitz I entrance\nMap showing the location of the three main camps (1944). Prisoners: yellow; facilities: blue-gray\n\nAfter this part of Poland was annexed by Nazi Germany, Oświęcim (Auschwitz) was located administratively in Germany, Province of Upper Silesia, Regierungsbezirk Kattowitz, Landkreis Bielitz. It was first suggested as a site for a concentration camp for Polish prisoners by ''SS-Oberführer'' Arpad Wigand, an aide to Higher SS and Police Leader for Silesia, Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski. Bach-Zelewski had been searching for a site to house prisoners in the Silesia region, as the local prisons were filled to capacity. Richard Glücks, head of the Concentration Camps Inspectorate, sent former Sachsenhausen concentration camp commandant Walter Eisfeld to inspect the site, which already held sixteen dilapidated one-story buildings that had once served as an Austrian and later Polish Army barracks and a camp for transient workers. ''Reichsführer-SS'' Heinrich Himmler, head of the ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS), approved the site in April 1940, intending to use the facility to house political prisoners. SS-''Obersturmbannführer'' (lieutenant colonel) Rudolf Höss oversaw the development of the camp and served as the first commandant. SS-''Obersturmführer'' (senior lieutenant) Josef Kramer was appointed Höss's deputy. Auschwitz I, the original camp, became the administrative center for the whole complex.\n\nLocal residents were evicted, including 1,200 people who lived in shacks around the barracks. Around 300 Jewish residents of Oświęcim were brought in to lay foundations. From 1940 to 1941, 17,000 Polish and Jewish residents of the western districts of Oświęcim were expelled from places adjacent to the camp. The Germans also ordered expulsions of Poles from the villages of Broszkowice, Babice, Brzezinka, Rajsko, Pławy, Harmęże, Bór, and Budy to the General Government. German citizens were offered tax concessions and other benefits if they would relocate to the area. By October 1943, more than 6,000 Reich Germans had arrived. The Nazis planned to build a model modern residential area for incoming Germans, including schools, playing fields, and other amenities. Some of the plans went forward, including the construction of several hundred apartments, but many were never fully implemented. Basic amenities such as water and sewage disposal were inadequate, and water-borne illnesses were commonplace.\n\nThe first prisoners (30 German criminal prisoners from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp) arrived in May 1940, intended to act as functionaries within the prison system. The first mass transport to Auschwitz concentration camp, which included Catholic prisoners, suspected members of the resistance, and 20 Jews, arrived from the prison in Tarnów, Poland, on 14 June 1940. They were interned in the former building of the Polish Tobacco Monopoly, adjacent to the site, until the camp was ready.\n\nThe inmate population grew quickly as the camp absorbed Poland's intelligentsia and dissidents, including the Polish underground resistance. By March 1941, 10,900 were imprisoned there, most of them Poles. By the end of 1940, the SS had confiscated land in the surrounding area to create a \"zone of interest\" surrounded by a double ring of electrified barbed wire fences and watchtowers. Like other Nazi concentration camps, the gates to Auschwitz I displayed the motto ''Arbeit macht frei'' (\"Work brings freedom\").\n\n===Auschwitz II-Birkenau===\nAmerican surveillance photo of Birkenau (1944). South is at the top in this photo.\nEyeglasses of victims\n\nThe victories of Operation Barbarossa in the summer and fall of 1941 against Hitler's new enemy, the Soviet Union, led to dramatic changes in Nazi anti-Jewish ideology and the profile of prisoners brought to Auschwitz. Construction on Auschwitz II-Birkenau began in October 1941 to ease congestion at the main camp. ''Reichsführer-SS'' Heinrich Himmler, head of the ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS), intended the camp to house 50,000 prisoners of war, who would be interned as forced laborers. Plans called for the expansion of the camp first to house 150,000 and eventually as many as 200,000 inmates. An initial contingent of 10,000 Soviet prisoners of war arrived at Auschwitz I in October 1941, but by March 1942 only 945 were still alive, and these were transferred to Birkenau, where most of them died from disease or starvation by May. By this time Hitler had decided to annihilate the Jewish people, so Birkenau was repurposed as a combination labor camp/extermination camp. The Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum estimates that 1.3 million people, 1.1 million of them Jewish, were sent to the camp during its existence.\n\nThe chief of construction of Auschwitz II-Birkenau was Karl Bischoff. Unlike his predecessor, he was a competent and dynamic bureaucrat who, in spite of the ongoing war, carried out the construction deemed necessary. The Birkenau camp, the four crematoria, a new reception building, and hundreds of other buildings were planned and constructed. Bischoff's plans called for each barrack to have an occupancy of 550 prisoners (one-third of the space allotted in other Nazi concentration camps). He later changed this to 744 prisoners per barrack. The SS designed the barracks not so much to house people as to destroy them.\n\nThe first gas chamber at Birkenau was the \"red house\" (called Bunker 1 by SS staff), a brick cottage converted into a gassing facility by tearing out the inside and bricking up the windows. It was operational by March 1942. A second brick cottage, the \"white house\" or Bunker 2, was converted some weeks later. These structures were in use for mass killings until early 1943. Himmler visited the camp in person on 17 and 18 July 1942. He was given a demonstration of a mass killing using the gas chamber in Bunker 2 and toured the building site of the new IG Farben plant being constructed at the nearby town of Monowitz.\n\nIn early 1943, the Nazis decided to increase greatly the gassing capacity of Birkenau. Crematorium II, which had been designed as a mortuary with morgues in the basement and ground-level incinerators, was converted into a killing factory by installing gas-tight doors, vents for the Zyklon B (a highly lethal cyanide-based pesticide) to be dropped into the chamber, and ventilation equipment to remove the gas thereafter. It went into operation in March. Crematorium III was built using the same design. Crematoria IV and V, designed from the start as gassing centers, were also constructed that spring. By June 1943, all four crematoria were operational. Most of the victims were killed using these four structures.\n\n====The Gypsy camp====\n\n''Zigeunermischlinge'' (Gypsy half-breeds) used in an anthropological study by German psychologist Eva Justin. Housed in the Gypsy camp, all but two of Justin's subjects were murdered when the camp was liquidated. \n\nOn 10 December 1942, Himmler issued an order to send all Sinti and Roma (Gypsies) to concentration camps, including Auschwitz. A separate camp for Roma was set up at Auschwitz II-Birkenau known as the ''Zigeunerfamilienlager'' (Gypsy Family Camp). The first transport of German Gypsies arrived on 26 February 1943, and was housed in Section B-IIe of Auschwitz II. Approximately 23,000 Gypsies had been brought to Auschwitz by 1944, 20,000 of whom died there. One transport of 1,700 Polish Sinti and Roma were killed in the gas chambers upon arrival, as they were suspected to be ill with spotted fever.\n\nGypsy prisoners were used primarily for construction work. Thousands died of typhus and noma due to overcrowding, poor sanitary conditions, and malnutrition. Anywhere from 1,400 to 3,000 prisoners were transferred to other concentration camps before the murder of the remaining population.\n\nOn 2 August 1944, the SS cleared the Gypsy camp. A witness in another part of the camp later told of the Gypsies unsuccessfully battling the SS with improvised weapons before being loaded into trucks. The surviving population (estimated at 2,897 to 5,600) was then killed en masse in the gas chambers. The murder of the Romani people by the Nazis during World War II is known in the Romani language as the Porajmos (devouring).\n\n===Auschwitz III===\n\n\nBuna Werke, Monowitz, and nearby subcamps\nAfter examining several sites for a new plant to manufacture buna, a type of synthetic rubber essential to the war effort, chemicals manufacturer IG Farben chose a site near the towns of Dwory and Monowice (Monowitz in German), about east of Auschwitz I and east of the town of Oświęcim. Financial support in the form of tax exemptions was available to corporations prepared to develop industries in the frontier regions under the Eastern Fiscal Assistance Law, passed in December 1940. In addition to its proximity to the concentration camp, which could be used as a source of cheap labor, the site had good railway connections and access to raw materials. In February 1941, Himmler ordered that the Jewish population of Oświęcim should be expelled to make way for skilled laborers that would be brought in to work at the plant. All Poles able to work were to remain in the town and were forced to work building the factory. Himmler visited in person in March and decreed an immediate expansion of the parent camp to house 30,000 persons. Development of the camp at Birkenau began about six months later. Construction of IG Auschwitz began in April, with an initial force of 1,000 workers from Auschwitz I assigned to work on the construction. This number increased to 7,000 in 1943 and 11,000 in 1944. Over the course of its history, about 35,000 inmates in total worked at the plant; 25,000 died as a result of malnutrition, disease, and the physically impossible workload. In addition to the concentration camp inmates, who comprised a third of the work force, IG Auschwitz employed slave laborers from all over Europe.\n\nAt first, the laborers walked the seven kilometers from Auschwitz I to the plant each day, but as this meant they had to rise at 03:00, many arrived exhausted and unable to work. The camp at Monowitz (also called Monowitz-Buna or Auschwitz III) was constructed and began housing inmates on 30 October 1942, the first concentration camp to be financed and built by private industry. In January 1943 the ''ArbeitsausbildungLager'' (labor education camp) was moved from the parent camp to Monowitz. These prisoners were also forced to work on the building site. The SS charged IG Farben three Reichsmarks per hour for unskilled workers, four for skilled workers. Although the camp administrators expected the prisoners to work at 75 percent of the capacity of a free worker, the inmates were only able to perform 20 to 50 percent as well. Site managers constantly threatened inmates with transportation to Birkenau for death in the gas chambers as a way to try to increase productivity. Deaths and transfers to the gas chambers at Birkenau reduced the prisoner population of Monowitz by nearly a fifth each month; numbers were made up with new arrivals. Life expectancy of inmates at Monowitz averaged about three months. Though the factory had been expected to begin production in 1943, shortages of labor and raw materials meant start-up had to be postponed repeatedly. The plant was almost ready to commence production when it was overrun by Soviet troops in 1945.\n\n===Subcamps===\n\nVarious other German industrial enterprises, such as Krupp and Siemens-Schuckert, built factories with their own subcamps. There were 45 such satellite camps, 28 of which served corporations involved in the armaments industry. Prisoner populations ranged from several dozen to several thousand. Subcamps were built at Blechhammer, Jawiszowice, Jaworzno, Lagisze, Mysłowice, Trzebinia, and other centers as far afield as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Satellite camps were designated as ''Aussenlager'' (external camp), ''Nebenlager'' (extension or subcamp), or ''Arbeitslager'' (labor camp). Industries with satellite camps included coal mines, foundries and other metal works, chemical plants, and other industries. Prisoners were also made to work in forestry and farming.\n\n===Evacuation, death marches, and Soviet liberation===\nYoung survivors at the camp, liberated by the Red Army in January 1945\nIn mid-1944, about 130,000 prisoners were present in Auschwitz when the SS started to move about half of them to other concentration camps. In November 1944, with the Soviet Red Army approaching through Poland, Himmler ordered gassing operations to cease across the Reich. The crematorium IV building was dismantled, and the ''Sonderkommando'' were ordered to begin removing evidence of the killings, including the mass graves. The SS destroyed written records, and in the final week before the camp's liberation, burned or demolished many of its buildings. The plundered goods from the 'Canada' barracks at Birkenau together with building supplies were transported to the German interior. On 20 January, the overflowing warehouses were set ablaze. On the same day, the gas chambers as well as crematoria II and III at Birkenau were blown up. The raging fires lasted for several days. On 26 January 1945, the last crematorium V at Birkenau was demolished with explosives just one day ahead of the Soviet attack. \n\nHimmler ordered the evacuation of all camps in January 1945, charging camp commanders with \"making sure that not a single prisoner from the concentration camps falls alive into the hands of the enemy.\" On 17 January, 56,000–58,000 Auschwitz detainees, of whom two-thirds were Jews, were evacuated under guard, largely on foot, in severe winter conditions. Thousands of them died in the subsequent death march west towards Wodzisław Śląski. The guards shot all prisoners who were unable to march at the imposed pace. Peter Longerich estimates that a quarter of the detainees were thus killed. A column of inmates reached Gross-Rosen concentration camp complex. Throughout February, the terribly overcrowded main camp at Gross-Rosen was cleared, and all 44,000 inmates were moved further west. An unknown number died in this last journey. In March 1945, Himmler ordered that no more prisoners should be killed, as he hoped to use them as hostages in negotiations with the Allies. Approximately 20,000 Auschwitz prisoners made it to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Germany, where they were liberated by the British in April 1945. \n\nWhen Auschwitz was liberated on 26 and 27 January by the 322nd Rifle Division of the Red Army, the soldiers found 7,500 prisoners alive and over 600 corpses. Among items found by the Soviet soldiers were 370,000 men's suits, 837,000 women's garments, and of human hair. The camp's liberation received little press attention at the time. In historian Laurence Rees' opinion, this was due to three factors: the previous discovery of similar crimes at Majdanek concentration camp, competing news from the Allied summit at Yalta, and the Soviet Union's interest, for propaganda purposes, in minimizing attention to Jewish suffering. Due to the vast extent of the camp area, at least four divisions took part in liberating the camp: 100th Rifle Division (established in Vologda, Russia), 322nd Rifle Division (Gorky, Russia), 286th Rifle Division (Leningrad), and 107th Motor Rifle Division (Tambov, Russia).\n\n===After the war===\nRuins of barracks at Birkenau. Stoves and chimneys are all that remains of most of them\n\nAuschwitz II Birkenau was liberated by the Red Army at around 3:30 p.m. on 27 January 1945, and the main camp (Auschwitz I) two hours later. Military trucks loaded with bread arrived the next day. Volunteers began to offer first aid and improvised assistance the following week. In early February, the Polish Red Cross hospital opened in blocks 14, 21, and 22 at Auschwitz I, headed by Dr. Józef Bellert and staffed by 30 volunteer doctors and nurses from Kraków, along with around 90 former inmates. The critically injured patients – estimated at several thousands – were relocated from Birkenau and Monowitz to the main camp. Some orphaned children were immediately adopted by Oświęcim residents, while others were transferred to Kraków, where a number of them were adopted by Polish families. Others were placed in an orphanage at Harbutowice.\n\nThe hospital cared for more than 4,500 patients (most of them Jews) from 20 countries, suffering from starvation, alimentary dystrophy, gangrene, necrosis, internal haemorrhaging, and typhoid fever. At least 500 patients died. Assistance was provided by volunteers from Oświęcim and Brzeszcze, who donated money and food, cleaned hospital rooms, delivered water, washed patients, cooked meals, buried the dead, and transported the sick in horse-drawn carts between locations. Securing enough food for thousands of former prisoners was a constant challenge. The hospital director personally went from village to village to collect milk.\n\nIn June 1945 the Soviet authorities took over Auschwitz I and converted it to a POW camp for German prisoners. The hospital had to move beyond the camp perimeter into former administrative buildings, where it functioned until October 1945.\n\nEarly on, many barracks at Birkenau were taken apart by civilians who used the materials to rebuild their own homes, levelled out in the construction of Auschwitz II. The poorest residents sifted the crematoria ashes in search of nuggets from melted gold, before the warning shots were fired. The POW camp for the German prisoners of war was used by the Soviet NKVD until 1947. In the two years, the Soviets dismantled and exported the IG Farben factories to the USSR. Meanwhile, Soviet and Polish investigators worked to document the war crimes of the SS.\n\nAfter the site became a museum in 1947, exhumation work lasted for more than a decade. Antoni Dobrowolski, the oldest known survivor of Auschwitz, died aged 108 on 21 October 2012, in Dębno, Poland.\n\n===Trials of war criminals===\nGallows in Auschwitz I where Rudolf Höss was executed on 16 April 1947\nCamp commandant Rudolf Höss was pursued by the British Intelligence Corps, who arrested him at a farm near Flensburg, Germany, on 11 March 1946. Höss confessed to his role in the mass killings at Auschwitz in his memoirs and in his trial before the Supreme National Tribunal in Warsaw, Poland. He was convicted of murder, returned to Auschwitz and hanged at the site of his crimes on 16 April 1947.\n\nAround 12 percent of Auschwitz's 6,500 staff who survived the war were eventually brought to trial. Poland was more active than other nations in investigating war crimes, prosecuting 673 of the total 789 Auschwitz staff brought to trial. On 25 November 1947, the Auschwitz Trial began in Kraków, when Poland's Supreme National Tribunal brought to court 40 former Auschwitz staff. The trial's defendants included commandant Arthur Liebehenschel, women's camp leader Maria Mandel, and camp leader Hans Aumeier. The trials ended on 22 December 1947, with 23 death sentences, 7 life sentences, and 9 prison sentences ranging from three to fifteen years. Hans Münch, an SS doctor who had several former prisoners testify on his behalf, was the only person to be acquitted.\n\nOther former staff were hanged for war crimes in the Dachau Trials and the Belsen Trial, including camp leaders Josef Kramer, Franz Hössler, and Vinzenz Schöttl; doctor Friedrich Entress; and guards Irma Grese and Elisabeth Volkenrath. The Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials, held in West Germany from 20 December 1963 to 20 August 1965, convicted 17 of 22 defendants, giving them prison sentences ranging from life to three years and three months. Bruno Tesch and Karl Weinbacher, the owner and the chief executive officer of the firm Tesch & Stabenow, one of the suppliers of Zyklon B, were executed for knowingly supplying the chemical for use on humans.\n", "\nCamp guards were members of the ''SS-Totenkopfverbände'' (Death's Head Units). Around 7,000 SS personnel in total were posted to Auschwitz during the war. Of these, 4 percent of SS personnel were officers and 26 percent were non-commissioned officers, while the remainder were rank-and-file members. Approximately three in four SS personnel worked in security. Others worked in the medical or political departments, in the camp headquarters, or in the economic administration, which was responsible for the property of dead prisoners. SS personnel at the camp included 200 women, who worked as guards, nurses, or messengers. The overall command authority for the entire camp was Department D (the Concentration Camps Inspectorate) of the ''SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt'' (SS Economics Main Office; SS-WVHA).\n\nRudolf Höss (1900–1947), the first commandant of Auschwitz\nAuschwitz was considered a comfortable posting by many SS members, due to its many amenities and the abundance of slave labor. Of the various prisoner groups, SS officers preferred Jehovah's Witnesses for household slaves because of their nonviolent behavior. Höss lived with his wife and children in a villa just outside the camp grounds. Other SS personnel were also initially allowed to bring fiancees, wives, and children to live at the camp, but when the SS camp grew more crowded, Höss restricted further arrivals. Facilities for the SS personnel and their families included a library, swimming pool, coffee house, and a theater that hosted regular performances.\n\nOne prisoner in each work detail or prisoner block—usually an Aryan—was appointed as a ''Kapo'' (\"head\" or \"overseer\"). The ''Kapos'' received better rations and lodging and wielded tremendous power over other prisoners, whom they often abused. Very few ''Kapos'' were prosecuted after the war, due to the difficulty in determining which ''Kapo'' atrocities had been performed under SS orders and which had been individual actions.\n\nAbout 120 SS personnel were assigned to the gas chambers and lived on site at the crematoria. Several SS personnel oversaw the killings at each gas chamber, while the bulk of the work was done by the mostly Jewish prisoners known as ''Sonderkommandos'' (special squads). ''Sonderkommando'' responsibilities included guiding victims to the gas chambers and removing, looting, and cremating the corpses.\n\nThe ''Sonderkommado'' were housed separately from other prisoners, in somewhat better conditions. Their quality of life was further improved by access to the goods taken from murdered prisoners, which ''Sonderkommandos'' were sometimes able to steal for themselves and to trade on Auschwitz's black market. Hungarian doctor Miklós Nyiszli reported that the ''Sonderkommando'' numbered around 860 prisoners when the Hungarian Jews were being killed in 1944. Many ''Sonderkommandos'' committed suicide due to the horrors of their work; those who did not generally were shot by the SS in a matter of weeks, and new ''Sonderkommando'' units were then formed from incoming transports. Almost none of the 2,000 prisoners placed in these units survived to the camp's liberation.\n", "\n\nThe prisoners' day began at 4:30 am (an hour later in winter) with morning roll call. Dr. Miklós Nyiszli describes roll call as beginning 03:00 and lasting four hours. The weather was cold in Auschwitz at that time of day, even in summer. The prisoners were ordered to line up outdoors in rows of five and had to stay there until 07:00, when the SS officers arrived. Meanwhile, the guards would force the prisoners to squat for an hour with their hands above their heads or levy punishments such as beatings or detention for infractions such as having a missing button or an improperly cleaned food bowl. The inmates were counted and re-counted. Nyiszli describes how even the dead had to be present at roll call, standing supported by their fellow inmates until the ordeal was over. When he was a prisoner in 1944–45, five to ten men were found dead in the barracks each night. The prisoners assigned to Mengele's staff slept in a separate barracks and were awoken at 07:00 for a roll call that only took a few minutes.\n\nAfter roll call, the ''Kommando'', or work details, walked to their place of work, five abreast, wearing striped camp fatigues, no underwear, and ill-fitting wooden shoes without socks. A prisoner's orchestra (such as the Women's Orchestra of Auschwitz) was forced to play cheerful music as the workers left the camp. ''Kapos'' were responsible for the prisoners' behavior while they worked, as was an SS escort. The working day lasted 12 hours during the summer and a little less in the winter. Much of the work took place outdoors at construction sites, gravel pits, and lumber yards. No rest periods were allowed. One prisoner was assigned to the latrines to measure the time the workers took to empty their bladders and bowels.\n\nSunday was not a work day, but the prisoners did not rest; they were required to clean the barracks and take their weekly shower. Prisoners were allowed to write (in German) to their families on Sundays. Inmates who did not speak German would trade some of their bread to another inmate for help composing their letters. Members of the SS censored the outgoing mail.\nPolish inmate Czesława Kwoka in Auschwitz in 1942 or 1943. Prisoner identity photographs taken by Wilhelm Brasse.\n\nA second mandatory roll call took place in the evening. If a prisoner was missing, the others had to remain standing in place until he was either found or the reason for his absence discovered, regardless of the weather conditions, even if it took hours. After roll call, individual and collective punishments were meted out, depending on what had happened during the day, before the prisoners were allowed to retire to their blocks for the night and receive their bread rations and water. Curfew was two or three hours later. The prisoners slept in long rows of wooden bunks, lying in and on their clothes and shoes to prevent them from being stolen.\n\nAccording to Nyiszli, \"Eight hundred to a thousand people were crammed into the superimposed compartments of each barracks. Unable to stretch out completely, they slept there both lengthwise and crosswise, with one man's feet on another's head, neck, or chest. Stripped of all human dignity, they pushed and shoved and bit and kicked each other in an effort to get a few more inches' space on which to sleep a little more comfortably. For they did not have long to sleep\".\n\nThe types of prisoners were distinguishable by triangular pieces of cloth, called ''Winkel'', sewn onto on their jackets below their prisoner number. Political prisoners had a red triangle, Jehovah's Witnesses had purple, criminals had green, and so on. The nationality of the inmate was indicated by a letter stitched onto the ''Winkel''. Jews had a yellow triangle, overlaid by a second ''Winkel'' if they also fit into a second category. Uniquely at Auschwitz, prisoners were tattooed with their prisoner number, on the chest for Soviet prisoners of war and on the left arm for civilians.\n\nPrisoners received a hot drink in the morning, but no breakfast, and a thin meatless vegetable soup at noon. In the evening they received a small ration of moldy bread. Most prisoners saved some of the bread for the following morning. Nyiszli notes the daily intake did not exceed 700 calories, except for prisoners being subjected to live medical experimentation, who were better fed and clothed. Sanitary arrangements were poor, with inadequate latrines and a lack of fresh water. In Auschwitz II-Birkenau, latrines were not installed until 1943, two years after camp construction began. The camps were infested with vermin such as disease-carrying lice, and the inmates suffered and died in epidemics of typhus and other diseases. Noma, a bacterial infection occurring among the malnourished, was a common cause of death among children in the Gypsy camp.\n\nBlock 11\nBlock 11 of Auschwitz I was the prison within the prison, where violators of the numerous rules were punished. Some prisoners were made to spend the nights in standing cells. These cells were about , and held four men; they could do nothing but stand, and were forced during the day to work with the other prisoners. Prisoners sentenced to death for attempting to escape were confined in a dark cell and given neither food nor water while being left to die. \n\nIn the basement were the \"dark cells\", which had only a very tiny window and a solid door. Prisoners placed in these cells gradually suffocated as they used up all the oxygen in the cell; sometimes the SS lit a candle in the cell to use up the oxygen more quickly. Many were subjected to hanging with their hands behind their backs for hours, even days, thus dislocating their shoulder joints.\n", "\nA Deutsche Reichsbahn \"Güterwagen\" (goods wagon), one type of rail car used for deportations\n\nOn 31 July 1941, Hermann Göring gave written authorization to Heydrich, Chief of the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA), to prepare and submit a plan for ''Die Endlösung der Judenfrage'' (the Final Solution of the Jewish question) in territories under German control and to coordinate the participation of all involved government organizations. The resulting ''Generalplan Ost'' (General Plan for the East) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia, for use as slave labor or to be murdered. In addition to eliminating Jews, the Nazis also planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan. Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians. Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists.\n\nPlans for the total eradication of the Jewish population of Europe—eleven million people—were formalized at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942. Some would be worked to death and the rest would be killed. Initially the victims were killed with gas vans or by ''Einsatzgruppen'' firing squads, but these methods proved impracticable for an operation of this scale. By 1942, killing centers at Auschwitz, Sobibór, Treblinka, and other Nazi extermination camps replaced ''Einsatzgruppen'' as the primary method of mass killing.\n\nThe first mass exterminations at Auschwitz took place in early September 1941, when 900 inmates were killed by gathering them in the basement of Block 11 and gassing them with Zyklon B. This building proved unsuitable for mass gassings, so the site of the killings was moved to the crematorium at Auschwitz I (Crematorium I, which operated until July 1942). There, more than 700 victims could be killed at once. In order to keep the victims calm, they were told they were to undergo disinfection and de-lousing. They were ordered to undress outside and then were locked in the building and gassed. After its decommissioning as a gas chamber, the building was converted to a storage facility and later served as an air raid shelter for the SS. The gas chamber and crematorium were reconstructed after the war using the original components, which remained on site. Some 60,000 people were killed at Crematorium I.\n\nMass exterminations were moved to two provisional gas chambers (Bunkers 1 and 2), where the killings continued while the larger Crematoria II, III, IV, and V were under construction. Bunker 2 was temporarily reactivated from May to November 1944, when large numbers of Hungarian Jews were exterminated. In summer 1944 the capacity of the crematoria and outdoor incineration pits was 20,000 bodies per day. A planned sixth facility—Crematorium VI—was never built.\n\nPrisoners were transported from all over German-occupied Europe by rail, arriving in daily convoys. By July 1942, the SS were conducting \"selections\". Incoming Jews were segregated; those deemed able to work were sent to the selection officer's right and admitted into the camp, and those deemed unfit for labor were sent to the selection officer's left and immediately gassed. The group selected to die, about three-quarters of the total, included almost all children, women with small children, all the elderly, and all those who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be completely fit.\n\nAfter the selection process was complete, those too ill or too young to walk to the crematoria were transported there on trucks or killed on the spot with a bullet to the head. The belongings of the arrivals were seized by the SS and sorted in an area of the camp called \"Canada\", so called because Canada was seen as a land of plenty. Many of the SS at the camp enriched themselves by pilfering the confiscated property.\nDestroyed gas chamber at Auschwitz\nSS officers told the victims they were to take a shower and undergo delousing. The victims undressed in an outer chamber and walked into the gas chamber, which was disguised as a shower facility. Some were even issued soap and a towel. The Zyklon B was delivered by ambulance to the crematoria by a special SS bureau known as the Hygienic Institute. The actual delivery of the gas to the victims was always handled by the SS, on the order of the supervising SS doctor. After the doors were shut, SS men dumped in the Zyklon B pellets through vents in the roof or holes in the side of the chamber. The victims were dead within 20 minutes. Despite the thick concrete walls, screaming and moaning from within could be heard outside. In one failed attempt to muffle the noise, two motorcycle engines were revved up to full throttle nearby, but the sound of yelling could still be heard over the engines.\n\n''Sonderkommando'' wearing gas masks then dragged the bodies from the chamber. The victims' glasses, artificial limbs, jewelry, and hair were removed, and any dental work was extracted so the gold could be melted down. The corpses were burned in the nearby incinerators, and the ashes were buried, thrown in the river, or used as fertilizer.\n\nThe gas chambers worked to their fullest capacity from April–July 1944, during the massacre of Hungary's Jews. Hungary was an ally of Germany during the war, but it had resisted turning over its Jews until Germany invaded that March. A rail spur leading directly into Birkenau was completed that May to deliver the victims closer to the gas chambers. From 14 May until early July 1944, 437,000 Hungarian Jews, half of the pre-war population, were deported to Auschwitz, at a rate of 12,000 a day for a considerable part of that period. The incoming volume was so great that the SS resorted to burning corpses in open-air pits as well as in the crematoria. The last selection took place on 30 October 1944.\n\n===Medical experiments===\n\nThe cadaver of Berlin dairy merchant Menachem Taffel. He was deported to Auschwitz in March 1943 along with his wife and child, who were gassed upon arrival. He was chosen to be an anatomical specimen. He was shipped to Natzweiler-Struthof and murdered in the gas chamber in August 1943.\n\nGerman doctors performed a wide variety of experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz. SS doctors tested the efficacy of X-rays as a sterilization device by administering large doses to female prisoners. Prof Dr Carl Clauberg injected chemicals into women's uteruses in an effort to glue them shut. Bayer, then a subsidiary of IG Farben, bought prisoners to use as research subjects for testing new drugs. Prisoners were also deliberately infected with spotted fever for vaccination research and exposed to toxic substances to study the effects.\n\nThe most infamous doctor at Auschwitz was Josef Mengele, known as the \"Angel of Death\". Particularly interested in research on identical twins, Mengele performed cruel experiments on them, such as inducing diseases in one twin and killing the other when the first died to perform comparative autopsies. He also took a special interest in dwarfs, and he deliberately induced noma in twins, dwarfs, and other prisoners to study the effects.\n\nKurt Heissmeyer took twenty Jewish children from Auschwitz to use in pseudoscientific medical experiments at the Neuengamme concentration camp. In April 1945, the children were killed by hanging to conceal the project.\n\nA skeleton collection was obtained from among a pool of 115 Jewish Auschwitz inmates, chosen for their perceived stereotypical racial characteristics. Rudolf Brandt and Wolfram Sievers, general manager of the ''Ahnenerbe'' (a Nazi research institute), were responsible for delivering the skeletons to the collection of the Anatomy Institute at the Reich University of Strasbourg in the Alsace region of Occupied France. The collection was sanctioned by Himmler and under the direction of August Hirt. Ultimately 87 of the inmates were shipped to Natzweiler-Struthof and killed in August 1943. Brandt and Sievers were later convicted in the Doctors' Trial in Nuremberg.\n\n===Death toll===\nClandestine photo taken by a member of the ''Sonderkommando'' of undressed women on their way to the gas chamber\nHungarian Jewish children and an elderly woman on the way to the gas chambers of Auschwitz-Birkenau (1944). Many of the very young and very old were murdered immediately upon arrival and were never registered. \n\nThe exact number of victims at Auschwitz is difficult to fix with certainty, because many prisoners were never registered and much evidence was destroyed by the SS in the final days of the war. As early as 1942, Himmler visited the camp and ordered that \"all mass graves were to be opened and the corpses burned. In addition the ashes were to be disposed of in such a way that it would be impossible at some future time to calculate the number of corpses burned.\"\n\nShortly following the camp's liberation, the Soviet government stated that four million people had been killed on the site, a figure now regarded as greatly exaggerated. While under interrogation, Höss said that Adolf Eichmann told him that two and a half million Jews had been killed in gas chambers and about half a million more had died of other causes. Later he wrote, \"I regard the figure of two and a half million as far too high. Even Auschwitz had limits to its destructive possibilities\". Gerald Reitlinger's 1953 book ''The Final Solution'' estimated the number killed to be 800,000 to 900,000, and Raul Hilberg's 1961 work ''The Destruction of the European Jews'' estimated the number killed to be a maximum of 1,000,000 Jewish victims. French chemist and author Jean-Claude Pressac estimates that between 631,000 and 711,000 killed at Auschwitz, of whom 470,000 to 550,000 were gassed.\n\nIn 1983, French scholar George Wellers was one of the first to use German data on deportations to estimate the number killed at Auschwitz, arriving at a figure of 1,471,595 deaths, including 1.35 million Jews and 86,675 Poles. A larger study started by Franciszek Piper used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate at least 960,000 Jewish deaths and at least 1.1 million total deaths, a figure adopted as official by the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum in the 1990s. Piper stated that a figure of as many as 1.5 million total deaths was possible.\n\nBy nation, the greatest number of Auschwitz's Jewish victims were from Hungary, accounting for 438,000 deaths, followed by Polish Jews (300,000 deaths), French (69,000), Dutch (60,000), and Greek (55,000). Fewer than one percent of Soviet Jews murdered in the Holocaust were killed in Auschwitz, as German forces had already been driven from Russia when the killing at Auschwitz reached its peak in 1944. Approximately 1 in 6 Jews killed in the Holocaust died at the camp.\n\nThe next largest group of victims were non-Jewish Poles, who accounted for 70,000 to 75,000 deaths. Twenty-one thousand Roma and Sinti were killed, along with 15,000 Soviet POWs and 10,000 to 15,000 peoples of other nations. Around 400 Jehovah's Witnesses were imprisoned at Auschwitz, at least 152 of whom died. An estimated 5,000 to 15,000 gay men prosecuted under German Penal Code Section 175 (proscribing sexual acts between men) were detained in concentration camps of which an unknown number were sent to Auschwitz; of those sent to Auschwitz 80 percent died.\n", "\nInmates were at times able to distribute information from the camp to the outside world via messages used in shortwave radio transmissions. The Polish government-in-exile in London first reported the gassing of prisoners on 21 July 1942. However, these reports were for a long time disregarded as exaggerated or unreliable by the Allied Powers, Germany's opponents in the West. Information regarding Auschwitz was also available to the Allies during the years 1940–43 by the accurate and frequent reports of Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa) Captain Witold Pilecki. Pilecki was the only known person to volunteer to be imprisoned at Auschwitz concentration camp, spending 945 days there. He gathered evidence of genocide and organized resistance structures known as Związek Organizacji Wojskowej (ZOW) at the camp. His first report was smuggled to the outside world in November 1940, through an inmate who was released from the camp. He eventually escaped on 27 April 1943, but his personal report of mass killings was dismissed as exaggeration by the Allies, as were his previous reports.\n\n\nFile:Conspiratorial reportage about Auschwitz death camp 01.jpg\|Conspiratorial reportage about Auschwitz \"Camp of death\" written by in 1942.\nFile:Krahelska Pamiętnik więźnia.jpg\|Halina Krahelska report from Auschwitz Oświęcim, pamiętnik więźnia (\"Auschwitz: Diary of a prisoner\"), 1942.\nFile:The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied.pdf\|\"The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland\", a paper issued by the Polish government-in-exile addressed to the United Nations, 1942\n\n\nThe first information about Auschwitz concentration camp was published in winter 1940–41 in the Polish underground newspapers '''' (Poland Lives) and ''Biuletyn Informacyjny'' (Newsletter). From 1942, members of the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of the Warsaw area Home Army published in occupied Poland a few brochures based on the accounts of escapees. The first of these was a fictional memoir \"Oświęcim. Pamiętnik więźnia\" (Auschwitz: Diary of a prisoner), written by Halina Krahelska and published in April 1942 in Warsaw. Also published in 1942 were the books ''Auschwitz: obóz śmierci'' (Auschwitz: Camp of Death) written by , and ''W piekle'' (In Hell) by Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, the Polish writer, social activist and founder of Żegota.\n\nIn 1943, the ''Kampfgruppe Auschwitz'' (Combat Group Auschwitz) was organized with the aim of sending out information about what was happening. ''Sonderkommandos'' buried notes in the ground, hoping they would be found by the camp's liberators. The group also smuggled out photographs of corpses and preparations for mass killings in mid-1944.\n\nThe attitude of the Allies changed with receipt of the detailed, 32-page Vrba–Wetzler report, compiled by two Jewish prisoners, Rudolf Vrba and Alfréd Wetzler, who escaped on 7 April 1944. This report finally convinced Allied leaders that mass killings were taking place in Auschwitz.\nDetails from the Vrba-Wetzler report were released to the Swiss press by diplomat George Mantello and printed on 6 June by ''The New York Times''. Auschwitz Plans originating with the Polish government were provided to the U.K foreign ministry in August 1944. A Polish report about Auschwitz titled \"Oswiecim, Camp of Death (Underground Report)\" with a foreword by Florence Jaffray Harriman was published in English by the Polish Labor Group in New York in March 1944, prior to the camp's liberation. Gassing of prisoners from 1942 was described in this report.\n\nStarting with a plea from the Slovakian rabbi Chaim Michael Dov Weissmandl in May 1944, there was a growing campaign by Jewish organizations to persuade the Allies to bomb Auschwitz or the railway lines leading to it. At one point British Prime Minister Winston Churchill ordered that such a plan be prepared, but he was told that precision bombing the camp to free the prisoners or disrupt the railway was not technically feasible.\n\nIn 1978, historian David S. Wyman published an essay titled \"Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed\", arguing that the US Air Force had the capability to attack Auschwitz and should have done so; books by Bernard Wasserstein and Martin Gilbert raised similar questions about British inaction. Since the 1990s, other historians have argued that Allied bombing accuracy was not sufficient for Wyman's proposed attack, and that counterfactual history is an inherently problematic endeavor. The controversy over this decision has lasted to the present day in both countries.\n\n===Individual escape attempts===\n\nAt least 802 prisoners attempted to escape from the Auschwitz camps, mostly Polish or Soviet prisoners fleeing from work sites outside the camp. 144 were successful. The fates of 331 of the escapees are unknown. A common punishment for escape attempts was death by starvation; the families of successful escapees were sometimes arrested and interned in Auschwitz and prominently displayed to deter others. If someone did manage to escape, the SS picked ten people at random from the prisoner's block and starved them to death.\n\nA daring escape from Auschwitz was staged on 20 June 1942 by four Polish prisoners: Eugeniusz Bendera (auto mechanic at the camp), Kazimierz Piechowski, Stanisław Gustaw Jaster, and Józef Lempart. After breaking into a warehouse, the four dressed as members of the ''SS-Totenkopfverbände'' (the SS units responsible for concentration camps), armed themselves, and stole an SS staff car, which they then drove unchallenged through the main gate.\n\nOn 24 June 1944, a Belgian-Polish Jew, Mala Zimetbaum, escaped with her Polish boyfriend, Edek Galiński, dressed in a stolen prisoner-guard uniform. They were later recaptured, tortured, and executed by the SS. On 21 July 1944, inmate Jerzy Bielecki, dressed in an SS uniform and using a faked pass, managed to cross the camp's gate together with his Jewish girlfriend, Cyla. Both survived the war.\n\n===Birkenau revolt===\nRuins of Crematorium IV, blown up in the revolt\nThe ''Sonderkommando'' units were aware that as witnesses to the killings, they themselves would eventually be killed to hide Nazi crimes. Though they knew that it would mean their deaths, the ''Sonderkommandos'' of Birkenau ''Kommando'' III staged an uprising on 7 October 1944, following an announcement that some of them would be selected to be \"transferred to another camp\"—a common Nazi ruse for the murder of prisoners. The ''Sonderkommandos'' attacked the SS guards with stones, axes, and makeshift hand grenades. As the SS set up machine guns to attack the prisoners in Crematorium IV, the ''Sonderkommandos'' in Crematorium II also revolted, some of them managing to escape the compound. The rebellion was suppressed by nightfall.\n\nUltimately, three SS guards were killed — one of whom was burned alive by the prisoners in the oven of Crematorium II — and 451 ''Sonderkommandos'' were killed. Hundreds of prisoners escaped, but were all soon captured and executed, along with an additional group who participated in the revolt. Crematorium IV was destroyed in the fighting, and a group of prisoners in the gas chamber of Crematorium V was spared in the chaos.\n", "Entrance building at Auschwitz-Birkenau\nInterior of the crematorium at museum\n\nIn the decades since its liberation, Auschwitz has become a primary symbol of the Holocaust. Historian Timothy D. Snyder attributes this to the camp's high death toll as well as to its \"unusual combination of an industrial camp complex and a killing facility\", which left behind far more witnesses than single-purpose killing facilities such as Chełmno or Treblinka. The United Nations General Assembly has designated 27 January, the date of the camp's liberation, as International Holocaust Remembrance Day. In a speech on the fiftieth anniversary of the liberation, German chancellor Helmut Kohl described Auschwitz as the \"darkest and most horrific chapter of German history\".\n\nNotable memoirists of the camp include Primo Levi, Elie Wiesel, and Tadeusz Borowski. In ''If This Is a Man'', Levi wrote that the concentration camps represented the epitome of the totalitarian system:\n\n\nPsychiatrist Viktor Frankl drew on his imprisonment at Auschwitz in composing ''Man's Search for Meaning'' (1946), one of the most widely read works about the camp. An existentialist work, the book argues that individuals can find purpose even among great suffering, and that this sense of purpose sustains them. Wiesel wrote about his own imprisonment at Auschwitz in ''Night'' (1960) and other works, and became a prominent spokesman against ethnic violence. In 1986, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.\n\nCamp survivor Simone Veil was later elected President of the European Parliament, serving from 1979–82. Two Auschwitz victims—Maximilian Kolbe, a priest who volunteered to die by starvation in place of a stranger, and Edith Stein, a Jewish convert to Catholicism—were later named saints of the Roman Catholic Church.\n\n===Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum===\n\n\n\n''Arbeit macht frei'' sign, Auschwitz I\nCommemorative flowers on the rail track in Auschwitz II-Birkenau\nOn 2 July 1947, the Polish government passed a law, establishing a state memorial to the victims of Nazism on the site of the camp. In 1955, an exhibition opened, displaying prisoner mug shots; hair, suitcases, and shoes taken from murdered prisoners; canisters of Zyklon B pellets; and other objects related to the killings. UNESCO added the camp to its list of World Heritage Sites in 1979. In 2011, the museum drew 1,400,000 visitors.\n\nPope John Paul II celebrated mass over the train tracks leading to the camp on 7 June 1979. In the decades following his visit, controversies erupted over a group of Carmelite nuns founding a convent on the site and erecting a large cross originally used in the pope's mass. Protesters objected to what they saw as Christianization of the site, while others argued that the cross's presence effectively recognized the camp's Catholic victims.\n\nOn 4 September 2003, three Israeli Air Force F-15 Eagles performed a fly-over of Auschwitz-Birkenau during a ceremony at the camp below. The flight was led by Major-General Amir Eshel, the son of Holocaust survivors. On 27 January 2015, some 300 Auschwitz survivors and other guests gathered under a giant tent at the entrance to Auschwitz II Birkenau to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the camp's liberation. Attendees included president of the World Jewish Congress Ronald Lauder, film director Steven Spielberg, and world leaders such as Polish president Bronisław Komorowski and King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. As the number of remaining survivors decreases each year, the attendance at the event is unlikely to be surpassed at future major anniversaries.\n\nMuseum curators consider visitors who pick up items from the ground to be thieves, and local police will charge them as such. The maximum penalty is a prison sentence of ten years. On 22 June 2015, two British youths from the Perse School were convicted of theft after picking up buttons and shards of decorative glass they found on the ground near the area where camp victims' confiscated personal effects were stored. The boys, both 17 years old, received probation and were fined £170, but later appealed the sentence. Curators said that similar incidents happen once or twice a year.\n\nSome of the roads among postwar buildings nearby are named commemoratively, for example Więżniów Oświęcimia (translates as \"Of the prisoners of Oświęcim\"), Obozowa (\"Of the camps\"), Ostatni Etap (\"Last Stage\"), Spóldzielców (\"Of the co-workers\"), Ofiar Faszyzmu (\"Of the victims of fascism\"), Piwniczna (\"Pertaining to the cellar(s) or basement(s)\"), Wyzwolenia (\"Liberation\"), Maximiliana Kolbego (\"of Maximilian Kolbe\"). Stefana Jaracza (\"of Stefan Jaracz\").\n", "* Auschwitz Album\n* Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation\n* Höcker Album\n* List of Nazi concentration camps\n* List of victims and survivors of Auschwitz\n* March of the Living\n* Oskar Gröning\n* \"Polish death camp\" controversy\n* Survivor syndrome\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n \n\n\n", "\n* Borowski, Tadeusz (1976). ''This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen'' (Penguin Classics). Trans. from the Polish by Barbara Vedder. Penguin Books, 1976 \n* \n* Dawidowicz, Lucy (1979). ''The War Against the Jews''. New York: Bantam Books.\n* Długoborski, Wacław and Franciszek Piper (eds.) (2000). ''Auschwitz, 1940–1945: Central Issues in the History of the Camp''. Five Vols. Oświęcim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum. \n* Gilbert, Martin (1981). ''Auschwitz and the Allies''. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981 Photographs, maps. \n* Levi, Primo (1947). ''If This Is a Man''. First published in Italy in 1947, first translated into English 1958\n* Muller, Filip ''Eyewitness Auschwitz: Three Years in the Gas Chambers''. Ivan R Dee Inc, 1999 \n* van Pelt, Robert Jan. ''The Case for Auschwitz: Evidence from the Irving Trial''. Indiana University Press, 2002. \n* Pilecki, W. (Translated by Jarek Garlinski) ''The Auschwitz Volunteer: Beyond Bravery''. Aquila Polonica, 2012. , \n\n\n", "\n\n\n* Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum\n* Auschwitz Jewish Center in Oświęcim\n* Holocaust Survivors and Remembrance Project\n* Remember.org Holocaust library\n* Auschwitz-Birkenau photographs by Bill Hunt\n* \"Under the Nazis\" on the BBC website\n* United States Holocaust Memorial Museum website\n* Simon Wiesenthal Center website\n* \"The Auschwitz Album\" – online exhibition from Yad Vashem\n* \"Architecture of Murder: The Auschwitz-Birkenau Blueprints\" – online exhibition from Yad Vashem\n* List of camp guards and other SS staff active at Auschwitz concentration camp\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Command and control", "Life in the camps", "Selection and extermination process", "Escapes, resistance, and the Allies' knowledge of the camps", "Legacy", "See also", "Notes", "Citations", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Auschwitz concentration camp
[ "\n\n\nArchery competition in Mönchengladbach, West Germany, June 1983\nA Rikbaktsa archer competes at Brazil's Indigenous Games\nTibetan archer, 1938\nMaster Heon Kim demonstrating Gungdo, traditional Korean archery (Kuk Kung), 2009\nArcher in East Timor\n\n'''Archery''' is the sport, practice or skill of using a bow to propel arrows. The word comes from the Latin ''arcus''. Historically, archery has been used for hunting and combat. In modern times, it is mainly a competitive sport and recreational activity. A person who participates in archery is typically called an '''archer''' or a ''bowman'', and a person who is fond of or an expert at archery is sometimes called a '''toxophilite'''.\n", "\nThe bow and arrow seems to have been invented in the later Paleolithic or early Mesolithic periods. The oldest signs of its use in Europe come from the in the north of Hamburg, Germany and dates from the late Paleolithic, about 10,000–9000 BC. The arrows were made of pine and consisted of a mainshaft and a long fore shaft with a flint point. There are no definite earlier bows; previous pointed shafts are known, but may have been launched by spear-throwers rather than bows. The oldest bows known so far come from the Holmegård swamp in Denmark. Bows eventually replaced the spear-thrower as the predominant means for launching shafted projectiles, on every continent except Australasia, though spear-throwers persisted alongside the bow in parts of the Americas, notably Mexico and among the Inuit.\n\nBows and arrows have been present in Egyptian culture since its predynastic origins. In the Levant, artifacts that could be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from the Natufian culture, (c. 10,800–8,300 BC) onwards. The Khiamian and PPN A shouldered Khiam-points may well be arrowheads.\n\nClassical civilizations, notably the Assyrians, Greeks, Armenians, Persians, Parthians, Indians, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese fielded large numbers of archers in their armies. Akkadians were the first to use composite bows in war according to the victory stele of Naram-Sin of Akkad. Egyptians used composite bows for warfare already from the 16th Century BC while the Bronze Age Aegean Cultures were able to deploy a number of state-owned specialised bowmakers for warfare and hunting purposes already from the 15th century BC. The Welsh longbow proved its worth for the first time in Continental warfare at the Battle of Crécy. In the Americas archery was widespread at European contact.\n\nArchery was highly developed in Asia. The Sanskrit term for archery, dhanurveda, came to refer to martial arts in general. In East Asia, Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea was well known for its regiments of exceptionally skilled archers.\n\n===Mounted archery===\n\n\nMaximilian, engraved by Dürer \n\nCentral Asian tribesmen (after the domestication of the horse) and American Plains Indians (after gaining access to horses) became extremely adept at archery on horseback. Lightly armoured, but highly mobile archers were excellently suited to warfare in the Central Asian steppes, and they formed a large part of armies that repeatedly conquered large areas of Eurasia. Shorter bows are more suited to use on horseback, and the composite bow enabled mounted archers to use powerful weapons. Empires throughout the Eurasian landmass often strongly associated their respective \"barbarian\" counterparts with the usage of the bow and arrow, to the point where powerful states like the Han Dynasty referred to their neighbours, the Xiong-nu, as \"Those Who Draw the Bow\". For example, Xiong-nu mounted bowmen made them more than a match for the Han military, and their threat was at least partially responsible for Chinese expansion into the Ordos region, to create a stronger, more powerful buffer zone against them. It is possible that \"barbarian\" peoples were responsible for introducing archery or certain types of bows to their \"civilized\" counterparts—the Xiong-nu and the Han being one example. Similarly, short bows seem to have been introduced to Japan by northeast Asian groups.\n\n===Decline of archery===\nThe development of firearms rendered bows obsolete in warfare, albeit efforts were sometimes made to preserve archery practice. In Wales and England, for example, the government tried to enforce practice with the Longbow until the end of the 16th century. This was because it was recognised that the bow had been instrumental to military success during the Hundred Years' War. Despite the high social status, ongoing utility, and widespread pleasure of archery in Armenia, China, Egypt, England and Wales, America, India, Japan, Korea, Turkey and elsewhere, almost every culture that gained access to even early firearms used them widely, to the neglect of archery. Early firearms were inferior in rate-of-fire, and were very susceptible to wet weather. However, they had longer effective range and were tactically superior in the common situation of soldiers shooting at each other from behind obstructions. They also required significantly less training to use properly, in particular penetrating steel armour without any need to develop special musculature. Armies equipped with guns could thus provide superior firepower, and highly trained archers became obsolete on the battlefield. However, the bow and arrow is still an effective weapon, and archers have seen action in the 21st century. Traditional archery remains in use for sport, and for hunting in many areas.\n\n===Eighteenth-century revival===\nA print of the 1822 meeting of the \"Royal British Bowmen\" archery club. \nEarly recreational archery societies included the Finsbury Archers and the Ancient Society of Kilwinning Archers. The latter's annual Papingo event was first recorded in 1483. (In this event, archers shoot vertically from the base of an abbey tower to dislodge a wood pigeon placed approximately 30 meters above.) The Royal Company of Archers was formed in 1676 and is one of the oldest sporting bodies in the world. Archery remained a small and scattered pastime, however, until the late 18th century when it experienced a fashionable revival among the aristocracy. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, with the patronage of George, the Prince of Wales.\n\nArchery societies were set up across the country, each with its own strict entry criteria and outlandish costumes. Recreational archery soon became extravagant social and ceremonial events for the nobility, complete with flags, music and 21 gun salutes for the competitors. The clubs were \"the drawing rooms of the great country houses placed outside\" and thus came to play an important role in the social networks of the local upper class. As well as its emphasis on display and status, the sport was notable for its popularity with females. Young women could not only compete in the contests but retain and show off their sexuality while doing so. Thus, archery came to act as a forum for introductions, flirtation and romance. It was often consciously styled in the manner of a Medieval tournament with titles and laurel wreaths being presented as a reward to the victor. General meetings were held from 1789, in which local lodges convened together to standardise the rules and ceremonies. Archery was also co-opted as a distinctively British tradition, dating back to the lore of Robin Hood and it served as a patriotic form of entertainment at a time of political tension in Europe. The societies were also elitist, and the new middle class bourgeoisie were excluded from the clubs due to their lack of social status.\n\nAfter the Napoleonic Wars, the sport became increasingly popular among all classes, and it was framed as a nostalgic reimagining of the preindustrial rural Britain. Particularly influential was Sir Walter Scott's 1819 novel, ''Ivanhoe'' that depicted the heroic character Lockseley winning an archery tournament.\n\n===A modern sport===\nThe 1840s saw the second attempts at turning the recreation into a modern sport. The first Grand National Archery Society meeting was held in York in 1844 and over the next decade the extravagant and festive practices of the past were gradually whittled away and the rules were standardised as the 'York Round' - a series of shoots at 60, 80, and 100 yards. Horace A. Ford helped to improve archery standards and pioneered new archery techniques. He won the Grand National 11 times in a row and published a highly influential guide to the sport in 1856.\n\nPicture of Pope taken while grizzly hunting at Yellowstone\nTowards the end of the 19th century, the sport experienced declining participation as alternative sports such as croquet and tennis became more popular among the middle class. By 1889, just 50 archery clubs were left in Britain, but it was still included as a sport at the 1900 Paris Olympics.\n\nIn the United States, primitive archery was revived in the early 20th century. The last of the Yahi Indian tribe, a native known as Ishi, came out of hiding in California in 1911. His doctor, Saxton Pope, learned many of Ishi's traditional archery skills, and popularized them. \n\nFrom the 1920s, professional engineers took an interest in archery, previously the exclusive field of traditional craft experts. They led the commercial development of new forms of bow including the modern recurve and compound bow. These modern forms are now dominant in modern Western archery; traditional bows are in a minority. In the 1980s, the skills of traditional archery were revived by American enthusiasts, and combined with the new scientific understanding. Much of this expertise is available in the ''Traditional Bowyer's Bibles'' (see Additional reading). Modern game archery owes much of its success to Fred Bear, an American bow hunter and bow manufacturer.\n\n===Mythology===\nVishwamitra archery training from Ramayana\n\nDeities and heroes in several mythologies are described as archers, including the Greek Artemis and Apollo, the Roman Diana and Cupid, the Germanic Agilaz, continuing in legends like those of Wilhelm Tell, Palnetoke, or Robin Hood. Armenian Hayk and Babylonian Marduk, Indian Karna (also known as Radheya/son of Radha), Abhimanyu, Eklavya, Arjuna, Bhishma, Drona, Rama, and Shiva were known for their shooting skills. The famous archery competition of hitting the eye of a rotating fish while watching its reflection in the water bowl was one of the many archery skills depicted in the Mahabharata. \n\nPersian Arash was a famous archer. Earlier Greek representations of Heracles normally depict him as an archer.\n\nThe Nymphai Hyperboreioi (Νύμφαι Ὑπερβόρειοι) were worshipped on the Greek island of Delos as attendants of Artemis, presiding over aspects of archery; Hekaerge (Ἑκαέργη), represented distancing, Loxo (Λοξώ), trajectory, and Oupis (Οὖπις), aim.\n\nYi the archer and his apprentice Feng Meng appear in several early Chinese myths, and the historical character of Zhou Tong features in many fictional forms. Jumong, the first Taewang of the Goguryeo kingdom of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is claimed by legend to have been a near-godlike archer. Archery features in the story of Oguz Khagan.\n\nIn West African Yoruba belief, Osoosi is one of several deities of the hunt who are identified with bow and arrow iconography and other insignia associated with archery.\n", "\n===Types of bows===\n\nWhile there is great variety in the construction details of bows (both historic and modern), all bows consist of a string attached to elastic limbs that store mechanical energy imparted by the user drawing the string. Bows may be broadly split into two categories: those drawn by pulling the string directly and those that use a mechanism to pull the string.\n\nDirectly drawn bows may be further divided based upon differences in the method of limb construction, notable examples being self bows, laminated bows and composite bows. Bows can also be classified by the bow shape of the limbs when unstrung; in contrast to traditional European straight bows, a recurve bow and some types of Longbow have tips that curve away from the archer when the bow is unstrung. The cross-section of the limb also varies; the classic longbow is a tall bow with narrow limbs that are D-shaped in cross section, and the flatbow has flat wide limbs that are approximately rectangular in cross-section. The classic D-shape comes from the use of the wood of the yew tree. The sap-wood is best suited to the tension on the back of the bow, and the heart-wood to the compression on the belly. Hence, a cross-section of a yew longbow shows the narrow, light-coloured sap-wood on the 'straight' part (riser) of the D, and the red/orange heartwood forms the curved part of the D, to balance the mechanical tension/compression stress. Cable-backed bows use cords as the back of the bow; the draw weight of the bow can be adjusted by changing the tension of the cable. They were widespread among Inuit who lacked easy access to good bow wood. One variety of cable-backed bow is the Penobscot bow or Wabenaki bow, invented by Frank Loring (Chief Big Thunder) about 1900. It consists of a small bow attached by cables on the back of a larger main bow.\n\nIn different cultures, the arrows are released from either the left or right side of the bow, and this affects the hand grip and position of the bow. In Arab archery, Turkish archery and Kyūdō, the arrows are released from the right hand side of the bow, and this affects construction of the bow. In western archery, the arrow is usually released from the left hand side of the bow.\n\nModern (takedown) recurve bow\n\nCompound bows are designed to reduce the force required to hold the string at full draw, hence allowing the archer more time to aim with less muscular stress. Most compound designs use cams or elliptical wheels on the ends of the limbs to achieve this. A typical let-off is anywhere from 65% to 80%. For example, a 60-pound bow with 80% let-off only requires 12 pounds of force to hold at full draw. Up to 99% let-off is possible. The compound bow was invented by Holless Wilbur Allen in the 1960s (a US patent was filed in 1966 and granted in 1969) and it has become the most widely used type of bow for all forms of archery in North America.\n\nMechanically drawn bows typically have a stock or other mounting, such as the crossbow. Crossbows typically have shorter draw lengths compared to compound bows. Because of this, heavier draw weights are required to achieve the same energy transfer to the arrow. These mechanically drawn bows also have devices to hold the tension when the bow is fully drawn. They are not limited by the strength of a single archer and larger varieties have been used as siege engines.\n\n===Types of arrows and fletchings===\n\n\nThe most common form of arrow consists of a shaft, with an arrowhead at the front end, and fletchings and a nock at the other end. Arrows across time and history have normally been carried in a container known as a quiver, which can take many different forms. Shafts of arrows are typically composed of solid wood, bamboo, fiberglass, aluminium alloy, carbon fiber, or composite materials. Wooden arrows are prone to warping. Fiberglass arrows are brittle, but can be produced to uniform specifications easily. Aluminium shafts were a very popular high-performance choice in the latter half of the 20th century, due to their straightness, lighter weight, and subsequently higher speed and flatter trajectories. Carbon fiber arrows became popular in the 1990s because they are very light, flying even faster and flatter than aluminium arrows. Today, the most popular arrows at tournaments and Olympic events are made of composite materials, in particular the X10 and A/C/E, made by Easton,\n\nThe arrowhead is the primary functional component of the arrow. Some arrows may simply use a sharpened tip of the solid shaft, but separate arrowheads are far more common, usually made from metal, stone, or other hard materials. The most commonly used forms are target points, field points, and broadheads, although there are also other types, such as bodkin, judo, and blunt heads.\n\nShield cut straight fletching – here the hen feathers are barred red\nFletching is traditionally made from bird feathers, but solid plastic vanes and thin sheet-like spin vanes are used. They are attached near the nock (rear) end of the arrow with thin double sided tape, glue, or, traditionally, sinew. The most common configuration in all cultures is three fletches, though as many as six have been used. Two makes the arrow unstable in flight. When the arrow is ''three-fletched'', the fletches are equally spaced around the shaft, with one placed such that it is perpendicular to the bow when nocked on the string, though variations are seen with modern equipment, especially when using the modern spin vanes. This fletch is called the \"index fletch\" or \"cock feather\" (also known as \"the odd vane out\" or \"the nocking vane\"), and the others are sometimes called the \"hen feathers\". Commonly, the cock feather is of a different color. However, if archers are using fletching made of feather or similar material, they may use same color vanes, as different dyes can give varying stiffness to vanes, resulting in less precision. When an arrow is ''four-fletched'', two opposing fletches are often cock feathers, and occasionally the fletches are not evenly spaced.\n\nThe fletching may be either ''parabolic'' cut (short feathers in a smooth parabolic curve) or ''shield'' cut (generally shaped like half of a narrow shield), and is often attached at an angle, known as ''helical'' fletching, to introduce a stabilizing spin to the arrow while in flight. Whether helicial or straight fletched, when natural fletching (bird feathers) is used it is critical that all feathers come from the same side of the bird. Oversized fletchings can be used to accentuate drag and thus limit the range of the arrow significantly; these arrows are called ''flu-flus''. Misplacement of fletchings can change the arrow's flight path dramatically.\n\n===Bow string===\n\nDacron and other modern materials offer high strength for their weight and are used on most modern bows. Linen and other traditional materials are still used on traditional bows. Several modern methods of making a bow string exist, such as the 'endless loop' and 'Flemish twist'. Almost any fiber can be made into a bow string. The author of \"Arab Archery\" suggests the hide of a young, emaciated camel. Njál's saga describes the refusal of a wife, Hallgerður, to cut her hair to make an emergency bowstring for her husband, Gunnar Hámundarson, who is then killed.\n\n===Protective equipment===\n\nthumb\nMost archers wear a bracer (also known as an arm-guard) to protect the inside of the bow arm from being hit by the string and prevent clothing from catching the bow string. The bracer does not brace the arm; the word comes from the armoury term \"brassard\", meaning an armoured sleeve or badge. The Navajo people have developed highly ornamented bracers as non-functional items of adornment. Some archers (nearly all archers ) wear protection on their chests, called chestguards or plastrons. The myth of the Amazons was that they had one breast removed to solve this problem. Roger Ascham mentions one archer, presumably with an unusual shooting style, who wore a leather guard for his face.\n\nThe drawing digits are normally protected by a leather tab, glove, or thumb ring. A simple tab of leather is commonly used, as is a skeleton glove. Medieval Europeans probably used a complete leather glove.\n\nEurasiatic archers who used the thumb or Mongolian draw protected their thumbs, usually with leather according to the author of ''Arab Archery'', but also with special rings of various hard materials. Many surviving Turkish and Chinese examples are works of considerable art. Some are so highly ornamented that the users could not have used them to loose an arrow. Possibly these were items of personal adornment, and hence value, remaining extant whilst leather had virtually no intrinsic value and would also deteriorate with time. In traditional Japanese archery a special glove is used that has a ridge to assist in drawing the string.\n\n===Release aids===\n\nRelease aid\nA release aid is a mechanical device designed to give a crisp and precise loose of arrows from a compound bow. In the most commonly used, the string is released by a finger-operated trigger mechanism, held in the archer's hand or attached to their wrist. In another type, known as a back-tension release, the string is automatically released when drawn to a pre-determined tension.\n\n===Stabilizers===\n\n\nStabilizers are mounted at various points on the bow. Common with competitive archery equipment are special brackets that allow multiple stabilizers to be mounted at various angles to fine tune the bow's balance.\n\nStabilizers aid in aiming by improving the balance of the bow. Sights, quivers, rests, and riser design make one side of the bow heavier. One purpose of stabilizers are to offset these forces. A reflex riser design will cause the top limb to lean towards the shooter. In this case a heavier front stabilizer is desired to offset this action. A deflex riser design has the opposite effect and a lighter front stabilizer may be used.\n\nStabilizers can reduce noise and vibration. These energies are absorbed by viscoelastic polymers, gels, powders, and other materials used to build stabilizers.\n\nStabilizers improve the forgiveness and accuracy by increasing the moment of inertia of the bow to resist movement during the shooting process. Lightweight carbon stabilizers with weighted ends are desirable because they improve the moment of interia while minimizing the weight added.\n", "\nMedieval archery reenactment\nChief Master Sgt. Kevin Peterson demonstrates safe archery techniques while aiming an arrow at a target on the 28th Force Support Squadron trap and skeet range at Ellsworth Air Force Base, S.D., Oct. 11, 2012.\nThe standard convention on teaching archery is to hold the bow depending upon eye dominance. (One exception is in modern Kyudo where all archers are trained to hold the bow in the left hand.) Therefore, if one is right-eye dominant, they would hold the bow in the left hand and draw the string with the right hand. However, not everyone agrees with this line of thought. A smoother, and more fluid release of the string will produce the most consistently repeatable shots, and therefore may provide greater accuracy of the arrow flight. Some believe that the hand with the greatest dexterity should therefore be the hand that draws and releases the string. Either eye can be used for aiming, and the less dominant eye can be trained over time to become more effective for use. To assist with this, an eye patch can be temporarily worn over the dominant eye.\n\nThe hand that holds the bow is referred to as the ''bow hand'' and its arm the ''bow arm''. The opposite hand is called the ''drawing hand'' or ''string hand''. Terms such as ''bow shoulder'' or ''string elbow'' follow the same convention.\n\nIf shooting according to eye dominance, right-eye-dominant archers shooting conventionally hold the bow with their left hand. If shooting according to hand dexterity, the archer draws the string with the hand that possesses the greatest dexterity, regardless of eye dominance.\n\n===Modern form===\n\nTo shoot an arrow, an archer first assumes the correct stance. The body should be at or nearly perpendicular to the target and the shooting line, with the feet placed shoulder-width apart. As an archer progresses from beginner to a more advanced level other stances such as the \"open stance\" or the \"closed stance\" may be used, although many choose to stick with a \"neutral stance\". Each archer has a particular preference, but mostly this term indicates that the leg furthest from the shooting line is a half to a whole foot-length from the other foot, on the ground.\n\nTo load, the bow is pointed toward the ground, tipped slightly clockwise of vertical (for a right handed shooter) and the shaft of the arrow is placed on the arrow rest or shelf. The back of the arrow is attached to the bowstring with the '''nock''' (a small locking groove located at the proximal end of the arrow). This step is called \"nocking the arrow\". Typical arrows with three vanes should be oriented such that a single vane, the \"cock feather\", is pointing away from the bow, to improve the clearance of the arrow as it passes the arrow rest.\n\nA compound bow is fitted with a special type of arrow rest, known as a launcher, and the arrow is usually loaded with the cock feather/vane pointed either up, or down, depending upon the type of launcher being used.\n\nThe bowstring and arrow are held with three fingers, or with a mechanical arrow release. Most commonly, for finger shooters, the index finger is placed above the arrow and the next two fingers below, although several other techniques have their adherents around the world, involving three fingers below the arrow, or an arrow pinching technique. ''Instinctive'' shooting is a technique eschewing sights and is often preferred by traditional archers (shooters of longbows and recurves). In either the split finger or three finger under case, the string is usually placed in the first or second joint, or else on the pads of the fingers. When using a mechanical release aid, the release is hooked onto the D-loop.\n\nAnother type of string hold, used on traditional bows, is the type favoured by the Mongol warriors, known as the \"thumb release\", style. This involves using the thumb to draw the string, with the fingers curling around the thumb to add some support. To release the string, the fingers are opened out and the thumb relaxes to allow the string to slide off the thumb. When using this type of release, the arrow should rest on the same side of the bow as the drawing hand i.e. Left hand draw = arrow on left side of bow.\n\nThe archer then raises the bow and draws the string, with varying alignments for vertical versus slightly canted bow positions. This is often one fluid motion for shooters of recurves and longbows, which tend to vary from archer to archer. Compound shooters often experience a slight jerk during the drawback, at around the last inch and a half, where the draw weight is at its maximum—before relaxing into a comfortable stable full draw position. The archer draws the string hand towards the face, where it should rest lightly at a fixed ''anchor point''. This point is consistent from shot to shot, and is usually at the corner of the mouth, on the chin, to the cheek, or to the ear, depending on preferred shooting style. The archer holds the bow arm outwards, toward the target. The elbow of this arm should be rotated so that the inner elbow is perpendicular to the ground, though archers with hyper extendable elbows tend to angle the inner elbow toward the ground, as exemplified by the Korean archer Jang Yong-Ho. This keeps the forearm out of the way of the bowstring.\n\nIn modern form, the archer stands erect, forming a \"T\". The archer's lower trapezius muscles are used to pull the arrow to the anchor point. Some modern recurve bows are equipped with a mechanical device, called a clicker, which produces a clicking sound when the archer reaches the correct draw length. In contrast, traditional English Longbow shooters step \"into the bow\", exerting force with both the bow arm and the string hand arm simultaneously, especially when using bows having draw weights from 100 lbs to over 175 lbs. Heavily stacked traditional bows (recurves, long bows, and the like) are released immediately upon reaching full draw at maximum weight, whereas compound bows reach their maximum weight around the last inch and a half, dropping holding weight significantly at full draw. Compound bows are often held at full draw for a short time to achieve maximum accuracy.\n\nThe arrow is typically released by relaxing the fingers of the drawing hand (see Bow draw), or triggering the mechanical release aid. Usually the release aims to keep the drawing arm rigid, the bow hand relaxed, and the arrow is moved back using the back muscles, as opposed to using just arm motions. An archer should also pay attention to the recoil or ''follow through'' of his or her body, as it may indicate problems with form (technique) that affect accuracy.\n", "\nFrom ''Hokusai Manga'', 1817\nThere are two main forms of aiming in archery: using a mechanical or fixed sight, or barebow.\n\nMechanical sights can be affixed to the bow to aid in aiming. They can be as simple as a pin, or may use optics with magnification. They usually also have a peep sight (rear sight) built into the string, which aids in a consistent anchor point. Modern compound bows automatically limit the draw length to give a consistent arrow velocity, while traditional bows allow great variation in draw length. Some bows use mechanical methods to make the draw length consistent. Barebow archers often use a sight picture, which includes the target, the bow, the hand, the arrow shaft and the arrow tip, as seen at the same time by the archer. With a fixed \"anchor point\" (where the string is brought to, or close to, the face), and a fully extended bow arm, successive shots taken with the sight picture in the same position fall on the same point. This lets the archer adjust aim with successive shots to achieve accuracy.\n\nModern archery equipment usually includes sights. Instinctive aiming is used by many archers who use traditional bows. The two most common forms of a non-mechanical release are split-finger and three-under. Split-finger aiming requires the archer to place the index finger above the nocked arrow, while the middle and ring fingers are both placed below. Three-under aiming places the index, middle, and ring fingers under the nocked arrow. This technique allows the archer to better look down the arrow since the back of the arrow is closer to the dominant eye, and is commonly called \"gun barreling\" (referring to common aiming techniques used with firearms).\n\nWhen using short bows or shooting from horseback, it is difficult to use the sight picture. The archer may look at the target, but without including the weapon in the field of accurate view. Aiming then involves hand-eye coordination—which includes proprioception and motor-muscle memory, similar to that used when throwing a ball. With sufficient practice, such archers can normally achieve good practical accuracy for hunting or for war. Aiming without a sight picture may allow more rapid shooting.\n\n'''Instinctive shooting''' is a style of shooting that includes the barebow aiming method that relies heavily upon the subconscious mind, proprioception, and motor/muscle memory to make aiming adjustments; the term used to refer to a general category of archers who did not use a mechanical or fixed sight.\n", "\nMongol archers during the time of the Mongol conquests used a smaller bow suitable for horse archery.\n\nWhen a projectile is thrown by hand, the speed of the projectile is determined by the kinetic energy imparted by the thrower's muscles performing work. However, the energy must be imparted over a limited distance (determined by arm length) and therefore (because the projectile is accelerating) over a limited time, so the limiting factor is not work but rather power, which determined how much energy can be added in the limited time available. Power generated by muscles, however, is limited by force–velocity relationship, and even at the optimal contraction speed for power production, total work by the muscle is less than half of what it would be if the muscle contracted over the same distance at slow speeds, resulting in less than 1/4 the projectile launch velocity possible without the limitations of the force–velocity relationship.\n\nWhen a bow is used, the muscles are able to perform work much more slowly, resulting in greater force and greater work done. This work is stored in the bow as elastic potential energy, and when the bowstring is released, this stored energy is imparted to the arrow much more quickly than can be delivered by the muscles, resulting in much higher velocity and, hence, greater distance. This same process is employed by frogs, which use elastic tendons to increase jumping distance. In archery, some energy dissipates through elastic hysteresis, reducing the overall amount released when the bow is shot. Of the remaining energy, some is dampened both by the limbs of the bow and the bowstring. Depending on the arrow's elasticity, some of the energy is also absorbed by compressing the arrow, primarily because the release of the bowstring is rarely in line with the arrow shaft, causing it to flex out to one side. This is because the bowstring accelerates faster than the archer's fingers can open, and consequently some sideways motion is imparted to the string, and hence arrow nock, as the power and speed of the bow pulls the string off the opening fingers.\n\nEven with a release aid mechanism some of this effect is usually experienced, since the string always accelerates faster than the retaining part of the mechanism. This makes the arrow oscillate in flight—its center flexing to one side and then the other repeatedly, gradually reducing as the arrow's flight proceeds. This is clearly visible in high-speed photography of arrows at discharge. A direct effect of these energy transfers can clearly be seen when dry firing. Dry firing refers to releasing the bow string without a nocked arrow. Because there is no arrow to receive the stored potential energy, almost all the energy stays in the bow. Some have suggested that dry firing may cause physical damage to the bow, such as cracks and fractures—and because most bows are not specifically made to handle the high amounts of energy dry firing produces, should never be done.\nSnake Indians - testing bows, circa 1837 by Alfred Jacob Miller, the Walters Art Museum\n\nModern arrows are made to a specified 'spine', or stiffness rating, to maintain matched flexing and hence accuracy of aim. This flexing can be a desirable feature, since, when the spine of the shaft is matched to the acceleration of the bow(string), the arrow bends or flexes around the bow and any arrow-rest, and consequently the arrow, and fletchings, have an un-impeded flight. This feature is known as the archer's paradox. It maintains accuracy, for if part of the arrow struck a glancing blow on discharge, some inconsistency would be present, and the excellent accuracy of modern equipment would not be achieved.\n\nThe accurate flight of an arrow is dependent on its fletching. The arrow's manufacturer (a \"fletcher\") can arrange fletching to cause the arrow to rotate along its axis. This improves accuracy by evening pressure buildups that would otherwise cause the arrow to \"plane\" on the air in a random direction after shooting. Even with a carefully made arrow, the slightest imperfection or air movement causes some unbalanced turbulence in air flow. Consequently, rotation creates an equalization of such turbulence, which, overall, maintains the intended direction of flight i.e. accuracy. This rotation is not to be confused with the rapid gyroscopic rotation of a rifle bullet. Fletching that is not arranged to induce rotation still improves accuracy by causing a restoring drag any time the arrow tilts from its intended direction of travel.\n\nThe innovative aspect of the invention of the bow and arrow was the amount of power delivered to an extremely small area by the arrow. The huge ratio of length vs. cross sectional area, coupled with velocity, made the arrow more powerful than any other hand held weapon until firearms were invented. Arrows can spread or concentrate force, depending on the application. Practice arrows, for instance, have a blunt tip that spreads the force over a wider area to reduce the risk of injury or limit penetration. Arrows designed to pierce armor in the Middle Ages used a very narrow and sharp tip (\"bodkinhead\") to concentrate the force. Arrows used for hunting used a narrow tip (\"broadhead\") that widens further, to facilitate both penetration and a large wound.\n\n\n", "\nA modern compound hunting bow\nUsing archery to take game animals is known as \"bow hunting\". Bow hunting differs markedly from hunting with firearms, as distance between hunter and prey must be much shorter to ensure a humane kill. The skills and practices of bow hunting therefore emphasize very close approach to the prey, whether by still hunting, stalking, or waiting in a blind or tree stand. In many countries, including much of the United States, bow hunting for large and small game is legal. Bow hunters generally enjoy longer seasons than are allowed with other forms of hunting such as black powder, shotgun, or rifle. Usually, compound bows are used for large game hunting due to their superior power over the recurve bow. These compound bows may feature fiber optic sights and other enhancements. Using a bow and arrow to take fish is known as \"bow fishing\".\n", "\n\nCompetitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy from a set distance or distances. This is the most popular form of competitive archery worldwide and is called target archery. A form particularly popular in Europe and America is field archery, shot at targets generally set at various distances in a wooded setting. Competitive archery in the United States is governed by USA Archery and National Field Archery Association (NFAA), which also certifies instructors.\n\nPara-Archery is an adaptation of archery for athletes with a disability governed by the World Archery Federation (WA), and is one of the sports in the Summer Paralympic Games. There are also several other lesser-known and historical forms of archery, as well as archery novelty games and flight archery, where the aim is to shoot the greatest distance.\n", "\n3D archery\nArchery games\nBow draw\nBowfishing\nBowhunting\nClout archery\nField archery\nGungdo \nKyūdō\nKyūjutsu\nMounted archery\nSagittarii\nTarget archery\nTurkish archery\nList of archery terms\nList of notable archers\n\n", "\n", "* Ford, Horace (1887) ''The Theory and Practice of Archery'' London: Longmans, Green\n* Elmer, Robert P. (Robert Potter) (1917) ''American Archery; a Vade Mecum of the Art of Shooting with the Long Bow'' Columbus, OH: National Archery Association of the United States\n* Hansard, George Agar (1841) ''The Book of Archery: being the complete history and practice of the art, ancient and modern ...'' London: H. G. Bohn\n* Hargrove, Ely (1792) ''Anecdotes of Archery; from the earliest ages to the year 1791. Including an account of the most famous archers of ancient and modern times; with some curious particulars in the life of Robert Fitz-Ooth Earl of Huntington, vulgarly called Robin Hood ...''. York: printed for E. Hargrove, bookseller, Knaresbro' (later editions: York, 1845 and facsimile reprint, London: Tabard Press, 1970)\nHeath, E. G. & Chiara, Vilma (1977) ''Brazilian Indian Archery: a preliminary ethno-toxological study of the archery of the Brazilian Indians''. Manchester: Simon Archery Foundation\n Johnes, Martin. '' Archery, romance and elite culture in England and Wales, c.1780–1840'', 89, 193–208.\n* Klopsteg, Paul (1963) ''A Chapter in the Evolution of Archery in America'' Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution\nLake, Fred & Wright, Hal (1974) ''A Bibliography of Archery: an indexed catalogue of 5,000 articles, books, films, manuscripts, periodicals and theses on the use of the bow for hunting, war, and recreation, from the earliest times to the present day''. Manchester: Simon Archery Foundation\n Morse, Edward (1922) ''Additional notes on arrow release'' Salem, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum\n* Pope, Saxton (1925) ''Hunting with the Bow and Arrow'' New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons\n* Pope, Saxton (1918) ''Yahi Archery'' Berkeley: University of California Press\n* Thompson, Maurice (1878) ''The Witchery of Archery: a Complete Manual of Archery'' New York: Scribner & Sons\n* ''FITA-Style Archery Targets'' Bow and Arrow Targets\n* ''The Traditional Bowyer's Bible''. Azle, TX: Bois d'Arc Press; New York, N.Y.: Distributed by Lyons & Burford\n ''The Traditional Bowyer's Bible''; Volume 1. 1992. \n ''The Traditional Bowyer's Bible''; Volume 2. 1992. \n ''The Traditional Bowyer's Bible''; Volume 3. 1994. ; \n ''The Traditional Bowyer's Bible''; Volume 4. The Lyons Press, 2008. \n", "\n\n\n\n* Paralympic archery at IPC web site\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Equipment", "Shooting technique and form", "Aiming methods", " Physics ", "Hunting", "Modern competitive archery", " See also ", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Archery
[ "\n\n\n\nThe English language was first introduced to the Americas by British colonization, beginning in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Similarly, the language spread to numerous other parts of the world as a result of British trade and colonization elsewhere and the spread of the former British Empire, which, by 1921, held sway over a population of 470–570 million people, approximately a quarter of the world's population at that time.\n\nOver the past 400 years, the form of the language used in the Americas—especially in the United States—and that used in the United Kingdom have diverged in a few minor ways, leading to the versions now occasionally referred to as American English and British English. Differences between the two include pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary (lexis), spelling, punctuation, idioms, and formatting of dates and numbers. Although, the differences in written and most spoken grammar structure tend to be much less than those of other aspects of the language in terms of mutual intelligibility. A small number of words have completely different meanings in the two versions or are even unknown or not used in one of the versions. One particular contribution towards formalizing these differences came from Noah Webster, who wrote the first American dictionary (published 1828) with the intention of showing that people in the United States spoke a different dialect from Britain, much like a regional accent.\n\nThis divergence between American English and British English has provided opportunities for humorous comment, e.g., George Bernard Shaw has a character say that the United States and United Kingdom are \"two countries divided by a common language\"; and Oscar Wilde that \"We have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course, the language\" (''The Canterville Ghost'', 1888). Henry Sweet incorrectly predicted in 1877 that within a century American English, Australian English and British English would be mutually unintelligible (''A Handbook of Phonetics''). It may be the case that increased worldwide communication through radio, television, the Internet and globalization has reduced the tendency towards regional variation. This can result either in some variations becoming extinct (for instance, ''the wireless'', being progressively superseded by ''the radio'') or in the acceptance of wide variations as \"perfectly good English\" everywhere.\n\nAlthough spoken American and British English are generally mutually intelligible, there are occasional differences which might cause embarrassment—for example, in American English a ''rubber'' is usually interpreted as a ''condom'' rather than an ''eraser''; and a British ''fanny'' refers to the female pubic area, while the American ''fanny'' refers to an ''ass'' (US) or an ''arse'' (UK).\n", "* Directional suffix ''-ward(s)'': British ''forwards'', ''towards'', ''rightwards'', etc.; American ''forward'', ''toward'', ''rightward''. In both dialects distribution varies somewhat: ''afterwards'', ''towards'', and ''backwards'' are not unusual in America; while in Britain ''forward'' is common, and standard in phrasal verbs such as ''look forward to''. The forms with ''-s'' may be used as adverbs (or preposition ''towards'') but rarely as adjectives: in Britain as in America, one says \"an upward motion\". The Oxford English Dictionary in 1897 suggested a semantic distinction for adverbs, with ''-wards'' having a more definite directional sense than ''-ward''; subsequent authorities such as Fowler have disputed this contention.\n* AmE freely adds the suffix ''-s'' to ''day'', ''night'', ''evening'', ''weekend'', ''Monday'', etc. to form adverbs denoting repeated or customary action: ''I used to stay out evenings''; ''the library is closed Saturdays''. This usage has its roots in Old English but many of these constructions are now regarded as American (for example, the OED labels ''nights'' \"now chiefly N. Amer. colloq.\" in constructions such as ''to sleep nights'', but ''to work nights'' is standard in BrE).\n* In BrE, the agentive ''-er'' suffix is commonly attached to ''football'' (also ''cricket''; often ''netball''; occasionally ''basketball'' and ''volleyball''). AmE usually uses ''football player''. Where the sport's name is usable as a verb, the suffixation is standard in both dialects: for example, ''golfer'', ''bowler'' (in Ten-pin bowling and in Lawn Bowls), and ''shooter''. AmE appears sometimes to use the BrE form in ''baller'' as slang for a basketball player, as in the video game ''NBA Ballers''. However, this is derived from slang use of ''to ball'' as a verb meaning to play basketball.\n* English writers everywhere occasionally (and from time immemorial) make new compound words from common phrases; for example, ''health care'' is now being replaced by ''healthcare'' on both sides of the Atlantic. However, AmE has made certain words in this fashion that are still treated as phrases in BrE.\n* In compound nouns of the form , sometimes AmE prefers the bare infinitive where BrE favours the gerund. Examples include (AmE first): ''jump rope''/''skipping rope''; ''racecar''/''racing car''; ''rowboat''/''rowing boat''; ''sailboat''/''sailing boat''; ''file cabinet''/''filing cabinet''; ''dial tone''/''dialling tone''; ''drainboard''/''draining board''. \n* Generally AmE has a tendency to drop inflectional suffixes, thus preferring clipped forms: compare ''cookbook'' v. ''cookery book''; ''Smith, age 40'' v. ''Smith, aged 40''; ''skim milk'' v. ''skimmed milk''; ''dollhouse'' v. ''dolls' house''; ''barber shop'' v. ''barber's shop''. This has recently been extended to appear on professionally printed commercial signage and some boxes themselves (not mere greengrocers' chalkboards): ''can vegetables'' and ''mash potatoes'' appear in the US.\n* Singular attributives in one country may be plural in the other, and ''vice versa''. For example the UK has a ''drugs problem'', while the United States has a ''drug problem'' (although the singular usage is also commonly heard in the UK); Americans read the ''sports'' section of a newspaper; the British are more likely to read the ''sport'' section. However, BrE ''maths'' is singular, just as AmE ''math'' is: both are abbreviations of ''mathematics''.\n* Some British English words come from French roots, while American English finds its words from other places, e.g. AmE ''eggplant'' and ''zucchini'' are ''aubergine'' and ''courgette'' in BrE.\n* Similarly, American English has occasionally replaced more traditional English words with their Spanish counterparts. This is especially common in regions historically affected by Spanish colonialism (such as the American Southwest and Florida) as well as other areas that have since experienced strong Hispanic migration (such as urban centers). Examples of these include grocery markets' preference in the U.S. for Spanish names such as cilantro and manzanilla over coriander and chamomile respectively.\n", "\n\n===Overview of lexical differences===\n\n''Note: A lexicon is not made up of different words but different \"units of meaning\" (lexical units or lexical items e.g., \"fly ball\" in baseball), including idioms and figures of speech. This makes it easier to compare the dialects.''\n\nThough the influence of cross-culture media has done much to familiarize BrE and AmE speakers with each other's regional words and terms, many words are still recognized as part of a single form of English. Though the use of a British word would be acceptable in AmE (and vice versa), most listeners would recognize the word as coming from the other form of English and treat it much the same as a word borrowed from any other language.\n\n====Words and phrases that have their origins in BrE====\n\nMost speakers of AmE are aware of some BrE terms, although they may not generally use them or may be confused as to whether someone intends the American or British meaning (such as for ''biscuit''). It is generally very easy to guess what some words, such as \"driving licence\", mean. However, use of many other British words such as ''naff'' (slang but commonly used to mean \"not very good\") are unheard of in American English.\n\n====Words and phrases that have their origins in AmE====\n\nSpeakers of BrE are likely to understand most common AmE terms, examples such as \"sidewalk\" (pavement), \"gas (gasoline/petrol)\", \"counterclockwise\" (anticlockwise) or \"elevator (lift)\", without any problem, thanks in part to considerable exposure to American popular culture and literature. Certain terms that are heard less frequently, especially those likely to be absent or rare in American popular culture, e.g., \"copacetic (satisfactory)\", are unlikely to be understood by most BrE speakers.\n\n====Divergence====\n\n===== Words and phrases with different meanings =====\n\nWords such as ''bill'' and ''biscuit'' are used regularly in both AmE and BrE but mean different things in each form. In AmE a bill is usually paper money (as in \"dollar bill\") though it can mean the same as in BrE, an invoice (as in \"the repair bill was £250\"). In AmE a biscuit (from the French twice baked as in biscotto) is what in BrE is called a scone and a biscuit in BrE is in AmE a cookie (from the Dutch 'little cake'). As chronicled by Winston Churchill, the opposite meanings of the verb ''to table'' created a misunderstanding during a meeting of the Allied forces; in BrE to table an item on an agenda means to ''open it up'' for discussion whereas in AmE, it means to ''remove'' it from discussion, or at times, to suspend or delay discussion.\n\nThe word \"football\" in BrE refers to Association football, also known as soccer. In AmE, \"football\" means American football. The standard AmE term \"soccer\", a contraction of \"association (football)\", is of British origin, derived from the formalization of different codes of football in the 19th century, and was a fairly unremarkable usage (possibly marked for class) in BrE until relatively recently; it has lately become perceived incorrectly as an Americanism. In international (i.e. non-American) context, particularly in sports news outside English-speaking North America, American (or US branches of foreign) news agencies also use \"football\" to mean \"soccer\", especially in direct quotes.\n\nSimilarly, the word \"hockey\" in BrE refers to field hockey and in AmE, \"hockey\" means ice hockey.\n\n=====Other ambiguity (complex cases)=====\n\nWords with completely different meanings are relatively few; most of the time there are either (1) words with one or more shared meanings and one or more meanings unique to one variety (for example, bathroom and toilet) or (2) words the meanings of which are actually common to both BrE and AmE but that show differences in frequency, connotation or denotation (for example, ''smart'', ''clever'', ''mad'').\n\nSome differences in usage and/or meaning can cause confusion or embarrassment. For example the word ''fanny'' is a slang word for vulva in BrE but means buttocks in AmE—the AmE phrase ''fanny pack'' is ''bum bag'' in BrE. In AmE the word ''pissed'' means being annoyed whereas in BrE it is a coarse word for being drunk (in both varieties, ''pissed off'' means irritated).\n\nSimilarly, in AmE the word ''pants'' is the common word for the BrE ''trousers'' and ''knickers'' refers to a variety of half-length trousers (though most AmE users would use the term \"shorts\" rather than knickers), while the majority of BrE speakers would understand ''pants'' to mean ''underpants'' and ''knickers'' to mean ''female underpants''.\n\nSometimes the confusion is more subtle. In AmE the word ''quite'' used as a qualifier is generally a reinforcement: for example, \"I'm quite hungry\" means \"I'm very hungry\". In BrE ''quite'' (which is much more common in conversation) may have this meaning, as in \"quite right\" or \"quite mad\", but it more commonly means \"somewhat\", so that in BrE \"I'm quite hungry\" can mean \"I'm somewhat hungry\". This divergence of use can lead to misunderstanding.\n\n====Frequency====\n* In the UK the word ''whilst'' is historically acceptable as a conjunction (as an alternative to ''while'', especially prevalent in some dialects). In AmE only ''while'' is used in both contexts. Other conjunctions with the ''-st'' ending are also found even in AmE as much as in BrE, despite being old-fashioned or an affection. ''Whilst'' tends to appear in non-temporal senses, as when used to point up a contrast.\n* In the UK generally the term ''fall'' meaning \"autumn\" is obsolete. Although found often from Elizabethan literature to Victorian literature, continued understanding of the word is usually ascribed to its continued use in America.\nIn the UK the term ''period'' for a full stop is not used; in AmE the term ''full stop'' is rarely, if ever, used for the punctuation mark. For example, Tony Blair said, \"Terrorism is wrong, full stop\", whereas in AmE, \"Terrorism is wrong, period.\" The use of the interjection: ''period'' to mean ''\"and nothing else; end of discussion\"'' is beginning to be used in colloquial British English, though sometimes without conscious reference to punctuation.\n\n===Holiday greetings===\n\nIt is increasingly common for Americans to say \"Happy holidays\", referring to all, or at least multiple, winter holidays (Christmas, Hanukkah, Winter solstice, Kwanzaa, etc.) especially when the subject's religious observances are not known; the phrase is rarely heard in the UK. In Britain, the phrases \"holiday season\" and \"holiday period\" refer to the period in the summer when most people take time off from work, and travel; AmE does not use ''holiday'' in this sense, instead using ''vacation'' for recreational excursions.\n\n===Idiosyncratic differences===\n\n====Figures of speech====\nBoth BrE and AmE use the expression \"I couldn't care less\" to mean the speaker does not care at all. Some Americans use \"I could care less\" to mean the same thing. This variant is frequently derided as sloppy, as the literal meaning of the words is that the speaker ''does'' care to some extent.\n\nIn both areas, saying, \"I don't mind\" often means, \"I'm not annoyed\" (for example, by someone's smoking), while \"I don't care\" often means, \"The matter is trivial or boring\". However, in answering a question such as \"Tea or coffee?\", if either alternative is equally acceptable an American may answer, \"I don't care\", while a British person may answer, \"I don't mind\". Either sounds odd to the other.\n\n====Equivalent idioms====\n\nA number of English idioms that have essentially the same meaning show lexical differences between the British and the American version; for instance:\n\n\n\nBritish English\nAmerican English\n\n''not touch something with a bargepole''\n''not touch something with a ten-foot pole''\n\n''sweep under the carpet''\n''sweep under the rug''\n\n''touch wood''\n''knock on wood''\n\n''see the wood for the trees''\n''see the forest for the trees''\n\n''put a spanner in the works''\n''throw a ''(''monkey'')'' wrench (into a situation)''\n\n''put ''(or'' stick'')'' your oar in''but ''it won't make a ha'porth of difference''''to put your two penn'orth'' (or ''tuppence worth'') ''in''\n''to put your two cents ''(or ''two cents' worth'')'' in''\n\n''skeleton in the cupboard''\n''skeleton in the closet''\n\n''a home from home''\n''a home away from home''\n\n''blow one's own trumpet''\n''blow ''(or'' toot'')'' one's own horn''\n\n''a drop in the ocean''\n''a drop in the bucket'', ''a spit in the ocean''\n\n''flogging a dead horse''\n''beating a dead horse''\n\n''haven't (got) a clue''\n''don't have a clue'' or ''have no clue'' (the British forms are also acceptable)\n\n''couldn't care less''\n''could care less'' or ''couldn't care less''\n\n''a new lease of life''\n''a new lease on life''\n\n''lie of the land''\n''lay of the land''\n\n''take it with a pinch of salt''\n''take it with a grain of salt''\n\n''a storm in a teacup''\n''a tempest in a teapot''\n\n In the US, a \"carpet\" typically refers to a fitted carpet.\n", "===Use of ''that'' and ''which'' in restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses===\n\nGenerally, a non-restrictive relative clause (also called non-defining or supplementary) is one that contains information that is supplementary, i.e. does not change the meaning of the rest of the sentence, while a restrictive relative clause (also called defining or integrated) is, one which contains information essential to the meaning of the sentence, effectively limiting the modified noun phrase to a subset that is defined by the relative clause.\nAn example of a restrictive clause is \"The dog that bit the man was brown.\"\nAn example of a non-restrictive clause is \"The dog, which bit the man, was brown.\"\nIn the former \"that bit the man\" identifies which dog the statement is about.\nIn the latter, \"which bit the man\" provides supplementary information about a known dog.\nA non-restrictive relative clause is typically set off by commas, whereas a restrictive relative clause is not, but this is not a rule that is universally observed. In speech, this is also reflected in the intonation.\nWriters commonly use ''which'' to introduce a non-restrictive clause, and ''that'' to introduce a restrictive clause. ''That'' is rarely used to introduce a non-restrictive relative clause in prose. ''Which'' and ''that'' are both commonly used to introduce a restrictive clause; a study in 1977 reported that about 75 percent of occurrences of ''which'' were in restrictive clauses. \n\nH. W. Fowler, in ''A Dictionary of Modern English Usage'' of 1926 followed others in suggesting that it would be preferable to use ''which'' as the non-restrictive (what he calls non-defining) pronoun and ''that'' as the restrictive (what he calls defining) pronoun, but he also stated that this rule was observed neither by most writers nor by the best writers. \nHe implied that his suggested usage was more common in American English.\nFowler notes that his recommended usage presents problems, in particular that ''that'' must be the first word of the clause, which means, for instance, that ''which'' cannot be replaced by ''that'' when it immediately follows a preposition (e.g. \"the basic unit ''from which'' matter is constructed\") – though this would not prevent a stranded preposition (e.g. \"the basic unit ''that'' matter is constructed ''from''\").\n\nStyle guides by American prescriptivists, such as Bryan Garner, typically insist, for stylistic reasons, that ''that'' be used for restrictive relative clauses and ''which'' be used for non-restrictive clauses, referring to the use of ''which'' in restrictive clauses as a \"mistake\". \nAccording to the 2015 edition of ''Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage'', \"In AmE ''which'' is \"not generally used in restrictive clauses, and that fact is then interpreted as the absolute rule that only ''that'' may introduce a restrictive clause\", whereas in BrE \"either ''that'' or ''which'' may be used in restrictive clauses\", but many British people \"believe that ''that'' is obligatory\".\n", "\n===Spelling===\n\nBefore the early 18th century English spelling was not standardized. Different standards became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries. For the most part current BrE spellings follow those of Samuel Johnson's ''Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755), while AmE spellings follow those of Noah Webster's ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (1828). In Britain, the influences of those who preferred the French spellings of certain words proved decisive. In many cases AmE spelling deviated from mainstream British spelling; on the other hand it has also often retained older forms. Many of the now characteristic AmE spellings were popularized, although often not created, by Noah Webster. Webster chose already-existing alternative spellings \"on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology\". Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. Later spelling changes in the UK had little effect on present-day US spelling, and vice versa.\n\n===Punctuation===\n\n====Full stops and periods in abbreviations====\nThere have been some trends of transatlantic difference in use of periods in some abbreviations. These are discussed at ''Abbreviation § Periods (full stops) and spaces''. Unit symbols such as kg and Hz are never punctuated.\n\n====Parentheses/brackets====\nIn British English, \"( )\" marks are often referred to as brackets, whereas \" \" are called square brackets and \"{ }\" are called curly brackets. In formal British English and in American English \"( )\" marks are parentheses (singular: parenthesis), \" \" are called brackets or square brackets, and \"{ }\" can be called either curly brackets or curly braces. In both countries, standard usage is to place punctuation outside the parenthesis, unless the entire sentence is contained within them:\n* \"I am going to the store (if it is still open).\"\n* (This page is intentionally blank.)\nIn the case of a parenthetical expression which is itself a complete sentence, the final punctuation may be placed inside the parenthesis, particularly if not a period:\n* \"I am going to the store (Is it still open?)\"\n* \"I am going to the store (I hope it's still open!)\"\n", "\n* Lists of words having different meanings in American and British English\n* American and British English pronunciation differences\n* American and British English spelling differences\n* American and British English grammatical differences\n\n", "* Algeo, John (2006). ''British or American English?''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .\n* Hargraves, Orin (2003). ''Mighty Fine Words and Smashing Expressions''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. \n* McArthur, Tom (2002). ''The Oxford Guide to World English''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .\n* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .\n* Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, 4th ed. London: Arnold. \n", "\n", "* Word substitution list, by the Ubuntu English (United Kingdom) Translators team\n* List of American and British spelling differences\n* ''Linguistics Issues'' List of American, Canadian and British spelling differences\n* Map of US English dialects\n* The Septic's Companion: A British Slang Dictionary\n* \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Word derivation and compounds", "Vocabulary", "Style", "Writing", "See also", "Sources", "References", "External links" ]	Comparison of American and British English
[ "'''Atomic semantics''' is a term which describes a type of guarantee provided by a data register shared by several processors in a parallel machine or in a network of computers working together.\nAtomic semantics are very strong. An atomic register provides strong guarantees even when there is concurrency and failures.\n\nA read/write register R stores a value and is accessed by two basic operations: read and write(v). A read returns the value stored in R and write(v) changes the value stored in R to v.\nA register is called atomic if it satisfies the two following properties:\n\n1) Each invocation op of a read or write operation:\n\n•Must appear as if it were executed at a single point τ(op) in time.\n\n•τ (op) works as follow:\nτb(op) ≤ τ (op) ≤ τe(op): where τb(op) and τe(op) indicate the time when the operation op begins and ends.\n\n•If op1 ≠ op2, then τ (op1)≠τ (op2)\n\n2) Each read operation returns the value written by the last write operation before the read, in the sequence where all operations are ordered by their τ values.\n\n'''Atomic/Linearizable register:'''\n\nTermination: when a node is correct,sooner or later each read and write operation will complete.\n\n'''Safety Property''' (Linearization points for read and write and failed operations):\n\nRead operation:It appears as if happened at all nodes at some times between the invocation and response time.\n\nWrite operation: Similar to read operation,it appears as if happened at all nodes at some times between the invocation and response time.\n\nFailed operation(The atomic term comes from this notion):It appears as if it is completed at every single node or it never happened at any node.\n\nExample : We know that an atomic register is one that is linearizable to a sequential safe register.\n\natomic\n\nThe following picture shows where we should put the linearization point for each operation:\n\nAtomic register\n\n \nAn atomic register could be defined for a variable with a single writer but multi- readers(SWMR),single-writer/single-reader (SWSR),or multi-writer/multi-reader(MWMR). Here is an example of a multi-reader multi-writer atomic register which is accessed by three processes (P1,P2,P3).Note that R.read() → v means that the corresponding read operation returns v, which is the value of the register. Therefore, the following execution of the register R could satisfies the definition of the atomic registers:\nR.write(1), R.read()→1, R.write(3), R.write(2), R.read()→2, R.read()→2.\n\nAtomic MWMR1\n", "Regular semantics\nSafe semantics\n", "* Atomic semantics are defined formally in Lamport's \"On Interprocess Communication\" Distributed Computing 1, 2 (1986), 77-101. (Also appeared as SRC Research Report 8).\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References" ]	Atomic semantics
[ "\nThe '''Antarctic Circumpolar Current''' ('''ACC''') is an ocean current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica. An alternative name for the ACC is the '''West Wind Drift'''. The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean and has a mean transport of 100-150 Sverdrups (Sv, million m³/s), making it the largest ocean current. More recent research even puts this number at over 173 Sv. The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass connecting with Antarctica and this keeps warm ocean waters away from Antarctica, enabling that continent to maintain its huge ice sheet.\n\nAssociated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence, where the cold Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the subantarctic, creating a zone of upwelling nutrients. These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and krill, and resultant foodchains supporting fish, whales, seals, penguins, albatrosses, and a wealth of other species.\n\nThe ACC has been known to sailors for centuries; it greatly speeds up any travel from west to east, but makes sailing extremely difficult from east to west; although this is mostly due to the prevailing westerly winds. The circumstances preceding the mutiny on the ''Bounty'' and Jack London's story \"Make Westing\" poignantly illustrated the difficulty it caused for mariners seeking to round Cape Horn on the clipper ship route between New York and California. The clipper route, which is the fastest sailing route around the world, follows the ACC around three continental capes – Cape Agulhas (Africa), South East Cape (Australia), and Cape Horn (South America).\n\nThe current creates the Ross and Weddell gyres.\n", "The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is the strongest current system in the world oceans and the only ocean current linking all major oceans: the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. Seawater density fronts after .\nThe ACC connects the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and serves as a principal pathway of exchange among them. The current is strongly constrained by landform and bathymetric features. To trace it starting arbitrarily at South America, it flows through the Drake Passage between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula and then is split by the Scotia Arc to the east, with a shallow warm branch flowing to the north in the Falkland Current and a deeper branch passing through the Arc more to the east before also turning to the north. Passing through the Indian Ocean, the current first retroflects the Agulhas Current to form the Agulhas Return Current before it is split by the Kerguelen Plateau, and then moving northward again. Deflection is also seen as it passes over the mid-ocean ridge in the Southeast Pacific.\n\n===Fronts===\nThe current is accompanied by three fronts: the Subantarctic front (SAF), the Polar front (PF), and the Southern ACC front (SACC). Furthermore, the waters of the Southern Ocean are separated from the warmer and saltier subtropical waters by the subtropical front (STF).\n\nThe northern boundary of the ACC is defined by the northern edge of the SAF, this being the most northerly water to pass through Drake Passage and therefore be circumpolar. Much of the ACC transport is carried in this front, which is defined as the latitude at which a subsurface salinity minimum or a thick layer of unstratified Subantarctic mode water first appears, allowed by temperature dominating density stratification. Still further south lies the PF, which is marked by a transition to very cold, relatively fresh, Antarctic Surface Water at the surface. Here a temperature minimum is allowed by salinity dominating density stratification, due to the lower temperatures. Farther south still is the SACC, which is determined as the southernmost extent of Circumpolar Deep Water (temperature of about 2 °C at 400 m). This water mass flows along the shelfbreak of the western Antarctic Peninsula and thus marks the most southerly water flowing through Drake Passage and therefore circumpolar. The bulk of the transport is carried in the middle two fronts.\n\nThe total transport of the ACC at Drake Passage is estimated to be around 135 Sv, or about 135 times the transport of all the world's rivers combined. There is a relatively small addition of flow in the Indian Ocean, with the transport south of Tasmania reaching around 147 Sv, at which point the current is probably the largest on the planet.\n", "The circumpolar current is driven by the strong westerly winds in the latitudes of the Southern Ocean.\n\nIn latitudes where there are continents, winds blowing on light surface water can simply pile up light water against these continents. But in the Southern Ocean, the momentum imparted to the surface waters cannot be offset in this way. There are different theories on how the Circumpolar Current balances the momentum imparted by the winds. The increasing eastward momentum imparted by the winds causes water parcels to drift outward from the axis of the Earth's rotation (in other words, northward) as a result of the Coriolis force. This northward Ekman transport is balanced by a southward, pressure-driven flow below the depths of the major ridge systems. Some theories connect these flows directly, implying that there is significant upwelling of dense deep waters within the Southern Ocean, transformation of these waters into light surface waters, and a transformation of waters in the opposite direction to the north. Such theories link the magnitude of the Circumpolar Current with the global thermohaline circulation, particularly the properties of the North Atlantic.\n\nAlternatively, ocean eddies, the oceanic equivalent of atmospheric storms, or the large-scale meanders of the Circumpolar Current may directly transport momentum downward in the water column. This is because such flows can produce a net southward flow in the troughs and a net northward flow over the ridges without requiring any transformation of density. In practice both the thermohaline and the eddy/meander mechanisms are likely to be important.\n\nThe current flows at a rate of about over the Macquarie Ridge south of New Zealand. The ACC varies with time. Evidence of this is the Antarctic Circumpolar Wave, a periodic oscillation that affects the climate of much of the southern hemisphere. There is also the Antarctic oscillation, which involves changes in the location and strength of Antarctic winds. Trends in the Antarctic Oscillation have been hypothesized to account for an increase in the transport of the Circumpolar Current over the past two decades.\n", "Published estimates of the onset of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current vary, but it is commonly considered to have started at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary. The isolation of Antarctica and formation of the ACC occurred with the openings of the Tasmanian Seaway and the Drake Passage. The Tasmanian Seaway separates East Antarctica and Australia, and is reported to have opened to water circulation 33.5 Ma. The timing of the opening of the Drake Passage, between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula, is more disputed; tectonic and sediment evidence show that it could have been open as early as pre 34 Ma, estimates of the opening of the Drake passage are between 20 and 40 Ma. The isolation of Antarctica by the current is credited by many researchers with causing the glaciation of Antarctica and global cooling in the Eocene epoch. Oceanic models have shown that the opening of these two passages limited polar heat convergence and caused a cooling of sea surface temperatures by several degrees; other models have shown that CO2 levels also played a significant role in the glaciation of Antarctica.\n", "The Falkland Current transports nutrient-rich cold waters from the ACC north toward the Brazil–Malvinas Confluence. Phytoplankton chlorophyll concentration are shown in blue (lower concentrations) and yellow (higher concentrations).\nAntarctic sea ice cycles seasonally, in February–March the amount of sea ice is lowest, and in August–September the sea ice is at its greatest extent. Ice levels have been monitored by satellite since 1973. Upwelling of deep water under the sea ice brings substantial amounts of nutrients. As the ice melts, the melt water provides stability and the critical depth is well below the mixing depth, which allows for a positive net primary production. As the sea ice recedes epontic algae dominate the first phase of the bloom, and a strong bloom dominate by diatoms follows the ice melt south.\n\nAnother phytoplankton bloom occurs more to the north near the antarctic convergence, here nutrients are present from thermohaline circulation. Phytoplankton blooms are dominated by diatoms and grazed by copepods in the open ocean, and by krill closer to the continent. Diatom production continues through the summer, and populations of krill are sustained, bringing large numbers of cetaceans, cephalopods, seals, birds, and fish to the area.\n\nPhytoplankton blooms are believed to be limited by irradiance in the austral (southern hemisphere) spring, and by biologically available iron in the summer. Much of the biology in the area occurs along the major fronts of the current, the Subtropical, Subantarctic, and the Antarctic Polar fronts, these are areas associated with well defined temperature changes. Size and distribution of phytoplankton are also related to fronts. Microphytoplankton (>20μm) are found at fronts and at sea ice boundaries, while nanophytoplankton (<20μm) are found between fronts.\n\nStudies of phytoplankton stocks in the southern sea have shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is dominated by diatoms, while the Weddell Sea has abundant coccolithophorids and silicoflagellates. Surveys of the SW Indian Ocean have shown phytoplankton group variation based on their location relative to the Polar Front, with diatoms dominating South of the front, and dinoflagellates and flagellates in higher populations North of the front.\n\nSome research has been conducted on Antarctic phytoplankton as a carbon sink. Areas of open water left from ice melt are good areas for phytoplankton blooms. The phytoplankton takes carbon from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. As the blooms die and sink, the carbon can be stored in sediments for thousands of years. This natural carbon sink is estimated to remove 3.5 million tonnes from the ocean each year. 3.5 million tonnes of carbon taken from the ocean and atmosphere is equivalent to 12.8 million tonnes of carbon dioxide.\n", "An expedition in May 2008 by 19 scientists studied the geology and biology of eight Macquarie Ridge sea mounts, as well as the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to investigate the effects of climate change of the Southern Ocean. The circumpolar current merges the waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans and carries up to 150 times the volume of water flowing in all of the world's rivers. The study found that any damage on the cold-water corals nourished by the current will have a long-lasting effect. After studying the circumpolar current it is clear that it strongly influences regional and global climate as well as underwater biodiversity.\n\nDr. Adrian Glover of the Natural History Museum, London says that the current helps preserve wooden shipwrecks by preventing wood-boring \"ship worms\" from reaching targets such as Ernest Shackleton's ship, the ''Endurance''.\n", "\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Structure ", "Dynamics", " Formation ", " Phytoplankton ", " Studies ", " References " ]	Antarctic Circumpolar Current
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Arbor Day''' (or '''Arbour'''; from the Latin ''arbor'', meaning tree) is a holiday in which individuals and groups are encouraged to plant trees. Today, many countries observe such a holiday. Though usually observed in the spring, the date varies, depending on climate and suitable planting season.\n\n", "The naturalist Miguel Herrero Uceda at the monument to the first Arbor Day in the world, Villanueva de la Sierra (Spain) 1805.\n\n=== First Arbor Day in the world ===\nThe Spanish village of Mondoñedo held the first documented arbor plantation festival in the world organized by its mayor in 1594. The place remains as Alameda de los Remedios and it is still planted with lime and horse-chestnut trees. A humble granite marker and a bronze plate recall the event. Additionally, the small Spanish village of Villanueva de la Sierra held the first modern Arbor Day, an initiative launched in 1805 by the local priest with the enthusiastic support of the entire population.\n\n\n\n=== First American Arbor Day ===\nBirdsey Northrop\nThe first American Arbor Day was originated in Nebraska City, Nebraska, U.S., by J. Sterling Morton. On April 10, 1872, an estimated one million trees were planted in Nebraska.\n\nBirdsey Northrop of Connecticut was responsible for globalizing it when he visited Japan in 1883 and delivered his Arbor Day and Village Improvement message. In that same year, the American Forestry Association made Northrop the Chairman of the committee to campaign for Arbor Day nationwide. He also brought his enthusiasm for Arbor Day to Australia, Canada, and Europe.\n\n=== McCreight and Theodore Roosevelt ===\nBeginning in 1906, Pennsylvania conservationist Major Israel McCreight of DuBois, Pennsylvania, argued that President Theodore Roosevelt’s conservation speeches were limited to businessmen in the lumber industry and recommended a campaign of youth education and a national policy on conservation education. McCreight urged President Roosevelt to make a public statement to school children about trees and the destruction of American forests. Conservationist Gifford Pinchot, Chief of the United States Forest Service, embraced McCreight’s recommendations and asked the President to speak to the public school children of the United States about conservation. On April 15, 1907, Roosevelt issued an \"Arbor Day Proclamation to the School Children of the United States\" about the importance of trees and that forestry deserves to be taught in U.S. schools. Pinchot wrote McCreight, \"we shall all be indebted to you for having made the suggestion.\"\n", "Arbor Day in Algeria\n\n=== Australia ===\nNational Schools Tree Day is held on the last Friday of July for schools and National Tree Day the last Sunday in July throughout Australia. Many states have Arbor Day although only Victoria has Arbor Week, which was suggested by Premier Dick Hamer in the 1980s. Arbor Day has been observed in Australia since 20 June 1889.\n\n=== Belgium ===\nInternational Day of Treeplanting is celebrated in Flanders on or around 21 March as a theme-day/educational-day/observance, not as public holidays. Tree planting is sometimes combined with awareness campaigns of the fight against cancer: ''Kom Op Tegen Kanker''.\n\n=== Brazil ===\nThe Arbor Day (Dia da Árvore) is celebrated on September 21. It's not a national holiday. However, schools nationwide celebrate this day with environment-related activities, namely tree planting.\n\n=== British Virgin Islands ===\nArbour Day is celebrated on November 22. It is sponsored by the National Parks Trust of the Virgin Islands. Activities include an annual national Arbour Day Poetry Competition and tree planting ceremonies throughout the territory.\n\n=== Cambodia ===\nCambodia celebrates Arbor Day on July 9 with a tree planting ceremony attended by the king.\n\n=== Canada ===\nFounded by Sir George W. Ross, later the Premier of Ontario, when he was Minister of Education in Ontario (1883-1899). According to the Ontario Teachers' Manuals \"History of Education\" (1915), Ross established both Arbor Day and Empire Day -- \"the former to give the school children an interest in making and keeping the school grounds attractive, and the latter to inspire the children with a spirit of patriotism\" (p.222). This predates the claimed founding of the day by Don Clark of Schomberg, Ontario for his wife Margret Clark in 1906. In Canada, National Forest Week is the last full week of September, and National Tree Day (Maple Leaf Day) falls on the Wednesday of that week. Ontario celebrates Arbour Week from the last Friday in April to the first Sunday in May. Prince Edward Island celebrates Arbour Day on the third Friday in May during Arbor Week. Arbor Day is the longest running civic greening project in Calgary and is celebrated on the first Thursday in May. On this day, each grade 1 student in Calgary's schools receives a tree seedling to be taken home to be planted on private property.\n\n=== Central African Republic ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is on July 20.\n\n=== China ===\nIn 1981, the fourth session of the Fifth National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China adopted the Resolution on the Unfolding of a Nationwide Voluntary Tree-planting Campaign. This resolution established the Arbor Day () and stipulated that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 should plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in seedling, cultivation, tree tending or other services. Supporting documentation instructs all units to report population statistics to the local afforestation committees as the basis for workload allocation. The People's Republic of China celebrates Arbor Day on March 12, a day founded by Lin Daoyang, continue to use following the date of Arbor Day of Republic of China.\n\n=== Costa Rica ===\n\"Día del Árbol\" is on June 15.\n\n=== Czech Republic ===\nArbor Day in the Czech Republic is celebrated on October 20. \n\n=== Egypt ===\nArbor Day is on January 15.\n\n=== Germany ===\nArbor Day (\"Tag des Baumes\") is on 25 April. First celebration was in 1952.\n\n=== India ===\nVan Mahotsav is an annual pan-Indian tree planting festival, occupying a week in the month of July. During this event millions of trees are planted. It was initiated in 1950 by K. M. Munshi, the then Union Minister for Agriculture and Food to create an enthusiasm in the mind of the populace for the conservation of forests and planting of trees.\n\nThe name Van Mahotsava (the festival of trees) originated in July 1947 after a successful tree-planting drive was undertaken in Delhi, in which national leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr Rajendra Prasad and Abul Kalam Azad participated. Paryawaran Sachetak Samiti, a leading environmental organization conducts mass events & concrete activities on this special day celebration each year. The week was simultaneously celebrated in a number of states in the country.\n\n=== Iran ===\nPresident of Iran, Hassan Rouhani, planting a tree on 2016 Arbor Day\nIn Iran, it is known as \"National Tree Planting Day\". By Solar Hijri calendar, it is on the fifteenth day of month Esfand which usually corresponds with 5 March. This day is the first day of the \"Natural Recyclable Resources Week\" (March 5 to 12).\n\nThis is the time in which the saplings of the all kinds in terms of different climates of different parts of Iran would be shared among the people. They also are going to be taught the ways of planting trees.\n\n=== Israel ===\nTu Bishvat, Israel\nThe Jewish holiday Tu Bishvat, the new year for trees, is on the 15th day of the month of Shvat, which usually falls in January or February. Originally based on the date used to calculate the age of fruit trees for tithing as mandated in Leviticus 19:23–25, the holiday now is most often observed by planting trees, or raising money to plant trees and by eating fruit, specifically grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives and dates. Tu Bishvat is a semi official holiday in Israel, schools are open but Hebrew speaking schools will often go on tree planting excursions.\n\n=== Japan ===\nJapan celebrates a similarly themed Greenery Day, held on May 4. Although it has a similar theme to Arbor Day, its roots lie in celebration of the birthday of Emperor Hirohito.\n\n=== Kenya ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is on April 21. Often people plant palm trees and coconut trees along the Indian Ocean that borders the East coast of Kenya.\n\n=== Korea ===\n\n\nNorth Korea marks \"Tree Planting Day\" on March 2, when people across the country plant trees. This day is considered to combine traditional Asian cultural values with those of the country's dominant Communist ideology.\n\nIn South Korea, April 5th, Arbor Day (Sikmogil, 식목일), was a public holiday until 2005. Even though Sikmogil is no longer an official holiday, the day is still celebrated, with the South Korean public continuing to take part in tree-planting activities.\n\n=== Lesotho ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is usually on March 21 depending on the lunar cycle.\n\n=== Luxembourg ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is on the second Saturday in November.\n\n=== Republic of Congo ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is on November 6.\n\n=== Republic of Macedonia ===\nHaving in mind the bad condition of the forest fund, and in particular the catastrophic wildfires which occurred in the summer of 2007, a citizen's initiative for afforestation was started in the Republic of Macedonia. The campaign by the name 'Tree Day-Plant Your Future' was first organized on 12 March 2008, when an official non-working day was declared and more than 150,000 Macedonians planted 2 million trees in one day (symbolically, one for each citizen). Six million more were planted in November the same year, and another 12,5 million trees in 2009. This has been established as a tradition and takes place every year.\n\n=== Malawi ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is on the 2nd Monday of December.\n\n=== Mexico ===\nPresident Enrique Peña Nieto plants a tree in Balleza, Chihuahua to commemorate the ''Día del Árbol'' 2013.\nThe ''Día del Árbol'' was established in Mexico in 1959 with President Adolfo López Mateos issuing a decree that it should be observed on the 2nd Thursday of July.\n\n=== Mongolia ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is on the 2nd Saturday of May and October. It is first National Tree Planting Day was celebrated on 2010-05-08\n\n=== Namibia ===\nIts first Arbor Day was celebrated on October 8, 2004. It takes place annually on the second Friday of October.\n\n===Netherlands===\nSince conference and of the Food and Agriculture Organization's publication ''World Festival of Trees'', and a resolution of the United Nations in 1954: \"The Conference, recognising the need of arousing mass consciousness of the aesthetic, physical and economic value of trees, recommends a World Festival of Trees to be celebrated annually in each member country on a date suited to local conditions\"; it has been adopted by the Netherlands. In 1957, the National Committee Day of Planting Trees/Foundation of National Festival of Trees (''Nationale Boomplantdag''/''Nationale Boomfeestdag'') was created.\n\nOn the third Wednesday in March each year (near the spring equinox), three quarters of Dutch schoolchildren aged 10/11 and Dutch celebrities plant trees. Stichting Nationale Boomfeestdag organizes all the activities in the Netherlands for this day. Some municipalities however plant the trees around 21 September because of the planting season.\n\nIn 2007, the 50th anniversary was celebrated with special golden jubilee-activities.\n\n=== New Zealand ===\nNew Zealand’s first Arbor Day planting was on 3 July 1890 at Greytown, in the Wairarapa. The first official celebration will take place in Wellington in August 2012, with the planting of pohutukawa and Norfolk pines along Thorndon Esplanade.\n\nBorn in 1855, Dr Leonard Cockayne (generally recognised as the greatest botanist who has lived, worked, and died in New Zealand) worked extensively on native plants throughout New Zealand and wrote many notable botanical texts. Even as early as the 1920s he held a vision for school students of New Zealand to be involved in planting native trees and plants in their school grounds. This vision bore fruit and schools in New Zealand have long planted native trees on '''Arbor Day'''.\n\nSince 1977, New Zealand has celebrated Arbor Day on June 5, which is also World Environment Day, prior to then Arbor Day, in New Zealand, was celebrated on August 4 – which is rather late in the year for tree planting in New Zealand hence the date change.\n\nWhat the Department of Conservation (DOC) does for Arbor Day:\nMany of DOC's Arbor Day activities focus on ecological restoration projects using native plants to restore habitats that have been damaged or destroyed by humans or invasive pests and weeds. There are great restoration projects underway around New Zealand and many organisations including community groups, landowners, conservation organisations, iwi, volunteers, schools, local businesses, nurseries and councils are involved in them. These projects are part of a vision to protect and restore the indigenous biodiversity.\n\n=== Niger ===\nSince 1975, Niger has celebrated Arbor Day as part of its Independence Day: 3 August. On this day, aiding the fight against desertification, each Nigerien plants a tree.\n\n=== Pakistan ===\nNational tree plantation day of Pakistan ( قومی شجر کاری دن ) is celebrated on 18 August.\n\n=== Philippines ===\nSince 1947, Arbor Day in the Philippines has been institutionalized to be observed throughout the nation by planting trees and ornamental plants and other forms of relevant activities. \nArbor Day in the Philippines has been commemorated in the Philippines since 1947 when its practice was instituted through Proclamation No. 30. It was subsequently revised by Proclamation No. 41, issued in the same year. In 1955, the commemoration was extended from a day to a week and was moved to the last full week of July. Over two decades later, its commemoration was moved to the second week of June. In 2003, the commemorations were reduced from a week to a day and was moved to June 25 per Proclamation No. 396. The same proclamation directed \"the active participation of all government agencies, including government-owned and controlled corporations, private sector, schools, civil society groups and the citizenry in tree planting activity\". It was subsequently revised by Proclamation 643 in the succeeding year.\n\nIn 2012, Republic Act 10176 was passed, which revived tree planting events \"as a yearly event for local government units\". Since 2012, many local arbor day celebrations have been commemorated, as in the cases of Natividad and Tayug in Pangasinan and Santa Rita in Pampanga.\n\n=== Poland ===\nIn Poland, Arbor Day is celebrated since 2002. Each year, on October 10. lots of Polish people plant trees as well as participate in events organized by ecological foundations. Moreover, Polish Forest Inspectorates and schools give special lectures and lead ecological awareness campaigns.\n\n=== Portugal ===\nArbor Day is celebrated on March 21. It's not a national holiday but instead schools nationwide celebrate this day with environment-related activities, namely tree planting.\n\n===Russia===\nAll-russian day of forest plantation was celebrated first time on 14 May 2011. Now it is held in april-may (it depends on the weather in different regions). \n\n===Samoa===\nArbor Day in Samoa is celebrated on the first Friday in November. \n\n=== South Africa ===\nArbor Day was celebrated from 1945 until 2000 in South Africa, after that, the national government extended it to National Arbor Week, which lasts annually from 1–7 September. Two trees, one common and one rare, are highlighted to increase public awareness of indigenous trees, while various \"greening\" activities are undertaken by schools, businesses and other organizations.\n\n=== Spain ===\nPlanting holm oaks in Pescueza\nIn Spain is usually held on the International Forest Day on 21 March, but following the 1915 decree spirit that forced to celebrate the Arbor Day throughout Spain, each municipality or collective decides the date for its Arbor Day, usually between February and May. In Villanueva de la Sierra (Extremadura), where the first Arbor Day in the world was held in 1805, it is celebrated, as on that occasion, on Tuesday Carnaval. It is a great day in the local festive calendar.\n\nAs an example of commitment to nature, the small town of Pescueza, with only 180 inhabitants, organizes every spring a large plantation of holm oaks, which is called the \"Festivalino\" promoted by city council, several foundations and citizen participation where several thousand people together repopulates naked lands and regaining life. All wrapped up in a fun party atmosphere, joy, music and renew.\n\n=== Sri Lanka ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is on November 15.\n\n=== Taiwan ===\nArbor Day (植樹節) has been a traditional holiday in the '''Republic of China''' since 1927. In 1914, the founder of the agricultural college at Nanking University suggested to the now-defunct Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry that China should imitate the practice in the United States of Arbor Day. The holiday would be held the same day as the Qingming Festival. However, for unknown reasons, the suggestion was not made through the formal process, so nothing came from this original request. After the successful conclusion of the Northern Expedition, the now-defunct Ministry of Agriculture and Minerals formally petitioned the Executive Yuan to establish Arbor Day to commemorate the passing of Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the Father of Modern China. He had been a major advocate of afforestation in his life, because it would increase people's livelihoods. The Executive Yuan approved Arbor Day in the spirit of Dr. Sun that year and has since been celebrated on March 12 for this purpose.\n\n=== Tanzania ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is on April 1\n\n=== Uganda ===\nNational Tree Planting Day is on March 24.\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\nFirst mounted in 1975, National Tree Week is a celebration of the start of the winter tree planting season. Around a million trees are planted each year by schools, community organizations and local authorities.\n\n=== United States of America ===\n\nArbor Day community festival in Rochester, Minnesota\nArbor Day was founded in 1872 by J. Sterling Morton in Nebraska City, Nebraska. By the 1920s, each state in the United States had passed public laws that stipulated a certain day to be Arbor Day or ''Arbor and Bird Day'' observance.\n\nNational Arbor Day is celebrated every year on the last Friday in April; it is a civic holiday in Nebraska. Other states have selected the time of year in which to celebrate their own Arbor Day.\n\nThe customary observance is to plant a tree. On the first Arbor Day, April 10, 1872, an estimated one million trees were planted.\n\n=== Venezuela ===\nVenezuela recognizes ''Día del Arbol'' (Day of the Tree) on the last Sunday of May.\n\n", "\n* Arbor Day Foundation (USA)\n* Earth Day\n* Greenery Day (Japan)\n* International Day of Forests\n* National Public Lands Day (USA)\n* Timeline of environmental events\n* Tu BiShvat\n* World Water Day\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* International Arbor Days\n* History of Arbor Day\n* Arbor Day Lesson Plans for the Classroom\n* National Arbor Day Foundation\n* State Arbor Days and state trees\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n \n\n\n \n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Origins ", " Around the world ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Arbor Day
[ "\n\n\n'''Sir Alfred Jules''' \"'''Freddie'''\" '''Ayer''', FBA (; 29 October 1910 – 27 June 1989), usually cited as '''A. J. Ayer''', was a British philosopher known for his promotion of logical positivism, particularly in his books ''Language, Truth, and Logic'' (1936) and ''The Problem of Knowledge'' (1956).\n\nHe was educated at Eton College and Oxford University, after which he studied the philosophy of logical positivism at the University of Vienna. From 1933 to 1940 he lectured on philosophy at Christ Church, Oxford.\n\nDuring the Second World War Ayer was a Special Operations Executive and MI6 agent.\n\nHe was Grote Professor of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at University College London from 1946 until 1959, after which he returned to Oxford to become Wykeham Professor of Logic at New College. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1951 to 1952 and knighted in 1970.\n", "Ayer was born in St John's Wood, in north west London, to a wealthy family from continental Europe. His mother, Reine Citroën, was from the Dutch-Jewish family who founded the Citroën car company in France. His father, Jules Ayer, was a Swiss Calvinist financier who worked for the Rothschild family.\n\nAyer was educated at Ascham St Vincent's School, a former boarding preparatory school for boys in the seaside town of Eastbourne in Sussex, in which he started boarding at the comparatively early age of seven for reasons to do with the First World War, and Eton College, a boarding school in Eton (near Windsor) in Berkshire. It was at Eton that Ayer first became known for his characteristic bravado and precocity. Although primarily interested in furthering his intellectual pursuits, he was very keen on sports, particularly rugby, and reputedly played the Eton Wall Game very well. In the final examinations at Eton, Ayer came second in his year, and first in classics. In his final year, as a member of Eton's senior council, he unsuccessfully campaigned for the abolition of corporal punishment at the school. He won a classics scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford.\n\nAfter graduation from Oxford University Ayer spent a year in Vienna, returned to England and published his first book, ''Language, Truth and Logic'' in 1936. The first exposition in English of Logical Positivism as newly developed by the Vienna Circle, this made Ayer at age 26 the 'enfant terrible' of British philosophy. In the Second World War he served as an officer in the Welsh Guards, chiefly in intelligence (Special Operations Executive (SOE) and MI6). Ayer was commissioned second lieutenant into the Welsh Guards from Officer Cadet Training Unit on 21 September 1940.\n\nAfter the war he briefly returned to Oxford University where he became a fellow and Dean of Wadham College. He thereafter taught philosophy at London University from 1946 until 1959, when he also started to appear on radio and television. He was an extrovert and social mixer who liked dancing and attending the clubs in London and New York. He was also obsessed with sport: he had played rugby for Eton, and was a noted cricketer and a keen supporter of the Tottenham Hotspur football team. For an academic, Ayer was an unusually well-connected figure in his time, with close links to 'high society' and the establishment. Presiding over Oxford high-tables, he is often described as charming, but at times he could also be intimidating.\n\nAyer was married four times to three women. His first marriage was from 1932–1941 to (Grace Isabel) Renée (d. 1980), who subsequently married philosopher Stuart Hampshire, Ayer's friend and colleague. In 1960 he married Alberta Constance (Dee) Wells, with whom he had one son. Ayer's marriage to Wells was dissolved in 1983 and that same year he married Vanessa Salmon, former wife of politician Nigel Lawson. She died in 1985 and in 1989 he remarried Dee Wells, who survived him. Ayer also had a daughter with Hollywood columnist Sheilah Graham Westbrook.\n\nFrom 1959 to his retirement in 1978, Sir Alfred held the Wykeham Chair, Professor of Logic at Oxford. He was knighted in 1970.\n\nAyer died on 27 June 1989. From 1980 to 1989, Ayer lived at 51 York Street, Marylebone, where a memorial plaque was unveiled on 19 November 1995.\n", "In ''Language, Truth and Logic'' (1936), Ayer presents the verification principle as the only valid basis for philosophy. Unless logical or empirical verification is possible, statements like \"God exists\" or \"charity is good\" are not true or untrue but meaningless, and may thus be excluded or ignored. Religious language in particular was unverifiable and as such literally nonsense. He also criticises C. A. Mace's opinion that metaphysics is a form of intellectual poetry. The stance of a person who believes \"God\" denotes no verifiable hypothesis is sometimes referred to as igtheism (for example, by Paul Kurtz). In later years Ayer reiterated that he did not believe in God and began to refer to himself as an atheist. He followed in the footsteps of Bertrand Russell by debating with the Jesuit scholar Frederick Copleston on the topic of religion.\n\nAyer's version of emotivism divides \"the ordinary system of ethics\" into four classes:\n#\"Propositions that express definitions of ethical terms, or judgements about the legitimacy or possibility of certain definitions\"\n#\"Propositions describing the phenomena of moral experience, and their causes\"\n#\"Exhortations to moral virtue\"\n#\"Actual ethical judgments\"\nHe focuses on propositions of the first class—moral judgments—saying that those of the second class belong to science, those of the third are mere commands, and those of the fourth (which are considered in normative ethics as opposed to meta-ethics) are too concrete for ethical philosophy.\n\nAyer argues that moral judgments cannot be translated into non-ethical, empirical terms and thus cannot be verified; in this he agrees with ethical intuitionists. But he differs from intuitionists by discarding appeals to intuition of non-empirical moral truths as \"worthless\" since the intuition of one person often contradicts that of another. Instead, Ayer concludes that ethical concepts are \"mere pseudo-concepts\":\n\n\n\nBetween 1945 and 1947, together with Russell and George Orwell, he contributed a series of articles to ''Polemic'', a short-lived British \"Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics\" edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater.\n\nAyer was closely associated with the British humanist movement. He was an Honorary Associate of the Rationalist Press Association from 1947 until his death. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1963. In 1965, he became the first president of the Agnostics' Adoption Society and in the same year succeeded Julian Huxley as president of the British Humanist Association, a post he held until 1970. In 1968 he edited ''The Humanist Outlook'', a collection of essays on the meaning of humanism. In addition he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.\n\nHe taught or lectured several times in the United States, including serving as a visiting professor at Bard College in the fall of 1987. At a party that same year held by fashion designer Fernando Sanchez, Ayer, then 77, confronted Mike Tyson who was forcing himself upon the (then) little-known model Naomi Campbell. When Ayer demanded that Tyson stop, the boxer said: \"Do you know who the fuck I am? I'm the heavyweight champion of the world,\" to which Ayer replied: \"And I am the former Wykeham Professor of Logic. We are both pre-eminent in our field. I suggest that we talk about this like rational men\". Ayer and Tyson then began to talk, while Naomi Campbell slipped out.\n\n=== Near-death experience ===\nIn 1988, shortly before his death, Ayer wrote an article entitled, \"What I saw when I was dead\", describing an unusual near-death experience. Of the experience, Ayer first said that it \"slightly weakened my conviction that my genuine death ... will be the end of me, though I continue to hope that it will be.\" However, a few days later he revised this, saying \"what I should have said is that my experiences have weakened, not my belief that there is no life after death, but my inflexible attitude towards that belief\".\n\nIn 2001 Dr Jeremy George, the attending physician, claimed that Ayer had confided to him: \"I saw a Divine Being. I'm afraid I'm going to have to revise all my books and opinions.\" Ayer's son Nick, however, said that he had never mentioned this to him though he did find his father's words to be extraordinary, and said he had long felt there was something possibly suspect about his father's version of his near death experience.\n", "Ayer is best known for popularising the verification principle, in particular through his presentation of it in ''Language, Truth, and Logic'' (1936). The principle was at the time at the heart of the debates of the so-called Vienna Circle which Ayer visited as a young guest. Others, including the leading light of the circle, Moritz Schlick, were already offering their own papers on the issue. Ayer's own formulation was that a sentence can only be meaningful if it has verifiable empirical import, otherwise it is either \"analytical\" if tautologous, or \"metaphysical\" (i.e. meaningless, or \"literally senseless\"). He started to work on the book at the age of 23 and it was published when he was 26. Ayer's philosophical ideas were deeply influenced by those of the Vienna Circle and David Hume. His clear, vibrant and polemical exposition of them makes ''Language, Truth and Logic'' essential reading on the tenets of logical empiricism– the book is regarded as a classic of 20th century analytic philosophy, and is widely read in philosophy courses around the world. In it, Ayer also proposed that the distinction between a conscious man and an unconscious machine resolves itself into a distinction between 'different types of perceptible behaviour', an argument which anticipates the Turing test published in 1950 to test a machine's capability to demonstrate intelligence.\n\nAyer wrote two books on the philosopher Bertrand Russell, ''Russell and Moore: The Analytic Heritage'' (1971) and ''Russell'' (1972). He also wrote an introductory book on the philosophy of David Hume and a short biography of Voltaire.\n\nAyer was a strong critic of the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. As a logical positivist Ayer was in conflict with Heidegger's proposed vast, overarching theories regarding existence. These he felt were completely unverifiable through empirical demonstration and logical analysis. This sort of philosophy was an unfortunate strain in modern thought. He considered Heidegger to be the worst example of such philosophy, which Ayer believed to be entirely useless.\n\nIn 1972–1973 Ayer gave the Gifford Lectures at University of St Andrews, later published as ''The Central Questions of Philosophy''. In the preface to the book, he defends his selection to hold the lectureship on the basis that Lord Gifford wished to promote '\"Natural Theology\", in the widest sense of that term', and that non-believers are allowed to give the lectures if they are \"able reverent men, true thinkers, sincere lovers of and earnest inquirers after truth\". He still believed in the viewpoint he shared with the logical positivists: that large parts of what was traditionally called \"philosophy\"– including the whole of metaphysics, theology and aesthetics– were not matters that could be judged as being true or false and that it was thus meaningless to discuss them.\n\nIn \"The Concept of a Person and Other Essays\" (1963), Ayer heavily criticized Wittgenstein's private language argument.\n\nAyer's sense-data theory in ''Foundations of Empirical Knowledge'' was famously criticised by fellow Oxonian J. L. Austin in ''Sense and Sensibilia'', a landmark 1950s work of common language philosophy. Ayer responded to this in the essay \"Has Austin Refuted the Sense-data Theory?\", which can be found in his ''Metaphysics and Common Sense'' (1969).\n", "He was awarded a Knighthood as Knight Bachelor in the London Gazette on 1 January 1970.\n", "* 1936, ''Language, Truth, and Logic'', London: Gollancz. (2nd edition, 1946.) Reprinted 2001 with a new introduction, London: Penguin. \n* 1940, ''The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge'', London: Macmillan. \n* 1954, ''Philosophical Essays'', London: Macmillan. (Essays on freedom, phenomenalism, basic propositions, utilitarianism, other minds, the past, ontology.) \n* 1957, \"The conception of probability as a logical relation\", in S. Korner, ed., ''Observation and Interpretation in the Philosophy of Physics'', New York, N.Y.: Dover Publications.\n* 1956, ''The Problem of Knowledge'', London: Macmillan. \n* 1963, ''The Concept of a Person and Other Essays'', London: Macmillan. (Essays on truth, privacy and private languages, laws of nature, the concept of a person, probability.) \n* 1967, \"Has Austin Refuted the Sense-Data Theory?\" ''Synthese'' vol. XVIII, pp. 117–140. (Reprinted in Ayer 1969).\n* 1968, ''The Origins of Pragmatism'', London: Macmillan. \n* 1969, ''Metaphysics and Common Sense'', London: Macmillan. (Essays on knowledge, man as a subject for science, chance, philosophy and politics, existentialism, metaphysics, and a reply to Austin on sense-data theory Ayer 1967.) \n* 1971, ''Russell and Moore: The Analytical Heritage'', London: Macmillan. \n* 1972, ''Probability and Evidence'', London: Macmillan. \n* 1972, ''Russell'', London: Fontana Modern Masters. \n* 1973, ''The Central Questions of Philosophy'', London: Weidenfeld. \n* 1977, ''Part of My Life'', London: Collins. \n* 1979, \"Replies\", in G. Macdonald, ed., ''Perception and Identity: Essays Presented to A. J. Ayer, With His Replies'', London: Macmillan; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.\n* 1980, ''Hume'', Oxford: Oxford University Press\n* 1982, ''Philosophy in the Twentieth Century'', London: Weidenfeld.\n* 1984, ''Freedom and Morality and Other Essays'', Oxford: Clarendon Press.\n* 1986, ''Ludwig Wittgenstein'', London: Penguin.\n* 1984, ''More of My Life'', London: Collins.\n* 1988, ''Thomas Paine'', London: Secker & Warburg.\n* 1989, \"That undiscovered country\", ''New Humanist'', Vol. 104 (1), May, pp. 10–13.\n* 1990, ''The Meaning of Life and Other Essays'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson.\n* 1992, ''The Philosophy of A.J. Ayer (The Library of Living Philosophers Volume XXI)'', edited by Lewis Edwin Hahn, Open Court Publishing Co.\n", "* ''A priori'' knowledge\n", "\n", "* Ayer, A.J. (1989). \"That undiscovered country\", ''New Humanist'', Vol. 104 (1), May, pp. 10–13.\n* Rogers, Ben (1999). ''A.J. Ayer: A Life''. New York: Grove Press. . ( Chapter one and a review by Hilary Spurling, ''The New York Times'', 24 December 2000.)\n\n", " Ted Honderich, Ayer's Philosophy and its Greatness.\n* Anthony Quinton, Alfred Jules Ayer. ''Proceedings of the British Academy'', '''94''' (1996), pp. 255–282.\n* Graham Macdonald, Alfred Jules Ayer, ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 7 May 2005.\n* \n", "\n* Ayer's essay 'What I Saw When I was Dead'\n* Ayer's Elizabeth Rathbone Lecture on Philosophy & Politics\n* Ayer entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n* A.J. Ayer at Philosophy\n* A.J. Ayer: Out of time by Alex Callinicos\n* \n* Appearance on Desert Island Discs - 3 August 1984\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Life ", " Philosophical ideas ", " Works ", " Awards ", " Selected publications ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	A. J. Ayer
[ "\n\n\n\n'''André Weil''' (; ; 6 May 1906 – 6 August 1998) was an influential French mathematician of the 20th century, known for his foundational work in number theory and algebraic geometry. He was a founding member and the ''de facto'' early leader of the Bourbaki group. The philosopher Simone Weil was his sister.\n", "André Weil was born in Paris to agnostic Alsatian Jewish parents who fled the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by the German Empire after the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71. The famous philosopher Simone Weil was Weil's only sibling. He studied in Paris, Rome and Göttingen and received his doctorate in 1928. While in Germany, Weil befriended Carl Ludwig Siegel. Starting in 1930, he spent two academic years at Aligarh Muslim University. Aside from mathematics, Weil held lifelong interests in classical Greek and Latin literature, in Hinduism and Sanskrit literature: he taught himself Sanskrit in 1920. After teaching for one year in Aix-Marseille University, he taught for six years in Strasbourg. He married Éveline in 1937.\n\nWeil was in Finland when World War II broke out; he had been traveling in Scandinavia since April 1939. His wife Éveline returned to France without him. Weil was mistakenly arrested in Finland at the outbreak of the Winter War on suspicion of spying; however, accounts of his life having been in danger were shown to be exaggerated. Weil returned to France via Sweden and the United Kingdom, and was detained at Le Havre in January 1940. He was charged with failure to report for duty, and was imprisoned in Le Havre and then Rouen. It was in the military prison in Bonne-Nouvelle, a district of Rouen, from February to May, that Weil completed the work that made his reputation. He was tried on 3 May 1940. Sentenced to five years, he requested to be attached to a military unit instead, and was given the chance to join a regiment in Cherbourg. After the fall of France, he met up with his family in Marseille, where he arrived by sea. He then went to Clermont-Ferrand, where he managed to join his wife Éveline, who had been living in German-occupied France.\n\nIn January 1941, Weil and his family sailed from Marseille to New York. He spent the remainder of the war in the United States, where he was supported by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Guggenheim Foundation. For two years, he taught undergraduate mathematics at Lehigh University, where he was unappreciated, overworked and poorly paid, although he didn't have to worry about being drafted, unlike his American students. But, he hated Lehigh very much for their heavy teaching workload and he swore that he would never talk about \"Lehigh\" any more. He quit the job at Lehigh, and then he moved to Brazil and taught at the Universidade de São Paulo from 1945 to 1947, where he worked with Oscar Zariski. He then returned to the United States and taught at the University of Chicago from 1947 to 1958, before moving to the Institute for Advanced Study, where he would spend the remainder of his career. He was a Plenary Speaker at the ICM in 1950 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1954 in Amsterdam, and in 1978 in Helsinki. In 1979, Weil shared the second Wolf Prize in Mathematics with Jean Leray.\n", "Weil made substantial contributions in a number of areas, the most important being his discovery of profound connections between algebraic geometry and number theory. This began in his doctoral work leading to the Mordell–Weil theorem (1928, and shortly applied in Siegel's theorem on integral points). Mordell's theorem had an ''ad hoc'' proof; Weil began the separation of the infinite descent argument into two types of structural approach, by means of height functions for sizing rational points, and by means of Galois cohomology, which would not be categorized as such for another two decades. Both aspects of Weil's work have steadily developed into substantial theories.\n\nAmong his major accomplishments were the 1940s proof of the Riemann hypothesis for zeta-functions of curves over finite fields, and his subsequent laying of proper foundations for algebraic geometry to support that result (from 1942 to 1946, most intensively). The so-called Weil conjectures were hugely influential from around 1950; these statements were later proved by Bernard Dwork, Alexander Grothendieck, Michael Artin, and finally by Pierre Deligne, who completed the most difficult step in 1973.\n\nWeil introduced the adele ring in the late 1930s, following Claude Chevalley's lead with the ideles, and gave a proof of the Riemann–Roch theorem with them (a version appeared in his ''Basic Number Theory'' in 1967). His 'matrix divisor' (vector bundle ''avant la lettre'') Riemann–Roch theorem from 1938 was a very early anticipation of later ideas such as moduli spaces of bundles. The Weil conjecture on Tamagawa numbers proved resistant for many years. Eventually the adelic approach became basic in automorphic representation theory. He picked up another credited ''Weil conjecture'', around 1967, which later under pressure from Serge Lang (resp. of Serre) became known as the Taniyama–Shimura conjecture (resp. Taniyama–Weil conjecture) based on a roughly formulated question of Taniyama at the 1955 Nikkō conference. His attitude towards conjectures was that one should not dignify a guess as a conjecture lightly, and in the Taniyama case, the evidence was only there after extensive computational work carried out from the late 1960s.\n\nOther significant results were on Pontryagin duality and differential geometry. He introduced the concept of a uniform space in general topology, as a by-product of his collaboration with Nicolas Bourbaki (of which he was a Founding Father). His work on sheaf theory hardly appears in his published papers, but correspondence with Henri Cartan in the late 1940s, and reprinted in his collected papers, proved most influential.\n\nHe discovered that the so-called Weil representation, previously introduced in quantum mechanics by Irving Segal and Shale, gave a contemporary framework for understanding the classical theory of quadratic forms. This was also a beginning of a substantial development by others, connecting representation theory and theta functions.\n\nHe also wrote several books on the history of Number Theory. Weil was elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1966.\n", "Weil's ideas made an important contribution to the writings and seminars of Bourbaki, before and after World War II.\n\nHe says on page 114 of his autobiography that he was responsible for the null set symbol (Ø) and that it came from the Norwegian alphabet, which he alone among the Bourbaki group was familiar with.\n", "\nIndian (Hindu) thought had great influence on Weil. Although he was an agnostic, he respected religions.\n", "Mathematical works:\n''Arithmétique et géométrie sur les variétés algébriques'' (1935)\n''Sur les espaces à structure uniforme et sur la topologie générale'' (1937)\n''L'intégration dans les groupes topologiques et ses applications'' (1940)\n\n''Sur les courbes algébriques et les variétés qui s’en déduisent'' (1948)\n''Variétés abéliennes et courbes algébriques'' (1948)\n''Introduction à l'étude des variétés kählériennes'' (1958)\n''Discontinuous subgroups of classical groups'' (1958) Chicago lecture notes\n\n''Dirichlet Series and Automorphic Forms, Lezioni Fermiane'' (1971) Lecture Notes in Mathematics, vol. 189,\n''Essais historiques sur la théorie des nombres'' (1975)\n ''Elliptic Functions According to Eisenstein and Kronecker'' (1976)\n''Number Theory for Beginners'' (1979) with Maxwell Rosenlicht\n''Adeles and Algebraic Groups'' (1982)\n* ''Number Theory: An Approach Through History From Hammurapi to Legendre'' (1984)\n\nCollected papers:\n''Œuvres Scientifiques, Collected Works, three volumes'' (1979)\n\n\n\n\nAutobiography:\nFrench: ''Souvenirs d’Apprentissage'' (1991) . Review in English by J. E. Cremona.\nEnglish translation: ''The Apprenticeship of a Mathematician'' (1992), Review by Veeravalli S. Varadarajan; Review by Saunders Mac Lane\n\nMemoir by his daughter:\n* ''At Home with André and Simone Weil'' by Sylvie Weil, translated by Benjamin Ivry; , Northwestern University Press, 2010.\n", "* List of things named after André Weil\n", "\n", "\n* André Weil, by A. Borel, Bull.AMS 46 (2009), 661-666.\n* André Weil: memorial articles in the Notices of AMS by Armand Borel, Pierre Cartier, Komaravolu Chandrasekharan, Shiing-Shen Chern, and Shokichi Iyanaga\n* Image of Weil\n* A 1940 Letter of André Weil on Analogy in Mathematics\n* \n* \n* Artless innocents and ivory-tower sophisticates: Some personalities on the Indian mathematical scene - M. S. Raghunathan\n* \n* La vie et l'oeuvre d'André Weil, by J-P. Serre, L'Ens. Math. 45 (1999),5-16.\n* Correspondence entre Henri Cartan et André Weil (1928-1991), par Michèle Audin, Doc. Math. 6, Soc. Math. France, 2011.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Work", "As expositor", "Beliefs", "Books", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	André Weil
[ "\n\n\n\nThe '''Achaeans''' (; ''Akhaioí,'' \"the Achaeans\" or \"of Achaea\") constitute one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer's ''Iliad'' (used 598 times) and ''Odyssey''. The other common names are '''Danaans''' (; ''Danaoi''; used 138 times in the ''Iliad'') and '''Argives''' (; ; used 182 times in the ''Iliad'') while '''Panhellenes''' ( ''Panhellenes,'' \"All of the Greeks\") and '''Hellenes''' (; ''Hellenes'') both appear only once; all of the aforementioned terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek civilizational identity. In the historical period, the '''Achaeans''' were the inhabitants of the region of Achaea, a region in the north-central part of the Peloponnese. The city-states of this region later formed a confederation known as the Achaean League, which was influential during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.\n", "The Homeric \"long-haired Achaeans\" would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from circa 1600 BC until 1100 BC. Later, by the Archaic and Classical periods, the term \"Achaeans\" referred to inhabitants of the much smaller region of Achaea. Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans. According to Pausanias, writing in the 2nd century CE, the term \"Achaean\" was originally given to those Greeks inhabiting the Argolis and Laconia.\n\nPausanias and Herodotus both recount the legend that the Achaeans were forced from their homelands by the Dorians, during the legendary Dorian invasion of the Peloponnese. They then moved into the region later called Achaea.\n\nA scholarly consensus has not yet been reached on the origin of the historic Achaeans relative to the Homeric Achaeans and is still hotly debated. Former emphasis on presumed race, such as John A. Scott's article about the blond locks of the Achaeans as compared to the dark locks of \"Mediterranean\" Poseidon, on the basis of hints in Homer, has been rejected by some. The contrasting belief that \"Achaeans\", as understood through Homer, is \"a name without a country\", an ''ethnos'' created in the Epic tradition, has modern supporters among those who conclude that \"Achaeans\" were redefined in the 5th century BC, as contemporary speakers of Aeolic Greek.\n\nKarl Beloch suggested there was no Dorian invasion, but rather that the Peloponnesian Dorians were the Achaeans. Eduard Meyer, disagreeing with Beloch, instead put forth the suggestion that the real-life Achaeans were mainland pre-Dorian Greeks. His conclusion is based on his research on the similarity between the languages of the Achaeans and pre-historic Arcadians. William Prentice disagreed with both, noting archeological evidence suggests the Achaeans instead migrated from \"southern Asia Minor to Greece, probably settling first in lower Thessaly\" probably prior to 2000 BC.\n", "Emil Forrer, a Swiss Hittitologist who worked on the Boghazköy tablets in Berlin, said the Achaeans of pre-Homeric Greece were directly associated with the term \"Land of Ahhiyawa\" mentioned in the Hittite texts. His conclusions at the time were challenged by other Hittitologists (i.e. Johannes Friedrich in 1927 and Albrecht Götze in 1930), as well as by Ferdinand Sommer, who published his ''Die Ahhijava-Urkunden'' (\"The Ahhiyawa Documents\") in 1932.\nMap showing the Hittite Empire, Ahhiyawa (Achaeans) and Wilusa (Troy) in c. 1300 BC.\n\nSome Hittite texts mention a nation lying to the west called '''''Ahhiyawa'''''. In the earliest reference to this land, a letter outlining the treaty violations of the Hittite vassal Madduwatta, it is called ''Ahhiya''. Another important example is the ''Tawagalawa Letter'' written by an unnamed Hittite king (most probably Hattusili III) of the empire period (14th–13th century BC) to the king of ''Ahhiyawa'', treating him as an equal and implying Miletus (''Millawanda'') was under his control. It also refers to an earlier \"''Wilusa'' episode\" involving hostility on the part of ''Ahhiyawa''. Ahhiya(wa) has been identified with the Achaeans of the Trojan War and the city of Wilusa with the legendary city of Troy (note the similarity with early Greek ''Wilion'', later ''Ilion'', the name of the acropolis of Troy). The exact relationship of the term ''Ahhiyawa'' to the Achaeans beyond a similarity in pronunciation was hotly debated by scholars, even following the discovery that Mycenaean Linear B is an early form of Greek; the earlier debate was summed up in 1984 by Hans G. Güterbock of the Oriental Institute. More recent research based on new readings and interpretations of the Hittite texts, as well as of the material evidence for Mycenaean contacts with the Anatolian mainland, came to the conclusion that ''Ahhiyawa'' referred to the Mycenaean world, or at least to a part of it.\n", "Map of Mycenaean cultural areas, 1400-1100 BC (unearthed sites in red dots).\nIt has been proposed that ''Ekwesh'' of the Egyptian records may relate to ''Achaea'' (compared to Hittite ''Ahhiyawa''), whereas ''Denyen'' and ''Tanaju'' may relate to Classical Greek ''Danaoi''. The earliest textual reference to the Mycenaean world is in the Annals of Thutmosis III (ca. 1479–1425 BC), which refers to messengers from the king of the Tanaju, circa 1437 BC, offering greeting gifts to the Egyptian king, in order to initiate diplomatic relations, when the latter campaigned in Syria. Tanaju is also listed in an inscription at the Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III. The latter ruled Egypt in circa 1382–1344 BC. Moreover, a list of the cities and regions of the Tanaju is also mentioned in this inscription; among the cities listed are Mycenae, Nauplion, Kythera, Messenia and the Thebaid (region of Thebes).\n\nDuring the 5th year of Pharaoh Merneptah, a confederation of Libyan and northern peoples is supposed to have attacked the western delta. Included amongst the ethnic names of the repulsed invaders is the Ekwesh or Eqwesh, whom some have seen as Achaeans, although Egyptian texts specifically mention these Ekwesh to be circumcised (which does not seem to have been a general practice in the Aegean at the time). Homer mentions an Achaean attack upon the delta, and Menelaus speaks of the same in Book IV of the ''Odyssey'' to Telemachus when he recounts his own return home from the Trojan War. Later Greek myths also say Helen had spent the time of the Trojan War in Egypt, and not at Troy, and that after Troy the Greeks went there to recover her.\n", "In Greek mythology, the perceived cultural divisions among the Hellenes were represented as legendary lines of descent that identified kinship groups, with each line being derived from an eponymous ancestor. Each of the Greek ''ethne'' were said to be named in honor of their respective ancestors: Achaeus of the Achaeans, Danaus of the Danaans, Cadmus of the Cadmeans (the Thebans), Hellen of the Hellenes (not to be confused with Helen of Troy), Aeolus of the Aeolians, Ion of the Ionians, and Dorus of the Dorians.\n\nCadmus from Phoenicia, Danaus from Egypt, and Pelops from Anatolia each gained a foothold in mainland Greece and were assimilated and Hellenized. Hellen, Graikos, Magnes, and Macedon were sons of Deucalion and Pyrrha, the only people who survived the Great Flood; the ''ethne'' were said to have originally been named ''Graikoi'' after the elder son but later renamed ''Hellenes'' after Hellen who was proved to be the strongest. Sons of Hellen and the nymph Orseis were Dorus, Xuthos, and Aeolus. Sons of Xuthos and Kreousa, daughter of Erechthea, were Ion and Achaeus.\n\nAccording to Hyginus, 22 Achaeans killed 362 Trojans during their ten years at Troy.\n\n===Genealogy of the Argives===\n\n\n\n", "According to Margalit Finkelberg, the name Ἀχαιοί/Ἀχαιϝοί is derived from Hittite ''Aḫḫiyawā''. However, Robert S. P. Beekes doubted the validity of this derivation and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form ''Akaywa-''.\nThe etymology of ''Danaoi'' is uncertain; according to Beekes \"the name is certainly Pre-Greek\".\n", "Achaea (modern province)\nAchaea (Roman province)\nAchaean League\nAchaean Federation\nAegean civilization\nDenyen\nHistoricity of the Iliad\nHomer\nMycenaean Greece\nMycenaean language\nMilitary of Mycenaean Greece\nTroy\n", "\n===Citations===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n", "\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Homeric versus later use", "Hittite documents", "Egyptian sources", "Greek mythology", "Etymology", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Achaeans (Homer)
[ "\n\n'''Atle Selberg''' (14 June 1917 – 6 August 2007) was a Norwegian mathematician known for his work in analytic number theory, and in the theory of automorphic forms, in particular bringing them into relation with spectral theory. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1950.\n", "Selberg was born in Langesund, Norway, the son of teacher Anna Kristina Selberg and mathematician Ole Michael Ludvigsen Selberg. Two of his brothers also went on to become mathematicians as well, and the remaining one became a professor of engineering. \n\nWhile he was still at school he was influenced by the work of Srinivasa Ramanujan and he found an exact analytical formula for the partition function as suggested by the works of Ramanujan; however, this result was first published by Hans Rademacher. During the war he fought against the German invasion of Norway, and was imprisoned several times. \nHe studied at the University of Oslo and completed his Ph.D. in 1943.\n", "During World War II, Selberg worked in isolation due to the German occupation of Norway. After the war his accomplishments became known, including a proof that a positive proportion of the zeros of the Riemann zeta function lie on the line . \n \nAfter the war, he turned to sieve theory, a previously neglected topic which Selberg's work brought into prominence. In a 1947 paper he introduced the Selberg sieve, a method well adapted in particular to providing auxiliary upper bounds, and which contributed to Chen's theorem, among other important results.\n\nIn 1948 Selberg submitted two papers in ''Annals of Mathematics'' in which he proved by elementary means the theorems for primes in arithmetic progression and the density of primes. This challenged the widely held view of his time that certain theorems are only obtainable with the advanced methods of complex analysis. Both results were based on his work on the asymptotic formula\n:\nwhere\n:\nfor primes . He established this result by elementary means in March 1948, and by July of that year, Selberg and Paul Erdős each obtained elementary proofs of the prime number theorem, both using the asymptotic formula above as a starting point. Circumstances leading up to the proofs, as well as publication disagreements, led to a bitter dispute between the two mathematicians.\n\nFor his fundamental accomplishments during the 1940s, Selberg received the 1950 Fields Medal.\n", "Selberg moved to the United States and settled at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey in the 1950s where he remained until his death. During the 1950s he worked on introducing spectral theory into number theory, culminating in his development of the Selberg trace formula, the most famous and influential of his results. In its simplest form, this establishes a duality between the lengths of closed geodesics on a compact Riemann surface and the eigenvalues of the Laplacian, which is analogous to the duality between the prime numbers and the zeros of the zeta function.\n\nHe was awarded the 1986 Wolf Prize in Mathematics. He was also awarded an honorary Abel Prize in 2002, its founding year, before the awarding of the regular prizes began.\n\nSelberg received many distinctions for his work in addition to the Fields Medal, the Wolf Prize and the Gunnerus Medal. He was elected to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.\n\nIn 1972 he was awarded an honorary degree, doctor philos. honoris causa, at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, later part of Norwegian University of Science and Technology.\n\nSelberg had two children, Ingrid Selberg and Lars Selberg. Ingrid Selberg is married to playwright Mustapha Matura.\n\nHe died at home in Princeton on 6 August 2007 of heart failure.\n", "* ''Atle Selberg Collected Papers: 1'' (Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg), \n* ''Collected Papers'' (Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg Mai 1998), \n", "\n", "* Albers, Donald J. and Alexanderson, Gerald L. (2011), ''Fascinating Mathematical People: interviews and memoirs'', \"Atle Selberg\", pp 254–73, Princeton University Press, .\n* Interview with Selberg\n\n \n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* Atle Selberg Archive webpage\n* Obituary at IAS\n* Obituary in ''The Times''\n* Atle Selbergs private archive exists at NTNU University Library Dorabiblioteket\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early years ", " World War II ", " Institute for Advanced Study ", " Selected publications ", " References ", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Atle Selberg
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Aeschylus''' ( or ; ''Aiskhulos''; ; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian. He is often described as the father of tragedy. Academics' knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier tragedies is largely based on inferences from his surviving plays. According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in theater allowing conflict among them; characters previously had interacted only with the chorus.\n\nOnly seven of his estimated seventy to ninety plays have survived, and there is a longstanding debate regarding his authorship of one of these plays, ''Prometheus Bound'', which some believe his son Euphorion actually wrote. Fragments of some other plays have survived in quotes and more continue to be discovered on Egyptian papyrus, often giving us surprising insights into his work. He was probably the first dramatist to present plays as a trilogy; his ''Oresteia'' is the only ancient example of the form to have survived. At least one of his plays was influenced by the Persians' second invasion of Greece (480–479 BC). This work, ''The Persians'', is the only surviving classical Greek tragedy concerned with contemporary events (very few of that kind were ever written), and a useful source of information about its period. The significance of war in Ancient Greek culture was so great that Aeschylus' epitaph commemorates his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon while making no mention of his success as a playwright. Despite this, Aeschylus' work – particularly the ''Oresteia'' ''–'' is generally acclaimed by modern critics and scholars.\n", "Bust of Aeschylus at North Carolina Museum of Art\n\nAeschylus was born in c. 525 BC in Eleusis, a small town about 27 kilometers northwest of Athens, which is nestled in the fertile valleys of western Attica, though the date is most likely based on counting back forty years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia. His family was wealthy and well established; his father, Euphorion, was a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica, though this might be a fiction that the ancients invented to account for the grandeur of his plays.\n\nAs a youth, he worked at a vineyard until, according to the 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias, the god Dionysus visited him in his sleep and commanded him to turn his attention to the nascent art of tragedy. As soon as he woke from the dream, the young Aeschylus began to write a tragedy, and his first performance took place in 499 BC, when he was only 26 years old. He won his first victory at the City Dionysia in 484 BC.\n\nIn 510 BC, when Aeschylus was 15 years old, Cleomenes I expelled the sons of Peisistratus from Athens, and Cleisthenes came to power. Cleisthenes' reforms included a system of registration that emphasized the importance of the deme over family tradition. In the last decade of the 6th century, Aeschylus and his family were living in the deme of Eleusis.\n\nThe Persian Wars played a large role in the playwright's life and career. In 490 BC, Aeschylus and his brother Cynegeirus fought to defend Athens against the invading army of Darius I of Persia at the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians emerged triumphant, a victory celebrated across the city-states of Greece. Cynegeirus, however, died in the battle, receiving a mortal wound while trying to prevent a Persian ship retreating from the shore, for which his countrymen extolled him as a hero.\n\nIn 480, Aeschylus was called into military service again, this time against Xerxes I's invading forces at the Battle of Salamis, and perhaps, too, at the Battle of Plataea in 479. Ion of Chios was a witness for Aeschylus's war record and his contribution in Salamis. Salamis holds a prominent place in ''The Persians'', his oldest surviving play, which was performed in 472 BC and won first prize at the Dionysia.\n\nAeschylus was one of many Greeks who were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, an ancient cult of Demeter based in his hometown of Eleusis. Initiates gained secret knowledge through these rites, likely concerning the afterlife. Firm details of specific rites are sparse, as members were sworn under the penalty of death not to reveal anything about the Mysteries to non-initiates. Nevertheless, according to Aristotle, Aeschylus was accused of revealing some of the cult's secrets on stage.\n\nOther sources claim that an angry mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot, but he fled the scene. Heracleides of Pontus asserts that the audience tried to stone Aeschylus. He then took refuge at the altar in the orchestra of the Theater of Dionysus. At his trial, he pleaded ignorance. He was acquitted, with the jury sympathetic to the military service of Aeschylus and his brothers during the Persian Wars. According to the 2nd-century AD author Aelian, Aeschylus's younger brother Ameinias helped to acquit Aeschylus by showing the jury the stump of the hand that he lost at Salamis, where he was voted bravest warrior. The truth is that the award for bravery at Salamis went not to Aeschylus' brother but to Ameinias of Pallene.\n\nAeschylus travelled to Sicily once or twice in the 470s BC, having been invited by Hiero I of Syracuse, a major Greek city on the eastern side of the island; and during one of these trips he produced ''The Women of Aetna'' (in honor of the city founded by Hieron) and restaged his ''Persians''. By 473 BC, after the death of Phrynichus, one of his chief rivals, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, winning first prize in nearly every competition. In 472 BC, Aeschylus staged the production that included the ''Persians'', with Pericles serving as ''choregos''.\n\n===Death===\n\nIn 458 BC, he returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the city of Gela where he died in 456 or 455 BC. Valerius Maximus wrote that he was killed outside the city by a tortoise dropped by an eagle which had mistaken his bald head for a rock suitable for shattering the shell of the reptile. Pliny, in his ''Naturalis Historiæ'', adds that Aeschylus had been staying outdoors to avoid a prophecy that he would be killed by a falling object. But this story may be legendary and due to a misunderstanding of the iconography on Aeschylus's tomb. Aeschylus's work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death, his were the only tragedies allowed to be restaged in subsequent competitions. His sons Euphorion and Euæon and his nephew Philocles also became playwrights.\n\nThe inscription on Aeschylus's gravestone makes no mention of his theatrical renown, commemorating only his military achievements:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBeneath this stone lies Aeschylus, son of Euphorion, the Athenian,\n who perished in the wheat-bearing land of Gela;\nof his noble prowess the grove of Marathon can speak,\n and the long-haired Persian knows it well.\n\nAccording to Castoriadis, the inscription on his grave signifies the primary importance of \"belonging to the City\" (polis), of the solidarity that existed within the collective body of citizen-soldiers.\n", "Aeschylus married and had two sons, Euphorion and Euaeon, both of whom became tragic poets. Euphorion won first prize in 431 in competition against both Sophocles and Euripides. His nephew, Philocles (his sister's son), was also a tragic poet, and won first prize in the competition against Sophocles' ''Oedipus Rex''. Aeschylus had at least two brothers, Cynegeirus and Ameinias.\n", "Modern picture of the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, where many of Aeschylus's plays were performed\n''Tragoediae septem'' (1552)\nThe roots of Greek drama are in religious festivals for the gods, chiefly Dionysus, the god of wine. During Aeschylus's lifetime, dramatic competitions became part of the City Dionysia in the spring. The festival opened with a procession, followed with a competition of boys singing dithyrambs and culminated in a pair of dramatic competitions. The first competition Aeschylus would have participated in, consisted of three playwrights each presenting three tragic plays followed by a shorter comedic satyr play. A second competition of five comedic playwrights followed, and the winners of both competitions were chosen by a panel of judges.\n\nAeschylus entered many of these competitions in his lifetime, and various ancient sources attribute between seventy and ninety plays to him. Only seven tragedies have survived intact: ''The Persians'', ''Seven against Thebes'', ''The Suppliants'', the trilogy known as ''The Oresteia'', consisting of the three tragedies ''Agamemnon'', ''The Libation Bearers'' and ''The Eumenides'', together with ''Prometheus Bound'' (whose authorship is disputed). With the exception of this last play – the success of which is uncertain – all of Aeschylus's extant tragedies are known to have won first prize at the City Dionysia.\n\nThe Alexandrian ''Life of Aeschylus'' claims that he won the first prize at the City Dionysia thirteen times. This compares favorably with Sophocles' reported eighteen victories (with a substantially larger catalogue, at an estimated 120 plays), and dwarfs the five victories of Euripides, who is thought to have written roughly 90 plays.\n\n===Trilogies===\nOne hallmark of Aeschylean dramaturgy appears to have been his tendency to write connected trilogies, in which each play serves as a chapter in a continuous dramatic narrative. ''The Oresteia'' is the only extant example of this type of connected trilogy, but there is evidence that Aeschylus often wrote such trilogies. The comic satyr plays that follow his trilogies also drew upon stories derived from myths.\n\nFor example, the ''Oresteia'''s satyr play ''Proteus'' treated the story of Menelaus' detour in Egypt on his way home from the Trojan War. Based on the evidence provided by a catalogue of Aeschylean play titles, scholia, and play fragments recorded by later authors, it is assumed that three other of his extant plays were components of connected trilogies: ''Seven against Thebes'' being the final play in an Oedipus trilogy, and ''The Suppliants'' and ''Prometheus Bound'' each being the first play in a Danaid trilogy and Prometheus trilogy, respectively (see below). Scholars have moreover suggested several completely lost trilogies derived from known play titles. A number of these trilogies treated myths surrounding the Trojan War. One, collectively called the ''Achilleis'', comprised the titles ''Myrmidons'', ''Nereids'' and ''Phrygians'' (alternately, ''The Ransoming of Hector'').\n\nAnother trilogy apparently recounts the entry of the Trojan ally Memnon into the war, and his death at the hands of Achilles (''Memnon'' and ''The Weighing of Souls'' being two components of the trilogy); ''The Award of the Arms'', ''The Phrygian Women'', and ''The Salaminian Women'' suggest a trilogy about the madness and subsequent suicide of the Greek hero Ajax; Aeschylus also seems to have written about Odysseus' return to Ithaca after the war (including his killing of his wife Penelope's suitors and its consequences) in a trilogy consisting of ''The Soul-raisers'', ''Penelope'' and ''The Bone-gatherers''. Other suggested trilogies touched on the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (''Argô'', ''Lemnian Women'', ''Hypsipylê''); the life of Perseus (''The Net-draggers'', ''Polydektês'', ''Phorkides''); the birth and exploits of Dionysus (''Semele'', ''Bacchae'', ''Pentheus''); and the aftermath of the war portrayed in ''Seven against Thebes'' (''Eleusinians'', ''Argives'' (or ''Argive Women''), ''Sons of the Seven'').\n", "\n=== ''The Persians'' ===\n\nGeorge Romney.\n\nThe earliest of his plays to survive is ''The Persians'' (''Persai''), performed in 472 BC and based on experiences in Aeschylus's own life, specifically the Battle of Salamis. It is unique among surviving Greek tragedies in that it describes a recent historical event. ''The Persians'' focuses on the popular Greek theme of ''hubris'' by blaming Persia's loss on the pride of its king.\n\nIt opens with the arrival of a messenger in Susa, the Persian capital, bearing news of the catastrophic Persian defeat at Salamis to Atossa, the mother of the Persian King Xerxes. Atossa then travels to the tomb of Darius, her husband, where his ghost appears to explain the cause of the defeat. It is, he says, the result of Xerxes' hubris in building a bridge across the Hellespont, an action which angered the gods. Xerxes appears at the end of the play, not realizing the cause of his defeat, and the play closes to lamentations by Xerxes and the chorus.\n\n=== ''Seven against Thebes'' ===\n\n\n''Seven against Thebes'' (''Hepta epi Thebas''), which was performed in 467 BC, has the contrasting theme of the interference of the gods in human affairs. It also marks the first known appearance in Aeschylus's work of a theme which would continue through his plays, that of the polis (the city) being a key development of human civilization.\n\nThe play tells the story of Eteocles and Polynices, the sons of the shamed King of Thebes, Oedipus. The sons agree to alternate in the throne of the city, but after the first year Eteocles refuses to step down, and Polynices wages war to claim his crown. The brothers kill each other in single combat, and the original ending of the play consisted of lamentations for the dead brothers.\n\nA new ending was added to the play some fifty years later: Antigone and Ismene mourn their dead brothers, a messenger enters announcing an edict prohibiting the burial of Polynices; and finally, Antigone declares her intention to defy this edict. The play was the third in a connected Oedipus trilogy; the first two plays were ''Laius'' and ''Oedipus''. The concluding satyr play was ''The Sphinx''.\n\n===''The Suppliants''===\n\nMiniature by Robinet Testard showing the Danaids murdering their husbands\n\nAeschylus continued his emphasis on the polis with ''The Suppliants'' in 463 BC (''Hiketides''), which pays tribute to the democratic undercurrents running through Athens in advance of the establishment of a democratic government in 461. In the play, the Danaids, the fifty daughters of Danaus, founder of Argos, flee a forced marriage to their cousins in Egypt. They turn to King Pelasgus of Argos for protection, but Pelasgus refuses until the people of Argos weigh in on the decision, a distinctly democratic move on the part of the king. The people decide that the Danaids deserve protection, and they are allowed within the walls of Argos despite Egyptian protests.\n\nThe 1952 publication of Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2256 fr. 3 confirmed a long-assumed (because of ''The Suppliants''' cliffhanger ending) Danaid trilogy, whose constituent plays are generally agreed to be ''The Suppliants'', ''The Egyptians'' and ''The Danaids''. A plausible reconstruction of the trilogy's last two-thirds runs thus: In ''The Egyptians'', the Argive-Egyptian war threatened in the first play has transpired. During the course of the war, King Pelasgus has been killed, and Danaus rules Argos. He negotiates a peace settlement with Aegyptus, as a condition of which, his fifty daughters will marry the fifty sons of Aegyptus. Danaus secretly informs his daughters of an oracle predicting that one of his sons-in-law would kill him; he therefore orders the Danaids to murder their husbands on their wedding night. His daughters agree. ''The Danaids'' would open the day after the wedding.\n\nIn short order, it is revealed that forty-nine of the Danaids killed their husbands as ordered; Hypermnestra, however, loved her husband Lynceus, and thus spared his life and helped him to escape. Angered by his daughter's disobedience, Danaus orders her imprisonment and, possibly, her execution. In the trilogy's climax and dénouement, Lynceus reveals himself to Danaus, and kills him (thus fulfilling the oracle). He and Hypermnestra will establish a ruling dynasty in Argos. The other forty-nine Danaids are absolved of their murderous crime, and married off to unspecified Argive men. The satyr play following this trilogy was titled ''Amymone'', after one of the Danaids.\n\n===''The Oresteia''===\n\n\nThe only complete (save a few missing lines in several spots) trilogy of Greek plays by any playwright still extant is the ''Oresteia'' (458 BC); although the satyr play that originally followed it, ''Proteus'', is lost except for some fragments. The trilogy consists of ''Agamemnon'', ''The Libation Bearers'' (''Choephoroi''), and ''The Eumenides''. Together, these plays tell the bloody story of the family of Agamemnon, King of Argos.\n\n====''Agamemnon''====\n''The Murder of Agamemnon'' by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin (1817)\n\nAeschylus begins in Greece describing the return of King Agamemnon from his victory in the Trojan War, from the perspective of the towns people (the Chorus) and his wife, Clytemnestra. However, dark foreshadowings build to the death of the king at the hands of his wife, who was angry at his sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia, who was killed so that the gods would restore the winds and allow the Greek fleet to sail to Troy. She was also unhappy at his keeping of the Trojan prophetess Cassandra as a concubine. Cassandra foretells of the murder of Agamemnon, and of herself, to the assembled townsfolk, who are horrified. She then enters the palace knowing that she cannot avoid her fate. The ending of the play includes a prediction of the return of Orestes, son of Agamemnon, who will seek to avenge his father.''\n\n====''The Libation Bearers''====\n\n''The Libation Bearers'' continues the tale, opening with Orestes's arrival at Agamemnon's tomb. At the tomb, Electra meets Orestes, who has returned from exile in Phocis, and they plan revenge upon Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. Clytemnestra's account of a nightmare in which she gives birth to a snake is recounted by the chorus; and this leads her to order Electra, her daughter, to pour libations on Agamemnon's tomb (with the assistance of libation bearers) in hope of making amends. Orestes enters the palace pretending to bear news of his own death, and when Clytemnestra calls in Aegisthus to share in the news, Orestes kills them both. Orestes is then beset by the Furies, who avenge the murders of kin in Greek mythology.\n\n====''The Eumenides''====\n\nThe final play of ''The Oresteia'' addresses the question of Orestes' guilt. The Furies drive Orestes from Argos and into the wilderness. He makes his way to the temple of Apollo and begs him to drive the Furies away. Apollo had encouraged Orestes to kill Clytemnestra, and so bears some of the guilt for the murder. The Furies are a more ancient race of the gods, and Apollo sends Orestes to the temple of Athena, with Hermes as a guide.\n\nThe Furies track him down, and the goddess Athena, patron of Athens, steps in and declares that a trial is necessary. Apollo argues Orestes' case and, after the judges, including Athena deliver a tie vote, Athena announces that Orestes is acquitted. She renames the Furies ''The Eumenides'' (The Good-spirited, or Kindly Ones), and extols the importance of reason in the development of laws, and, as in ''The Suppliants'', the ideals of a democratic Athens are praised.\n\n===''Prometheus Bound''===\n\n''Prometheus Being Chained by Vulcan'' by Dirck van Baburen (1623)\n\nIn addition to these six works, a seventh tragedy, ''Prometheus Bound'', is attributed to Aeschylus by ancient authorities. Since the late 19th century, however, scholars have increasingly doubted this ascription, largely on stylistic grounds. Its production date is also in dispute, with theories ranging from the 480s BC to as late as the 410s.\n\nThe play consists mostly of static dialogue, as throughout the play the Titan Prometheus is bound to a rock as punishment from the Olympian Zeus for providing fire to humans. The god Hephaestus, the Titan Oceanus, and the chorus of Oceanids all express sympathy for Prometheus' plight. Prometheus meets Io, a fellow victim of Zeus' cruelty; and prophesies her future travels, revealing that one of her descendants will free Prometheus. The play closes with Zeus sending Prometheus into the abyss because Prometheus refuses to divulge the secret of a potential marriage that could prove Zeus' downfall.\n\nThe ''Prometheus Bound'' appears to have been the first play in a trilogy called the ''Prometheia''. In the second play, ''Prometheus Unbound'', Heracles frees Prometheus from his chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat Prometheus' perpetually regenerating liver. Perhaps foreshadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus, we learn that Zeus has released the other Titans whom he imprisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy.\n\nIn the trilogy's conclusion, ''Prometheus the Fire-Bringer'', it appears that the Titan finally warns Zeus not to sleep with the sea nymph Thetis, for she is fated to give birth to a son greater than the father. Not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus marries Thetis off to the mortal Peleus; the product of that union is Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. After reconciling with Prometheus, Zeus probably inaugurates a festival in his honor at Athens.\n", "Only the titles and assorted fragments of Aeschylus's other plays have come down to us. We have enough fragments of some plays (along with comments made by later authors and scholiasts) to produce rough synopses of their plots.\n\n===''Myrmidons''===\nThis play was based on books 9 and 16 in Homer's ''Iliad''. Achilles sits in silent indignation over his humiliation at Agamemnon's hands for most of the play. Envoys from the Greek army attempt to reconcile him to Agamemnon, but he yields only to his friend Patroclus, who then battles the Trojans in Achilles' armour. The bravery and death of Patroclus are reported in a messenger's speech, which is followed by mourning.\n\n===''Nereids''===\n\nThis play was based on books 18, 19, and 22 of the ''Iliad''; it follows the Daughters of Nereus, the sea god, who lament Patroclus' death. In the play, a messenger tells how Achilles, perhaps reconciled to Agamemnon and the Greeks, slew Hector.\n\n===''Phrygians'', or ''Hector's Ransom''===\n\nIn this play, Achilles sits in silent mourning over Patroclus, after a brief discussion with Hermes. Hermes then brings in King Priam of Troy, who wins over Achilles and ransoms his son's body in a spectacular coup de théâtre. A scale is brought on stage and Hector's body is placed in one scale and gold in the other. The dynamic dancing of the chorus of Trojans when they enter with Priam is reported by Aristophanes.\n\n===''Niobe''===\n\nThe children of Niobe, the heroine, have been slain by Apollo and Artemis because Niobe had gloated that she had more children than their mother, Leto. Niobe sits in silent mourning on stage during most of the play. In the ''Republic'', Plato quotes the line \"God plants a fault in mortals when he wills to destroy a house utterly.\"\n\nThese are the remaining 71 plays ascribed to Aeschylus which are known to us:\n\n\n* ''Alcmene''\n* ''Amymone''\n* ''The Archer-Women''\n* ''The Argivian Women\n* ''The Argo'', also titled ''The Rowers''\n* ''Atalanta''\n* ''Athamas''\n* ''Attendants of the Bridal Chamber''\n* ''Award of the Arms''\n* ''The Bacchae''\n* ''The Bassarae''\n* ''The Bone-Gatherers''\n* ''The Cabeiroi''\n* ''Callisto''\n* ''The Carians'', also titled ''Europa''\n* ''Cercyon''\n* ''Children of Hercules''\n* ''Circe''\n* ''The Cretan Women''\n* ''Cycnus''\n* ''The Danaids''\n* ''Daughters of Helios''\n* ''Daughters of Phorcys''\n* ''The Descendants''\n* ''The Edonians''\n* ''The Egyptians''\n* ''The Escorts''\n* ''Glaucus of Pontus''\n* ''Glaucus of Potniae''\n* ''Hypsipyle''\n* ''Iphigenia''\n* ''Ixion''\n* ''Laius''\n* ''The Lemnian Women''\n* ''The Lion''\n* ''Lycurgus''\n* ''Memnon''\n* ''The Men of Eleusis''\n* ''The Messengers''\n* ''The Myrmidons''\n* ''The Mysians''\n* ''Nemea''\n* ''The Net-Draggers''\n* ''The Nurses of Dionysus''\n* ''Orethyia''\n* ''Palamedes''\n* ''Penelope''\n* ''Pentheus''\n* ''Perrhaibides''\n* ''Philoctetes''\n* ''Phineus''\n* ''The Phrygian Women''\n* ''Polydectes''\n* ''The Priestesses''\n* ''Prometheus the Fire-Bearer''\n* ''Prometheus the Fire-Kindler''\n* ''Prometheus Unbound''\n* ''Proteus''\n* ''Semele'', also titled ''The Water-Bearers''\n* ''Sisyphus the Runaway''\n* ''Sisyphus the Stone-Roller''\n* ''The Spectators'', also titled ''Athletes of the Isthmian Games''\n* ''The Sphinx''\n* ''The Spirit-Raisers''\n* ''Telephus''\n* ''The Thracian Women''\n* ''Weighing of Souls''\n* ''Women of Aetna'' (two versions)\n* ''Women of Salamis''\n* ''Xantriae''\n* ''The Youths''\n\n", "\n=== Influence on Greek drama and culture ===\nOrestes, main character in Aeschylus's only surviving trilogy, ''The Oresteia''\n\nWhen Aeschylus first began writing, the theatre had only just begun to evolve, although earlier playwrights like Thespis had already expanded the cast to include an actor who was able to interact with the chorus. Aeschylus added a second actor, allowing for greater dramatic variety, while the chorus played a less important role. He is sometimes credited with introducing ''skenographia'', or scene-decoration, though Aristotle gives this distinction to Sophocles. Aeschylus is also said to have made the costumes more elaborate and dramatic, and having his actors wear platform boots (''cothurni'') to make them more visible to the audience. According to a later account of Aeschylus's life, as they walked on stage in the first performance of the ''Eumenides'', the chorus of Furies were so frightening in appearance that they caused young children to faint, patriarchs to urinate, and pregnant women to go into labour.\n\nHis plays were written in verse, no violence is performed on stage, and the plays have a remoteness from daily life in Athens, either by relating stories about the gods or by being set, like ''The Persians'', in far-away locales. Aeschylus's work has a strong moral and religious emphasis. The ''Oresteia'' trilogy concentrated on man's position in the cosmos in relation to the gods, divine law, and divine punishment.\n\nAeschylus's popularity is evident in the praise the comic playwright Aristophanes gives him in ''The Frogs'', produced some half-century after Aeschylus's death. Appearing as a character in the play, Aeschylus claims at line 1022 that his ''Seven against Thebes'' \"made everyone watching it to love being warlike\"; with his ''Persians'', Aeschylus claims at lines 1026–7 that he \"taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies.\" Aeschylus goes on to say at lines 1039ff. that his plays inspired the Athenians to be brave and virtuous.\n\n=== Influence outside of Greek culture ===\n\nAeschylus's works were influential beyond his own time. Hugh Lloyd-Jones draws attention to Richard Wagner's reverence of Aeschylus. Michael Ewans argues in his ''Wagner and Aeschylus. The Ring and the Oresteia'' (London: Faber. 1982) that the influence was so great as to merit a direct character by character comparison between Wagner's ''Ring'' and Aeschylus's ''Oresteia''. A critic of his book however, while not denying that Wagner read and respected Aeschylus, has described his arguments as unreasonable and forced.\n\nSir J. T. Sheppard argues in the second half of his ''Aeschylus and Sophocles: Their Work and Influence'' that Aeschylus, along with Sophocles, have played a major part in the formation of dramatic literature from the Renaissance to the present, specifically in French and Elizabethan drama. He also claims that their influence went beyond just drama and applies to literature in general, citing Milton and the Romantics.\n\nDuring his presidential campaign in 1968, Senator Robert F. Kennedy quoted the Edith Hamilton translation of Aeschylus on the night of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Kennedy was notified of King's murder before a campaign stop in Indianapolis, Indiana and was warned not to attend the event due to fears of rioting from the mostly African-American crowd. Kennedy insisted on attending and delivered an impromptu speech that delivered news of King's death to the crowd.\n\nAcknowledging the audience's emotions, Kennedy referred to his own grief at the murder of his brother, President John F. Kennedy and, quoting a passage from the play ''Agamemnon'' (in translation), said: \"My favorite poet was Aeschylus. And he once wrote: 'Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget falls drop by drop upon the heart, until in our own despair, against our will, comes wisdom through the awful grace of God.' What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; but is love and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black ... Let us dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world.\" The quotation from Aeschylus was later inscribed on a memorial at the gravesite of Robert Kennedy following his own assassination.\n", "\n* 2876 Aeschylus, an asteroid named for him\n* Theatre of ancient Greece\n", "\n", "\n", "* Martin L. West, ''Aeschyli Tragoediae: cum incerti poetae Prometheo'' 2 ed. (1998). The first translation of the seven plays into English was by Robert Potter in 1779, using blank verse for the iambic trimeters and rhymed verse for the choruses, a convention adopted by most translators for the next century.\n* Stefan Radt (Hg.), ''Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. III: Aeschylus'' (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009) (Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, 3).\n* Alan H. Sommerstein (ed.), ''Aeschylus, Volume II, Oresteia: Agamemnon. Libation-bearers. Eumenides. 146'' (Cambridge, Mass./London: Loeb Classical Library, 2009); ''Volume III, Fragments. 505'' (Cambridge, Mass./London: Loeb Classical Library, 2008).\n", "\n* \n* Bierl, A. ''Die Orestie des Aischylos auf der modernen Bühne: Theoretische Konzeptionen und ihre szenische Realizierung'' (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1997)\n* Cairns, D., V. Liapis, ''Dionysalexandros: Essays on Aeschylus and His Fellow Tragedians in Honour of Alexander F. Garvie'' (Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales, 2006)\n* \n* \n* Deforge, B. ''Une vie avec Eschyle. Vérité des mythes'' (Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2010)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Lefkowitz, Mary (1981). ''The Lives of the Greek Poets''. University of North Carolina Press\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* — (2002). ''Greek Drama and Dramatists''. London: Routledge Press. \n* \n* Summers, David (2007). ''Vision, Reflection, and Desire in Western Painting''. University of North Carolina Press\n* Thomson, George (1973) Aeschylus and Athens: A Study in the Social Origin of Drama. London: Lawrence and Wishart (4th edition)\n* \n* Vellacott, Philip, (1961). ''Prometheus Bound and Other Plays: Prometheus Bound, Seven Against Thebes, and The Persians''. New York: Penguin Classics. \n* \n* Zeitlin, F. I. ''Under the sign of the shield: semiotics and Aeschylus' Seven against Thebes'' (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 1982); 2nd ed. 2009, (Greek studies: interdisciplinary approaches)\n* Castoriadis, Cornelius. \"What Makes Greece, 1. From Homer to Heraclitus.\" (2004)\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Selected Poems of Aeschylus\n* Aeschylus-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library\n* Complete syntax diagrams at Alpheios\n* Online English Translations of Aeschylus\n* Photo of a fragment of ''The Net-pullers''\n\n \"Aeschylus, I: Persians\" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press\n* \"Aeschylus, II: The Oresteia\" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press\n* \"Aeschylus, III: Fragments\" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Life ", "Personal life", "Works", "Surviving plays", "Lost plays", " Influence ", "See also", "Notes", "Citations", "Editions", " References ", " External links " ]	Aeschylus
[ "\nThe Amber Road (east route), as hypothesized by Polish historian Jerzy Wielowiejski, ''Główny szlak bursztynowy w czasach Cesarstwa Rzymskiego'' (Main Route of the Amber Road of the Roman Empire), 1980\nThe route from the Baltic Sea\n\nThe '''Amber Road''' was an ancient trade route for the transfer of amber from coastal areas of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Prehistoric trade routes between Northern and Southern Europe were defined by the amber trade. As an important commodity, sometimes dubbed \"the gold of the north\", amber was transported from the North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts overland by way of the Vistula and Dnieper rivers to Italy, Greece, the Black Sea, Syria and Egypt over a period of thousands of years.\n", "From at least the sixteenth century BC, amber was moved from Northern Europe to the Mediterranean area. The breast ornament of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen (ca. 1333–1324 BC) contains large Baltic amber beads Heinrich Schliemann found Baltic amber beads at Mycenae, as shown by spectroscopic investigation. The quantity of amber in the Royal Tomb of Qatna, Syria, is unparalleled for known second millennium BC sites in the Levant and the Ancient Near East. Amber was sent from the North Sea to the temple of Apollo at Delphi as an offering. From the Black Sea, trade could continue to Asia along the Silk Road, another ancient trade route. In Roman times, a main route ran south from the Baltic coast through the land of the Boii (modern Czech Republic and Slovakia) to the head of the Adriatic Sea (modern Gulf of Venice).\n\nThe Old Prussian towns of Kaup and Truso on the Baltic were the starting points of the route to the south. In Scandinavia the amber road probably gave rise to the thriving Nordic Bronze Age culture, bringing influences from the Mediterranean Sea to the northernmost countries of Europe.\n\nSometimes the Kaliningrad Oblast is called the Янтарный край, which means \"the amber area\".\n", "* \n* \n* \n* or Δρόμος του ηλέκτρου\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* (Yantarnyi put)\n* \n* \n* \n* (Burštynovyj šliach)\n", "\nAmber deposits in Europe\nAmber roads connect amber finding locations to customer sites in Europe, in the Middle East regions and in the Far East.\n", "\n\n===Central Europe===\nThe shortest (and possibly oldest) road avoids alpine areas and led from the Baltic coastline (nowadays Lithuania and Poland), through Biskupin and what is now Wrocław, passed the Moravian Gate, followed the river Morava, crossed the Danube near Carnuntum in the Noricum Province, headed southwest past Poetovio, Celeia, Emona, Nauportus, and reached Patavium and Aquileia at the Adriatic coast. One of the oldest directions of the last stage of the Amber Road to the south of the Danube, noted in the myth about the Argonauts, used the Sava and Kupa rivers, ending with a short continental road from Nauportus to ''Tarsatica'' (Trsat, Rijeka) on the coast of the Adriatic.\n\n===Germany===\nAmber Roads in Germany\nSeveral roads connected the North Sea and Baltic Sea, especially the city of Hamburg to the Brenner Pass, proceeding southwards to Brindisi (nowadays Italy) and Ambracia (nowadays Greece).\n\n===Switzerland===\nThe Swiss region indicates a number of alpine roads, concentrating around the capital city Bern and probably originating from the borders of the Rhône River and the Rhine.\n\n===The Netherlands===\nA small section, including Baarn, Barneveld, Amersfoort and Amerongen, connected the North Sea with the Lower Rhine.\n\n===Belgium===\nA small section led southwards from Antwerp and Bruges to the towns Braine-l’Alleud and Braine-le-Comte, both originally named \"Brennia-Brenna\". The route continued by following the Meuse River towards Bern in Switzerland.\n\n===France===\nThree routes may be identified leading from an amber finding region or delta at the mouth of the River Openia towards Bresse and Bern, crossing the Alps to Switzerland and Italy.\n\n===Southern France and Spain===\nRoutes connecting amber finding locations at Ambares (near Bordeaux), leading to Béarn and the Pyrenees. Routes connecting the amber finding locations in northern Spain and in the Pyrenees were a trading route to the Mediterranean Sea.\n", "There is a tourist route stretching along the Baltic coast from Kaliningrad to Latvia called \"Amber Road\".\n\n\"Amber Road\" objects are:\n* Mizgiris Amber Gallery-Museum in Nida;\n* Amber Bay in Juodkrante;\n* Lithuania Minor History Museum;\n* Amber collection place in Karkle, Lithuania;\n* Amber Museum in Palanga;\n* Open amber workshop in Palanga;\n* Samogitian Alka in Sventoji.\n\nIn Poland a north–south motorway A1 is officially named Amber Highway.\n", "\n", "\n\n* OWTRAD-scientific description of the amber road in Poland\n* Old World Traditional Trade Routes (OWTRAD) Project\n* Joannes Richter – \"Die Bernsteinroute bei Backnang\" (pdf file)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Antiquity", "Names", "Overview of known amber finding places in Europe", "Overview of known amber roads by country", "Modern use of \"Amber Road\"", "References", "External links" ]	Amber Road
[ "\n\n'''Crandall University''' is a small Christian Liberal Arts university located in Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada. Crandall is operated by the Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches.\n", "\nCrandall University 106736150RR0001 was registered as a charitable organization in Canada on January 1, 1967. The primary areas in which the charity is now carrying on programs to achieve its charitable purposes, ranked according to the percentage of time and resources devoted to each program area follow:\nUniversities and colleges 100%\nThe charity carried on charitable programs to further its charitable purpose(s) (as defined in its governing documents) this fiscal period:\nprovides bachelor's degrees in Arts, Business Administration, Science and Education.\nprovides certificate programs in Arts and Education\n", "Crandall University houses the Baptist Heritage Center whose 300 artifacts preserve the material history of Atlantic Baptists, the Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches, and its predecessor organizations. The collection and archives includes objects used in worship services, furniture, musical instruments, church building architecture pictures and printed material.\n", "The school was founded in 1949 under the name '''United Baptist Bible Training School''' (UBBTS), and served as both a secondary school and a Bible school. Over two decades, the focus of the school gradually shifted toward post-secondary programs. In 1968, UBBTS became a Bible and junior Christian liberal arts college, and in 1970 the name was changed to '''Atlantic Baptist College''' (ABC). A sustained campaign to expand the school's faculty and improve the level of education resulted in ABC being able to grant full Bachelor of Arts degrees in 1983. Its campus at this time was located along the Salisbury Road, west of Moncton's central business district.\n\nThe institution moved to a new campus constructed on the Gorge Road, north of the central business district, in 1996. The name was also changed to '''Atlantic Baptist University''', a reflection of expanded student enrollment and academic accreditation. In 2003, the ABU sports teams adopted the name ''The Blue Tide''. The institution was the first, and thus far only, English university in Moncton. The ''Atlantic Baptist University Act'' was passed by the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick in 2008.\n\nOn August 21, 2009 it was announced that the institution had changed its name to '''Crandall University''' in honour of Rev. Joseph Crandall, a pioneering Baptist minister in the maritime region. In conjunction with the University name change, Crandall Athletics took on a new identity as \"The Crandall Chargers.\"\n\nIn 2012, Crandall University came under public scrutiny for receiving municipal funds regardless of having an anti-gay hiring policy.\n", "Bachelor of Business Administration\nBachelor of Education\nTechnical Education\nBachelor of Arts\nBiblical Studies\nCommunications\nEnglish\nHistory\nInterdisciplinary Studies\nModern Languages\n*French\nOrganizational Management\nPsychology\nReligious Studies\n*Sociology\nBachelor of Science\n*Biology\nMaster of Education\nMaster of Organizational Management\n", "\nRalph Richardson, first chancellor of the university\nKen LeBlanc, Entrepreneur\nDavid Alward, Former Premier of New Brunswick\n\n", "The University has been criticized for accepting public money (municipal, provincial and federal) to fund programs and expansions to the campus but maintaining a hiring policy which would prohibit gay faculty. A year after the controversy erupted, the University opted to not apply for $150,000 in public funding that it had received annually in order to avoid changing its hiring policy.\n", "* List of schools in Moncton\n* Higher education in New Brunswick\n* List of universities and colleges in New Brunswick\n\n\n", "\n", "* Crandall University Homepage\n* Crandall University Athletics Homepage\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Charity", "Library and archives", "History", "Programs", "Notable alumni", "Controversy", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Crandall University
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Sir Andrew John Wiles''' (born 11 April 1953) is a British mathematician and a Royal Society Research Professor at the University of Oxford, specialising in number theory. He is best known for proving Fermat's Last Theorem, for which he received the 2016 Abel Prize. Wiles has received numerous other honours, including the Copley Medal, the Royal Society's highest honour, in 2017. \n", "Wiles was born in 1953 in Cambridge, England, the son of Maurice Frank Wiles (1923–2005), the Regius Professor of Divinity at the University of Oxford, and Patricia Wiles (née Mowll). His father worked as the Chaplain at Ridley Hall, Cambridge, for the years 1952–55. Wiles attended King's College School, Cambridge, and The Leys School, Cambridge.\n\nWiles states that he came across Fermat's Last Theorem on his way home from school when he was 10 years old. He stopped by his local library where he found a book about the theorem. Fascinated by the existence of a theorem that was so easy to state that he, a ten-year-old, could understand it, but that no one had proven, he decided to be the first person to prove it. However, he soon realised that his knowledge was too limited, so he abandoned his childhood dream, until it was brought back to his attention at the age of 33 by Ken Ribet's 1986 proof of the epsilon conjecture, which Gerhard Frey had previously linked to Fermat's famous equation.\n", "Wiles earned his bachelor's degree in mathematics in 1974 at Merton College, Oxford, and a PhD in 1980 at Clare College, Cambridge. After a stay at the Institute for Advanced Study in New Jersey in 1981, Wiles became a professor at Princeton University. In 1985–86, Wiles was a Guggenheim Fellow at the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques near Paris and at the École Normale Supérieure. From 1988 to 1990, Wiles was a Royal Society Research Professor at the University of Oxford, and then he returned to Princeton. He rejoined Oxford in 2011 as Royal Society Research Professor.\n\nWiles's graduate research was guided by John Coates beginning in the summer of 1975. Together these colleagues worked on the arithmetic of elliptic curves with complex multiplication by the methods of Iwasawa theory. He further worked with Barry Mazur on the main conjecture of Iwasawa theory over the rational numbers, and soon afterward, he generalised this result to totally real fields.\n\n===Proof of Fermat's Last Theorem===\n\nStarting in mid-1986, based on successive progress of the previous few years of Gerhard Frey, Jean-Pierre Serre and Ken Ribet, it became clear that Fermat's Last Theorem could be proven as a corollary of a limited form of the modularity theorem (unproven at the time and then known as the \"Taniyama–Shimura–Weil conjecture\"). The modularity theorem involved elliptic curves, which was also Wiles's own specialist area.\n\nThe conjecture was seen by contemporary mathematicians as important, but extraordinarily difficult or perhaps impossible to prove. For example, Wiles's ex-supervisor John Coates states that it seemed \"impossible to actually prove\", and Ken Ribet considered himself \"one of the vast majority of people who believed it was completely inaccessible\", adding that \"Andrew Wiles was probably one of the few people on earth who had the audacity to dream that you can actually go and prove it.\"\n\nDespite this, Wiles, with his from-childhood fascination with Fermat's Last Theorem, decided to undertake the challenge of proving the conjecture, at least to the extent needed for Frey's curve. He dedicated all of his research time to this problem for over six years in near-total secrecy, covering up his efforts by releasing prior work in small segments as separate papers and confiding only in his wife.\n\nIn June 1993, he presented his proof to the public for the first time at a conference in Cambridge.\n\n\nIn August 1993, it was discovered that the proof contained a flaw in one area. Wiles tried and failed for over a year to repair his proof. According to Wiles, the crucial idea for circumventing, rather than closing this area, came to him on 19 September 1994, when he was on the verge of giving up. Together with his former student Richard Taylor, he published a second paper which circumvented the problem and thus completed the proof. Both papers were published in May 1995 in a dedicated volume of the ''Annals of Mathematics''.\n", "Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem has stood up to the scrutiny of the world's other mathematical experts. Wiles was interviewed for an episode of the BBC documentary series ''Horizon'' that focused on Fermat's Last Theorem. This was renamed \"The Proof\", and it was made an episode of the US Public Broadcasting Service's science television series ''Nova''. His work and life are also described in great detail in Simon Singh's popular book ''Fermat's Last Theorem''.\n\n===Awards and honours===\nAndrew Wiles before the statue of Pierre de Fermat in Beaumont-de-Lomagne (October 1995)\n\nWiles has been awarded a number of major prizes in mathematics and science:\n* Junior Whitehead Prize of the London Mathematical Society (1988)\n* Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1989\n* Schock Prize (1995)\n* Fermat Prize (1995)\n* Wolf Prize in Mathematics (1995/6)\n* NAS Award in Mathematics from the National Academy of Sciences (1996)\n* Royal Medal (1996)\n* Ostrowski Prize (1996)\n* Cole Prize (1997)\n* Wolfskehl Prize (1997) – see Paul Wolfskehl\n* A silver plaque from the International Mathematical Union (1998) recognising his achievements, in place of the Fields Medal, which is restricted to those under 40 (Wiles was 41 when he proved the theorem in 1994)\n* King Faisal Prize (1998)\n* Clay Research Award (1999)\n* Pythagoras Award (Croton, 2004)\n* Shaw Prize (2005)\n* The asteroid 9999 Wiles was named after Wiles in 1999.\n* Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (2000)\n* The building at the University of Oxford housing the Mathematical Institute is named after Wiles.\n* Abel Prize (2016)\n* Copley Medal (2017) \n\nWiles's 1987 certificate of election to the Royal Society reads:\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Education and early life", "Career and research", "Recognition", "References" ]	Andrew Wiles
[ "\n'''Ambient''' or '''Ambiance''' may refer to:\n\n\n", "\nAmbient music\n''Ambient 1–4'', a set of four albums by Brian Eno, see Obscure Records\nVirgin Ambient series, by Virgin Records\n''Ambient'' (album), by Moby\n''Ambience'' (album), by the Lambrettas \nAmbience (sound recording), also known as atmospheres or backgrounds\n", "Ambient (desktop environment)\nAmbient (novel), a novel by Jack Womack\n''Ambiancé'' (film), an upcoming experimental film by Swedish director Anders Weberg\nMark Ambient, pen name of Harold Harley (1860–1937), English dramatist\n", "*\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Music", "Other", "See also" ]	Ambient
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Anne Brontë''' (, ''commonly'' ; 17 January 1820 – 28 May 1849) was an English novelist and poet, the youngest member of the Brontë literary family.\n\nThe daughter of Patrick Brontë, a poor Irish clergyman in the Church of England, Anne Brontë lived most of her life with her family at the parish of Haworth on the Yorkshire moors. She also attended a boarding school in Mirfield between 1836 and 1837. At 19 she left Haworth and worked as a governess between 1839 and 1845. After leaving her teaching position, she fulfilled her literary ambitions. She published a volume of poetry with her sisters (''Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell'', 1846) and two novels. ''Agnes Grey'', based upon her experiences as a governess, was published in 1847. Her second and last novel, ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall'', which is considered to be one of the first sustained feminist novels, appeared in 1848. Like her poems, both her novels were first published under the masculine pen name of '''Acton Bell'''. Anne's life was cut short when she died of what is now suspected to be pulmonary tuberculosis at the age of 29.\n\nPartly because the re-publication of ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall'' was prevented by Charlotte Brontë after Anne's death, she is not as well known as her sisters. However, her novels, like those of her sisters, have become classics of English literature.\n", "Branwell\nAnne's father, Patrick Brontë (1777–1861), was born in a two-room cottage in Emdale, Loughbrickland, County Down, Ireland. He was the oldest of ten children born to Hugh Brunty and Eleanor McCrory, poor Irish peasant farmers. The family surname ''mac Aedh Ó Proinntigh'' was Anglicised as Prunty or Brunty. Struggling against poverty, Patrick learned to read and write and from 1798 taught others. In 1802, at 25, he won a place to study theology at St. John's College, Cambridge where he changed his name, Brunty, to the more distinguished sounding Brontë. In 1807 he was ordained in the priesthood in the Church of England. He served as a curate first in Essex and latterly in Wellington, Shropshire. In 1810, he published his first poem ''Winter Evening Thoughts'' in a local newspaper, followed in 1811 by a collection of moral verse, ''Cottage Poems''. In 1811, he became vicar of St. Peter's Church in Hartshead in Yorkshire. The following year he was appointed an examiner in Classics at Woodhouse Grove School, near Bradford a Wesleyan academy where, aged 35, he met his future wife, Maria Branwell, the headmaster's niece.\n\nAnne's mother, Maria Branwell (1783–1821), was the daughter of Thomas Branwell, a successful, property-owning grocer and tea merchant in Penzance and Anne Carne, the daughter of a silversmith. The eleventh of twelve children, Maria enjoyed the benefits of belonging to a prosperous family in a small town. After the death of her parents within a year of each other, Maria went to help her aunt administer the housekeeping functions of the school. A tiny, neat woman aged 30, she was well read and intelligent. Her strong Methodist faith attracted Patrick Brontë because his own leanings were similar.\n\nThough from considerably different backgrounds, within three months Patrick Brontë and Maria Branwell were married on 29 December 1812. Their first child, Maria (1814–1825), was born after they moved to Hartshead. In 1815, Patrick was appointed curate of the chapel in Thornton, near Bradford; a second daughter, Elizabeth (1815–1825), was born shortly after. Four more children followed: Charlotte, (1816–1855), Patrick Branwell (1817–1848), Emily, (1818–1848) and Anne (1820–1849).\n", "Anne, the youngest of the Brontë children, was born on 17 January 1820, at 74 Market Street in Thornton on the outskirts of Bradford where her father was curate and she was baptised there on 25 March 1820. Anne's father was appointed to the perpetual curacy in Haworth, a small town away. In April 1820, the Brontës moved into the five-roomed Haworth Parsonage which became their home for the rest of their lives.\n\nAnne was barely a year old when her mother became ill of what is believed to have been uterine cancer. Maria Branwell died on 15 September 1821. In order to provide a mother for his children, Patrick tried to remarry, but without success. Maria's sister, Elizabeth Branwell (1776–1842), moved to the parsonage, initially to nurse her dying sister, but she spent the rest of her life there raising the children. She did it from a sense of duty, but she was a stern woman who expected respect, rather than love. There was little affection between her and the older children, but Anne, according to tradition, was her favourite.\n\nIn Elizabeth Gaskell's biography, Anne's father remembered her as precocious, reporting that once, when she was four years old, in reply to his question about what a child most wanted, she answered: \"age and experience\".\n\nIn summer 1824, Patrick sent Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte and Emily to Crofton Hall in Crofton, West Yorkshire, and subsequently to the Clergy Daughter's School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. When his eldest daughters died of consumption in 1825, Maria on 6 May and Elizabeth on 15 June, Charlotte and Emily were immediately brought home. The unexpected deaths distressed the family so much that Patrick could not face sending them away again. For the next five years, they were educated at home, largely by their father and aunt. The children made little attempt to mix with others outside the parsonage, but relied on each other for friendship and companionship. The bleak moors surrounding Haworth became their playground. Anne shared a room with her aunt, they were close which may have influenced Anne's personality and religious beliefs.\n", "Anne Brontë, by Charlotte Brontë, 1834\nAnne's studies at home included music and drawing. Anne, Emily and Branwell had piano lessons from the Keighley church organist. They had art lessons from John Bradley of Keighley and all drew with some skill. Their aunt tried to teach the girls how to run a household, but their minds were more inclined to literature. Their father's well-stocked library was a source of knowledge. They read the Bible, Homer, Virgil, Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Scott, and many others, they examined articles from Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, Fraser's Magazine, and The Edinburgh Review and read history, geography and biographies.\n\nReading fed the children's imagination. Their creativity soared after their father presented Branwell with a set of toy soldiers in June 1826. They gave the soldiers names and developed their characters, which they called the \"Twelves\". This led to the creation of an imaginary world: the African kingdom of \"Angria\" which was illustrated with maps and watercolour renderings. The children devised plots about the inhabitants of Angria and its capital city, \"Glass Town\", later called Verreopolis or Verdopolis.\n\nThe fantasy worlds and kingdoms gradually acquired the characteristics of real world—sovereigns, armies, heroes, outlaws, fugitives, inns, schools and publishers. The characters and lands created by the children had newspapers, magazines and chronicles which were written in extremely tiny books, with writing so small it was difficult to read without a magnifying glass. These creations and writings were an apprenticeship for their later, literary talents.\n", "Around 1831, when Anne was eleven, she and Emily broke away from Charlotte and Branwell to create and develop their own fantasy world, \"Gondal\". Anne was particularly close to Emily especially after Charlotte's departure for Roe Head School, in January 1831. When Charlotte's friend Ellen Nussey visited Haworth in 1833, she reported that Emily and Anne were \"like twins\", \"inseparable companions\". She described Anne:\n\"Anne, dear gentle Anne was quite different in appearance from the others, and she was her aunt's favourite. Her hair was a very pretty light brown, and fell on her neck in graceful curls. She had lovely violet-blue eyes; fine pencilled eyebrows and a clear almost transparent complexion. She still pursued her studies and especially her sewing, under the surveillance of her aunt.\"\nAnne took lessons from Charlotte, after she returned from Roe Head. Charlotte returned to Roe Head as a teacher on 29 July 1835 accompanied by Emily as a pupil; her tuition largely financed by Charlotte's teaching. Within a few months, Emily unable to adapt to life at school, was physically ill from homesickness. She was withdrawn from school by October, and replaced by Anne.\n\nAged 15, it was Anne's first time away from home, and she made few friends at Roe Head. She was quiet and hard working, and determined to stay and get the education she needed to support herself. She stayed for two years, winning a good-conduct medal in December 1836, and returning home only during Christmas and summer holidays. Anne and Charlotte do not appear to have been close while at Roe Head (Charlotte's letters almost never mention her) but Charlotte was concerned about her sister's health. Sometime before December 1837, Anne became seriously ill with gastritis and underwent a religious crisis. A Moravian minister was called to see her several times during her illness, suggesting her distress was caused, in part, by conflict with the local Anglican clergy. Charlotte wrote to her father who took Anne home where she remained while she recovered.\n", "Blake Hall, illustration, reproduced from photographs taken at the end of 19th century. It was demolished in 1954.\nIn 1839, a year after leaving the school and aged 19, she was seeking a teaching position. As the daughter of a poor clergyman, she needed to earn a living. Her father had no private income and the parsonage would revert to the church on his death. Teaching or working as governess for a family were among the few options available to poor but educated women. In April 1839, Anne started work as a governess for the Ingham family at Blake Hall, near Mirfield.\n\nThe children in her charge were spoilt and often disobedient. She had great difficulty controlling them and had little success in instilling any education. She was not empowered to inflict punishment, and when she complained about their behaviour received no support, but was criticised for not being capable. The Inghams, dissatisfied with their children's progress, dismissed Anne. She returned home at Christmas, 1839, joining Charlotte and Emily, who had left their positions, and Branwell. The episode at Blake Hall was so traumatic that she reproduced it in almost perfect detail in her novel, ''Agnes Grey''.\n", "On her return to Haworth, she met William Weightman (1814–1842), her father's new curate, who started work in the parish in August 1839. Aged 25, he had obtained a two-year licentiate in theology from the University of Durham. He was welcome at the parsonage. Her acquaintance with him parallels her writing a number of poems, which may suggest she fell in love with him although there is disagreement over this possibility. Little evidence exists beyond a teasing anecdote of Charlotte's to Ellen Nussey in January 1842.\n\nThe source of ''Agnes Grey'''s renewed interest in poetry is, however, the curate to whom she is attracted. William Weightman aroused much curiosity. It seems clear he was a good-looking, engaging young man, whose easy humour and kindness towards the sisters made a considerable impression. It is such a character that she portrays in Edward Weston, and that her heroine Agnes Grey finds deeply appealing.\n\nIf Anne formed an attachment to Weightman it does not imply that he was attracted to her. It is possible that Weightman was no more aware of her, her sisters or their friend Ellen Nussey. Nor does it imply that Anne believed him to be interested in her. If anything, her poems suggest the opposite–they speak of quietly experienced but intensely felt emotions, hidden from others, without any indication of being requited. It is possible that an initially mild attraction to Weightman assumed increasing importance to Anne over time, in the absence of other opportunities for love, marriage and children.\n\nAnne would have seen Weightman on her holidays at home, particularly during the summer of 1842 when her sisters were away. Weightman died of cholera in the same year. Anne expressed her grief for his death in her poem \"I will not mourn thee, lovely one\", in which she called him \"our darling\".\n", "Disputed portrait made by Branwell Brontë about 1833; sources are in disagreement over whether this image is of Emily or Anne.\nAnne obtained a second post as governess to the children of the Reverend Edmund Robinson and his wife Lydia, at Thorp Green Hall, a comfortable country house near York. Anne was employed at Thorp Green Hall from 1840 to 1845. The house appeared as Horton Lodge in her novel ''Agnes Grey''. Anne had four pupils: Lydia, aged 15, Elizabeth, aged 13, Mary, aged 12, and Edmund, aged 8. Initially, she encountered similar problems as she had experienced at Blake Hall. Anne missed her home and family, commenting in a diary paper in 1841 that she did not like her situation and wished to leave it. Her quiet, gentle disposition did not help. However, despite her outwardly placid appearance, Anne was determined and with experience, made a success of her position, becoming well liked by her employers. Her charges, the Robinson girls, became lifelong friends.\n\nFor the next five years, Anne spent no more than five or six weeks a year with her family, during holidays at Christmas and in June. The rest of her time was spent with the Robinsons at Thorp Green. She was obliged to accompany them on annual holidays to Scarborough. Between 1840 and 1844, Anne spent around five weeks each summer at the coastal town and loved the place. A number of locations in Scarborough were the setting for ''Agnes Grey'''s final scenes and for Linden-Car village in ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall''.\n\nWhilst working for the Robinsons, Anne and her sisters considered the possibility of setting up a school. Various locations including the parsonage were considered. The project never materialised and Anne chose to return to Thorp Green. She came home on the death of her aunt in early November 1842 while her sisters were in Brussels. Elizabeth Branwell left a £350 legacy (equivalent to £ in ) for each of her nieces.\n\nIt was at the Long Plantation at Thorp Green in 1842 that Anne wrote her three-verse poem ''Lines Composed in a Wood on a Windy Day'', which was published in 1846 under her pen-name of Acton Bell.\n\nAnne returned to Thorp Green in January 1843 where she secured a position for Branwell. He was to take over as tutor to the Robinsons' son, Edmund, who was growing too old to be in Anne's care. Branwell did not live in the house as Anne did. Anne's vaunted calm appears to have been the result of hard-fought battles, balancing deeply felt emotions with careful thought, a sense of responsibility and resolute determination. All three Brontë sisters worked as governesses or teachers, and all experienced problems controlling their charges, gaining support from their employers, and coping with homesickness—but Anne was the only one who persevered and made a success of her work.\n", "Brontë Parsonage Museum\nAnne and Branwell taught at Thorp Green for the next three years. Branwell entered into a secret relationship with his employer's wife, Lydia Robinson. When Anne and her brother returned home for the holidays in June 1846, she resigned her position. While Anne gave no reason for leaving Thorp Green, it is thought she wanted to leave on becoming aware of the relationship between her brother and Mrs Robinson. Branwell was dismissed when his employer found out about the relationship. Anne retained close ties to Elizabeth and Mary Robinson, exchanging letters even after Branwell's disgrace. The Robinson sisters came to visit Anne in December 1848.\n\nAnne took Emily to visit some of the places she had come to know and love in the five years spent with the Robinsons. A plan to visit Scarborough fell through and instead the sisters went to York where Anne showed her sister York Minster.\n", "Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. First edition\nDuring the summer of 1845, the Brontës were at home with their father. None had any immediate prospect of employment. Charlotte came across Emily's poems which had been shared only with Anne, her partner in the world of Gondal. Charlotte proposed that they be published. Anne revealed her own poems but Charlotte's reaction was characteristically patronising: \"I thought that these verses too had a sweet sincere pathos of their own\". Eventually the sisters reached an agreement. They told neither Branwell, nor their father, nor their friends about what they were doing. Anne and Emily each contributed 21 poems and Charlotte contributed 19 and with Aunt Branwell's money, they paid to have the collection published.\n\nAfraid their work would be judged differently if they revealed they were women, the book appeared using male pen names, the initials of which were the same as their own. Charlotte, Emily, and Anne respectively became Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. ''Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell'' was available for sale in May 1846. The cost of publication was about three-quarters of Anne's salary at Thorp Green. On 7 May 1846, the first three copies were delivered to Haworth Parsonage. It achieved three somewhat favourable reviews, but was a dismal failure, with only two copies being sold in the first year. Anne, however, found a market for her more recent poetry. The ''Leeds Intelligencer'' and ''Fraser's Magazine'' published her poem \"The Narrow Way\" under her pseudonym, Acton Bell in December 1848. Four months earlier, in August, Fraser's Magazine had published her poem \"The Three Guides\".\n", "\n===''Agnes Grey''===\n\nEven before the fate of the book of poems became apparent, the sisters began work on their first novels. Charlotte wrote ''The Professor'', Emily ''Wuthering Heights'', and Anne ''Agnes Grey''. By July 1846, a package with the three manuscripts was making the rounds of London publishers.\n\nAfter a number of rejections, Emily's ''Wuthering Heights'' and Anne's ''Agnes Grey'' were accepted by the publisher Thomas Cautley Newby, but Charlotte's novel was rejected by every publisher to whom it was sent. Charlotte was not long in completing her second novel, ''Jane Eyre''; it was immediately accepted by Smith, Elder & Co. and was the first to appear in print. While Anne and Emily's novels 'lingered in the press', Charlotte's second novel was an immediate and resounding success. Anne and Emily were obliged to pay fifty pounds to help meet their publishing costs. Their publisher, urged on by the success of ''Jane Eyre'', published Anne and Emily's novels in December 1847. They sold well, but ''Agnes Grey'' was outshone by Emily's more dramatic ''Wuthering Heights''.\n\n===''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall''===\n\n\n\nAnne's second novel, ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall'', was published in the last week of June 1848. It was an instant, phenomenal success; within six weeks it was sold out.\n\n''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall'' is perhaps amongst the most shocking of contemporary Victorian novels. In seeking to present the truth in literature, Anne's depiction of alcoholism and debauchery was profoundly disturbing to 19th-century sensibilities. Helen Graham, the tenant of the title, intrigues Gilbert Markham and gradually she reveals her past as an artist and wife of the dissipated Arthur Huntingdon. The book's brilliance lies in its revelation of the position of women at the time, and its multi-layered plot.\n\nIt is easy today to underestimate the extent to which the novel challenged existing social and legal structures. May Sinclair, in 1913, said that the slamming of Helen Huntingdon's bedroom door against her husband reverberated throughout Victorian England. Anne's heroine eventually left her husband to protect their young son from his influence. She supported herself and her son by painting while living in hiding, fearful of discovery. In doing so, she violated not only social conventions, but English law. Until 1870, when the Married Women's Property Act was passed, a married woman had no independent legal existence apart from her husband; could not own property, sue for divorce, or control custody of her children. If she attempted to live apart, her husband had the right to reclaim her. If she took their child, she was liable for kidnapping. By living on her own income she was held to be stealing her husband's property, since any property she held or income she made was legally his.\n\nIn the second edition of ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall'', which appeared in August 1848, Anne clearly stated her intentions in writing it. She presented a forceful rebuttal to critics (Charlotte was among them) who considered her portrayal of Huntingdon overly graphic and disturbing.\n\n\n\nAnne sharply castigated reviewers who speculated on the sex of the authors, and the appropriateness of their writing, in words that do little to reinforce the stereotype of Anne as meek and gentle.\n\n\n", "The offices of Smith, Elder & Co. at No. 65 Cornhill\nIn July 1848, to dispel the rumour that the \"Bell brothers\" were all the same person, Charlotte and Anne went to London to reveal their identities to Charlotte's publisher George Smith. Emily refused to go with them. The women spent several days in his company. Many years after Anne's death, he wrote in the Cornhill Magazine his impressions of her, describing her as:\n\"a gentle, quiet, rather subdued person, by no means pretty, yet of a pleasing appearance. Her manner was curiously expressive of a wish for protection and encouragement, a kind of constant appeal which invited sympathy.\"\n\nThe increasing popularity of the Bells' work led to renewed interest in the ''Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell'', originally published by Aylott and Jones. The remaining print run was bought by Smith and Elder, and reissued under new covers in November 1848. It still sold poorly.\n", "Although Anne and her sisters were only in their late twenties, a highly successful literary career appeared a certainty for them. However, an impending tragedy was to engulf the family. Within the next ten months, three of the siblings, including Anne, would be dead.\n\nBranwell's health had deteriorated over two years, but its seriousness was disguised by his persistent drunkenness. He died on the morning of 24 September 1848. His sudden death came as a shock to the family. He was aged 31. The cause was recorded as chronic bronchitis – marasmus; though it is now believed he was suffering from tuberculosis.\n\nThe family had suffered from coughs and colds during the winter of 1848, and Emily next became severely ill. She deteriorated rapidly over two months, persistently refusing all medical aid until the morning of 19 December, when, being very weak, she declared: \"if you will send for a doctor, I will see him now\". It was, however, far too late. At about two o'clock that afternoon, after a hard, short conflict in which she struggled desperately to hang on to life, she died, aged 30.\n\nEmily's death deeply affected Anne, and her grief undermined her physical health. Over Christmas, Anne caught influenza. Her symptoms intensified, and her father sent for a Leeds physician in early January. The doctor diagnosed her condition as consumption (tuberculosis) and intimated that it was quite advanced, leaving little hope of recovery. Anne met the news with characteristic determination and self-control. However, she expressed her frustration over unfulfilled ambitions in her letter to Ellen Nussey:\n\n\n\nUnlike Emily, Anne took all the recommended medicines and followed the advice she was given. That same month she wrote her last poem, \"A dreadful darkness closes in\", in which she deals with being terminally ill. Her health fluctuated as the months passed, but she progressively grew thinner and weaker.\n", "Anne Brontë's grave at Scarborough. The flowering plants have now been replaced by a slab.\nIn February 1849, Anne seemed somewhat better. She decided to make a return visit to Scarborough in the hope that the change of location and fresh sea air might initiate a recovery. Charlotte was initially against that journey, fearing that it would be too stressful for her sister, but the doctor's approval of this plan and Anne's assurance that it was the last hope, changed her mind. On 24 May 1849, Anne said her goodbyes to her father and the servants at Haworth, and set off for Scarborough with Charlotte and Ellen Nussey. En route, they spent a day and a night in York, where, escorting Anne around in a wheelchair, they did some shopping, and at Anne's request, visited York Minster. However, it was clear that Anne had little strength left.\nMemorial slab lying on the grave of Anne Brontë\nOn Sunday, 27 May, Anne asked Charlotte whether it would be easier if she returned home to die instead of remaining in Scarborough. A doctor, consulted the next day, indicated that death was close. Anne received the news quietly. She expressed her love and concern for Ellen and Charlotte, and seeing Charlotte's distress, whispered to her to \"take courage\". Conscious and calm, Anne died at about two o'clock in the afternoon, Monday, 28 May 1849.\n\nOver the following days, Charlotte made the decision to \"lay the flower where it had fallen\". Anne was buried, not in Haworth with the rest of her family, but in Scarborough. The funeral was held on Wednesday 30 May which did not allow time for Patrick Brontë to make the journey, had he wished to do so. The former schoolmistress at Roe Head, Miss Wooler, was in Scarborough and she was the only other mourner at Anne's funeral. She was buried in St Mary's churchyard, beneath the castle walls, overlooking the bay. Charlotte commissioned a stone to be placed over her grave, with the simple inscription \"Here lie the remains of Anne Brontë, daughter of the Revd P. Brontë, Incumbent of Haworth, Yorkshire. She died Aged 28 May 28th 1849\". When Charlotte visited the grave three years later, she discovered multiple errors on the headstone, and thus it was refaced. However, Anne's age at death was still written as 28 when, in fact, she was 29 when she died.\n\nIn 2011, the Brontë Society installed a new plaque at Anne Brontë's grave. Due to weathering and erosion, the original gravestone had become illegible at places and could not be restored. The original stone was left undisturbed, while the new plaque, laid horizontally, interpreted the fading words of the original, and also added a correction to the remaining error on the headstone (Anne's age at death). In April 2013, the Brontë Society held a dedication and blessing service at the gravesite to mark the installation of the new plaque.\n", "A year after Anne's death, further editions of her novels were reprinted but Charlotte prevented re-publication of ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall''. In 1850, Charlotte wrote \"''Wildfell Hall'' it hardly appears to me desirable to preserve. The choice of subject in that work is a mistake, it was too little consonant with the character, tastes and ideas of the gentle, retiring inexperienced writer.\" Subsequent critics paid less attention to Anne's work, and those such as Lane dismissed her as a \"a Brontë without genius\" and gave her output little consideration. However, in recent years, with increasing critical interest in female authors, her life has been re-examined and her work re-evaluated. Her interest in the topic of education has also been explored in publications such as The Brontes and Education, a Bronte Society Conference publication. Biographies by Winifred Gérin (1959), Elizabeth Langland (1989) and Edward Chitham (1991) as well as Juliet Barker's group biography, ''The Brontës'' (1994; revised edition 2000) and work by critics such as Inga-Stina Ewbank, Marianne Thormählen, Laura C Berry, Jan B Gordon, Mary Summers and Juliet McMaster, has led to her acceptance, not as a minor Brontë, but as a major literary figure in her own right. Sally McDonald of the Brontë Society said in 2013, \"In some ways though she is now viewed as the most radical of the sisters, writing about tough subjects such as women's need to maintain independence and how alcoholism can tear a family apart.\"\n", "\n", "* Alexander, Christine & Smith, Margaret, ''The Oxford Companion to the Brontës'', Oxford University Press, 2006, \n* Barker, Juliet, ''The Brontës'', St. Martin's Pr., \n* Chitham, Edward, ''A Life of Anne Brontë'', Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1991, \n* Fraser, Rebeca, ''The Brontës: Charlotte Brontë and her family'', Crown Publishers, 1988, \n* Gérin, Winifred, ''Anne Brontë'', Allen Lane, 1976, \n* Harrison, Ada and Stanford, Derek, ''Anne Brontë – Her Life and Work'', Archon Books, 1970 (first published 1959). \n", "* Allott, Miriam, ''The Brontës: The Critical Heritage'', 1984\n* Barker, Juliet, ''The Brontës'', 2000 (revised edition)\n* Chadwick, Ellis, ''In the Footsteps of the Brontës'', 1982\n* Chitham, Edward, ''A Life of Anne Brontë'', 1991\n* Chitham, Edward, ''A Brontë Family Chronology'', 2003\n* Eagleton, Terry, ''Myths of Power'', 1975\n* Langland, Elizabeth, ''Anne Brontë: The Other One'', 1989\n* Gérin, Winifred, ''Anne Brontë: A Biography'', 1959\n* Miller, Lucasta, ''The Brontë Myth'', 2001\n* Scott, P. J. M., ''Anne Brontë: A New Critical Assessment'', 1983\n* Summers, Mary, ''Anne Brontë Educating Parents'', 2003\n* Wise, T. J. and Symington, J. A. (eds.), ''The Brontës: Their Lives, Friendships and Correspondences'', 1932\n", "\n\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* Anne Brontë's biography and works at A Celebration of Women Writers\n* Anne Brontë eText Archive\n* Website of the Brontë Society and Brontë Parsonage Museum in Haworth\n* Anne Brontë – Writer Of Genius, biographical materials on Anne and her family \n* Anne Brontë – The Scarborough Connection, biographical materials and complete poems of Anne Brontë\n* Anne Bronte at Northwestern University, information about Anne and Victorian society, critical reception of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall\n* Anne Brontë – Her grave in Scarborough\n\n Music On Christmas Morning – Audio Poem\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Family background", "Early life", "Education", "Juvenilia", "Employment at Blake Hall", "William Weightman", "Governess", "Back at the parsonage", "A book of poems", "Novels", "London visit", "Family tragedies", "Death", "Reputation", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Anne Brontë
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Augustine of Hippo''' ( or ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was an early North African Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius in north Africa and is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are ''The City of God'' and ''Confessions.''\n\nAccording to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine \"established anew the ancient Faith.\" In his early years, he was influenced by Manichaeism and afterward by the neo-Platonism of Plotinus. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made seminal contributions to the development of just war theory. When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustine's ''On the Trinity''.\n\nAugustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Christian Church, and the Anglican Communion and as a preeminent Doctor of the Church. He is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death. Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him to be one of the theological fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation and divine grace. Lutherans, and Martin Luther in particular, have held Augustine in preeminence (after the Bible and St. Paul). Luther himself was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites (1505–1521).\n\nIn the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in the 20th century in particular come under attack by such theologians as John Romanides. But other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church. Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint, and has even had influence on some Eastern Church Fathers, most notably Saint Gregory Palamas. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 15 June. Church scholar and historian Diarmaid MacCulloch writes \"his impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example Paul of Tarsus, has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes.\"\n", "\n===Background===\nAugustine of Hippo (, , or ; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as ''Saint Augustine'', ''Saint Austin'', ( or ), is known by various cognomens throughout the Christian world across its many denominations including ''Blessed Augustine'', and the ''Doctor of Grace'' ()\n\nHippo Regius, where Augustine was the bishop, was in modern-day Annaba, Algeria, located in Numidia (Roman province of Africa).\n\n===Childhood and education===\n''The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica.'' by Niccolò di Pietro 1413–15\nAugustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) in Roman Africa. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian; his father Patricius was a Pagan who converted to Christianity on his deathbed. Scholars generally agree that Augustine and his family were Berbers, an ethnic group indigenous to North Africa, but that they were heavily Romanized, speaking only Latin at home as a matter of pride and dignity. In his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage. For example, he refers to Apuleius as \"the most notorious of us Africans,\" to Ponticianus as \"a country man of ours, insofar as being African,\" and to Faustus of Mileve as \"an African Gentleman.\"\n\nAugustine's family name, Aurelius, suggests that his father's ancestors were freedmen of the ''gens Aurelia'' given full Roman citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla in 212. Augustine's family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born. It is assumed that his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on the basis of her name, but as his family were ''honestiores'', an upper class of citizens known as honorable men, Augustine's first language is likely to have been Latin.\n\nAt the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madaurus (now M'Daourouch), a small Numidian city about south of Thagaste. There he became familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and practices. His first insight into the nature of sin occurred when he and a number of friends stole fruit they did not want from a neighborhood garden. He tells this story in his autobiography, ''The Confessions''. He remembers that he did not steal the fruit because he was hungry, but because \"it was not permitted.\" His very nature, he says, was flawed. 'It was foul, and I loved it. I loved my own error—not that for which I erred, but the error itself.\" From this incident he concluded the human person is naturally inclined to sin, and in need of the grace of Christ.\n\nAt the age of 17, through the generosity of his fellow citizen Romanianus, Augustine went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric. It was while he was a student in Carthage that he read Cicero's dialogue ''Hortensius'' (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression and sparking his interest in philosophy. Although raised as a Christian, Augustine left the church to follow the Manichaean religion, much to his mother's despair. As a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits. The need to gain their acceptance forced inexperienced boys like Augustine to seek or make up stories about sexual experiences. It was during this period that he uttered his famous prayer, \"Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet.\"\n\nAt about the age of 19, Augustine began an affair with a young woman in Carthage. Though his mother wanted him to marry a person of his class, the woman remained his lover for over fifteen years and gave birth to his son Adeodatus, who was viewed as extremely intelligent by his contemporaries. In 385, Augustine ended his relationship with his lover in order to prepare himself to marry a ten-year-old heiress. (He had to wait for two years because the legal age of marriage for women was twelve.) By the time he was able to marry her, however, he instead decided to become a celibate priest.\n\nAugustine was from the beginning a brilliant student, with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek—he tells us that his first Greek teacher was a brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he realized that he needed to know Greek, it was too late; and although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was never eloquent with it. However, his mastery of Latin was another matter. He became an expert both in the eloquent use of the language and in the use of clever arguments to make his points.\n\n===Move to Carthage, Rome, Milan===\nThe earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome\n\nAugustine taught grammar at Thagaste during 373 and 374. The following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric and would remain there for the next nine years. Disturbed by unruly students in Carthage, he moved to establish a school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced, in 383. However, Augustine was disappointed with the apathetic reception. It was the custom for students to pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the term, and many students attended faithfully all term, and then did not pay.\n\nManichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who while traveling through Carthage had been asked by the imperial court at Milan to provide a rhetoric professor. Augustine won the job and headed north to take his position in Milan in late 384. Thirty years old, he had won the most visible academic position in the Latin world at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers.\n\nAlthough Augustine showed some fervour for Manichaeism, he was never an initiate or \"elect\", but an \"auditor\", the lowest level in the sect's hierarchy. While still at Carthage a disappointing meeting with the Manichaean Bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of Manichaean theology, started Augustine's scepticism of Manichaeanism. In Rome, he reportedly turned away from Manichaeanism, embracing the scepticism of the New Academy movement. Because of his education, Augustine had great rhetorical prowess and was very knowledgeable of the philosophies behind many faiths. At Milan, his mother's religiosity, Augustine's own studies in Neoplatonism, and his friend Simplicianus all urged him towards Christianity. Initially Augustine was not strongly influenced by Christianity and its ideologies, but after coming in contact with Ambrose of Milan, Augustine reevaluated himself and was forever changed.\n\nLike Augustine, Ambrose was a master of rhetoric, but older and more experienced. Augustine was very much influenced by Ambrose, even more than by his own mother and others he admired. Augustine arrived in Milan and was immediately taken under the wing by Ambrose. Within his ''Confessions'', Augustine states, \"That man of God received me as a father would, and welcomed my coming as a good bishop should.\"\n\nSoon, their relationship grew, as Augustine wrote, \"And I began to love him, of course, not at the first as a teacher of the truth, for I had entirely despaired of finding that in thy Church—but as a friendly man.\" Augustine visited Ambrose in order to see if Ambrose was one of the greatest speakers and rhetoricians in the world. More interested in his speaking skills than the topic of speech, Augustine quickly discovered that Ambrose was a spectacular orator. Eventually, Augustine says that he was spiritually led into the faith of Christianity.\n\nAugustine's mother had followed him to Milan and arranged a marriage for him. Although Augustine accepted this marriage, for which he had to abandon his concubine, he was deeply hurt by the loss of his lover. He wrote, \"My mistress being torn from my side as an impediment to my marriage, my heart, which clave to her, was racked, and wounded, and bleeding.\" Augustine confessed that he was not a lover of wedlock so much as a slave of lust, so he procured another concubine since he had to wait two years until his fiancée came of age. However, his emotional wound was not healed, even began to fester.\n\nThere is evidence that Augustine may have considered this former relationship to be equivalent to marriage. In his ''Confessions'', he admitted that the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his eleven-year-old fiancée, but never renewed his relationship with either of his concubines. Alypius of Thagaste steered Augustine away from marriage, saying that they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine looked back years later on the life at Cassiciacum, a villa outside of Milan where he gathered with his followers, and described it as ''Christianae vitae otium'' – the Christian life of leisure.\n\n===Christian conversion and priesthood===\n''The Conversion of St. Augustine'' by Fra Angelico.\nIn late August of 386, at the age of 31, after having heard and been inspired and moved by the story of Ponticianus's and his friends' first reading of the life of Saint Anthony of the Desert, Augustine converted to Christianity. As Augustine later told it, his conversion was prompted by a childlike voice he heard telling him to \"take up and read\" (), which he took as a divine command to open the Bible and read the first thing he saw. Augustine read from Paul's Epistle to the Romans – the \"''Transformation of Believers''\" section, consisting of chapters 12 to 15 – wherein Paul outlines how the Gospel transforms believers, and the believers' resulting behaviour. The specific part to which Augustine opened his Bible was Romans chapter 13, verses 13 and 14, to wit:\n\n\nHe later wrote an account of his conversion – his very transformation, as Paul described – in his ''Confessions'' (), which has since become a classic of Christian theology and a key text in the history of autobiography. This work is an outpouring of thanksgiving and penitence. Although it is written as an account of his life, the ''Confessions'' also talks about the nature of time, causality, free will, and other important philosophical topics. The following is taken from that work:\n\n\n\nAmbrose baptized Augustine, along with his son Adeodatus, in Milan on Easter Vigil, April 24–25, 387. A year later, in 388, Augustine completed his apology ''On the Holiness of the Catholic Church''. That year, also, Adeodatus and Augustine returned home to Africa. Augustine's mother Monica died at Ostia, Italy, as they prepared to embark for Africa. Upon their arrival, they began a life of aristocratic leisure at Augustine's family's property. Soon after, Adeodatus, too, died. Augustine then sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. The only thing he kept was the family house, which he converted into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of friends.\n\nIn 391 Augustine was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius (now Annaba), in Algeria. He became a famous preacher (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean religion, to which he had formerly adhered.\n\nIn 395, he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo, and became full Bishop shortly thereafter, hence the name \"Augustine of Hippo\"; and he gave his property to the church of Thagaste. He remained in that position until his death in 430. He wrote his autobiographical ''Confessions'' in 397–398. His work ''The City of God'' was written to console his fellow Christians shortly after the Visigoths had sacked Rome in 410.\n\nAugustine worked tirelessly in trying to convince the people of Hippo to convert to Christianity. Though he had left his monastery, he continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence. He left a ''regula'' for his monastery that led to his designation as the \"patron saint of regular clergy.\"\n\nMuch of Augustine's later life was recorded by his friend Possidius, bishop of Calama (present-day Guelma, Algeria), in his ''Sancti Augustini Vita''. Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took every opportunity to defend Christianity against its detractors. Possidius also described Augustine's personal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the temptations of the flesh, and exercised prudence in the financial stewardship of his see.\n\n===Death and veneration===\nShortly before Augustine's death the Vandals, a Germanic tribe that had converted to Arianism, invaded Roman Africa. The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of 430, when Augustine entered his final illness. According to Possidius, one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine, the healing of an ill man, took place during the siege. According to Possidius, Augustine spent his final days in prayer and repentance, requesting that the penitential Psalms of David be hung on his walls so that he could read them. He directed that the library of the church in Hippo and all the books therein should be carefully preserved. He died on 28 August 430. Shortly after his death, the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo, but they returned not long thereafter and burned the city. They destroyed all of it but Augustine's cathedral and library, which they left untouched.\n\nAugustine was canonized by popular acclaim, and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII. His feast day is 28 August, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses.\n\n====Relics====\nAccording to Bede's ''True Martyrology'', Augustine's body was later translated or moved to Cagliari, Sardinia, by the Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by Huneric. Around 720, his remains were transported again by Peter, bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia, in order to save them from frequent coastal raids by Muslims. In January 1327, Pope John XXII issued the papal bull ''Veneranda Santorum Patrum'', in which he appointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augustine (called ''Arca''), which was remade in 1362 and elaborately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes from Augustine's life.\n\nIn October 1695, some workmen in the Church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia discovered a marble box containing some human bones (including part of a skull). A dispute arose between the Augustinian hermits (Order of Saint Augustine) and the regular canons (Canons Regular of Saint Augustine) as to whether these were the bones of Augustine. The hermits did not believe so; the canons affirmed that they were. Eventually Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) directed the Bishop of Pavia, Monsignor Pertusati, to make a determination. The bishop declared that, in his opinion, the bones were those of Saint Augustine.\n\nThe Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1700, taking refuge in Milan with the relics of Augustine, and the disassembled ''Arca'', which were removed to the cathedral there. San Pietro fell into disrepair, but was finally rebuilt in the 1870s, under the urging of Agostino Gaetano Riboldi, and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Augustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.\n", "\n\nAugustine's large contribution of writings covered diverse fields including theology, philosophy and sociology. Along with John Chrysostom, Augustine was among the most prolific scholars of the early church by quantity of surviving writings.\n\n===Theology===\n====Christian anthropology====\nAugustine was one of the first Christian ancient Latin authors with a very clear vision of theological anthropology. He saw the human being as a perfect unity of two substances: soul and body. In his late treatise ''On Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5'' (420 AD) he exhorted to respect the body on the grounds that it belonged to the very nature of the human person. Augustine's favourite figure to describe ''body-soul'' unity is marriage: ''caro tua, coniunx tua – your body is your wife''.\n\nInitially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the fall of humanity they are now experiencing dramatic combat between one another. They are two categorically different things. The body is a three-dimensional object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no spatial dimensions. Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, fit for ruling the body.\n\nAugustine was not preoccupied, as Plato and Descartes were, with going too much into details in efforts to explain the metaphysics of the soul-body union. It sufficed for him to admit that they are metaphysically distinct: to be a human is to be a composite of soul and body, and the soul is superior to the body. The latter statement is grounded in his hierarchical classification of things into those that merely exist, those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and have intelligence or reason.\n\nLike other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Basil of Caesarea, Augustine \"vigorously condemned the practice of induced abortion\", and although he disapproved of an abortion during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction between early abortions and later ones. He acknowledged the distinction between \"formed\" and \"unformed\" fetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation of , which is considered as wrong translation of the word \"harm\" from the original Hebrew text as \"form\" in the Greek Septuagint and based in Aristotelian distinction \"between the fetus before and after its supposed 'vivification'\", and did not classify as murder the abortion of an \"unformed\" fetus since he thought that it could not be said with certainty that the fetus had already received a soul.\n\nAugustine held that \"the timing of the infusion of the soul was a mystery known to God alone\". However, he considered procreation as one of the goods of marriage; abortion figured as a means, along with drugs which cause sterility, of frustrating this good. It lay along a continuum which included infanticide as an instance of ‘lustful cruelty’ or ‘cruel lust.’ Augustine called the use of means to avoid the birth of a child an ‘evil work:’ a reference to either abortion or contraception or both.\" Because of \"the defective science of his day\", Bishop Robert F. Vasa claims that Augustine would be convinced that an \"unformed\" fetus had already received a soul \"if Augustine had access to ultrasound images or if he had seen the film, ''The Silent Scream''.\"\n\n====Creation====\n\nIn ''City of God'', Augustine rejected both the immortality of the human race proposed by pagans, and contemporary ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed from the Church's sacred writings. In ''The Literal Interpretation of Genesis'', Augustine took the view that everything in the universe was created simultaneously by God, and not in seven calendar days like a literal interpretation of Genesis would require. He argued that the six-day structure of creation presented in the Book of Genesis represents a logical framework, rather than the passage of time in a physical way – it would bear a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less literal. One reason for this interpretation is the passage in Sirach 18:1, ''creavit omnia simul'' (\"He created all things at once\"), which Augustine took as proof that the days of Genesis 1 had to be taken non-literally.\n\nAugustine also does not envision original sin as causing structural changes in the universe, and even suggests that the bodies of Adam and Eve were already created mortal before the Fall. Apart from his specific views, Augustine recognizes that the interpretation of the creation story is difficult, and remarks that we should be willing to change our mind about it as new information comes up.\n\n====Ecclesiology====\n\n''St. Augustine'' by Carlo Crivelli\nAugustine developed his doctrine of the Church principally in reaction to the Donatist sect. He taught that there is one Church, but that within this Church there are two realities, namely, the visible aspect (the institutional hierarchy, the Catholic sacraments, and the laity) and the invisible (the souls of those in the Church, who are either dead, sinful members or elect predestined for Heaven). The former is the institutional body established by Christ on earth which proclaims salvation and administers the sacraments, while the latter is the invisible body of the elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages, and who are known only to God. The Church, which is visible and societal, will be made up of \"wheat\" and \"tares\", that is, good and wicked people (as per Mat. 13:30), until the end of time. This concept countered the Donatist claim that only those in a state of grace were the \"true\" or \"pure\" church on earth, and that priests and bishops who were not in a state of grace had no authority or ability to confect the sacraments.\n\nAugustine's ecclesiology was more fully developed in ''City of God''. There he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or kingdom, ruled by love, which will ultimately triumph over all earthly empires which are self-indulgent and ruled by pride. Augustine followed Cyprian in teaching that the bishops and priests of the Church are the successors of the Apostles, and that their authority in the Church is God-given.\n\n====Eschatology====\nAugustine originally believed in premillennialism, namely that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general resurrection, but later rejected the belief, viewing it as carnal. He was the first theologian to expound a systematic doctrine of amillennialism, although some theologians and Christian historians believe his position was closer to that of modern postmillennialists. The mediaeval Catholic church built its system of eschatology on Augustinian amillennialism, where Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church.\n\nDuring the Reformation theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism. Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death, and that purgatorial fires of the intermediate state purify only those that died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology.\n\n====Mariology====\nAlthough Augustine did not develop an independent Mariology, his statements on Mary surpass in number and depth those of other early writers. Even before the Council of Ephesus, he defended the Ever-Virgin Mary as the Mother of God, believing her to be \"full of grace\" (following earlier Latin writers such as Jerome) on account of her sexual integrity and innocence. Likewise, he affirmed that the Virgin Mary \"conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever.\"\n\n====Natural knowledge and biblical interpretation====\nAugustine took the view that, if a literal interpretation contradicts science and our God-given reason, the Biblical text should be interpreted metaphorically. While each passage of Scripture has a literal sense, this \"literal sense\" does not always mean that the Scriptures are mere history; at times they are rather an extended metaphor.\n\n====Original sin====\n\n\nPortrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century\nAugustine taught that the sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness (''insipientia'') followed by pride and disobedience to God or that pride came first. The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17). The tree was a symbol of the order of creation. Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values.\n\nThey would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom, if Satan hadn't sown into their senses \"the root of evil\" (''radix Mali''). Their nature was wounded by concupiscence or libido, which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire. In terms of metaphysics, concupiscence is not a being but bad quality, the privation of good or a wound.\n\nAugustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against Pelagius and his Pelagian disciples, Caelestius and Julian of Eclanum, who had been inspired by Rufinus of Syria, a disciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia. They refused to agree that original sin wounded human will and mind, insisting that the human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.\n\nLike Jovinian, Pelagians insisted that human affections and desires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, ''e.g.'' fornication, is exclusively a matter of will, ''i.e.'' a person does not use natural desires in a proper way. In opposition to that, Augustine pointed out the apparent disobedience of the flesh to the spirit, and explained it as one of the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eve's disobedience to God.\n\nAugustine had served as a \"Hearer\" for the Manichaeans for about nine years, who taught that the original sin was carnal knowledge. But his struggle to understand the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the age of nineteen. By ''malum'' (evil) he understood most of all concupiscence, which he interpreted as a vice dominating person and causing in men and women moral disorder. Agostino Trapè insists that Augustine's personal experience cannot be credited for his doctrine about concupiscence. He considers Augustine's marital experience to be quite normal, and even exemplary, aside from the absence of Christian wedding rites. As J. Brachtendorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of passions, to interpret Paul's doctrine of universal sin and redemption.\n\n''St. Augustine'' by Peter Paul Rubens\nThe view that not only human soul but also senses were influenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in Augustine's time among the Fathers of the Church. It is clear that the reason for Augustine's distancing from the affairs of the flesh was different from that of Plotinus, a neo-Platonist who taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind. Augustine taught the redemption, i.e. transformation and purification, of the body in the resurrection.\n\nSome authors perceive Augustine's doctrine as directed against human sexuality and attribute his insistence on continence and devotion to God as coming from Augustine's need to reject his own highly sensual nature as described in the ''Confessions''. But in view of his writings it is apparently a misunderstanding. Augustine taught that human sexuality has been wounded, together with the whole of human nature, and requires redemption of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal acts. The virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the grace of the sacrament of Christian marriage, which becomes therefore a ''remedium concupiscentiae'' – remedy of concupiscence. The redemption of human sexuality will be, however, fully accomplished only in the resurrection of the body.\n\nThe sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin is transmitted to his descendants by concupiscence, which he regarded as the passion of both, soul and body, making humanity a ''massa damnata'' (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will.\n\nAugustine's formulation of the doctrine of original sin was confirmed at numerous councils, ''i.e.'' Carthage (418), Ephesus (431), Orange (529), Trent (1546) and by popes, ''i.e.'' Pope Innocent I (401–417) and Pope Zosimus (417–418). Anselm of Canterbury established in his ''Cur Deus Homo'' the definition that was followed by the great 13th-century Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the \"privation of the righteousness which every man ought to possess\", thus separating it from ''concupiscence'', with which some of Augustine's disciples had defined it as later did Luther and Calvin. In 1567, Pope Pius V condemned the identification of Original Sin with concupiscence.\n\n====Predestination====\n\nAugustine taught that God orders all things while preserving human freedom. Prior to 396, he believed that predestination was based on God's foreknowledge of whether individuals would believe, that God's grace was \"a reward for human assent\". Later, in response to Pelagius, Augustine said that the sin of pride consists in assuming that \"we are the ones who choose God or that God chooses us (in his foreknowledge) because of something worthy in us\", and argued that God's grace causes individual act of faith.\n\nScholars are divided over whether Augustine's teaching implies double predestination, or the belief that God chooses some people for damnation as well as some for salvation. Catholic scholars tend to deny that he held such a view while some Protestants and secular scholars have held that Augustine did believe in double predestination. Some Protestant theologians, such as Justo L. González and Bengt Hägglund, interpret Augustine's teaching that grace is irresistible, results in conversion, and leads to perseverance.\n\nIn ''On Rebuke and Grace'' (''De correptione et gratia''), Augustine wrote: \"And what is written, that He wills all men to be saved, while yet all men are not saved, may be understood in many ways, some of which I have mentioned in other writings of mine; but here I will say one thing: He wills all men to be saved, is so said that all the predestinated may be understood by it, because every kind of men is among them.\"\n\n====Sacramental theology====\nSt. Augustine in His Study'' by Vittore Carpaccio, 1502\n\nAlso in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the \"regularity\" and \"validity\" of the sacraments. Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church, while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (''ex opere operato''); therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church. On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised. Augustine taught that sacraments administered outside the Catholic Church, though true sacraments, avail nothing. However, he also stated that baptism, while it does not confer any grace when done outside the Church, does confer grace as soon as one is received into the Catholic Church.\n\nAugustine upheld the early Christian understanding of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, saying that Christ's statement, \"This is my body\" referred to the bread he carried in his hands, and that Christians must have faith that the bread and wine are in fact the body and blood of Christ, despite what they see with their eyes.\n\nAgainst the Pelagians, Augustine strongly stressed the importance of infant baptism. About the question whether baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation, however, Augustine appears to have refined his beliefs during his lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians about his position. He said in one of his sermons that only the baptized are saved. This belief was shared by many early Christians. However, a passage from his ''City of God'', concerning the Apocalypse, may indicate that Augustine did believe in an exception for children born to Christian parents.\n\n===Philosophy===\n====Astrology====\nAugustine's contemporaries often believed astrology to be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were regarded as true men of learning and called ''mathemathici''. Astrology played a prominent part in Manichaean doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted by their books in his youth, being particularly fascinated by those who claimed to foretell the future. Later, as a bishop, he used to warn that one should avoid astrologers who combine science and horoscopes. (Augustine's term \"mathematici\", meaning \"astrologers\", is sometimes mistranslated as \"mathematicians\".) According to Augustine, they were not genuine students of Hipparchus or Eratosthenes but \"common swindlers\".\n\n====Epistemology====\nEpistemological concerns shaped Augustine's intellectual development. His early dialogues ''Contra academicos'' (386) and ''De Magistro'' (389), both written shortly after his conversion to Christianity, reflect his engagement with sceptical arguments and show the development of his doctrine of divine illumination. The doctrine of illumination claims that God plays an active and regular part in human perception (as opposed to God designing the human mind to be reliable consistently, as in, for example, Descartes' idea of clear and distinct perceptions) and understanding by illuminating the mind so that human beings can recognize intelligible realities that God presents. According to Augustine, illumination is obtainable to all rational minds, and is different from other forms of sense perception. It is meant to be an explanation of the conditions required for the mind to have a connection with intelligible entities.\n\nAugustine also posed the problem of other minds throughout different works, most famously perhaps in ''On the Trinity'' (VIII.6.9), and developed what has come to be a standard solution: the argument from analogy to other minds. In contrast to Plato and other earlier philosophers, Augustine recognized the centrality of testimony to human knowledge and argued that what others tell us can provide knowledge even if we don't have independent reasons to believe their testimonial reports.\n\n====Just war====\n\nAugustine asserted that Christians should be pacifists as a personal, philosophical stance. However, peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could only be stopped by violence would be a sin. Defence of one's self or others could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a legitimate authority. While not breaking down the conditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine coined the phrase in his work ''The City of God''. In essence, the pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting for its long-term preservation. Such a war could not be pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace. Thomas Aquinas, centuries later, used the authority of Augustine's arguments in an attempt to define the conditions under which a war could be just.\n\n====Free will====\nIncluded in Augustine's theodicy is the claim that God created humans and angels as rational beings possessing free will. Free will was not intended for sin, meaning it is not equally predisposed to both good and evil. A will defiled by sin is not considered as \"free\" as it once was because it is bound by material things, which could be lost or be difficult to part with, resulting in unhappiness. Sin impairs free will, while grace restores it. Only a will that was once free can be subjected to sin's corruption.\n\nThe Catholic Church considers Augustine's teaching to be consistent with free will. He often said that anyone can be saved if they wish. While God knows who will and won't be saved, with no possibility for the latter to be saved in their lives, this knowledge represents God's perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their destinies.\n\n===Sociology, morals and ethics===\n====Slavery====\nAugustine led many clergy under his authority at Hippo to free their slaves \"as an act of piety.\" He boldly wrote a letter urging the emperor to set up a new law against slave traders and was very much concerned about the sale of children. Christian emperors of his time for 25 years had permitted sale of children, not because they approved of the practice, but as a way of preventing infanticide when parents were unable to care for a child. Augustine noted that the tenant farmers in particular were driven to hire out or to sell their children as a means of survival.\n\nIn his book, ''The City of God'', he presents the development of slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to God's divine plan. He wrote that God \"did not intend that this rational creature, who was made in his image, should have dominion over anything but the irrational creation – not man over man, but man over the beasts.\" Thus he wrote that righteous men in primitive times were made shepherds of cattle, not kings over men. \"The condition of slavery is the result of sin\", he declared. In ''The City of God'', Augustine wrote he felt slavery was not a punishment. He wrote: \"Slavery is not penal in character and planned by that law which commands the preservation of the natural order and forbids disturbance.\"\n\n====Jews====\nAgainst certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered that God had chosen the Jews as a special people, and he considered the scattering of Jewish people by the Roman Empire to be a fulfillment of prophecy. He rejected homicidal attitudes, quoting part of the same prophecy, namely \"Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law\" (Psalm 59:11). Augustine, who believed Jewish people would be converted to Christianity at \"the end of time\", argued that God had allowed them to survive their dispersion as a warning to Christians; as such, he argued, they should be permitted to dwell in Christian lands. The sentiment sometimes attributed to Augustine that Christians should let the Jews \"survive but not thrive\" (it is repeated by author James Carroll in his book ''Constantine's Sword'', for example) is apocryphal and is not found in any of his writings.\n\n====Sexuality====\nFor Augustine, the evil of sexual immorality was not in the sexual act itself, but rather in the emotions that typically accompany it. In ''On Christian Doctrine'' Augustine contrasts love, which is enjoyment on account of God, and lust, which is not on account of God. Augustine claims that, following the Fall, sexual passion has become necessary for copulation (as required to stimulate male erection), sexual passion is an evil result of the Fall, and therefore, evil must inevitably accompany sexual intercourse (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 1.19). Therefore, following the Fall, even marital sex carried out merely to procreate the species inevitably perpetuates evil (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 1.27; ''A Treatise against Two Letters of the Pelagians'' 2.27). For Augustine, proper love exercises a denial of selfish pleasure and the subjugation of corporeal desire to God. The only way to avoid evil caused by sexual intercourse is to take the \"better\" way (''Confessions'' 8.2) and abstain from marriage (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 1.31). Sex within marriage is not, however, for Augustine a sin, although necessarily producing the evil of sexual passion. Based on the same logic, Augustine also declared the pious virgins raped during the sack of Rome to be innocent because they did not intend to sin nor enjoy the act.\n\nBefore the Fall, Augustine believed that sex was a passionless affair, \"just like many a laborious work accomplished by the compliant operation of our other limbs, without any lascivious heat\"; the penis would have been engorged for sexual intercourse \"simply by the direction of the will, not excited by the ardour of concupiscence\" (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 2.29; cf. ''City of God'' 14.23). After the Fall, by contrast, the penis cannot be controlled by mere will, subject instead to both unwanted impotence and involuntary erections: \"Sometimes the urge arises unwanted; sometimes, on the other hand, it forsakes the eager lover, and desire grows cold in the body while burning in the mind... It arouses the mind, but it does not follow through what it has begun and arouse the body also\" (''City of God'' 14.16).\n\nAugustine believed that Adam and Eve had both already chosen in their hearts to disobey God's command not to eat of the Tree of Knowledge before Eve took the fruit, ate it, and gave it to Adam. Accordingly, Augustine did not believe that Adam was any less guilty of sin. Augustine does praise women and their role in society and in the Church. In his ''Tractates on the Gospel of John'', Augustine, commenting on the Samaritan woman from John 4:1–42, uses the woman as a figure of the Church in agreement with the New Testament teaching that the Church is the bride of Christ. \"Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her.\" \n\n====Pedagogy====\nSaint Augustine in His Study'' by Sandro Botticelli, 1494, Uffizi Gallery\nAugustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education. A work early in Augustine's writings is ''De Magistro'' (On the Teacher), which contains insights about education. His ideas changed as he found better directions or better ways of expressing his ideas. In the last years of his life Saint Augustine wrote his ''Retractationes'', reviewing his writings and improving specific texts. Henry Chadwick believes an accurate translation of \"retractationes\" may be \"reconsiderations\". Reconsiderations can be seen as an overarching theme of the way Saint Augustine learned. Augustine's understanding of the search for understanding, meaning, and truth as a restless journey leaves room for doubt, development, and change.\n\nAugustine was a strong advocate of critical thinking skills. Because written works were still rather limited during this time, spoken communication of knowledge was very important. His emphasis on the importance of community as a means of learning distinguishes his pedagogy from some others. Augustine believed that dialectic is the best means for learning and that this method should serve as a model for learning encounters between teachers and students. Saint Augustine's dialogue writings model the need for lively interactive dialogue among learners.\n\nHe recommended adapting educational practices to fit the students' educational backgrounds:\n* the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers;\n* the student who has had no education; and\n* the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated.\n\nIf a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already learned, but to challenge the student with material which they do not yet know thoroughly. With the student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one with an inferior education who believes he understands something when he does not. Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of student the difference between \"having words and having understanding\" and of helping the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge.\n\nUnder the influence of Bede, Alcuin, and Rabanus Maurus, ''De catechizandis rudibus'' came to exercise an important role in the education of clergy at the monastic schools, especially from the eighth century onwards.\n\nAugustine believed that students should be given an opportunity to apply learned theories to practical experience. Yet another of Augustine's major contributions to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when speaking to the students. The ''mixed style'' includes complex and sometimes showy language to help students see the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The ''grand style'' is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the same passion in the students' hearts. Augustine balanced his teaching philosophy with the traditional Bible-based practice of strict discipline.\n", "\n''Saint Augustine'' painting by Antonio Rodríguez\nAugustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists of more than one hundred separate titles. They include apologetic works against the heresies of the Arians, Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians; texts on Christian doctrine, notably ''De Doctrina Christiana'' (''On Christian Doctrine''); exegetical works such as commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms and Paul's Letter to the Romans; many sermons and letters; and the ''Retractationes'', a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end of his life.\n\nApart from those, Augustine is probably best known for his ''Confessions'', which is a personal account of his earlier life, and for ''De civitate Dei'' (''The City of God'', consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His ''On the Trinity'', in which he developed what has become known as the 'psychological analogy' of the Trinity, is also considered to be among his masterpieces, and arguably one of the greatest theological works of all time. He also wrote ''On Free Choice of the Will'' (''De libero arbitrio''), addressing why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil.\n", "''Saint Augustine Disputing with the Heretics'' painting by Verges Group\n\nIn both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neoplatonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, author of the ''Enneads'', probably through the mediation of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). Although he later abandoned Neoplatonism, some ideas are still visible in his early writings. His early and influential writing on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. He was also influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his teaching on language), and Cicero (known for his teaching on argument).\n\n===In philosophy===\nPhilosopher Bertrand Russell was impressed by Augustine's meditation on the nature of time in the ''Confessions'', comparing it favourably to Kant's version of the view that time is subjective. Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists outside of time in the \"eternal present\"; that time only exists within the created universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study ''The Art of Memory'' argues that a brief passage of the ''Confessions'', 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large amounts of information.\n\n''Saint Augustine Meditates on the Trinity when the Child Jesus Appears before him'' by Vergós Group\nAugustine's philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his ''Confessions'', had continuing influence on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and time anticipated and inspired the insights of modern phenomenology and hermeneutics. Edmund Husserl writes: \"The analysis of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker to be deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem.\"\n\nMartin Heidegger refers to Augustine's descriptive philosophy at several junctures in his influential work ''Being and Time''. Hannah Arendt began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on Augustine's concept of love, ''Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin'' (1929): \"The young Arendt attempted to show that the philosophical basis for ''vita socialis'' in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love, grounded in his understanding of the common origin of humanity.\"\n\nJean Bethke Elshtain in ''Augustine and the Limits of Politics'' tried to associate Augustine with Arendt in their concept of evil: \"Augustine did not see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which produced the Holocaust as merely banal in ''Eichmann in Jerusalem''.\"\n\nAugustine's philosophical legacy continues to influence contemporary critical theory through the contributions and inheritors of these 20th-century figures. Seen from a historical perspective, there are three main perspectives on the political thought of Augustine: first, political Augustinianism; second, Augustinian political theology; and third, Augustinian political theory.\n\n===In theology===\nThomas Aquinas was influenced heavily by Augustine. On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen man their natural powers even after the Fall, without \"supernatural gifts\". While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine taught that Adam's guilt as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty (see total depravity).\n\nAccording to Leo Ruickbie, Augustine's arguments against magic, differentiating it from miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against paganism and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and witchcraft. According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustine's vision of the heavenly city has influenced the secular projects and traditions of the Enlightenment, Marxism, Freudianism and eco-fundamentalism. Post-Marxist philosophers Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt rely heavily on Augustine's thought, particularly ''The City of God'', in their book of political philosophy ''Empire''.\n\nAugustine has influenced many modern-day theologians and authors such as John Piper. Hannah Arendt, an influential 20th-century political theorist, wrote her doctoral dissertation in philosophy on Augustine, and continued to rely on his thought throughout her career. Ludwig Wittgenstein extensively quotes Augustine in ''Philosophical Investigations'' for his approach to language, both admiringly, and as a sparring partner to develop his own ideas, including an extensive opening passage from the ''Confessions''. Contemporary linguists have argued that Augustine has significantly influenced the thought of Ferdinand de Saussure, who did not 'invent' the modern discipline of semiotics, but rather built upon Aristotelian and Neoplatonist knowledge from the Middle Ages, via an Augustinian connection: \"as for the constitution of Saussurian semiotic theory, the importance of the Augustinian thought contribution (correlated to the Stoic one) has also been recognized. Saussure did not do anything but reform an ancient theory in Europe, according to the modern conceptual exigencies.\"\n\nIn his autobiographical book ''Milestones'', Pope Benedict XVI claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought.\n\n===Oratorio===\n''The Consecration of Saint Augustine'' by Jaume Huguet\n\nMuch of Augustine's conversion is dramatized in the oratorio ''La conversione di Sant'Agostino'' (1750) composed by Johann Adolph Hasse. The libretto for this oratorio, written by Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria, draws upon the influence of Metastasio (the finished libretto having been edited by him) and is based off an earlier five-act play ''Idea perfectae conversionis dive Augustinus'' written by the Jesuit priest Franz Neumayr. In the libretto Augustine's mother Monica is presented as a prominent character that is worried that Augustine might not convert to Christianity. As Dr. Andrea Palent says: Throughout the oratorio Augustine shows his willingness to turn to God, but the burden of the act of conversion weighs heavily on him. This is displayed by Hasse through extended recitative passages.\n", "\n\n", "\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n\n===Further reading===\n\n", "\n\n\n\n===General===\n* \"Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in English)\" from Augustinus.it\n* \"Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in French)\" from Abbey Saint Benoît de Port-Valais\n* \"Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in Spanish)\" from Mercaba, Catholic leaders' website\n* \"Works by Saint Augustine\" from CCEL.org\n* \n* \n* \n* \"St. Augustine, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of the Church\", ''Butler's Lives of the Saints''\n* Augustine of Hippo edited by James J. O'Donnell – texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc.\n* Augustine's Theory of Knowledge\n* \"Saint Augustine of Hippo\" at the Christian Iconography website\n* \"The Life of St. Austin, or Augustine, Doctor\" from the Caxton translation of the ''Golden Legend''\n* David Lindsay: Saint Augustine – Doctor Gratiae\n* St. Augustine – A Male Chauvinist? , Fr. Edmund Hill, OP. Talk given to the Robert Hugh Benson Graduate Society at Fisher House, Cambridge, on 22 November 1994.\n* St. Augustine Timeline – Church History Timelines\n* Giovanni Domenico Giulio: ''Nachtgedanken des heiligen Augustinus.'' Trier 1843 \n\n===Bibliography===\n* Augustine of Hippo at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles\n* Bibliography on St. Augustine Started by T.J. van Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium\n\n===Works by Augustine===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* St. Augustine at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library\n* Augustine against Secundinus in English.\n* Aurelius Augustinus at \"IntraText Digital Library\" – texts in several languages, with concordance and frequency list\n* Augustinus.it – Latin, Spanish and Italian texts\n* Sanctus Augustinus at Documenta Catholica Omnia – Latin\n* City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine audio books\n* \n* Digitized manuscript created in France between 1275 and 1325 with extract of Augustine of Hippo works at SOMNI\n* Expositio Psalmorum beati Augustini – digitized codex created between 1150 and 1175, also known as \"Enarrationes in Psalmos. 1–83\", at SOMNI\n* Aurelii Agustini Hipponae episcopi super loannem librum – digitized codex created in 1481; his sermons about John's Gospel at SOMNI\n* ''Sententiae ex omnibus operibus Divi Augustini decerptae'' – digitized codex created in 1539; at Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences\n\n===Biography and criticism===\n* Order of St Augustine\n* Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church\n* Augustine's World: An Introduction to His Speculative Philosophy by Donald Burt, OSA, member of the Augustinian Order, Villanova University\n* Tabula in librum Sancti Augustini De civitate Dei by Robert Kilwardby, digitized manuscript of 1464 at SOMNI\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Views and thought", "Works", "Influence", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Augustine of Hippo
[ "\n\n\n\nFrench stage and early film actress Sarah Bernhardt as Hamlet\nActors in samurai and ronin costume at the Kyoto Eigamura film set\n'''Acting''' is an activity in which a story is told by means of its enactment by an actor or actress who adopts a character—in theatre, television, film, radio, or any other medium that makes use of the mimetic mode.\n\nActing involves a broad range of skills, including a well-developed imagination, emotional facility, physical expressivity, vocal projection, clarity of speech, and the ability to interpret drama. Acting also demands an ability to employ dialects, accents, improvisation, observation and emulation, mime, and stage combat. Many actors train at length in specialist programmes or colleges to develop these skills. The vast majority of professional actors have undergone extensive training. Actors and actresses will often have many instructors and teachers for a full range of training involving singing, scene-work, audition techniques, and acting for camera.\n\nMost early sources in the West that examine the art of acting (, ''hypokrisis'') discuss it as part of rhetoric.\n\n== History of acting ==\n\n\n===The first actor===\n\nOne of the first actors is believed to have been an ancient Greek called Thespis of Icaria. Writing two centuries after the event, Aristotle in his ''Poetics'' (c. 335 BCE) suggests that Thespis stepped out of the dithyrambic chorus and addressed it as a separate character. Before Thespis, the chorus narrated (for example, \"Dionysus did this, Dionysus said that\"). When Thespis stepped out from the chorus, he spoke as if he was the character (for example, \"I am Dionysus. I did this\"). To distinguish between these different modes of storytelling—enactment and narration—Aristotle uses the terms \"mimesis\" (via enactment) and \"diegesis\" (via narration). From Thespis' name derives the word \"thespian\".\n", "\nA professional actor is someone who is paid to act. Professional actors sometimes undertake unpaid work for a variety of reasons, including educational purposes or for charity events. Amateur actors are those who do not receive payment for performances.\n\nNot all people working as actors in film, television, or theatre are professionally trained. Bob Hoskins, for example, had no formal training before becoming an actor.\n", "\nStanislavski began to develop his 'system' of actor training, which forms the basis for most professional training in the West.\nConservatories and drama schools typically offer two- to four-year training on all aspects of acting. Universities mostly offer three- to four-year programs, in which a student is often able to choose to focus on acting, whilst continuing to learn about other aspects of theatre. Schools vary in their approach, but in North America the most popular method taught derives from the 'system' of Konstantin Stanislavski, which was developed and popularised in America as method acting by Lee Strasberg, Stella Adler, Sanford Meisner, and others.\n\nOther approaches may include a more physically based orientation, such as that promoted by theatre practitioners as diverse as Anne Bogart, Jacques Lecoq, Jerzy Grotowski, or Vsevolod Meyerhold. Classes may also include psychotechnique, mask work, physical theatre, improvisation, and acting for camera.\n\nRegardless of a school's approach, students should expect intensive training in textual interpretation, voice, and movement. Applications to drama programmes and conservatories usually involve extensive auditions. Anybody over the age of 18 can usually apply. Training may also start at a very young age. Acting classes and professional schools targeted at under-18s are widespread. These classes introduce young actors to different aspects of acting and theatre, including scene study.\n\nIncreased training and exposure to public speaking allows humans to maintain calmer and more relaxed physiologically. By measuring a public speaker’s heart rate maybe one of the easiest ways to judge shifts in stress as the heart rate increases with anxiety . As actors increase performances, heart rate and other evidence of stress can decrease. This is very important in training for actors, as adaptive strategies gained from increased exposure to public speaking can regulate implicit and explicit anxiety. By attending an institution with a specialization in acting, increased opportunity to act will lead to more relaxed physiology and decrease in stress and its effects on the body. These effects can vary from hormonal to cognitive health that can impact quality of life and performance \n", "\nTwo masked characters from the ''commedia dell'arte'', whose \"''lazzi''\" involved a significant degree of improvisation.\nSome classical forms of acting involve a substantial element of improvised performance. Most notable is its use by the troupes of the ''commedia dell'arte'', a form of masked comedy that originated in Italy.\n\nImprovisation as an approach to acting formed an important part of the Russian theatre practitioner Konstantin Stanislavski's 'system' of actor training, which he developed from the 1910s onwards. Late in 1910, the playwright Maxim Gorky invited Stanislavski to join him in Capri, where they discussed training and Stanislavski's emerging \"grammar\" of acting. Inspired by a popular theatre performance in Naples that utilised the techniques of the ''commedia dell'arte'', Gorky suggested that they form a company, modelled on the medieval strolling players, in which a playwright and group of young actors would devise new plays together by means of improvisation. Stanislavski would develop this use of improvisation in his work with his First Studio of the Moscow Art Theatre. Stanislavski's use was extended further in the approaches to acting developed by his students, Michael Chekhov and Maria Knebel.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, the use of improvisation was pioneered by Joan Littlewood from the 1930s onwards and, later, by Keith Johnstone and Clive Barker. In the United States, it was promoted by Viola Spolin, after working with Neva Boyd at a Hull House in Chicago, Illinois (Spolin was Boyd's student from 1924 to 1927). Like the British practitioners, Spolin felt that playing games was a useful means of training actors and helped to improve an actor's performance. With improvisation, she argued, people may find expressive freedom, since they do not know how an improvised situation will turn out. Improvisation demands an open mind in order to maintain spontaneity, rather than pre-planning a response. A character is created by the actor, often without reference to a dramatic text, and a drama is developed out of the spontenous interactions with other actors. This approach to creating new drama has been developed most substantially by the British filmmaker Mike Leigh, in films such as ''Secrets & Lies'' (1996), ''Vera Drake'' (2004), ''Another Year'' (2010), and ''Mr. Turner'' (2014).\n\nImprovisation is also used to cover up if an actor or actress makes a mistake.\n", "Speaking or acting in front of an audience is a stressful situation, which causes an increased heart rate(Baldwin, 1980 Lacey, 1995).\n\nIn a 2017 study on American university students, actors of various experience levels all showed similarly elevated heart rates throughout their performances; this agrees with previous studies on professional and amateur actors' heart rates(Konijin,1993). While all actors experienced stress, causing elevated heart rate, the more experienced actors displayed less heart rate variability than the less experienced actors in the same play. The more experienced actors experienced less stress while performing, and therefore had a smaller degree of variability than the less experienced, more stressed actors. The more experienced an actor is, the more stable their heart rate will be while performing, but will still experience elevated heart rates.\n", "Antonin Artaud compared the effect of an actor's performance on an audience in his \"Theatre of Cruelty\" with the way in which a snake charmer affects snakes.\nThe semiotics of acting involves a study of the ways in which aspects of a performance come to operate for its audience as signs. This process largely involves the production of meaning, whereby elements of an actor's performance acquire significance, both within the broader context of the dramatic action and in the relations each establishes with the real world.\n\nFollowing the ideas proposed by the Surrealist theorist Antonin Artaud, however, it may also be possible to understand communication with an audience that occurs 'beneath' significance and meaning (which the semiotician Félix Guattari described as a process involving the transmission of \"a-signifying signs\"). In his ''The Theatre and its Double'' (1938), Artaud compared this interaction to the way in which a snake charmer communicates with a snake, a process which he identified as \"mimesis\"—the same term that Aristotle in his ''Poetics'' (c. 335 BCE) used to describe the mode in which drama communicates its story, by virtue of its embodiment by the actor enacting it, as distinct from \"diegesis\", or the way in which a narrator may describe it. These \"vibrations\" passing from the actor to the audience may not necessarily precipiate into significant elements as such (that is, consciously perceived \"meanings\"), but rather may operate by means of the circulation of \"affects\".\n\nThe approach to acting adopted by other theatre practitioners involve varying degrees of concern with the semiotics of acting. Konstantin Stanislavski, for example, addresses the ways in which an actor, building on what he calls the \"experiencing\" of a role, should also shape and adjust a performance in order to support the overall significance of the drama—a process that he calls establishing the \"perspective of the role\". The semiotics of acting plays a far more central role in Bertolt Brecht's epic theatre, in which an actor is concerned to bring out clearly the sociohistorical significance of behaviour and action by means of specific performance choices—a process that he describes as establishing the \"not/but\" element in a performed physical \"''gestus''\" within context of the play's overal \"''Fabel''\". Eugenio Barba argues that actors ought not to concern themselves with the significance of their performance behaviour; this aspect is the responsibility, he claims, of the director, who weaves the signifying elements of an actor's performance into the director's dramaturgical \"montage\".\n\nThe theatre semiotician Patrice Pavis, alluding to the contrast between Stanislavski's 'system' and Brecht's demonstrating performer—and, beyond that, to Denis Diderot's foundational essay on the art of acting, ''Paradox of the Actor'' (c. 1770—78)—argues that:\nActing was long seen in terms of the actor's sincerity or hypocrisy—should he believe in what he is saying and be moved by it, or should he distance himself and convey his role in a detached manner? The answer varies according to how one sees the effect to be produced in the audience and the social function of theatre.\n\nElements of a semiotics of acting include the actor's gestures, facial expressions, intonation and other vocal qualities, rhythm, and the ways in which these aspects of an individual performance relate to the drama and the theatrical event (or film, television programme, or radio broadcast, each of which involves different semiotic systems) considered as a whole. A semiotics of acting recognises that all forms of acting involve conventions and codes by means of which performance behaviour acquires significance—including those approaches, such as Stanislvaski's or the closely related method acting developed in the United States, that offer themselves as \"a natural kind of acting that can do without conventions and be received as self-evident and universal.\" Pavis goes on to argue that:\nAny acting is based on a codified system (even if the audience does not see it as such) of behaviour and actions that are considered to be believable and realistic or artificial and theatrical. To advocate the natural, the spontaneous, and the instinctive is only to attempt to produce natural effects, governed by an ideological code that determines, at a particular historical time, and for a given audience, what is natural and believable and what is declamatory and theatrical.\nThe conventions that govern acting in general are related to structured forms of play, which involve, in each specific experience, \"rules of the game.\" This aspect was first explored by Johan Huizinga (in ''Homo Ludens'', 1938) and Roger Caillois (in ''Man, Play and Games'', 1958). Caillois, for example, distinguishes four apects of play relevant to acting: ''mimesis'' (simulation), ''agon'' (conflict or competition), ''alea'' (chance), and ''illinx'' (vertigo, or \"vertiginous psychological situations\" involving the spectator's identification or catharsis). This connection with play as an activity was first proposed by Aristotle in his ''Poetics'', in which he defines the desire to imitate in play as an essential part of being human and our first means of learning as children:\nFor it is an instinct of human beings, from childhood, to engage in mimesis (indeed, this distinguishes them from other animals: man is the most mimetic of all, and it is through mimesis that he develops his earliest understanding); and equally natural that everyone enjoys mimetic objects. (IV, 1448b)\nThis connection with play also informed the words used in English (as was the analogous case in many other European languages) for drama: the word \"play\" or \"game\" (translating the Anglo-Saxon ''plèga'' or Latin ''ludus'') was the standard term used until William Shakespeare's time for a dramatic entertainment—just as its creator was a \"play-maker\" rather than a \"dramatist\", the person acting was known as a \"player\", and, when in the Elizabethan era specific buildings for acting were built, they was known as \"play-houses\" rather than \"theatres.\"\n", "Rehearsal is a process in which actors prepare and practice a performance, exploring the vicissitudes of conflict between characters, testing specific actions in the scene, and finding means to convey a particular sense. Some actors continue to rehearse a scene throughout the run of a show in order to keep the scene fresh in their minds and exciting for the audience.\n", "A critical audience with evaluative spectators is known to induce stress on actors during performance, (see Bode & Brutten) and an actor will typically rate the quality of their performance higher than their spectators. Heart rates are generally always higher during a performance with an audience when compared to rehearsal, however what's interesting is that this audience also seems to induce a higher quality of performance. Simply put, while public performances cause extremely high stress levels in actors (more so amateur ones), the stress actually improves the performance, supporting the idea of \"positive stress in challenging situations\"\n", "Depending on what an actor is doing, his or her heart rate will vary. This is the body's way of responding to stress. Prior to a show you will see an increase in heart rate due to anxiety. While performing an actor has an increased sense of exposure which will increase performance anxiety and the associated physiological arousal, such as heart rate. Heart rates increases more during shows compared to rehearsals because of the increased pressure, which is due to the fact that a performance has a potentially greater impact on an actors career. After the show you will see a decrease in the heart rate due to the conclusion of the stress inducing activity. Often the heart rate will return to normal after the show or performance is done; however, during the applause after the performance there is a rapid spike in heart rate. This can be seen not only in actors but also with public speaking and musicians.\n\n=== Stress ===\n\nThere is a correlation between heart-rate and stress when actors' are performing in front of an audience. Actors claim that having an audience has no change in their stress level, but as soon as they come on stage their heart-rate rises quickly. A 2017 study done in an American University looking at actors' stress by measuring heart-rate showed individual heart-rates rose right before the performance began for those actors opening. There are many factors that can add to an actors' stress. For example, length of monologues, experience level, and actions done on stage including moving the set. Throughout the performance heart-rate rises the most before an actor is speaking. The stress and thus heart-rate of the actor then drops significantly at the end of a monologue, big action scene, or performance. This idea of getting stressed during the anticipation period for any big moment happening is applied throughout the performance. Stress therefore is a bigger impact on the actors overall performance whether motivating or pressuring them to give a more proficient end performance.\n", "\n* Biomechanics\n* Meisner technique\n* Method acting\n* Presentational and representational acting\n* Stanislavski's system\n* Viewpoints\n* Lists of actors\n", "\n", "\n* Boleslavsky, Richard. 1933 ''Acting: the First Six Lessons''. New York: Theatre Arts, 1987. .\n* Benedetti, Jean. 1999. ''Stanislavski: His Life and Art''. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. .\n* Brustein, Robert. 2005. ''Letters to a Young Actor'' New York: Basic Books. .\n* Csapo, Eric, and William J. Slater. 1994. ''The Context of Ancient Drama.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. .\n* Elam, Keir. 1980. ''The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama''. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. .\n* Hagen, Uta and Haskel Frankel. 1973. ''Respect for Acting.'' New York: Macmillan. .\n* Halliwell, Stephen, ed. and trans. 1995. ''Aristotle ''Poetics. Loeb Classical Library ser. Aristotle vol. 23. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. .\n* Hodge, Alison, ed. 2000. ''Twentieth Century Actor Training''. London and New York: Routledge. .\n* Magarshack, David. 1950. ''Stanislavsky: A Life.'' London and Boston: Faber, 1986. .\n* Meisner, Sanford, and Dennis Longwell. 1987. ''Sanford Meisner on Acting.'' New York: Vintage. .\n* Pavis, Patrice. 1998. ''Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis''. Trans. Christine Shantz. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. .\n* Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1938. ''An Actor’s Work: A Student’s Diary''. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti. London and New York: Routledge, 2008. .\n* Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1957. ''An Actor's Work on a Role''. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti. London and New York: Routledge, 2010. .\n* Wickham, Glynne. 1959. ''Early English Stages: 1300—1660.'' Vol. 1. London: Routledge.\n* Wickham, Glynne. 1969. ''Shakespeare's Dramatic Heritage: Collected Studies in Mediaeval, Tudor and Shakespearean Drama.'' London: Routledge. .\n* Wickham, Glynne. 1981. ''Early English Stages: 1300—1660.'' Vol. 3. London: Routledge. . \n* Zarrilli, Phillip B., ed. 2002. ''Acting (Re)Considered: A Theoretical and Practical Guide''. Worlds of Performance Ser. 2nd edition. London and New York: Routledge. .\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Professional and amateur acting", "Training", "Improvisation", "Physiological effects", "Semiotics of acting", " Rehearsing ", " Audience and the actor ", " Heart rate while acting ", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Acting
[ "\n\nDelian League, before the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC.\nThe '''Delian League''', founded in 478 BC, was an association of Greek city-states, members numbering between 150, 173, to 330 under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to continue fighting the Persian Empire after the Greek victory in the Battle of Plataea at the end of the Second Persian invasion of Greece. The League's modern name derives from its official meeting place, the island of Delos, where congresses were held in the temple and where the treasury stood until, in a symbolic gesture, Pericles moved it to Athens in 454 BC.\n\nShortly after its inception, Athens began to use the League's navy for its own purposes – which led to its naming by historians as the '''Athenian Empire'''. This behavior frequently led to conflict between Athens and the less powerful members of the League. By 431 BC, Athens' heavy-handed control of the Delian League prompted the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War; the League was dissolved upon the war's conclusion in 404 BC under the direction of Lysander, the Spartan commander.\n", "\n\nThe Greco-Persian Wars had their roots in the conquest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, and particularly Ionia, by the Achaemenid Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great shortly after 550 BC. The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule, eventually settling for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city. While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants, this was a form of arbitrary government that was on the decline. By 500 BC, Ionia appears to have been ripe for rebellion against these Persian clients. The simmering tension finally broke into open revolt due to the actions of the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras. Attempting to save himself after a disastrous Persian-sponsored expedition in 499 BC, Aristagoras chose to declare Miletus a democracy. This triggered similar revolutions across Ionia, extending to Doris and Aeolis, beginning the Ionian Revolt.\n\nThe Greek states of Athens and Eretria allowed themselves to be drawn into this conflict by Aristagoras, and during their only campaigning season (498 BC) they contributed to the capture and burning of the Persian regional capital of Sardis. After this, the Ionian revolt carried on (without further outside aid) for a further five years, until it was finally completely crushed by the Persians. However, in a decision of great historic significance, the Persian king Darius the Great decided that, despite having subdued the revolt, there remained the unfinished business of exacting punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt. The Ionian revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius's empire, and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with. Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece, beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria.\n\nIn the next two decades there would be two Persian invasions of Greece, occasioning, thanks to Greek historians, some of the most famous battles in history. During the first invasion, Thrace, Macedon and the Aegean Islands were added to the Persian Empire, and Eretria was duly destroyed. However, the invasion ended in 490 BC with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon. Between the two invasions, Darius died, and responsibility for the war passed to his son Xerxes I.\n\nXerxes then personally led a second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, taking an enormous (although oft-exaggerated) army and navy to Greece. Those Greeks who chose to resist (the 'Allies') were defeated in the twin simultaneous battles of Thermopylae on land and Artemisium at sea. All of Greece except the Peloponnesus thus having fallen into Persian hands, the Persians then seeking to destroy the Allied navy once and for all, suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamis. The following year, 479 BC, the Allies assembled the largest Greek army yet seen and defeated the Persian invasion force at the Battle of Plataea, ending the invasion and the threat to Greece.\n\nThe Allied fleet defeated the remnants of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Mycale near the islands of Salamis—on the same day as Plataea, according to tradition. This action marks the end of the Persian invasion, and the beginning of the next phase in the Greco-Persian wars, the Greek counterattack. After Mycale, the Greek cities of Asia Minor again revolted, with the Persians now powerless to stop them. The Allied fleet then sailed to the Thracian Chersonese, still held by the Persians, and besieged and captured the town of Sestos. The following year, 478 BC, the Allies sent a force to capture the city of Byzantion (modern day Istanbul). The siege was successful, but the behaviour of the Spartan general Pausanias alienated many of the Allies, and resulted in Pausanias's recall.\n", "After Byzantion, Sparta was eager to end its involvement in the war. The Spartans were of the view that, with the liberation of mainland Greece, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor, the war's purpose had already been reached. There was also perhaps a feeling that establishing long-term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible. In the aftermath of Mycale, the Spartan king Leotychides had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion.\n\nXanthippus, the Athenian commander at Mycale, had furiously rejected this; the Ionian cities had been Athenian colonies, and the Athenians, if no-one else, would protect the Ionians. This marked the point at which the leadership of the Greek alliance effectively passed to the Athenians. With the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantion, the leadership of the Athenians became explicit.\n\nThe loose alliance of city states which had fought against Xerxes's invasion had been dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league. With the withdrawal of these states, a congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians; hence the modern designation \"Delian League\". According to Thucydides, the official aim of the League was to \"avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king.\"\n\nIn reality, this goal was divided into three main efforts—to prepare for future invasion, to seek revenge against Persia, and to organize a means of dividing spoils of war. The members were given a choice of either offering armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury; most states chose the tax. League members swore to have the same friends and enemies, and dropped ingots of iron into the sea to symbolize the permanence of their alliance. The Athenian politician Aristides would spend the rest of his life occupied in the affairs of the alliance, dying (according to Plutarch) a few years later in Pontus, whilst determining what the tax of new members was to be.\n", "\n", "The Athenian Empire at its height, c. 450 BC\n\nIn the first ten years of the league's existence, Cimon/Kimon forced Karystos in Euboea to join the league, conquered the island of Skyros and sent Athenian colonists there.\n\nOver time, especially with the suppression of rebellions, Athens exercised hegemony over the rest of the league. Thucydides describes how Athens's control over the League grew:\n Of all the causes of defection, that connected with arrears of tribute and vessels, and with failure of service, was the chief; for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labor. In some other respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy. The Athenians also arranged for the other members of the league to pay its share of the expense in money instead of in ships and men, and for this the subject city-states had themselves to blame, their wish to get out of giving service making most leave their homes. Thus while Athens was increasing her navy with the funds they contributed, a revolt always found itself without enough resources or experienced leaders for war.\n", "\n===Naxos===\nThe first member of the league to attempt to secede was the island of Naxos in c. 471 BC. After being defeated, Naxos is believed (based on similar, later revolts) to have been forced to tear down its walls, and lost its fleet and its vote in the League.\n\n===Thasos===\n\n\nIn 465 BC, Athens founded the colony of Amphipolis on the Strymon river. Thasos, a member of the League, saw her interests in the mines of Mt. Pangaion threatened and defected from the League to Persia. She called to Sparta for assistance but was denied, as Sparta was facing the largest helot revolution in its history.\n\nAn aftermath of the war was that Cimon was ostracised, and the relations between Athens and Sparta turned hostile. After a three-year siege, Thasos was recaptured and forced back into the League. The siege of Thasos marks the transformation of the Delian league from an alliance into, in the words of Thucydides, a hegemony.\n\nAfter two years Thasos surrendered to the Athenian leader Cimon. In result, the fortification walls of Thasos were torn down, their land and naval ships were confiscated by Athens. The mines of Thasos were also turned over to Athens, and they had to pay yearly tribute and fines.\n", "In 461 BC, Cimon was ostracized and was succeeded in his influence by democrats such as Ephialtes and Pericles. This signaled a complete change in Athenian foreign policy, neglecting the alliance with the Spartans and instead allying with her enemies, Argos and Thessaly. Megara deserted the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League and allied herself with Athens, allowing construction of a double line of walls across the Isthmus of Corinth and protecting Athens from attack from that quarter. Around the same time, due to encouragement from influential speaker Themistocles, the Athenians also constructed the Long Walls connecting their city to the Piraeus, its port, making it effectively invulnerable to attack by land.\n\nIn 454 BC, the Athenian general Pericles moved the Delian League's treasury from Delos to Athens, allegedly to keep it safe from Persia. However, Plutarch indicates that many of Pericles' rivals viewed the transfer to Athens as usurping monetary resources to fund elaborate building projects. Athens also switched from accepting ships, men and weapons as dues from league members, to only accepting money.\n\nThe new treasury established in Athens was used for many purposes, not all relating to the defence of members of the league. It was from tribute paid to the league that Pericles set to building the Parthenon on the Acropolis, replacing an older temple, as well as many other non-defense related expenditures. The Delian League was turning from an alliance into an empire.\n", "\n\nWar with the Persians continued. In 460 BC, Egypt revolted under local leaders the Hellenes called Inaros and Amyrtaeus, who requested aid from Athens. Pericles led 250 ships, intended to attack Cyprus, to their aid because it would further damage Persia. After four years, however, the Egyptian rebellion was defeated by the Achaemenid general Megabyzus, who captured the greater part of the Athenian forces. In fact, according to Isocrates, the Athenians and their allies lost some 20,000 men in the expedition. The remainder escaped to Cyrene and thence returned home.\n\nThis was the Athenians' main (public) reason for moving the treasury of the League from Delos to Athens, further consolidating their control over the League. The Persians followed up their victory by sending a fleet to re-establish their control over Cyprus, and 200 ships were sent out to counter them under Cimon, who returned from ostracism in 451 BC. He died during the blockade of Citium, though the fleet won a double victory by land and sea over the Persians off Salamis, Cyprus.\n\nThis battle was the last major one fought against the Persians. Many writers report that a peace treaty, known as the Peace of Callias, was formalized in 450 BC, but some writers believe that the treaty was a myth created later to inflate the stature of Athens. However, an understanding was definitely reached, enabling the Athenians to focus their attention on events in Greece proper.\n", "Soon, war with the Peloponnesians broke out. In 458 BC, the Athenians blockaded the island of Aegina, and simultaneously defended Megara from the Corinthians by sending out an army composed of those too young or old for regular military service. The following year, Sparta sent an army into Boeotia, reviving the power of Thebes in order to help hold the Athenians in check. Their return was blocked, and they resolved to march on Athens, where the Long Walls were not yet completed, winning a victory at the Battle of Tanagra. All this accomplished, however, was to allow them to return home via the Megarid. Two months later, the Athenians under Myronides invaded Boeotia, and winning the Battle of Oenophyta gained control of the whole country except Thebes.\n\nReverses followed peace with Persia in 449 BC. The Battle of Coronea, in 447 BC, led to the abandonment of Boeotia. Euboea and Megara revolted, and while the former was restored to its status as a tributary ally, the latter was a permanent loss. The Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues signed a peace treaty, which was set to endure for thirty years. It only lasted until 431 BC, when the Peloponnesian War broke out.\n\nThose who revolted unsuccessfully during the war saw the example made of the Mytilenians, the principal people on Lesbos. After an unsuccessful revolt, the Athenians ordered the death of the entire male population. After some thought, they rescinded this order, and only put to death the leading 1000 ringleaders of the revolt, and redistributed the land of the entire island to Athenian shareholders, who were sent out to reside on Lesbos.\n\nThis type of treatment was not reserved solely for those who revolted. Thucydides documents the example of Melos, a small island, neutral in the war, though founded by Spartans. The Melians were offered a choice to join the Athenians, or be conquered. Choosing to resist, their town was besieged and conquered; the males were put to death and the women sold into slavery (see Melian dialogue).\n", "By 454, the Delian League could be fairly characterized as an Athenian Empire; at the start of the Peloponnesian War, only Chios and Lesbos were left to contribute ships, and these states were by now far too weak to secede without support. Lesbos tried to revolt first, and failed completely. Chios, the most powerful of the original members of the Delian League save Athens, was the last to revolt, and in the aftermath of the Syracusan Expedition enjoyed success for several years, inspiring all of Ionia to revolt. Athens was nonetheless eventually able to suppress these revolts.\n\nTo further strengthen Athens' grip on its empire, Pericles in 450 BC began a policy of establishing ''kleruchiai''—quasi-colonies that remained tied to Athens and which served as garrisons to maintain control of the League's vast territory. Furthermore, Pericles employed a number of offices to maintain Athens' empire: ''proxenoi'', who fostered good relations between Athens and League members; ''episkopoi'' and ''archontes'', who oversaw the collection of tribute; and ''hellenotamiai'', who received the tribute on Athens' behalf.\n\nAthens' empire was not very stable and after 27 years of war, the Spartans, aided by the Persians and Athenian internal strife, were able to defeat it. However it did not remain defeated for long. The Second Athenian Empire, a maritime self-defense league, was founded in 377 BC and was led by Athens. Athens would never recover the full extent of their power, and their enemies were now far stronger and more varied.\n", "\n* Second Athenian Empire\n* Athenian democracy\n* Pentecontaetia\n* Hellenic civilization\n", "\n", "* Jack Martin Balcer (ed.): ''Studien zum Attischen Seebund''. Konstanz 1984.\n* Ryan Balot: ''The Freedom to Rule: Athenian Imperialism and Democratic Masculinity''. In: David Edward Tabachnick – Toivo Koivukoski (eds.): ''Enduring Empire. Ancient Lessons for Global Politics''. London 2009, pp. 54–68.\n* Christian Meier: ''Athen. Ein Neubeginn der Weltgeschichte''. Munich 1995.\n* Russell Meiggs: ''The Athenian empire''. Repr., with corr. Oxford 1979.\n* P. J. Rhodes: ''The Athenian Empire''. Oxford 1985.\n* Wolfgang Schuller: ''Die Herrschaft der Athener im Ersten Attischen Seebund''. Berlin – New York 1974.\n", "* \n* Delian League by Jona Lendering\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Background", "Formation", "Members", "Composition and expansion", "Rebellion", "Policies of the League", "Wars against Persia", "Wars in Greece", "The Athenian Empire (454–404 BC)", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Delian League
[ "\n\nAugust Horch in a Horch automobile, 1908.\nMemorial plate in Cologne, Germany.\n'''August Horch''' (12 October 1868 – 3 February 1951) was a German engineer and automobile pioneer, the founder of the manufacturing giant which would eventually become Audi.\n", "Horch was born in Winningen, Rhenish Prussia. His initial trade was as a blacksmith, and then was educated at Hochschule Mittweida (Mittweida Technical College). After receiving a degree in engineering, he worked in shipbuilding. Horch worked for Karl Benz from 1896, before founding ''A. Horch & Co.'' in November 1899, in Ehrenfeld, Cologne, Germany.\n", "The first Horch automobile was built in 1901. The company moved to Reichenbach in 1902 and Zwickau in 1904. Horch left the company in 1909 after a dispute, and set up in competition in Zwickau. His new firm was initially called ''Horch Automobil-Werke GmbH'', but following a legal dispute over the ''Horch'' name, he decided to make another automobile company. (The court decided that ''Horch'' was a registered trademark on behalf of August Horch's former partners and August Horch was not entitled to use it any more). Consequently, Horch named his new company ''Audi Automobilwerke GmbH'' in 1910, ''Audi'' being the Latinization of Horch.\n", "Horch left Audi in 1920 and went to Berlin and took various jobs. He published his autobiography, ''I Built Cars (Ich Baute Autos)'' in 1937. He also served on the board of Auto Union, the successor to Audi Automobilwerke GmbH. He was an honorary citizen of Zwickau and had a street named for his Audi cars in both Zwickau and his birthplace Winningen. He was made an honorary professor at Braunschweig University of Technology.", "After the war, there were left-wing circles who vilified August Horch, claiming he was a Nazi, and argued that his honorary citizenship of the city of Zwickau should be withdrawn. Horch was not a member of the Nazi party, nor did he have influence on the production of armaments, so the City Council did not comply with the request.\nIn early July 1945, Horch moved to Upper Franconia, where he and his housekeeper and foster daughter Else Kolmar first found an accommodation in Helmbrechts and three months later in Münchberg. The wife of Horch wife died on March 26, 1946, at a nursing home in Berlin, a few days later his son Eberhard. In the summer of 1948, Horch and Else Kolmar, who came from a Jewish family, married. \n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Beginnings", "Manufacturing", "Post Audi", "After the war", "References" ]	August Horch
[ "\nRadar and other avionics in the nose of a Cessna Citation I/SP \nF‑105 Thunderchief with avionics laid out\n\n'''Avionics''' are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites, and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a police helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform. The term ''avionics'' is a portmanteau of the words ''aviation'' and ''electronics''.\n", "\nThe term \"'''avionics'''\" was coined by the journalist Philip J. Klass as a portmanteau of \"'''aviation electronics'''\". Many modern avionics have their origins in World War II wartime developments. For example, autopilot systems that are prolific today were started to help bomber planes fly steadily enough to hit precision targets from high altitudes. Famously, radar was developed in the UK, Germany, and the United States during the same period. Modern avionics is a substantial portion of military aircraft spending. Aircraft like the F‑15E and the now retired F‑14 have roughly 20 percent of their budget spent on avionics. Most modern helicopters now have budget splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics. \n\nThe civilian market has also seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems (fly-by-wire) and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up development costs. The major change has been the recent boom in consumer flying. As more people begin to use planes as their primary method of transportation, more elaborate methods of controlling aircraft safely in these high restrictive airspaces have been invented.\n\n===Modern avionics===\nAvionics plays a heavy role in modernization initiatives like the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Next Generation Air Transportation System project in the United States and the Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) initiative in Europe. The Joint Planning and Development Office put forth a roadmap for avionics in six areas:\n* Published Routes and Procedures – Improved navigation and routing\n* Negotiated Trajectories – Adding data communications to create preferred routes dynamically\n* Delegated Separation – Enhanced situational awareness in the air and on the ground\n* LowVisibility/CeilingApproach/Departure – Allowing operations with weather constraints with less ground infrastructure\n* Surface Operations – To increase safety in approach and departure\n* ATM Efficiencies – Improving the ATM process\n", "The cockpit of an aircraft is a typical location for avionic equipment, including control, monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft power their avionics using 14- or 28‑volt DC electrical systems; however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat aircraft) have AC systems operating at 400 Hz, 115 volts AC. There are several major vendors of flight avionics, including Panasonic Avionics Corporation, Honeywell (which now owns Bendix/King), Rockwell Collins, Thales Group, GE Aviation Systems, Garmin, Raytheon, Parker Hannifin, UTC Aerospace Systems and Avidyne Corporation.\n\nOne source of international standards for avionics equipment are prepared by the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC) and published by ARINC.\n\n===Communications===\n\nCommunications connect the flight deck to the ground and the flight deck to the passengers. On‑board communications are provided by public-address systems and aircraft intercoms.\n\nThe VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000 MHz to 136.975 MHz. Each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33 kHz in Europe, 25 kHz elsewhere. VHF is also used for line of sight communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-ATC. Amplitude modulation (AM) is used, and the conversation is performed in simplex mode. Aircraft communication can also take place using HF (especially for trans-oceanic flights) or satellite communication.\n\n\n\n===Navigation===\n\n\nNavigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the Earth. Avionics can use satellite-based systems (such as GPS and WAAS), ground-based systems (such as VOR or LORAN), or any combination thereof. Navigation systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. Older avionics required a pilot or navigator to plot the intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an aircraft's location; modern systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays.\n\n===Monitoring===\n\n\nThe Airbus A380 glass cockpit featuring pull-out keyboards and two wide computer screens on the sides for pilots. The first hints of glass cockpits emerged in the 1970s when flight-worthy cathode ray tube (CRT) screens began to replace electromechanical displays, gauges and instruments. A \"glass\" cockpit refers to the use of computer monitors instead of gauges and other analog displays. Aircraft were getting progressively more displays, dials and information dashboards that eventually competed for space and pilot attention. In the 1970s, the average aircraft had more than 100 cockpit instruments and controls.\n\nGlass cockpits started to come into being with the Gulfstream G‑IV private jet in 1985. One of the key challenges in glass cockpits is to balance how much control is automated and how much the pilot should do manually. Generally they try to automate flight operations while keeping the pilot constantly informed.\n\n===Aircraft flight-control system===\n\n\nAircraft have means of automatically controlling flight. Autopilot was first invented by Lawrence Sperry during World War I to fly bomber planes steady enough to hit accurate targets from 25,000 feet. When it was first adopted by the U.S. military, a Honeywell engineer sat in the back seat with bolt cutters to disconnect the autopilot in case of emergency. Nowadays most commercial planes are equipped with aircraft flight control systems in order to reduce pilot error and workload at landing or takeoff.\n\nThe first simple commercial auto-pilots were used to control heading and altitude and had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces. In helicopters, auto-stabilization was used in a similar way. The first systems were electromechanical. The advent of fly by wire and electro-actuated flight surfaces (rather than the traditional hydraulic) has increased safety. As with displays and instruments, critical devices that were electro-mechanical had a finite life. With safety critical systems, the software is very strictly tested.\n\n===Collision-avoidance systems===\n\n\nTo supplement air traffic control, most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones use a traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS), which can detect the location of nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision. Smaller aircraft may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are passive (they do not actively interrogate the transponders of other aircraft) and do not provide advisories for conflict resolution.\n\nTo help avoid controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), aircraft use systems such as ground-proximity warning systems (GPWS), which use radar altimeters as a key element. One of the major weaknesses of GPWS is the lack of \"look-ahead\" information, because it only provides altitude above terrain \"look-down\". In order to overcome this weakness, modern aircraft use a terrain awareness warning system (TAWS).\n\n===Black Boxes===\n\n\nCommercial aircraft cockpit data recorders, commonly known as a \"black box\", store flight information and audio from the cockpit. They are often recovered from a plane after a crash to determine control settings and other parameters during the incident.\n\n===Weather systems===\n\nWeather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft) and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in instrument meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.\n\nLightning detectors like the Stormscope or Strikefinder have become inexpensive enough that they are practical for light aircraft. In addition to radar and lightning detection, observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD) are now available through satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions far beyond the range of their own in-flight systems. Modern displays allow weather information to be integrated with moving maps, terrain, and traffic onto a single screen, greatly simplifying navigation.\n\nModern weather systems also include wind shear and turbulence detection and terrain and traffic warning systems. In‑plane weather avionics are especially popular in Africa, India, and other countries where air-travel is a growing market, but ground support is not as well developed.\n\n===Aircraft management systems===\nThere has been a progression towards centralized control of the multiple complex systems fitted to aircraft, including engine monitoring and management. Health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) are integrated with aircraft management computers to give maintainers early warnings of parts that will need replacement.\n\nThe integrated modular avionics concept proposes an integrated architecture with application software portable across an assembly of common hardware modules. It has been used in fourth generation jet fighters and the latest generation of airliners.\n", "Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and ears of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used for whatever tactical means required. As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the E‑3D, JSTARS, ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission-management computers.\n\nPolice and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors.\n\n===Military communications===\n\nWhile aircraft communications provide the backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems are designed to withstand the rigors of the battle field. UHF, VHF Tactical (30–88 MHz) and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography secure the communications. Data links such as Link 11, 16, 22 and BOWMAN, JTRS and even TETRA provide the means of transmitting data (such as images, targeting information etc.).\n\n===Radar===\n\nAirborne radar was one of the first tactical sensors. The benefit of altitude providing range has meant a significant focus on airborne radar technologies. Radars include airborne early warning (AEW), anti-submarine warfare (ASW), and even weather radar (Arinc 708) and ground tracking/proximity radar.\n\nThe military uses radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels. While the civil market has had weather radar for a while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the aircraft.\n\n===Sonar===\n\nDipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect shipping assets from submarines or surface threats. Maritime support aircraft can drop active and passive sonar devices (sonobuoys) and these are also used to determine the location of hostile submarines.\n\n===Electro-Optics===\nElectro-optic systems include devices such as the head-up display (HUD), forward looking infrared (FLIR), infra-red search and track and other passive infrared devices (Passive infrared sensor). These are all used to provide imagery and information to the flight crew. This imagery is used for everything from search and rescue to navigational aids and target acquisition.\n\n===ESM/DAS===\n\nElectronic support measures and defensive aids are used extensively to gather information about threats or possible threats. They can be used to launch devices (in some cases automatically) to counter direct threats against the aircraft. They are also used to determine the state of a threat and identify it.\n\n===Aircraft networks===\nThe avionics systems in military, commercial and advanced models of civilian aircraft are interconnected using an avionics databus. Common avionics databus protocols, with their primary application, include:\n* Aircraft Data Network (ADN): Ethernet derivative for Commercial Aircraft\n* Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet (AFDX): Specific implementation of ARINC 664 (ADN) for Commercial Aircraft\n* ARINC 429: Generic Medium-Speed Data Sharing for Private and Commercial Aircraft\n* ARINC 664: See ADN above\n* ARINC 629: Commercial Aircraft (Boeing 777)\n* ARINC 708: Weather Radar for Commercial Aircraft\n* ARINC 717: Flight Data Recorder for Commercial Aircraft\n* ARINC 825: CAN bus for commercial aircraft (for example Boeing 787 and Airbus A350)\n* IEEE 1394b: Military Aircraft\n* MIL-STD-1553: Military Aircraft\n* MIL-STD-1760: Military Aircraft\n* TTP – Time-Triggered Protocol: Boeing 787 Dreamliner, Airbus A380, Fly-By-Wire Actuation Platforms from Parker Aerospace\n* TTEthernet – Time-Triggered Ethernet: NASA Orion Spacecraft\n", "ACARS\nAcronyms and abbreviations in avionics\nARINC\nAvionics software\nDistress radiobeacon\nFlight recorder\nIntegrated modular avionics\n", "\n", "''Avionics: Development and Implementation'' by Cary R. Spitzer (Hardcover – Dec 15, 2006)\n''Principles of Avionics'', 4th Edition by Albert Helfrick, Len Buckwalter, and Avionics Communications Inc. (Paperback – Jul 1, 2007)\n''Avionics Training: Systems, Installation, and Troubleshooting'' by Len Buckwalter (Paperback – Jun 30, 2005)\n''Avionics Made Simple'', by Mouhamed Abdulla, Ph.D.; Jaroslav V. Svoboda, Ph.D. and Luis Rodrigues, Ph.D. (Coursepack – Dec. 2005 - ).\n", "\n\n Avionics in Commercial Aircraft\n* Aircraft Electronics Association (AEA)\n* ''Pilot's Guide to Avionics''\n* The Avionic Systems Standardisation Committee\n* Space Shuttle Avionics\n* Aviation Today Avionics magazine\n* RAES Avionics homepage\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Aircraft avionics", "Mission or tactical avionics", "See also", "Notes", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Avionics
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Ares''' (; ) is the Greek god of war. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera. In Greek literature, he often represents the physical or violent and untamed aspect of war, in contrast to his sister the armored Athena, whose functions as a goddess of intelligence include military strategy and generalship.\n\nThe Greeks were ambivalent toward Ares: although he embodied the physical valor necessary for success in war, he was a dangerous force, \"overwhelming, insatiable in battle, destructive, and man-slaughtering.\" His sons Phobos (Fear) and Deimos (Terror) and his lover, or sister, Enyo (Discord) accompanied him on his war chariot. In the ''Iliad,'' his father Zeus tells him that he is the god most hateful to him. An association with Ares endows places and objects with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality. His value as a war god is placed in doubt: during the Trojan War, Ares was on the losing side, while Athena, often depicted in Greek art as holding Nike (Victory) in her hand, favoured the triumphant Greeks.\n\nAres plays a relatively limited role in Greek mythology as represented in literary narratives, though his numerous love affairs and abundant offspring are often alluded to. When Ares does appear in myths, he typically faces humiliation. He is well known as the lover of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who was married to Hephaestus, god of craftsmanship. The most famous story related to Ares and Aphrodite shows them exposed to ridicule through the wronged husband's device.\n\nThe counterpart of Ares among the Roman gods is Mars, who as a father of the Roman people was given a more important and dignified place in ancient Roman religion as a guardian deity. During the Hellenization of Latin literature, the myths of Ares were reinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars. Greek writers under Roman rule also recorded cult practices and beliefs pertaining to Mars under the name of Ares. Thus in the classical tradition of later Western art and literature, the mythology of the two figures becomes virtually indistinguishable.\n", "The etymology of the name ''Ares'' is traditionally connected with the Greek word (''arē''), the Ionic form of the Doric (''ara''), \"bane, ruin, curse, imprecation\". There may also be a connection with the Roman god of war, Mars, via hypothetical Proto-Indo-European ''M̥rēs''; compare Ancient Greek μάρναμαι (''marnamai''), \"I fight, I battle\". Walter Burkert notes that \"Ares is apparently an ancient abstract noun meaning throng of battle, war.\" R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name.\n\nThe earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek , ''a-re'', written in the Linear B syllabic script.\n\nThe adjectival epithet, ''Areios,'' was frequently appended to the names of other gods when they took on a warrior aspect or became involved in warfare: ''Zeus Areios'', ''Athena Areia'', even ''Aphrodite Areia''. In the ''Iliad'', the word ''ares'' is used as a common noun synonymous with \"battle.\"\n\nInscriptions as early as Mycenaean times, and continuing into the Classical period, attest to Enyalios as another name for the god of war.\n", "\nVatican, Rome, Italy. Statue of Ares, Scopas's influence. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection\nAres was one of the Twelve Olympians in the archaic tradition represented by the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey.'' Zeus expresses a recurring Greek revulsion toward the god when Ares returns wounded and complaining from the battlefield at Troy:\n\n\nThen looking at him darkly Zeus who gathers the clouds spoke to him:\"Do not sit beside me and whine, you double-faced liar.To me you are the most hateful of all gods who hold Olympus.Forever quarrelling is dear to your heart, wars and battles.…And yet I will not long endure to see you in pain, sinceyou are my child, and it was to me that your mother bore you.But were you born of some other god and proved so ruinouslong since you would have been dropped beneath the gods of the bright sky.\"\n\n\nThis ambivalence is expressed also in the Greeks' association of the god with the Thracians, whom they regarded as a barbarous and warlike people. Thrace was Ares's birthplace, his true home, and his refuge after the affair with Aphrodite was exposed to the general mockery of the other gods.\n\nA late-6th-century BC funerary inscription from Attica emphasizes the consequences of coming under Ares's sway:\n\n\nStay and mourn at the tomb of dead KroisosWhom raging Ares destroyed one day, fighting in the foremost ranks.\n\n\n===Ares in Sparta===\nIn Sparta, Ares was viewed as a model soldier: his resilience, physical strength, and military intelligence were unrivaled. An ancient statue, representing the god in chains, suggests that the martial spirit and victory were to be kept in the city of Sparta. That the Spartans admired him is indicative of the cultural divisions that existed between themselves and other Greeks, especially the Athenians (see Pelopponesian War).\n\n===Ares in the Arabian Peninsula===\nAres was also worshipped by the inhabitants of Tylos. It is not known if he was worshipped in the form of an Arabian god (or which one) or if he was worshipped in his Greek form.\n", "The ''Ares Borghese''.\nThe birds of Ares (''Ornithes Areioi'') were a flock of feather-dart-dropping birds that guarded the Amazons' shrine of the god on a coastal island in the Black Sea.\n", "Although Ares received occasional sacrifice from armies going to war, the god had a formal temple and cult at only a few sites. At Sparta, however, each company of youths sacrificed a puppy to Enyalios before engaging in ritual fighting at the Phoebaeum. The chthonic night-time sacrifice of a dog to Enyalios became assimilated to the cult of Ares.\n\nJust east of Sparta stood an archaic statue of the god in chains, to show that the spirit of war and victory was to be kept in the city.\n\nThe Temple of Ares in the agora of Athens, which Pausanias saw in the second century AD, had been moved and rededicated there during the time of Augustus. Essentially it was a Roman temple to the Augustan Mars Ultor. From archaic times, the Areopagus, the \"mount of Ares\" at some distance from the Acropolis, was a site of trials. Paul the Apostle later preached about Christianity there. Its connection with Ares, perhaps based on a false etymology, is etiological myth. A second temple to Ares has been located at the archaeological site of Metropolis in what is now Western Turkey.\n", "Deimos, \"Terror\" or \"Dread\", and Phobos, \"Fear\" or \"Horror\", are his companions in war. According to Hesiod, they were also his children, borne by Aphrodite. Eris, the goddess of discord, or Enyo, the goddess of war, bloodshed, and violence, was considered the sister and companion of the violent Ares. In at least one tradition, Enyalius, rather than another name for Ares, was his son by Enyo.\n\nAres may also be accompanied by Kydoimos, the demon of the din of battle; the Makhai (\"Battles\"); the \"Hysminai\" (\"Acts of manslaughter\"); Polemos, a minor spirit of war, or only an epithet of Ares, since it has no specific dominion; and Polemos's daughter, Alala, the goddess or personification of the Greek war-cry, whose name Ares uses as his own war-cry. Ares's sister Hebe (\"Youth\") also draws baths for him.\n\nAccording to Pausanias, local inhabitants of Therapne, Sparta, recognized Thero, \"feral, savage,\" as a nurse of Ares.\n", "One of the roles of Ares was expressed in mainland Greece as the founding myth of Thebes: Ares was the progenitor of the water-dragon slain by Cadmus, for the dragon's teeth were sown into the ground as if a crop and sprang up as the fully armored autochthonic Spartoi. To propitiate Ares, Cadmus took as a bride Harmonia, a daughter of Ares's union with Aphrodite. In this way, Cadmus harmonized all strife and founded the city of Thebes.\n", "The Areopagus as viewed from the Acropolis.\n\nThe union of Ares and Aphrodite created the gods Eros, Anteros, Phobos, Deimos, Harmonia, and Adrestia. While Eros's and Anteros's godly stations favored their mother, Adrestia preferred to emulate her father, often accompanying him to war. Other versions include Alcippe as one of his daughters.\n\nUpon one occasion, Ares incurred the anger of Poseidon by slaying his son, Halirrhothius, because he had raped Alcippe, a daughter of the war-god. For this deed, Poseidon summoned Ares to appear before the tribunal of the Olympic gods, which was held upon a hill in Athens. Ares was acquitted. This event is supposed to have given rise to the name Areopagus (or Hill of Ares), which afterward became famous as the site of a court of justice.\n\nAccounts tell of Cycnus (Κύκνος) of Macedonia, a son of Ares who was so murderous that he tried to build a temple with the skulls and the bones of travellers. Heracles slaughtered this abominable monstrosity, engendering the wrath of Ares, whom the hero wounded in conflict.\n\n===List of Ares's consorts and children===\n\n\n Consorts \n Children\n\n1. Aphrodite \n 1. Phobos\n\n 2. Deimos\n\n 3. Harmonia\n\n 4. Adrestia \n\n 5. Eros (part of the Erotes)\n\n 6. Anteros (part of the Erotes)\n\n 7. Himeros (part of the Erotes)\n\n 8. Pothos (part of the Erotes)\n\n2. Aerope \n 1. Aeropus\n\n3. Aglauros \n 1. Alcippe\n\n4. Althaea \n 1. Meleager (possibly)\n\n5. Anchiroe \n 1. Sithon (possibly)\n\n6. Astyoche, daughter of Actor \n 1. Ascalaphus\n\n 2. Ialmenus\n\n7. Atalanta \n 1. Parthenopaeus (possibly)\n\n8. Caldene, daughter of Pisidus \n 1. Solymus (possibly)\n\n9. Calliope (Muse)\n 1.Mygdon\n\n 2. Edonus (possibly)\n\n 3. Biston (possibly)\n\n4. Odomantus (possibly)\n\n10. Callirrhoe, daughter of Nestus\n 1. Biston (possibly)\n\n 2. Odomantus (possibly)\n\n 3. Edonus (possibly)\n\n11. Critobule \n 1. Pangaeus\n\n12. Cyrene \n 1. Diomedes of Thrace\n\n 2. Crestone\n\n13. Demonice \n 1. Euenus\n\n 2. Thestius\n\n 3. Molus\n\n 4. Pylus\n\n14. Dormothea \n 1. Stymphelus\n\n15. Dotis / Chryse \n 1. Phlegyas\n\n16. Enyo\n 1. Enyalius\n\n17. Eos \n\n\n18. Erinys of Telphusa (unnamed) \n 1. Dragon of Thebes (slain by Cadmus)\n\n19. Harmonia \n 1. The Amazons\n\n20. Leodoce (?) \n\n\n21. Otrera \n 1. Hippolyta\n\n 2. Antiope\n\n 3. Melanippe\n\n 4. Penthesilea\n\n22. Parnassa / Aegina \n 1. Sinope (possibly)\n\n23. Phylonome \n 1. Lycastus\n\n 2. Parrhasius\n\n24. Protogeneia \n 1. Oxylus\n\n25. Pyrene / Pelopia \n 1. Cycnus\n\n26. Sete, sister of Rhesus \n 1. Bithys, eponym of the Bithyae, a Thracian tribe\n\n27. Sterope (Pleiad) / Harpinna, daughter of Asopus / Eurythoe the Danaid \n 1. Oenomaus\n\n28. Persephone (wooed her unsuccessfully) \n\n\n29. Tanagra, daughter of Asopus \n\n\n30. Tereine, daughter of Strymon \n 1. Thrassa (mother of Polyphonte)\n\n31. Theogone\n 1. Tmolus\n\n32. Triteia\n 1. Melanippus\n\n33. mothers unknown \n 1. Alcon of Thrace\n\n 2. Chalyps, eponym of the Chalybes\n\n 3. Cheimarrhoos, possible father of Triptolemus by Polyhymnia\n\n 4. Dryas\n\n 5. Hyperbius\n\n 6. Lycus of Libya\n\n 7. Nisos (possibly)\n\n 8. Portheus (Porthaon)\n\n 9. Tereus\n\n\n", ";Homeric Hymn 8 to Ares (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic 7th to 4th centuries BC):\n\n:\"Ares, exceeding in strength, chariot-rider, golden-helmed, doughty in heart, shield-bearer, Saviour of cities, harnessed in bronze, strong of arm, unwearying, mighty with the spear, O defence of Olympus, father of warlike Victory, ally of Themis, stern governor of the rebellious, leader of righteous men, sceptred King of manliness, who whirl your fiery sphere among the planets in their sevenfold courses through the aether wherein your blazing steeds ever bear you above the third firmament of heaven; hear me, helper of men, giver of dauntless youth! Shed down a kindly ray from above upon my life, and strength of war, that I may be able to drive away bitter cowardice from my head and crush down the deceitful impulses of my soul. Restrain also the keen fury of my heart which provokes me to tread the ways of blood-curdling strife. Rather, O blessed one, give you me boldness to abide within the harmless laws of peace, avoiding strife and hatred and the violent fiends of death.\"\n\n;Orphic Hymn 65 to Ares (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns 3rd century BC to 2nd century AD):\n\n:\"To Ares, Fumigation from Frankincense. Magnanimous, unconquered, boisterous Ares, in darts rejoicing, and in bloody wars; fierce and untamed, whose mighty power can make the strongest walls from their foundations shake: mortal-destroying king, defiled with gore, pleased with war’s dreadful and tumultuous roar. Thee human blood, and swords, and spears delight, and the dire ruin of mad savage fight. Stay furious contests, and avenging strife, whose works with woe embitter human life; to lovely Kyrpis Aphrodite and to Lyaios Dionysos yield, for arms exchange the labours of the field; encourage peace, to gentle works inclined, and give abundance, with benignant mind.\"\n", "\nThe Ludovisi Ares, Roman version of a Greek original c. 320 BC, with 17th-century restorations by Bernini\n\n===Ares and Aphrodite===\n\nIn the tale sung by the bard in the hall of Alcinous, the Sun-god Helios once spied Ares and Aphrodite enjoying each other secretly in the hall of Hephaestus, her husband. He reported the incident to Hephaestus. Contriving to catch the illicit couple in the act, Hephaestus fashioned a finely-knitted and nearly invisible net with which to snare them. At the appropriate time, this net was sprung, and trapped Ares and Aphrodite locked in very private embrace.\n\nBut Hephaestus was not satisfied with his revenge, so he invited the Olympian gods and goddesses to view the unfortunate pair. For the sake of modesty, the goddesses demurred, but the male gods went to witness the sight. Some commented on the beauty of Aphrodite, others remarked that they would eagerly trade places with Ares, but all who were present mocked the two. Once the couple was released, the embarrassed Ares returned to his homeland, Thrace, and Aphrodite went to Paphos.\n\nIn a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldier Alectryon by his door to warn them of Helios's arrival as Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite's infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty. Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus. The furious Ares turned the sleepy Alectryon into a rooster which now always announces the arrival of the sun in the morning.\n\n===Ares and the giants===\nIn one archaic myth, related only in the ''Iliad'' by the goddess Dione to her daughter Aphrodite, two chthonic giants, the Aloadae, named Otus and Ephialtes, threw Ares into chains and put him in a bronze urn, where he remained for thirteen months, a lunar year. \"And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war, if the beautiful Eriboea, the young giants' stepmother, had not told Hermes what they had done,\" she related. \"In this one suspects a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month.\"\n\nAres was held screaming and howling in the urn until Hermes rescued him, and Artemis tricked the Aloadae into slaying each other. In Nonnus's ''Dionysiaca'' Ares also killed Ekhidnades, the giant son of Echidna, and a great enemy of the gods. Scholars have not concluded whether the nameless Ekhidnades (\"of Echidna's lineage\") was entirely Nonnus's invention or not. \n\n===''Iliad''===\nIn the ''Iliad'', Homer represented Ares as having no fixed allegiances, rewarding courage on both sides: he promised Athena and Hera that he would fight on the side of the Achaeans (''Iliad'' V.830–834, XXI.410–414), but Aphrodite persuaded Ares to side with the Trojans. During the war, Diomedes fought with Hector and saw Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly (V.590–605).\n\nAthene or Athena, Ares's sister, saw his interference and asked Zeus, his father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield, which Zeus granted (V.711–769). Hera and Athena encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares (V.780–834). Diomedes thrust with his spear at Ares, with Athena driving it home, and Ares's cries made Achaeans and Trojans alike tremble (V.855–864). Ares fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back.\n\nWhen Hera mentioned to Zeus that Ares's son, Ascalaphus, was killed, Ares overheard and wanted to join the fight on the side of the Achaeans, disregarding Zeus's order that no Olympic god should enter the battle, but Athena stopped him (XV.110–128). Later, when Zeus allowed the gods to fight in the war again (XX.20–29), Ares was the first to act, attacking Athena to avenge himself for his previous injury. Athena overpowered him by striking Ares with a boulder (XXI.391–408).\n", "In Renaissance and Neoclassical works of art, Ares's symbols are a spear and helmet, his animal is a dog, and his bird is the vulture. In literary works of these eras, Ares is replaced by the Roman Mars, a romantic emblem of manly valor rather than the cruel and blood-thirsty god of Greek mythology.\n", "\nAres figures in war-themed video games and in popular fictions.\n\nNASA named their transport ship as ''Ares'', which replaced the Space Shuttle. This was an extension of NASA's practice of using Roman and Greek names for their rockets and programs: ''Saturn'' for manned rockets, ''Mercury'' for a satellite program, and the Apollo program, rather than any association with the nature of the war god.\n", "; Related Greek deities\n Aphrodite (lover)\n* Hera (mother)\n* Zeus (father)\n* Eos (lover)\n\n; Children by Aphrodite\n* Harmonia (Concord)\n* Eros (Passionate love)\n* Phobos (Fear)\n* Deimos (Terror)\n* Adrestia (Revenge)\n* Anteros (Requited love)\n\n; Friends and counselors\n* Themis (Divine law)\n* Nike (Victory)\n* Dike (Good judgement)\n\n; Attendants\n* Achlys (Death)\n* Androktasiai (Slaughter)\n* Alala (War cry)\n* Eris (Strife)\n* Enyo (Violence)\n* Hebe (Life)\n* Homados (Battle din)\n* Hysminai (Combat)\n* Kydoimos (Confusion)\n* Keres (Death spirits)\n* Makhai (Spirits of battle)\n* Palioxis (Backrush)\n* Polemos (War)\n* Proioxis (Onrush)\n\n; Similar deities in non-Greek cultures\n* Britannia\n* Kathleen Ni Houlihan\n* Liberty\n* Mars\n* Nergal, Babylonian god associated with the planet Mars\n* Tyr, a Norse god of war\n* List of war deities\n\n; Archetypical characteristics\n* Aggression\n* Courage\n* Boldness\n* Divine law\n* Freedom\n* Masculinity\n* Righteous indignation\n", ";Notes\n\n;References\n\n", "\n\n* Theoi Project, Ares—information on Ares from classical literature, Greek and Roman art.\n* Facebook Archetype Page Image Gallery and Popular Contemporary Mentions\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Names", "Character, origins, and worship", "Attributes", "Cult and ritual", "Attendants", "Founding of Thebes", "Consorts and children", "Hymns to Ares", "Other accounts", "Renaissance", "In popular culture", "See also", "Notes and references", "External links" ]	Ares
[ "\n\n\n'''Alexander Grothendieck''' (; ; ; 28 March 1928 – 13 November 2014) was a German-born French mathematician who became the leading figure in the creation of modern algebraic geometry. His research extended the scope of the field and added elements of commutative algebra, homological algebra, sheaf theory and category theory to its foundations, while his so-called \"relative\" perspective led to revolutionary advances in many areas of pure mathematics. He is considered by many to be the greatest mathematician of the 20th century.\n\nBorn in Germany, Grothendieck was raised and lived primarily in France. For much of his working life, however, he was, in effect, stateless. As he consistently spelled his first name \"Alexander\" rather than \"Alexandre\" and his surname, taken from his mother, was the Dutch-like Low German \"Grothendieck,\" he was sometimes mistakenly believed to be of Dutch origin.\n\nGrothendieck began his productive and public career as a mathematician in 1949. In 1958, he was appointed a research professor at the Institut des hautes études scientifiques (IHÉS) and remained there until 1970, when, driven by personal and political convictions, he left following a dispute over military funding. He later became professor at the University of Montpellier and, while still producing relevant mathematical work, he withdrew from the mathematical community and devoted himself to political causes. Soon after his formal retirement in 1988, he moved to the Pyrenees, where he lived in isolation until his death in 2014.\n", "\n===Family and childhood===\nGrothendieck was born in Berlin to anarchist parents. His father, Alexander \"Sascha\" Schapiro (also known as Alexander Tanaroff), had Hassidic roots and had been imprisoned in Russia before moving to Germany in 1922, while his mother, Johanna \"Hanka\" Grothendieck, came from a Protestant family in Hamburg and worked as a journalist. Both had broken away from their early backgrounds in their teens. At the time of his birth, Grothendieck's mother was married to the journalist Johannes Raddatz and his birthname was initially recorded as \"Alexander Raddatz.\" The marriage was dissolved in 1929 and Schapiro/Tanaroff acknowledged his paternity, but never married Hanka.\n\nGrothendieck lived with his parents in Berlin until the end of 1933, when his father moved to Paris to evade Nazism, followed soon thereafter by his mother. They left Grothendieck in the care of Wilhelm Heydorn, a Lutheran pastor and teacher in Hamburg. During this time, his parents took part in the Spanish Civil War, according to Winfried Scharlau, as non-combatant auxiliaries, though others state that Sascha fought in the anarchist militia.\n\n===World War II===\nIn May 1939, Grothendieck was put on a train in Hamburg for France. Shortly afterwards his father was interned in Le Vernet. He and his mother were then interned in various camps from 1940 to 1942 as \"undesirable dangerous foreigners\". The first was the Camp de Rieucros, where his mother contracted the tuberculosis which eventually caused her death and where Alexander managed to attend the local school, at Mende. Once Alexander managed to escape from the camp, intending to assassinate Hitler. Later, his mother Hanka was transferred to the Gurs internment camp for the remainder of World War II. Alexander was permitted to live, separated from his mother, in the village of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, sheltered and hidden in local boarding houses or pensions, though he occasionally had to seek refuge in the woods during Nazis raids, surviving at times without food or water for several days. His father was arrested under the Vichy anti-Jewish legislation, and sent to the Drancy, and then handed over by the French Vichy government to the Germans to be sent to be murdered at the Auschwitz concentration camp in 1942. In Chambon, Grothendieck attended the Collège Cévenol (now known as the Le Collège-Lycée Cévenol International), a unique secondary school founded in 1938 by local Protestant pacifists and anti-war activists. Many of the refugee children hidden in Chambon attended Cévenol, and it was at this school that Grothendieck apparently first became fascinated with mathematics.\n\n===Studies and contact with research mathematics===\nAfter the war, the young Grothendieck studied mathematics in France, initially at the University of Montpellier where he did not initially perform well, failing such classes as astronomy. Working on his own, he rediscovered the Lebesgue measure. After three years of increasingly independent studies there, he went to continue his studies in Paris in 1948.\n\nInitially, Grothendieck attended Henri Cartan's Seminar at École Normale Supérieure, but he lacked the necessary background to follow the high-powered seminar. On the advice of Cartan and André Weil, he moved to the University of Nancy where he wrote his dissertation under Laurent Schwartz and Jean Dieudonné on functional analysis, from 1950 to 1953. At this time he was a leading expert in the theory of topological vector spaces. By 1957, he set this subject aside in order to work in algebraic geometry and homological algebra. The same year he was invited to visit Harvard by Oscar Zariski, but the offer fell through when he refused to sign a pledge promising not to work to overthrow the United States government, a position that, he was warned, might have landed him in prison. The prospect did not worry him, as long as he could have access to books.\n\nComparing Grothendieck during his Nancy years to the École Normale Supérieure trained students at that time: Pierre Samuel, Roger Godement, René Thom, Jacques Dixmier, Jean Cerf, Yvonne Bruhat, Jean-Pierre Serre, Bernard Malgrange, Leila Schneps says:\n\n\n\n===IHÉS years===\nIn 1958 Grothendieck was installed at the Institut des hautes études scientifiques (IHÉS), a new privately funded research institute that, in effect, had been created for Jean Dieudonné and Grothendieck. Grothendieck attracted attention by an intense and highly productive activity of seminars there (''de facto'' working groups drafting into foundational work some of the ablest French and other mathematicians of the younger generation). Grothendieck himself practically ceased publication of papers through the conventional, learned journal route. He was, however, able to play a dominant role in mathematics for around a decade, gathering a strong school.\n\nDuring this time, he had officially as students Michel Demazure (who worked on SGA3, on group schemes), Luc Illusie (cotangent complex), Michel Raynaud, Jean-Louis Verdier (cofounder of the derived category theory) and Pierre Deligne. Collaborators on the SGA projects also included Michael Artin (étale cohomology) and Nick Katz (monodromy theory and Lefschetz pencils). Jean Giraud worked out torsor theory extensions of nonabelian cohomology. Many others were involved.\n\n===\"Golden Age\"===\nAlexander Grothendieck's work during the \"Golden Age\" period at the IHÉS established several unifying themes in algebraic geometry, number theory, topology, category theory and complex analysis. His first (pre-IHÉS) discovery in algebraic geometry was the Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem, a generalisation of the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem proved algebraically; in this context he also introduced K-theory. Then, following the programme he outlined in his talk at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians, he introduced the theory of schemes, developing it in detail in his ''Éléments de géométrie algébrique'' (''EGA'') and providing the new more flexible and general foundations for algebraic geometry that has been adopted in the field since that time. He went on to introduce the étale cohomology theory of schemes, providing the key tools for proving the Weil conjectures, as well as crystalline cohomology and algebraic de Rham cohomology to complement it. Closely linked to these cohomology theories, he originated topos theory as a generalisation of topology (relevant also in categorical logic). He also provided an algebraic definition of fundamental groups of schemes and more generally the main structures of a categorical Galois theory. As a framework for his coherent duality theory he also introduced derived categories, which were further developed by Verdier.\n\nThe results of work on these and other topics were published in the ''EGA'' and in less polished form in the notes of the ''Séminaire de géométrie algébrique'' (''SGA'') that he directed at the IHÉS.\n\n===Political activism===\nGrothendieck's political views were radical and pacifist, and he strongly opposed both United States intervention in Vietnam and Soviet military expansionism. He gave lectures on category theory in the forests surrounding Hanoi while the city was being bombed, to protest against the Vietnam War. He retired from scientific life around 1970, after having discovered that the IHÉS was partly funded by the military. He returned to academia a few years later as a professor at the University of Montpellier.\n\nWhile the issue of military funding was perhaps the most obvious explanation for Grothendieck's departure from the IHÉS, those who knew him say that the causes of the rupture ran deeper. Pierre Cartier, a ''visiteur de longue durée'' (\"long-term guest\") at the IHÉS, wrote a piece about Grothendieck for a special volume published on the occasion of the IHÉS's fortieth anniversary. The ''Grothendieck Festschrift'', published in 1990, was a three-volume collection of research papers to mark his sixtieth birthday in 1988.\n\nIn it, Cartier notes that as the son of an antimilitary anarchist and one who grew up among the disenfranchised, Grothendieck always had a deep compassion for the poor and the downtrodden. As Cartier puts it, Grothendieck came to find Bures-sur-Yvette \"''une cage dorée''\" (\"a golden cage\"). While Grothendieck was at the IHÉS, opposition to the Vietnam War was heating up, and Cartier suggests that this also reinforced Grothendieck's distaste at having become a mandarin of the scientific world. In addition, after several years at the IHÉS, Grothendieck seemed to cast about for new intellectual interests. By the late 1960s, he had started to become interested in scientific areas outside mathematics. David Ruelle, a physicist who joined the IHÉS faculty in 1964, said that Grothendieck came to talk to him a few times about physics. Biology interested Grothendieck much more than physics, and he organized some seminars on biological topics.\n\nIn 1970, Grothendieck, with two other mathematicians, Claude Chevalley and Pierre Samuel, created a political group called ''Survivre''—the name later changed to ''Survivre et vivre''. The group published a bulletin and was dedicated to antimilitary and ecological issues, and also developed strong criticism of the indiscriminate use of science and technology. Grothendieck devoted the next three years to this group and served as the main editor of its bulletin.\n\nAfter leaving the IHÉS, Grothendieck became a temporary professor at Collège de France for two years. He then became a professor at the University of Montpellier, where he became increasingly estranged from the mathematical community. His mathematical career, for the most part, ended when he left the IHÉS. He formally retired in 1988, a few years after having accepted a research position at the CNRS.\n\n===Manuscripts written in the 1980s===\nWhile not publishing mathematical research in conventional ways during the 1980s, he produced several influential manuscripts with limited distribution, with both mathematical and biographical content.\n\nProduced during 1980 and 1981, ''La Longue Marche à travers la théorie de Galois'' (''The Long March Through Galois Theory'') is a 1600-page handwritten manuscript containing many of the ideas that led to the ''Esquisse d'un programme''. It also includes a study of Teichmüller theory.\n\nIn 1983, stimulated by correspondence with Ronald Brown and Tim Porter at Bangor University, Grothendieck wrote a 600-page manuscript titled ''Pursuing Stacks'', starting with a letter addressed to Daniel Quillen. This letter and successive parts were distributed from Bangor (see External links below). Within these, in an informal, diary-like manner, Grothendieck explained and developed his ideas on the relationship between algebraic homotopy theory and algebraic geometry and prospects for a noncommutative theory of stacks. The manuscript, which is being edited for publication by G. Maltsiniotis, later led to another of his monumental works, ''Les Dérivateurs''. Written in 1991, this latter opus of about 2000 pages further developed the homotopical ideas begun in ''Pursuing Stacks''. Much of this work anticipated the subsequent development of the motivic homotopy theory of Fabien Morel and V. Voevodsky in the mid-1990s.\n\nIn 1984, Grothendieck wrote the proposal ''Esquisse d'un Programme'' (\"Sketch of a Programme\") for a position at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS). It describes new ideas for studying the moduli space of complex curves. Although Grothendieck himself never published his work in this area, the proposal inspired other mathematicians' work by becoming the source of dessin d'enfant theory and Anabelian geometry. It was later published in the two-volume ''Geometric Galois Actions'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997).\n\nDuring this period, Grothendieck also gave his consent to publishing some of his drafts for EGA on Bertini-type theorems (''EGA'' V, published in Ulam Quarterly in 1992-1993 and later made available on the Grothendieck Circle web site in 2004).\n\nIn the 1,000-page autobiographical manuscript ''Récoltes et semailles'' (1986) Grothendieck describes his approach to mathematics and his experiences in the mathematical community, a community that initially accepted him in an open and welcoming manner but which he progressively perceived to be governed by competition and status. He complains about what he saw as the \"burial\" of his work and betrayal by his former students and colleagues after he had left the community. ''Récoltes et semailles'' work is now available on the internet in the French original, and an English translation is underway. Parts of ''Récoltes et semailles'' have been translated into Spanish and into Russian and published in Moscow.\n\nIn 1988 Grothendieck declined the Crafoord Prize with an open letter to the media. He wrote that established mathematicians like himself had no need for additional financial support and criticized what he saw as the declining ethics of the scientific community, characterized by outright scientific theft that, according to him, had become commonplace and tolerated. The letter also expressed his belief that totally unforeseen events before the end of the century would lead to an unprecedented collapse of civilization. Grothendieck added however that his views are \"in no way meant as a criticism of the Royal Academy's aims in the administration of its funds\" and added \"I regret the inconvenience that my refusal to accept the Crafoord prize may have caused you and the Royal Academy\" and that he \"apologized\" for the inconvenience.\n\n''La Clef des Songes'', a 315-page manuscript written in 1987, is Grothendieck's account of how his consideration of the source of dreams led him to conclude that God exists. As part of the notes to this manuscript, Grothendieck described the life and word of '''18 \"mutants,\"''' people whom he admired as visionaries far ahead of their time and heralding a new age. The only mathematician on his list was Bernhard Riemann. Influenced by the Catholic mystic Marthe Robin who was claimed to survive on the Holy Eucharist alone, Grothendieck almost starved himself to death in 1988. His growing preoccupation with spiritual matters was also evident in a letter titled ''Lettre de la Bonne Nouvelle'' sent to 250 friends in January 1990. In it, he described his encounters with a deity and announced that a \"New Age\" would commence on 14 October 1996.Grothendieck descent into psychosis was easy to spot from the letter sent to his friends he talks about his religious instruction which came into him in dreams revealed from God and that he was chosen by god for a mission starting in announcing the new age,furthermore a psychotic symptom appears his voice is gradually hijacked,in his words \"a voice which comes out of my mind when inhaling,as if it were a second voice coming from me\" Flora takes form : the female personality of God , a second episode takes place and now he mistakes it for Marthe Robin \"the voice coming out of my throat, which was masquerading as Marthe Robin\" then changes for God again.In the early part of 1990 he fasts for 45 days this episode is nearly lethal for him his son Alexandre recalls he was like an Auschwitz prisoner.\n\nOver 20,000 pages of Grothendieck's mathematical and other writings, held at the University of Montpellier, remain unpublished. They have been digitized for preservation and are freely available in open access through the Institut Montpelliérain Alexander Grothendieck portal.\n\n===Retirement into reclusion and death===\nIn 1991, Grothendieck moved to a new address which he did not provide to his previous contacts in the mathematical community. Very few people visited him afterward. Local villagers helped sustain him with a more varied diet after he tried to live on a staple of dandelion soup. After his death, it was revealed that he lived alone in a house in Lasserre, Ariège, a small village at the foot of the Pyrenees.\n\nIn January 2010, Grothendieck wrote the letter \"Déclaration d'intention de non-publication\" to Luc Illusie, claiming that all materials published in his absence have been published without his permission. He asks that none of his work be reproduced in whole or in part and that copies of this work be removed from libraries. A website devoted to his work was called \"an abomination.\" This order may have been reversed later in 2010.\n\nOn 13 November 2014, aged 86, Grothendieck died in the hospital of Saint-Girons, Ariège.\n\n===Citizenship===\nGrothendieck was born in Weimar Germany. In 1938, aged ten, he moved to France as a refugee. Records of his nationality were destroyed in the fall of Germany in 1945 and he did not apply for French citizenship after the war. He thus became a stateless person for at least the majority of his working life, traveling on a Nansen passport. Part of this reluctance to hold French nationality is attributed to not wishing to serve in the French military, particularly due to the Algerian War (1954–62). He eventually applied for French citizenship in the early 1980s, well past the age that exempted him from military service.\n\n===Family===\nGrothendieck was very close to his mother to whom he dedicated his dissertation. She died in 1957 from the tuberculosis that she contracted in camps for displaced persons. He had five children: a son with his landlady during his time in Nancy, three children, Johanna (1959), Alexander (1961) and Mathieu (1965) with his wife Mireille Dufour, and one child with Justine Skalba, with whom he lived in a commune in the early 1970s.\n", "\nGrothendieck's early mathematical work was in functional analysis. Between 1949 and 1953 he worked on his doctoral thesis in this subject at Nancy, supervised by Jean Dieudonné and Laurent Schwartz. His key contributions include topological tensor products of topological vector spaces, the theory of nuclear spaces as foundational for Schwartz distributions, and the application of Lp spaces in studying linear maps between topological vector spaces. In a few years, he had turned himself into a leading authority on this area of functional analysis—to the extent that Dieudonné compares his impact in this field to that of Banach.\n\nIt is, however, in algebraic geometry and related fields where Grothendieck did his most important and influential work. From about 1955 he started to work on sheaf theory and homological algebra, producing the influential \"Tôhoku paper\" (''Sur quelques points d'algèbre homologique'', published in the Tohoku Mathematical Journal in 1957) where he introduced abelian categories and applied their theory to show that sheaf cohomology can be defined as certain derived functors in this context.\n\nHomological methods and sheaf theory had already been introduced in algebraic geometry by Jean-Pierre Serre and others, after sheaves had been defined by Jean Leray. Grothendieck took them to a higher level of abstraction and turned them into a key organising principle of his theory. He shifted attention from the study of individual varieties to the ''relative point of view'' (pairs of varieties related by a morphism), allowing a broad generalization of many classical theorems. The first major application was the relative version of Serre's theorem showing that the cohomology of a coherent sheaf on a complete variety is finite-dimensional; Grothendieck's theorem shows that the higher direct images of coherent sheaves under a proper map are coherent; this reduces to Serre's theorem over a one-point space.\n\nIn 1956, he applied the same thinking to the Riemann–Roch theorem, which had already recently been generalized to any dimension by Hirzebruch. The Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem was announced by Grothendieck at the initial Mathematische Arbeitstagung in Bonn, in 1957. It appeared in print in a paper written by Armand Borel with Serre. This result was his first work in algebraic geometry. He went on to plan and execute a programme for rebuilding the foundations of algebraic geometry, which were then in a state of flux and under discussion in Claude Chevalley's seminar; he outlined his programme in his talk at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians.\n\nHis foundational work on algebraic geometry is at a higher level of abstraction than all prior versions. He adapted the use of non-closed generic points, which led to the theory of schemes. He also pioneered the systematic use of nilpotents. As 'functions' these can take only the value 0, but they carry infinitesimal information, in purely algebraic settings. His ''theory of schemes'' has become established as the best universal foundation for this field, because of its expressiveness as well as technical depth. In that setting one can use birational geometry, techniques from number theory, Galois theory and commutative algebra, and close analogues of the methods of algebraic topology, all in an integrated way.\n\nHe is also noted for his mastery of abstract approaches to mathematics and his perfectionism in matters of formulation and presentation. Relatively little of his work after 1960 was published by the conventional route of the learned journal, circulating initially in duplicated volumes of seminar notes; his influence was to a considerable extent personal. His influence spilled over into many other branches of mathematics, for example the contemporary theory of D-modules. (It also provoked adverse reactions, with many mathematicians seeking out more concrete areas and problems.)\n\n===''EGA'', ''SGA'', ''FGA''===\nThe bulk of Grothendieck's published work is collected in the monumental, yet incomplete, ''Éléments de géométrie algébrique'' (''EGA'') and ''Séminaire de géométrie algébrique'' (''SGA''). The collection ''Fondements de la Géometrie Algébrique'' (''FGA''), which gathers together talks given in the Séminaire Bourbaki, also contains important material.\n\nGrothendieck's work includes the invention of the étale and l-adic cohomology theories, which explain an observation of André Weil's that there is a connection between the topological characteristics of a variety and its diophantine (number theoretic) properties. For example, the number of solutions of an equation over a finite field reflects the topological nature of its solutions over the complex numbers. Weil realized that to prove such a connection one needed a new cohomology theory, but neither he nor any other expert saw how to do this until such a theory was found by Grothendieck.\n\nThis program culminated in the proofs of the Weil conjectures, the last of which was settled by Grothendieck's student Pierre Deligne in the early 1970s after Grothendieck had largely withdrawn from mathematics.\n\n===Major mathematical topics (from ''Récoltes et Semailles'')===\nGrothendieck wrote a retrospective assessment of his mathematical work (see the external link ''La Vision'' below). As his main mathematical achievements (\"maître-thèmes\"), he chose this collection of 12 topics (his chronological order):\n\n# Topological tensor products and nuclear spaces\n# \"Continuous\" and \"discrete\" duality (derived categories and \"six operations\")\n# ''Yoga'' of the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem (K-theory, relation with intersection theory)\n# Schemes\n# Topoi\n# Étale cohomology including l-adic cohomology\n# Motives and the motivic Galois group (and Grothendieck categories)\n# Crystals and crystalline cohomology, ''yoga'' of De Rham and Hodge coefficients\n# Topological algebra, infinity-stacks, 'dérivateurs', cohomological formalism of toposes as an inspiration for a new homotopic algebra\n# Tame topology\n# ''Yoga'' of anabelian geometry and Galois–Teichmüller theory\n# Schematic point of view, or \"arithmetics\" for regular polyhedra and regular configurations of all sorts.\n\nHe wrote that the central theme of the topics above is that of topos theory, while the first and last were of the least importance to him.\n\nHere the term ''yoga'' denotes a kind of \"meta-theory\" that can be used heuristically; Michel Raynaud writes the other terms \"Ariadne's thread\" and \"philosophy\" as effective equivalents.\n", "Grothendieck is considered by many to be the greatest mathematician of the 20th century. In an obituary David Mumford and John Tate wrote:\nAlthough mathematics became more and more abstract and general throughout the 20th century, it was Alexander Grothendieck who was the greatest master of this trend. His unique skill was to eliminate all unnecessary hypotheses and burrow into an area so deeply that its inner patterns on the most abstract level revealed themselves–and then, like a magician, show how the solution of old problems fell out in straightforward ways now that their real nature had been revealed.\n\nBy the 1970s, Grothendieck's work was seen as influential not only in algebraic geometry, and the allied fields of sheaf theory and homological algebra, but influenced logic, in the field of categorical logic.\n\n===Geometry===\nGrothendieck approached algebraic geometry by clarifying the foundations of the field, and by developing mathematical tools intended to prove a number of notable conjectures. Algebraic geometry has traditionally meant the understanding of geometric objects, such as algebraic curves and surfaces, through the study of the algebraic equations for those objects. Properties of algebraic equations are in turn studied using the techniques of ring theory. In this approach, the properties of a geometric object are related to the properties of an associated ring. The space (e.g., real, complex, or projective) in which the object is defined is extrinsic to the object, while the ring is intrinsic.\n\nGrothendieck laid a new foundation for algebraic geometry by making intrinsic spaces (\"spectra\") and associated rings the primary objects of study. To that end he developed the theory of schemes, which can be informally thought of as topological spaces on which a commutative ring is associated to every open subset of the space. Schemes have become the basic objects of study for practitioners of modern algebraic geometry. Their use as a foundation allowed geometry to absorb technical advances from other fields.\n\nHis generalization of the classical Riemann-Roch theorem related topological properties of complex algebraic curves to their algebraic structure. The tools he developed to prove this theorem started the study of algebraic and topological K-theory, which study the topological properties of objects by associating them with rings. Topological K-theory was founded by Michael Atiyah, after direct contact with Grothendieck's ideas at the Bonn Arbeitstagung.\n\n===Cohomology theories===\nGrothendieck's construction of new cohomology theories, which use algebraic techniques to study topological objects, has influenced the development of algebraic number theory, algebraic topology, and representation theory. As part of this project, his creation of topos theory, a category-theoretic generalization of point-set topology, has influenced the fields of set theory and mathematical logic.\n\nThe Weil conjectures were formulated in the later 1940s as a set of mathematical problems in arithmetic geometry. They describe properties of analytic invariants, called local zeta functions, of the number of points on an algebraic curve or variety of higher dimension. Grothendieck's discovery of the ℓ-adic étale cohomology, the first example of a Weil cohomology theory, opened the way for a proof of the Weil conjectures, ultimately completed in the 1970s by his student Pierre Deligne. Grothendieck's large-scale approach has been called a \"visionary program.\" The ℓ-adic cohomology then became a fundamental tool for number theorists, with applications to the Langlands program.\n\nGrothendieck's conjectural theory of motives was intended to be the \"ℓ-adic\" theory but without the choice of \"ℓ\", a prime number. It did not provide the intended route to the Weil conjectures, but has been behind modern developments in algebraic K-theory, motivic homotopy theory, and motivic integration. This theory, Daniel Quillen's work, and Grothendieck's theory of Chern classes, are considered the background to the theory of algebraic cobordism, another algebraic analogue of topological ideas.\n\n===Category theory===\nGrothendieck's emphasis on the role of universal properties across varied mathematical structures brought category theory into the mainstream as an organizing principle for mathematics in general. Among its uses, category theory creates a common language for describing similar structures and techniques seen in many different mathematical systems. His notion of abelian category is now the basic object of study in homological algebra. The emergence of a separate mathematical discipline of category theory has been attributed to Grothendieck's influence, though unintentional.\n\n===In popular culture===\nThe novel ''Colonel Lágrimas'' (available in English by Restless Books) by Puerto Rican - Costa Rican writer Carlos Fonseca is a semibiographic novel about Grothendieck.\n", "List of things named after Alexander Grothendieck\nHomotopy hypothesis\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n** \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n* Three-volume biography, first volume available in English, .\n** \n\n\n\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* Séminaire Grothendieck is a peripatetic seminar on Grothendieck view not just on mathematics \n* Grothendieck Circle, collection of mathematical and biographical information, photos, links to his writings\n* Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques\n* The origins of 'Pursuing Stacks': This is an account of how 'Pursuing Stacks' was written in response to a correspondence in English with Ronnie Brown and Tim Porter at Bangor, which continued until 1991. See also Alexander Grothendieck: some recollections.\n* Récoltes et Semailles\n* \"Récoltes et Semailles\" et \"La Clef des Songes\", French originals and Spanish translations\n* English summary of \"La Clef des Songes\"\n* Video of a lecture with photos from Grothendieck's life, given by Winfried Scharlau at IHES in 2009\n* Can one explain schemes to biologists —biographical sketch of Grothendieck by David Mumford & John Tate\n* Archives Grothendieck\n* \" Who Is Alexander Grothendieck?, Winfried Scharlau, Notices of the AMS 55(8), 2008.\n* \" Alexander Grothendieck: A Country Known Only by Name, Pierre Cartier, Notices of the AMS 62(4), 2015.\n* Alexandre Grothendieck 1928–2014, Part 1, Notices of the AMS 63(3), 2016.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Life ", " Mathematical work ", " Influence ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " Sources and further reading ", " External links " ]	Alexander Grothendieck
[ "\nAlcoholics Anonymous logo\nAA meeting sign (German)\nSobriety token or \"chip\", given for specified lengths of sobriety, on the back is Serenity Prayer. Here green is for six months of sobriety; purple is for nine months.\n'''Alcoholics Anonymous''' ('''AA''') is an international mutual aid fellowship founded in 1935 by Bill Wilson and Dr. Bob Smith in Akron, Ohio. AA's stated \"primary purpose\" is to help alcoholics \"stay sober and help other alcoholics achieve sobriety\". With other early members, Bill Wilson and Bob Smith developed AA's Twelve Step program of spiritual and character development. AA's initial Twelve Traditions were introduced in 1946 to help the fellowship be stable and unified while disengaged from \"outside issues\" and influences.\n\nThe Traditions recommend that members and groups remain anonymous in public media, altruistically help other alcoholics, and avoid official affiliations with other organizations. They also advise against dogma and coercive hierarchies. Subsequent fellowships such as Narcotics Anonymous have adopted and adapted the Twelve Steps and the Twelve Traditions to their respective primary purposes.\n\nAccording to AA's 2014 membership survey, 27% of members have been sober less than one year, 24% have 1–5 years sober, 13% have 5–10 years, 14% have 10–20 years, and 22% have more than 20 years sober. Studies of AA's efficacy have produced inconsistent results. While some studies have suggested an association between AA attendance and increased abstinence or other positive outcomes, other studies have not.\n\nThe first female member, Florence Rankin, joined AA in March 1937, and the first non-Protestant member, a Roman Catholic, joined in 1939. The first Black AA group was established in 1945 in Washington DC by Jim S., an African American physician from Virginia. AA membership has since spread internationally \"across diverse cultures holding different beliefs and values\", including geopolitical areas resistant to grassroots movements. Close to 2 million people worldwide are members of AA as of 2016.\n\nAA's name is derived from its first book, informally called \"The Big Book\", originally titled ''Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How More Than One Hundred Men Have Recovered From Alcoholism''.\n", "\n\nAA sprang from The Oxford Group, a non-denominational movement modeled after first-century Christianity. Some members founded the Group to help in maintaining sobriety. \"Grouper\" Ebby Thacher was Wilson's former drinking buddy who approached Wilson saying that he had \"got religion\", was sober, and that Wilson could do the same if he set aside objections to religion and instead formed a personal idea of God, \"another power\" or \"higher power\".\n\nFeeling a \"kinship of common suffering\" and, though drunk, Wilson attended his first Group gathering. Within days, Wilson admitted himself to the Charles B. Towns Hospital after drinking four beers on the way—the last alcohol he ever drank. Under the care of Dr. William Duncan Silkworth (an early benefactor of AA), Wilson's detox included the deliriant belladonna. At the hospital a despairing Wilson experienced a bright flash of light, which he felt to be God revealing himself. Following his hospital discharge Wilson joined the Oxford Group and recruited other alcoholics to the Group. Wilson's early efforts to help others become sober were ineffective, prompting Dr. Silkworth to suggest that Wilson place less stress on religion and more on \"the science\" of treating alcoholism. Wilson's first success came during a business trip to Akron, Ohio, where he was introduced to Dr. Robert Smith, a surgeon and Oxford Group member who was unable to stay sober. After thirty days of working with Wilson, Smith drank his last drink on June 10, 1935, the date marked by AA for its anniversaries.\n\nWhile Wilson and Smith credited their sobriety to working with alcoholics under the auspices of the Oxford Group, a Group associate pastor sermonized against Wilson and his alcoholic Groupers for forming a \"secret, ashamed sub-group\" engaged in \"divergent works\". By 1937, Wilson separated from the Oxford Group. AA Historian Ernest Kurtz described the split:\n''...more and more, Bill discovered that new adherents could get sober by believing in each other and in the strength of this group. Men no women were members yet who had proven over and over again, by extremely painful experience, that they could not get sober on their own had somehow become more powerful when two or three of them worked on their common problem. This, then—whatever it was that occurred among them—was what they could accept as a power greater than themselves. They did not need the Oxford Group.''\n\n\nIn 1955, Wilson acknowledged AA's debt, saying \"The Oxford Groupers had clearly shown us what to do. And just as importantly, we learned from them ''what not to do.''\" Among the Oxford Group practices that AA retained were informal gatherings, a \"changed-life\" developed through \"stages\", and working with others for no material gain, AA's analogs for these are meetings, \"the steps\", and sponsorship. AA's tradition of anonymity was a reaction to the publicity-seeking practices of the Oxford Group, as well as AA's wish to not promote, Wilson said, \"erratic public characters who through broken anonymity might get drunk and destroy confidence in us.\"\n", "To share their method, Wilson and other members wrote the initially-titled book, ''Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How More Than One Hundred Men Have Recovered from Alcoholism'', from which AA drew its name. Informally known as \"The Big Book\" (with its first 164 pages virtually unchanged since the 1939 edition), it suggests a twelve-step program in which members admit that they are powerless over alcohol and need help from a \"higher power\". They seek guidance and strength through prayer and meditation from God or a Higher Power of their own understanding; take a moral inventory with care to include resentments; list and become ready to remove character defects; list and make amends to those harmed; continue to take a moral inventory, pray, meditate, and try to help other alcoholics recover. The second half of the book, \"Personal Stories\" (subject to additions, removal and retitling in subsequent editions), is made of AA members' redemptive autobiographical sketches.\n\nIn 1941, interviews on American radio and favorable articles in US magazines, including a piece by Jack Alexander in ''The Saturday Evening Post'', led to increased book sales and membership. By 1946, as the growing fellowship quarreled over structure, purpose, and authority, as well as finances and publicity, Wilson began to form and promote what became known as AA's \"Twelve Traditions,\" which are guidelines for an altruistic, unaffiliated, non-coercive, and non-hierarchical structure that limited AA's purpose to only helping alcoholics on a non-professional level while shunning publicity. Eventually he gained formal adoption and inclusion of the Twelve Traditions in all future editions of the Big Book. At the 1955 conference in St. Louis, Missouri, Wilson relinquished stewardship of AA to the General Service Conference, as AA grew to millions of members internationally.\n", "\nA regional service center for Alcoholics Anonymous\n\nAA says it is \"not organized in the formal or political sense\", and Bill Wilson called it a \"benign anarchy\". In Ireland, Shane Butler said that AA “looks like it couldn’t survive as there’s no leadership or top-level telling local cumanns what to do, but it has worked and proved itself extremely robust.” Butler explained that \"AA’s 'inverted pyramid' style of governance has helped it to avoid many of the pitfalls that political and religious institutions have encountered since it was established here in 1946.\"\n\nIn 2006, AA counted 1,867,212 members and 106,202 AA groups worldwide. The Twelve Traditions informally guide how individual AA groups function, and the Twelve Concepts for World Service guide how the organization is structured globally.\n\nA member who accepts a service position or an organizing role is a \"trusted servant\" with terms rotating and limited, typically lasting three months to two years and determined by group vote and the nature of the position. Each group is a self-governing entity with AA World Services acting only in an advisory capacity. AA is served entirely by alcoholics, except for seven \"nonalcoholic friends of the fellowship\" of the 21-member AA Board of Trustees.\n\nAA groups are self-supporting, relying on voluntary donations from members to cover expenses. The AA General Service Office (GSO) limits contributions to US$3,000 a year. Above the group level, AA may hire outside professionals for services that require specialized expertise or full-time responsibilities.\n\nLike individual groups, the GSO is self-supporting. AA receives proceeds from books and literature that constitute more than 50% of the income for its General Service Office. In keeping with A.A.’s Seventh Tradition, the Central Office is fully self-supporting through the sale of literature and related products, and through the voluntary donations of A.A. members and groups. It does not accept donations from people or organizations outside of A.A.\n\nIn keeping with A.A.’s Eighth Tradition, the Central Office employs special workers who are compensated financially for their services, but their services do not include traditional “12th Step” work of working with alcoholics in need. All 12th Step calls that come to the Central Office are handed to sober A.A. members who have volunteered to handle these calls. It also maintains service centers, which coordinate activities such as printing literature, responding to public inquiries, and organizing conferences. Other International General Service Offices (Australia, Costa Rica, Russia, etc.) are independent of AA World Services in New York.\n", "\n\nAA's program extends beyond abstaining alcohol. Its goal is to effect enough change in the alcoholic's thinking \"to bring about recovery from alcoholism\" through \"an entire psychic change,\" or spiritual awakening. A spiritual awakening is meant to be achieved by taking the Twelve Steps, and sobriety is furthered by volunteering for AA and regular AA meeting attendance or contact with AA members. Members are encouraged to find an experienced fellow alcoholic, called a sponsor, to help them understand and follow the AA program. The sponsor should preferably have experience of all twelve of the steps, be the same sex as the sponsored person, and refrain from imposing personal views on the sponsored person. Following the helper therapy principle, sponsors in AA may benefit from their relationship with their charges, as \"helping behaviors\" correlate with increased abstinence and lower probabilities of binge drinking.\n\nAA's program is an inheritor of Counter-Enlightenment philosophy. AA shares the view that acceptance of one's inherent limitations is critical to finding one's proper place among other humans and God. Such ideas are described as \"Counter-Enlightenment\" because they are contrary to the Enlightenment's ideal that humans have the capacity to make their lives and societies a heaven on earth using their own power and reason.\nAfter evaluating AA's literature and observing AA meetings for sixteen months, sociologists David R. Rudy and Arthur L. Greil found that for an AA member to remain sober a high level of commitment is necessary. This commitment is facilitated by a change in the member's worldview. To help members stay sober AA must, they argue, provide an all-encompassing worldview while creating and sustaining an atmosphere of transcendence in the organization. To be all-encompassing AA's ideology places an emphasis on tolerance rather than on a narrow religious worldview that could make the organization unpalatable to potential members and thereby limit its effectiveness. AA's emphasis on the spiritual nature of its program, however, is necessary to institutionalize a feeling of transcendence. A tension results from the risk that the necessity of transcendence, if taken too literally, would compromise AA's efforts to maintain a broad appeal. As this tension is an integral part of AA, Rudy and Greil argue that AA is best described as a ''quasi-religious organization''.\n\n===Meetings===\nAA meetings are \"quasi-ritualized therapeutic sessions run by and for, alcoholics\". They are usually informal and often feature discussions. Local AA directories list a variety of weekly meetings. Those listed as \"closed\" are available to those with a self professed \"desire to stop drinking,\" which cannot be challenged by another member on any grounds. \"Open\" meetings are available to anyone (nonalcoholics can attend as observers). At speaker meetings, one or two members tell their stories, while discussion meetings allocate the most time for general discussion. Some meetings are devoted to studying and discussing the AA literature.\n\nAA meetings do not exclude other alcoholics, though some meetings cater to specific demographics such as gender, profession, age, sexual orientation, or culture. Meetings in the United States are held in a variety of languages including Armenian, English, Farsi, Finnish, French, Japanese, Korean, Russian, and Spanish. While AA has pamphlets that suggest meeting formats, groups have the autonomy to hold and conduct meetings as they wish \"except in matters affecting other groups or AA as a whole\". Different cultures affect ritual aspects of meetings, but around the world \"many particularities of the AA meeting format can be observed at almost any AA gathering\".\n\n===Confidentiality===\n\nUS courts have not extended the status of privileged communication, such as that enjoyed by clergy and lawyers, to AA related communications between members.\n", "A study found an association between an increase in attendance to AA meetings with increased spirituality and a decrease in the frequency and intensity of alcohol use. The research also found that AA was effective at helping agnostics and atheists become sober. The authors concluded that though spirituality was an important mechanism of behavioral change for some alcoholics, it was not the only effective mechanism. Since the mid-1970s, a number of 'agnostic' or 'no-prayer' AA groups have begun across the U.S., Canada, and other parts of the world, which hold meetings that adhere to a tradition allowing alcoholics to freely express their doubts or disbelief that spirituality will help their recovery, and forgo use of opening or closing prayers. There are online resources listing AA meetings for atheists and agnostics.\n", "\n\nMore informally than not, AA's membership has helped popularize the disease concept of alcoholism, though AA officially has had no part in the development of such postulates which had appeared as early as the late eighteenth century. Though AA initially avoided the term \"disease\", in 1973 conference-approved literature categorically stated that \"we had the disease of alcoholism.\" Regardless of official positions, from AA's inception most members have believed alcoholism to be a disease.\n\nThough cautious regarding the medical nature of alcoholism, AA has let others voice opinions. The Big Book states that alcoholism \"is an illness which only a spiritual experience will conquer.\" Ernest Kurtz says this is \"The closest the book Alcoholics Anonymous comes to a definition of alcoholism.\" In his introduction to The Big Book, non-member Dr. William Silkworth said those unable to moderate their drinking have an allergy. Addressing the allergy concept, AA said \"The doctor’s theory that we have an allergy to alcohol interests us. As laymen, our opinion as to its soundness may, of course, mean little. But as ex-problem drinkers, we can say that his explanation makes good sense. It explains many things for which we cannot otherwise account.\" AA later acknowledged that \"alcoholism is not a true allergy, the experts now inform us.\" Wilson explained in 1960 why AA had refrained from using the term \"disease\":\nWe AAs have never called alcoholism a disease because, technically speaking, it is not a disease entity. For example, there is no such thing as heart disease. Instead there are many separate heart ailments or combinations of them. It is something like that with alcoholism. Therefore, we did not wish to get in wrong with the medical profession by pronouncing alcoholism a disease entity. Hence, we have always called it an illness or a malady—a far safer term for us to use.\n", "AA's New York General Service Office regularly surveys AA members in North America. Its 2014 survey of over 6,000 members in Canada and the United States concluded that, in North America, AA members who responded to the survey were 62% male and 38% female.\n\nAverage member sobriety is slightly under 10 years with 36% sober more than ten years, 13% sober from five to ten years, 24% sober from one to five years, and 27% sober less than one year. Before coming to AA, 63% of members received some type of treatment or counseling, such as medical, psychological, or spiritual. After coming to AA, 59% received outside treatment or counseling. Of those members, 84% said that outside help played an important part in their recovery.\n\nThe same survey showed that AA received 32% of its membership from other members, another 32% from treatment facilities, 30% were self-motivated to attend AA, 12% of its membership from court–ordered attendance, and only 1% of AA members decided to join based on information obtained from the Internet. People taking the survey were allowed to select multiple answers for what motivated them to join AA.\n", "\n\n===Research limitations===\nAA tends to polarize observers into believers and non-believers, and discussion of AA often creates controversy rather than objective reflection. Moreover, a randomized study of AA is difficult: AA members are not randomly selected from the population of chronic alcoholics; they are instead self-selected or mandated by courts to attend AA meetings. There are two opposing types of self-selection bias: (1) drinkers may be motivated to stop drinking before they participate in AA; (2) AA may attract the more severe and difficult cases.\n\n===Studies===\nStudies of AA's efficacy have produced inconsistent results. While some studies have suggested an association between AA attendance and increased abstinence or other positive outcomes, other studies have not. Even meta-analyses and literature reviews have resulted in widely divergent conclusions.\n\nThe 2006 Cochrane Review of eight studies (the studies reviewed were done between 1967 and 2005) measuring the effectiveness of AA found no significant difference between the results of AA and twelve-step participation compared to other treatments, stating that \"experimental studies have on the whole failed to demonstrate their effectiveness in reducing alcohol dependence or drinking problems when compared to other interventions.\"\n\nA 2014 study by Keith Humphreys, Janet Blodgett and Todd Wagner concluded that \"increasing AA attendance leads to short and long term decreases in alcohol consumption that cannot be attributed to self-selection.\" Austin Frakt, writing for ''The New York Times'', discusses how the study's methodology minimizes outside factors, such as how motivated the people who succeed at becoming abstinent are.\n\nA meta-analysis by Dr. Lee Ann Kaskutas in 2009 reported that while the evidence base for twelve step groups from experimental studies was weak, \"other categories of evidence... are overwhelmingly convincing\". Specifically, the correlation between exposure to AA and outcome, the dose-response relationship, and the consistency of the association were found to be very strong. In other words, the frequency by which individuals attend meetings appears to have a statistically significant correlation with maintaining abstinence. Kaskutas noted two studies which both found that 70% of those who attended twelve-step groups at least weekly were abstaining from alcohol consumption at follow ups two and sixteen years later. Those who attended less than once per week showed about the same success rate as those who didn’t attend meetings. Kaskutas also found AA to function consistently with known behavioral change theories and substantial empirical support for specific mechanisms through which AA facilitates change.\n\nA preliminary study suggested that \"AA prayers\" help long-term AA members reduce cravings for alcohol. The study used a MRI machine to scan how subjects reacted to images of people drinking. The study randomly assigned the subjects, so that some subjects saw the images after saying prayers in the Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous; others after reading newspaper articles. The people who had just seen the prayers reported feeling fewer cravings for alcohol; the MRI scans of their brains confirmed that there was a different reaction.\n\n===''The Sober Truth''===\n\nDr. Lance Dodes, in his 2014 book ''The Sober Truth'', argues that most people who have experienced AA have not achieved long-term sobriety, making the controversial argument that research indicates that only 5 to 8 percent of the people who go to one or more AA meetings achieve sobriety for longer than one year. Gabrielle Glaser used Dodes' figures to argue that AA has a low success rate in a 2015 article for ''The Atlantic''.\n\nThe 5 to 8 percent figure put forward by Dodes is controversial; Thomas Beresford, MD, writing for the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, says that the book uses \"three separate, questionable, calculations that arrive at the 5–8% figure.\" This is not the only criticism the book has received. Cornell University clinical psychiatry professor Richard A. Friedman, in his review for the New York Times, called ''The Sober Truth'' a \"polemical and deeply flawed book\", noting that it was designed to promote psychodynamic therapy for addiction, which itself lacks a strong evidence base. John F. Kelly, an associate professor at Harvard, as well as Gene Beresin, a professor at Harvard, feel that the book's conclusion that \"12-step approaches are almost completely ineffective and even harmful in treating substance use disorders\" is wrong, noting that \"studies published in prestigious peer-reviewed scientific journals have found that 12-step treatments that facilitate engagement with AA post-discharge ... produce about one third higher continuous abstinence rates\" \n\n===Health-care costs===\nAs a volunteer-supported program, AA is free of charge. This contrasts with treatments for alcoholism such as inpatient treatment, drug therapy, psychotherapy, and cognitive-based therapy. One study found that the institutional use of twelve-step-facilitation therapy to encourage participation in AA reduced healthcare expenditures by 45% when compared to another group that was not encouraged to participate in AA.\n", "\n===Hospitals===\nMany AA meetings take place in treatment facilities. Carrying the message of AA into hospitals was how the co-founders of AA first remained sober. They discovered great value of working with alcoholics who are still suffering, and that even if the alcoholic they were working with did not stay sober, they did. Bill Wilson wrote, \"Practical experience shows that nothing will so much insure immunity from drinking as intensive work with other alcoholics\". Bill Wilson visited Towns Hospital in New York City in an attempt to help the alcoholics who were patients there in 1934. At St. Thomas Hospital in Akron, Ohio, Smith worked with still more alcoholics. In 1939, a New York mental institution, Rockland State Hospital, was one of the first institutions to allow AA hospital groups. Service to corrections and treatment facilities used to be combined until the General Service Conference, in 1977, voted to dissolve its Institutions Committee and form two separate committees, one for treatment facilities, and one for correctional facilities.\n\n===Prisons===\nIn the United States and Canada, AA meetings are held in hundreds of correctional facilities. The AA General Service Office has published a workbook with detailed recommendations for methods of approaching correctional-facility officials with the intent of developing an in-prison AA program. In addition, AA publishes a variety of pamphlets specifically for the incarcerated alcoholic. Additionally, the AA General Service Office provides a pamphlet with guidelines for members working with incarcerated alcoholics.\n\n===United States Court rulings===\n\n\nUnited States courts have ruled that inmates, parolees, and probationers cannot be ordered to attend AA. Though AA itself was not deemed a religion, it was ruled that it contained ''enough'' religious components (variously described in ''Griffin v. Coughlin'' below as, inter alia, \"religion\", \"religious activity\", \"religious exercise\") to make coerced attendance at AA meetings a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment of the constitution. In 2007, the Ninth Circuit of the U.S. Court of Appeals stated that a parolee who was ordered to attend AA had standing to sue his parole office.\n\n===American treatment industry===\nIn 1949, the Hazelden treatment center was founded and staffed by AA members, and since then many alcoholic rehabilitation clinics have incorporated AA's precepts into their treatment programs. 32% of AA's membership was introduced to it through a treatment facility.\n\n===United Kingdom treatment industry===\nA cross-sectional survey of substance-misuse treatment providers in the West Midlands found fewer than 10% integrated twelve-step methods in their practice and only a third felt their consumers were suited for Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics Anonymous membership. Less than half were likely to recommend self-help groups to their clients. Providers with nursing qualifications were more likely to make such referrals than those without them. A statistically significant correlation was found between providers' self-reported level of spirituality and their likelihood of recommending AA or NA.\n", "\n\n===Thirteenth Stepping===\n\n\"Thirteenth-stepping\" is a pejorative term for AA members approaching new members for dates or sex. The ''Journal of Addiction Nursing'' reported that 50% of the women that participated in a survey (55 in all) experienced 13-stepping behavior from others. AA's pamphlet on sponsorship suggests that men be sponsored by men and women be sponsored by women.\n\n===Moderation or abstinence===\n\n\nStanton Peele argued that some AA groups apply the disease model to all problem drinkers, whether or not they are \"full-blown\" alcoholics. Along with Nancy Shute, Peele has advocated that besides AA, other options should be readily available to those problem drinkers who are able to manage their drinking with the right treatment. The Big Book says \"moderate drinkers\" and \"a certain type of hard drinker\" are able to stop or moderate their drinking. The Big Book suggests no program for these drinkers, but instead seeks to help drinkers without \"power of choice in drink.\"\n\n===Cultural identity===\nOne review of AA warned of detrimental iatrogenic effects of twelve-step philosophy and concluded that AA uses many methods that are also used by cults. A subsequent study concluded, however, that AA's program bore little resemblance to religious cults because the techniques used appeared beneficial. Another study found that the AA program's focus on admission of having a problem increases deviant stigma and strips members of their previous cultural identity, replacing it with the deviant identity. A survey of group members, however, found they had a bicultural identity and saw AA's program as a complement to their other national, ethnic, and religious cultures.\n", "\n\nAlcoholics Anonymous publishes several books, reports, pamphlets, and other media, including a periodical known as the ''AA Grapevine''. Two books are used primarily: ''Alcoholics Anonymous'' (the \"Big Book\") and ''Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions'', the latter explaining AA's fundamental principles in depth. The full text of each of these two books is available on the AA website at no charge.\n\n* 575 pages. Also available //www.worldcat.org/oclc/49743393 in libraries. \n* 192 pages. Also available //www.worldcat.org/oclc/13572433 in libraries. \n* Also available //www.worldcat.org/oclc/50379271 in libraries.\n", "\n===Films about Alcoholic Anonymous===\n''My Name Is Bill W.'' – dramatized biography of co-founder Bill Wilson.\n''When Love Is Not Enough: The Lois Wilson Story'' – a 2010 film about the wife of founder Bill Wilson, and the beginnings of Alcoholics Anonymous and Al-Anon.\n''Bill W.'' – a 2011 biographical documentary film that tells the story of Bill Wilson using interviews, recreations, and rare archival material.\n ''The 13th Step'' – A 2016 documentary film about sexual predators in Alcoholics Anonymous.\n\n===Films where primary plot line includes AA===\n''A Walk Among the Tombstones'' (2015), a mystery/suspense film based on Lawrence Block's books featuring Matthew Scudder, a recovering alcoholic detective whose AA membership is a central element of the plot.\n''When a Man Loves a Woman'' – an airline pilot's wife attends AA meetings in a residential treatment facility.\n''Clean and Sober'' – a cocaine addict visits an AA meeting to get a sponsor.\n''Days of Wine and Roses'' – a 1962 film about a married couple struggling with alcoholism. Jack Lemmon's character attends an AA meeting in the film.\n''Drunks'' – a 1995 film starring Richard Lewis as an alcoholic who leaves an AA meeting and relapses. The film cuts back and forth between his eventual relapse and the other meeting attendants.\n''Come Back, Little Sheba'' – A 1952 film based on a play of the same title about a loveless marriage where the husband played by Burt Lancaster is an alcoholic who gets help from 2 members of the local AA chapter. A 1977 TV drama was also based on the play.\n''I'll Cry Tomorrow'' – A 1955 film about singer Lillian Roth played by Susan Hayward who goes to AA to help her stop drinking. The film was based on Roth's autobiography of the same name detailing her alcoholism and sobriety through AA.\n''You Kill Me'' – a 2007 crime-comedy film starring Ben Kingsley as a mob hit man with a drinking problem who is forced to accept a job at a mortuary and go to AA meetings.\n''Smashed'' – a 2012 drama film starring Mary Elizabeth Winstead. An elementary school teacher's drinking begins to interfere with her job, so she attempts to get sober in AA.\n", "\n Addiction recovery groups\n* Al-Anon/Alateen\n* Calix Society\n* Community reinforcement approach and family training (CRAFT)\n* Drug rehabilitation\n* Group psychotherapy\n* Intervention counseling\n* List of twelve-step groups\n* Recovery model\n* Self-help groups for mental health\n* Stepping Stones (home)\n* Substance abuse\n* Washingtonian movement\n\n\n\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* AA official website\n* A History of Agnostic Groups in AA\n* Alcoholics Anonymous FBI file on the Internet Archive\n* Original 1938 Manuscript available at Biblio.wiki (public domain)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Oxford Group origins", "The Big Book, the Twelve Steps and the Twelve Traditions", "Organization and finances", "Program", "Spirituality", "Disease concept of alcoholism", "Canadian and United States demographics", "Effectiveness", "Relationship with institutions", "Criticism", "Literature {{anchor\|AA Grapevine}}", "AA in film", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Alcoholics Anonymous
[ "\n\nThis image's alpha channel falls off to zero at its base.\n\nIn computer graphics, '''alpha compositing''' is the process of combining an image with a background to create the appearance of partial or full transparency. It is often useful to render image elements in separate passes, and then combine the resulting multiple 2D images into a single, final image called the composite. For example, compositing is used extensively when combining computer-rendered image elements with live footage.\n\nIn order to combine these image elements correctly, it is necessary to keep an associated ''matte'' for each element. This matte contains the coverage information—the shape of the geometry being drawn—making it possible to distinguish between parts of the image where the geometry was actually drawn and other parts of the image that are empty.\n", "To store matte information, the concept of an alpha channel was introduced by Alvy Ray Smith in the late 1970s, and fully developed in a 1984 paper by Thomas Porter and Tom Duff. In a 2D image element, which stores a color for each pixel, additional data is stored in the alpha channel with a value between 0 and 1. A value of 0 means that the pixel does not have any coverage information and is transparent; i.e. there was no color contribution from any geometry because the geometry did not overlap this pixel. A value of 1 means that the pixel is opaque because the geometry completely overlapped the pixel.\n\nIf an alpha channel is used in an image, there are two common representations that are available: straight (unassociated) alpha, and premultiplied (associated) alpha.\n\nWith straight alpha, the RGB components represent the color of the object or pixel, disregarding its opacity.\n\nWith premultiplied alpha, the RGB components represent the color of the object or pixel, adjusted for its opacity by multiplication. A more obvious advantage of this is that, in certain situations, it can save a subsequent multiplication (e.g. if the image is used many times during later compositing). However, the most significant advantages of using premultiplied alpha are for correctness and simplicity rather than performance: premultiplied alpha allows correct filtering and blending. In addition, premultiplied alpha allows regions of regular alpha blending and regions with additive blending mode to be encoded within the same image.\n\nAssuming that the pixel color is expressed using ''straight'' (non-premultiplied) RGBA tuples, a pixel value of (0.0, 0.7, 0.0, 0.5) implies a pixel that has 70% of the maximum green intensity and 50% opacity. If the color were fully green, its RGBA would be (0, 1, 0, 0.5).\n\nHowever, if this pixel uses premultiplied alpha, all of the RGB values (0, 1, 0) are multiplied by 0.5 and then the alpha is appended to the end to yield (0, 0.5, 0, 0.5). In this case, the 0.5 value for the G channel actually indicates 100% green intensity (with 50% opacity). For this reason, knowing whether a file uses straight or premultiplied alpha is essential to correctly process or composite it.\n\nThe over operator is mathematically identical for both straight alpha colours and pre-multiplied alpha colours. It is often said that associativity is an advantage of pre-multiplied alpha blending over straight alpha blending, but both are associative. The only important difference is in the dynamic range of the colour representation in finite precision numerical calculations (which is in all applications): premultiplied alpha has a unique representation for transparent pixels, avoiding the need to choose a \"clear color\" or resultant artefacts such as edge fringes (see the next paragraphs). In other words, color information of transparent pixels is lost in premultiplied alpha, as the conversion from premultiplied alpha to straight alpha is undefined for alpha equal to zero.\nPremultiplied alpha has some practical advantages over normal alpha blending because interpolation and filtering give correct results.\n\nOrdinary interpolation without premultiplied alpha leads to RGB information leaking out of fully transparent (A=0) regions, even though this RGB information is ideally invisible. When interpolating or filtering images with abrupt borders between transparent and opaque regions, this can result in borders of colors that were not visible in the original image. Errors also occur in areas of semitransparancy\nbecause the RGB components are not correctly weighted, giving incorrectly high weighting to the color of the more transparent (lower alpha) pixels.\n\nPremultiplication can reduce the available relative precision in the RGB values when using integer or fixed-point representation for the color components, which may cause a noticeable loss of quality if the color information is later brightened or if the alpha channel is removed. In practice, this is not usually noticeable because during typical composition operations, such as OVER, the influence of the low-precision colour information in low-alpha areas on the final output image (after composition) is correspondingly reduced. This loss of precision also makes premultiplied images easier to compress using certain compression schemes, as they do not record the color variations hidden inside transparent regions, and can allocate fewer bits to encode low-alpha areas.\n\nWith the existence of an alpha channel, it is possible to express compositing image operations using a ''compositing algebra''. For example, given two image elements A and B, the most common compositing operation is to combine the images such that A appears in the foreground and B appears in the background. This can be expressed as A '''over''' B. In addition to '''over''', Porter and Duff defined the compositing operators '''in''', '''held out by''' (usually abbreviated '''out'''), '''atop''', and '''xor''' (and the reverse operators '''rover''', '''rin''', '''rout''', and '''ratop''') from a consideration of choices in blending the colors of two pixels when their coverage is, conceptually, overlaid orthogonally:\n\nImage:Alpha compositing.svg\n\nThe '''over''' operator is, in effect, the normal painting operation (see Painter's algorithm). The '''in''' operator is the alpha compositing equivalent of clipping.\n\nAs an example, the '''over''' operator can be accomplished by applying the following formula to each pixel value:\n\n:\n\nwhere is the result of the operation, is the color of the pixel in element A, is the color of the pixel in element B, and and are the alpha of the pixels in elements A and B respectively. If it is assumed that all color values are premultiplied by their alpha values (), we can rewrite the equation for output color as:\n\n:\nand resulting alpha channel value is\n:\n:\n\n=== Examples ===\nExamples of red overlaid with green with both colours fully opaque:\n\n\nPorterDuffAdd.png\|ADD operation\nPorterDuffClear.png\|CLEAR operation\nPorterDuffMultiply.png\|MULTIPLY operation\nPorterDuffOverlay.png\|OVERLAY operation\n\n", "\nPorter and Duff gave a geometric interpretation of the alpha compositing formula by studying orthogonal coverages. Another derivation of the formula, based on a physical reflectance/transmittance model, can be found in a 1981 paper by Bruce A. Wallace.\n\nA third approach is found by starting out with two very simple assumptions. For simplicity, we shall here use the shorthand notation for representing the '''over''' operator.\n\nThe first assumption is that in the case where the background is opaque (i.e. ), the over operator represents the convex combination of and :\n\n:\n\nThe second assumption is that the operator must respect the associative rule:\n\n:\n\nNow, let us assume that and have variable transparencies, whereas is opaque. We're interested in finding\n\n:.\n\nWe know from the associative rule that the following must be true:\n\n:\n\nWe know that is opaque and thus follows that is opaque, so in the above equation, each operator can be written as a convex combination:\n\n:\n\nHence we see that this represents an equation of the form . By setting and we get\n\n:\nwhich means that we have analytically derived a formula for the output alpha and the output color of .\n\nAn even more compact representation is given by noticing that :\n\n:\n\nIt is also interesting to note that the operator fulfills all the requirements of a non-commutative monoid, where the identity element is chosen such that (i.e. the identity element can be any tuple with .)\n", "\nAlpha blending is the process of combining a translucent foreground color with a background color, thereby producing a new blended color. The degree of the foreground color's translucency may range from completely transparent to completely opaque. If the foreground color is completely transparent, the blended color will be the background color. Conversely, if it is completely opaque, the blended color will be the foreground color. Of course, the translucency can range between these extremes, in which case the blended color is computed as a weighted average of the foreground and background colors.\n\nAlpha blending is a convex combination of two colors allowing for transparency effects in computer graphics. The value of alpha in the color code ranges from 0.0 to 1.0, where 0.0 represents a fully transparent color, and 1.0 represents a fully opaque color. This alpha value also corresponds to the ratio of \"SRC over DST\" in Porter and Duff equations.\n\nThe value of the resulting color is given by:\n\n:\n\nIf the destination background is opaque, then , and if you enter it to the upper equation:\n\n:\n\nThe alpha component may be used to blend to red, green and blue components equally, as in 32-bit RGBA, or, alternatively, there may be three alpha values specified corresponding to each of the primary colors for spectral color filtering.\n\nIf pre-multiplied alpha is used, the above equations are simplified to:\n:\n", "\nAlthough used for similar purposes, transparent colors and image masks do not permit the smooth blending of the superimposed image pixels with those of the background (only whole image pixels or whole background pixels allowed).\n\nA similar effect can be achieved with a 1-bit alpha channel, as found in the 16-bit RGBA Highcolor mode of the Truevision TGA image file format and related TARGA and AT-Vista/NU-Vista display adapters' Highcolor graphic mode. This mode devotes 5 bits for every primary RGB color (15-bit RGB) plus a remaining bit as the \"alpha channel\".\n", "RGBA color space\nDigital compositing\nTransparency (graphic)\nTransparent color in palettes\nImage masks\nPortable Network Graphics\nTruevision TGA\nMagic Pink\nTexture splatting\nAlpha to coverage\n", "\n", "* Compositing Digital Images - Thomas Porter and Tom Duff (Original Paper)\n* Image Compositing Fundamentals\n* Understand Compositing and Color extensions in SVG 1.2 in 30 minutes!\n* Alpha Matting and Premultiplication\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Description", "Analytical derivation of the over operator", "Alpha blending", "Other transparency methods", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alpha compositing
[ "\n\n\n\nIn computer science, an '''array data structure''', or simply an '''array''', is a data structure consisting of a collection of ''elements'' (values or variables), each identified by at least one ''array index'' or ''key''. An array is stored so that the position of each element can be computed from its index tuple by a mathematical formula. The simplest type of data structure is a linear array, also called one-dimensional array.\n\nFor example, an array of 10 32-bit integer variables, with indices 0 through 9, may be stored as 10 words at memory addresses 2000, 2004, 2008, ... 2036, so that the element with index ''i'' has the address 2000 + 4 × ''i''.\n\nThe memory address of the first element of an array is called first address or foundation address.\n\nBecause the mathematical concept of a matrix can be represented as a two-dimensional grid, two-dimensional arrays are also sometimes called matrices. In some cases the term \"vector\" is used in computing to refer to an array, although tuples rather than vectors are more correctly the mathematical equivalent. Arrays are often used to implement tables, especially lookup tables; the word ''table'' is sometimes used as a synonym of ''array''.\n\nArrays are among the oldest and most important data structures, and are used by almost every program. They are also used to implement many other data structures, such as lists and strings. They effectively exploit the addressing logic of computers. In most modern computers and many external storage devices, the memory is a one-dimensional array of words, whose indices are their addresses. Processors, especially vector processors, are often optimized for array operations.\n\nArrays are useful mostly because the element indices can be computed at run time. Among other things, this feature allows a single iterative statement to process arbitrarily many elements of an array. For that reason, the elements of an array data structure are required to have the same size and should use the same data representation. The set of valid index tuples and the addresses of the elements (and hence the element addressing formula) are usually, but not always, fixed while the array is in use.\n\nThe term ''array'' is often used to mean array data type, a kind of data type provided by most high-level programming languages that consists of a collection of values or variables that can be selected by one or more indices computed at run-time. Array types are often implemented by array structures; however, in some languages they may be implemented by hash tables, linked lists, search trees, or other data structures.\n\nThe term is also used, especially in the description of algorithms, to mean associative array or \"abstract array\", a theoretical computer science model (an abstract data type or ADT) intended to capture the essential properties of arrays.\n", "The first digital computers used machine-language programming to set up and access array structures for data tables, vector and matrix computations, and for many other purposes. John von Neumann wrote the first array-sorting program (merge sort) in 1945, during the building of the first stored-program computer.p. 159 Array indexing was originally done by self-modifying code, and later using index registers and indirect addressing. Some mainframes designed in the 1960s, such as the Burroughs B5000 and its successors, used memory segmentation to perform index-bounds checking in hardware.\n\nAssembly languages generally have no special support for arrays, other than what the machine itself provides. The earliest high-level programming languages, including FORTRAN (1957), Lisp (1958), COBOL (1960), and ALGOL 60 (1960), had support for multi-dimensional arrays, and so has C (1972). In C++ (1983), class templates exist for multi-dimensional arrays whose dimension is fixed at runtime as well as for runtime-flexible arrays.\n\n\n", "Arrays are used to implement mathematical vectors and matrices, as well as other kinds of rectangular tables. Many databases, small and large, consist of (or include) one-dimensional arrays whose elements are records.\n\nArrays are used to implement other data structures, such as lists, heaps, hash tables, deques, queues, stacks, strings, and VLists. Array-based implementations of other data structures are frequently simple and space-efficient (implicit data structures), requiring little space overhead, but may have poor space complexity, particularly when modified, compared to tree-based data structures (compare a sorted array to a search tree).\n\nOne or more large arrays are sometimes used to emulate in-program dynamic memory allocation, particularly memory pool allocation. Historically, this has sometimes been the only way to allocate \"dynamic memory\" portably.\n\nArrays can be used to determine partial or complete control flow in programs, as a compact alternative to (otherwise repetitive) multiple IF statements. They are known in this context as control tables and are used in conjunction with a purpose built interpreter whose control flow is altered according to values contained in the array. The array may contain subroutine pointers (or relative subroutine numbers that can be acted upon by SWITCH statements) that direct the path of the execution.\n", "\nWhen data objects are stored in an array, individual objects are selected by an index that is usually a non-negative scalar integer. Indexes are also called subscripts. An index ''maps'' the array value to a stored object.\n\nThere are three ways in which the elements of an array can be indexed:\n\n* '''0''' (''zero-based indexing''): The first element of the array is indexed by subscript of 0.\n* '''1''' (''one-based indexing''): The first element of the array is indexed by subscript of 1.\n* '''n''' (''n-based indexing''): The base index of an array can be freely chosen. Usually programming languages allowing ''n-based indexing'' also allow negative index values and other scalar data types like enumerations, or characters may be used as an array index.\n\nArrays can have multiple dimensions, thus it is not uncommon to access an array using multiple indices. For example, a two-dimensional array A with three rows and four columns might provide access to the element at the 2nd row and 4th column by the expression A1, 3 in the case of a zero-based indexing system. Thus two indices are used for a two-dimensional array, three for a three-dimensional array, and ''n'' for an ''n''-dimensional array.\n\nThe number of indices needed to specify an element is called the dimension, dimensionality, or rank of the array.\n\nIn standard arrays, each index is restricted to a certain range of consecutive integers (or consecutive values of some enumerated type), and the address of an element is computed by a \"linear\" formula on the indices.\n\n===One-dimensional arrays===\nA one-dimensional array (or single dimension array) is a type of linear array. Accessing its elements involves a single subscript which can either represent a row or column index.\n\nAs an example consider the C declaration int anArrayName10;\n\nSyntax : datatype anArraynamesizeofArray;\n\nIn the given example the array can contain 10 elements of any value available to the int type. In C, the array element indices are 0-9 inclusive in this case. For example, the expressions anArrayName0 and anArrayName9 are the first and last elements respectively.\n\nFor a vector with linear addressing, the element with index ''i'' is located at the address ''B'' + ''c'' × ''i'', where ''B'' is a fixed ''base address'' and ''c'' a fixed constant, sometimes called the ''address increment'' or ''stride''.\n\nIf the valid element indices begin at 0, the constant ''B'' is simply the address of the first element of the array. For this reason, the C programming language specifies that array indices always begin at 0; and many programmers will call that element \"zeroth\" rather than \"first\".\n\nHowever, one can choose the index of the first element by an appropriate choice of the base address ''B''. For example, if the array has five elements, indexed 1 through 5, and the base address ''B'' is replaced by ''B'' + 30''c'', then the indices of those same elements will be 31 to 35. If the numbering does not start at 0, the constant ''B'' may not be the address of any element.\n\n===Multidimensional arrays===\nFor multi dimensional array, the element with indices ''i'',''j'' would have address ''B'' + ''c'' · ''i'' + ''d'' · ''j'', where the coefficients ''c'' and ''d'' are the ''row'' and ''column address increments'', respectively.\n\nMore generally, in a ''k''-dimensional array, the address of an element with indices ''i''1, ''i''2, ..., ''i''''k'' is\n:''B'' + ''c''1 · ''i''1 + ''c''2 · ''i''2 + ... + ''c''''k'' · ''i''''k''.\n\nFor example: int a23;\n\nThis means that array a has 2 rows and 3 columns, and the array is of integer type. Here we can store 6 elements they are stored linearly but starting from first row linear then continuing with second row. The above array will be stored as a11, a12, a13, a21, a22, a23.\n\nThis formula requires only ''k'' multiplications and ''k'' additions, for any array that can fit in memory. Moreover, if any coefficient is a fixed power of 2, the multiplication can be replaced by bit shifting.\n\nThe coefficients ''c''''k'' must be chosen so that every valid index tuple maps to the address of a distinct element.\n\nIf the minimum legal value for every index is 0, then ''B'' is the address of the element whose indices are all zero. As in the one-dimensional case, the element indices may be changed by changing the base address ''B''. Thus, if a two-dimensional array has rows and columns indexed from 1 to 10 and 1 to 20, respectively, then replacing ''B'' by ''B'' + ''c''1 - − 3 ''c''1 will cause them to be renumbered from 0 through 9 and 4 through 23, respectively. Taking advantage of this feature, some languages (like FORTRAN 77) specify that array indices begin at 1, as in mathematical tradition while other languages (like Fortran 90, Pascal and Algol) let the user choose the minimum value for each index.\n\n===Dope vectors===\nThe addressing formula is completely defined by the dimension ''d'', the base address ''B'', and the increments ''c''1, ''c''2, ..., ''c''''k''. It is often useful to pack these parameters into a record called the array's ''descriptor'' or ''stride vector'' or ''dope vector''. The size of each element, and the minimum and maximum values allowed for each index may also be included in the dope vector. The dope vector is a complete handle for the array, and is a convenient way to pass arrays as arguments to procedures. Many useful array slicing operations (such as selecting a sub-array, swapping indices, or reversing the direction of the indices) can be performed very efficiently by manipulating the dope vector.\n\n===Compact layouts===\nOften the coefficients are chosen so that the elements occupy a contiguous area of memory. However, that is not necessary. Even if arrays are always created with contiguous elements, some array slicing operations may create non-contiguous sub-arrays from them.\n\nThere are two systematic compact layouts for a two-dimensional array. For example, consider the matrix\n:\nIn the row-major order layout (adopted by C for statically declared arrays), the elements in each row are stored in consecutive positions and all of the elements of a row have a lower address than any of the elements of a consecutive row:\n\n\n 1 \n 2 \n 3 \n 4 \n 5 \n 6 \n 7 \n 8 \n 9\n\nIn column-major order (traditionally used by Fortran), the elements in each column are consecutive in memory and all of the elements of a column have a lower address than any of the elements of a consecutive column:\n\n\n 1 \n 4 \n 7 \n 2 \n 5 \n 8 \n 3 \n 6 \n 9\n\nFor arrays with three or more indices, \"row major order\" puts in consecutive positions any two elements whose index tuples differ only by one in the ''last'' index. \"Column major order\" is analogous with respect to the ''first'' index.\n\nIn systems which use processor cache or virtual memory, scanning an array is much faster if successive elements are stored in consecutive positions in memory, rather than sparsely scattered. Many algorithms that use multidimensional arrays will scan them in a predictable order. A programmer (or a sophisticated compiler) may use this information to choose between row- or column-major layout for each array. For example, when computing the product ''A''·''B'' of two matrices, it would be best to have ''A'' stored in row-major order, and ''B'' in column-major order.\n\n===Resizing===\n\n\nStatic arrays have a size that is fixed when they are created and consequently do not allow elements to be inserted or removed. However, by allocating a new array and copying the contents of the old array to it, it is possible to effectively implement a ''dynamic'' version of an array; see dynamic array. If this operation is done infrequently, insertions at the end of the array require only amortized constant time.\n\nSome array data structures do not reallocate storage, but do store a count of the number of elements of the array in use, called the count or size. This effectively makes the array a dynamic array with a fixed maximum size or capacity; Pascal strings are examples of this.\n\n===Non-linear formulas===\nMore complicated (non-linear) formulas are occasionally used. For a compact two-dimensional triangular array, for instance, the addressing formula is a polynomial of degree 2.\n", "Both ''store'' and ''select'' take (deterministic worst case) constant time. Arrays take linear (O(''n'')) space in the number of elements ''n'' that they hold.\n\nIn an array with element size ''k'' and on a machine with a cache line size of B bytes, iterating through an array of ''n'' elements requires the minimum of ceiling(''nk''/B) cache misses, because its elements occupy contiguous memory locations. This is roughly a factor of B/''k'' better than the number of cache misses needed to access ''n'' elements at random memory locations. As a consequence, sequential iteration over an array is noticeably faster in practice than iteration over many other data structures, a property called locality of reference (this does ''not'' mean however, that using a perfect hash or trivial hash within the same (local) array, will not be even faster - and achievable in constant time). Libraries provide low-level optimized facilities for copying ranges of memory (such as memcpy) which can be used to move contiguous blocks of array elements significantly faster than can be achieved through individual element access. The speedup of such optimized routines varies by array element size, architecture, and implementation.\n\nMemory-wise, arrays are compact data structures with no per-element overhead. There may be a per-array overhead, e.g. to store index bounds, but this is language-dependent. It can also happen that elements stored in an array require ''less'' memory than the same elements stored in individual variables, because several array elements can be stored in a single word; such arrays are often called ''packed'' arrays. An extreme (but commonly used) case is the bit array, where every bit represents a single element. A single octet can thus hold up to 256 different combinations of up to 8 different conditions, in the most compact form.\n\nArray accesses with statically predictable access patterns are a major source of data parallelism.\n\n===Comparison with other data structures===\n\nGrowable arrays are similar to arrays but add the ability to insert and delete elements; adding and deleting at the end is particularly efficient. However, they reserve linear (Θ(''n'')) additional storage, whereas arrays do not reserve additional storage.\n\nAssociative arrays provide a mechanism for array-like functionality without huge storage overheads when the index values are sparse. For example, an array that contains values only at indexes 1 and 2 billion may benefit from using such a structure. Specialized associative arrays with integer keys include Patricia tries, Judy arrays, and van Emde Boas trees.\n\nBalanced trees require O(log ''n'') time for indexed access, but also permit inserting or deleting elements in O(log ''n'') time, whereas growable arrays require linear (Θ(''n'')) time to insert or delete elements at an arbitrary position.\n\nLinked lists allow constant time removal and insertion in the middle but take linear time for indexed access. Their memory use is typically worse than arrays, but is still linear.\n\nA two-dimensional array stored as a one-dimensional array of one-dimensional arrays (rows).\nAn Iliffe vector is an alternative to a multidimensional array structure. It uses a one-dimensional array of references to arrays of one dimension less. For two dimensions, in particular, this alternative structure would be a vector of pointers to vectors, one for each row. Thus an element in row ''i'' and column ''j'' of an array ''A'' would be accessed by double indexing (''A''''i''''j'' in typical notation). This alternative structure allows jagged arrays, where each row may have a different size — or, in general, where the valid range of each index depends on the values of all preceding indices. It also saves one multiplication (by the column address increment) replacing it by a bit shift (to index the vector of row pointers) and one extra memory access (fetching the row address), which may be worthwhile in some architectures.\n", "The dimension of an array is the number of indices needed to select an element. Thus, if the array is seen as a function on a set of possible index combinations, it is the dimension of the space of which its domain is a discrete subset. Thus a one-dimensional array is a list of data, a two-dimensional array a rectangle of data, a three-dimensional array a block of data, etc.\n\nThis should not be confused with the dimension of the set of all matrices with a given domain, that is, the number of elements in the array. For example, an array with 5 rows and 4 columns is two-dimensional, but such matrices form a 20-dimensional space. Similarly, a three-dimensional vector can be represented by a one-dimensional array of size three.\n", "\n\n\n* Dynamic array\n* Parallel array\n* Variable-length array\n* Bit array\n* Array slicing\n* Offset (computer science)\n* Row-major order\n* Stride of an array\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Applications", "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "Efficiency", "Dimension", "See also", "References" ]	Array data structure
[ "\n\n\n\"'''Advance Australia Fair'''\" is the national anthem of Australia. Created by the Scottish-born composer Peter Dodds McCormick, the song was first performed in 1878 and sung in Australia as a patriotic song. It replaced \"God Save the Queen\" as the official national anthem in 1984, following a plebiscite to choose the national song in 1977. Other songs and marches have been influenced by \"Advance Australia Fair\", such as the Australian vice-regal salute.\n", "===Origin===\nPeter Dodds McCormick, the composer of \"Advance Australia Fair\".\n\"Advance Australia Fair\" was composed in the late 19th century by Peter Dodds McCormick under the pen-name \"Amicus\" (which means \"friend\" in Latin). It was first performed by Andrew Fairfax at a Highland Society function in Sydney on 30 November 1878. The song quickly gained popularity and an amended version was sung by a choir of around 10,000 at the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901. In 1907 the Australian Government awarded McCormick £100 for his composition.\n\nIn a letter to R.B. Fuller, dated 1 August 1913, McCormick described the circumstances that inspired him to write \"Advance Australia Fair\":\n\n\n\nThe earliest known sound recording of \"Advance Australia Fair\" appears in ''The Landing of the Australian Troops in Egypt'' (circa 1916), a short commercial recording dramatising the arrival of Australian troops in Egypt ''en route'' to Gallipoli.\n\nBefore its adoption as Australia's national anthem, \"Advance Australia Fair\" had considerable use elsewhere. For example, Australia's national broadcaster, the Australian Broadcasting Commission, used it to announce its news bulletins until 1952. It was also frequently played at the start or end of official functions. Towards the end of World War II it was one of three songs played in certain picture theatres, along with \"God Save the King\" and the American national anthem.\n\n===Competitions, plebiscite and adoption===\nIn 1951 there was a competition for a new national anthem to celebrate the golden jubilee of the Federation of Australia. The entry by the Austrian-born conductor Henry Krips, \"This Land of Mine\", won the competition but it was decided to make no change to the status quo.\n\nUntil 1974 \"God Save the Queen\" was Australia's national anthem. In 1973 the Whitlam government decided that the country needed an anthem that could represent Australia with \"distinction\" and started a competition to find one. This decision by Whitlam was driven by the desire to forge a new nationalism separate from Great Britain. In 1973, Gough Whitlam dedicated an entire Australia Day speech to the search for a new anthem saying that it will be a \"symbolic expression of our national pride and dignity\". The Australia Council for the Arts organised the contest, which was dubbed the \"Australian National Anthem Quest\". The contest was held in two stages, the first seeking lyrics and the second music, each having an A$5,000 prize for the winning entry. On the recommendation of the Council for the Arts, none of the new entries were felt worthy enough, so the contest ended with the suggestions for \"Advance Australia Fair\", \"Waltzing Matilda\" and \"Song of Australia\".\n\nIn 1974 the Whitlam government then performed a nationwide opinion survey to determine the song to be sung on occasions of national significance. Conducted through the Australian Bureau of Statistics, it polled 60,000 people nationally. \"Advance Australia Fair\" was chosen and was enshrined as the national song, to be used on all occasions excepting those of a specifically regal nature. A spokesman for the Prime Minister Gough Whitlam stated that the Government regarded the tune primarily as the national anthem. During the 1975 election campaign following the dismissal of Whitlam by Sir John Kerr, it was proposed by David Combe that the song be played at the start of the Labor Party's official campaign launch on 24 November 1975 at Festival Hall, Melbourne. Whitlam's speechwriter Graham Freudenberg rejected this idea, on two grounds, one of which was that the status of the anthem was still tentative.\n\nIn January 1976 the Fraser government reinstated \"God Save the Queen\" for royal, vice-regal, defence and loyal toast occasions as well as making plans to conduct a national poll to find a song for use on ceremonial occasions when it was desired to mark a separate Australian identity. This was conducted as a plebiscite to choose the National Song, held as an optional additional question in the 1977 referendum on various issues. \"Advance Australia Fair\" received 43.29% of the vote, defeating the three alternatives, \"Waltzing Matilda\" (28.28%), \"Song of Australia\" (9.65%) and the existing national anthem, \"God Save the Queen\" (18.78%).\n\n\"Advance Australia Fair\", with modified lyrics from the original (see development of lyrics), was adopted as the Australian national anthem on 19 April 1984 by a proclamation by the Governor-General, Sir Ninian Stephen, on a recommendation by the Labor government of Bob Hawke. \"God Save the Queen\", now known as the royal anthem, continues to be played alongside the Australian national anthem at public engagements in Australia that are attended by the Queen or members of the Royal Family\n", "The lyrics of \"Advance Australia Fair\" were officially adopted in 1984 as follows:\n\n\n\n;Verse 1\n: Australians all let us rejoice,\n: For we are young and free;\n: We've golden soil and wealth for toil;\n: Our home is girt by sea;\n: Our land abounds in nature's gifts\n: Of beauty rich and rare;\n: In history's page, let every stage\n: Advance Australia Fair.\n: In joyful strains then let us sing,\n: Advance Australia Fair.\n\n;Verse 2\n: Beneath our radiant Southern Cross\n: We'll toil with hearts and hands;\n: To make this Commonwealth of ours\n: Renowned of all the lands;\n: For those who've come across the seas\n: We've boundless plains to share;\n: With courage let us all combine\n: To Advance Australia Fair.\n: In joyful strains then let us sing,\n: Advance Australia Fair.\n\n", "Even though any copyright of Peter Dodds McCormick's original lyrics has expired, as he died in 1916, the Commonwealth of Australia claims copyright on the official lyrics and particular arrangements of music. Non-commercial use of the anthem is permitted without case-by-case permission, but the Commonwealth government requires permission for commercial use.\n", "The wordless orchestral version of \"Advance Australia Fair\" that is now regularly played for Australian victories at international sporting medal ceremonies, and at the openings of major domestic sporting, cultural and community events, is by Tommy Tycho, an immigrant from Hungary. It was first commissioned by ABC Records in 1984 and then televised by Channel 10 in 1986 in their Australia Day Broadcast, featuring Julie Anthony as the soloist.\n", "Since the original lyrics were written in 1879, there have been several changes, in some cases with the intent of increasing the anthem's inclusiveness and gender neutrality. Some of these were minor while others have significantly changed the song. The original song was four verses long. For its adoption as the national anthem, the song was cut from four verses to two. The first verse was kept largely as the 1879 original, except for the change in the first line from \"'''Australia's sons''' let us rejoice\" to \"'''Australians all''' let us rejoice\". The second, third and fourth verses of the original were dropped, in favour of a modified version of the new third verse which was sung at Federation in 1901.\n\nThe original lyrics published in 1879 were as follows:\n\n\n\n;Verse 1\n: Australia's sons let us rejoice,\n: For we are young and free;\n: We've golden soil and wealth for toil,\n: Our home is girt by sea;\n: Our land abounds in Nature's gifts\n: Of beauty rich and rare;\n: In hist'ry's page, let ev'ry stage\n: Advance Australia fair.\n: In joyful strains then let us sing,\n: Advance Australia fair.\n\n;Verse 2\n: When gallant Cook from Albion sailed,\n: To trace wide oceans o'er,\n: True British courage bore him on,\n: Til he landed on our shore.\n: Then here he raised Old England's flag,\n: The standard of the brave;\n: \"With all her faults we love her still\"\n: \"Britannia rules the wave.\"\n: In joyful strains then let us sing\n: Advance Australia fair.\n\n\n;Verse 3\n: While other nations of the globe\n: Behold us from afar,\n: We'll rise to high renown and shine\n: Like our glorious southern star;\n: From England soil and Fatherland,\n: Scotia and Erin fair,\n: Let all combine with heart and hand\n: To advance Australia fair.\n: In joyful strains then let us sing\n: Advance Australia fair.\n\n;Verse 4\n: Should foreign foe e'er sight our coast,\n: Or dare a foot to land,\n: We'll rouse to arms like sires of yore,\n: To guard our native strand;\n: Britannia then shall surely know,\n: Though oceans roll between,\n: Her sons in fair Australia's land\n: Still keep their courage green.\n: In joyful strains then let us sing\n: Advance Australia fair.\n\n\nThe 1901 Federation version of the third verse was originally sung as:\n\n;Third verse\n: Beneath our radiant Southern Cross,\n: We'll toil with hearts and hands;\n: To make our youthful Commonwealth,\n: Renowned of all the lands;\n: For loyal sons beyond the seas\n: We've boundless plains to share;\n: With courage let us all combine\n: To advance Australia fair.\n: In joyful strains then let us sing\n: Advance Australia fair!\n", "Both the lyrics and melody of the official anthem have been criticised in some quarters as being dull and unendearing to the Australian people. A National Party senator, Sandy Macdonald, said in 2001 that \"Advance Australia Fair\" is so boring that the nation risks singing itself to sleep, with boring music and words impossible to understand. A parliamentary colleague, Peter Slipper, said that Australia should consider another anthem. One suggested replacement was \"I Am Australian\", notably in 2011 by former Victorian Premier Jeff Kennett. \n\nSpecific criticism is also directed at the fourth line of lyrics, \"our home is girt by sea\", for its use of the archaic word \"girt\" to acknowledge the fact that Australia is an island. The current version of the anthem has a mix of old and new language, rather than having one style of language consistently throughout. Criticism has come from various people, including Australian Labor Party politician Craig Emerson, but others, including former Labor leader Kim Beazley, have defended it.\n\nThe line \"for we are young and free\" has been criticised by a Victorian judge who said that many indigenous Australians find the words offensive. Australian Aboriginal soprano, Deborah Cheetham, has refused to sing Advance Australia Fair at the AFL grand finals, citing this lyric, and has advocated for the lyrics to be rewritten.\n", "A variant of the national anthem penned in 1988 by Sri Lankan immigrant Ruth Ponniah and sung in some Christian schools replaces the second verse with the following:\n: With Christ our head and cornerstone, \n: We'll build our nation's might;\n: Whose way and truth and light alone, \n: Can guide our path aright;\n: Our lives a sacrifice of love, \n: Reflect our master's care;\n: With faces turned to heav'n above, \n: Advance Australia Fair;\n: In joyful strains then let us sing, \n: Advance Australia Fair.\n", "* Sandy Macdonald (politician)\n* Peter Slipper (politician)\n* Jeff Kennett (politician)\n", "\n", "\n* Lyrics on official Government website\n* Streaming audio of ''Advance Australia Fair'' with links and information\n* Brief history\n* Australian Government websites:\n Official published lyrics, music with band parts and sound recordings\n Four-part musical score & lyrics PDF 169 KB\n Australian National Anthem Audio for download (MP3 3.12 MB)\n Department of Foreign Affair and Trade's webpage on Advance Australia Fair\n** Online scores held by Australian government libraries (The MusicAustralia collaboration)\n* Advance Australia Fair (Original Lyrics) – Australian singer Peter Dawson (c. 1930)\n* youtube video 1987 ABC Sign on and National Anthem (with sketches of Early Australia) (ignore begin of first program)\n* youtube video 1980 ABC Sign off and National Anthem (with sketches of Early Australia) (ignore end of previous program)\n* youtube video 2012 HD recording of National Anthem\n* youtube video \"Advance Australia Fair\" with English-Chinese bilingual subtitle\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Lyrics", "Copyright", "Orchestral version", "Development of lyrics", "Criticism", "Unofficial Christian variant", "Notable change advocates", "References", "External links" ]	Advance Australia Fair
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Amerigo Vespucci''' (; March 9, 1454February 22, 1512) was an Italian explorer, financier, navigator and cartographer who first demonstrated that Brazil and the West Indies did not represent Asia's eastern outskirts as initially conjectured from Columbus' voyages, but instead constituted an entirely separate landmass hitherto unknown to people of the Old World.\n\nColloquially referred to as the New World, this second super continent came to be termed \"Americas\", deriving its name from ''Americus'', the Latin version of Vespucci's first name.\n", "The birthplace of Amerigo Vespucci\nAmerigo Vespucci was born and raised in Florence on the Italian Peninsula. He was the third son of Ser Nastagio (Anastasio) Vespucci, a Florentine notary, and Lisabetta Mini. The father of Ser Nastagio (Anastasio) Vespucci had the name Amerigo Vespucci also. \n\nAmerigo Vespucci was educated by his uncle, Fra Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, a Dominican friar of the monastery of San Marco in Florence. While his elder brothers were sent to the University of Pisa to pursue scholarly careers, Amerigo Vespucci embraced a mercantile life, and was hired as a clerk by the Florentine commercial house of Medici, headed by Lorenzo de' Medici. Vespucci acquired the favor and protection of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici who became the head of the business after the elder Lorenzo's death in 1492. In March 1492, the Medici dispatched the thirty-eight-year-old Vespucci and Donato Niccolini as confidential agents to look into the Medici branch office in Cádiz (Spain), whose managers and dealings were under suspicion. \n\nIn April 1495, by the intrigues of Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, the Crown of Castile broke their monopoly deal with Christopher Columbus and began handing out licenses to other navigators for the West Indies. Just around this time (1495–96), Vespucci was engaged as the executor of Giannotto Berardi, an Italian merchant who had recently died in Seville. Vespucci organized the fulfillment of Berardi's outstanding contract with the Castilian crown to provide twelve vessels for the Indies. After these were delivered, Vespucci continued as a provision contractor for Indies expeditions, and is known to have secured beef supplies for at least one (if not two) of Columbus' voyages.\n", "\nStatue outside the Uffizi, Florence\nAt the invitation of king Manuel I of Portugal, Vespucci participated as observer in several voyages that explored the east coast of South America between 1499 and 1502. On the first of these voyages he was aboard the ship that discovered that South America extended much further south than previously thought.\n\nThe expeditions became widely known in Europe after two accounts attributed to Vespucci were published between 1502 and 1504. In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller produced a world map on which he named the new continent America after the feminine Latin version of Vespucci's first name, which is Americus. In an accompanying book, Waldseemüller published one of the Vespucci accounts, which led to criticism that Vespucci was trying to upset Christopher Columbus' glory. However, the rediscovery in the 18th century of other letters by Vespucci has led to the view that the early published accounts, notably the Soderini Letter, could be fabrications, not by Vespucci, but by others.\n", "In 1508, the position of chief of navigation of Spain (''piloto mayor de Indias'') was created for Vespucci, with the responsibility of planning navigation for voyages to the Indies.\nDe Bry's illustration, c.1592)\nTwo letters attributed to Vespucci were published during his lifetime. ''Mundus Novus'' (New World) was a Latin translation of a lost Italian letter sent from Lisbon to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici. It describes a voyage to South America in 1501–1502. ''Mundus Novus'' was published in late 1502 or early 1503 and soon reprinted and distributed in numerous European countries. ''Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci delle isole nuovamente trovate in quattro suoi viaggi'' (Letter of Amerigo Vespucci concerning the isles newly discovered on his four voyages), known as ''Lettera al Soderini'' or just ''Lettera'', was a letter in Italian addressed to Piero Soderini. Printed in 1504 or 1505, it claimed to be an account of four voyages to the Americas made by Vespucci between 1497 and 1504. A Latin translation was published by the German Martin Waldseemüller in 1507 in ''Cosmographiae Introductio'', a book on cosmography and geography, as ''Quattuor Americi Vespucij navigationes'' (Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci).\n\nOn March 22, 1508, King Ferdinand made Vespucci chief navigator of Spain at a huge salary and commissioned him to found a school of navigation, in order to standardize and modernize navigation techniques used by Iberian sea captains then exploring the world. Vespucci even developed a rudimentary, but fairly accurate method of determining longitude (which only more accurate chronometers would later improve upon).\n\nThe first known depiction of cannibalism in the New World. Engraving by Johann Froschauer for an edition of Amerigo Vespucci's ''Mundus Novus'', published in Augsburg in 1505\nIn the 18th century, three unpublished familiar letters from Vespucci to Lorenzo de' Medici were rediscovered. One describes a voyage made in 1499–1500 which corresponds with the second of the \"four voyages\". Another was written from Cape Verde in 1501 in the early part of the third of the four voyages, before crossing the Atlantic. The third letter was sent from Lisbon after the completion of that voyage.\n\nSome have suggested that Vespucci, in the two letters published in his lifetime, was exaggerating his role and constructed deliberate fabrications. However, many scholars now believe that the two letters were not written by him but were fabrications by others based in part on genuine letters by Vespucci. It was the publication and widespread circulation of the letters that might have led Waldseemüller to name the new continent America on his world map of 1507 in Lorraine. Vespucci used a Latinised form of his name, ''Americus Vespucius'', in his Latin writings, which Waldseemüller used as a base for the new name, taking the feminine form ''America'', according to the prevalent view. The book accompanying the map stated: \"I do not see what right any one would have to object to calling this part, after Americus who discovered it and who is a man of intelligence, Amerige, that is, the Land of Americus, or America: since both Europa and Asia got their names from women\". It is possible that Vespucci was not aware that Waldseemüller had named the continent after him.\n\nThe two disputed letters claim that Vespucci made four voyages to America, while at most two can be verified from other sources. At the moment, there is a dispute between historians on when Vespucci visited the mainland the first time. Some historians like Germán Arciniegas and Gabriel Camargo Pérez think that his first voyage was made in June 1497 with the Spanish Pilot Juan de la Cosa.\n\nVespucci's real historical importance may well rest more in his letters, whether he wrote them all or not, than in his discoveries. From these letters, the European public learned about the newly discovered continents of the Americas for the first time; its existence became generally known throughout Europe within a few years of the letters' publication.\n", "''Madonna della Misericordia'' (c. 1472) by Domenico Ghirlandaio at the Ognissanti church in Florence\nThe first and fourth voyages are perhaps fabulous, but the second and third are certain.\n\n=== First voyage ===\nA letter published in 1504 purports to be an account by Vespucci, written to Soderini, of a lengthy visit to the New World, leaving Spain in May 1497 and returning in October 1498. However, modern scholars have doubted that this voyage took place, and consider this letter a forgery. Whoever did write the letter makes several observations of native customs, including use of hammocks and sweat lodges.\n\n=== Second voyage ===\nAbout 1499–1500, Vespucci joined an expedition in the service of Spain, with Alonso de Ojeda (or Hojeda) as the fleet commander. The intention was to sail around the southern end of the African mainland into the Indian Ocean. After hitting land at the coast of what is now Guyana, the two seem to have separated. Vespucci sailed southward, discovering the mouth of the Amazon River and reaching 6°S, before turning around and seeing Trinidad and the Orinoco River and returning to Spain by way of Hispaniola. The letter, to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, claims that Vespucci determined his longitude celestially\n\non August 23, 1499, while on this voyage. However, that claim may be fraudulent, which could cast doubt on the letter's credibility.\n\n=== Third voyage ===\nPortrait engraving of Vespucci by Crispijn van de Passe, which titles him \"''discoverer and conqueror of Brazilian land''\"\nThe last certain voyage of Vespucci was led by Gonçalo Coelho in 1501–1502 in the service of Portugal. Departing from Lisbon, the fleet sailed first to Cape Verde where they met two of Pedro Álvares Cabral's ships returning from India. In a letter from Cape Verde, Vespucci says that he hopes to visit the same lands that Álvares Cabral had explored, suggesting that the intention is to sail west to Asia, as on the 1499–1500 voyage. On reaching the coast of Brazil, they sailed south along the coast of South America to Rio de Janeiro's bay. If his own account is to be believed, he reached the latitude of Patagonia before turning back, although this also seems doubtful, since his account does not mention the broad estuary of the Río de la Plata, which he must have seen if he had gotten that far south. Portuguese maps of South America, created after the voyage of Coelho and Vespucci, do not show any land south of present-day Cananéia at 25° S, so this may represent the southernmost extent of their voyages.\n\nAfter the first half of the expedition, Vespucci mapped Alpha and Beta Centauri, as well as the constellation Crux, the Southern Cross and the Coalsack Nebula. Although these stars had been known to the ancient Greeks, gradual precession had lowered them below the European horizon so that they had been forgotten. On his return to Lisbon, Vespucci wrote in a letter to Medici that the land masses they explored were much larger than anticipated and different from the Asia described by Ptolemy or Marco Polo and therefore, must be a New World, that is, a previously unknown fourth continent, after Europe, Asia, and Africa.\n\n=== Fourth voyage ===\nVespucci awakens \"America\" in a Stradanus engraving (circa 1638)\nVespucci's fourth voyage was another expedition for the Portuguese crown down the eastern coast of Brazil, that set out in May 1503 and returned to Portugal in June 1504. Like his alleged first voyage, Vespucci's last voyage in 1503–1504 is also disputed to have taken place. The only source of information for the last voyage is the ''Letter to Soderini'', but as several modern scholars dispute Vespucci's authorship of the letter to Soderini, it is also sometimes doubted whether Vespucci undertook this trip. However, Portuguese documents do confirm a voyage to Brazil was undertaken in 1503–04 by the captain Gonçalo Coelho, very likely the same captain of the 1501 mapping expedition (Vespucci's third voyage), and so it is quite possible that Vespucci went on board this one as well. However, it is not independently confirmed Vespucci was aboard and there are some difficulties in the reported dates and details.\n\nThe letters caused controversy after Vespucci's death, especially among the supporters of Columbus who believed Columbus' priority for the discovery of America was being undermined, and seriously damaged Vespucci's reputation.\n", "Vespucci was a cousin of the husband of Simonetta Vespucci. He married Maria Cerezo. One of the very few references to Amerigo's wife is contained in a royal decree dated May 22, 1512, giving his widow, Maria Cerezo a lifetime pension of ten thousand marvedis per annum deducted from the salary of her husband's successor.\n", "Not long after his return to Spain, Vespucci became a Spanish citizen. On March 22, 1508 he was made the pilot major of Spain by Ferdinand II of Aragon in honor of his discoveries. Vespucci also ran a school for navigators in the Spanish House of Trade, based in Seville.\n\nHe died on February 22, 1512 at his home in Seville, Spain.\n", ":Europeans had long conceptualized the Afro-Eurasian landmass as divided into the same three continents known today: Europe, Asia, and Africa. Once cosmographers realized that the New World was not connected to the Old (but before its true geography was fully mapped), they considered the Americas to be a single, fourth continent.\n\n: The question of the authenticity of Vespucci's authorship of the 1504 ''Mundus Novus'' and the 1505 ''Letter of Soderini'', the only two texts published in Vespucci's lifetime, was famously raised by Magnaghi (1924). He proposed the Soderini letter was ''not'' written by Vespucci, but rather cobbled together by unscrupulous Florentine publishers, cutting and pasting together various accounts, some from Vespucci, others from elsewhere. Magnaghi was the first to propose that only the second and third voyages were true (as they are corroborated in Vespucci's other manuscript letters), while the first and fourth voyages (which are only found in the Soderini text) were fabricated by the publishers. The later (1937) discovery of a corrobotary Vespucci manuscript letter for the first voyage – the \"Ridolfi fragment\" (Formisiano, 1992: p.37–44) – means only the fourth voyage is really found in Soderini alone. The Magnaghi thesis has been a bitterly divisive factor in Vespucci scholarship. The Magnaghi thesis was accepted and popularized by Pohl (1944) but rejected by Arciniegas (1955), who posited all four voyages as truthful. Formisiano (1992) also rejects the Magnaghi thesis (although recognizing publishers probably fiddled with it), and declares all four voyages genuine, but in details (esp. the first) differing from Arciniegas. Fernández-Armesto (2007: p.128) declares the authenticity question \"inconclusive\", hypothesizes that the first voyage is probably just another version of the second, the third is unassailable, and the fourth probably true (but too mangled to be sure).\n", "\n* Arciniegas, German (1955) ''Amerigo and the New World: The Life & Times of Amerigo Vespucci''. New York: Knopf. 1955 English translation by Harriet de Onís. First edition published in Spanish in 1952 as ''Amerigo y el Nuevo Mundo'', Mexico: Hermes.\n* Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2007) ''Amerigo: The Man Who Gave his Name to America''. New York: Random House.\n* Formisano, Luciano (1992) ''Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci's Discovery of America''. New York: Marsilio.\n* Magnaghi, Alberto (1924) ''Amerigo Vespucci: Studio critico, con speciale riguardo ad una nuova valutazione delle fonti e con documenti inediti tratti dal Codice Vaglienti'', 2 vols, 1926 (2nd.) ed., Rome: Treves\n* Markham, Clements R., ed. (1894) ''The Letters of Amerigo Vespucci, and Other Documents Illustrative of His Career''. Hakluyt Society. (Reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010. )\n* Pohl, Frederick J. (1944) ''Amerigo Vespucci: Pilot Major''. New York: Columbia University Press.\n* Ober, Frederick A. (1907) ''Heroes of American History: Amerigo Vespucci'' New York: Harper & Brothers\n* Schulz, Norbert ''Amerigo Vespucci, Mundus Novus (mit Zweittexten)''. M.M.O., Verlag zur Förderung des Mittel- und Neulat (Vivarium (Series neolatina, Band II)) \n* Ray, Kurt (2003) ''Amerigo Vespucci: Italian Explorer of the Americas'', The Rosen Publishing Group, 2003 .\nAmerigo Vespucci (Charles Lester Edwards, Amerigo Vespucci) 2009 Viartis \n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n Canaday, James A. '' The Life of Amerigo Vespucci''\n* \n* \n* Vespucci, Amerigo. \"Account of His First Voyage 1497 (Letter to Pier Soderini, Gonfalonier of the Republic of Florence)\". Internet Modern History Sourcebook-Fordham University (U.S.)\n* Mason, Wyatt, 'I am America. (And So?)' ''The New York Times'', December 12, 2007.\n\nMartin Waldseemüller, Franz Wieser (Ritter von), Edward Burke (trans), ''The Cosmographiæ Introductio of Martin Waldseemüller in facsimile: followed by the Four voyages of Amerigo Vespucci'', The United States Catholic Historical Society, 1908.\n 1507 Waldseemüller Map from the US Library of Congress\n* TOPS Lecture at Library of Congress, Drs. France and Easton\n* World Digital Library presentation of the 1507 Waldseemüller Map in the Library of Congress. This is the only known surviving copy of the wall map edition of which it is believed 1,000 copies were printed. Four originals of the 1507 globe gore map are in existence in Germany, UK and US.\n* Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Amerigo Vespucci in .jpg and .tiff format.\n* Soderini Letters in Giovanni Battista Ramusio, ''Primo Volume delle Nauigationi et Viaggi,'' Venetia, 1550, fol.138-140.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Background ", " Expeditions ", " Historical role ", " Voyages ", " Personal life ", " Final years ", " Notes ", " Further reading ", " References ", " External links " ]	Amerigo Vespucci

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