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[ "\n\n\nThe Acropolis of Athens\n\nAn '''acropolis''' (ancient Greek: ἀκρόπολις, tr. ''Akrópolis''; from ''ákros'' (άκρος) or ''ákron'' (άκρον) \"highest, topmost, outermost\" and ''pólis'' \"city\"; plural in English: ''acropoles'', ''acropoleis'' or ''acropolises'') is a settlement, especially a citadel, built upon an area of elevated ground—frequently a hill with precipitous sides, chosen for purposes of defense. In many parts of the world, acropoleis became the nuclei of large cities of classical antiquity, such as ancient Rome, and for this reason they are sometimes prominent landmarks in modern cities with ancient pasts, such as modern Rome.\n", "View of the Acropolis of Pergamon in the background, as seen from Via Tecta at the entrance to the Asclepeion.\nAcropolis of Assos\nView of the Acropolis in Athens, Greece\n\nThe word ''acropolis'' literally means in Greek \"upper city,\" and though associated primarily with the Greek cities Athens, Argos ( with Larissa), Thebes (with Cadmea), and Corinth (with its Acrocorinth), may be applied generically to all such citadels, including Rome, Jerusalem, Celtic Bratislava, many in Asia Minor, or even Castle Rock in Edinburgh. An example in Ireland is the Rock of Cashel. Acropolis is also the term used by archaeologists and historians for the urban Castro culture settlements located in Northwestern Iberian hilltops.\n\nThe most famous example is the Acropolis of Athens, which, by reason of its historical associations and the several famous buildings erected upon it (most notably the Parthenon), is known without qualification as ''the Acropolis''. Although originating in the mainland of Greece, use of the acropolis model quickly spread to Greek colonies such as the Dorian Lato on Crete during the Archaic Period.\n", "\nBecause of its classical Hellenistic style, the ruins of Mission San Juan Capistrano's Great Stone Church in California, United States has been called the \"American Acropolis\".\n\nOther parts of the world developed other names for the high citadel or alcázar, which often reinforced a naturally strong site. In Central Italy, many small rural communes still cluster at the base of a fortified habitation known as ''La Rocca'' of the commune.\n\nThe term ''acropolis'' is also used to describe the central complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas and pyramids, in many Maya cities, including Tikal and Copán.\n", "\n", "* \n* The Acropolis of Athens (Greek Government website)\n* The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website)\n* UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens\n* Acropolis Museum\n* The Parthenon Frieze (Hellenic Ministry of Culture web site)\n* Acropolis: description, photo album\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Use in antiquity ", " Metaphorical use in modern times ", "References", "External links" ]	Acropolis
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Acupuncture''' is a form of alternative medicine in which thin needles are inserted into the body. It is a key component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). TCM theory and practice are not based upon scientific knowledge, and acupuncture is a pseudoscience. There are a diverse range of acupuncture theories based on different philosophies, and techniques vary depending on the country. The method used in TCM is likely the most widespread in the United States. It is most often used for pain relief, though it is also used for a wide range of other conditions. Acupuncture is generally used only in combination with other forms of treatment.\n\n\nThe conclusions of many trials and numerous systematic reviews of acupuncture are largely inconsistent. An overview of Cochrane reviews found that acupuncture is not effective for a wide range of conditions. A systematic review of systematic reviews found little evidence of acupuncture's effectiveness in treating pain. The evidence suggests that short-term treatment with acupuncture does not produce long-term benefits. Some research results suggest acupuncture can alleviate pain, though the majority of research suggests that acupuncture's effects are mainly due to the placebo effect. A systematic review concluded that the analgesic effect of acupuncture seemed to lack clinical relevance and could not be clearly distinguished from bias. A meta-analysis found that acupuncture for chronic low back pain was cost-effective as an adjunct to standard care, while a systematic review found insufficient evidence for the cost-effectiveness of acupuncture in the treatment of chronic low back pain.\n\nAcupuncture is generally safe when done by an appropriately trained practitioner using clean needle technique and single-use needles. When properly delivered, it has a low rate of mostly minor adverse effects. Accidents and infections are associated with infractions of sterile technique or neglect of the practitioner. A review stated that the reports of infection transmission increased significantly in the prior decade. The most frequently reported adverse events were pneumothorax and infections. Since serious adverse events continue to be reported, it is recommended that acupuncturists be trained sufficiently to reduce the risk.\n\n\nScientific investigation has not found any histological or physiological evidence for traditional Chinese concepts such as ''qi'', meridians, and acupuncture points, and many modern practitioners no longer support the existence of life force energy (''qi'') flowing through meridians, which was a major part of early belief systems. Acupuncture is believed to have originated around 100 BC in China, around the time ''The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine'' (Huangdi Neijing) was published, though some experts suggest it could have been practiced earlier. Over time, conflicting claims and belief systems emerged about the effect of lunar, celestial and earthly cycles, yin and yang energies, and a body's \"rhythm\" on the effectiveness of treatment. Acupuncture grew and diminished in popularity in China repeatedly, depending on the country's political leadership and the favor of rationalism or Western medicine. Acupuncture spread first to Korea in the 6th century AD, then to Japan through medical missionaries, and then to Europe, starting with France. In the 20th century, as it spread to the United States and Western countries, the spiritual elements of acupuncture that conflict with Western beliefs were abandoned in favor of tapping needles into nerves.\n\n\n", "One type of acupuncture needle\n\nAcupuncture is a form of alternative medicine. It is commonly used for pain relief, though it is also used to treat a wide range of conditions. The majority of people who seek out acupuncture do so for musculoskeletal problems, including low back pain, shoulder stiffness, and knee pain. Acupuncture is generally only used in combination with other forms of treatment. For example, American Society of Anesthesiologists states it may be considered in the treatment for nonspecific, noninflammatory low back pain only in conjunction with conventional therapy.\n\nAcupuncture is the insertion of thin needles into the skin. According to the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (Mayo Clinic), a typical session entails lying still while approximately five to twenty needles are inserted; for the majority of cases, the needles will be left in place for ten to twenty minutes. It can be associated with the application of heat, pressure, or laser light. Classically, acupuncture is individualized and based on philosophy and intuition, and not on scientific research. There is also a non-invasive therapy developed in early 20th century Japan using an elaborate set of \"needles\" for the treatment of children (''shōnishin'' or ''shōnihari'').\n\nClinical practice varies depending on the country. A comparison of the average number of patients treated per hour found significant differences between China (10) and the United States (1.2). Chinese herbs are often used. There is a diverse range of acupuncture approaches, involving different philosophies. Although various different techniques of acupuncture practice have emerged, the method used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) seems to be the most widely adopted in the US. Traditional acupuncture involves needle insertion, moxibustion, and cupping therapy, and may be accompanied by other procedures such as feeling the pulse and other parts of the body and examining the tongue. Traditional acupuncture involves the belief that a \"life force\" (''qi'') circulates within the body in lines called meridians. The main methods practiced in the UK are TCM and Western medical acupuncture. The term Western medical acupuncture is used to indicate an adaptation of TCM-based acupuncture which focuses less on TCM. The Western medical acupuncture approach involves using acupuncture after a medical diagnosis. Limited research has compared the contrasting acupuncture systems used in various countries for determining different acupuncture points and thus there is no defined standard for acupuncture points.\n\nIn traditional acupuncture, the acupuncturist decides which points to treat by observing and questioning the patient to make a diagnosis according to the tradition used. In TCM, the four diagnostic methods are: inspection, auscultation and olfaction, inquiring, and palpation. Inspection focuses on the face and particularly on the tongue, including analysis of the tongue size, shape, tension, color and coating, and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge. Auscultation and olfaction involves listening for particular sounds such as wheezing, and observing body odor. Inquiring involves focusing on the \"seven inquiries\": chills and fever; perspiration; appetite, thirst and taste; defecation and urination; pain; sleep; and menses and leukorrhea. Palpation is focusing on feeling the body for tender ''\"A-shi\"'' points and feeling the pulse.\n\n=== Needles ===\nAcupuncture needles\nTraditional and modern Japanese guiding tube needles\nThe most common mechanism of stimulation of acupuncture points employs penetration of the skin by thin metal needles, which are manipulated manually or the needle may be further stimulated by electrical stimulation (electroacupuncture). Acupuncture needles are typically made of stainless steel, making them flexible and preventing them from rusting or breaking. Needles are usually disposed of after each use to prevent contamination. Reusable needles when used should be sterilized between applications. Needles vary in length between , with shorter needles used near the face and eyes, and longer needles in areas with thicker tissues; needle diameters vary from 0 to 0, with thicker needles used on more robust patients. Thinner needles may be flexible and require tubes for insertion. The tip of the needle should not be made too sharp to prevent breakage, although blunt needles cause more pain.\n\nApart from the usual filiform needle, other needle types include three-edged needles and the Nine Ancient Needles. Japanese acupuncturists use extremely thin needles that are used superficially, sometimes without penetrating the skin, and surrounded by a guide tube (a 17th-century invention adopted in China and the West). Korean acupuncture uses copper needles and has a greater focus on the hand.\n\n=== Needling technique ===\n\n==== Insertion ====\n\nThe skin is sterilized and needles are inserted, frequently with a plastic guide tube. Needles may be manipulated in various ways, including spinning, flicking, or moving up and down relative to the skin. Since most pain is felt in the superficial layers of the skin, a quick insertion of the needle is recommended. Often the needles are stimulated by hand in order to cause a dull, localized, aching sensation that is called ''de qi'', as well as \"needle grasp,\" a tugging feeling felt by the acupuncturist and generated by a mechanical interaction between the needle and skin. Acupuncture can be painful. The skill level of the acupuncturist may influence how painful the needle insertion is, and a sufficiently skilled practitioner may be able to insert the needles without causing any pain.\n\n==== ''De-qi'' sensation ====\n\n''De-qi'' (; \"arrival of qi\") refers to a sensation of numbness, distension, or electrical tingling at the needling site which might radiate along the corresponding meridian. If ''de-qi'' can not be generated, then inaccurate location of the acupoint, improper depth of needle insertion, inadequate manual manipulation, or a very weak constitution of the patient can be considered, all of which are thought to decrease the likelihood of successful treatment. If the ''de-qi'' sensation does not immediately occur upon needle insertion, various manual manipulation techniques can be applied to promote it (such as \"plucking\", \"shaking\" or \"trembling\").\n\nOnce ''de-qi'' is achieved, further techniques might be utilized which aim to \"influence\" the ''de-qi''; for example, by certain manipulation the ''de-qi'' sensation allegedly can be conducted from the needling site towards more distant sites of the body. Other techniques aim at \"tonifying\" () or \"sedating\" () ''qi''. The former techniques are used in deficiency patterns, the latter in excess patterns. ''De qi'' is more important in Chinese acupuncture, while Western and Japanese patients may not consider it a necessary part of the treatment.\n\n=== Related practices ===\nAcupressure, a non-invasive form of bodywork, uses physical pressure applied to acupressure points by the hand or elbow, or with various devices.\nAcupuncture is often accompanied by moxibustion, the burning of cone-shaped preparations of moxa (made from dried mugwort) on or near the skin, often but not always near or on an acupuncture point. Traditionally, acupuncture was used to treat acute conditions while moxibustion was used for chronic diseases. Moxibustion could be direct (the cone was placed directly on the skin and allowed to burn the skin, producing a blister and eventually a scar), or indirect (either a cone of moxa was placed on a slice of garlic, ginger or other vegetable, or a cylinder of moxa was held above the skin, close enough to either warm or burn it).\nCupping therapy is an ancient Chinese form of alternative medicine in which a local suction is created on the skin; practitioners believe this mobilizes blood flow in order to promote healing.\nTui na is a TCM method of attempting to stimulate the flow of ''qi'' by various bare-handed techniques that do not involve needles.\nElectroacupuncture is a form of acupuncture in which acupuncture needles are attached to a device that generates continuous electric pulses (this has been described as \"essentially transdermal electrical nerve stimulation TENS masquerading as acupuncture\").\nFire needle acupuncture also known as fire needling is a technique which involves quickly inserting a flame-heated needle into areas on the body.\nSonopuncture is a stimulation of the body similar to acupuncture using sound instead of needles. This may be done using purpose-built transducers to direct a narrow ultrasound beam to a depth of 6–8 centimetres at acupuncture meridian points on the body. Alternatively, tuning forks or other sound emitting devices are used.\nAcupuncture point injection is the injection of various substances (such as drugs, vitamins or herbal extracts) into acupoints.\nAuriculotherapy, commonly known as ear acupuncture, auricular acupuncture, or auriculoacupuncture, is considered to date back to ancient China. It involves inserting needles to stimulate points on the outer ear. The modern approach was developed in France during the early 1950s. There is no scientific evidence that it can cure disease; the evidence of effectiveness is negligible.\nScalp acupuncture, developed in Japan, is based on reflexological considerations regarding the scalp.\nHand acupuncture, developed in Korea, centers around assumed reflex zones of the hand. Medical acupuncture attempts to integrate reflexological concepts, the trigger point model, and anatomical insights (such as dermatome distribution) into acupuncture practice, and emphasizes a more formulaic approach to acupuncture point location.\nCosmetic acupuncture is the use of acupuncture in an attempt to reduce wrinkles on the face.\nBee venom acupuncture is a treatment approach of injecting purified, diluted bee venom into acupoints.\nA 2006 review of veterinary acupuncture found that there is insufficient evidence to \"recommend or reject acupuncture for any condition in domestic animals\". Rigorous evidence for complementary and alternative techniques is lacking in veterinary medicine but evidence has been growing.\n\nAcupuncture point Hegu (LI 4).jpg\|Acupressure being applied to a hand.\nSujichim (hand acupuncture).jpg\|''Sujichim'', hand acupuncture\nA Dose of Moxa.jpg\|Japanese moxibustion\nFire cupping in Haikou - 02.JPG\|A woman receiving fire cupping in China.\n\n", "\n=== Sham acupuncture and research ===\nIt is difficult but not impossible to design rigorous research trials for acupuncture. Due to acupuncture's invasive nature, one of the major challenges in efficacy research is in the design of an appropriate placebo control group. For efficacy studies to determine whether acupuncture has specific effects, \"sham\" forms of acupuncture where the patient, practitioner, and analyst are blinded seem the most acceptable approach. Sham acupuncture uses non-penetrating needles or needling at non-acupuncture points, e.g. inserting needles on meridians not related to the specific condition being studied, or in places not associated with meridians. The under-performance of acupuncture in such trials may indicate that therapeutic effects are due entirely to non-specific effects, or that the sham treatments are not inert, or that systematic protocols yield less than optimal treatment.\n\nA 2014 review in ''Nature Reviews Cancer'' found that \"contrary to the claimed mechanism of redirecting the flow of ''qi'' through meridians, researchers usually find that it generally does not matter where the needles are inserted, how often (that is, no dose-response effect is observed), or even if needles are actually inserted. In other words, 'sham' or 'placebo' acupuncture generally produces the same effects as 'real' acupuncture and, in some cases, does better.\" A 2013 meta-analysis found little evidence that the effectiveness of acupuncture on pain (compared to sham) was modified by the location of the needles, the number of needles used, the experience or technique of the practitioner, or by the circumstances of the sessions. The same analysis also suggested that the number of needles and sessions is important, as greater numbers improved the outcomes of acupuncture compared to non-acupuncture controls. There has been little systematic investigation of which components of an acupuncture session may be important for any therapeutic effect, including needle placement and depth, type and intensity of stimulation, and number of needles used. The research seems to suggest that needles do not need to stimulate the traditionally specified acupuncture points or penetrate the skin to attain an anticipated effect (e.g. psychosocial factors).\n\nA response to \"sham\" acupuncture in osteoarthritis may be used in the elderly, but placebos have usually been regarded as deception and thus unethical. However, some physicians and ethicists have suggested circumstances for applicable uses for placebos such as it might present a theoretical advantage of an inexpensive treatment without adverse reactions or interactions with drugs or other medications. As the evidence for most types of alternative medicine such as acupuncture is far from strong, the use of alternative medicine in regular healthcare can present an ethical question.\n\nUsing the principles of evidence-based medicine to research acupuncture is controversial, and has produced different results. Some research suggests acupuncture can alleviate pain but the majority of research suggests that acupuncture's effects are mainly due to placebo. Evidence suggests that any benefits of acupuncture are short-lasting. There is insufficient evidence to support use of acupuncture compared to mainstream medical treatments. Acupuncture is not better than mainstream treatment in the long term.\n\n=== Publication bias ===\n\nPublication bias is cited as a concern in the reviews of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of acupuncture. A 1998 review of studies on acupuncture found that trials originating in China, Japan, Hong Kong, and Taiwan were uniformly favourable to acupuncture, as were ten out of eleven studies conducted in Russia. A 2011 assessment of the quality of RCTs on TCM, including acupuncture, concluded that the methodological quality of most such trials (including randomization, experimental control, and blinding) was generally poor, particularly for trials published in Chinese journals (though the quality of acupuncture trials was better than the trials testing TCM remedies). The study also found that trials published in non-Chinese journals tended to be of higher quality. Chinese authors use more Chinese studies, which have been demonstrated to be uniformly positive. A 2012 review of 88 systematic reviews of acupuncture published in Chinese journals found that less than half of these reviews reported testing for publication bias, and that the majority of these reviews were published in journals with impact factors of zero.\n\nScientist and journalist Steven Salzberg identifies acupuncture and Chinese medicine generally as a focus for \"fake medical journals\" such as the Journal of Acupuncture and Meridian Studies and Acupuncture in Medicine.\n\n===Specific conditions===\n\n==== Pain ====\n\nThe conclusions of many trials and numerous systematic reviews of acupuncture are largely inconsistent with each other. A 2011 systematic review of systematic reviews found that for reducing pain, real acupuncture was no better than sham acupuncture, and concluded that numerous reviews have shown little convincing evidence that acupuncture is an effective treatment for reducing pain. The same review found that neck pain was one of only four types of pain for which a positive effect was suggested, but cautioned that the primary studies used carried a considerable risk of bias. A 2009 overview of Cochrane reviews found acupuncture is not effective for a wide range of conditions.\n\nA 2014 systematic review suggests that the nocebo effect of acupuncture is clinically relevant and that the rate of adverse events may be a gauge of the nocebo effect. According to the 2014 ''Miller's Anesthesia'' book, \"when compared with placebo, acupuncture treatment has proven efficacy for relieving pain\". A 2012 meta-analysis conducted by the Acupuncture Trialists' Collaboration found \"relatively modest\" efficiency of acupuncture (in comparison to sham) for the treatment of four different types of chronic pain (back and neck pain, knee osteoarthritis, chronic headache, and shoulder pain) and on that basis concluded that it \"is more than a placebo\" and a reasonable referral option. Commenting on this meta-analysis, both Edzard Ernst and David Colquhoun said the results were of negligible clinical significance. Edzard Ernst later stated that \"I fear that, once we manage to eliminate this bias that operators are not blind … we might find that the effects of acupuncture exclusively are a placebo response.\"\n\nA 2010 systematic review suggested that acupuncture is more than a placebo for commonly occurring chronic pain conditions, but the authors acknowledged that it is still unknown if the overall benefit is clinically meaningful or cost-effective. A 2010 review found real acupuncture and sham acupuncture produce similar improvements, which can only be accepted as evidence against the efficacy of acupuncture. The same review found limited evidence that real acupuncture and sham acupuncture appear to produce biological differences despite similar effects. A 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis found that acupuncture had a small analgesic effect, which appeared to lack any clinical importance and could not be discerned from bias. The same review found that it remains unclear whether acupuncture reduces pain independent of a psychological impact of the needling ritual. A 2016 Cochrane review found moderate quality evidence that real acupuncture was more effective than sham acupuncture or inactive treatment for short-term relief of neck pain measured either upon completion of treatment or at short-term follow-up. A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis found that ear acupuncture may be effective at reducing pain within 48 hours of its use, but the mean difference between the acupuncture and control groups was small and that \"Rigorous research is needed to establish definitive evidence\".\n\n==== Lower back pain====\n\nA 2013 systematic review found that acupuncture may be effective for nonspecific lower back pain, but the authors noted there were limitations in the studies examined, such as heterogeneity in study characteristics and low methodological quality in many studies. A 2012 systematic review found some supporting evidence that acupuncture was more effective than no treatment for chronic non-specific low back pain; the evidence was conflicting comparing the effectiveness over other treatment approaches. A 2011 systematic review of systematic reviews found that \"for chronic low back pain, individualized acupuncture is not better in reducing symptoms than formula acupuncture or sham acupuncture with a toothpick that does not penetrate the skin.\" A 2010 review found that sham acupuncture was as effective as real acupuncture for chronic low back pain. The specific therapeutic effects of acupuncture were small, whereas its clinically relevant benefits were mostly due to contextual and psychosocial circumstances. Brain imaging studies have shown that traditional acupuncture and sham acupuncture differ in their effect on limbic structures, while at the same time showed equivalent analgesic effects. A 2005 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to recommend for or against either acupuncture or dry needling for acute low back pain. The same review found low quality evidence for pain relief and improvement compared to no treatment or sham therapy for chronic low back pain only in the short term immediately after treatment. The same review also found that acupuncture is not more effective than conventional therapy and other alternative medicine treatments. A 2017 systematic review for an American College of Physicians clinical practice guideline found low to moderate evidence that acupuncture was effective for chronic low back pain, and limited evidence that it was effective for acute low back pain. The same review found that the strength of the evidence for both conditions was low to moderate. Another 2017 clinical practice guideline, this one produced by the Danish Health Authority, recommended against acupuncture for both recent-onset low back pain and lumbar radiculopathy.\n\n==== Headaches and migraines ====\n\nTwo separate 2016 Cochrane reviews found that acupuncture could be useful in the prophylaxis of tension-type headaches and episodic migraines. The 2016 Cochrane review evaluating acupuncture for episodic migraine prevention concluded that true acupuncture had a small effect beyond sham acupuncture and found moderate-quality evidence to suggest that acupuncture is at least similarly effective to prophylactic medications for this purpose. A 2012 review found that acupuncture has demonstrated benefit for the treatment of headaches, but that safety needed to be more fully documented in order to make any strong recommendations in support of its use.\n\n==== Arthritis pain ====\nA 2014 review concluded that \"current evidence supports the use of acupuncture as an alternative to traditional analgesics in osteoarthritis patients.\" , a meta-analysis showed that acupuncture may help osteoarthritis pain but it was noted that the effects were insignificant in comparison to sham needles. A 2013 systematic review and network meta-analysis found that the evidence suggests that acupuncture may be considered one of the more effective physical treatments for alleviating pain due to knee osteoarthritis in the short-term compared to other relevant physical treatments, though much of the evidence in the topic is of poor quality and there is uncertainty about the efficacy of many of the treatments. A 2012 review found \"the potential beneficial action of acupuncture on osteoarthritis pain does not appear to be clinically relevant.\" A 2010 Cochrane review found that acupuncture shows statistically significant benefit over sham acupuncture in the treatment of peripheral joint osteoarthritis; however, these benefits were found to be so small that their clinical significance was doubtful, and \"probably due at least partially to placebo effects from incomplete blinding\".\n\nA 2013 Cochrane review found low to moderate evidence that acupuncture improves pain and stiffness in treating people with fibromyalgia compared with no treatment and standard care. A 2012 review found \"there is insufficient evidence to recommend acupuncture for the treatment of fibromyalgia.\" A 2010 systematic review found a small pain relief effect that was not apparently discernible from bias; acupuncture is not a recommendable treatment for the management of fibromyalgia on the basis of this review.\n\nA 2012 review found that the effectiveness of acupuncture to treat rheumatoid arthritis is \"sparse and inconclusive.\" A 2005 Cochrane review concluded that acupuncture use to treat rheumatoid arthritis \"has no effect on ESR, CRP, pain, patient's global assessment, number of swollen joints, number of tender joints, general health, disease activity and reduction of analgesics.\" A 2010 overview of systematic reviews found insufficient evidence to recommend acupuncture in the treatment of most rheumatic conditions, with the exceptions of osteoarthritis, low back pain, and lateral elbow pain.\n\n====Other joint pain====\nA 2014 systematic review found that although manual acupuncture was effective at relieving short-term pain when used to treat tennis elbow, its long-term effect in relieving pain was \"unremarkable\". A 2007 review found that acupuncture was significantly better than sham acupuncture at treating chronic knee pain; the evidence was not conclusive due to the lack of large, high-quality trials.\n\n====Post-operative pain and nausea====\n\nA 2014 overview of systematic reviews found insufficient evidence to suggest that acupuncture is an effective treatment for postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) in a clinical setting. A 2013 systematic review concluded that acupuncture might be beneficial in prevention and treatment of PONV. A 2009 Cochrane review found that stimulation of the P6 acupoint on the wrist was as effective (or ineffective) as antiemetic drugs and was associated with minimal side effects. The same review found \"no reliable evidence for differences in risks of postoperative nausea or vomiting after P6 acupoint stimulation compared to antiemetic drugs.\"\n\nA 2014 overview of systematic reviews found insufficient evidence to suggest that acupuncture is effective for surgical or post-operative pain. For the use of acupuncture for post-operative pain, there was contradictory evidence. A 2014 systematic review found supportive but limited evidence for use of acupuncture for acute post-operative pain after back surgery. A 2014 systematic review found that while the evidence suggested acupuncture could be an effective treatment for postoperative gastroparesis, a firm conclusion could not be reached because the trials examined were of low quality.\n\n==== Pain and nausea associated with cancer and cancer treatment ====\n\nA 2015 Cochrane review found that there is insufficient evidence to determine whether acupuncture is an effective treatment for cancer pain in adults. A 2014 systematic review published in the Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine found that acupuncture may be effective as an adjunctive treatment to palliative care for cancer patients. A 2013 overview of reviews published in the Journal of Multinational Association for Supportive Care in Cancer found evidence that acupuncture could be beneficial for people with cancer-related symptoms, but also identified few rigorous trials and high heterogeneity between trials. A 2012 systematic review of randomised clinical trials published in the same journal found that the number and quality of RCTs for using acupuncture in the treatment of cancer pain was too low to draw definite conclusions.\n\nA 2014 systematic review reached inconclusive results with regard to the effectiveness of acupuncture for treating cancer-related fatigue. A 2013 systematic review found that acupuncture is an acceptable adjunctive treatment for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, but that further research with a low risk of bias is needed. A 2013 systematic review found that the quantity and quality of available RCTs for analysis were too low to draw valid conclusions for the effectiveness of acupuncture for cancer-related fatigue.\n\n====Sleep====\nA 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that acupuncture was \"associated with a significant reduction in sleep disturbances in women experiencing menopause-related sleep disturbances.\"\n\n==== Other conditions ====\n\nFor the following conditions, the Cochrane Collaboration or other reviews have concluded there is no strong evidence of benefit:\nalcohol dependence,\nangina pectoris,\nankle sprain,\nAlzheimer's disease,\nattention deficit hyperactivity disorder,\nautism,\nasthma,\nBell's palsy,\ntraumatic brain injury,\ncarpal tunnel syndrome,\nchronic obstructive pulmonary disease,\ncardiac arrhythmias,\ncerebral hemorrhage,\ncocaine dependence,\nconstipation,\ndepression,\ndiabetic peripheral neuropathy,\ndrug detoxification,\ndry eye,\nprimary dysmenorrhoea, enuresis,\nendometriosis,\nepilepsy,\nerectile dysfunction,\nessential hypertension,\nglaucoma,\ngynaecological conditions (except possibly fertility and nausea/vomiting), acute hordeolum,\nhot flashes, insomnia,\ninduction of childbirth,\nirritable bowel syndrome,\nlabor pain,\nlumbar spinal stenosis,\nmajor depressive disorders in pregnant women, musculoskeletal disorders of the extremities,\nmyopia,\nobesity,\nobstetrical conditions,\npolycystic ovary syndrome,\nposttraumatic stress disorder,\npremenstrual syndrome,\npreoperative anxiety,\nopioid addiction,\nrestless legs syndrome,\nschizophrenia,\nsensorineural hearing loss,\nsmoking cessation,\nstress urinary incontinence,\nacute stroke,\nstroke rehabilitation,\ntemporomandibular joint dysfunction,\ntennis elbow,\nlabor induction,\ntinnitus,\nuremic itching,\nuterine fibroids,\nvascular dementia, whiplash., stroke, Parkinson's disease, dyspepsia, and in vitro fertilization (IVF). and allergy.\n\n=== Moxibustion and cupping ===\n\nA 2010 overview of systematic reviews found that moxibustion was effective for several conditions but the primary studies were of poor quality, so there persists ample uncertainty, which limits the conclusiveness of their findings.\n", "\n=== Adverse events ===\nAcupuncture is generally safe when administered by an experienced, appropriately trained practitioner using clean-needle technique and sterile single-use needles. When improperly delivered it can cause adverse effects. Accidents and infections are associated with infractions of sterile technique or neglect on the part of the practitioner. To reduce the risk of serious adverse events after acupuncture, acupuncturists should be trained sufficiently. People with serious spinal disease, such as cancer or infection, are not good candidates for acupuncture. Contraindications to acupuncture (conditions that should not be treated with acupuncture) include coagulopathy disorders (e.g. hemophilia and advanced liver disease), warfarin use, severe psychiatric disorders (e.g. psychosis), and skin infections or skin trauma (e.g. burns). Further, electroacupuncture should be avoided at the spot of implanted electrical devices (such as pacemakers).\n\nA 2011 systematic review of systematic reviews (internationally and without language restrictions) found that serious complications following acupuncture continue to be reported. Between 2000 and 2009, ninety-five cases of serious adverse events, including five deaths, were reported. Many such events are not inherent to acupuncture but are due to malpractice of acupuncturists. This might be why such complications have not been reported in surveys of adequately-trained acupuncturists. Most such reports originate from Asia, which may reflect the large number of treatments performed there or a relatively higher number of poorly trained Asian acupuncturists. Many serious adverse events were reported from developed countries. These included Australia, Austria, Canada, Croatia, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, and the US. The number of adverse effects reported from the UK appears particularly unusual, which may indicate less under-reporting in the UK than other countries. Reports included 38 cases of infections and 42 cases of organ trauma. The most frequent adverse events included pneumothorax, and bacterial and viral infections.\n\nA 2013 review found (without restrictions regarding publication date, study type or language) 295 cases of infections; mycobacterium was the pathogen in at least 96%. Likely sources of infection include towels, hot packs or boiling tank water, and reusing reprocessed needles. Possible sources of infection include contaminated needles, reusing personal needles, a person's skin containing mycobacterium, and reusing needles at various sites in the same person. Although acupuncture is generally considered a safe procedure, a 2013 review stated that the reports of infection transmission increased significantly in the prior decade, including those of mycobacterium. Although it is recommended that practitioners of acupuncture use disposable needles, the reuse of sterilized needles is still permitted. It is also recommended that thorough control practices for preventing infection be implemented and adapted.\n\n==== English-language ====\n\nA 2013 systematic review of the English-language case reports found that serious adverse events associated with acupuncture are rare, but that acupuncture is not without risk. Between 2000 and 2011 the English-language literature from 25 countries and regions reported 294 adverse events. The majority of the reported adverse events were relatively minor, and the incidences were low. For example, a prospective survey of 34,000 acupuncture treatments found no serious adverse events and 43 minor ones, a rate of 1.3 per 1000 interventions. Another survey found there were 7.1% minor adverse events, of which 5 were serious, amid 97,733 acupuncture patients. The most common adverse effect observed was infection (e.g. mycobacterium), and the majority of infections were bacterial in nature, caused by skin contact at the needling site. Infection has also resulted from skin contact with unsterilized equipment or with dirty towels in an unhygienic clinical setting. Other adverse complications included five reported cases of spinal cord injuries (e.g. migrating broken needles or needling too deeply), four brain injuries, four peripheral nerve injuries, five heart injuries, seven other organ and tissue injuries, bilateral hand edema, epithelioid granuloma, pseudolymphoma, argyria, pustules, pancytopenia, and scarring due to hot-needle technique. Adverse reactions from acupuncture, which are unusual and uncommon in typical acupuncture practice, included syncope, galactorrhoea, bilateral nystagmus, pyoderma gangrenosum, hepatotoxicity, eruptive lichen planus, and spontaneous needle migration.\n\nA 2013 systematic review found 31 cases of vascular injuries caused by acupuncture, three resulting in death. Two died from pericardial tamponade and one was from an aortoduodenal fistula. The same review found vascular injuries were rare, bleeding and pseudoaneurysm were most prevalent. A 2011 systematic review (without restriction in time or language), aiming to summarize all reported case of cardiac tamponade after acupuncture, found 26 cases resulting in 14 deaths, with little doubt about causality in most fatal instances. The same review concluded cardiac tamponade was a serious, usually fatal, though theoretically avoidable complication following acupuncture, and urged training to minimize risk.\n\nA 2012 review found a number of adverse events were reported after acupuncture in the UK's National Health Service (NHS) but most (95%) were not severe, though miscategorization and under-reporting may alter the total figures. From January 2009 to December 2011, 468 safety incidents were recognized within the NHS organizations. The adverse events recorded included retained needles (31%), dizziness (30%), loss of consciousness/unresponsive (19%), falls (4%), bruising or soreness at needle site (2%), pneumothorax (1%) and other adverse side effects (12%). Acupuncture practitioners should know, and be prepared to be responsible for, any substantial harm from treatments. Some acupuncture proponents argue that the long history of acupuncture suggests it is safe. However, there is an increasing literature on adverse events (e.g. spinal-cord injury).\n\nAcupuncture seems to be safe in people getting anticoagulants, assuming needles are used at the correct location and depth. Studies are required to verify these findings. The evidence suggests that acupuncture might be a safe option for people with allergic rhinitis.\n\n==== Chinese, South Korean, and Japanese-language ====\n\nA 2010 systematic review of the Chinese-language literature found numerous acupuncture-related adverse events, including pneumothorax, fainting, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and infection as the most frequent, and cardiovascular injuries, subarachnoid hemorrhage, pneumothorax, and recurrent cerebral hemorrhage as the most serious, most of which were due to improper technique. Between 1980 and 2009, the Chinese-language literature reported 479 adverse events. Prospective surveys show that mild, transient acupuncture-associated adverse events ranged from 6.71% to 15%. In a study with 190,924 patients, the prevalence of serious adverse events was roughly 0.024%. Another study showed a rate of adverse events requiring specific treatment of 2.2%, 4,963 incidences among 229,230 patients. Infections, mainly hepatitis, after acupuncture are reported often in English-language research, though are rarely reported in Chinese-language research, making it plausible that acupuncture-associated infections have been underreported in China. Infections were mostly caused by poor sterilization of acupuncture needles. Other adverse events included spinal epidural hematoma (in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine), chylothorax, injuries of abdominal organs and tissues, injuries in the neck region, injuries to the eyes, including orbital hemorrhage, traumatic cataract, injury of the oculomotor nerve and retinal puncture, hemorrhage to the cheeks and the hypoglottis, peripheral motor-nerve injuries and subsequent motor dysfunction, local allergic reactions to metal needles, stroke, and cerebral hemorrhage after acupuncture.\n\nA causal link between acupuncture and the adverse events cardiac arrest, pyknolepsy, shock, fever, cough, thirst, aphonia, leg numbness, and sexual dysfunction remains uncertain. The same review concluded that acupuncture can be considered inherently safe when practiced by properly trained practitioners, but the review also stated there is a need to find effective strategies to minimize the health risks. Between 1999 and 2010, the Republic of Korean-literature contained reports of 1104 adverse events. Between the 1980s and 2002, the Japanese-language literature contained reports of 150 adverse events.\n\n==== Children and pregnancy ====\n\nAlthough acupuncture has been practiced for thousands of years in China, its use in pediatrics in the United States did not become common until the early 2000s. In 2007, the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) conducted by the National Center For Health Statistics (NCHS) estimated that approximately 150,000 children had received acupuncture treatment for a variety of conditions.\n\nIn 2008 a study determined that the use of acupuncture-needle treatment on children was \"questionable\" due to the possibility of adverse side-effects and the pain manifestation differences in children versus adults. The study also includes warnings against practicing acupuncture on infants, as well as on children who are over-fatigued, very weak, or have over-eaten.\n\nWhen used on children, acupuncture is considered safe when administered by well-trained, licensed practitioners using sterile needles; however, a 2011 review found there was limited research to draw definite conclusions about the overall safety of pediatric acupuncture. The same review found 279 adverse events, 25 of them serious. The adverse events were mostly mild in nature (e.g. bruising or bleeding). The prevalence of mild adverse events ranged from 10.1% to 13.5%, an estimated 168 incidences among 1,422 patients. On rare occasions adverse events were serious (e.g. cardiac rupture or hemoptysis); many might have been a result of substandard practice. The incidence of serious adverse events was 5 per one million, which included children and adults.\n\nWhen used during pregnancy, the majority of adverse events caused by acupuncture were mild and transient, with few serious adverse events. The most frequent mild adverse event was needling or unspecified pain, followed by bleeding. Although two deaths (one stillbirth and one neonatal death) were reported, there was a lack of acupuncture-associated maternal mortality. Limiting the evidence as certain, probable or possible in the causality evaluation, the estimated incidence of adverse events following acupuncture in pregnant women was 131 per 10,000.\nAlthough acupuncture is not contraindicated in pregnant women, some specific acupuncture points are particularly sensitive to needle insertion; these spots, as well as the abdominal region, should be avoided during pregnancy.\n\n==== Moxibustion and cupping ====\n\nFour adverse events associated with moxibustion were bruising, burns and cellulitis, spinal epidural abscess, and large superficial basal cell carcinoma. Ten adverse events were associated with cupping. The minor ones were keloid scarring, burns, and bullae; the serious ones were acquired hemophilia A, stroke following cupping on the back and neck, factitious panniculitis, reversible cardiac hypertrophy, and iron deficiency anemia.\n\n=== Cost-effectiveness ===\n\nA 2013 meta-analysis found that acupuncture for chronic low back pain was cost-effective as a complement to standard care, but not as a substitute for standard care except in cases where comorbid depression presented. The same meta-analysis found there was no difference between sham and non-sham acupuncture. A 2011 systematic review found insufficient evidence for the cost-effectiveness of acupuncture in the treatment of chronic low back pain. A 2010 systematic review found that the cost-effectiveness of acupuncture could not be concluded. A 2012 review found that acupuncture seems to be cost-effective for some pain conditions.\n\n=== Risk of forgoing conventional medical care ===\n\nAs with other alternative medicines, unethical or naïve practitioners may induce patients to exhaust financial resources by pursuing ineffective treatment. Professional ethics codes set by accrediting organizations such as the National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine require practitioners to make \"timely referrals to other health care professionals as may be appropriate.\" Stephen Barrett states that there is a \"risk that an acupuncturist whose approach to diagnosis is not based on scientific concepts will fail to diagnose a dangerous condition\".\n", "\n\n=== Traditional===\n\nOld Chinese medical chart of acupuncture meridians\nAcupuncture is a substantial part of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Early acupuncture beliefs relied on concepts that are common in TCM, such as a life force energy called ''qi''. ''Qi'' was believed to flow from the body's primary organs (zang-fu organs) to the \"superficial\" body tissues of the skin, muscles, tendons, bones, and joints, through channels called meridians. Acupuncture points where needles are inserted are mainly (but not always) found at locations along the meridians. Acupuncture points not found along a meridian are called extraordinary points and those with no designated site are called \"A-shi\" points.\n\nIn TCM, disease is generally perceived as a disharmony or imbalance in energies such as yin, yang, ''qi'', xuĕ, zàng-fǔ, meridians, and of the interaction between the body and the environment. Therapy is based on which \"pattern of disharmony\" can be identified. For example, some diseases are believed to be caused by meridians being invaded with an excess of wind, cold, and damp. In order to determine which pattern is at hand, practitioners examine things like the color and shape of the tongue, the relative strength of pulse-points, the smell of the breath, the quality of breathing, or the sound of the voice. TCM and its concept of disease does not strongly differentiate between the cause and effect of symptoms.\n\n===Purported scientific basis===\nModern acupuncture model\nScientific research has not supported the existence of ''qi'', meridians, or yin and yang. A ''Nature'' editorial described TCM as \"fraught with pseudoscience\", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action. Quackwatch states that \"TCM theory and practice are not based upon the body of knowledge related to health, disease, and health care that has been widely accepted by the scientific community. TCM practitioners disagree among themselves about how to diagnose patients and which treatments should go with which diagnoses. Even if they could agree, the TCM theories are so nebulous that no amount of scientific study will enable TCM to offer rational care.\"\n\nSome modern practitioners support the use of acupuncture to treat pain, but have abandoned the use of ''qi'', meridians, ''yin'', ''yang'' and other energies based in mysticism as explanatory frameworks. The use of ''qi'' as an explanatory framework has been decreasing in China, even as it becomes more prominent during discussions of acupuncture in the US. Academic discussions of acupuncture still make reference to pseudoscientific concepts such as ''qi'' and meridians despite the lack of scientific evidence. Many within the scientific community consider attempts to rationalize acupuncture in science to be quackery, pseudoscience and \"theatrical placebo\". Academics Massimo Pigliucci and Maarten Boudry describe it as a \"borderlands science\" lying between science and pseudoscience.\n\nMany acupuncturists attribute pain relief to the release of endorphins when needles penetrate, but no longer support the idea that acupuncture can affect a disease. It is a generally held belief within the acupuncture community that acupuncture points and meridians structures are special conduits for electrical signals, but no research has established any consistent anatomical structure or function for either acupuncture points or meridians. Human tests to determine whether electrical continuity was significantly different near meridians than other places in the body have been inconclusive.\n\nSome studies suggest acupuncture causes a series of events within the central nervous system, and that it is possible to inhibit acupuncture's analgesic effects with the opioid antagonist naloxone. Mechanical deformation of the skin by acupuncture needles appears to result in the release of adenosine. The anti-nociceptive effect of acupuncture may be mediated by the adenosine A1 receptor. A 2014 review in ''Nature Reviews Cancer'' found that since the key mouse studies that suggested acupuncture relieves pain via the local release of adenosine, which then triggered nearby A1 receptors \"caused more tissue damage and inflammation relative to the size of the animal in mice than in humans, such studies unnecessarily muddled a finding that local inflammation can result in the local release of adenosine with analgesic effect.\"\n\nIt has been proposed that acupuncture's effects in gastrointestinal disorders may relate to its effects on the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system, which have been said to be the \"Western medicine\" equivalent of \"yin and yang\". Another mechanism whereby acupuncture may be effective for gastrointestinal dysfunction involves the promotion of gastric peristalsis in subjects with low initial gastric motility, and suppressing peristalsis in subjects with active initial motility. Acupuncture has also been found to exert anti-inflammatory effects, which may be mediated by the activation of the vagus nerve and deactivation of inflammatory macrophages. Neuroimaging studies suggest that acupuncture stimulation results in deactivation of the limbic brain areas and the default mode network.\n", "\n=== Origins ===\nAcupuncture chart from the Ming dynasty (c. 1368–1644)\nAcupuncture, along with moxibustion, is one of the oldest practices of traditional Chinese medicine. Most historians believe the practice began in China, though there are some conflicting narratives on when it originated. Academics David Ramey and Paul Buell said the exact date acupuncture was founded depends on the extent dating of ancient texts can be trusted and the interpretation of what constitutes acupuncture.\n\nAccording to an article in ''Rheumatology'', the first documentation of an \"organized system of diagnosis and treatment\" for acupuncture was in ''The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine'' (Huangdi Neijing) from about 100 BC. Gold and silver needles found in the tomb of Liu Sheng from around 100 BC are believed to be the earliest archeological evidence of acupuncture, though it is unclear if that was their purpose. According to Dr. Plinio Prioreschi, the earliest known historical record of acupuncture is the Shih-Chi (\"Record of History\"), written by a historian around 100 BC. It is believed that this text was documenting what was established practice at that time.\n\n====Alternate theories====\nThe 5,000-year-old mummified body of Ötzi the Iceman was found with 15 groups of tattoos, many of which were located at points on the body where acupuncture needles are used for abdominal or lower back problems. Evidence from the body suggests Otzi suffered from these conditions. This has been cited as evidence that practices similar to acupuncture may have been practiced elsewhere in Eurasia during the early Bronze Age; however, ''The Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine'' calls this theory \"speculative\". It is considered unlikely that acupuncture was practiced before 2000 BC. The Ötzi the Iceman's tattoo marks suggest to some experts that an acupuncture-like treatment was previously used in Europe 5 millennia ago.\n\nAcupuncture may have been practiced during the Neolithic era, near the end of the stone age, using sharpened stones called Bian shi. Many Chinese texts from later eras refer to sharp stones called \"plen\", which means \"stone probe\", that may have been used for acupuncture purposes. The ancient Chinese medical text, Huangdi Neijing, indicates that sharp stones were believed at-the-time to cure illnesses at or near the body's surface, perhaps because of the short depth a stone could penetrate. However, it is more likely that stones were used for other medical purposes, such as puncturing a growth to drain its pus. The ''Mawangdui'' texts, which are believed to be from the 2nd century BC, mention the use of pointed stones to open abscesses, and moxibustion, but not for acupuncture. It is also speculated that these stones may have been used for bloodletting, due to the ancient Chinese belief that illnesses were caused by demons within the body that could be killed or released. It is likely bloodletting was an antecedent to acupuncture.\n\nAccording to historians Lu Gwei-djen and Joseph Needham, there is substantial evidence that acupuncture may have begun around 600 BC. Some hieroglyphs and pictographs from that era suggests acupuncture and moxibustion were practiced. However, historians Gwei-djen and Needham said it was unlikely a needle could be made out of the materials available in China during this time period. It is possible Bronze was used for early acupuncture needles. Tin, copper, gold and silver are also possibilities, though they are considered less likely, or to have been used in fewer cases. If acupuncture was practiced during the Shang dynasty (1766 to 1122 BC), organic materials like thorns, sharpened bones, or bamboo may have been used. Once methods for producing steel were discovered, it would replace all other materials, since it could be used to create a very fine, but sturdy needles. Gwei-djen and Needham noted that all the ancient materials that could have been used for acupuncture and which often produce archeological evidence, such as sharpened bones, bamboo or stones, were also used for other purposes. An article in ''Rheumatology'' said that the absence of any mention of acupuncture in documents found in the tomb of Ma-Wang-Dui from 198 BC suggest that acupuncture was not practiced by that time.\n\n====Belief systems====\nSeveral different and sometimes conflicting belief systems emerged regarding acupuncture. This may have been the result of competing schools of thought. Some ancient texts referred to using acupuncture to cause bleeding, while others mixed the ideas of blood-letting and spiritual ch'i energy. Over time, the focus shifted from blood to the concept of puncturing specific points on the body, and eventually to balancing Yin and Yang energies as well. According to Dr. David Ramey, no single \"method or theory\" was ever predominantly adopted as the standard. At the time, scientific knowledge of medicine was not yet developed, especially because in China dissection of the deceased was forbidden, preventing the development of basic anatomical knowledge.\n\nIt is not certain when specific acupuncture points were introduced, but the autobiography of Pien Chhio from around 400–500 BC references inserting needles at designated areas. Bian Que believed there was a single acupuncture point at the top of one's skull that he called the point \"of the hundred meetings.\" Texts dated to be from 156–186 BC document early beliefs in channels of life force energy called meridians that would later be an element in early acupuncture beliefs.\n\nRamey and Buell said the \"practice and theoretical underpinnings\" of modern acupuncture were introduced in ''The Yellow Emperor's Classic'' (Huangdi Neijing) around 100 BC. It introduced the concept of using acupuncture to manipulate the flow of life energy (''qi'') in a network of meridian (channels) in the body. The network concept was made up of acu-tracts, such as a line down the arms, where it said acupoints were located. Some of the sites acupuncturists use needles at today still have the same names as those given to them by the ''Yellow Emperor's Classic''. Numerous additional documents were published over the centuries introducing new acupoints. By the 4th century AD, most of the acupuncture sites in use today had been named and identified.\n\n===Early development in China===\n\n====Establishment and growth====\nIn the first half of the 1st century AD, acupuncturists began promoting the belief that acupuncture's effectiveness was influenced by the time of day or night, the lunar cycle, and the season. The Science of the Yin-Yang Cycles (''Yün Chhi Hsüeh'') was a set of beliefs that curing diseases relied on the alignment of both heavenly (thien) and earthly (ti) forces that were attuned to cycles like that of the sun and moon. There were several different belief systems that relied on a number of celestial and earthly bodies or elements that rotated and only became aligned at certain times. According to Needham and Gwei-djen, these \"arbitrary predictions\" were depicted by acupuncturists in complex charts and through a set of special terminology.\n\nAcupuncture needles during this period were much thicker than most modern ones and often resulted in infection. Infection is caused by a lack of sterilization, but at that time it was believed to be caused by use of the wrong needle, or needling in the wrong place, or at the wrong time. Later, many needles were heated in boiling water, or in a flame. Sometimes needles were used while they were still hot, creating a cauterizing effect at the injection site. Nine needles were recommended in the ''Chen Chiu Ta Chheng'' from 1601, which may have been because of an ancient Chinese belief that nine was a magic number.\n\nOther belief systems were based on the idea that the human body operated on a rhythm and acupuncture had to be applied at the right point in the rhythm to be effective. In some cases a lack of balance between Yin and Yang were believed to be the cause of disease.\n\nIn the 1st century AD, many of the first books about acupuncture were published and recognized acupuncturist experts began to emerge. The ''Zhen Jiu Jia Yi Jing'', which was published in the mid-3rd century, became the oldest acupuncture book that is still in existence in the modern era. Other books like the ''Yu Kuei Chen Ching'', written by the Director of Medical Services for China, were also influential during this period, but were not preserved. In the mid 7th century, Sun Simiao published acupuncture-related diagrams and charts that established standardized methods for finding acupuncture sites on people of different sizes and categorized acupuncture sites in a set of modules.\n\nAcupuncture became more established in China as improvements in paper led to the publication of more acupuncture books. The Imperial Medical Service and the Imperial Medical College, which both supported acupuncture, became more established and created medical colleges in every province. The public was also exposed to stories about royal figures being cured of their diseases by prominent acupuncturists. By time ''The Great Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion'' was published during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD), most of the acupuncture practices used in the modern era had been established.\n\n====Decline====\nBy the end of the Song dynasty (1279 AD), acupuncture had lost much of its status in China. It became rarer in the following centuries, and was associated with less prestigious professions like alchemy, shamanism, midwifery and moxibustion. Additionally, by the 18th century, scientific rationality was becoming more popular than traditional superstitious beliefs. By 1757 a book documenting the history of Chinese medicine called acupuncture a \"lost art\". Its decline was attributed in part to the popularity of prescriptions and medications, as well as its association with the lower classes.\n\nIn 1822, the Chinese Emperor signed a decree excluding the practice of acupuncture from the Imperial Medical Institute. He said it was unfit for practice by gentlemen-scholars. In China acupuncture was increasingly associated with lower-class, illiterate practitioners. It was restored for a time, but banned again in 1929 in favor of science-based Western medicine. Although acupuncture declined in China during this time period, it was also growing in popularity in other countries.\n\n===International expansion===\nfl. 1340s, Ming dynasty). Japanese reprint by Suharaya Heisuke (Edo, 1. year Kyōhō = 1716).\nKorea is believed to be the first country in Asia that acupuncture spread to outside of China. Within Korea there is a legend that acupuncture was developed by emperor Dangun, though it is more likely to have been brought into Korea from a Chinese colonial prefecture in 514 AD. Acupuncture use was commonplace in Korea by the 6th century. It spread to Vietnam in the 8th and 9th centuries. As Vietnam began trading with Japan and China around the 9th century, it was influenced by their acupuncture practices as well. China and Korea sent \"medical missionaries\" that spread traditional Chinese medicine to Japan, starting around 219 AD. In 553, several Korean and Chinese citizens were appointed to re-organize medical education in Japan and they incorporated acupuncture as part of that system. Japan later sent students back to China and established acupuncture as one of five divisions of the Chinese State Medical Administration System.\n\nAcupuncture began to spread to Europe in the second half of the 17th century. Around this time the surgeon-general of the Dutch East India Company met Japanese and Chinese acupuncture practitioners and later encouraged Europeans to further investigate it. He published the first in-depth description of acupuncture for the European audience and created the term \"acupuncture\" in his 1683 work ''De Acupunctura''. France was an early adopter among the West due to the influence of Jesuit missionaries, who brought the practice to French clinics in the 16th century. The French doctor Louis Berlioz (the father of the composer Hector Berlioz) is usually credited with being the first to experiment with the procedure in Europe in 1810, before publishing his findings in 1816.\n\nBy the 19th century, acupuncture had become commonplace in many areas of the world. Americans and Britons began showing interest in acupuncture in the early 19th century but interest waned by mid century. Western practitioners abandoned acupuncture's traditional beliefs in spiritual energy, pulse diagnosis, and the cycles of the moon, sun or the body's rhythm. Diagrams of the flow of spiritual energy, for example, conflicted with the West's own anatomical diagrams. It adopted a new set of ideas for acupuncture based on tapping needles into nerves. In Europe it was speculated that acupuncture may allow or prevent the flow of electricity in the body, as electrical pulses were found to make a frog's leg twitch after death.\n\nThe West eventually created a belief system based on Travell trigger points that were believed to inhibit pain. They were in the same locations as China's spiritually identified acupuncture points, but under a different nomenclature. The first elaborate Western treatise on acupuncture was published in 1683 by Willem ten Rhijne.\n\n==== Modern era ====\n\nIn China, the popularity of acupuncture rebounded in 1949 when Mao Zedong took power and sought to unite China behind traditional cultural values. It was also during this time that many Eastern medical practices were consolidated under the name traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).\n\nNew practices were adopted in the 20th century, such as using a cluster of needles, electrified needles, or leaving needles inserted for up to a week. A lot of emphasis developed on using acupuncture on the ear. Acupuncture research organizations were founded in the 1950s and acupuncture services became available in modern hospitals. China, where acupuncture was believed to have originated, was increasingly influenced by Western medicine. Meanwhile, acupuncture grew in popularity in the US. The US Congress created the Office of Alternative Medicine in 1992 and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) declared support for acupuncture for some conditions in November 1997. In 1999, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine was created within the NIH. Acupuncture became the most popular alternative medicine in the US.\n\nPoliticians from the Chinese Communist Party said acupuncture was superstitious and conflicted with the party's commitment to science. Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong later reversed this position, arguing that the practice was based on scientific principles.\n\nIn 1971, a ''New York Times'' reporter published an article on his acupuncture experiences in China, which led to more investigation of and support for acupuncture. The US President Richard Nixon visited China in 1972. During one part of the visit, the delegation was shown a patient undergoing major surgery while fully awake, ostensibly receiving acupuncture rather than anesthesia. Later it was found that the patients selected for the surgery had both a high pain tolerance and received heavy indoctrination before the operation; these demonstration cases were also frequently receiving morphine surreptitiously through an intravenous drip that observers were told contained only fluids and nutrients. One patient receiving open heart surgery while awake was ultimately found to have received a combination of three powerful sedatives as well as large injections of a local anesthetic into the wound. After the National Institute of Health expressed support for acupuncture for a limited number of conditions, adoption in the US grew further. In 1972 the first legal acupuncture center in the US was established in Washington DC and in 1973 the American Internal Revenue Service allowed acupuncture to be deducted as a medical expense.\n\nIn 2006, a BBC documentary ''Alternative Medicine'' filmed a patient undergoing open heart surgery allegedly under acupuncture-induced anesthesia. It was later revealed that the patient had been given a cocktail of anesthetics.\n\nIn 2010, UNESCO inscribed \"acupuncture and moxibustion of traditional Chinese medicine\" on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List following China's nomination.\n", "Acupuncture is popular in China, the US, Australia, and Europe including all five Nordic countries, though less so in Finland. It is most heavily practiced in China and is one of the most common alternative medicine practices in Europe. In Switzerland, acupuncture has become the most frequently used alternative medicine since 2004. In the United Kingdom, a total of 4 million acupuncture treatments were administered in 2009. Acupuncture is used in most pain clinics and hospices in the UK. An estimated 1 in 10 adults in Australia used acupuncture in 2004. In Japan, it is estimated that 25 percent of the population will try acupuncture at some point, though in most cases it is not covered by public health insurance. Users of acupuncture in Japan are more likely to be elderly and to have a limited education. Approximately half of users surveyed indicated a likelihood to seek such remedies in the future, while 37% did not. Less than one percent of the US population reported having used acupuncture in the early 1990s. By the early 2010s, more than 14 million Americans reported having used acupuncture as part of their health care.\n\nIn the US, acupuncture is increasingly () used at academic medical centers, and is usually offered through CAM centers or anesthesia and pain management services. Examples include those at Harvard University, Stanford University, Johns Hopkins University, and UCLA. This usage has been criticized owing to there being little scientific evidence for explicit effects, or the mechanisms for its supposed effectiveness, for any condition that is discernible from placebo. Acupuncture has been called 'theatrical placebo', and David Gorski argues that when acupuncture proponents advocate 'harnessing of placebo effects' or work on developing 'meaningful placebos', they essentially concede it is little more than that.\n\nThe use of acupuncture in Germany increased by 20% in 2007, after the German acupuncture trials supported its efficacy for certain uses. In 2011, there were more than one million users, and insurance companies have estimated that two-thirds of German users are women. As a result of the trials, German public health insurers began to cover acupuncture for chronic low back pain and osteoarthritis of the knee, but not tension headache or migraine. This decision was based in part on socio-political reasons. Some insurers in Germany chose to stop reimbursement of acupuncture because of the trials. For other conditions, insurers in Germany were not convinced that acupuncture had adequate benefits over usual care or sham treatments. Highlighting the results of the placebo group, researchers refused to accept a placebo therapy as efficient.\n", "\nThere are various government and trade association regulatory bodies for acupuncture in the United Kingdom, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Japan, Canada, and in European countries and elsewhere. The World Health Organization recommends that before being licensed or certified, an acupuncturist receive 200 hours of specialized training if they are a physician and 2,500 hours for non-physicians; many governments have adopted similar standards.\n\nIn China, the practice of acupuncture is regulated by the Chinese Medicine Council that was formed in 1999 by the Legislative Council. It includes a licensing exam and registration, as well as degree courses approved by the board. Canada has acupuncture licensing programs in the provinces of British Columbia, Ontario, Alberta and Quebec; standards set by the Chinese Medicine and Acupuncture Association of Canada are used in provinces without government regulation. Regulation in the US began in the 1970s in California, which was eventually followed by every state but Wyoming and Idaho. Licensing requirements vary greatly from state to state. The needles used in acupuncture are regulated in the US by the Food and Drug Administration. In some states acupuncture is regulated by a board of medical examiners, while in others by the board of licensing, health or education.\n\nIn Japan, acupuncturists are licensed by the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare after passing an examination and graduating from a technical school or university. Australia regulates Chinese medical traditions through the Chinese Medicine Board of Australia and the Public Health (Skin Penetration) Regulation of 2000. It restricts the use of words like \"Acupuncture\" and \"Registered Acupuncturist\". At least 28 countries in Europe have professional associations for acupuncturists. In France, the Académie Nationale de Médecine (National Academy of Medicine) has regulated acupuncture since 1955.\n", "\n\nBaunscheidtism\nColorpuncture\nList of acupuncture points\nList of ineffective cancer treatments – Includes moxibustion\nPressure point\n\n\n", "\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Clinical practice ", " Effectiveness ", " Safety ", " Conceptual basis ", " History ", " Adoption ", "Regulation", " See also ", " Bibliography ", " Notes ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Acupuncture
[ "\n'''Adder''' may refer to:\n", "* Any of several groups of venomous snakes of the Viperidae family\n*''Vipera berus'', the common European adder, found in Europe and northern Asia\n ''Acanthophis sp.'', death adders, elapid snakes found in Southeast Asia and Australia\n* ''Heterodon sp.'', hog-nosed snakes, a genus of harmless colubrid snakes found in North America\n* ''Agkistrodon contortrix mokasen'', the northern copperhead, a venomous viper found in the eastern US\n", "* Adder (Farthing Wood), a character from ''The Animals of Farthing Wood''\n* Adder (electronics), an electronic circuit designed to do addition\n* AA-12 Adder, a Russian air-to-air missile\n* HMS ''Adder'', any of seven ships of the Royal Navy\n* USS ''Adder'' (SS-3), an early US submarine\n* Adder Technology, a KVM and A/V Manufacturing company\nAdder, a fictional commanding officer in the ''Advance Wars'' video games\nAddition, a mathematical operation\nArmstrong Siddeley Adder, a late 1940s British turbojet engine\nBlackadder, the title character in a series of BBC sitcoms\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Snakes", "Other uses" ]	Adder
[ "\n\n''Aeneas flees burning Troy'', Federico Barocci, 1598\n\nIn Greco-Roman mythology, '''Aeneas''' (; Greek: Αἰνείας, ''Aineías'', possibly derived from Greek meaning \"praised\") was a Trojan hero, the son of the prince Anchises and the goddess Venus (Aphrodite). His father was a first cousin of King Priam of Troy (both being grandsons of Ilus, founder of Troy), making Aeneas a second cousin to Priam's children (such as Hector and Paris). He is a character in Greek mythology and is mentioned in Homer's ''Iliad''. Aeneas receives full treatment in Roman mythology, most extensively in Virgil's ''Aeneid,'' where he is an ancestor of Romulus and Remus. He became the first true hero of Rome. Snorri Sturluson identifies him with the Norse Æsir Vidarr.\n", "Aeneas is the Latin spelling of Greek Αἰνείας (''Aineías''). In the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, Aeneas is first introduced with Aphrodite naming him Αἰνείας (''Aineías'') for the αὶνóν ἄχος (\"terrible grief\") he caused her, where ''Aineías'' derives from the adjective αὶνóν (''ainon'', meaning \"terrible\"). It is a popular etymology for the name, apparently exploited by Homer in the Iliad. Later in the Medieval period there were writers who held that, because the Aeneid was written by a philosopher it is meant to be read philosophically. As such, in the \"natural order\", the meaning of Aeneas' name combines Greek ''ennos'' (\"dweller\") and ''demas'' (\"body\"), which becomes ''ennaios'', meaning \"in-dweller\" (i.e. as a god inhabiting a mortal body). However, there is no certainty regarding the origin of his name.\n\n===Epithets===\nIn imitation of the ''Iliad'', Virgil borrows epithets of Homer, including; Anchisiades, ''magnanimum'', ''magnus'', ''heros'', and ''bonus''. Though he borrows many, Virgil gives Aeneas two epithets of his own in the ''Aeneid:'' ''pater'' and ''pius''. The epithets applied by Virgil are an example of an attitude different from that of Homer, for whilst Odysseus is ''poikilios'' (\"wily\"), Aeneas is described as ''pius'' (\"pious\"), which conveys a strong moral tone. The purpose of these epithets seem to enforce the notion of Aeneas' divine hand as father and founder of the Roman race, and their use seem circumstantial: when Aeneas is praying he refers to himself as pius, and is referred to as such by the author only when the character is acting on behalf of the gods to fulfill his divine mission. Likewise, Aeneas is called ''pater'' when acting in the interest of his men.\n", "\n===Homeric ''Hymn to Aphrodite''===\nPainting ''Venus and Anchises'' by 400px\n\nThe story of the birth of Aeneas is told in the \"Hymn to Aphrodite\", one of the major Homeric Hymns. Aphrodite has caused the other god Zeus, to fall in love with mortal women. In retaliation, Zeus puts desire in her heart for Anchises, who is tending his cattle among the hills near Mount Ida. When Aphrodite sees him she is smitten. She adorns herself as if for a wedding among the gods and appears before him. He is overcome by her beauty, believing that she is a goddess, but Aphrodite identifies herself as a Phrygian princess. After they make love, Aphrodite reveals her true identity to him and Anchises fears what might happen to him as a result of their liaison. Aphrodite assures him that he will be protected, and tells him that she will bear him a son to be called Aeneas. However, she warns him that he must never tell anyone that he has lain with a goddess. When Aeneas is born, Aphrodite takes him to the nymphs of Mount Ida. She directs them to raise the child to age five, then take him to Anchises. According to other sources, Anchises later brags about his encounter with Aphrodite, and as a result is struck in the foot with a thunderbolt by Zeus. Thereafter he is lame in that foot, so that Aeneas has to carry him from the flames of Troy.\n\n===Homer's ''Iliad''===\nAeneas carrying Anchises, black-figured oinochoe, ca. 520–510 BC, Louvre (F 118)\nAeneas is a minor character in the ''Iliad'', where he is twice saved from death by the gods as if for an as-yet-unknown destiny, but is an honorable warrior in his own right. Having held back from the fighting, aggrieved with Priam because in spite of his brave deeds he was not given his due share of honour, he leads an attack against Idomeneus to recover the body of his brother-in-law Alcathous at the urging of Deiphobus. He is the leader of the Trojans' Dardanian allies, as well as a second cousin and principal lieutenant of Hector, son of the Trojan king Priam. Aeneas's mother Aphrodite frequently comes to his aid on the battlefield, and he is a favorite of Apollo. Aphrodite and Apollo rescue Aeneas from combat with Diomedes of Argos, who nearly kills him, and carry him away to Pergamos for healing. Even Poseidon, who normally favors the Greeks, comes to Aeneas's rescue after he falls under the assault of Achilles, noting that Aeneas, though from a junior branch of the royal family, is destined to become king of the Trojan people. Bruce Louden presents Aeneas as a \"type\" in the tradition of Utnapishtim, Baucis and Philemon, and Lot; the just man spared the general destruction. Apollodorus explains that \"...the Greeks let him alone on account of his piety\".\n\n===Other sources===\nThe Roman mythographer Gaius Julius Hyginus (c. 64 BCE – CE 17) in his ''Fabulae'' credits Aeneas with killing 28 enemies in the Trojan War. Aeneas also appears in the Trojan narratives attributed to Dares Phrygius and Dictys Cretensis.\n\nSnorri Sturlason tells of the Trojans in the Prologue to his Edda. He tells of a king of Troja, Munon or Menon, who marries the daughter of the High King (Yfirkonungr) Priam called Troan. They got a son, Tror, who, as Snorri tells, is identical to Thor. In the same Prologue Snorri tells of the world as parted in three continents: Africa, Asia and the third part is called Europe, and Enea as well.\n", "\nAeneas and Anchises\n\nThe history of Aeneas was continued by Roman authors. One influential source was the account of Rome's founding in Cato the Elder's ''Origines''. The Aeneas legend was well known in Virgil's day and appeared in various historical works, including the ''Roman Antiquities'' of the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus (relying on Marcus Terentius Varro), ''Ab Urbe Condita'' by Livy (probably dependent on Quintus Fabius Pictor, fl. 200 BCE), and Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus (now extant only in an epitome by Justin).\n\n===Virgil's ''Aeneid''===\n''Venus as Huntress Appears to Aeneas'', by Pietro da Cortona\n\nThe ''Aeneid'' explains that Aeneas is one of the few Trojans who were not killed or enslaved when Troy fell. Aeneas, after being commanded by the gods to flee, gathered a group, collectively known as the Aeneads, who then traveled to Italy and became progenitors of Romans. The Aeneads included Aeneas's trumpeter Misenus, his father Anchises, his friends Achates, Sergestus, and Acmon, the healer Iapyx, the helmsman Palinurus, and his son Ascanius (also known as Iulus, Julus, or Ascanius Julius). He carried with him the Lares and Penates, the statues of the household gods of Troy, and transplanted them to Italy.\n\nSeveral attempts to find a new home failed; one such stop was on Sicily, where in Drepanum, on the island's western coast, his father, Anchises, died peacefully.\n\nAeneas tells Dido about the fall of Troy, by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin\n\nAfter a brief but fierce storm sent up against the group at Juno's request, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at Carthage after six years of wanderings. Aeneas had a year-long affair with the Carthaginian queen Dido (also known as Elissa), who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. A marriage of sorts was arranged between Dido and Aeneas at the instigation of Juno, who was told that her favorite city would eventually be defeated by the Trojans' descendants. Aeneas's mother Venus (the Roman adaptation of Aphrodite) realized that her son and his company needed a temporary respite to reinforce themselves for the journey to come. However, the messenger god Mercury was sent by Jupiter and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, compelling him to leave secretly. When Dido learned of this, she uttered a curse that would forever pit Carthage against Rome, an enmity that would culminate in the Punic Wars. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself with the same sword she gave Aeneas when they first met.\n\nAfter the sojourn in Carthage, the Trojans returned to Sicily where Aeneas organized funeral games to honor his father, who had died a year before. The company traveled on and landed on the western coast of Italy. Aeneas descended into the underworld where he met Dido (who turned away from him to return to her husband) and his father, who showed him the future of his descendants and thus the history of Rome.\n\nAeneas defeats Turnus, by Luca Giordano, 1634–1705. The ''genius'' of Aeneas is shown ascendant, looking into the light of the future, while that of Turnus is setting, shrouded in darkness\n\nLatinus, king of the Latins, welcomed Aeneas's army of exiled Trojans and let them reorganize their lives in Latium. His daughter Lavinia had been promised to Turnus, king of the Rutuli, but Latinus received a prophecy that Lavinia would be betrothed to one from another land — namely, Aeneas. Latinus heeded the prophecy, and Turnus consequently declared war on Aeneas at the urging of Juno, who was aligned with King Mezentius of the Etruscans and Queen Amata of the Latins. Aeneas's forces prevailed. Turnus was killed, and Virgil's account ends abruptly.\n\n===Other sources===\nThe rest of Aeneas's biography is gleaned from other ancient sources, including Livy and Ovid's ''Metamorphoses''. According to Livy, Aeneas was victorious but Latinus died in the war. Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, named after his wife. He later welcomed Dido's sister, Anna Perenna, who then committed suicide after learning of Lavinia's jealousy. After Aeneas's death, Venus asked Jupiter to make her son immortal. Jupiter agreed. The river god Numicus cleansed Aeneas of all his mortal parts and Venus anointed him with ambrosia and nectar, making him a god. Aeneas was recognized as the god Jupiter Indiges.\n", "Continuations of Trojan matter in the Middle Ages had their effects on the character of Aeneas as well. The 12th-century French ''Roman d'Enéas'' addresses Aeneas's sexuality. Though Virgil appears to deflect all homoeroticism onto Nisus and Euryalus, making his Aeneas a purely heterosexual character, in the Middle Ages there was at least a suspicion of homoeroticism in Aeneas. The ''Roman d'Enéas'' addresses that charge, when Queen Amata opposes Aeneas's marrying Lavinia, claiming that Aeneas loved boys.\n\nMedieval interpretations of Aeneas were greatly influenced by both Virgil and other Latin sources. Specifically, the accounts by Dares and Dictys, which were reworked by 13th-century Italian writer Guido delle Colonne (in ''Historia destructionis Troiae''), colored many later readings. From Guido, for instance, the Pearl Poet and other English writers get the suggestion that Aeneas's safe departure from Troy with his possessions and family was a reward for treason, for which he was chastised by Hecuba. In ''Sir Gawain and the Green Knight'' (late 14th century) the Pearl Poet, like many other English writers, employed Aeneas to establish a genealogy for the foundation of Britain, and explains that Aeneas was \"impeached for his perfidy, proven most true\" (line 4).\n", "Tiber, by Bartolomeo Pinelli\n\nAeneas had an extensive family tree. His wet-nurse was Caieta, and he is the father of Ascanius with Creusa, and of Silvius with Lavinia. Ascanius, also known as Iulus (or Julius), founded Alba Longa and was the first in a long series of kings. According to the mythology outlined by Virgil in the ''Aeneid,'' Romulus and Remus were both descendants of Aeneas through their mother Rhea Silvia, making Aeneas the progenitor of the Roman people. Some early sources call him their father or grandfather, but considering the commonly accepted dates of the fall of Troy (1184 BC) and the founding of Rome (753 BC), this seems unlikely. The Julian family of Rome, most notably Julius Cæsar and Augustus, traced their lineage to Ascanius and Aeneas, thus to the goddess Venus. Through the Julians, the Palemonids make this claim. The legendary kings of Britain – including King Arthur – trace their family through a grandson of Aeneas, Brutus.\n", "Dido and Aeneas, from a Roman fresco, Pompeian Third Style (10 BC - 45 AD), Pompeii, Italy\nAeneas's consistent epithet in Virgil and other Latin authors is ''pius'', a term that connotes reverence toward the gods and familial dutifulness.\n\nIn the ''Aeneid'', Aeneas is described as strong and handsome, but neither his hair colour nor complexion are described. In late antiquity however sources add further physical descriptions. The ''De excidio Troiae'' of Dares Phrygius describes Aeneas as ‘‘auburn-haired, stocky, eloquent, courteous, prudent, pious, and charming.’’ There is also a brief physical description found in John Malalas' ''Chronographia'': ‘‘Aeneas: short, fat, with a good chest, powerful, with a ruddy complexion, a broad face, a good nose, fair skin, bald on the forehead, a good beard, grey eyes.’’\n", "\n===Literature===\n\nAeneas and Dido are the main characters of a 17th-century broadside ballad called \"The Wandering Prince of Troy.\" The ballad ultimately alters Aeneas's fate from traveling on years after Dido's death to joining her as a spirit soon after her suicide.\n\nIn modern literature, Aeneas is the speaker in two poems by Allen Tate, \"Aeneas at Washington\" and \"Aeneas at New York.\" He is a main character in Ursula K. Le Guin's ''Lavinia'', a re-telling of the last six books of the ''Aeneid'' told from the point of view of Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus of Latium.\n\nAeneas appears in David Gemmell's ''Troy'' series as a main heroic character who goes by the name Helikaon.\n\nIn Rick Riordan's book series, ''The Heroes of Olympus'', Aeneas is regarded as the first Roman demigod, son of Venus rather than Aphrodite.\n\n===Opera, film and other media===\nAeneas is a title character in Henry Purcell's opera ''Dido and Aeneas'' (c. 1688), and one of the principal roles in Hector Berlioz' opera ''Les Troyens'' (c. 1857).\n\nDespite its many dramatic elements, Aeneas's story has generated little interest from the film industry. Portrayed by Steve Reeves, he was the main character in the 1961 sword and sandal film ''Guerra di Troia'' (''The Trojan War''). Reeves reprised the role the following year in the film ''The Avenger'', about Aeneas's arrival in Latium and his conflicts with local tribes as he tries to settle his fellow Trojan refugees there.\n\nThe most recent cinematic portrayal of Aeneas was in the film ''Troy'', in which he appears as a youth charged by Paris to protect the Trojan refugees, and to continue the ideals of the city and its people. Paris gives Aeneas Priam's sword, in order to give legitimacy and continuity to the royal line of Troy – and lay the foundations of Roman culture. In this film, he is not a member of the royal family and does not appear to fight in the war.\n\nIn the role-playing game ''Vampire: The Requiem'' by White Wolf Game Studios, Aeneas figures as one of the mythical founders of the Ventrue Clan.\n\nin the action game ''Warriors: Legends of Troy'', Aeneas is a playable character. The game ends with him and the Aeneans fleeing Troy's destruction and, spurned by the words of a prophetess thought crazed, goes to a new country (Italy) where he will start an empire greater than Greece and Troy combined that shall rule the world for 1000 years, never to be outdone in the tale of men (The Roman Empire).\n\nIn the 2018 TV miniseries ''Troy: Fall of a City'', Aeneas will be portrayed by Alfred Enoch.\n", "Scenes depicting Aeneas, especially from the Aeneid, have been the focus of study for centuries. They have been the frequent subject of art and literature since their debut in the 1st century.\n\n===Villa Valmarana===\nThe artist Giovanni Battista Tiepolo was commissioned by Gaetano Valmarana in 1757 to fresco several rooms in the Villa Valmarana, the family villa situated outside Vicenza. Tiepolo decorated the ''palazzina'' with scenes from epics such as Homer's ''Iliad'' and Virgil's ''Aeneid''.\n\n''Aeneas Introducing Cupid Dressed as Ascanius to Dido'', by Tiepolo (1757).\n''Venus Appearing to Aeneas on the Shores of Carthage'', by Tiepolo (1757).\n''Mercury Appearing to Aeneas'', by Tiepolo (1757).\n''Venus and Vulcan'', by Tiepolo (between 1762 and 1766).\n\n\n===Aeneas flees Troy===\n\n''Flight of Aeneas from Troy'', by Girolamo Genga (between 1507 and 1510).\n''Aeneas and his Father Fleeing Troy'', by Simon Vouet (c. 1635).\nPierre Lepautre (c. 1697).\n''Aeneas fleeing from Troy'', by Pompeo Batoni (c. 1750).\n\n\n===Aeneas with Dido===\n\n''Dido and Aeneas'', by Rutilio Manetti (c. 1630)\n''The Meeting of Dido and Aeneas'', by Nathaniel Dance-Holland\nThomas Jones (1769)\nJohann Heinrich the Elder Tischbein (3 January 1780)\n\n", "\n\n\n", "Cumaean Sibyl\nLacrimae rerum\nThe Golden Bough\nLatin kings of Alba Longa\n", "\n", "\n\n* Homer, ''Iliad'' II. 819–21; V. 217–575; XIII. 455–544; XX. 75–352.\n* Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheca'' III. xii. 2; ''Epitome'' III. 32–IV. 2; V. 21.\n* Virgil, ''Aeneid''.\n* Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'' XIII. 623-715; XIV. 75-153; 581–608.\n* Ovid, ''Heroides,'' VII.\n* Livy, Book 1.1-2.\n* Dictys Cretensis.\n* Dares Phrygius.\n\n\n", "* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (about 900 images related to the Aeneid)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Name", "Greek myth and epos", "Roman myth and literature", "Medieval accounts", "Family and legendary descendants", "Character and physical appearance", "Modern portrayals", "Depictions in art", "Family tree", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Aeneas
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 945 – Hugh of Provence abdicates the throne in favor of his son Lothair II who is acclaimed sole king of Italy.\n1111 – Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.\n1204 – Constantinople falls to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade, temporarily ending the Byzantine Empire. \n1612 – Miyamoto Musashi defeats Sasaki Kojirō at Funajima island.\n1613 – Samuel Argall captures Native American princess Pocahontas in Passapatanzy, Virginia to ransom her for some English prisoners held by her father; she is brought to Henricus as hostage.\n1699 – Guru Gobind Singh establishes the Khalsa in Anandpur Sahib, Punjab.\n1742 – George Frideric Handel's oratorio ''Messiah'' makes its world-premiere in Dublin, Ireland.\n1777 – American Revolutionary War: American forces are ambushed and defeated in the Battle of Bound Brook, New Jersey.\n1829 – The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 gives Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom the right to vote and to sit in Parliament.\n1849 – Lajos Kossuth presents the Hungarian Declaration of Independence in a closed session of the National Assembly.\n1861 – American Civil War: Fort Sumter surrenders to Confederate forces.\n1865 – American Civil War: Raleigh, North Carolina is occupied by Union Forces.\n1870 – The New York City Metropolitan Museum of Art is founded.\n1873 – The Colfax massacre, in which more than 60 African Americans are murdered, takes place.\n1902 – James C. Penney opens his first store in Kemmerer, Wyoming.\n1909 – The military of the Ottoman Empire reverses the Ottoman countercoup of 1909 to force the overthrow of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.\n1919 – The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea is established.\n* 1919 – Jallianwala Bagh massacre: British troops gun down at least 379 unarmed demonstrators in Amritsar, India; at least 1200 are wounded.\n* 1919 – Eugene V. Debs is imprisoned at the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia, for speaking out against the draft during World War I.\n1941 – A Pact of neutrality between the USSR and Japan is signed.\n1943 – World War II: The discovery of mass graves of Polish prisoners of war killed by Soviet forces in the Katyń Forest Massacre is announced, causing a diplomatic rift between the Polish government-in-exile in London from the Soviet Union, which denies responsibility.\n* 1943 – The Jefferson Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C., on the 200th anniversary of President Thomas Jefferson's birth.\n1944 – Diplomatic relations between New Zealand and the Soviet Union are established.\n1945 – World War II: German troops kill more than 1,000 political and military prisoners in Gardelegen, Germany.\n* 1945 – World War II: Soviet and Bulgarian forces capture Vienna.\n1948 – In an ambush, 78 Jewish doctors, nurses and medical students from Hadassah Hospital, and a British soldier, are massacred by Arabs in Sheikh Jarrah.\n1953 – CIA director Allen Dulles launches the mind-control program Project MKUltra.\n1960 – The United States launches Transit 1-B, the world's first satellite navigation system.\n1964 – At the Academy Awards, Sidney Poitier becomes the first African-American male to win the Best Actor award for the 1963 film ''Lilies of the Field''.\n1970 – An oxygen tank aboard Apollo 13 explodes, putting the crew in great danger and causing major damage to the spacecraft while en route to the Moon.\n1972 – The Universal Postal Union decides to recognize the People's Republic of China as the only legitimate Chinese representative, effectively expelling the Republic of China administering Taiwan.\n* 1972 – Vietnam War: The Battle of An Lộc begins.\n1974 – Western Union (in cooperation with NASA and Hughes Aircraft) launches the United States' first commercial geosynchronous communications satellite, Westar 1.\n1975 – An attack by the Phalangist resistance kills 26 militia members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, marking the start of the 15-year Lebanese Civil War.\n1976 – The United States Treasury Department reintroduces the two-dollar bill as a Federal Reserve Note on Thomas Jefferson's 233rd birthday as part of the United States Bicentennial celebration.\n1976 – Forty workers die in an explosion at the Lapua ammunition factory, the deadliest accidental disaster in modern history in Finland.\n1987 – Portugal and the People's Republic of China sign an agreement in which Macau would be returned to China in 1999.\n1992 – Basements throughout the Chicago Loop are flooded, forcing the Chicago Board of Trade Building and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange to close.\n1997 – Tiger Woods becomes the youngest golfer to win the Masters Tournament.\n2017 – The US drops the largest ever non-nuclear weapon on Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan.\n", "1229 – Louis II, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1294)\n1350 – Margaret III, Countess of Flanders (d. 1405)\n1506 – Peter Faber, French priest and theologian, co-founded the Society of Jesus (d. 1546)\n1519 – Catherine de' Medici, Italian-French wife of Henry II of France (d. 1589)\n1570 – Guy Fawkes, English soldier, planned the Gunpowder Plot (d. 1606)\n1573 – Christina of Holstein-Gottorp (d. 1625)\n1593 – Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1641)\n1618 – Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy, French author (d. 1693)\n1636 – Hendrik van Rheede, Dutch botanist (d. 1691)\n1648 – Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon, French mystic (d. 1717)\n1713 – Pierre Jélyotte, French tenor (d. 1797)\n1729 – Thomas Percy, Irish bishop and poet (d. 1811)\n1732 – Frederick North, Lord North, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1792)\n1735 – Isaac Low, American merchant and politician, founded the New York Chamber of Commerce (d. 1791)\n1743 – Thomas Jefferson, American lawyer and politician, 3rd President of the United States (d. 1826)\n1747 – Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (d. 1793)\n1764 – Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, French general and politician, French Minister of War (d. 1830)\n1769 – Thomas Lawrence, English painter and educator (d. 1830)\n1771 – Richard Trevithick, Cornish-English engineer and explorer (d. 1833)\n1780 – Alexander Mitchell, Irish engineer, invented the Screw-pile lighthouse (d. 1868)\n1784 – Friedrich Graf von Wrangel, Prussian field marshal (d. 1877)\n1787 – John Robertson, American lawyer and politician (d. 1873)\n1794 – Jean Pierre Flourens, French physiologist and academic (d. 1867)\n1802 – Leopold Fitzinger, Austrian zoologist and herpetologist (d. 1884)\n1808 – Antonio Meucci, Italian-American engineer (d. 1889)\n1810 – Félicien David, French composer (d. 1876)\n1824 – William Alexander, Irish archbishop, poet, and theologian (d. 1911)\n1825 – Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Irish-Canadian journalist and politician (d. 1868)\n1828 – Josephine Butler, English feminist and social reformer (d. 1906)\n1828 – Joseph Lightfoot, English bishop and theologian (d. 1889)\n1832 – Juan Montalvo, Ecuadorian author and diplomat (d. 1889)\n1841 – Louis-Ernest Barrias, French sculptor and academic (d. 1905)\n1850 – Arthur Matthew Weld Downing, Irish astronomer (d. 1917)\n1851 – Robert Abbe, American surgeon and radiologist (d. 1928)\n* 1851 – William Quan Judge, Irish occultist and theosophist (d. 1896)\n1852 – Frank Winfield Woolworth, American businessman, founded the F. W. Woolworth Company (d. 1919)\n1860 – James Ensor, English-Belgian painter (d. 1949)\n1866 – Butch Cassidy, American criminal (d. 1908)\n1872 – John Cameron, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 1935)\n* 1872 – Alexander Roda Roda, Austrian-Croatian journalist and author (d. 1945)\n1873 – John W. Davis, American lawyer and politician, 14th United States Solicitor General (d. 1955)\n1875 – Ray Lyman Wilbur, American physician, academic, and politician, 31st United States Secretary of the Interior (d. 1949)\n1879 – Edward Bruce, American lawyer and painter (d. 1943)\n1880 – Charles Christie, Canadian-American businessman, co-founded the Christie Film Company (d. 1955)\n1885 – Vean Gregg, American baseball player (d. 1964)\n 1885 – Juhan Kukk, Estonian politician, Head of State of Estonia (d. 1942)\n* 1885 – György Lukács, Hungarian philosopher and critic (d. 1971)\n1887 – Gordon S. Fahrni, Canadian physician and golfer (d. 1995)\n1889 – Herbert Yardley, American cryptologist and author (d. 1958)\n1890 – Frank Murphy, American jurist and politician, 56th United States Attorney General (d. 1949)\n 1890 – Dadasaheb Torne, Indian director and producer (d. 1960)\n1891 – Maurice Buckley, Australian sergeant, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1921)\n 1891 – Nella Larsen, Danish/African-American nurse, librarian, and author (d. 1964)\n* 1891 – Robert Scholl, German accountant and politician (d. 1973)\n1892 – Sir Arthur Harris, 1st Baronet, English air marshal (d. 1984)\n 1892 – Robert Watson-Watt, Scottish engineer, invented the Radar (d. 1973)\n1894 – Arthur Fadden, Australian accountant and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1973)\n 1894 – Joie Ray, American runner (d. 1978)\n1896 – Fred Barnett, English footballer (d. 1982)\n1897 – Werner Voss, German lieutenant and pilot (d. 1917)\n1899 – Alfred Mosher Butts, American architect and game designer, created Scrabble (d. 1993)\n 1899 – Harold Osborn, American high jumper and decathlete (d. 1975)\n1900 – Pierre Molinier, French painter and photographer (d. 1976)\n1901 – Jacques Lacan, French psychiatrist and academic (d. 1981)\n* 1901 – Alan Watt, Australian public servant and diplomat, Australian Ambassador to Japan (d. 1988)\n1902 – Philippe de Rothschild, French Grand Prix driver, playwright, and producer (d. 1988)\n 1902 – Marguerite Henry, American author (d. 1997)\n1904 – David Robinson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1987)\n1906 – Samuel Beckett, Irish novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)\n* 1906 – Bud Freeman, American saxophonist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1991)\n1907 – Harold Stassen, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of Minnesota (d. 2001)\n1909 – Stanislaw Ulam, Polish-American mathematician and academic (d. 1984)\n* 1909 – Eudora Welty, American short story writer and novelist (d. 2001)\n1911 – Ico Hitrec, Croatian footballer and manager (d. 1946)\n 1911 – Jean-Louis Lévesque, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (d. 1994)\n* 1911 – Nino Sanzogno, Italian conductor and composer (d. 1983)\n1913 – Dave Albritton, American high jumper and coach (d. 1994)\n 1913 – Kermit Tyler, American lieutenant and pilot (d. 2010)\n1914 – Orhan Veli Kanık, Turkish poet and author (d. 1950)\n1916 – Phyllis Fraser, Welsh-American actress, journalist, and publisher, co-founded Beginner Books (d. 2006)\n1917 – Robert Orville Anderson, American businessman, founded Atlantic Richfield Oil Co. (d. 2007)\n 1917 – Bill Clements, American soldier, engineer, and politician, 15th United States Deputy Secretary of Defense (d. 2011)\n1919 – Roland Gaucher, French journalist and politician (d. 2007)\n 1919 – Howard Keel, American actor and singer (d. 2004)\n* 1919 – Madalyn Murray O'Hair, American activist, founded American Atheists (d. 1995)\n1920 – Roberto Calvi, Italian banker (d. 1982)\n 1920 – Claude Cheysson, French lieutenant and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2012)\n* 1920 – Liam Cosgrave, Irish lawyer and politician, 6th Taoiseach of Ireland\n1922 – Heinz Baas, German footballer and manager (d. 1994)\n 1922 – John Braine, English librarian and author (d. 1986)\n* 1922 – Julius Nyerere, Tanzanian educator and politician, 1st President of Tanzania (d. 1999)\n* 1922 – Valve Pormeister, Estonian architect (d. 2002)\n1923 – Don Adams, American actor and director (d. 2005)\n 1923 – A. H. Halsey, English sociologist and academic (d. 2014)\n* 1923 – Stanley Tanger, American businessman and philanthropist, founded the Tanger Factory Outlet Centers (d. 2010)\n1924 – John T. Biggers, American painter (d. 2001)\n 1924 – Jack T. Chick, American author, illustrator, and publisher (d. 2016)\n* 1924 – Stanley Donen, American director and choreographer\n1926 – Ellie Lambeti, Greek actress (d. 1983)\n 1926 – John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough, English businessman (d. 2014)\n1927 – Rosemary Haughton, English philosopher, theologian, and author\n 1927 – Antonino Rocca, Italian-American wrestler (d. 1977)\n* 1927 – Maurice Ronet, French actor and director (d. 1983)\n1928 – Alan Clark, English historian and politician, Minister of State for Trade (d. 1999)\n 1928 – Gianni Marzotto, Italian race car driver and businessman (d. 2012)\n1929 – Marilynn Smith, American golfer\n1931 – Anita Cerquetti, Italian soprano (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – Robert Enrico, French director and screenwriter (d. 2001)\n* 1931 – Dan Gurney, American race car driver and engineer\n* 1931 – Jon Stone, American composer, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1997)\n1932 – Orlando Letelier, Chilean-American economist and politician, Chilean Minister of National Defense (d. 1976)\n1933 – Ben Nighthorse Campbell, American soldier and politician\n1934 – John Muckler, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager\n1936 – Col Joye, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1936 – Pierre Rosenberg, French historian and academic\n1937 – Edward Fox, English actor\n 1937 – Lanford Wilson, American playwright, co-founded the Circle Repertory Company (d. 2011)\n1938 – Klaus Lehnertz, German pole vaulter\n 1938 – John Weston, English poet and diplomat\n1939 – Seamus Heaney, Irish poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)\n 1939 – Paul Sorvino, American actor and singer\n1940 – Mike Beuttler, Egyptian-English race car driver (d. 1988)\n 1940 – Lester Chambers, American singer and musician (The Chambers Brothers)\n* 1940 – J. M. G. Le Clézio, Breton French-Mauritian author and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1940 – Vladimir Cosma, French composer, conductor and violinist\n* 1940 – Jim McNab, Scottish footballer (d. 2006)\n* 1940 – Max Mosley, English race car driver and engineer, co-founded March Engineering, former president of the FIA\n* 1940 – Ruby Puryear Hearn, African-American biophysicist\n1941 – Michael Stuart Brown, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n 1941 – Jean-Marc Reiser, French author and illustrator (d. 1983)\n1942 – Bill Conti, American composer and conductor\n1943 – Alan Jones, Australian rugby coach, radio host, and educator\n* 1943 – Billy Kidd, American skier\n* 1943 – Tim Krabbé, Dutch journalist and author\n* 1943 – Philip Norman, English journalist, author, and playwright\n1944 – Franco Arese, Italian runner\n 1944 – Charles Burnett, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1944 – Jack Casady, American bass guitarist (Jefferson Airplane)\n* 1944 – Susan Davis, Russian-American social worker and politician\n1945 – Ed Caruthers, American high jumper\n 1945 – Tony Dow, American actor\n* 1945 – Lowell George, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1979)\n* 1945 – Bob Kalsu, American football player and lieutenant (d. 1970)\n* 1945 – Judy Nunn, Australian actress and author\n1946 – Al Green, American singer-songwriter, producer, and pastor\n1947 – Rae Armantrout, American poet and academic\n* 1947 – Mike Chapman, Australian-English songwriter and producer\n* 1947 – Jean-Jacques Laffont, French economist and academic (d. 2004)\n* 1947 – Yves Landry. Canadian cyclist\n1948 – Nam Hae-il, South Korean admiral\n 1948 – Drago Jančar, Slovenian author and playwright\n* 1948 – Mikhail Shufutinsky, Soviet and Russian singer, actor, TV presenter\n1949 – Len Cook, New Zealand-English mathematician and statistician\n 1949 – Frank Doran, Scottish lawyer and politician\n* 1949 – Christopher Hitchens, English-American essayist, literary critic, and journalist (d. 2011)\n* 1949 – Ricardo Zunino, Argentinian race car driver\n1950 – Ron Perlman, American actor \n 1950 – Tommy Raudonikis, Australian rugby league player and coach\n1951 – Leszek Borysiewicz, Welsh immunologist and academic\n 1951 – Peabo Bryson, American singer-songwriter and producer\n* 1951 – Peter Davison, English actor\n* 1951 – Joachim Streich, German footballer and manager\n* 1951 – Max Weinberg, American drummer\n* 1952 – Sam Bush, American mandolin player\n1952 – David Drew, English lawyer and politician\n 1952 – Gabrielle Gourdeau, Quebec writer (d. 2006)\n* 1952 – Jonjo O'Neill, Irish jockey and trainer\n1953 – Stephen Byers, English politician, Secretary of State for Transport\n 1953 – Dany Laferrière, Haitian-Canadian journalist and author\n1954 – Jimmy Destri, American keyboard player and songwriter \n 1954 – Niels Olsen, Danish singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1954 – Barbara Roche, English lawyer and politician, Minister of State for Immigration\n1955 – Steve Camp, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n 1955 – Muwenda Mutebi II,The reigning King of Buganda Kingdom\n* 1955 – Louis Johnson, American bass player and producer (d. 2015)\n* 1955 – Lupe Pintor, Mexican boxer\n* 1955 – Ole von Beust, German lawyer and politician, 1st Mayor of Hamburg\n1956 – Possum Bourne, New Zealand race car driver (d. 2003)\n 1956 – Alan Devonshire, English footballer and manager\n* 1956 – Edward Forbes Smiley III, American art thief and map dealer\n1957 – Amy Goodman, American journalist and author\n 1957 – Saundra Santiago, American actress\n1960 – Lyn Brown, English social worker and politician\n 1960 – Bob Casey, Jr., American lawyer and politician, senior senator of Pennsylvania\n* 1960 – Olaf Ludwig, German cyclist and manager\n* 1960 – Rudi Völler, German footballer and manager\n1961 – Hiro Yamamoto, American bass player and songwriter \n 1962 – Hillel Slovak, Israeli-American guitarist (d. 1988)\n1963 – Garry Kasparov, Russian chess player and author\n1964 – Davis Love III, American golfer and sportscaster\n* 1964 – Caroline Rhea, Canadian actress and comedian\n* 1964 – John Swinney, Scottish businessman and politician, Deputy First Minister of Scotland\n1965 – Patricio Pouchulu, Argentinian architect and educator\n1966 – Ali Boumnijel, Tunisian footballer\n* 1966 – Marc Ford, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer \n1967 – Dana Barros, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster\n 1967 – Michael Eisen, American biologist and academic\n* 1967 – Olga Tañón, Puerto Rican-American singer-songwriter \n1968 – Ted Washington, American football player\n1969 – Dirk Muschiol, German footballer\n1970 – Monty Brown, American football player and wrestler\n 1970 – Gerry Creaney, Scottish footballer and manager\n* 1970 – Nick Garrett, English singer \n* 1970 – Szilveszter Csollány, Hungarian gymnast\n* 1970 – Ricardo Rincón, Mexican-American baseball player\n* 1970 – Ricky Schroder, American actor\n1971 – Franck Esposito, French swimmer\n 1971 – Danie Mellor, Australian painter and sculptor\n* 1971 – Bo Outlaw, American basketball player\n* 1971 – Valensia, Dutch singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n1972 – Mariusz Czerkawski, Polish ice hockey player and golfer\n 1972 – Aaron Lewis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n1974 – Valentina Cervi, Italian actress\n 1974 – Sergei Gonchar, Russian ice hockey player\n* 1974 – Darren Turner, English race car driver\n* 1974 – David Zdrilic, Australian footballer and manager\n1975 – Jasey-Jay Anderson, Canadian snowboarder\n 1975 – Lou Bega, German singer-songwriter\n* 1975 – Bruce Dyer, English footballer\n* 1975 – Tatiana Navka, Russian ice dancer\n1976 – Jonathan Brandis, American actor (d. 2003)\n 1976 – Patrik Eliáš, Czech-American ice hockey player\n* 1976 – Glenn Howerton, American actor, producer, and screenwriter\n1977 – Margus Tsahkna, Estonian lawyer and politician\n1978 – Arron Asham, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1978 – Carles Puyol, Spanish footballer\n* 1978 – Raemon Sluiter, Dutch tennis player\n* 1978 – Keydrick Vincent, American football player\n1979 – Gréta Arn, Hungarian tennis player\n 1979 – Baron Davis, American basketball player\n* 1979 – Tony Lundon, Irish singer-songwriter, producer, and dancer \n* 1979 – Meghann Shaughnessy, American tennis player\n1980 – Colleen Clinkenbeard, American voice actress, director, producer, and screenwriter\n 1980 – Jason Maguire, Irish jockey\n* 1980 – Wayne Purser, English footballer\n* 1980 – Quentin Richardson, American basketball player\n1981 – Nat Borchers, American soccer player\n 1981 – Gemma Doyle, Scottish politician\n1982 – Nellie McKay, British-American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress\n1983 – Claudio Bravo, Chilean footballer\n* 1983 – Schalk Burger, South African rugby player\n* 1983 – Nicole Cooke, Welsh cyclist\n* 1983 – Hunter Pence, American baseball player\n1984 – Jarmo Ahjupera, Estonian footballer\n 1984 – Anders Lindegaard, Danish footballer\n1985 – Anna Jennings-Edquist, Australian actress, director, and playwright\n 1985 – Algo Kärp, Estonian skier\n1986 – Michael Bingham, American-English sprinter\n 1986 – Lorenzo Cain, American baseball player\n1987 – Brandon Hardesty, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n 1987 – Massimiliano Pesenti, Italian footballer\n* 1987 – Allison Weiss, American singer-songwriter\n1988 – Anderson, Brazilian footballer\n 1988 – Petteri Koponen, Finnish basketball player\n* 1988 – Allison Williams, American actress and singer\n1989 – Ryan Bailey, American sprinter\n 1989 – Dong Dong, Chinese trampolinist\n* 1989 – Nastassia Mironchyk-Ivanova, Belarusian long jumper\n* 1989 – Josh Reynolds, Australian rugby league player \n1991 – Akeem Adams, Trinidadian footballer (d. 2013)\n 1991 – Ulises Dávila, Mexican footballer\n* 1991 – Josh Gordon, American football player\n1992 – Denis Kudryavtsev, Russian hurdler\n1993 – Tony Wroten, American basketball player\n1994 – Ángelo Henríquez, Chilean footballer\n 1994 – Elvis Merzļikins, Latvian ice hockey player\n\n", "* 548 – Lý Nam Đế, Vietnamese emperor (b. 503)\n* 585 – Hermenegild, Visigothic prince and saint\n* 799 – Paul the Deacon, Italian monk and historian (b. 720)\n* 814 – Krum, khan of the Bulgarian Khanate\n* 862 – Donald I, king of the Picts (b. 812)\n1035 – Herbert I, Count of Maine\n1093 – Vsevolod I of Kiev (b. 1030)\n1113 – Ida of Lorraine, saint and noblewoman (b. c. 1040)\n1138 – Simon I, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1076)\n1213 – Guy of Thouars, regent of Brittany\n1275 – Eleanor of England (b. 1215)\n1592 – Bartolomeo Ammannati, Italian architect and sculptor (b. 1511)\n1605 – Boris Godunov, Tsar of Russia (b. 1551)\n1612 – Sasaki Kojirō, Japanese samurai (b. 1585)\n1635 – Fakhr-al-Din II, Ottoman prince (b. 1572)\n1638 – Henri, Duke of Rohan (b. 1579)\n1641 – Richard Montagu, English bishop (b. 1577)\n1695 – Jean de La Fontaine, French author and poet (b. 1621)\n1716 – Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington, English admiral and politician (b. 1648)\n1722 – Charles Leslie, Irish priest and theologian (b. 1650)\n1793 – Pierre Gaspard Chaumette, French botanist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1763)\n1794 – Nicolas Chamfort, French playwright and poet (b. 1741)\n1826 – Franz Danzi, German cellist, composer, and conductor (b. 1763)\n1853 – Leopold Gmelin, German chemist and academic (b. 1788)\n 1853 – James Iredell, Jr., American lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of North Carolina (b. 1788)\n1855 – Henry De la Beche, English geologist and palaeontologist (b. 1796)\n1868 – Tewodros II of Ethiopia (b. 1818)\n1880 – Robert Fortune, Scottish botanist and author (b. 1813)\n1882 – Bruno Bauer, German historian and philosopher (b. 1809)\n1886 – John Humphrey Noyes, American religious leader, founded the Oneida Community (b. 1811)\n1890 – Samuel J. Randall, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 33rd Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b. 1828)\n1909 – Whitley Stokes, Anglo-Irish lawyer and scholar (b. 1830)\n1910 – William Quiller Orchardson, Scottish-English painter and educator (b. 1835)\n1911 – John McLane, Scottish-American politician, 50th Governor of New Hampshire (b. 1852)\n 1911 – George Washington Glick, American lawyer and politician, 9th Governor of Kansas (b. 1827)\n1912 – Takuboku Ishikawa, Japanese poet and author (b. 1886)\n1918 – Lavr Kornilov, Russian general (b. 1870)\n1927 – Georg Voigt, German politician, Mayor of Frankfurt (b. 1866)\n1936 – Konstantinos Demertzis, Greek politician 129th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1876)\n1938 – Grey Owl, English-Canadian environmentalist and author (b. 1888)\n1941 – Annie Jump Cannon, American astronomer and academic (b. 1863)\n* 1941 – William Twaits, Canadian soccer player (b. 1879)\n1942 – Henk Sneevliet, Dutch politician (b. 1883)\n 1942 – Anton Uesson, Estonian engineer and politician, 17th Mayor of Tallinn (b. 1879)\n1944 – Cécile Chaminade, French pianist and composer (b. 1857)\n1945 – Ernst Cassirer, Polish-American philosopher and academic (b. 1874)\n1954 – Samuel Jones, American high jumper (b. 1880)\n 1954 – Angus Lewis Macdonald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Nova Scotia (b. 1890)\n1956 – Emil Nolde, Danish-German painter and educator (b. 1867)\n1959 – Eduard van Beinum, Dutch pianist, violinist, and conductor (b. 1901)\n1961 – John A. Bennett, American soldier (b. 1935)\n1962 – Culbert Olson, American lawyer and politician, 29th Governor of California (b. 1876)\n1966 – Abdul Salam Arif, Iraqi colonel and politician, 2nd President of Iraq (b. 1921)\n 1966 – Carlo Carrà, Italian painter (b. 1881)\n* 1966 – Georges Duhamel, French soldier and author (b. 1884)\n1967 – Nicole Berger, French actress (b. 1934)\n1969 – Alfred Karindi, Estonian pianist and composer (b. 1901)\n1971 – Michel Brière, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1949)\n 1971 – Juhan Smuul, Estonian author, poet, and screenwriter (b. 1921)\n1975 – Larry Parks, American actor and singer (b. 1914)\n 1975 – François Tombalbaye, Chadian soldier, academic, and politician, 1st President of Chad (b. 1918)\n1978 – Jack Chambers, Canadian painter and director (b. 1931)\n1980 – Markus Höttinger, Austrian race car driver (b. 1956)\n1983 – Gerry Hitchens, English footballer (b. 1934)\n 1983 – Theodore Stephanides, Greek physician, author, and poet (b. 1896)\n1984 – Ralph Kirkpatrick, American harp player and musicologist (b. 1911)\n1988 – Jean Gascon, Canadian actor and director (b. 1920)\n1992 – Maurice Sauvé, Canadian economist and politician (b. 1923)\n 1992 – Feza Gürsey, Turkish mathematician and physicist (b. 1921)\n1993 – Wallace Stegner, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1909)\n1996 – Leila Mackinlay, English author and educator (b. 1910)\n1997 – Bryant Bowles, American soldier and activist, founded the National Association for the Advancement of White People (b. 1920)\n 1997 – Alan Cooley, Australian public servant (b. 1920)\n* 1997 – Dorothy Frooks, American author and actress (b. 1896)\n1998 – Patrick de Gayardon, French skydiver and base jumper (b. 1960)\n1999 – Ortvin Sarapu, Estonian-New Zealand chess player and author (b. 1924)\n* 1999 – Willi Stoph, German engineer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of East Germany (b. 1914)\n2000 – Giorgio Bassani, Italian author and poet (b. 1916)\n 2000 – Frenchy Bordagaray, American baseball player and manager (b. 1910)\n2002 – Desmond Titterington, Northern Irish race car driver (b. 1928)\n2004 – Caron Keating, Northern Irish television host (b. 1962)\n2005 – Don Blasingame, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1932)\n 2005 – Johnnie Johnson, American pianist and songwriter (b. 1924)\n* 2005 – Phillip Pavia, American painter and sculptor (b. 1912)\n* 2005 – Philippe Volter, Belgian actor and director (b. 1959)\n2006 – Bill Baker, American baseball player, coach, and umpire (b. 1911)\n 2006 – Muriel Spark, Scottish novelist, poet, and critic (b. 1918)\n2008 – John Archibald Wheeler, American physicist and academic (b. 1911)\n2009 – Mark Fidrych, American baseball player (b. 1954)\n* 2009 – Bruce Snyder, American football player and coach (b. 1940)\n2012 – William B. Buffum, American soldier and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Lebanon (b. 1921)\n 2012 – Cecil Chaudhry, Pakistani pilot, academic, and activist (b. 1941)\n* 2012 – Shūichi Higurashi, Japanese illustrator (b. 1936)\n* 2012 – David S. Smith, American diplomat, United States Ambassador to Sweden (b. 1918)\n* 2012 – Robert Wigmore, Cook Islander politician, 14th Deputy Prime Minister of the Cook Islands (b. 1949)\n2013 – Chi Cheng, American bass player (b. 1970)\n 2013 – Stephen Dodgson, English composer and educator (b. 1924)\n* 2013 – Dean Drummond, American composer and conductor (b. 1949)\n* 2013 – Vincent Montana, Jr., American drummer and composer (b. 1928)\n* 2013 – Lin Yang-kang, Taiwanese politician, 29th Vice Premier of the Republic of China (b. 1927)\n2014 – Fred Enke, American football player (b. 1924)\n 2014 – Ernesto Laclau, Argentinian-Spanish philosopher and theorist (b. 1935)\n* 2014 – Michael Ruppert, American journalist and author (b. 1951)\n* 2014 – Rafał Sznajder, Polish fencer (b. 1972)\n2015 – Gerald Calabrese, American basketball player and politician (b. 1925)\n 2015 – Ronnie Carroll, Irish singer and politician (b. 1934)\n* 2015 – Thelma Coyne Long, Australian tennis player and captain (b. 1918)\n* 2015 – Eduardo Galeano, Uruguayan journalist and author (b. 1940)\n* 2015 – Günter Grass, German novelist, poet, playwright, and illustrator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1927)\n* 2015 – Herb Trimpe, American author and illustrator (b. 1939)\n2016 – Nera White, American basketball player (b. 1935)\n2017 – Dan Rooney, American football executive and former United States Ambassador to Ireland (b. 1932)\n\n", "* Christian feast day:\n Hermenegild\n Pope Martin I\n** April 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Jefferson's Birthday (United States)\n* Katyn Memorial Day (Poland)\n* New Year festivals in South and Southeast Asian cultures. ''(see April 14)''\n* Teacher's Day (Ecuador) \n* Unfairly Prosecuted Persons Day (Slovakia)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	April 13
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''''Amaranthus''''', collectively known as '''amaranth''', is a cosmopolitan genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants. Some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals, and ornamental plants. Most of the ''Amaranthus'' species are summer annual weeds and are commonly referred to as pigweed. Catkin-like cymes of densely packed flowers grow in summer or autumn. Approximately 60 species are recognized, with inflorescences and foliage ranging from purple, through red and green to gold. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus ''Celosia''.\n\n\"Amaranth\" derives from Greek (''amárantos''), \"unfading\", with the Greek word for \"flower\", (''ánthos''), factoring into the word's development as ''amaranth''. ''Amarant'' is an archaic variant.\n", "Skull shapes made of amaranth and honey for Day of the Dead in Mexico\nTraditional Mexican candy made with amaranth\n''Amaranthus'' shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few distinguishing characters among the 70 species included. This complicates taxonomy and ''Amaranthus'' has generally been considered among systematists as a \"difficult\" genus.\n\nFormerly, Sauer (1955) classified the genus into two subgenera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: ''Acnida'' (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and ''Amaranthus''. Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group.\n\nCurrently, ''Amaranthus'' includes three recognized subgenera and 70 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridization and species concepts. Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification. A modified infrageneric classification of ''Amaranthus'' was published by Mosyakin & Robertson (1996) and includes three subgenera: ''Acnida'', ''Amaranthus'', and ''Albersia''. The taxonomy is further differentiated by sections within each of the subgenera.\n", "Species include:\n\n* ''Amaranthus acanthochiton'' – greenstripe\n* ''Amaranthus acutilobus'' – a synonym of ''Amaranthus viridis''\n* ''Amaranthus albus'' – white pigweed, tumble pigweed\n* ''Amaranthus anderssonii''\n* ''Amaranthus arenicola'' – sandhill amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus australis'' – southern amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus bigelovii'' – Bigelow's amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus blitoides'' – mat amaranth, prostrate amaranth, prostrate pigweed\n* ''Amaranthus blitum'' – purple amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus brownii'' – Brown's amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus californicus'' – California amaranth, California pigweed\n* ''Amaranthus cannabinus'' – tidal-marsh amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus caudatus'' – love-lies-bleeding, pendant amaranth, tassel flower, ''quilete''\n* ''Amaranthus chihuahuensis'' – Chihuahuan amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus crassipes'' – spreading amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus crispus'' – crispleaf amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus cruentus'' – purple amaranth, red amaranth, Mexican grain amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus deflexus'' – large-fruit amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus dubius'' – spleen amaranth, ''khada sag''\n* ''Amaranthus fimbriatus'' – fringed amaranth, fringed pigweed\n* ''Amaranthus floridanus'' – Florida amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus furcatus''\n* ''Amaranthus graecizans''\n* ''Amaranthus grandiflorus''\n* ''Amaranthus greggii'' – Gregg's amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus hybridus'' – smooth amaranth, smooth pigweed, red amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus hypochondriacus'' – Prince-of-Wales feather, prince's feather\n* ''Amaranthus interruptus'' – Australian amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus minimus''\n* ''Amaranthus mitchellii''\n* ''Amaranthus muricatus'' – African amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus obcordatus'' – Trans-Pecos amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus palmeri'' – Palmer's amaranth, Palmer pigweed, careless weed\n* ''Amaranthus polygonoides'' – tropical amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus powellii'' – green amaranth, Powell amaranth, Powell pigweed\n* ''Amaranthus pringlei'' – Pringle's amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus pumilus'' – seaside amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus retroflexus'' – red-root amaranth, redroot pigweed, common amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus scleranthoides'' – variously ''Amaranthus sclerantoides''\n* ''Amaranthus scleropoides'' – bone-bract amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus spinosus'' – spiny amaranth, prickly amaranth, thorny amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus standleyanus''\n* ''Amaranthus thunbergii'' – Thunberg's amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus torreyi'' – Torrey's amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus tricolor'' – Joseph's-coat\n* ''Amaranthus tuberculatus'' – rough-fruit amaranth, tall waterhemp\n* ''Amaranthus viridis'' – slender amaranth, green amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus watsonii'' – Watson's amaranth\n* ''Amaranthus wrightii'' – Wright's amaranth\n\n", "\nOne cup (2.4 dl, 245 g) of cooked amaranth grain (from about 65 g raw) provides 251 calories and is an excellent source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, and some dietary minerals. Amaranth is particularly rich in manganese (105% DV), magnesium (40% DV), iron (29% DV), and selenium (20% DV).\n\nCooked amaranth leaves are an excellent source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, manganese, and folate.\n\nAmaranth does not contain gluten, so it may be a healthy and less expensive alternative to ingredients traditionally used in gluten-free products. It has high biological value and its benefits are not limited to people with gluten-related disorders, but are applicable to the general population. Quantity and quality of proteins of amaranth are superior to those of wheat. It also contains higher concentrations of folic acid than wheat (102 µg/100 g in amaranth vs. 40 µg/100 g in wheat), and its fiber and minerals contents are higher than those of other cereals.\n\nAmaranth contains phytochemicals that may be antinutrient factors, such as polyphenols, saponins, tannins, and oxalates which are reduced in content and effect by cooking.\n", "\n=== History ===\nKnown to the Aztecs as ''huauhtli'', amaranth is thought to have represented up to 80% of their energy consumption before the Spanish conquest. Another important use of amaranth throughout Mesoamerica was to prepare ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like popcorn and mixed with honey, molasses, or chocolate to make a treat called ''alegría'', meaning \"joy\" in Spanish. Diego Durán described the festivities for Huitzilopochtli, the name of which means \"hummingbird of the left side\" or \"left-handed hummingbird\" (Real hummingbirds feed on amaranth flowers). The Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices were held. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a little piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were subsumed into the Christmas celebration.\n\nBecause of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, its gluten-free palatability, ease of cooking, and a protein that is particularly well-suited to human nutritional needs, interest in grain amaranth (especially ''A. cruentus'' and ''A. hypochondriacus'') revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack sold in Mexico, sometimes mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and parts of North America. Amaranth and quinoa are not grasses and are called pseudocereals because of their similarities to cereals in flavor and cooking.\n\n=== Seed ===\nSeveral species are raised for amaranth \"grain\" in Asia and the Americas.\n\nAncient amaranth grains still used include the three species, ''Amaranthus caudatus'', ''Amaranthus cruentus'', and ''Amaranthus hypochondriacus''. Although amaranth was cultivated on a large scale in ancient Mexico, Guatemala, and Peru, nowadays it is only cultivated on a small scale there, along with India, China, Nepal, and other tropical countries; thus, the potential exists for further cultivation in those countries, as well as in the U.S. In a 1977 article in ''Science'', amaranth was described as \"the crop of the future\". It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:\n* It is easily harvested.\n* Its seeds are a good source of protein.\n* In cooked and edible forms, amaranth retains adequate content of several dietary minerals.\n* It is easy to cook.\n* As befits its weedy life history, amaranth grains grow rapidly and, in three cultivated species of amaranth, their large seedheads can weigh up to 1 kg and contain a half-million small seeds.\n\n\n=== Leaves, roots, and stems ===\n\nAmaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the world. Four species of ''Amaranthus'' are documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia: ''Amaranthus cruentus'', ''Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus dubius'', and ''Amaranthus tricolor''.\n\nIn Indonesia and Malaysia, leaf amaranth is called ''bayam''. In the Philippines, the Ilocano word for the plant is ''kalunay''; the Tagalog word for the plant is ''kilitis'' or ''kulitis''. In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India, it is called ''chaulai'' and is a popular green leafy vegetable (referred to in the class of vegetable preparations called ''saag''). It is called ''chua'' in Kumaun area of Uttarakhand, where it is a popular red-green vegetable. In Karnataka in India, it is called ''harive''. It is used to prepare curries such as'' hulee, palya, majjigay-hulee'', and so on. In Kerala, it is called ''cheera'' and is consumed by stir-frying the leaves with spices and red chillies to make ''cheera thoran''. In Tamil Nadu, it is called ''mulaikkira'' and is regularly consumed as a favourite dish, where the greens are steamed, and mashed, with light seasoning of salt, red chili, and cumin. It is called ''keerai masial''. In Andhra Pradesh, this leaf is added in preparation of a popular ''dal'' called ''thotakura pappu'' in (Telugu). In Maharashtra, it is called ''shravani maath'' and is available in both red and white colour. In Orissa, it is called ''khada saga'', it is used to prepare ''saga bhaja'', in which the leaf is fried with chili and onions.\n\nIn China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable, or in soups. In Vietnam, it is called ''rau dền'' and is used to make soup. Two species are popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam: ''dền đỏ''- ''Amaranthus tricolor'' and ''dền cơm'' or ''dền trắng''- ''Amaranthus viridis''.\n\nA traditional food plant in Africa, amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care.\n\nIn Bantu regions of Uganda and western Kenya, it is known as ''doodo'' or ''litoto''. It is also known among the Kalenjin as a drought crop (''chepkerta''). In Lingala (spoken in the Congo), it is known as ''lɛngalɛnga'' or ''bítɛkutɛku''. In Nigeria, it is a common vegetable and goes with all Nigerian starch dishes. It is known in Yoruba as ''shoko'' a short form of ''shokoyokoto'' (meaning make the husband fat) or ''arowo jeja'' (meaning \"we have money left over for fish\"). In the Caribbean, the leaves are called ''bhaji'' in Trinidad and ''callaloo'' in Jamaica, and are sautéed with onions, garlic, and tomatoes, or sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup. In Botswana, it is referred to as ''morug'' and cooked as a staple green vegetable.\n\nIn Greece, green amaranth (''A. viridis'') is a popular dish called βλήτα, ''vlita'' or ''vleeta''. It is boiled, then served with olive oil and lemon juice like a salad, sometimes alongside fried fish. Greeks stop harvesting the plant (which also grows wild) when it starts to bloom at the end of August.\n\nIn Brazil, green amaranth was, and to a degree still is, frequently regarded as an invasive species as all other species of amaranth (except the generally imported ''A. caudatus'' cultivar), though some have traditionally appreciated it as a leaf vegetable, under the names of or , which is consumed cooked, generally accompanying the staple food, rice and beans.\n\n===Oil===\nMaking up about 5% of the total fatty acids of amaranth, squalene is extracted as a vegetable-based alternative to the more expensive shark oil for use in dietary supplements and cosmetics.\n\n=== Dyes ===\n\nThe flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the Hopi (a tribe in the western United States) as the source of a deep red dye. Also a synthetic dye was named \"amaranth\" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth pigments known as betalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the European Union.\n\n=== Ornamentals ===\nAmaranthus flowering\nThe genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as ''Amaranthus caudatus'' (love-lies-bleeding), a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, ''A. hypochondriacus'' (prince's feather), has deeply veined, lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.\n\nAmaranths are recorded as food plants for some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the nutmeg moth and various case-bearer moths of the genus ''Coleophora'': ''C. amaranthella'', ''C. enchorda'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. immortalis'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. lineapulvella'', and ''C. versurella'' (recorded on ''A. spinosus'').\n", "\nAmaranth weed species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production, and have been causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction in tillage, reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several species where herbicides have been applied more often. The following 9 species of ''Amaranthus'' are considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S and Canada: ''A. albus'', ''A. blitoides'', ''A. hybridus'', ''A. palmeri'', ''A. powellii'', ''A. retroflexus'', ''A. spinosus'', ''A. tuberculatus'', and ''A. viridis''.\n\nA new herbicide-resistant strain of ''Amaranthus palmeri'' has appeared; it is glyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by herbicides using the chemical. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. This could be of particular concern to cotton farmers using glyphosate-resistant cotton. The species ''Amaranthus palmeri'' (Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction in soybean yields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17-68% in field experiments. Palmer amaranth is among the \"top five most troublesome weeds\" in the southeast of the United States and has already evolved resistances to dinitroaniline herbicides and acetolactate synthase inhibitors. This makes the proper identification of ''Amaranthus'' species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper weed control needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions.\n", "\nFile:Amaranthus caudatus1.jpg\|Love-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus caudatus)\nFile:Amaranthus.hybridus1web.jpg\|Green Amaranth (''A. hybridus'')\nFile:Amaranth2.jpg\|Seabeach amaranth (''A. pumilus''), an amaranth on the Federal Threatened species List\nFile:Illustration Amaranthus retroflexus0.jpg\|Red-root Amaranth (''A. retroflexus'')—from Thomé, ''Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz'' 1885\nFile:Amaranthus.spinosus1web.jpg\|Spiny Amaranth (''Amaranthus spinosus'')\nFile:Amaranthus.viridis1web.jpg\|Green Amaranth (''Amaranthus viridis'')\nFile:Amaranth sp 2.jpg\| Popping Amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)\nFile:Amaranth und WW.jpg\|Amaranth grain (left) and wheat (right)\nFile:Travancore Cheera Thoran.JPG\|Southern Kerala-style traditional Thoran made with ''Cheera'' (Amaranth) leaves\nFile:Fepm (8).jpg\|Example from Chilpancingo\n\n", "* Ancient grains\n", "\n", "* Howard, Brian Clark. \" Amaranth: Another Ancient Wonder Food, But Who Will Eat It?\". National Geographic Online, August 12, 2013.\n* Lenz, ''Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom.'' Botany of old. (1859)\n* J. Murr, ''Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol.'' Plants in Greek Mythology. (1890)\n* Fanton M., Fanton J. ''Amaranth'' The Seed Savers' Handbook. (1993)\n", "\n\n* Grain amaranth, Crops For A Future\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Taxonomy ", " Species ", "Nutrition", " Human uses ", " Ecology ", " Images ", "See also", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Amaranth
[ "\n\n'''''Agapanthus africanus''''' ('''African lily''') is a flowering plant from the genus ''Agapanthus'' native to the area of Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. ''A. africanus'' is more difficult to grow in gardens than ''A. praecox'', and almost all plants sold as ''A. africanus'' are actually ''A. praecox''.\n\nIt has a short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves 10–35 cm long and 1–2 cm broad, and a central flower stalk 25–60 cm tall, ending in an umbel of 20-30 white, or bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers, each flower 2.5–5 cm diameter.\n", "It was introduced to Europe at the close of the 17th century. Unlike the more common ''A. praecox'', it is not generally suitable as a garden plant, and will not tolerate extended freezing temperatures.\n", "\n\n* \n", "* Plantweb: ''Agapanthus africanus''\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Cultivation", " References", "External links" ]	Agapanthus africanus
[ "\nThe ''Mask of Agamemnon'' which was discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 at Mycenae, now believed to pre-date the legendary Trojan War by 300 years\n\nIn Greek mythology, '''Agamemnon''' (; from Ἀγαμέδμων from ἄγαν, \"very much\" and μέδομαι, \"think on\", \"very steadfast\", \"unbowed\") was the son of King Atreus and Queen Aerope of Mycenae, the brother of Menelaus, the husband of Clytemnestra and the father of Iphigenia, Electra or Laodike (Λαοδίκη), Orestes and Chrysothemis. Legends make him the king of Mycenae or Argos, thought to be different names for the same area. When Helen, the wife of Menelaus, was taken to Troy by Paris, Agamemnon commanded the united Greek armed forces in the ensuing Trojan War.\n\nUpon Agamemnon's return from Troy, he was murdered (according to the oldest surviving account, ''Odyssey'' 11.409–11) by Aegisthus, the lover of his wife, Clytemnestra. In old versions of the story, the scene of the murder, when it is specified, is usually the house of Aegisthus, who has not taken up residence in Agamemnon's palace, and it involves an ambush and the deaths of Agamemnon's followers as well. In some later versions Clytemnestra herself does the killing, or they act together as accomplices, killing Agamemnon in his own home.\n", "Atreus, Agamemnon's father, murdered the children of his twin brother Thyestes and fed them to Thyestes after discovering Thyestes' adultery with his wife Aerope. Thyestes fathered Aegisthus with his own daughter, Pelopia, and this son vowed gruesome revenge on Atreus' children. Aegisthus successfully murdered Atreus and restored his father to the throne. Aegisthus took possession of the throne of Mycenae and jointly ruled with Thyestes. During this period, Agamemnon and his brother, Menelaus, took refuge with Tyndareus, King of Sparta. There they respectively married Tyndareus' daughters Clytemnestra and Helen. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra and Chrysothemis. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus in Sparta, while Agamemnon, with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and Thyestes to recover his father's kingdom. He extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece.\n\nAgamemnon's family history had been tarnished by rape, murder, incest, and treachery, consequences of the heinous crime perpetrated by his ancestor, Tantalus, and then of a curse placed upon Pelops, son of Tantalus, by Myrtilus, whom he had murdered. Thus misfortune hounded successive generations of the House of Atreus, until atoned by Orestes in a court of justice held jointly by humans and gods.\n", "\nAgamemnon gathered the reluctant Greek forces to sail for Troy. Preparing to depart from Aulis, which was a port in Boeotia, Agamemnon's army incurred the wrath of the goddess Artemis. There are several reasons throughout myth for such wrath: in Aeschylus' play ''Agamemnon'', Artemis is angry for the young men who will die at Troy, whereas in Sophocles' ''Electra'', Agamemnon has slain an animal sacred to Artemis, and subsequently boasted that he was Artemis' equal in hunting. Misfortunes, including a plague and a lack of wind, prevented the army from sailing. Finally, the prophet Calchas announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be propitiated by the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter Iphigenia.\n\nAchilles' surrender of Briseis to Agamemnon, from the House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii, fresco, 1st century AD, now in the Naples National Archaeological Museum\n\nClassical dramatizations differ on how willing either father or daughter was to this fate; some include such trickery as claiming she was to be married to Achilles, but Agamemnon did eventually sacrifice Iphigenia. Her death appeased Artemis, and the Greek army set out for Troy. Several alternatives to the human sacrifice have been presented in Greek mythology. Other sources, such as ''Iphigenia at Aulis'', say that Agamemnon was prepared to kill his daughter, but that Artemis accepted a deer in her place, and whisked her away to Tauris in the Crimean Peninsula. Hesiod said she became the goddess Hecate.\n\nAgamemnon was the commander-in-chief of the Greeks during the Trojan War. During the fighting, Agamemnon killed Antiphus and fifteen other Trojan soldiers, according to one source. But in the \"Iliad\" itself, he's shown to slaughter hundreds more in Book 11 during his \"aristea\" loosely translated to \"day of glory\" which is the most similar to Achilles' \"aristea\" in Book 21 (they both are compared to lions and destructive fires in battle, their hands are described as \"splattered with gore\" and \"invincible,\" the Trojans flee to the walls, they both are appealed to by one of their victims, they are both avoided by Hector, they both get wounded in the arm or hand, and they both kill the one who wounded them). Even before his \"aristea,\" Agamemnon was considered to be one of the three best warriors on the Greek side as proven when Hector challenges any champion of the Greek side to fight him in Book 7, and Agamemnon (along with Diomedes and Big Aias) is one of the three most wished for to face him out of the nine strongest Greek warriors who volunteered. And after they reconciled, even Achilles admits in Book 23 that Agamemnon is \"the best in strength and in throwing the spear.\" That claim is further proven by the fact that Agamemnon was the only major warrior on either side to never need the gods' direct intervention to increase his strength or give him any unfair advantages in battle and yet he still caused incredible destruction almost on the scale of Achilles.\n\nThe ''Iliad'' tells the story about the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles in the final year of the war. Following one of the Achaean Army's raids, Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, one of Apollo's priests, was taken as a war prize by Agamemnon. Chryses pleaded with Agamemnon to free his daughter but was met with little success. Chryses then prayed to Apollo for the safe return of his daughter, which Apollo responded to by unleashing a plague over the Achaean Army. After learning from the Prophet Calchas that the plague could be dispelled by returning Chryseis to her father, Agamemnon reluctantly agreed, (but first berated Calchas for previously forcing Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter (Iphigenia) and released his prize. However, as compensation for his lost prize, Agamemnon demanded a new prize. As a result, Agamemnon stole an attractive slave called Briseis, one of the spoils of war, from Achilles.\n\nAchilles, the greatest warrior of the age, withdrew from battle in response to Agamemnon's action and put the Greek armies at risk of losing the war. Agamemnon, having realized Achilles's importance in winning the war against the Trojan Army, sent ambassadors begging for Achilles to return, offering him riches and the hand of his daughter in marriage, but Achilles refused, only being spurred back into action when his closest friend, Patroclus, was killed in battle.\n\nAlthough not the equal of Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon was a representative of \"kingly authority\". As commander-in-chief, he summoned the princes to the council and led the army in battle. His chief fault was his overwhelming haughtiness; an over-exalted opinion of his position that led him to insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby bringing great disaster upon the Greeks.\n\nAfter the capture of Troy, Cassandra, the doomed prophetess and daughter of Priam, fell to Agamemnon's lot in the distribution of the prizes of war.\n", "Orestes slaying Clytemnestra\nAfter a stormy voyage, Agamemnon and Cassandra either landed in Argolis, or were blown off course and landed in Aegisthus' country. Clytemnestra, Agamemnon's wife, had taken Aegisthus, son of Thyestes, as a lover. When Agamemnon came home he was slain by either Aegisthus (in the oldest versions of the story) or Clytemnestra. According to the accounts given by Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain in a bath by his wife alone, a blanket of cloth or a net having first been thrown over him to prevent resistance. Clytemnestra also killed Cassandra. Her jealousy of Cassandra, and her wrath at the sacrifice of Iphigenia and at Agamemnon's having gone to war over Helen of Troy, are said to have been the motives for her crime. \n\nAegisthus and Clytemnestra then ruled Agamemnon's kingdom for a time, Aegisthus claiming his right of revenge for Agamemnon's father Atreus having fed Thyestes his own children (Thyestes then crying out \"So perish all the race of Pleisthenes!\", thus explaining Aegisthus' action as justified by his father's curse). Agamemnon's son Orestes later avenged his father's murder, with the help or encouragement of his sister Electra, by murdering Aegisthus and Clytemnestra (his own mother), thereby inciting the wrath of the Erinyes (English: the Furies), winged goddesses who tracked down wrongdoers with their hounds' noses and drove them to insanity.\n", "Genealogy of Agamemnon\n", "Athenaeus tells a tale of how Agamemnon mourned the loss of his friend or lover Argynnus, when he drowned in the Cephisus river. He buried him, honored with a tomb and a shrine to Aphrodite Argynnis. This episode is also found in Clement of Alexandria, in Stephen of Byzantium ''(Kopai'' and ''Argunnos),'' and in Propertius, III with minor variations.\n \nThe fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous tragedies, ancient and modern, the most famous being the ''Oresteia'' of Aeschylus. In the legends of the Peloponnesus, Agamemnon was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in Sparta he was worshipped under the title of ''Zeus Agamemnon''. His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at Amyclae.\n\nAnother account makes him the son of Pleisthenes (the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been Aerope's first husband.\n\nIn works of art, there is considerable resemblance between the representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king of men. He is generally depicted with a sceptre and diadem, conventional attributes of kings.\n\nAgamemnon's mare was named Aetha. She was also one of two horses driven by Menelaus at the funeral games of Patroclus.\n\nFollowing his death at the hands of Aegisthus, Agamemnon made an appearance in Homer's ''Odyssey'' within the kingdom of Hades. There, the former king met Odysseus and explained just how he was murdered before he offered Odysseus a warning about the dangers of trusting a woman.\n", " HMS ''Agamemnon''\n* National Archaeological Museum of Athens\n", "\n", "\n=== Primary sources ===\n* Homer, ''Iliad'';\n* Euripides, ''Electra'';\n* Sophocles, ''Electra'';\n* Seneca, ''Agamemnon''\n* Aeschylus, ''The Libation Bearers'';\n* Homer, ''Odyssey'' I, 28–31; XI, 385–464;\n* Aeschylus, ''Agamemnon''\n* Apollodorus, ''Epitome'', II, 15 – III, 22; VI, 23.\n\n===Secondary sources===\n\n", " Agamemnon - Ancient History Encyclopedia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life ", " Trojan War ", " Return to Greece ", " Genealogy ", " Other stories ", " See also ", " References ", " Sources ", " External links " ]	Agamemnon
[ "\n\n'''Aga Khan I''' (; or ; ), was the title accorded to '''Hasan Ali Shah''' (; ; 1804 in Kahak, Iran – 1881 in Bombay, India), the governor of Kirman, 46th Imam of the Nizari Ismaili Muslims, and prominent Muslim leader in Iran and later in the Indian subcontinent.\n", "\nThe Imam Hasan Ali Shah was born in 1804 in Kahak, Iran to Shah Khalil Allah, the 45th Ismaili Imam, and Bibi Sarkara, the daughter of Muhammad Sadiq Mahallati (d. 1815), a poet and a Ni‘mat Allahi Sufi. Shah Khalil Allah moved to Yazd in 1815, probably out of concern for his Indian followers, who used to travel to Persia to see their Imam and for whom Yazd was a much closer and safer destination than Kahak. Meanwhile, his wife and children continued to live in Kahak off the revenues obtained from the family holdings in the Mahallat () region. Two years later, in 1817, Shah Khalil Allah was killed during a conflict between some of his followers and local shopkeepers. He was succeeded by his eldest son Hasan Ali Shah, also known as Muhammad Hasan, who became the 46th Imam.\n\nThe family was left unprovided for after a conflict between the local Nizaris and Imani Khan Farahani, who had been married to one of the late Imam's daughters Shah Bibi and who had been in charge of the Imam's land holdings. The young Imam and his mother moved to Qumm, but their financial situation worsened. The Imam Hasan Ali Shah's mother decided to go to the Qajar court in Tehran to obtain justice for her husband's death and was eventually successful. Those who had been involved in the Shah Khalil Allah's murder were punished and the Persian king Fath Ali Shah increased Hasan Ali Shah's land holdings in the Mahallat region and gave him one of his daughters, Sarv-i Jahan Khanum, in marriage. Fath Ali Shah also appointed Hasan Ali Shah as governor of Qumm and bestowed upon him the honorific of Aga Khan. Hasan Ali Shah thus become known as Aga Khan Mahallati, and the title of Aga Khan was inherited by his successors. Aga Khan I's mother later moved to India where she died in 1851. Until Fath Ali Shah's death in 1834, the Imam Hasan Ali Shah enjoyed a quiet life and was held in high esteem at the Qajar court.\n", "\nSoon after the accession of Muhammad Shah Qajar to the throne of his grandfather, Fath Ali Shah, the Imam Hasan Ali Shah was appointed governor of Kerman in 1835. At the time, Kerman was held by the rebellious sons of Shuja al-Saltana, a pretender to the Qajar throne. The area was also frequently raided by the Afghans. Hasan Ali Shah managed to restore order in Kerman, as well as in Bam and Narmashir, which were also held by rebellious groups. Hasan Ali Shah sent a report of his success to Tehran, but did not receive any compensation for his achievements. Despite the service he rendered to the Qajar government, Hasan Ali Shah was dismissed from the governorship of Kerman in 1837, less than two years after his arrival there, and was replaced by Firuz Mirza Nusrat al-Dawla, a younger brother of Muhammad Shah Qajar. Refusing to accept his dismissal, Hasan Ali Shah withdrew with his forces to the citadel at Bam. Along with his two brothers, he made preparations to resist the government forces that were sent against him. He was besieged at Bam for some fourteen months. When it was clear that continuing the resistance was of little use, Hasan Ali Shah sent one of his brothers to Shiraz in order to speak to the governor of Fars to intervene on his behalf and arrange for safe passage out of Kerman. With the governor having interceded, Hasan Ali Shah surrendered and emerged from the citadel of Bam only to be double-crossed. He was seized and his possessions were plundered by the government troops. Hasan Ali Shah and his dependents were sent to Kerman and remained as prisoners there for eight months. He was eventually allowed to go to Tehran near the end of 1838-39 where he was able to present his case before the Shah. The Shah pardoned him on the condition that he return peacefully to Mahallat. Hasan Ali Shah remained in Mahallat for about two years. He managed to gather an army in Mahallat which alarmed Muhammad Shah, who travelled to Delijan near Mahallat to determine the truth of the reports about Hasan Ali Shah. Hasan Ali Shah was on a hunting trip at the time, but he sent a messenger to request permission of the monarch to go to Mecca for the hajj pilgrimage. Permission was given, and Hasan Ali Shah's mother and a few relatives were sent to Najaf and other holy cities in Iraq in which the shrines of his ancestors, the Shiite Imams are found.\n\nPrior to leaving Mahallat, Hasan Ali Shah equipped himself with letters appointing him to the governorship of Kerman. Accompanied by his brothers, nephews and other relatives, as well as many followers, he left for Yazd, where he intended to meet some of his local followers. Hasan Ali Shah sent the documents reinstating him to the position of governor of Kerman to Bahman Mirza Baha al-Dawla, the governor of Yazd. Bahman Mirza offered Hasan Ali Shah lodging in the city, but Hasan Ali Shah declined, indicating that he wished to visit his followers living around Yazd. Hajji Mirza Aqasi sent a messenger to Bahman Mirza to inform him of the spuriousness of Hasan Ali Shah's documents and a battle between Bahman Mīrzā and Hasan Ali Shah broke out in which Bahman Mirza was defeated. Other minor battles were won by Hasan Ali Shah before he arrived in Shahr-e Babak, which he intended to use as his base for capturing Kerman. At the time of his arrival in Shahr-e Babak, a formal local governor was engaged in a campaign to drive out the Afghans from the city's citadel, and Hasan Ali Shah joined him in forcing the Afghans to surrender.\n\nSoon after March 1841, Hasan Ali Shah set out for Kerman. He managed to defeat a government force consisting of 4,000 men near Dashtab, and continued to win a number of victories before stopping at Bam for a time. Soon, a government force of 24,000 men forced Hasan Ali Shah to flee from Bam to Rigan on the border of Baluchistan, where he suffered a decisive defeat. Hasan Ali Shah decided to escape to Afghanistan, accompanied by his brothers and many soldiers and servants.\n", "Fleeing Iran, he arrived in Kandahar, Afghanistan in 1841—a town that had been occupied by an Anglo-Indian army in 1839 in the First Anglo-Afghan War. A close relationship developed between Hasan Ali Shah and the British, which coincided with the final years of the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–1842). After his arrival, Hasan Ali Shah wrote to Sir William Macnaghten, discussing his plans to seize and govern Herat on behalf of the British. Although the proposal seemed to have been approved, the plans of the British were thwarted by the uprising of Dost Muhammad's son Muhammad Akbar Khan, who defeated and annihilated the British-Indian garrison at Gandamak on its retreat from Kabul in January 1842.\n", "Hasan Ali Shah soon proceeded to Sindh, where he rendered further services to the British. The British were able to annex Sind and for his services, Hasan Ali Shah received an annual pension of £2,000 from General Charles James Napier, the British conqueror of Sindh with whom he had a good relationship.\n", "In October 1844, Hasan Ali Shah left Sind for city of Bombay in Bombay Presidency, British India passing through Cutch and Kathiawar where he spent some time visiting the communities of his followers in the area. After arriving in Bombay in February 1846, the Persian government demanded his extradition from India. The British refused and only agreed to transfer Hasan Ali Shah’s residence to Calcutta, where it would be harder for him to launch new attacks against the Persian government. The British also negotiated the safe return of Hasan Ali Shah to Persia, which was in accordance with his own wish. The government agreed to Hasan Ali Shah's return provided that he would avoid passing through Baluchistan and Kirman and that he was to settle peacefully in Mahallat. Hasan Ali Shah was eventually forced to leave for Calcutta in April 1847, where he remained until he received news of the death of Muhammad Shah Qajar. Hasan Ali Shah left for Bombay and the British attempted to obtain permission for his return to Persia. Although some of his lands were restored to the control of his relatives, his safe return could not be arranged, and Hasan Ali Shah was forced to remain a permanent resident of India. While in India, Hasan Ali Shah continued his close relationship with the British, and was even visited by the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII) when he was on a state visit to India. The British came to address Hasan Ali Shah as His Highness. Hasan Ali Shah received protection from the British government in British India as the spiritual head of an important Muslim community.\n", "\n''See Aga Khan Case''\n\nThe vast majority of his Khoja Ismaili followers in India welcomed him warmly, but some dissident members, sensing their loss of prestige with the arrival of the Imam, wished to maintain control over communal properties. Because of this, Hasan Ali Shah decided to secure a pledge of loyalty from the members of the community to himself and to the Ismaili form of Islam. Although most of the members of the community signed a document issued by Hasan Ali Shah summarizing the practices of the Ismailis, a group of dissenting Khojas surprisingly asserted that the community had always been Sunni. This group was outcast by the unanimous vote of all the Khojas assembled in Bombay. In 1866, these dissenters filed a suit in the Bombay High Court against Hasan Ali Shah, claiming that the Khojas had been Sunni Muslims from the very beginning. The case, commonly referred to as the Aga Khan Case, was heard by Sir Joseph Arnould. The hearing lasted several weeks, and included testimony from Hasan Ali Shah himself. After reviewing the history of the community, Justice Arnould gave a definitive and detailed judgement against the plaintiffs and in favour of Hasan Ali Shah and other defendants. The judgement was significant in that it legally established the status of the Khojas as a community referred to as Shia Imami Ismailis, and of Hasan Ali Shah as the spiritual head of that community. Hasan Ali Shah's authority thereafter was not seriously challenged again.\n", "Hasan Ali Shah spent his final years in Bombay with occasional visits to Pune. Maintaining the traditions of the Iranian nobility to which he belonged, he kept excellent stables and became a well-known figure at the Bombay racecourse. Hasan Ali Shah died after an imamate of sixty-four years in April 1881. He was buried in a specially built shrine at Hasanabad in the Mazagaon area of Bombay. He was survived by three sons and five daughters. Hasan Ali Shah was succeeded as Imam by his eldest son Aqa Ali Shah, who became Aga Khan II.\n", "\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life and family", "Governorship of Kerman", "Afghanistan", "[[Sindh]], [[British India]], now [[Pakistan]]", "Bombay", "Khoja reassumption and dispute", "Final years", "Notes", "Further reading" ]	Aga Khan I
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Sir Sultan Muhammed Shah, Aga Khan III''' (2 November 187711 July 1957) was the 48th Imam of the Nizari Ismaili community. He was one of the founders and the first president of the All-India Muslim League (AIML). His goal was the advancement of Muslim agendas and protection of Muslim rights in India. The League, until the late 1930s, was not a mass organisation but represented the landed and commercial Muslim interests of the British-ruled 'United Provinces' (today's Uttar Pradesh). He shared Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's belief that Muslims should first build up their social capital through advanced education before engaging in politics. Aga Khan called on the British Raj to consider Muslims to be a separate nation within India, the so-called 'Two Nation Theory'. Even after he resigned as president of the AIML in 1912, he still exerted major influence on its policies and agendas. He was nominated to represent India to the League of Nations in 1932 and served as President of the League of Nations from 1937–38.\n", "He was born in Karachi, the capital of Sindh province in British India, (now Pakistan) to Aga Khan II and his third wife, Nawab A'lia Shamsul-Muluk, who was a granddaughter of Fath Ali Shah of Persia/Iran (Qajar dynasty).\n\nUnder the care of his mother, he was given not only that religious and Oriental education which his position as the religious leader of the Ismailis made indispensable, but a sound European training, a boon denied to his father and paternal grandfather. He also attended Eton and University of Cambridge.\n", "In 1885, at the age of eight, he succeeded his father as Imam of the Shi'a Isma'ili Muslims.\n\nThe Aga Khan travelled in distant parts of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the object either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare by financial help and personal advice and guidance. The distinction of a Knight Commander of the Indian Empire was conferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897 (and later Knight Grand Commander in 1902 by Edward VII). He was made a Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India by George V (1912). He was appointed a GCMG in 1923. He received like recognition for his public services from the German Emperor, the Sultan of Turkey, the Shah of Persia and other potentates.\n\nIn 1906, the Aga Khan was a founding member and first president of the All India Muslim League, a political party which pushed for the creation of an independent Muslim nation in the north west regions of India, then under British colonial rule, and later established the country of Pakistan in 1947.\n\nDuring the three Round Table Conferences (India) in London from 1930-32, he played an important role to bring about Indian constitutional reforms. \n\nIn 1934, he was made a member of the Privy Council and served as a member of the League of Nations (1934–37), becoming the President of the League of Nations in 1937.\n", "\nUnder the leadership of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, the first half of the 20th century was a period of significant development for the Ismā'īlī community. Numerous institutions for social and economic development were established in the Indian Subcontinent and in East Africa. Ismailis have marked the Jubilees of their Imāms with public celebrations, which are symbolic affirmations of the ties that link the Ismāʿīlī Imām and his followers. Although the Jubilees have no religious significance, they serve to reaffirm the Imamat's worldwide commitment to the improvement of the quality of human life, especially in the developing countries.\n\nThe Jubilees of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, are well remembered. During his 72 years of Imamat (1885–1957), the community celebrated his Golden (1937), Diamond (1946) and Platinum (1954) Jubilees. To show their appreciation and affection, the Ismā'īliyya weighed their Imam in gold, diamonds and, symbolically, in platinum, respectively, the proceeds of which were used to further develop major social welfare and development institutions in Asia and Africa.\n\nIn India and later in Pakistan, social development institutions were established, in the words of Aga Khan III, \"for the relief of humanity\". They included institutions such as the Diamond Jubilee Trust and the Platinum Jubilee Investments Limited which in turn assisted the growth of various types of cooperative societies. ''Diamond Jubilee High School for Girls'' were established throughout the remote Northern Areas of what is now Pakistan. In addition, scholarship programs, established at the time of the Golden Jubilee to give assistance to needy students, were progressively expanded. In East Africa, major social welfare and economic development institutions were established. Those involved in social welfare included the accelerated development of schools and community centres, and a modern, fully equipped hospital in Nairobi. Among the economic development institutions established in East Africa were companies such as the Diamond Jubilee Investment Trust (now Diamond Trust of Kenya) and the Jubilee Insurance Company, which are quoted on the Nairobi Stock Exchange and have become major players in national development.\n\nSir Sultan Muhammad Shah also introduced organizational forms that gave Ismāʿīlī communities the means to structure and regulate their own affairs. These were built on the Muslim tradition of a communitarian ethic on the one hand, and responsible individual conscience with freedom to negotiate one's own moral commitment and destiny on the other. In 1905 he ordained the first Ismā'īlī Constitution for the social governance of the community in East Africa. The new administration for the Community's affairs was organised into a hierarchy of councils at the local, national, and regional levels. The constitution also set out rules in such matters as marriage, divorce and inheritance, guidelines for mutual cooperation and support among Ismā'īlīs, and their interface with other communities. Similar constitutions were promulgated in India, and all were periodically revised to address emerging needs and circumstances in diverse settings.\n\nFollowing the Second World War, far-reaching social, economic and political changes profoundly affected a number of areas where Ismāʿīlīs resided. In 1947, British rule in the Indian Subcontinent was replaced by the sovereign, independent nations of India, Pakistan and later Bangladesh, resulting in the migration of millions people and significant loss of life and property. In the Middle East, the Suez crisis of 1956 as well as the preceding crisis in Iran, demonstrated the sharp upsurge of nationalism, which was as assertive of the region's social and economic aspirations as of its political independence. Africa was also set on its course to decolonisation, swept by what Harold Macmillan, the then British prime minister, termed the \"wind of change\". By the early 1960s, most of East and Central Africa, where the majority of the Ismāʿīlī population on the continent resided, including Tanganyika, Kenya, Uganda, Madagascar, Rwanda, Burundi and Zaire, had attained their political independence.\n", ";Racehorse ownership\nHe was an owner of thoroughbred racing horses, including a record equalling five winners of the Epsom Derby (Blenheim, Bahram, Mahmoud, My Love, Tulyar) and a total of sixteen winners of British Classic Races. He was British flat racing Champion Owner thirteen times. According to Ben Pimlott, biographer of Queen Elizabeth II, the Aga Khan presented Her Majesty with a filly called ''Astrakhan'', who won at Hurst Park Racecourse in 1950.\n\n;Equestrianism\nIn 1926, the Aga Khan gave a cup (the Aga Khan Trophy) to be awarded to the winners of an international team show jumping competition held at the annual horse show of the Royal Dublin Society in Dublin, Ireland every first week in August. It attracts competitors from all of the main show jumping nations and is carried live on Irish national television.\n", "* He married, on 2 November 1896, in Pune, India, Shahzadi Begum, his first cousin and a granddaughter of Aga Khan I.\n* He married 1908, Cleope Teresa Magliano (1888–1926). They had two sons: Prince Giuseppe Mahdi Khan (d. February 1911) and Prince Aly Khan (1911–1960). She died in 1926, following an operation on 1 December 1926.\n* He married, on 7 December 1929 (civil), in Aix-les-Bains, France, and 13 December 1929 (religious), in Bombay, India, ''Andrée Joséphine Carron'' (1898–1976). A co-owner of a dressmaking shop in Paris, she became known as Princess Andrée Aga Khan. By this marriage, he had one son, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, (1933–2003). The couple were divorced in 1943.\n* He married, on 9 October 1944, in Geneva, Switzerland, ''Begum Om Habibeh Aga Khan'' (Yvonne Blanche Labrousse) (15 February 19061 July 2000). According to an interview she gave to an Egyptian journalist, her first name was Yvonne, though she is referred to as Yvette in most published references. The daughter of a tram conductor and a dressmaker, she was working as the Aga Khan's social secretary at the time of their marriage. She converted to Islam and became known as ''Om Habibeh'' (Little Mother of the Beloved). In 1954, her husband bestowed upon her the title \"Mata Salamat\"\n", "He wrote a number of books and papers two of which are of immense importance, namely (1) '''''India in Transition''''', about the prepartition politics of India and (2) '''''World Enough & Time – The Memoirs of Sir Sultan Mohammed Shah, Aga Khan III''''', his autobiography.\n\nMausoleum of Aga Khan – Aswan, Egypt.\nMausoleum of Aga Khan, on the Nile.\n", "Aga Khan III was succeeded as Aga Khan by his grandson Karim Aga Khan, who is the present Imam of the Ismaili Muslims. At the time of his death on 11 July 1957, his family members were in Versoix. A solicitor brought the will of the Aga Khan III from London to Geneva and read it before the family:\n\n“Ever since the time of my ancestor Ali, the first Imam, that is to say over a period of thirteen hundred years, it has always been the tradition of our family that each Imam chooses his successor at his absolute and unfettered discretion from amongst any of his descendants, whether they be sons or remote male issue and in these circumstances and in view of the fundamentally altered conditions in the world in very recent years due to the great changes which have taken place including the discoveries of atomic science, I am convinced that it is in the best interest of the Shia Muslim Ismailia Community that I should be succeeded by a young man who has been brought up and developed during recent years and in the midst of the new age and who brings a new outlook on life to his office as Imam. For these reasons, I appoint my grandson Karim, the son of my own son, Aly Salomone Khan to succeed to the title of Aga Khan and to the Imam and Pir of all Shia Ismailian followers”\n\nHe is buried in at the Mausoleum of Aga Khan, on the Nile in Aswan, Egypt. \n\nPakistan Post issued a special 'Birth Centenary of Agha Khan III' postage stamp in his honor in 1977.\n\nPakistan Post again issued a postage stamp in his honor in its 'Pioneers of Freedom' series in 1990.\n", ";Titles and styles\n1877–1885: Sultan Muhammad Shah\n1885–1898: ''His Highness'' Agha Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III\n1898–1902: ''His Highness'' Aga Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, KCIE\n1902–1911: ''His Highness'' Aga Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, GCIE\n1911–1923: ''His Highness'' Aga Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, GCSI, GCIE\n1923–1934: ''His Highness'' Aga Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO\n1934–1955: ''His Highness'' Aga Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, PC\n1955–1957: ''His Highness'' Aga Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, GCVO, PC\n\n;Honours\n'''1 January 1934''' Appointed a member of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council by King George V\n'''21 May 1898''' Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire, KCIE\n'''26 June 1902''' Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire, GCIE\n'''12 December 1911''' Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India, GCSI\n'''30 May 1923''' Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, GCVO – ''on the occasion of the King's birthday''\n'''1 January 1955''' Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George, GCMG –\n'''1901''' First Class of the Royal Prussian Order of the Crown – ''in recognition of the valuable services rendered by His Highness to the Imperial German Government in the settlement of various matters with the Mohammedan population of German East Africa''\n", "\n Fatimids\n* Nizari\n* Aga Khan\n* Aga Khan Palace\n* Khafif\n", "\n", "* .\n* \n", "* Daftary, F., \"The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines\" Cambridge University Press, 1990.\n* Naoroji M. Dumasia, ''A Brief History of the Aga Khan'' (1903).\n* Aga Khan III, \"Memoirs of Aga Khan: World Enough and Time\", London: Cassel & Company, 1954; published same year in the United States by Simon & Schuster.\n* Edwards, Anne (1996). \"Throne of Gold: The Lives of the Aga Khans\", NY: William Morrow, 1996\n* Naoroji M. Dumasia, \"The Aga Khan and his ancestors\", New Delhi: Readworthy Publications (P) Ltd., 2008\nValliani, Amin; \"Aga Khan's Role in the Founding and Consolidation of the All India Muslim League,\" ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society'' (2007) 55# 1/2, pp 85–95.\n", "\n Video Clip from the History Channel website\n* Institute of Ismaili Studies: Selected speeches of Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah Aga Khan III\n* The Official Ismaili Website\n* Official Website of Aga Khan Development Network\n* Aga Khan materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Imamate", "Racehorse ownership and equestrianism", "Marriages and children", "Publications", "Death, succession and legacy", "Titles, styles and honours", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Additional reading", "External links" ]	Aga Khan III
[ "'''Agasias''' was the name of several different people in Classical history, including two different Greek sculptors.\n\n* Agasias of Arcadia, a warrior mentioned by Xenophon\n* Agasias, son of Dositheus, Ephesian sculptor of the Borghese Gladiator\n* Agasias, son of Menophilus, Ephesian sculptor\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Agasias
[ "\n\n\n'''Alexander Emmanuel Rodolphe Agassiz''' (December 17, 1835March 27, 1910), son of Louis Agassiz and stepson of Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, was an American scientist and engineer.\n", "Agassiz was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland and immigrated to the United States with his father, Louis, in 1849. He graduated from Harvard University in 1855, subsequently studying engineering and chemistry, and taking the degree of bachelor of science at the Lawrence scientific school of the same institution in 1857; and in 1859 became an assistant in the United States Coast Survey. \nThenceforward he became a specialist in marine ichthyology. Agassiz was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1862. Up until the summer of 1866, Agassiz worked as an assistant in the museum of natural history that his father founded at Harvard.\nAgassiz circa 1860 \nE. J. Hulbert, a friend of Agassiz's brother-in-law, Quincy Adams Shaw, had discovered a rich copper lode known as the Calumet conglomerate on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan. Hulbert persuaded them, along with a group of friends, to purchase a controlling interest in the mines, which later became known as the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company based in Calumet, Michigan. That summer, he took a trip to see the mines for himself and he afterwards became treasurer of the enterprise.\n\nOver the winter of 1866 and early 1867, mining operations began to falter, due to the difficulty of extracting copper from the conglomerate. Hulbert had sold his interests in the mines and had moved on to other ventures. But Agassiz refused to give up hope for the mines. He returned to the mines in March 1867, with his wife and young son. At that time, Calumet was a remote settlement, virtually inaccessible during the winter and very far removed from civilization even during the summer. With insufficient supplies at the mines, Agassiz struggled to maintain order, while back in Boston, Shaw was saddled with debt and the collapse of their interests. Shaw obtained financial assistance from John Simpkins, the selling agent for the enterprise to continue operations.\n\nAgassiz continued to live at Calumet, making gradual progress in stabilizing the mining operations, such that he was able to leave the mines under the control of a general manager and return to Boston in 1868 before winter closed navigation. The mines continued to prosper and in May 1871, several mines were consolidated to form the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company with Shaw as its first president. In August 1871, Shaw \"retired\" to the board of directors and Agassiz became president, a position he held until his death. Until the turn of the century, this company was by far the largest copper producer in the United States, many years producing over half of the total.\n\nAgassiz was a major factor in the mine's continued success and visited the mines twice a year. He innovated by installing a giant engine, known as the Superior, which was able to lift 24 tons of rock from a depth of . He also built a railroad and dredged a channel to navigable waters. However, after a time the mines did not require his full-time, year-round, attention and he returned to his interests in natural history at Harvard. Out of his copper fortune, he gave some US$500,000 to Harvard for the museum of comparative zoology and other purposes.\n\nShortly after the death of his father in 1873, Agassiz acquired a small peninsula in Newport, Rhode Island, which features spectacular views of Narragansett Bay. Here he built a substantial house and a laboratory for use as his summer residence. The house was completed in 1875 and today is known as the Inn at Castle Hill.\n\nIn 1875, he surveyed Lake Titicaca, Peru, examined the copper mines of Peru and Chile, and made a collection of Peruvian antiquities for the Museum of Comparative Zoology, of which he was curator from 1874 to 1885. He assisted Charles Wyville Thomson in the examination and classification of the collections of the 1872 ''Challenger'' Expedition, and wrote the ''Review of the Echini'' (2 vols., 1872–1874) in the reports. Between 1877 and 1880 he took part in the three dredging expeditions of the steamer ''Blake'' of the Coast Survey, and presented a full account of them in two volumes (1888).\n\nIn 1896 Agassiz visited Fiji and Queensland and inspected the Great Barrier Reef, publishing a paper on the subject in 1898.\n\nOf Agassiz's other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology. However, in 1865, he published with Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, his stepmother, ''Seaside Studies in Natural History'', a work at once exact and stimulating. They also published, in 1871, ''Marine Animals of Massachusetts Bay''.\n\nHe received the German Order Pour le Mérite for Science and Arts in August 1902.\n\nAgassiz served as a president of the National Academy of Sciences, which since 1913 has awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal in his memory. He died in 1910 on board the RMS ''Adriatic'' en route to New York from Southampton.\n\nHe was the father of three sons – George R. Agassiz (1861–1951), Maximilian Agassiz (1866–1943) and Rodolphe Agassiz (1871–1933).\n", "Alexander Agassiz is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of lizard, ''Anolis agassizi.\n", "Agassiz, Alexander (1863). \"List of the echinoderms sent to different institutions in exchange for other specimens, with annotations\". ''Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''1''' (2): 17-28.\nAgassiz, Elizabeth C., and Alexander Agassiz (1865). ''Seaside Studies in Natural History.'' Boston: Ticknor and Fields. \nAgassiz, Alexander (1872-1874). \"Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Harvard College. No. VII. Revision of the Echini. Parts 1-4\". ''Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''3''': 1-762. Plates\nAgassiz, Alexander (1877). \"North American starfishes\". ''Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''5''' (1): 1-136.\nAgassiz, Alexander (1881). \"Report on the Echinoidea dredged by H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876\". ''Report of the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873-76. Zoology.'' '''9''': 1-321.\nAgassiz, Alexander (1903). \"Three cruises of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer 'Blake' in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic coast of the United States, from 1877 to 1880. Vol I\". ''Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''14''': 1-314.\nAgassiz, Alexander (1903). \"Three cruises of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer 'Blake' in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic coast of the United States, from 1877 to 1880. Vol II\". ''Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''15''': 1-220.\nAgassiz, Alexander (1903). \"The coral reefs of the tropical Pacific\". ''Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''28''': 1-410. Plates I. Plates II. Plates III.\nAgassiz, Alexander (1903). \"The coral reefs of the Maldives\". ''Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''29''': 1-168. \nAgassiz, Alexander (1904). \"The Panamic deep sea Echini\". ''Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology'' '''31''': 1-243. Plates.\n", "\nAgassiz family\n", "\n", " Agassiz, George (1913). Letters and Recollections of Alexander Agassiz with a sketch of his life and work. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.\n* \n* Murray, John (1911). \" Alexander Agassiz: His Life and Scientific Work\". Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 54 (3). pp 139–158.\n\n\n \n* Publications by and about Alexander Agassiz in the catalogue Helveticat of the Swiss National Library\n* National Mining Hall of Fame: ''Alexander Agassiz''\n* \n* National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Legacy", "Publications", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alexander Agassiz
[ "\nThis painting by Anselm Feuerbach re-imagines a scene from Plato's ''Symposium'', in which the tragedian Agathon welcomes the drunken Alcibiades into his home. 1869.\n\n'''Agathon''' (; , ''gen''.: Ἀγάθωνος; BC) was an Athenian tragic poet whose works have been lost. He is best known for his appearance in Plato's ''Symposium,'' which describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for his first tragedy at the Lenaia in 416. He is also a prominent character in Aristophanes' comedy the ''Thesmophoriazusae''.\n", "Agathon was the son of Tisamenus, and the lifelong companion of Pausanias, with whom he appears in both the ''Symposium'' and Plato's ''Protagoras''. Together with Pausanias, he later moved to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon, who was recruiting playwrights; it is here that he probably died around 401 BC. Agathon introduced certain innovations into the Greek theater: Aristotle tells us in the ''Poetics'' (1456a) that the characters and plot of his ''Anthos'' were original and not, following Athenian dramatic orthodoxy, borrowed from mythological or historical subjects. Agathon was also the first playwright to write choral parts which were apparently independent from the main plot of his plays.\n\nAgathon is portrayed by Plato as a handsome young man, well dressed, of polished manners, courted by the fashion, wealth and wisdom of Athens, and dispensing hospitality with ease and refinement. The epideictic speech in praise of love which Agathon recites in the ''Symposium'' is full of beautiful but artificial rhetorical expressions, and has led some scholars to believe he may have been a student of Gorgias. In the ''Symposium,'' Agathon is presented as the friend of the comic poet Aristophanes, but this alleged friendship did not prevent Aristophanes from harshly criticizing Agathon in at least two of his comic plays: the ''Thesmophoriazousae'' and the (now lost) ''Gerytades''. In the later play ''Frogs'', Aristophanes softens his criticisms, but even so it may be only for the sake of punning on Agathon's name (ἁγαθός \"good\") that he makes Dionysus call him a \"good poet\".\n\nAgathon was also a friend of Euripides, another recruit to the court of Archelaus of Macedon.\n", "Agathon's extraordinary physical beauty is brought up repeatedly in the sources; the historian W. Rhys Roberts observes that \"ὁ καλός Ἀγάθων (''ho kalos Agathon'') has become almost a stereotyped phrase.\" The most detailed surviving description of Agathon is in the ''Thesmophoriazousae,'' in which Agathon appears as a pale, clean-shaven young man dressed in women's clothes. Scholars are unsure how much of Aristophanes' portrayal is fact and how much mere comic invention.\n\nAfter a close reading of the ''Thesmophoriazousae,'' the historian Jane McIntosh Snyder observed that Agathon's costume was almost identical to that of the famous lyric poet Anacreon, as he is portrayed in early 5th-century vase-paintings. Snyder theorizes that Agathon might have made a deliberate effort to mimic the sumptuous attire of his famous fellow-poet, although by Agathon's time, such clothing, especially the κεκρύφαλος (''kekryphalos'', an elaborate covering for the hair) had long fallen out of fashion for men. According to this interpretation, Agathon is mocked in the ''Thesmophoriazousae'' not only for his notorious effeminacy, but also for the pretentiousness of his dress: \"he seems to think of himself, in all his elegant finery, as a rival to the old Ionian poets, perhaps even to Anacreon himself.\"\n", "Agathon has been thought to be the subject of ''Lovers' Lips'', an epigram attributed to Plato:\n\n::::Kissing Agathon, I had my soul upon my lips; for it rose, poor wretch, as though to cross over.\n\nAnother translation reads:\n\n::::Kissing Agathon, I found my soul at my lips. Poor thing! It went there, hoping--to slip across.\n\nAlthough the authenticity of this epigram was accepted for many centuries, it was probably not composed for Agathon the tragedian, nor was it composed by Plato. Stylistic evidence suggests that the poem (with most of Plato's other alleged epigrams) was actually written some time after Plato had died: its form is that of the Hellenistic erotic epigram, which did not become popular until after 300 BC. According to 20th-century scholar Walther Ludwig, the poems were spuriously inserted into an early biography of Plato sometime between 250 BC and 100 BC and adopted by later writers from this source.\n", "Of Agathon's plays, only six titles and thirty-one fragments have survived:\n\n\n''Aerope''\n''Alcmeon''\n''Anthos'' or ''Antheus'' (\"The Flower\")\n''Mysoi'' (\"Mysians\")\n''Telephos'' (\"Telephus\")\n''Thyestes''\n\n\nFragments in A Nauck, ''Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta'' (1887).\n", "* μόνου γὰρ αὐτοῦ καὶ θεὸς στερίσκεται,ἀγένητα ποιεῖν ἅσσ᾽ ἂν ᾖ πεπραγμένα.\n Even God cannot change the past.\n As quoted in Aristotle, ''Nicomachean Ethics'', Book VI, sect. 2, 1139b\n** Every mammal in the world haveth at least once fed from the milk\n", "List of speakers in Plato's dialogues\n", "\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization'', volume 1, by Alfred Bates. (London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906)\n''Thesmoph.'' 59, 106, ''Eccles.'' 100 (Aristophanes)\n''Lovers' Lips'' by Plato in the Project Gutenberg eText ''Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology'' by J. W. Mackail. \n", "\n\n* Agathon Poems\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life and career", "Physical appearance", "Plato's epigram", "Known plays", "Quotations", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Agathon
[ "\nAgesilaus and Pharnabazus.\n'''Agesilaus II''' (; ''Agesilaos''; c. 444 – c. 360 BC), was a Eurypontid king of the Ancient Greek city-state of Sparta, ruling from 398 to about 360 BC, during most of which time he was, in Plutarch's words, \"as good as though commander and king of all Greece,\" and was for the whole of it greatly identified with his country's deeds and fortunes. Small in stature and lame from birth, Agesilaus became ruler somewhat unexpectedly in his mid-forties. His reign saw successful military incursions into various states in Asia Minor, as well as successes in the Corinthian War; however, several diplomatic decisions resulted in Sparta becoming increasingly isolated prior to his death at the age of 84 in Cyrenaica.\n\nHe was greatly admired by his friend, the historian Xenophon, who wrote a minor work about him titled ''Agesilaus''.\n", "\n===Early life===\nAgesilaus was the son of Archidamus II and his second wife, Eupoleia, brother to Cynisca (the first woman in ancient history to achieve an Olympic victory), and younger half-brother of Agis II.\n\nThere is little surviving detail on the youth of Agesilaus. Born with one leg shorter, he was not expected to succeed to the throne after his brother king Agis II, especially because the latter had a son (Leotychidas). Therefore, Agesilaus was trained in the traditional curriculum of Sparta, the ''agoge.'' However, Leotychidas was ultimately set aside as illegitimate (contemporary rumors representing him as the son of Alcibiades) and Agesilaus became king in 398 BC, at the age of about forty. In addition to questions of his nephew's paternity, Agesilaus' succession was largely due to the intervention of the Spartan general, Lysander, who hoped to find in him a willing tool for the furtherance of his political designs. Lysander and the young Agesilaus came to maintain an intimate relation (see Pederasty in Ancient Greece), as was common of the period. Their unique relationship would serve an important role during Agesilaus' later campaigns in Asia Minor.\n\n===Early reign===\nexpels the Illyrians from Epirus in 385 BC\nAgesilaus is first recorded as king during the suppression of the conspiracy of Cinadon, shortly after 398 BC. Then, in 396 BC, Agesilaus crossed into Asia with a force of 2,000 neodamodes (freed helots) and 6,000 allies (including 30 Spartiates) to liberate Greek cities from Persian dominion. On the eve of sailing from Aulis he attempted to offer a sacrifice, as Agamemnon had done before the Trojan expedition, but the Thebans intervened to prevent it, an insult for which he never forgave them. On his arrival at Ephesus a three months' truce was concluded with Tissaphernes, the satrap of Lydia and Caria, but negotiations conducted during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination Agesilaus raided Phrygia, where he easily won immense booty from the satrap Pharnabazus; Tissaphernes could offer no assistance, as he had concentrated his troops in Caria. In these campaigns Agesilaus also benefited from the aid of the Ten Thousand (a mercenary army), who marched through miles of Persian territory to reach the Black Sea. After spending the winter organizing a cavalry force (''hippeis''), he made a successful incursion into Lydia in the spring of 395 BC. Tithraustes was sent to replace Tissaphernes, who paid with his life for his continued failure. An armistice was concluded between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the southern satrapy and again invaded Phrygia, which he ravaged until the following spring. He then came to an agreement with Pharnabazus and once more turned southward.\n\nDuring these campaigns, Lysander attempted to manipulate Agesilaus into ceding his authority. Agesilaus, the former passive lover of Lysander, would have nothing of this, and reminded Lysander (who was only a Spartan general) who was king. He had Lysander sent away to assist the naval campaigns in the Aegean. This dominating move by Agesilaus earned the respect of his men-at-arms and of Lysander himself, who remained emotionally close with Agesilaus.\n\nIn 394 BC, while encamped on the plain of Thebe, he was planning a campaign in the interior, or even an attack on Artaxerxes II himself, when he was recalled to Greece to fight in the Corinthian War between Sparta and the combined forces of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, Argos and several minor states. (The outbreak of the conflict had been encouraged by Persian payments to Sparta's Greek rivals.) A rapid march through Thrace and Macedonia brought him to Thessaly, where he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who tried to impede him. Reinforced by Phocian and Orchomenian troops and a Spartan army, he met the confederate forces at Coronea in Boeotia and in a hotly contested battle was technically victorious. However, the Spartan baggage train was ransacked and Agesilaus himself was injured during the fighting, resulting in a subsequent retreat by way of Delphi to the Peloponnese. Shortly before this battle the Spartan navy, of which he had received the supreme command, was totally defeated off Cnidus by a powerful Persian fleet under Conon and Pharnabazus.\n\nDuring these conflicts in mainland Greece, Lysander perished while attacking the walls of Thebes. Pausanias, the second king of Sparta (see Spartan Constitution for more information on Sparta's dual monarchy), was supposed to provide Lysander with reinforcements as they marched into Boeotia, yet failed to arrive in time to assist Lysander, likely because Pausanias disliked him for his brash and arrogant attitude towards the Spartan royalty and government. Pausanias failed to fight for the bodies of the dead, and because he retrieved the bodies under truce (a sign of defeat), he was disgraced and banished from Sparta.\n\nIn 393 BC, Agesilaus engaged in a ravaging invasion of Argolis. In 392 BC he made several successful expeditions into Corinthian territory, capturing Lechaeum and Piraeus. The loss, however, of a battalion (mora), destroyed by Iphicrates, neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta. In 389 BC he conducted a campaign in Acarnania, but two years later the Peace of Antalcidas, warmly supported by Agesilaus, put an end to the war, maintaining Spartan hegemony over Greece. In this interval, Agesilaus declined command over Sparta's aggression on Mantineia, and justified Phoebidas' seizure of the Theban Cadmea so long as the outcome provided glory to Sparta.\n\n===Decline===\nWhen war broke out afresh with Thebes, Agesilaus twice invaded Boeotia (in 378 BC and 377 BC), although he spent the next five years largely out of action due to an unspecified but apparently grave illness. In the congress of 371 BC an altercation is recorded between him and the Theban general Epaminondas, and due to his influence, Thebes was peremptorily excluded from the peace, and orders given for Cleombrotus to march against Thebes in 371 BC. Cleombrotus was defeated at Leuctra and the Spartan supremacy overthrown.\n\nIn 370 BC Agesilaus was engaged in an embassy to Mantineia, and reassured the Spartans with an invasion of Arcadia. He preserved an un-walled Sparta against the revolts and conspiracies of helots, perioeci and even other Spartans; and against external enemies, with four different armies led by Epaminondas penetrating Laconia that same year. Again, in 362 BC, Epaminondas almost succeeded in seizing the city with a rapid and unexpected march. The Battle of Mantinea, in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace: Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her supremacy. According to Xenophon, Agesilaus, in order to gain money for prosecuting the war, supported the satrap Ariobarzanes II in his revolt against Artaxerxes II in 364 BC (Revolt of the Satraps), and in 361 BC he went to Egypt at the head of a mercenary force to aid the king Nectanebo I and his regent Teos against Persia. He soon transferred his services to Teos's cousin and rival Nectanebo II, who, in return for his help, gave him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus died in Cyrenaica, around the age of 84, after a reign of some 41 years. His body was embalmed in wax, and buried at Sparta.\n\nHe was succeeded by his son Archidamus III.\n", "Agesilaus was of small stature and unimpressive appearance, and was lame from birth. These facts were used as an argument against his succession, an oracle having warned Sparta against a \"lame reign.\" Most ancient writers considered him a highly successful leader in guerrilla warfare, alert and quick, yet cautious—a man, moreover, whose personal bravery was rarely questioned in his own time. Of his courage, temperance, and hardiness, many instances are cited: and to these were added the less Spartan qualities of kindliness and tenderness as a father and a friend. As examples: there is the story of his riding a stick-horse with his children and upon being discovered by a friend desiring that he not mention till he himself were the father of children; and because of the affection of his son Archidamus' for Cleonymus, he saved Sphodrias, Cleonymus' father, from execution for his incursion into the Piraeus, and dishonorable retreat, in 378 BC. Modern writers tend to be slightly more critical of Agesilaus' reputation and achievements, reckoning him an excellent soldier, but one who had a poor understanding of sea power and siegecraft.\n\nAs a statesman he won himself both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies. Agesilaus was most successful in the opening and closing periods of his reign: commencing but then surrendering a glorious career in Asia; and in extreme age, maintaining his prostrate country. Other writers acknowledge his extremely high popularity at home, but suggest his occasionally rigid and arguably irrational political loyalties and convictions contributed greatly to Spartan decline, notably his unremitting hatred of Thebes, which led to Sparta's humiliation at the Battle of Leuctra and thus the end of Spartan hegemony. Historian J. B. Bury remarks that \"there is something melancholy about his career:\" born into a Sparta that was was the unquestioned continental power of Hellas, the Sparta which mourned him eighty four years later had suffered a series of military defeats which would have been unthinkable to his forbears, had seen its population severely decline, and had run so short of money that its soldiers were increasingly sent on campaigns fought more for money than for defense or glory.\n\nOther historical accounts paint Agesilaus as a prototype for the ideal leader. His awareness, thoughtfulness, and wisdom were all traits to be emulated diplomatically, while his bravery and shrewdness in battle epitomized the heroic Greek commander. These historians point towards the unstable oligarchies established by Lysander in the former Athenian Empire and the failures of Spartan leaders (such as Pausanias and Kleombrotos) for the eventually suppression of Spartan power. The ancient historian Xenophon was a huge admirer and served under Agesilaus during the campaigns into Asia Minor.\n\nPlutarch includes among his 78 essays and speeches comprising the apophthegmata Agesilaus' letter to the ephors on his recall:\n\n\nAnd when asked whether he wanted a memorial erected in his honor:\n\n\n\nHe lived in the most frugal style alike at home and in the field, and though his campaigns were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had set forth.\n\n===Selected quotes===\nWhen someone was praising an orator for his ability to magnify small points, he said, \"In my opinion it's not a good cobbler who fits large shoes on small feet.\"\n\nAnother time he watched a mouse being pulled from its hole by a small boy. When the mouse turned around, bit the hand of its captor and escaped, he pointed this out to those present and said, \"When the tiniest creature defends itself like this against aggressors, what ought men to do, do you reckon?\"\n\nCertainly when somebody asked what gain the laws of Lycurgus had brought Sparta, he answered, \"Contempt for pleasures.\"\n\nAsked once how far Sparta's boundaries stretched, he brandished his spear and said, \"As far as this can reach.\"\n\nOn noticing a house in Asia roofed with square beams, he asked the owner whether timber grew square in that area. When told no, it grew round, he said, \"What then? If it were square, would you make it round?\"\n\nInvited to hear an actor who could perfectly imitate the nightingale, Agesilaus declined, saying he had heard the nightingale itself.\n", "Chabrias\nCynisca\nLaconic phrase\n", "\n\n", "Cartledge, Paul. ''Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.\nCawkwell, G.L. \"Agesilaus and Sparta.\" ''The Classical Quarterly'' 26 (1976): 62-84.\nDavid, Ephraim. ''Sparta Between Empire and Revolution (404-243 BC): Internal Problems and Their Impact on Contemporary Greek Consciousness.'' New York: Arno Press, 1981.\nForrest, W.G. ''A History of Sparta, 950-192 B.C.'' 2d ed. London: Duckworth, 1980.\nHamilton, Charles D. ''Agesilaus and the Failure of Spartan Hegemony.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991.\nHamilton, Charles D. ''Sparta's Bitter Victories: Politics and Diplomacy in the Corinthian War.'' Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979.\nPlutarch. '' Agesilaus''. In ''Plutarch's Lives'', Translated by Bernadotte Perrin, 11 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959-1967.\nWylie, Graham, \"Agesilaus and the Battle of Sardis\" ''Klio'' 74 (1992): 118-130.\n*Xenophon. ''A History of My Times (Hellenica)'', Translated by George Cawkwell. Boston: Penguin Books, 1966.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Legacy", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ]	Agesilaus II
[ "'''Agis''' or '''AGIS''' may refer to:\n", "* Agis I (died 900 BC), Spartan king\n* Agis II (died 401 BC), Spartan king\n* Agis III (died 331 BC), Spartan king\n* Agis IV (265–241 BC), Spartan king\n* Agis (Paeonian) (died 358 BC), King of the Paeonians\n* Agis of Argos, ancient Greek poet\n* Maurice Agis (1931–2009), British sculptor and artist\n* Agis, several fictional Emperors of Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire\n", "* ''Agis'' (play), by John Home\n* Action for Global Information Sharing\n* Apex Global Internet Services\n* Atomic gravitational wave interferometric sensor\n* Advanced Glaucoma Intervention Study, conducted by the National Eye Institute\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " People ", " Other " ]	Agis
[ "Antonio Agliardi. \nCoat of arms of Antonio Agliardi\n'''Antonio Agliardi''' (4 September 183219 March 1915) was an Italian Roman Catholic Cardinal, archbishop, and papal diplomat.\n", "Agliardi was born at Cologno al Serio, in what is now the Province of Bergamo.\n\nHe studied theology and canon law, and after acting as parish priest in his native diocese for twelve years was sent by the pope to Canada as a bishop's chaplain. On his return he was appointed secretary to the Congregation of the Propaganda.\n\nIn 1884, he was created by Pope Leo XIII Archbishop of Caesarea ''in partibus'' and sent to India as an Apostolic Delegate to report on the establishment of the hierarchy there.\n\nIn 1887 he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the concordat arranged with Portugal. The same year he was appointed secretary of the Congregation ''super negotiis ecclesiae extraordinariis''. In 1889 he became papal Apostolic Nuncio to Bavaria at Munich and in 1892 at Vienna. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical disputes that divided Hungary in 1895, he was made the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government and in 1896 was recalled.\n\nIn the consistory of 1896 he was elevated to Cardinal-Priest of ''Santi Nereo e Achilleo''. In 1899 he was made Cardinal Bishop of Albano.\nIn 1903, he was named vice-chancellor of the Catholic Church, and became the Chancellor of the Apostolic Chancery in the Secretariat of State in 1908.\n\nHe died in Rome and was buried in Bergamo.\n", "\n", "\n\n", "* Catholic-Hierarchy.org\n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Antonio Agliardi
[ "\n\n'''Agnes Maria of Andechs-Merania''' (died 1201) was a Queen of France. She is called Marie by some of the French chroniclers.\n", "Agnes Maria was the daughter of Berthold, Duke of Merania, who was Count of Andechs, a castle and territory near Ammersee, Bavaria. Her mother was Agnes of Rochlitz. \n\nIn June 1196 Agnes married Philip II of France, who had repudiated his second wife Ingeborg of Denmark in 1193. Pope Innocent III espoused the cause of Ingeborg; but Philip did not submit until 1200, when, nine months after interdict had been added to excommunication, he consented to a separation from Agnes.\n\nAgnes died broken-hearted in July of the next year, at the castle of Poissy, and was buried in the Convent of St Corentin, near Nantes.\n", "Agnes and Philip had two children: Philip I, Count of Boulogne and Mary, were legitimized by the Pope in 1201 at the request of the King. Little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the remarkable influence which she seems to have exercised over Philip.\n", "She has been made the heroine of a tragedy by François Ponsard, ''Agnès de Méranie'', and of an opera by Vincenzo Bellini, ''La straniera''.\n", "\n", "* Endnotes:\n**See The notes of Robert Davidsohn in Philipp II. August von Frankreich und Ingeborg (Stuttgart, 1888). A genealogical notice is furnished by the Chronicon of the monk Alberic (Aubry) of Fontaines, (Albericus Trium Fontium) in Pertz, Scriptores, vol. xxiii. pp. 872 f., and by the Genealogia Wettinensis, ibid. p. 229.\n", "\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Family", "Artistic representation", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Agnes of Merania
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Vipsania Agrippina''', most commonly known as '''Agrippina Major''' or '''Agrippina the Elder''' (''Major'' Latin for ''the elder'', Classical Latin: AGRIPPINA•GERMANICI, 14 BC – 17 October AD 33), was a distinguished and prominent Roman woman of the first century. Agrippina was the wife of the general and statesman Germanicus and a relative to the first Roman Emperors.\n\nShe was the second granddaughter of the Emperor Augustus, sister-in-law, stepdaughter and daughter-in-law of the Emperor Tiberius, mother of the Emperor Caligula, maternal second cousin and sister-in-law of the Emperor Claudius and the maternal grandmother of the Emperor Nero.\n", "Agrippina was born as the second daughter and fourth child to Roman statesman and Augustus’ ally Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. Agrippina’s mother Julia was the only natural child born to Augustus from his second marriage to noblewoman Scribonia.\n\nHer father’s marriage to Julia was his third marriage. From Agrippa’s previous two marriages, Agrippina had at least two half-sisters: Vipsania Agrippina and Vipsania Marcella Agrippina (although Suet. ''Div. Aug.'' 63 implies more). Vipsania Agrippina was Agrippa’s second child from his first marriage to Pomponia Caecilia Attica (known from Nep. ''Att.'' 19.) She became Tiberius's first wife and was the mother of his natural son Drusus Julius Caesar.\n\nVipsania Agrippina later married senator and consul Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus after Tiberius was forced to divorce her and marry Julia the Elder. Less well known is Agrippa’s oldest daughter - Vipsania Marcella. She was the first wife Publius Quinctilius Varus. Agrippa likely had more children, some of whom did not survive, from his second marriage to Augustus’ niece and (paternal) cousin to Julia the Elder, Claudia Marcella Major. No son is attested, but a daughter is possibly the mother of Dec. Haterius Agrippa (cos. AD 22, called a relative of Germanicus by Tac. ''Ann.'' 2.49).\n\nHer mother’s marriage to Agrippa was her second marriage, as Julia the Elder was widowed from her first marriage, to her paternal cousin Marcus Claudius Marcellus and they had no children. From the marriage of Julia and Agrippa, Agrippina had four full-blood siblings: a sister Julia the Younger and three brothers: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar and Agrippa Postumus. Agrippina was born in Athens, as in the year of her birth Agrippa was in that city completing official duties on behalf of Augustus. Her mother and her siblings had traveled with Agrippa. Later Agrippina’s family returned to Rome.\n\nIn 12 BC, Agrippina’s father died. Augustus had forced his first stepson Tiberius to end his happy first marriage to Vipsania Agrippina to marry Julia the Elder. The marriage of Julia and Tiberius was not a happy one. In 2 BC Augustus exiled Agrippina’s mother on the grounds that she had committed adultery, thereby causing a major scandal. Julia was banished for her remaining years and Agrippina never saw her again. Tiberius had left Rome for the Greek island of Rhodes ca. 6 BC allegedly to avoid any scandal. In his absence, Augustus arranged the divorce between Tiberius and Julia and sent word of it to Rhodes.\n\nWith her siblings, Agrippina was raised in Rome by her maternal grandfather and maternal step-grandmother Livia Drusilla. Livia was the first Roman Empress and was Augustus’ second (or third) wife (Augustus briefly had a child bride). Livia had two sons by her first marriage to praetor Tiberius Nero: the future emperor Tiberius and the general Nero Claudius Drusus.\n\nAccording to Suetonius, as a member of the imperial family, Agrippina was expected to display frugality, chastity and domesticity, all traditional virtues for a noble Roman woman. Agrippina and Augustus had a close relationship.\n", "Portrait of Agrippina found in Pergamon, İstanbul Archaeology Museums\n\nBetween 1 BC and AD 5, Agrippina married her second maternal cousin Germanicus was the first son born to Antonia Minor and Nero Claudius Drusus. Antonia Minor was the second daughter born to Octavia Minor and triumvir Mark Antony, hence Antonia’s maternal uncle was Augustus. Germanicus was a popular general and politician. Augustus ordered Tiberius to adopt Germanicus as his son and heir. Germanicus was always favored by his great uncle and hoped that he would succeed Tiberius, who had been adopted by Augustus as his heir and successor. Agrippina and Germanicus were devoted to each other. She was a loyal, affectionate wife, who supported her husband. The Roman historian Tacitus states that Agrippina had an ‘impressive record as wife and mother’.\n\nAgrippina and Germanicus in their union had nine children, of whom three died young. The six children who survived to adulthood were the sons: Nero Julius Caesar, Drusus Caesar and Caligula (Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus) and the daughters Agrippina the Younger (Julia Agrippina), Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. Caligula would become future Roman Emperor. Agrippina the Younger would become a future Roman Empress and mother to the later Emperor Nero. Their children were born at various places throughout the Roman Empire and Agrippina acquired a well-deserved reputation for successful childbearing. Eventually Agrippina was proud of her large family and this was a part of the reason she was popular with Roman citizens.\n\nAccording to Suetonius who had cited from Pliny the Elder, Agrippina had borne to Germanicus, a son called Gaius Julius Caesar who had a lovable character. This son died young. The child was born at Treveri, near the village of Ambitarvium, just before the junction of the Moselle River and the Rhine River (modern Koblenz, Germany). At this spot, there were local altars inscribed as a dedication to Agrippina: “IN HONOR OF AGRIPPINA’S PUERPERIUM”.\n\nGermanicus was a candidate for future succession and had won fame campaigning in Germania and Gaul. During the military campaigns, Agrippina accompanied Germanicus with their children. Agrippina’s actions were considered unusual as for a Roman wife, because a conventional Roman wife was required to stay home. Agrippina had earned herself a reputation as a heroic woman and wife. During her time in Germania, Agrippina had proved herself to be an efficient and effective diplomat. Agrippina had reminded Germanicus on occasion of his relation to Augustus.\n\nA few months before Augustus’ death in 14, the emperor wrote and sent a letter to Agrippina mentioning a child who must be future emperor Caligula because at that time, no other child had this name.\n\nThe letter reads:\n\n\n''Agrippina landing at Brundisium with the ashes of Germanicus'', (1768, Benjamin West, oil on canvas).In art, Agrippina has served as a symbol of marital devotion and fidelity.\nAgrippina and Germanicus travelled to the Middle East in 19, incurring the displeasure of Tiberius. Germanicus quarreled with Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, the governor of Syria and died in Antioch in mysterious circumstances. It was widely suspected that Germanicus had been poisoned, perhaps on the orders of Tiberius, with Agrippina believing he was assassinated. Agrippina was in grief when Germanicus died. She returned with her children to Italy with Germanicus’ ashes. The Roman citizens had great sympathy for Agrippina and her family. She returned to Rome to avenge his death and boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus. According to Tacitus (''Annals'' 3.14.1), the prosecution could not prove the poisoning charge, but other charges of treason seemed likely to stick and Piso committed suicide.\n", "Roman Bronze Coin\n''Caligula Depositing the Ashes of his Mother and Brother in the Tomb of his Ancestors'', by Eustache Le Sueur, 1647\nFrom 19 to 29, Agrippina lived on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Her remaining children were raised between her, Livia Drusilla and Germanicus’ mother Antonia Minor. Agrippina had become lonely, distressed, physically ill and many of her relatives had died. Agrippina had a hasty, uncomfortable relationship with Tiberius and possibly with Tiberius’ mother Livia. She became involved in politics in Tiberius’ imperial court, became an advocate for her sons to succeed Tiberius, and opposed Tiberius’ natural son and natural grandson Tiberius Gemellus for succession.\n\nShe was unwise in her complaints about Germanicus’ death to Tiberius. Tiberius took Agrippina by her hand and quoted the Greek line: “And if you are not queen, my dear, have I then done you wrong?”\n\nAgrippina became involved in a group of Roman Senators who opposed the growing power and influence of the notorious Praetorian Guard Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius began to distrust Agrippina. In 26, Agrippina requested Tiberius to allow her to marry her brother-in-law, Roman Senator Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus. However, Tiberius didn’t allow her to marry Saloninus, because of political implications the marriage could have.\n\nTiberius carefully staged to invite Agrippina to dinner at the imperial palace. At dinner, Tiberius offered Agrippina an apple as a test of Agrippina’s feelings for the emperor. Agrippina had suspected that the apple could be poisoned and refused to taste the apple. This was the last time that Tiberius invited Agrippina to his dinner table. Agrippina later stated that Tiberius tried to poison her.\n\nCinerary urn of Agrippina, in the tabularium\nIn 29, Agrippina and her sons Nero and Drusus, were arrested on the orders of Tiberius. Tiberius falsely accused Agrippina of planning to take sanctuary besides the image of Augustus or with the Roman Army abroad. Agrippina and her sons were put on trial by the Roman Senate. She was banished on Tiberius’ orders to the island of Pandataria (now called Ventotene) in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the coast of Campania. This was the island where her mother was banished.\n\nIn prison at Pandataria, Agrippina protested violently. On one occasion, Tiberius ordered a guard to flog her. During the flogging Agrippina would lose an eye. Refusing to eat, Agrippina was force-fed but later starved herself to death. Tacitus however leaves open the possibility that she was deprived of nourishment while in prison and her death was not voluntary. S died on 17 October 33. Agrippina’s son Drusus died of starvation while imprisoned in Rome and Nero committed suicide soon after the trial. The notorious guard Sejanus was murdered in 31 on the orders of Tiberius. Tiberius suspected Sejanus of plotting to overthrow the emperor.\n\nAfter her death, Tiberius slandered her name and had the senate declare that her birth date was a date of bad omen.\n\nIn March 37, Tiberius died and Agrippina’s remaining son Caligula succeeded as emperor. After Caligula delivered Tiberius’ eulogy, Caligula sailed to Pandataria and the Pontine Islands and returned with the ashes of his mother and brother Nero. Caligula returned with their ashes in urns in his own hands.\n\nAs proof of devotion to his family, Caligula arranged the most distinguished soldiers available to carry the urns of his mother and two brothers in two biers at noon in Rome, when the streets were at their busiest, to the Mausoleum of Augustus. A bronze medal on display in the British Museum shows Agrippina’s ashes being brought back to Rome by Caligula.\n\nGaius (Caligula) had a posthumous sestertius (bronze coin) struck of his mother Agrippina the Elder, minted at Rome probably in 40-1 AD. The portrait is of Agrippina's draped bust right, wearing her hair in a long plait. The text reads AGRIPPINA M F MAT C CAESARIS AVGVSTI. On the reverse, a covered carriage or carpentum with the legend SPQR MEMORIAE AGRIPPINAE.\n\nCaligula appointed an annual day each year in Rome, for people to offer funeral sacrifices to honor their late relatives. As a dedication to Agrippina, Caligula set aside the Circus Games to honor the memory of his late mother. On the day that the Circus Games occurred, Caligula had a statue made of Agrippina’s image to be paraded in a covered carriage at the Games.\n\nAfter the Circus Games, Caligula ordered written evidence of the court cases from Tiberius’ treason trials to be brought to the Forum to be burnt, first being the cases of Agrippina and her two sons.\n\n===The historians===\nAccording to Suetonius, Caligula nursed a rumor that Augustus and Julia the Elder had an incestuous union from which Agrippina the Elder had been born. According to Tacitus, Agrippina’s eldest daughter Agrippina the Younger had written memoirs for posterity. One memoir was an account of her mother’s life. A second memoir was about the fortunes of her mother’s family and the last memoir recorded the misfortunes (casus suorum) of the family of Agrippina and Germanicus. Unfortunately these memoirs are now lost.\n", "Agrippina is regarded in ancient and modern historical sources as a Roman Matron with a reputation as a great woman, who had an excellent character and had outstanding Roman morals. She was a dedicated, supporting wife and mother who looked out for the interests of her children and the future of her family.\n\nHer personality and conduct did however receive a certain amount of criticism. Her practice of accompanying Germanicus on campaigns was considered inappropriate, and her tendency to take command in these situations was viewed with suspicion as subversively masculine. Tacitus described her as “determined and rather excitable” - \"Agrippina knew no feminine weaknesses. Intolerant of rivalry, thirsting for power, she had a man's preoccupations\". Throughout her life, Agrippina always prized her descent from Augustus, upbraiding Tiberius for persecuting the blood of his predecessor; Tacitus, in writing of the occasion, believed this behaviour to be part of the beginning of \"the chain of events leading to Agrippina's end.\"\n", "She was the first Roman woman of the Roman Empire to have travelled with her husband to Roman military campaigns; to support and live with the Roman Legions. Agrippina was the first Roman matron to have more than one child from her family to reign on the Roman throne. Apart from being the late maternal grandmother of Nero, she was the late paternal grandmother of Princess Julia Drusilla, the child of Caligula. Through Nero, Agrippina was the paternal great-grandmother of Claudia Augusta, (Nero's only child through his second marriage to Poppaea Sabina).\n\nFrom the memoirs written by Agrippina the Younger, Tacitus used the memoirs to extract information regarding the family and fate of Agrippina the Elder, when Tacitus was writing The Annals. There is a surviving portrait of Agrippina the Elder in the Capitoline Museums in Rome.\n\nAgrippina is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece ''The Dinner Party'', being represented as one of the 999 names on the ''Heritage Floor.'' She was played by Fiona Walker in the 1976 TV serial ''I, Claudius''.\n", "\n\n\n", "Julio-Claudian Family Tree\nSuetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars''\nGaius Silius\nTacitus, ''Annals'' i.–vi.\n", "\n", "\n===Ancient sources===\n* Suetonius, ''De vita Casearum'' (On the Life of the Caesars) ''Augustus'', ''Tiberius iii.52.3, 53'' and ''Caligula iv.23.1''\n* Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome\n\n===Secondary sources===\n* Robin Seager, Tiberius, London (Eyre Methuen) 1972\n* (ed.), ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani'', 3 vol., Berlin, 1897–1898. (PIR1)\n* Microsoft Encarta Encyclopaedia 2002\n* Roman-emperors.org\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Family and early life", "Life with Germanicus", "Time in Rome, downfall and posthumous honors", "Personality", "Legacy", "Ancestry", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Agrippina the Elder
[ "\n\n'''Julia Agrippina''', most commonly referred to as '''Agrippina Minor''' or '''Agrippina the Younger''', and after AD 50 known as '''Julia Augusta Agrippina''' (''Minor''; Latin for the \"younger\"; 6 November 15 – 19/23 March 59), was a Roman Empress and one of the more prominent women in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. She was a great-granddaughter of the Emperor Augustus, great-niece and adoptive granddaughter of the Emperor Tiberius, sister of the Emperor Caligula, niece and fourth wife of the Emperor Claudius, and mother of the Emperor Nero.\n\nAgrippina the Younger has been described by ancient sources and modern scholars as ruthless, ambitious, violent, and domineering. She was a beautiful and reputable woman and according to Pliny the Elder, she had a double canine in her upper right jaw, a sign of good fortune. Many ancient historians accuse Agrippina of poisoning Emperor Claudius, though accounts vary.\n", "\nAgrippina was the first daughter and fourth living child of Agrippina the Elder and Germanicus. She had three elder brothers, Nero Caesar, Drusus Caesar and the future Emperor Caligula, and two younger sisters, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. Agrippina's two elder brothers and her mother were victims of the intrigues of the Praetorian Prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus.\n\nShe was the namesake of her mother. Agrippina the Elder was remembered as a modest and heroic matron, who was the second daughter and fourth child of Julia the Elder and the statesman Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. The father of Julia the Elder was the Emperor Augustus, and Julia was his only natural child from his second marriage to Scribonia, who had close blood relations with Pompey the Great and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Maternally, Agrippina descended directly from Augustus.\n\nGermanicus, Agrippina's father, was a very popular general and politician. His mother was Antonia Minor and his father was the general Nero Claudius Drusus. He was Antonia Minor's first child. Germanicus had two younger siblings; a sister, named Livilla, and a brother, the future Emperor Claudius. Claudius was Agrippina's paternal uncle and third husband.\n\nAntonia Minor was a daughter to Octavia the Younger by her second marriage to triumvir Mark Antony, and Octavia was the second eldest sister and full-blooded sister of Augustus. Germanicus' father, Drusus the Elder, was the second son of the Empress Livia Drusilla by her first marriage to praetor Tiberius Nero, and was the Emperor Tiberius's younger brother and Augustus's stepson. In the year 9, Augustus ordered and forced Tiberius to adopt Germanicus, who happened to be Tiberius's nephew, as his son and heir. Germanicus was a favorite of his great-uncle Augustus, who hoped that Germanicus would succeed his uncle Tiberius, who was Augustus's own adopted son and heir. This in turn meant that Tiberius was also Agrippina's adoptive grandfather in addition to her paternal great-uncle.\n", "Agrippina was born on 6 November AD 15 or possibly 14, at Oppidum Ubiorum, a Roman outpost on the Rhine River located in present-day Cologne, Germany. A second sister Julia Drusilla was born on 16 September AD 16, also in Germany. As a small child, Agrippina travelled with her parents throughout Germany (AD 15-16) until she and her siblings (apart from Caligula) returned to Rome to live with and be raised by their maternal grandmother Antonia. Her parents departed for Syria in AD 18 to conduct official duties, and, according to Tacitus, the third and youngest sister was born en route on the island of Lesbos, namely Julia Livilla, probably in March AD 18. In October AD 19, Germanicus died suddenly in Antioch (modern Antakya, Turkey).\n\nGermanicus' death caused much public grief in Rome, and gave rise to rumors that he had been murdered by Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso and Munatia Plancina on the orders of Tiberius, as his widow Agrippina the Elder returned to Rome with his ashes. Agrippina the Younger was thereafter supervised by her mother, her paternal grandmother Antonia Minor, and her great-grandmother, Livia, all of them notable, influential, and powerful figures from whom she learnt how to survive. She lived on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Her great-uncle Tiberius had already become emperor and the head of the family after the death of Augustus in 14.\n", "Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus\nAfter her thirteenth birthday in 28, Tiberius arranged for Agrippina to marry her paternal first cousin once removed Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and ordered the marriage to be celebrated in Rome. Domitius came from a distinguished family of consular rank. Through his mother Antonia Major, Domitius was a great nephew of Augustus, first cousin to Claudius, and first cousin once removed to Agrippina and Caligula. He had two sisters; Domitia Lepida the Elder and Domitia Lepida the Younger. Domitia Lepida the Younger was the mother of the Empress Valeria Messalina.\n\nAntonia Major was the elder sister to Antonia Minor, and the first daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. According to Suetonius, Domitius was a wealthy man with a despicable and dishonest character, who, according to Suetonius, was \"a man who was in every aspect of his life detestable\" and served as consul in 32. Agrippina and Domitius lived between Antium (modern Anzio and Nettuno) and Rome. Not much is known about the relationship between them.\n", "During the reign of Caligula, coins like the one pictured here were issued depicting his three sisters, Drusilla, Livilla, and Agrippina the Younger\n\nTiberius died on March 16, 37, and Agrippina's only surviving brother, Caligula, became the new emperor. Being the emperor's sister gave Agrippina some influence.\n\nAgrippina and her younger sisters Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla received various honours from their brother, which included but were not limited to:\n\n* They were given the rights of the Vestal Virgins like the freedom to view public games from the upper seats in the stadium.\n* Coins were issued depicting images of Caligula and his sisters. Roman coins like these were never issued beforehand. The coins depicted Caligula on one side and his sisters on the opposite.\n* Caligula added his sister's names to motions. In loyalty oaths, it was, \"I will not value my life or that of my children less highly than I do the safety of the Emperor and his sisters,\" or, if in consular motions: \"Good fortune attend to the Emperor and his sisters.\"\n\nAround the time that Tiberius died, Agrippina had become pregnant. Domitius had acknowledged the paternity of the child. In the early morning hours in Antium of December 15, 37, Agrippina gave birth to a son. Agrippina and Domitius named their son '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', after the Domitius' recently deceased father. This child would grow up to become the Emperor Nero. Nero was Agrippina's only natural child. Suetonius states that Domitius was congratulated by friends on the birth of his son, whereupon he replied \"I don't think anything produced by me and Agrippina could possibly be good for the state or the people\".\n\nCaligula and his sisters were accused of having incestuous relationships. On June 10, 38, Drusilla died, possibly of a fever, rampant in Rome at the time. He was particularly fond of Drusilla, claiming to treat her as he would his own wife, even though Drusilla had a husband. Following her death Caligula showed no special love or respect toward the surviving sisters and was said to have gone insane.\n\nIn 39, Agrippina and Livilla, with their maternal cousin, Drusilla's widower Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, were involved in a failed plot to murder Caligula, a plot known as the ''Plot of the Three Daggers'', which was to make Lepidus the new emperor. Lepidus, Agrippina and Livilla were accused of being lovers. Not much is known concerning this plot and the reasons behind it. At the trial of Lepidus, Caligula felt no compunction about denouncing them as adulteresses, producing handwritten letters discussing how they were going to kill him.\n\n=== Exile ===\nLepidus was executed. Agrippina and Livilla were exiled by their brother to the Pontine Islands. Caligula sold their furniture, jewellery, slaves and freedmen. In January 40 Domitius died of edema (dropsy) at Pyrgi. Lucius had gone to live with his second paternal aunt Domitia Lepida the Younger after Caligula had taken his inheritance away from him.\n\nCaligula, his wife Milonia Caesonia and their daughter Julia Drusilla were murdered on January 24, 41. Agrippina's paternal uncle, Claudius, brother of her father Germanicus, became the new Roman Emperor.\n", "\n===Return from exile===\nMessalina holding her son Britannicus (Louvre)\nClaudius lifted the exiles of Agrippina and Livilla. Livilla returned to her husband, while Agrippina was reunited with her estranged son. After the death of her first husband, Agrippina tried to make shameless advances to the future emperor Galba, who showed no interest in her and was devoted to his wife Aemilia Lepida. On one occasion, Galba's mother-in-law gave Agrippina, in a whole bevy of married women, a public reprimand and a slap in the face.\n\nClaudius had Lucius' inheritance reinstated. Lucius became more wealthy despite his youth shortly after Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus divorced Lucius' aunt, Domitia Lepida the Elder (Lucius' first paternal aunt) so that Crispus could marry Agrippina. They married, and Crispus became a step-father to Lucius. Crispus was a prominent, influential, witty, wealthy and powerful man, who served twice as consul. He was the adopted grandson and biological great-great-nephew of the historian Sallust. Little is known on their relationship, but Crispus soon died and left his estate to Nero.\n\nIn the first years of Claudius' reign, Claudius was married to the infamous Empress Valeria Messalina. Although Agrippina was very influential, she kept a very low profile and stayed away from the imperial palace and the court of the emperor. Messalina was Agrippina's second paternal cousin. Among the victims of Messalina's intrigues were Agrippina's surviving sister Livilla, who was charged with having adultery with Seneca the Younger. Seneca was later called back from exile to be a tutor to Nero.\n\nMessalina considered Agrippina's son a threat to her son's position and sent assassins to strangle Lucius during his siesta. The assassins fled in terror when they saw a snake suddenly dart from beneath Lucius' pillow—but it was only a sloughed-off snake-skin in his bed, near his pillow.\n\nIn 47, Crispus died, and at his funeral, the rumor spread around that Agrippina poisoned Crispus to gain his estate. After being widowed a second time, Agrippina was left very wealthy. Later that year at the Secular Games, at the performance of the Troy Pageant, Messalina attended the event with her son Britannicus. Agrippina was also present with Lucius. Agrippina and Lucius received greater applause from the audience than Messalina and Britannicus did. Many people began to show pity and sympathy to Agrippina, due to the unfortunate circumstances in her life. Agrippina wrote a memoir that recorded the misfortunes of her family (casus suorum) and wrote an account of her mother's life.\n\n===Rise to power===\nAfter Messalina was executed in 48 for conspiring with Gaius Silius to overthrow her husband, Claudius considered remarrying for the fourth time. Around this time, Agrippina became the mistress to one of Claudius' advisers, the former Greek Freedman Marcus Antonius Pallas. At that time Claudius' advisers were discussing which noblewoman Claudius should marry. Claudius had a reputation that he was easily persuaded. In more recent times, it has been suggested that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage between Agrippina and Claudius to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches. This feud dated back to Agrippina's mother's actions against Tiberius after the death of Germanicus, actions which Tiberius had gladly punished.\n\nClaudius made references to her in his speeches: \"my daughter and foster child, born and bred, in my lap, so to speak\". When Claudius decided to marry her, he persuaded a group of senators that the marriage should be arranged in the public interest. In Roman society, an uncle (Claudius) marrying his niece (Agrippina) was considered incestuous, and obviously immoral.\n\n==== Marriage to Claudius ====\nAgrippina and Claudius married on New Year's Day, 49. This marriage caused widespread disapproval. This was a part of Agrippina's scheming plan to make Lucius the new emperor. Her marriage to Claudius was not based on love, but on power. She quickly eliminated her rival Lollia Paulina. In 49, shortly after marrying Claudius, Agrippina charged Paulina with black magic. Paulina did not receive a hearing. Her property was confiscated. She left Italy and, on Agrippina's orders, committed suicide.\n\nIn the months leading up to her marriage to Claudius, Agrippina's maternal second cousin, the praetor Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus, was betrothed to Claudius' daughter Claudia Octavia. This betrothal was broken off in 48 when Agrippina, scheming with the consul Lucius Vitellius the Elder, the father of the future Emperor Aulus Vitellius, falsely accused Silanus of incest with his sister Junia Calvina. Agrippina did this hoping to secure a marriage between Octavia and her son. Consequently, Claudius broke off the engagement and forced Silanus to resign from public office.\n\nSilanus committed suicide on the day that Agrippina married her uncle, and Calvina was exiled from Italy in early 49. Calvina was called back from exile after the death of Agrippina. Towards the end of 54, Agrippina would order the murder of Silanus' eldest brother Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus without Nero's knowledge, so that he would not seek revenge against her over his brother's death.\n", "\nOn the day that Agrippina married her uncle Claudius as her third husband/his fourth wife, she became an Empress and the most powerful woman in the Roman Empire. She also was a stepmother to Claudia Antonia, Claudius' daughter and only child from his second marriage to Aelia Paetina, and to the young Claudia Octavia and Britannicus, Claudius' children with Valeria Messalina. Agrippina removed or eliminated anyone from the palace or the imperial court who she thought was loyal and dedicated to the memory of the late Messalina. She also eliminated or removed anyone who she considered was a potential threat to her position and the future of her son, one of her victims being Lucius' second paternal aunt and Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida the Younger.\n\nIn 49, Agrippina was seated on a dais at a parade of captives when their leader the Celtic King Caratacus bowed before her with the same homage and gratitude as he accorded the emperor. In 50, Agrippina was granted the honorific title of Augusta. She was only the third Roman woman (Livia Drusilla and Antonia Minor received this title) and only the second living Roman woman (the first being Antonia) to receive this title.\n\nAlso that year, Claudius had founded a Roman colony and called the colony ''Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensis'' or ''Agrippinensium'', today known as Cologne, after Agrippina who was born there. This colony was the only Roman colony to be named after a Roman woman. In 51, she was given a ''carpentum'' which she used. A carpentum was a sort of ceremonial carriage usually reserved for priests, such as the Vestal Virgins, and sacred statues. That same year she appointed Sextus Afranius Burrus as the head of the Praetorian Guard, replacing the previous head of the Praetorian Guard, Rufrius Crispinus.\n\nAncient sources claim that Agrippina successfully manipulated and influenced Claudius into adopting her son and having him become his successor. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus in 50 was adopted by his great maternal uncle and stepfather. Lucius' name was changed to '''Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus''' and he became Claudius's adopted son, heir and recognised successor. Agrippina and Claudius betrothed Nero to Octavia, and Agrippina arranged to have Seneca the Younger return from exile to tutor the future emperor. Claudius chose to adopt Nero because of his Julian and Claudian lineage.\n\nAgrippina deprived Britannicus of his heritage and further isolated him from his father and succession for the throne in every way possible. For instance, in 51, Agrippina ordered the execution of Britannicus' tutor Sosibius because he had confronted her and was outraged by Claudius' adoption of Nero and his choice of Nero as successor, instead of choosing his own son Britannicus.\n\nNero and Octavia were married on June 9, 53. Claudius later repented of marrying Agrippina and adopting Nero, began to favor Britannicus, and started preparing him for the throne. His actions allegedly gave Agrippina a motive to eliminate Claudius. The ancient sources say she poisoned Claudius on October 13, 54 with a plate of deadly mushrooms at a banquet, thus enabling Nero to quickly take the throne as emperor. Accounts vary wildly with regard to this private incident and according to more modern sources, it is possible (but exceedingly convenient) that Claudius died of natural causes; Claudius was 63 years old.\n", "\n===Power struggle between mother and son===\nSculpture of Agrippina crowning her young son Nero (c. 54–59 AD)\nMarble bust of Nero. Antiquarium of the Palatine.\nAgrippina was named a priestess of the cult of the deified Claudius. She was allowed to visit senate meetings, watching and hearing the meetings from behind a curtain. \n\nIn the first months of Nero's reign Agrippina controlled her son and the Empire. She lost control over Nero when he began to have an affair with the freed woman Claudia Acte, which Agrippina strongly disapproved of and violently scolded him for. Agrippina began to support Britannicus in her attempt to make him emperor. Britannicus was secretly poisoned on Nero's orders during his own banquet in February 55. The power struggle between Agrippina and her son had begun. \n\nAgrippina between 55 and 58 became very watchful and had a critical eye over her son. In 55, Agrippina was forced out of the palace by her son to live in imperial residence. Nero deprived his mother of all honors and powers, and even removed her Roman and German bodyguards. Nero even threatened his mother he would abdicate the throne and would go to live on the Greek Island of Rhodes, a place where Tiberius had lived after divorcing Julia the Elder. Pallas also was dismissed from the court. The fall of Pallas and the opposition of Burrus and Seneca, contributed to Agrippina's loss of authority.\n\nTowards 57, Agrippina was expelled from the palace and went to live in a riverside estate in Misenum. While Agrippina lived there or when she went on short visits to Rome, Nero had sent people to annoy her. Although living in Misenum, she was still very popular, powerful and influential. Agrippina and Nero would see each other on short visits. \n\n===Death and aftermath===\nThe circumstances that surround Agrippina's death are uncertain due to historical contradictions and anti-Nero bias. All surviving stories of Agrippina's death contradict themselves and each other, and are generally fantastical.\n\n====Tacitus's account====\nAccording to Tacitus, in 58, Nero became involved with the noble woman Poppaea Sabina. With the reasoning that a divorce from Octavia and a marriage to Poppaea was not politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero decided to kill Agrippina. Yet, Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62, calling into question this motive. Additionally, Suetonius reveals that Poppaea's husband, Otho, was not sent away by Nero until after Agrippina's death in 59, making it highly unlikely that already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero. Some modern historians theorize that Nero's decision to kill Agrippina was prompted by her plotting to set Gaius Rubellius Plautus (Nero's maternal second cousin) or Britannicus (Claudius' biological son) on the throne.\n\nTacitus claims that Nero considered poisoning or stabbing her, but felt these methods were too difficult and suspicious, so he settled on – after the advice of his former tutor Anicetus – building a self-sinking boat. Though aware of the plot, Agrippina embarked on this boat and was nearly crushed by a collapsing lead ceiling only to be saved by the side of a sofa breaking the ceiling's fall. Though the collapsing ceiling missed Agrippina, it crushed her attendant who was outside by the helm.\n\nThe boat failed to sink from the lead ceiling, so the crew then sank the boat, but Agrippina swam to shore. Her friend, Acerronia Polla, was attacked by oarsmen while still in the water, and was either bludgeoned to death or drowned, since she was exclaiming that she was Agrippina, with the intention of being saved. She did not know, however, that this was an assassination attempt, not a mere accident. Agrippina was met at the shore by crowds of admirers. News of Agrippina's survival reached Nero so he sent three assassins to kill her.\n\n====Suetonius's account====\nAccording to Suetonius, Nero was annoyed at his mother being too watchful and tried three times to poison Agrippina, but she took the antidotes in time and survived. He then tried to crush her with a mechanical ceiling over her bed at her residence. After this failed, he devised a collapsible boat, which would either have its cabin fall in or become shipwrecked. Nero then ordered captains of a different boat to ram this boat while Agrippina was aboard. Nero heard Agrippina survived the wreck so he ordered her to be executed and framed it as a suicide.\n\n====Cassius Dio's account====\nThe tale of Cassius Dio is also somewhat different. It starts again with Poppaea as the motive behind the murder. Nero designed a ship that would open at the bottom while at sea. Agrippina was put aboard and after the bottom of the ship opened up, she fell into the water. Agrippina swam to shore so Nero sent an assassin to kill her. Nero then claimed Agrippina plotted to kill him and committed suicide. Her reputed last words, uttered as the assassin was about to strike, were \"Smite my womb\", the implication here being she wished to be destroyed first in that part of her body that had given birth to so \"abominable a son.\"\n\n====Burial====\nAfter Agrippina's death, Nero viewed her corpse and commented how beautiful she was, according to some. Her body was cremated that night on a dining couch. At his mother's funeral, Nero was witless, speechless and rather scared. When the news spread that Agrippina had died, the Roman army, senate and various people sent him letters of congratulations that he had been saved from his mother's plots.\n\n====Aftermath====\nDuring the remainder of Nero's reign, Agrippina's grave was not covered or enclosed. Her household later on gave her a modest tomb in Misenum. Nero would have his mother's death on his conscience. He felt so guilty he would sometimes have nightmares about his mother. He even saw his mother's ghost and got Persian magicians to scare her away. Years before she died, Agrippina had visited astrologers to ask about her son's future. The astrologers had rather accurately predicted that her son would become emperor and would kill her. She replied, \"Let him kill me, provided he becomes emperor,\" according to Tacitus.\n\n===== Agrippina's alleged victims =====\n* '''47 AD'''\n** '''Passienus Crispus''': Agrippina's 2nd husband, poisoned (Suet.).\n* '''49 AD'''\n '''Lollia Paulina''': as she was a rival for Claudius' hand in marriage as proposed by the freedman Callistus (Tac. & Dio).\n '''Lucius Silanus''': betrothed to Octavia, Claudius' daughter before his marriage of Agrippina. He committed suicide on their wedding day.\n '''Sosibius''': Britannicus' tutor, executed for plotting against Nero.\n '''Calpurnia''': banished (Tac.) and/or executed (Dio) because Claudius had commented on her beauty.\n* '''53 AD'''\n** '''Statilius Taurus''': forced to commit suicide because Agrippina wanted his gardens (Tac.).\n* '''54 AD'''\n '''Claudius''': her husband, poisoned (Tac., Sen., Juv., Suet., Dio).\n '''Domitia Lepida''': mother of Messalina, executed (Tac.).\n '''Marcus Junius Silanus''': potential rival to Nero, poisoned (Pliny, Tac., Dio).\n '''Cadius Rufus''': executed on the charge of extortion.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n=== In music and literature ===\n''Agrippina: Trauerspiel'' (1665), a German baroque tragedy by Daniel Casper von Lohenstein\nG.F. Handel's 1709 opera ''Agrippina'' with a libretto by Vincenzo Grimani\n''Empress of Rome'' (1978), a novel by Robert DeMaria (Vineyard Press edition, 2001, )\n\n=== In film, television, and radio ===\n The 1911 Italian film ''Agrippina''\n''I, Claudius'' (1976) played by Barbara Young (here called Agrippinilla).\n''Caligula'' (1979) and also ''Messalina, Messalina'' (1977) played by Lori Wagner.\n''A.D.'' (1985 miniseries) played by Ava Gardner.\n''Boudica'' (2003) played by Frances Barber.\n''Imperium: Nero'' (2005) played by Laura Morante.\n''Ancients Behaving Badly'' (2009), History Channel documentary. Episode ''Nero''.\n* Agrippina the Younger was portrayed by Betty Lou Gerson in the August 31st, 1953, episode of the CBS radio program ''Crime Classics'' that was entitled \"Your Loving Son, Nero.\" The episode chronicles the killing of Agrippina by her son Nero who was portrayed by William Conrad.\n", "\n===Ancient===\nNote that most ancient Roman sources are quite critical of Agrippina the Younger, because she was seen as stepping outside the conservative Roman ideals regarding the roles of women in society.\nTacitus: Critical view, considered her vicious and had a strong disposition against her due to her femininity and influential role in politics. Perhaps the most comprehensive of Ancient sources. Others are Suetonius and Cassius Dio.\n\n===Modern===\n* Girod, Virginie, ''Agrippine, sexe, crimes et pouvoir dans la Rome impériale '', Paris, Tallandier, 2015, 300 p.\n* Minaud, Gérard, ''Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés '', Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 3, '' La vie d'Agrippine, femme de Claude'', p. 65-96.\n* (edd.), ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani saeculi I, II et III'', Berlin, 1933 –. ('''''PIR2''''')\n* Scullard: A critical view of Agrippina, suggesting she was ambitious and unscrupulous and a depraved sexual psychopath. \"Agrippina struck down a series of victims; no man or woman was safe if she suspected rivalry or desired their wealth.\"\n* Ferrero: Sympathetic and understanding, suggesting Agrippina has been judged harshly by history. Suggesting her marriage to Claudius was to a weak emperor who was, because of his hesitations and terrors, a threat to the imperial authority and government. She saw it her duty to compensate for the innumerable deficiencies of her strange husband through her own intelligence and strength of will. Pages 212ff.; 276ff.\n* Barrett: A reasonable view, comparing Scullard's criticisms to Ferrero's apologies. (See Barrett, Anthony A., Agrippina: Sex, Power and Politics in the Early Roman Empire, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1996.)\n* Annelise Freisenbruch, ''The first ladies of Rome''\n* Wood, S. \"Diva Drusilla Panthea and the Sisters of Caligula\". ''American Journal of Archaeology'', Vol. 99, No. 3 (July 1995)\n* Rogers, R. S. \"The Conspiracy of Agrippina\". ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', Vol. 62 (1931)\n* Godolphin, F. R. B. \" A Note on the Marriage of Claudius and Agrippina\". ''Classical Philology'', Vol. 29, No. 2 (April 1934)\n* Grimm-Samuel, V. \"On the Mushroom That Deified the Emperor Claudius\". ''The Classical Quarterly'', New Series, Vol. 41, No. 1 (1991)\n* McDaniel, W. B. \"Bauli the Scene of the Murder of Agrippina\". ''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (April 1910)\n* Salmonson, Jessica Amanda. (1991) ''The Encyclopedia of Amazons''. Paragon House. Pages 4–5.\n* Donna Hurley, Agrippina the Younger (Wife of Claudius).\n* , ''Agrippina. Keizerin van Rome'', Leuven, 2006.\n* Opera by G.F. Handel: ''Agrippina''\n", "\n", "\nTacitus, ''Annales xii.1–10, 64–69, xiv.1–9''\nSuetonius, ''De vita Caesarum'' – ''Claudius v.44'' and ''Nero vi.5.3, 28.2, 34.1–4\n", " \n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Family", "Birth and early life", "Marriage to Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus", "Reign of Caligula", "Reign of Claudius", "Empress of Rome", "Reign of Nero", "Ancestry", "Cultural references", "Perspectives on Agrippina's personality", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Agrippina the Younger
[ "\n\n\n\n'''American Chinese cuisine''' is a style of Chinese cuisine developed by Americans of Chinese descent. The dishes served in many North American Chinese restaurants are adapted to American tastes and often differ significantly from those found in China. Of the various regional cuisines in China, Cantonese cuisine has been the most influential in the development of American Chinese food, especially that of Toisan, the origin of most early immigrants.\n", "Chinese immigrants arrived in the United States to work as miners and railroad workers. As the large groups of Chinese immigrants arrived, laws were put in place preventing them from owning land. They mostly lived together in ghettos, individually referred to as \"Chinatown\". Here the immigrants started their own small businesses, including restaurants and laundry services. By the 19th century, the Chinese community in San Francisco operated sophisticated and sometimes luxurious restaurants patronised mainly by Chinese. The restaurants in smaller towns (mostly owned by Chinese immigrants) served food based on what their customers requested, anything ranging from pork chop sandwiches and apple pie, to beans and eggs. Many of these small-town restaurant owners were self-taught family cooks who improvised on different cooking methods and ingredients. These smaller restaurants were responsible for developing American Chinese cuisine, where the food was modified to suit a more American palate. First catering to miners and railroad workers, they established new eateries in towns where Chinese food was completely unknown, adapting local ingredients and catering to their customers' tastes. Even though the new flavors and dishes meant they were not strictly Chinese cuisine, these Chinese restaurants have been cultural ambassadors to Americans.\n\nAlong the way, cooks adapted southern Chinese dishes such as chop suey and developed a style of Chinese food not found in China. Restaurants (along with Chinese laundries) provided an ethnic niche for small businesses at a time when the Chinese people were excluded from most jobs in the wage economy by ethnic discrimination or lack of language fluency. By the 1920s, this cuisine, particularly chop suey, became popular among middle-class Americans. However, after World War II it began to be dismissed for not being \"authentic.\" Late 20th century tastes have been more accommodating. Take away food became popular amongst Americans, Chinese food becoming a favourite \"take out\" option. By this time it became evident that Chinese restaurants no longer catered mainly for Chinese customers.\n\nWith the continuing success of American Chinese cuisine, including its portrayal to mainland Chinese audiences through the medium of American television sitcoms, American Chinese restaurants have opened in China itself. Products and ingredients needed to recreate these adapted dishes are imported into China. They include \"Philadelphia cream cheese, Skippy peanut butter, cornflakes and English mustard powder\".\n\nIn 2011, the Smithsonian National Museum of American History displayed some of the historical background and cultural artefacts of American Chinese cuisine in its exhibit entitled, ''Sweet & Sour: A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States''.\n", "\nAmerican Chinese food builds from styles and food habits brought from the southern province of Guangdong, typically the Toisan district of Toisan, the origin of most Chinese immigration before the closure of immigration from China in 1924. These Chinese families developed new styles and used readily available ingredients, especially in California. The types of Chinese American cooking served in restaurants was different from the foods eaten in Chinese American homes. \n\nAmong the common differences is to treat vegetables as a side dish or garnish, while traditional cuisines of China emphasize vegetables. This can be seen in the use of carrots and tomatoes. Cuisine in China makes frequent use of Asian leaf vegetables like bok choy and kai-lan and puts a greater emphasis on fresh meat and seafood.\n\nChinese buffet restaurant in the United States\nStir frying, pan frying, and deep frying tend to be the most common Chinese cooking techniques used in American Chinese cuisine, which are all easily done using a wok (a Chinese frying pan with bowl-like features). The food also has a reputation for high levels of MSG to enhance the flavor. Market forces and customer demand have encouraged many restaurants to offer \"MSG Free\" or \"No MSG\" menus, or to omit this ingredient on request.\n\nCarryout Chinese food is commonly served in a paper carton with a wire bail, known as the oyster pail.\nAmerican Chinese cuisine takes advantage of ingredients not native to and very rarely used in China. One such example is the common use of western broccoli () instead of Chinese broccoli (Gai-lan, ) in American Chinese cuisine. Occasionally, western broccoli is also referred to as '''' in Cantonese () in order not to confuse the two styles of broccoli. Among Chinese speakers, however, it is typically understood that one is referring to the leafy vegetable unless otherwise specified.\n\nThis is also the case with the words for carrot (''luo buo'' or ''lo bac,'' or ''hong luo buo'', ''hong'' meaning \"red\") and onion (''cong''). ''Lo bac'', in Cantonese, refers to a large, pungent white radish. The orange western carrot is known in some areas of China as \"foreign radish\" (or more properly ''hung lo bac'' in Cantonese, ''hung'' meaning \"red\"). When the word for onion, ''cong'', is used, it is understood that one is referring to \"green onions\" (otherwise known to English-speakers as \"scallions\" or \"spring onions\"). The larger many-layered onion bulb common in the United States is called ''yang cong''. This translates as \"western onion\". These names make it evident that the American broccoli, carrot, and onion are not indigenous to China, and therefore are less common in the traditional cuisines of China.\n\nEgg fried rice in American Chinese cuisine is also prepared differently, with more soy sauce added for more flavor whereas the traditional egg fried rice uses less soy sauce. Some food styles such as Dim sum were also modified to fit American palates, such as added batter for fried dishes and extra soy sauce.\n\nSalads containing raw or uncooked ingredients are rare in traditional Chinese cuisine, as are Japanese style sushi or sashimi. However, an increasing number of American Chinese restaurants, including some upscale establishments, have started to offer these items in response to customer demand.\n\nMing Tsai, the owner of the Blue Ginger restaurant in Wellesley, Massachusetts and host of PBS culinary show ''Simply Ming'', said that American Chinese restaurants typically try to have food representing 3-5 regions of China at one time, have chop suey, or have \"fried vegetables and some protein in a thick sauce\", \"eight different sweet and sour dishes\", or \"a whole page of 20 different chow meins or fried rice dishes\". Tsai said \"Chinese-American cuisine is 'dumbed-down' Chinese food. It’s adapted... to be blander, thicker and sweeter for the American public\".\n\nMost American Chinese establishments cater to non-Chinese customers with menus written in English or containing pictures. If separate Chinese-language menus are available, they typically feature items such as liver, chicken feet, or other meat dishes that might deter American customers. In Chinatown, New York, the restaurants were known for having a \"phantom\" menu with food preferred by ethnic Chinese, but believed to be disliked by non-Chinese Americans.\n", "\n===American Chinese restaurant menu items===\nChop suey, made with garlic chicken and peapods, on fried rice\nDishes that often appear on American Chinese restaurant menus include:\n* Almond chicken - chicken breaded in batter containing ground almonds, fried and served with almonds and onions.\n* General Tso's chicken – chunks of chicken that are dipped in a batter and deep-fried and seasoned with ginger, garlic, sesame oil, scallions, and hot chili peppers. Believed to be named after Qing Dynasty statesman and military leader Zuo Zongtang, often referred to as General Tso.\n* Sesame chicken – boned, battered, and deep-fried chicken which is then dressed with a translucent red or orange, sweet and mildly spicy sauce, made from soy sauce, corn starch, vinegar, chicken broth, and sugar.\n* Chinese chicken salad – usually contains sliced or shredded chicken, uncooked leafy greens, crispy noodles (or fried wonton skins) and sesame dressing. Some restaurants serve the salad with mandarin oranges.\nAn unopened fortune cookie\n* Chop suey – connotes \"assorted pieces\" in Chinese. It is usually a mix of vegetables and meat in a brown sauce but can also be served in a white sauce.\n* Crab rangoon – fried wonton skins stuffed with (usually) artificial crab meat (surimi) and cream cheese.\nWonton strips are commonly served complimentary along with duck sauce and hot mustard\n* Fortune cookie – invented in California as a westernized version of the Japanese omikuji senbei, fortune cookies have become sweetened and found their way to many American Chinese restaurants. \n* Royal beef – deep-fried sliced beef, doused in a wine sauce and often served with steamed broccoli.\n* Pepper steak – consists of sliced steak, green bell peppers, tomatoes, and white or green onions stir-fried with salt, sugar, and soy sauce. Bean sprouts are a less common addition\n* Mongolian beef - fried beef with scallions or white onions in a spicy and often sweet brown sauce\n* Fried wontons – somewhat similar to crab rangoon, a filling, (most often pork), is wrapped in a wonton skin and deep fried.\n* Beef & Broccoli - flank steak cut into small pieces, stir-fried with broccoli, and covered in a dark sauce made with soy sauce and oyster sauce and thickened with cornstarch.\n* Sweet roll - yeast rolls, typically fried, covered in granulated sugar or powdered sugar. Some variants are stuffed with cream cheese or icing.\n* Sushi - despite being part of traditional Japanese cuisine, some American Chinese restaurants serve various types of sushi, usually on buffets.\n* Wonton strips – commonly served complimentary along with duck sauce and hot mustard, or with soup when ordering take-out\n\n===Regional American Chinese dishes===\n* Chow mein sandwich – sandwich of chow mein and gravy (Southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island).\n* Chop suey sandwich – sandwich of chicken chop suey on a hamburger bun (North Shore of Massachusetts).\n* St. Paul sandwich – egg foo young patty in plain white sandwich bread (St. Louis, Missouri).\n* Springfield-style cashew chicken – a style of cashew chicken that combines breaded deep fried chicken, cashews, and oyster sauce. (Springfield, Missouri).\n* Yaka mein - Chinese-Creole food found in New Orleans that evolved from beef noodle soup\n\n===North American versions found in China===\nEgg foo young\n* Cashew chicken – Stir fried tender chicken pieces with cashews.\n* Chow mein – literally means \"stir-fried noodles\". Chow mein consists of fried crispy noodles with bits of meat and vegetables. It can come with chicken, pork, shrimp or beef.\n* Egg foo young – a Chinese-style omelet with vegetables and meat, usually served with a brown gravy. While some restaurants in North America deep-fry the omelet, versions found in Asia are more likely to fry in the wok.\n* Egg roll – while spring rolls have a thin, light beige crispy skin that flakes apart, and is filled with mushrooms, bamboo, and other vegetables inside, the American style eggroll has a thicker, chewier, dark brown bubbly skin stuffed with cabbage and usually bits of meat or seafood (such as pork or shrimp), but no egg.\n* Fried rice – fried rice dishes are popular offerings in American Chinese food due to the speed and ease of preparation and their appeal to American tastes. Fried rice is generally prepared with rice cooled overnight, allowing restaurants to put leftover rice to good use (freshly cooked rice is actually less suitable for fried rice). The Chinese American version of this dish typically uses more soy sauce than the versions found in China. Fried rice is offered with different combinations of meat and vegetables.\n* Ginger beef – () Tender beef cut in chunks, mixed with ginger and Chinese mixed vegetables.\n* Ginger fried beef – ( Tender beef cut in strings, battered, deep dried, then re-fried in a wok mixed with a sweet sauce, a variation of a popular Northern Chinese dish.\n* Hulatang – a Chinese traditional soup with hot spices, often called \"spicy soup\" on menus\n* Kung Pao chicken – The Sichuan dish is spicy hot, but the versions served in North America tend to be less so if at all, and sometimes leave out the Sichuan pepper that is a fundamental part of the original dish. \n* Lo mein (\"stirred noodles\"). These noodles are frequently made with eggs and flour, making them chewier than simply using water. Thick, spaghetti shaped noodles are pan fried with vegetables (mainly bok choy and Chinese cabbage (nappa)) and meat. Sometimes this dish is referred to as \"chow mein\" (which literally means \"fried noodles\" in Cantonese).\n* Mei Fun (see Rice vermicelli dishes)\n* Moo shu pork – The original version uses more typically Chinese ingredients (including wood ear fungi and daylily buds) and thin flour pancakes while the American version uses vegetables more familiar to Americans, and thicker pancakes. This dish is quite popular in Chinese restaurants in the United States, but not so popular in China.\n* Orange chicken – chopped, battered, fried chicken with a sweet orange flavored chili sauce that is thickened and glazed. The traditional version consists of stir-fried chicken in a light, slightly sweet soy sauce that is flavored with dried orange peels.\n* Wonton soup – In most American Chinese restaurants, only wonton dumplings in broth are served, while versions found in China may come with noodles. In Canton, Wonton Soup can be a full meal in itself, consisting of thin egg noodles and several pork and prawn wontons in a pork or chicken soup broth or noodle broth. Especially in takeout restaurants, wonton are often made with thicker dough skins.\nBeijing beef – In China, this dish uses ''gai-lan'' (Chinese broccoli) rather than American broccoli.\nBeef with broccoli\n", "\n===San Francisco===\nSince the early 1990s, many American Chinese restaurants influenced by California cuisine have opened in San Francisco and the Bay Area. The trademark dishes of American Chinese cuisine remain on the menu, but there is more emphasis on fresh vegetables, and the selection is vegetarian-friendly.\n\nThis new cuisine has exotic ingredients like mangos and portobello mushrooms. Brown rice is often offered as an optional alternative to white rice. Some restaurants substitute grilled wheat flour tortillas for the rice pancakes in mu shu dishes. This occurs even in some restaurants that would not otherwise be identified as California Chinese, both the more Westernized places and the more authentic places. There is a Mexican bakery that sells some restaurants thinner tortillas made for use with mu shu. Mu shu purists do not always react positively to this trend.\n\nIn addition, many restaurants serving more native-style Chinese cuisines exist, due to the high numbers and proportion of ethnic Chinese in San Francisco and the Bay Area. Restaurants specializing in Cantonese, Sichuanese, Hunanese, Northern Chinese, Shanghainese, Taiwanese, and Hong Kong traditions are widely available, as are more specialized restaurants such as seafood restaurants, Hong Kong-style diners and cafes, also known as ''Cha chaan teng'' (), dim sum teahouses, and hot pot restaurants. Many Chinatown areas also feature Chinese bakeries, boba milk tea shops, roasted meat, vegetarian cuisine, and specialized dessert shops. Chop suey is not widely available in San Francisco, and the city's chow mein is different from Midwestern chow mein.\n\nAuthentic restaurants with Chinese-language menus may offer \"yellow-hair chicken\" (), essentially a free-range chicken, as opposed to typical American mass-farmed chicken. Yellow-hair chicken is valued for its flavor, but needs to be cooked properly to be tender due to its lower fat and higher muscle content. This dish usually does not appear on the English-language menu.\n\nDau Miu () is a Chinese vegetable that has become popular since the early 1990s, and now not only appears on English-language menus, usually as \"pea shoots\", but is often served by upscale non-Asian restaurants as well. Originally it was only available during a few months of the year, but it is now grown in greenhouses and is available year-round.\n\n===Hawaii===\nHawaiian-Chinese food developed a bit differently from the continental United States. Owing to the diversity of ethnicities in Hawaii and the history of the Chinese influence in Hawaii, resident Chinese cuisine forms a component of the cuisine of Hawaii, which is a fusion of different culinary traditions. Some Chinese dishes are typically served as part of plate lunches in Hawaii. The names of foods are different as well, such as ''Manapua'', from Hawaiian meaning \"chewed up pork\" for dim sum ''bao'', though the meat is not necessarily pork.\n", "\nThe perception that American Jews eat at Chinese restaurants on Christmas Day is documented in media as a common stereotype with a basis in fact. The tradition may have arisen from the lack of other open restaurants on Christmas Day, as well as the close proximity of Jewish and Chinese immigrants to each other in New York City. It has been portrayed in film and television.\n\nKosher Chinese Food is also available in large cities in Orthodox Jewish neighborhoods, and are usually under strict Rabbinical Supervision.\n", "A typical Panda Express meal: Kung Pao chicken, orange chicken, chow mein and steamed vegetables\n\n China Coast – Closed in 1995; owned by General Mills Corp., formerly 52 locations throughout the United States\n* Chinese Gourmet Express - throughout the United States\n* Leeann Chin – Minnesota and Wisconsin; owned at one time by General Mills Corp.\n* Manchu Wok – Throughout the United States and Canada, as well as Guam, Korea and Japan\n* Panda Express – Throughout the United States, some locations in Mexico\n* Pei Wei Asian Diner – Throughout the United States; a subsidiary of P.F. Chang's\n* P. F. Chang's China Bistro – Throughout the United States; features California-Chinese fusion cuisine\n* Pick Up Stix – California, Arizona, and Nevada\n* The Great Wall – Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, New York, West Virginia, South Carolina, Louisiana\n* Stir Crazy - Illinois, Missouri, Wisconsin, Minnesota, New York, Florida, Indiana, Texas, and Ohio\n", "\n\n* Canadian Chinese cuisine\n* Chinese bakery products\n* Chinese cuisine\n* American cuisine\n* Fortune Cookie\n* Imperial Dynasty restaurant\n* Oyster pail\n\n", "\n", "\n===Studies===\n* \n* \n* Free download: \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n===Cookbooks===\n* Sara Bosse, Onoto Watanna, with an Introduction by Jacqueline M. Newman. ''Chinese-Japanese Cook Book.'' (1914; reprinted, Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 2006). . .\n* \n* Eileen Yin-Fei Lo and Alexandra Grablewski. ''The Chinese Kitchen: Recipes, Techniques and Ingredients, History, and Memories from America's Leading Authority on Chinese Cooking.'' (New York: William Morrow, 1999). .\n", "\n* \"Chinese food in America History\" (The Food Timeline) \n* Imogen Lim Restaurant Menu Collection: American menus. Vancouver Island University Library.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Differences from other regional cuisines in China", "Dishes", "Regional variations", " Chinese restaurants and American Jews ", "American Chinese chain restaurants", "See also", "Notes", "References and further reading", "External links" ]	American Chinese cuisine
[ "'''Ahenobarbus''' was a ''cognomen'' used by a plebeian branch of the ''gens Domitia'' in the late Roman Republic and early Empire. The name means \"red-beard\" (literally, \"bronze-beard\") in Latin. According to legend, Castor and Pollux announced to one of their ancestors the victory of the Romans over the Latins at the battle of Lake Regillus, and, to confirm the truth of what they had just said, they stroked his black hair and beard, which immediately became red.\n", "Notable Ahenobarbi include:\n\n* Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 192 BC)\n* Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 162 BC)\n* Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 122 BC)\n* Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 96 BC), son of the same named consul of 122 BC.\n* Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 94 BC)\n* Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (died 81 BC)\n* Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 54 BC), son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 96 BC), supporter of Pompey and character in Lucan's ''Pharsalia''\n* Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (praetor 50 BC)\n* Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC). A fictionalized version of this Ahenobarbus appears in Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra'' under the name of \"Enobarbus\"\n* Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC), only child of the above Gnaeus Domitius and Aemilia Lepida, paternal grandfather of the Emperor Nero, maternal grandfather of Valeria Messalina (third wife of the emperor Claudius)\n* Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32), father of the Emperor Nero and maternal uncle to Valeria Messalina\n* The Emperor Nero was born in AD 37 to the Domitius above as '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''' (named after Domitius's father Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC)). He was adopted by Claudius in AD 50 as official heir to the throne, becoming Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus and then Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. He was the only child of Agrippina the Younger through her first marriage to Domitius, and through her, he was great-great grandson of the Emperor Augustus, great-grandnephew and adoptive great-grandson of the Emperor Tiberius, nephew of the Emperor Caligula, as well as great-nephew and stepson of the Emperor Claudius.\n", "'The family tree below shows relationships between the Ahenobarbus branch of the ''gens Domitia'' to the Julio-Claudian dynasty.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "The main character of ''Farmer Giles of Ham'' by J. R. R. Tolkien is named Ægidius Ahenobarbus Julius Agricola de Hammo.\n", "Domitia, for a list of women from the ''gens Domitia''\nDomitius (disambiguation)\n", "\n\n===Sources===\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "List of Ahenobarbi", "Family tree", "Fictional bearers of the name", "See also", "References" ]	Ahenobarbus
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Ahmad Shāh Durrānī''' (c. 1722 – 16 October 1772) (Pashto: احمد شاه دراني), also known as '''Ahmad Khān Abdālī''' (Pashto, Dari, Arabic, Urdu: احمد خان ابدالي), was the founder of the Durrani Empire and is regarded as the founder of the modern state of Afghanistan. He began his career by enlisting as a young soldier in the military of the Afsharid kingdom and quickly rose to become a commander of the Abdali Regiment, a cavalry of four thousand Abdali Pashtun soldiers.\n\nAfter the assassination of Nader Shah Afshar in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani was chosen as King of Afghanistan. Rallying his Afghan tribes and allies, he pushed east towards the Mughal and the Maratha empires of India, west towards the disintegrating Afsharid Empire of Persia, and north toward the Khanate of Bukhara. Within a few years, he extended his control from Khorasan in the west to Kashmir and North India in the east, and from the Amu Darya in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south.\n\nDurrani's mausoleum is located at Kandahar, Afghanistan, adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak in the center of the city. Afghans often refer to him as ''Ahmad Shāh Bābā'' (\"Ahmad Shah the Father\").\n", "\nAn 1881 photo showing Shah Hussain Hotak's fortress in Old Kandahar, where Abdali and his brother Zulfikar were imprisoned. It was destroyed in 1738 by the Afsharid forces of Persia.\nDurrani was born in or about 1722 to Mohammad Zaman Khan, chief of the Abdali tribe and Governor of Herat, and Zarghuna Alakozai. There has been some debate about Durrani's exact place of birth. Most believe that he was born in Herat, Afghanistan. He was born as Ahmed Khan. Abdali's father suffered \"Persian captivity for many years\" at Kirman before being released from prison in 1715. As a refugee, he \"made his way to India\" and joined his kinsmen at Multan. After he raised his family there, he was recognized as the \"scion of hereditary Sadozai chiefs\". It is believed that Zaman Khan returned to Afghanistan to fight the Persians and his Afghan rivals, but left one of his wives at Multan because she was \"in the family way\". So other sources believe that, Abdali was born at Multan in 1722, after which she returned to Afghanistan to reunite with her husband. He lost his father during his infancy.\n\nDurrani's forefathers were Sadozais but his mother was from the Alakozai tribe. In June 1729, the Abdali forces under Zulfiqar had surrendered to Nader Shah Afshar, the rising new ruler of Persia. However, they soon began a rebellion and took over Herat as well as Mashad. In July 1730, he defeated Ibrahim Khan, a military commander and brother of Nader Shah. This prompted Nader Shah to retake Mashad and also intervene in the power struggle of Harat. By July 1731, Zulfiqar returned to his capital Farah where he had been serving as the governor since 1726. A year later Nadir's brother Ibrahim Khan took control of Farah. During this time Zulfiqar and the young Durrani fled to Kandahar where they took refuge with the Ghiljis. They were later made political prisoners by Hussain Hotak, the Ghilji ruler of the Kandahar region.\n\nNader Shah had been enlisting the Abdalis in his army since around 1729. After conquering Kandahar in 1738, Durrani and his brother Zulfiqar were freed and provided with leading careers in Nader Shah's administration. Zulfiqar was made Governor of Mazandaran while Durrani remained working as Nader Shah's personal attendant. The Ghiljis, who are originally from the territories east of the Kandahar region, were expelled from Kandahar in order to resettle the Abdalis along with some Qizilbash and other Persians.\n\nDurrani proved himself in Nader Shah's service and was promoted from a personal attendant (''yasāwal'') to command the Abdali Regiment, a cavalry of four thousand soldiers and officers. The Abdali Regiment was part of Nader Shah's military during his invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1738.\n\nPopular history has it that the Shah could see the talent in his young commander. Later on, according to Pashtun legend, it is said that in Delhi Nader Shah summoned Durrani, and said, \"Come forward Ahmad Abdali. Remember Ahmad Khan Abdali, that after me the Kingship will pass on to you. Nader Shah recruited him because of his \"impressive personality and valour\" also because of his \"loyalty to the Persian monarch\".\n", "\nCoronation of Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747 by Abdul Ghafoor Breshna.\nNader Shah's rule abruptly ended in June 1747 when he was assassinated by his own guards. The guards involved in the assassination did so secretly so as to prevent the Abdalis from coming to their King's rescue. However, Durrani was told that the Shah had been killed by one of his wives. Despite the danger of being attacked, the Abdali contingent led by Durrani rushed either to save the Shah or to confirm what happened. Upon reaching the Shah's tent, they were only to see his body and severed head. Having served him so loyally, the Abdalis wept at having failed their leader, and headed back to Kandahar. Before the retreat to Kandahar, he had \"removed\" the royal seal from Nader Shah's finger and the Koh-i-Noor diamond tied \"around the arm of his deceased master\". On their way back to Kandahar, the Abdalis had \"unanimously accepted\" Durrani as their new leader. Hence he \"assumed the insignia of royalty\" as the \"sovereign ruler of Afghanistan\".\n\n\nOne of Durrani's first acts as chief was to adopt the titles ''Padishah-i-Ghazi'' (\"victorious emperor\"), and ''Durr-i-Durrani'' (\"pearl of pearls\" or \"pearl of the age\").\n\n\n", "\n\nFollowing his predecessor, Durrani set up a special force closest to him consisting mostly of his fellow Durranis and other Pashtuns, as well as Tajiks, Qizilbash and other Muslims. He began his military conquest by capturing Ghazni from the Ghiljis and then wresting Kabul from the local ruler, and thus strengthened his hold over Khorasan. Leadership of the various Afghan tribes rested mainly on the ability to provide booty for the clan, and Durrani proved remarkably successful in providing both booty and occupation for his followers. Apart from invading the Punjab region three times between the years 1747–1753, he captured Herat in 1750.\n\n=== Indian invasions ===\n\n\n==== Early invasions ====\nBala Hissar fort in Peshawar was one of the royal residences of Ahmad Shah.\nAbdali invaded the Mughal Empire seven times from 1748 to 1767. According to Jaswant Lal Mehta, Durrani aroused the Afghans \"religious passions\" to fire and \"sword into the land of infidels India.\" He crossed the Khyber pass in December 1747 with 40,000 troops for his first invasion of India. He occupied Peshawar without any opposition. He first crossed the Indus River in 1748, the year after his ascension – his forces sacked and absorbed Lahore. The following year (1749), the Mughal ruler was induced to cede Sindh and all of the Punjab including the vital trans Indus River to him, in order to save his capital from being attacked by the forces of the Durrani Empire. Having thus gained substantial territories to the east without a fight, Durrani and his forces turned westward to take possession of Herat, which was ruled by Nader Shah's grandson, Shah Rukh. The city fell to the Afghans in 1750, after almost a year of siege and bloody conflict; the Afghan forces then pushed on into present-day Iran, capturing Nishapur and Mashhad in 1751. Durrani then pardoned Shah Rukh and reconstituted Khorasan, but a tributary of the Durrani Empire. This marked the westernmost border of the Afghan Empire as set by the Pul-i-Abrisham, on the Mashhad-Tehran road.\n\n===Third battle of Panipat===\n\n1761 Battle of Panipat in Northern India.\nThe Mughal power in northern India had been declining since the reign of Aurangzeb, who died in 1707. In 1751–52, the ''Ahamdiya'' treaty was signed between the Marathas and Mughals, when Balaji Bajirao was the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. Through this treaty, the Marathas controlled large parts of India from their capital at Pune and Mughal rule was restricted only to Delhi (Mughals remained the nominal heads of Delhi). Marathas were now straining to expand their area of control towards the Northwest of India. Durrani sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunathrao. He succeeded in ousting Timur Shah and his court from India and brought northwest of India up to Peshawar under Maratha rule. Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Durrani chose to return to India and confront the Maratha forces to regain northwestern part of the subcontinent.\n\nIn 1761, Durrani set out on his campaign to win back lost territories. The early skirmishes ended in victory for the Afghans against the Maratha garrisons in northwest India. By 1759, Durrani and his army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of Sadashivrao Bhau. Once again, Panipat was the scene of a battle for control of northern India. The Third battle of Panipat was fought between Durrani's Afghan forces and the Maratha forces in January 1761, and resulted in a decisive Durrani victory. This brought Punjab till north of Sutlej river under Afghan control. Ahmad Shah Durrani vacated Delhi soon after the battle.\n\n===Central Asia===\n\n\nThe historical area of what is modern day Xinjiang consisted of the distinct areas of the Tarim Basin and Dzungaria, and was originally populated by Indo-European Tocharian and Eastern Iranian Saka peoples who practiced the Buddhist religion. The area was subjected to Turkification and Islamification at the hands of invading Turkic Muslims. Both the Buddhist Turkic Uyghurs and Muslim Turkic Karluks participated in the Turkification and conquest of the native Buddhist Indo-European inhabitants of the Tarim Basin. The Turkic Muslims then proceeded to conquer the Turkic Buddhists in Islamic holy wars and converted them to Islam. The mixture between the invading Mongoloid Turkic peoples and the native Caucasian Indo-European inhabitants resulted in the modern day Turkic speaking hybrid Europoid-East Asian inhabitants of Xinjiang. The Turkification was carried out in the 9th and 10th centuries by two different Turkic Kingdoms, the Buddhist Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho and the Muslim Karluk Kara-Khanid Khanate. Halfway in the 20th century the Saka Iranic Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan came under attack by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanid ruler Musa, and in what proved to be a pivotal moment in the Turkification and Islamification of the Tarim Basin, the Karakhanid leader Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan around 1006.\n\nProfessor James A. Millward described the original Uyghurs as physically Mongoloid, giving as an example the images in Bezeklik at temple 9 of the Uyghur patrons, until they began to mix with the Tarim Basin's original eastern Iranian inhabitants. The modern Uyghurs are now a mixed hybrid of East Asian and Europoid populations.\nAhmad Shah Durrani Portrait\nThe Turkic Muslim sedentary people of the Tarim Basin of Altishahr were originally ruled by the Chagatai Khanate while the nomadic Buddhist Dzungar Oirats in Dzungaria ruled over the Dzungar Khanate. The Naqshbandi Sufi Khojas, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, had replaced the Chagatayid Khans as the ruling authority of the Tarim Basin in the early 17th century. There was a struggle between two factions of Khojas, the Afaqi (White Mountain) faction and the Ishaqi (Black Mountain) faction. The Ishaqi defeated the Afaqi, which resulted in the Afaqi Khoja inviting the 5th Dalai Lama, the leader of the Tibetan Buddhists, to intervene on his behalf in 1677. The 5th Dalai Lama then called upon his Dzungar Buddhist followers in the Zunghar Khanate to act on this invitation. The Dzungar Khanate then conquered the Tarim Basin in 1680, setting up the Afaqi Khoja as their puppet ruler.\n\nKhoja Afaq asked the 5th Dalai Lama when he fled to Lhasa to help his Afaqi faction take control of the Tarim Basin (Kashgaria). The Dzungar leader Galdan was then asked by the Dalai Lama to restore Khoja Afaq as ruler of Kashgararia. Khoja Afaq collaborated with Galdan's Dzungars when the Dzungars conquered the Tarim Basin from 1678-1680 and set up the Afaqi Khojas as puppet client rulers. The Dalai Lama blessed Galdan's conquest of the Tarim Basin and Turfan Basin.\n\nSince 1680 the Dzungars had ruled as suzerain masters over the Tarim, for 16 more years using the Chagatai as their puppet rulers. The Dzungars used a hostage arrangement to rule over the Tarim Basin, keeping as hostsges in Ili either the sons of the leaders like the Khojas and Khans or the leaders themselves. Although the Uighur's culture and religion was left alone, the Dzungars substantially exploited them economically . The Uighurs were forced with multiple taxes by the Dzungars which were burdensome and set by a determined amount, and which they did not even have the ability to pay. They included water conservancy tax, draught animal tax, fruit tax, poll tax, land tax, tress and grass tax, gold and silver tax, and trade tax. Annually the Dzungars extracted a tax of 67,000 tangas of silver from the Kashgar people in Galdan Tseren's reign, a five percent tax was imposed on foreign traders and a ten percent tax imposed on Muslim merchants, people had to pay a fruit tax if they owned orchards and merchants had to pay a copper and silver tax. Annually the Dzungars extracted 100,000 silver tangas in tax from Yarkand and slapped livestock, stain, commerce, and a gold tax on them. The Dzungars extracted 700 taels of gold, and also extracted cotton, copper, and cloth, from the six regions of Keriya, Kashgar, Khotan, Kucha, Yarkand, and Aksu as stated by Russian topographer Yakoff Filisoff. The Dzungars extracted over 50% of the wheat harvests of Muslims according to Qi-yi-shi (Chun Yuan), 30-40% of the wheat harvests of Muslims according to the Xiyu tuzhi, which labelled the tax as \"plunder\" of the Muslims. The Dzungars also extorted extra taxes on cotton, silver, gold, and traded goods from the Muslims besides making them pay the official tax. \"Wine, meat, and women\" and \"a parting gift\" were forcibly extracted from the Uighurs daily by the Dzungars who went to physically gather the taxes from the Uighur Muslims, and if they dissatisfied with what they received, they would rape women, and loot and steal property and livestock. Gold necklaces, diamonds, pearls, and precious stones from India were extracted from the Uighurs under Dāniyāl Khoja by Tsewang Rabtan when his daughter was getting married.\n\n67,000 patman (each patman is 4 piculs and 5 pecks) of grain 48,000 silver ounces were forced to be paid yearly by Kashgar to the Dzungars and cash was also paid by the rest of the cities to the Dzungars. Trade, milling, and distilling taxes, corvée labor, saffron, cotton, and grain were also extracted by the Dzungars from the Tarim Basin. Every harvest season, women and food had to be provided to Dzungars when they came to extract the taxes from them.\n\nWhen the Dzungars levied the traditional nomadic Alban poll tax upon the Muslims of Altishahr, the Muslims viewed it as the payment of jizyah (a tax traditionally taken from non-Muslims by Muslim conquerors).\n\nThe Qing defeat of the Dzungars went hand in hand with the anti-Dzungar resistance of the ordinary Uighurs, \"many of them, unable to bear their misery, which was like living in a sea of fire, fled but were not able to find a place to settle peacefully.\" The Uighurs carried out \"acts of resistance\" like hiding the goods which were collected as taxes or violently resisting the Dzungar Oirat tax collectors, but these incidents were infrequent and widespread anti-Dzungar opposition failed to materialize. Many opponents of Dzungar rule like Uighurs and some dissident Dzungars escaped and defected to Qing China during 1737-1754 and provided the Qing with intelligence on the Dzungars and voiced their grievances. 'Abdullāh Tarkhān Beg and his Hami Uighurs defected and submitted to Qing China after the Qing inflicted a devastating defeat at Chao-mo-do on the Dzungar leader Galdan in September 1696. The Uighur leader Emin Khoja (Amīn Khoja) of Turfan revolted against the Dzungars in 1720 while the Dzungars under Tsewang Rabtan were being attacked by the Qing, and then he also defected and submitted to the Qing. The Uighurs in Kashgar under Yūsuf and his older brother Jahān Khoja of Yarkand revolted in 1754 against the Dzungars, but Jahān was taken prisoner by the Dzungars after he was betrayed by the Uch-Turfan Uighur Xi-bo-ke Khoja and Aksu Uighur Ayyūb Khoja. Kashgar and Yarkand were assaulted by 7,000 Khotan Uighurs under Sādiq, the son of Jahān Khoja. The Uighurs supported the 1755 Qing assault against the Dzungars in Ili, which occurred at the same time as the Uighur revolts against the Dzungars. Uighurs like Emin Khoja, 'Abdu'l Mu'min and Yūsuf Beg supported the Qing attack against Dawachi, the Dzungar Khan. The Uch-Turfan UighurnBeg Khojis (Huojisi) supported the Qing General Ban-di against in tricking Davachi and taking him prisoner. The Qing and Amin Khoja and his sons worked together to defeat the Dzungars under Amursana.\nAfghan royal soldiers of the Durrani Empire (also referred to as the Afghan Empire).\nFrom the 17th century to the middle of the 18th century, between China proper and Transoxania, all the land was under the sway of the Dzungars. In Semirechye the Kyrgyz and Kazakahs were forcibly driven out by the Dzungars and the Kashgar Khanate was conquered. However, the Dzungar Empire was annihilated by Qing China from 1755-1758 in a formidable assault, ending the Central Asian states danger from the Dzungar menace. Uighur Muslims like Emin Khoja from Turfan revolted against their Dzungar Buddhist rulers and pledged alleigance to Qing China to deliver them from Dzungar Buddhist rule. The Qing crushed and annihilated the Dzungars in the Dzungar genocide.\n\nThe Dzungar Buddhists brought back the Aqtaghliq Afaqi Khoja Burhan-ud-din and his brother Khan Khoja and installed them as puppet rulers in Kashgar. During the Qing's war against the Dzungars, Burhan-ud-din and his brother Khan Khoja then pledged alleigance to Qing China in exchange for delivering them from Dzungar rule. However, after the Qing defeated the Dzungars, the Afaqi Khoja brothers Burhan-ud-din and Khan Khoja reneged on the deal with the Qing, declared independence and revolted against the Qing. The Qing and loyal Uighurs like Emin Khoja crushed the revolt and drove Burhan-ud-din and Khan Khoja to Badakhshan. The Qing armies reached far in Central Asia and came to the outskirts of Tashkent while the Kazakh rulers made their submissions as vassals to the Qing. The Afaqi brothers died in Badakhshan and the ruler Sultan Shah delivered their bodies to the Qing. Ahmad Shah Durrani accused Sultan Shah of having caused the Afaqi brothers to die.\n\nDurrani dispatched troops to Kokand after rumours that the Qing dynasty planned to launch an expedition to Samarkand, but the alleged expedition never happened and Ahmad Shah subsequently withdrew his forces when his attempt at an anti-Qing alliance among Central Asian states failed. Durrani then sent envoys to Beijing to discuss the situation regarding the Afaqi Khojas.\n\n===Rise of the Sikhs in the Punjab===\nDuring the Third Battle of Panipat between Marathas and Durrani, the Sikhs did not engage along with the Marathas and hence are considered neutral in the war. This was because of the flawed diplomacy on the part of Marathas in not recognizing their strategic potential. The exception was Ala Singh of Patiala, who sided with the Afghans and was actually being granted and coincidentally crowned the first Sikh Maharajah at the Sikh holy temple.\n", "The tomb of Ahmad Shah Durrani in Kandahar City, which also serves as the Congregational Mosque and contains the sacred cloak that Islamic Prophet Muhammad wore.\nDurrani died on 16 October 1772 in Kandahar Province. He was buried in the city of Kandahar adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak, where a large tomb was built. It has been described in the following way:\n\n\nIn his tomb his epitaph is written:\n\n\nDurrani's victory over the Marathas influenced the history of the subcontinent and, in particular, British policy in the region. His refusal to continue his campaigns deeper into India prevented a clash with the East India Company and allowed them to continue to acquire power and influence after they took complete control of the former Mughal province of Bengal in 1793. However, fear of another Afghan invasion was to haunt British policy for almost half a century after the battle of Panipat. The acknowledgment of Abdali's military accomplishments is reflected in a British intelligence report on the Battle of Panipat, which referred to Ahmad Shah as the 'King of Kings'. This fear led in 1798 to a British envoy being sent to the Persian court in part to instigate the Persians in their claims on Herat to forestall an Afghan invasion of India that might have halted British East India company's expansion. Mountstuart Elphinstone wrote of Ahmad Shah:\n\n\nHis successors, beginning with his son Timur and ending with Shuja Shah Durrani, proved largely incapable of governing the last Afghan empire and faced with advancing enemies on all sides. Much of the territory conquered by Ahmad Shah fell to others by the end of the 19th century. They not only lost the outlying territories but also alienated some Pashtun tribes and those of other Durrani lineages. Until Dost Mohammad Khan's ascendancy in 1826, chaos reigned in Afghanistan, which effectively ceased to exist as a single entity, disintegrating into a fragmented collection of small countries or units. This policy ensured that he did not continue on the path of other conquerors like Babur or Muhammad of Ghor and make India the base for his empire.\n\nIn Pakistan, a short-range ballistic missile Abdali-I, is named in the honour of Ahmed Shah Abdali.\n", "The flag of Ahmad Shah Durrani.\n\nDurrani wrote a collection of odes in his native Pashto language. He was also the author of several poems in Persian. The most famous Pashto poem he wrote was ''Love of a Nation'':\n\n\n\n'''Pakhtunkhwa''' means \"Site of Pakhtuns\" here: Land of Pakhtuns. In the time of Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani) Afghan land does not exist. From 1747 to 1845 existed a dynasty of the Durrani and a Land of Great Khorasan and dependent areas above the Oxus. Durrani was born in Herat. His relatives from the father's side came from Multan. Afghan land (Persian Afghanistan) was not developed until the middle of the 19th century. In a map of 1845, for the first time, the present territory of Pashtunkwa was written as Afghanistan. Afghan and Pathan are the Perso-Arabic and Indian nicknames of Pashtun or Pakhtun. A map of Afghanistan is only after the Iranian-British 15-Point- Treaty of 1857 in Paris conceived c. 1868. The country inside was called '''Mamalik i Iran''' (countries of Iran), which was still called Persia in other European countries.\n", "During Nader Shah's invasion of India in 1739, Abdali also accompanied him and stayed some days in the Red Fort of Delhi. When he was standing \"outside the Jali gate near Diwan-i-Am\", Asaf Jah I saw him. He was \"an expert in physiognomy\" and predicted that Abdali was \"destined to become a king\". When Nader Shah came to know about it, he \"purportedly clipped\" his ears with his dagger and made the remark \"When you become a king, this will remind you of me\". According to other sources, Nader Shah did not believe in it and asked him to be kind to his descendants \"on the attaintment of royalty\".\n", "* List of monarchs of Afghanistan\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n", "\n* Caroe, Olaf (1958). '' The Pathans: 500 B.C.-A.D. 1957''. Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints. Oxford University Press, 1983. .\n* Clements, Frank. '' Conflict in Afghanistan: a historical encyclopedia''. ABC-CLIO, 2003. .\n* Dupree, Nancy Hatch. '' An Historical Guide to Afghanistan''. 2nd Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization, 1977.\n* Elphinstone, Mountstuart. 1819. '' An account of the kingdom of Caubul, and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India: Comprising a view of the Afghaun nation, and a history of the Dooraunee monarchy''. Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, and J. Murry, 1819.\n* Griffiths, John C. (1981). '' Afghanistan: a history of conflict''. Carlton Books, 2001. .\n* Habibi, Abdul Hai. 2003. \"Afghanistan: An Abridged History.\" Fenestra Books. .\n* Hopkins, B. D. 2008. '' The Making of Modern Afghanistan''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. .\n* Malleson, George Bruce (1878). '' History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878''. Elibron Classic Replica Edition. Adamant Media Corporation, 2005. .\n* Romano, Amy. '' A Historical Atlas of Afghanistan''. The Rosen Publishing Group, 2003. .\n* Singh, Ganda (1959). '' Ahmad Shah Durrani, father of modern Afghanistan''. Asia Publishing House, Bombay. (PDF version archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207183925/https://web.archive.org/web/20130207183925/http://www.khyber.org/books/pdf/ahmad-shah-baba.pdf 66 MB)\n* Vogelsang, Willem. '' The Afghans''. Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. Oxford, UK & Massachusette, US. .\nAlikuzai, Hamid Wahed: A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes, USA, 2013, Vo 14, Pg. 62, (sc); (e)\n\n\n", "\n* Detailed genealogy of the Durrani dynasty\n* Abdali Tribe History\n* Third Battle of Panipat, 1761\n* Famous Diamonds: The Koh-I-Noor\n* Invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali\n* The story of the Koh-i Noor\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early years", "Rise to power", "Forming the last Afghan empire", "Death and legacy", "Durrani's poetry", " Personal life ", "See also", "References", " Notes ", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Ahmad Shah Durrani
[ "\n\n'''Arthur Aikin''', FLS, FGS (19 May 177315 April 1854) was an English chemist, mineralogist and scientific writer, and was a founding member of the Chemical Society (now the Royal Society of Chemistry). He first became its Treasurer in 1841, and later became the Society's second President.\n", "He was born at Warrington, Lancashire into a distinguished literary family of prominent Unitarians. The best known of these was his paternal aunt, Anna Letitia Barbauld, a woman of letters who wrote poetry and essays as well as early children's literature. His father, Dr John Aikin, was a medical doctor, historian, and author. His grandfather, also called John (1713–1780), was a Unitarian scholar and theological tutor, closely associated with Warrington Academy. His sister Lucy (1781–1864) was a historical writer. Their brother Charles was adopted by their famous aunt and brought up as their cousin.\n\nArthur Aikin studied chemistry under Joseph Priestley in the New College at Hackney, and gave attention to the practical applications of the science. In early life he was a Unitarian minister for a short time. Aikin lectured on chemistry at Guy's Hospital for thirty-two years. He became the President of the British Mineralogical Society in 1801 for five years up until 1806 when the Society merged with the Askesian Society. From 1803 to 1808 he was editor of the ''Annual Review''. In 1805 Aiken also became a Proprietor of the London Institution, which was officially founded in 1806. He was one of the founders of the Geological Society of London in 1807 and was its honorary secretary in 1812–1817. He also gave lectures in 1813 and 1814. He contributed papers on the Wrekin and the Shropshire coalfield, among others, to the transactions of that society. His ''Manual of Mineralogy'' was published in 1814. Later he became the paid Secretary of the Society of Arts and later was elected as a Fellow. He was founder of the Chemical Society of London in 1841, being its first Treasurer and, between 1843 and 1845, second President.\n\nIn order to support himself, outside of his work with the British Mineralogical Society, the London Institution and the Geological Society, Aiken worked as a writer, translator and lecturer to the public and to medical students at Guy's Hospital. His writing and journalism were useful for publicising foreign scientific news to the wider British public. He was also a member of the Linnean Society and in 1820 joined the Institution of Civil Engineers.\n\nHe was highly esteemed as a man of sound judgement and wide knowledge. Aikin never married, and died at Hoxton in London in 1854.\n", "* ''Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire with Observations in Mineralogy and Other Branches of Natural History'' (London, 1797)\n* ''A Manual of Mineralogy'' (1814; ed. 2, 1815)\n* ''A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy'' (with his brother C. R. Aikin), 2 vols. (London, 1807, 1814).\n\nFor ''Rees's Cyclopædia'' he wrote articles about Chemistry, Geology and Mineralogy, but the topics are not known.\n", "\n\n", "\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Publications", "References", "External links" ]	Arthur Aikin
[ "\n\n'''''Ailanthus''''' (; derived from ''ailanto,'' an Ambonese word probably meaning \"tree of the gods\" or \"tree of heaven\") is a genus of trees belonging to the family Simaroubaceae, in the order Sapindales (formerly Rutales or Geraniales). The genus is native from east Asia south to northern Australasia.\n", "''Ailanthus altissima'', male flowers\n\nThe number of living species is disputed, with some authorities accepting up to ten species, while others accept six or fewer. Species include:\n''Ailanthus altissima'' ('''Tree of Heaven''', syn. ''A. vilmoriniana'' ) – northern and central mainland China, Taiwan, considered invasive in North America, Britain and Australia. Serves as central metaphor in A Tree Grows in Brooklyn \n''Ailanthus excelsa'' – India and Sri Lanka\n''Ailanthus fordii'' – China\n''Ailanthus integrifolia'' – New Guinea and Queensland, Australia\n''Ailanthus triphysa'' ('''White siris''' syn. ''A. malabarica'') – northern and eastern Australia.\n''Ailanthus vietnamensis'' – Vietnam\n\nThere is a good fossil record of ''Ailanthus'' with many species names based on their geographic occurrence, but almost all of these have very similar morphology and have been grouped as a single species among the three species recognized:\n''Ailanthus tardensis'' – From a single locality in Hungary\n''Ailanthus confucii'' – Tertiary period, Europe, Asia, and North America\n''Ailanthus gigas'' – From a single locality in Slovenia\n''Ailanthus pythii'' – Known from the Miocene of Iceland, Styria in Austria and the Gavdos Island in Greece\n", "A silk spinning moth, the Ailanthus silkmoth (''Samia cynthia''), lives on ''Ailanthus'' leaves, and yields a silk more durable and cheaper than mulberry silk, but inferior to it in fineness and gloss. This moth has been introduced to the eastern United States and is common near many towns; it is about 12 cm across, with angulated wings, and in colour olive brown, with white markings. Other Lepidoptera whose larvae feed on ''Ailanthus'' include ''Endoclita malabaricus''.\n", "\n\n\n Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Ailanthus''\n* Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group: Least Wanted\n\n\nIn line 12 of his poem 'Dry Salvages' T.S.Eliot refers to 'in the rank ailanthus of the April dooryard' alluding to Walt Whitman's poem\n'When lilacs last in the dooryard bloom'd' which itself refers to the assassination of Abraham Lincoln.\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Selected species", "Ailanthus silk moth", " References " ]	Ailanthus
[ "\n\n'''Aimoin of Fleury''' (; ), French chronicler, was born at Villefranche-de-Longchat about 960, and in early life entered the monastery of Fleury, where he became a monk and passed the greater part of his life. His chief work is a ''Historia Francorum'', or ''Libri V. de Gestis Francorum'', which deals with the history of the Franks from the earliest times to 653, and was continued by other writers until the middle of the twelfth century. It was much in vogue during the Middle Ages, but its historical value is now regarded as slight. It was edited by G. Waitz and published in the ''Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores'', Band xxvi (Hanover and Berlin, 1826–1892).\n\nHe also wrote a ''Vita Abbonis, abbatis Floriacensis'', the last of a series of lives of the abbots of Fleury, all of which, except the life of Abbo, have been lost. This was published by J. Mabillon in the ''Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti'' (Paris, 1668–1701).\n\nAimoin's third work was the composition of books ii and iii of the ''Miracula sancti Benedicti'', the first book of which was written by another monk of Fleury named '''Adrevald'''. This also appears in the ''Acta sanctorum''.\n", "\n", "* Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexs\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ]	Aimoin
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Akkadian Empire''' was the first ancient Semitic-speaking empire of Mesopotamia, centered in the city of Akkad and its surrounding region, also called Akkad in ancient Mesopotamia in the Bible. The empire united Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule. The Akkadian Empire exercised influence across Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Anatolia, sending military expeditions as far south as Dilmun and Magan (modern Bahrain and Oman) in the Arabian Peninsula.\n\nDuring the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate).\n\nThe Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests by its founder Sargon of Akkad. Under Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium. Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though the meaning of this term is not precise, and there are earlier Sumerian claimants.\n\nAfter the fall of the Akkadian Empire, the people of Mesopotamia eventually coalesced into two major Akkadian-speaking nations: Assyria in the north, and, a few centuries later, Babylonia in the south.\n", "The Bible refers to Akkad in , which states that the beginning of Nimrod's kingdom was in the land of Akkad. Nimrod's historical identity is unknown, but some have compared him with the legendary Gilgamesh, founder of Uruk. Today, scholars have documented some 7,000 texts from the Akkadian period, written in both Sumerian and Akkadian. Many later texts from the successor states of Assyria and Babylonia also deal with the Akkadian Empire.\n\nUnderstanding of the Akkadian Empire continues to be hampered by the fact that its capital Akkad has not yet been located, despite numerous attempts. Precise dating of archaeological sites is hindered by the fact that there are no clear distinctions between artifact assemblages thought to stem from the preceding Early Dynastic period, and those thought to be Akkadian. Likewise, material that is thought to be Akkadian continues to be in use into the Ur III period.\n\nMany of the more recent insights on the Akkadian Empire have come from excavations in the Upper Khabur area in modern northeastern Syria which was to become a part of Assyria after the fall of Akkad. For example, excavations at Tell Mozan (ancient Urkesh) brought to light a sealing of Tar'am-Agade, a previously unknown daughter of Naram-Sin, who was possibly married to an unidentified local ''endan'' (ruler). The excavators at nearby Tell Leilan (ancient Shekhna/Shubat-Enlil) have used the results from their investigations to argue that the Akkadian Empire came to an end due to a sudden drought, the so-called 4.2 kiloyear event. The impact of this climate event on Mesopotamia in general, and on the Akkadian Empire in particular, continues to be hotly debated.\n\nExcavation at the modern site of Tell Brak has suggested that the Akkadians rebuilt a city (\"Brak\" or \"Nagar\") on this site, for use an administrative center. The city included two large buildings including a complex with temple, offices, courtyard, and large ovens.\n", "\nThe Akkadian Period is generally dated to either: (according to the middle chronology timeline of the Ancient Near East), or (according to the short chronology timeline of the Ancient Near East.) It was preceded by the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia (ED) and succeeded by the Ur III Period, although both transitions are blurry. For example: it is likely that the rise of Sargon of Akkad coincided with the late ED Period and that the final Akkadian kings ruled simultaneously with the Gutian kings alongside rulers at the city-states of both: Uruk and Lagash. The Akkadian Period is contemporary with: EB IV (in Israel), EB IVA and EJ IV (in Syria), and EB IIIB (in Turkey.)\n\n===Timeline of rulers===\n\n\n\nThe relative order of Akkadian kings is clear. The absolute dates of their reigns are approximate (as with all dates prior to the late Bronze Age collapse ''c.'' 1200 BC).\n\n\n\n Ruler\n Middle ChronologyAll dates BC\n Short ChronologyAll dates BC\n\nSargon\n 2334–2279\n\n\nRimush\n 2278–2270\n\n\nManishtushu\n 2269–2255\n\n\nNaram-Sin\n 2254–2218\n\n\nShar-Kali-Sharri\n 2217–2193\n\n\nInterregnum\n 2192–2190\n\n\nDudu\n 2189–2169\n\n\nShu-turul\n 2168–2154\n\n\n", "\n===Pre-Sargonic Akkad===\nThe Akkadian Empire takes its name from the region and city of Akkad, both of which were localized in the general confluence area of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Although the city of Akkad has not yet been identified on the ground, it is known from various textual sources. Among these is at least one text predating the reign of Sargon. Together with the fact that the name Akkad is of non-Akkadian origin, this suggests that the city of Akkad may have already been occupied in pre-Sargonic times.\n\n===Sargon of Akkad===\n\nBronze head of an Akkadian, probably an image of Manishtusu or Naram-Sin; descendants of Sargon (National Museum of Iraq).\nSargon of Akkad (''Sharru-kin'' = \"legitimate king\", possibly a title he took on gaining power) defeated and captured Lugal-Zage-Si in the Battle of Uruk and conquered his empire. The earliest records in the Akkadian language date to the time of Sargon. Sargon was claimed to be the son of La'ibum or Itti-Bel, a humble gardener, and possibly a hierodule, or priestess to Ishtar or Inanna. One legend related of Sargon in Assyrian times says that\n\n\nLater claims made on behalf of Sargon were that his mother was an \"entu\" priestess (high priestess). The claims might have been made to ensure a descendancy of nobility, considering only a high placed family can be made such a position.\n\nKings of the Akkad Dynasty.\nOriginally a cupbearer (Rabshakeh) to a king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa, Sargon thus became a gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation canals. This gave him access to a disciplined corps of workers, who also may have served as his first soldiers. Displacing Ur-Zababa, Sargon was crowned king, and he entered upon a career of foreign conquest. Four times he invaded Syria and Canaan, and he spent three years thoroughly subduing the countries of \"the west\" to unite them with Mesopotamia \"into a single empire\".\n\nHowever, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions to create an empire that reached westward as far as the Mediterranean Sea and perhaps Cyprus (''Kaptara''); northward as far as the mountains (a later Hittite text asserts he fought the Hattian king Nurdaggal of Burushanda, well into Anatolia); eastward over Elam; and as far south as Magan (Oman) — a region over which he reigned for purportedly 56 years, though only four \"year-names\" survive. He consolidated his dominion over his territories by replacing the earlier opposing rulers with noble citizens of Akkad, his native city where loyalty would thus be ensured.\n\nTrade extended from the silver mines of Anatolia to the lapis lazuli mines in modern Afghanistan, the cedars of Lebanon and the copper of Magan. This consolidation of the city-states of Sumer and Akkad reflected the growing economic and political power of Mesopotamia. The empire's breadbasket was the rain-fed agricultural system of Assyria and a chain of fortresses was built to control the imperial wheat production.\n\nImages of Sargon were erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his victories, and cities and palaces were built at home with the spoils of the conquered lands. Elam and the northern part of Mesopotamia (Assyria/Subartu) were also subjugated, and rebellions in Sumer were put down. Contract tablets have been found dated in the years of the campaigns against Canaan and against Sarlak, king of Gutium. He also boasted of having subjugated the \"four quarters\" — the lands surrounding Akkad to the north (Assyria), the south (Sumer), the east (Elam), and the west (Martu). Some of the earliest historiographic texts (ABC 19, 20) suggest he rebuilt the city of Babylon (''Bab-ilu'') in its new location near Akkad.\n\nSargon, throughout his long life, showed special deference to the Sumerian deities, particularly Inanna (Ishtar), his patroness, and Zababa, the warrior god of Kish. He called himself \"The anointed priest of Anu\" and \"the great'' ensi'' of Enlil\" and his daughter, Enheduanna, was installed as priestess to Nanna at the temple in Ur.\n\nTroubles multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text states:\n\n\nIt refers to his campaign in \"Elam\", where he defeated a coalition army led by the King of Awan and forced the vanquished to become his vassals.\n\nAlso shortly after, another revolt took place:\n\n\n===Rimush and Manishtushu===\n\nSargon had crushed opposition even at old age. These difficulties broke out again in the reign of his sons, where revolts broke out during the nine-year reign of Rimush (2278–2270 BC), who fought hard to retain the empire, and was successful until he was assassinated by some of his own courtiers. Rimush's elder brother, Manishtushu (2269–2255 BC) succeeded him. The latter seems to have fought a sea battle against 32 kings who had gathered against him and took control over their pre-Arab country, consisting of modern-day United Arab Emirates and Oman. Despite the success, like his brother he seems to have been assassinated in a palace conspiracy.\n\n===Naram-Sin===\n\nVictory Stele of Naram-Sin, celebrating victory against the Lullubi from Zagros 2260 BC. He is wearing a horned helmet, a symbol of divinity, and is also portrayed in a larger scale in comparison to others to emphasize his superiority. Brought back from Sippar to Susa as war prize in the 12th century BC.\n\nNaram-Sin Rock Relief at Darband-i-Gawr, Qaradagh Mountain, Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan\n\nManishtushu's son and successor, Naram-Sin (2254–2218 BC), due to vast military conquests, assumed the imperial title \"King Naram-Sin, king of the four quarters\" (''Lugal Naram-Sîn, Šar kibrat 'arbaim''), the four quarters as a reference to the entire world. He was also for the first time in Sumerian culture, addressed as \"the god (Sumerian = DINGIR, Akkadian = ''ilu'') of Agade\" (Akkad), in opposition to the previous religious belief that kings were only representatives of the people towards the gods.\nHe also faced revolts at the start of his reign, but quickly crushed them.\n\nNaram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian conquest of Ebla as well as Armanum and its king. Armanum location is debated; it is sometimes identified with a Syrian kingdom mentioned in the tablets of Ebla as Armi, the location of Armi is also debated; while historian Adelheid Otto identifies it with the Citadel of Bazi – Tall Banat complex on the Euphrates River between Ebla and Tell Brak, others like Wayne Horowitz identify it with Aleppo. Further, if most scholars place Armanum in Syria, Michael C. Astour believes it to be located north of the Hamrin Mountains in northern Iraq.\n\nTo better police Syria, he built a royal residence at Tell Brak, a crossroads at the heart of the Khabur River basin of the Jezirah. Naram-Sin campaigned against Magan which also revolted; Naram-Sin \"marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its king\", where he instated garrisons to protect the main roads. The chief threat seemed to be coming from the northern Zagros Mountains, the Lulubis and the Gutians. A campaign against the Lullubi led to the carving of the \"Victory Stele of Naram-Suen\", now in the Louvre. Hittite sources claim Naram-Sin of Akkad even ventured into Anatolia, battling the Hittite and Hurrian kings Pamba of Hatti, Zipani of Kanesh, and 15 others.\nThis newfound Akkadian wealth may have been based upon benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural surpluses and the confiscation of the wealth of other peoples.\nInscription of Naram Sin found at the city of Marad in Iraq, BC\nThe economy was highly planned. Grain was cleaned, and rations of grain and oil were distributed in standardized vessels made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and labour on public walls, including city walls, temples, irrigation canals and waterways, producing huge agricultural surpluses.\n\nIn later Assyrian and Babylonian texts, the name ''Akkad'', together with ''Sumer'', appears as part of the royal title, as in the Sumerian LUGAL KI-EN-GI KI-URI or Akkadian ''Šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi'', translating to \"king of Sumer and Akkad\". This title was assumed by the king who seized control of Nippur, the intellectual and religious center of southern Mesopotamia.\n\nDuring the Akkadian period, the Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the Middle East, and was officially used for administration, although the Sumerian language remained as a spoken and literary language. The spread of Akkadian stretched from Syria to Elam, and even the Elamite language was temporarily written in Mesopotamian cuneiform. Akkadian texts later found their way to far-off places, from Egypt (in the Amarna Period) and Anatolia, to Persia (Behistun).\n\n===Collapse ===\n\nThe empire of Akkad fell, perhaps in the 22nd century BC, within 180 years of its founding, ushering in a \"Dark Age\" with no prominent imperial authority until Third Dynasty of Ur. The region's political structure may have reverted to the ''status quo ante'' of local governance by city-states.\n\nShu-Durul appears to have restored some centralized authority, however he was unable to prevent the empire eventually collapsing outright from the invasion of barbarian peoples from the Zagros Mountains known as the Gutians.\n\nLittle is known about the Gutian period, or how long it endured. Cuneiform sources suggest that the Gutians' administration showed little concern for maintaining agriculture, written records, or public safety; they reputedly released all farm animals to roam about Mesopotamia freely, and soon brought about famine and rocketing grain prices. The Sumerian king Ur-Nammu (2112–2095 BC) cleared the Gutians from Mesopotamia during his reign.\n\nThe Sumerian King List, describing the Akkadian Empire after the death of Shar-kali-shari, states:\n\n\nHowever, there are no known year-names or other archaeological evidence verifying any of these later kings of Akkad or Uruk, apart from a single artifact referencing king Dudu of Akkad. The named kings of Uruk may have been contemporaries of the last kings of Akkad, but in any event could not have been very prominent.\n\n\n\"Cylinder Seal with King or God and Vanquished Lion\" (Old Akkadian). The Walters Art Museum.\n\nThe period between BC and 2004 BC is known as the Ur III period. Documents again began to be written in Sumerian, although Sumerian was becoming a purely literary or liturgical language, much as Latin later would be in Medieval Europe.\n\nOne explanation for the end of the Akkadian empire is simply that the Akkadian dynasty could not maintain its political supremacy over other independently powerful city states.\n\n==== Drought ====\n\n\nOne theory associates regional decline at the end of the Akkadian period (and of the First Intermediary Period following the Old Kingdom in Ancient Egypt) was associated with rapidly increasing aridity, and failing rainfall in the region of the Ancient Near East, caused by a global centennial-scale drought. Harvey Weiss et al. have shown \"Archaeological and soil-stratigraphic data define the origin, growth, and collapse of Subir, the third millennium rain-fed agriculture civilization of northern Mesopotamia on the Habur Plains of Syria. At 2200 BC, a marked increase in aridity and wind circulation, subsequent to a volcanic eruption, induced a considerable degradation of land-use conditions. After four centuries of urban life, this abrupt climatic change evidently caused abandonment of Tell Leilan, regional desertion, and collapse of the Akkadian empire based in southern Mesopotamia. Synchronous collapse in adjacent regions suggests that the impact of the abrupt climatic change was extensive.\". Peter B. deMenocal, has shown \"there was an influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on the stream flow of the Tigris and Euphrates at this time, which led to the collapse of the Akkadian Empire\".\n\nExcavation at Tell Leilan suggests that this site was abandoned soon after the city's massive walls were constructed, its temple rebuilt and its grain production reorganised. The debris, dust and sand that followed show no trace of human activity. Soil samples show fine wind-blown sand, no trace of earthworm activity, reduced rainfall and indications of a drier and windier climate. Evidence shows that skeleton-thin sheep and cattle died of drought, and up to 28,000 people abandoned the site, seeking wetter areas elsewhere. Tell Brak shrank in size by 75%. Trade collapsed. Nomadic herders such as the Amorites moved herds closer to reliable water suppliers, bringing them into conflict with Akkadian populations. This climate-induced collapse seems to have affected the whole of the Middle East, and to have coincided with the collapse of the Egyptian Old Kingdom.\n\nThis collapse of rain-fed agriculture in the Upper Country meant the loss to southern Mesopotamia of the agrarian subsidies which had kept the Akkadian Empire solvent. Water levels within the Tigris and Euphrates fell 1.5 metres beneath the level of 2600 BC, and although they stabilised for a time during the following Ur III period, rivalries between pastoralists and farmers increased. Attempts were undertaken to prevent the former from herding their flocks in agricultural lands, such as the building of a wall known as the \"Repeller of the Amorites\" between the Tigris and Euphrates under the Ur III ruler Shu-Sin. Such attempts led to increased political instability; meanwhile, severe depression occurred to re-establish demographic equilibrium with the less favourable climatic conditions.\n\nRichard Zettler has critiqued the drought theory, observing that the chronology of the Akkadian empire is very uncertain, and that available evidence is not sufficient to show its economic dependence on the northern areas excavated by Weiss and others. He also criticizes Weiss for taking Akkadian writings literally to describe certain catastrophic events.\n\nAccording to Joan Oates, at Tell Brak the soil \"signal\" associated with the drought lies below the level of Naram-Sin's palace. However, evidence\n\nmay suggest a tightening of Akkadian control following the Brak 'event', for example the construction of the heavily fortified 'palace' itself and the apparent introduction of greater numbers of Akkadian as opposed to local officials, perhaps a reflection of unrest in the countryside of the type that often follows some natural catastrophe. Furthermore, Brak remained occupied and functional after the fall of the Akkadians.\n", "The Akkadian government formed a \"classical standard\" with which all future Mesopotamian states compared themselves. Traditionally, the ''ensi'' was the highest functionary of the Sumerian city-states. In later traditions, one became an ''ensi'' by marrying the goddess Inanna, legitimising the rulership through divine consent.\n\nInitially, the monarchical ''lugal'' (''lu'' = man, ''gal'' =Great) was subordinate to the priestly ''ensi'', and was appointed at times of troubles, but by later dynastic times, it was the ''lugal'' who had emerged as the preeminent role, having his own ''\"é\"'' (= house) or \"palace\", independent from the temple establishment. By the time of Mesalim, whichever dynasty controlled the city of Kish was recognised as ''šar kiššati'' (= king of Kish), and was considered preeminent in Sumer, possibly because this was where the two rivers approached, and whoever controlled Kish ultimately controlled the irrigation systems of the other cities downstream.\n\nAs Sargon extended his conquest from the \"Lower Sea\" (Persian Gulf), to the \"Upper Sea\" (Mediterranean), it was felt that he ruled \"the totality of the lands under heaven\", or \"from sunrise to sunset\", as contemporary texts put it. Under Sargon, the ''ensi''s generally retained their positions, but were seen more as provincial governors. The title ''šar kiššati'' became recognised as meaning \"lord of the universe\". Sargon is even recorded as having organised naval expeditions to Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan, amongst the first organised military naval expeditions in history. Whether he also did in the case of the Mediterranean with the kingdom of Kaptara (possibly Cyprus), as claimed in later documents, is more questionable.\n\nWith Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson, this went further than with Sargon, with the king not only being called \"Lord of the Four Quarters (of the Earth)\", but also elevated to the ranks of the ''dingir'' (= gods), with his own temple establishment. Previously a ruler could, like Gilgamesh, become divine after death but the Akkadian kings, from Naram-Sin onward, were considered gods on earth in their lifetimes. Their portraits showed them of larger size than mere mortals and at some distance from their retainers.\n\nOne strategy adopted by both Sargon and Naram-Sin, to maintain control of the country, was to install their daughters, Enheduanna and Emmenanna respectively, as high priestess to Sin, the Akkadian version of the Sumerian moon deity, Nanna, at Ur, in the extreme south of Sumer; to install sons as provincial ''ensi'' governors in strategic locations; and to marry their daughters to rulers of peripheral parts of the Empire (Urkesh and Marhashe). A well documented case of the latter is that of Naram-Sin's daughter Tar'am-Agade at Urkesh.\n\nRecords at the Brak administrative complex suggest that the Akkadians appointed locals as tax collectors.\n", "The population of Akkad, like nearly all pre-modern states, was entirely dependent upon the agricultural systems of the region, which seem to have had two principal centres: the irrigated farmlands of southern Iraq that traditionally had a yield of 30 grains returned for each grain sown and the rain-fed agriculture of northern Iraq, known as the \"Upper Country.\"\n\nSouthern Iraq during Akkadian period seems to have been approaching its modern rainfall level of less than per year, with the result that agriculture was totally dependent upon irrigation. Before the Akkadian period the progressive salinisation of the soils, produced by poorly drained irrigation, had been reducing yields of wheat in the southern part of the country, leading to the conversion to more salt-tolerant barley growing. Urban populations there had peaked already by 2,600 BC, and demographic pressures were high, contributing to the rise of militarism apparent immediately before the Akkadian period (as seen in the Stele of the Vultures of Eannatum). Warfare between city states had led to a population decline, from which Akkad provided a temporary respite. It was this high degree of agricultural productivity in the south that enabled the growth of the highest population densities in the world at this time, giving Akkad its military advantage.\n\nThe water table in this region was very high and replenished regularly—by winter storms in the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates from October to March and from snow-melt from March to July. Flood levels, that had been stable from about 3,000 to 2,600 BC, had started falling, and by the Akkadian period were a half-meter to a meter lower than recorded previously. Even so, the flat country and weather uncertainties made flooding much more unpredictable than in the case of the Nile; serious deluges seem to have been a regular occurrence, requiring constant maintenance of irrigation ditches and drainage systems. Farmers were recruited into regiments for this work from August to October—a period of food shortage—under the control of city temple authorities, thus acting as a form of unemployment relief. Gwendolyn Leick has suggested that this was Sargon's original employment for the king of Kish, giving him experience in effectively organising large groups of men; a tablet reads, \"Sargon, the king, to whom Enlil permitted no rival—5,400 warriors ate bread daily before him\".\n\nSea shell of a murex bearing the name of Rimush, king of Kish, BC, Louvre, traded from the Mediterranean coast where it was used by Canaanites to make a purple dye.\nHarvest was in the late spring and during the dry summer months. Nomadic Amorites from the northwest would pasture their flocks of sheep and goats to graze on the stubble and be watered from the river and irrigation canals. For this privilege, they would have to pay a tax in wool, meat, milk, and cheese to the temples, who would distribute these products to the bureaucracy and priesthood. In good years, all would go well, but in bad years, wild winter pastures would be in short supply, nomads would seek to pasture their flocks in the grain fields, and conflicts with farmers would result. It would appear that the subsidizing of southern populations by the import of wheat from the north of the Empire temporarily overcame this problem, and it seems to have allowed economic recovery and a growing population within this region.\n\nAs a result, Sumer and Akkad had a surplus of agricultural products but was short of almost everything else, particularly metal ores, timber and building stone, all of which had to be imported. The spread of the Akkadian state as far as the \"silver mountain\" (possibly the Taurus Mountains), the \"cedars\" of Lebanon, and the copper deposits of Magan, was largely motivated by the goal of securing control over these imports. One tablet reads \"Sargon, the king of Kish, triumphed in thirty-four battles (over the cities) up to the edge of the sea (and) destroyed their walls. He made the ships from Meluhha, the ships from Magan (and) the ships from Dilmun tie up alongside the quay of Agade. Sargon the king prostrated himself before (the god) Dagan (and) made supplication to him; (and) he (Dagan) gave him the upper land, namely Mari, Yarmuti, (and) Ebla, up to the Cedar Forest (and) up to the Silver Mountain\".\n", "\n===Art===\nIn art there was a great emphasis on the kings of the dynasty, alongside much that continued earlier Sumerian art. Little architecture remains. In large works and small ones such as seals, the degree of realism was considerably increased, but the seals show a \"grim world of cruel conflict, of danger and uncertainty, a world in which man is subjected without appeal to the incomprehensible acts of distant and fearful divinities who he must serve but cannot love. This sombre mood ... remained characteristic of Mesopotamian art...\"\n\n===Language===\n\nDuring the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a ''sprachbund''. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around 2000 BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.\n\n===Poet–priestess Enheduanna===\nSumerian literature continued in rich development during the Akkadian period. Enheduanna, the \"wife (Sumerian ''dam'' = high priestess) of Nanna the Sumerian moon god and daughter of Sargon\" of the temple of Sin at Ur, who lived –2250 BC, is the first poet in history whose name is known. Her known works include hymns to the goddess Inanna, the ''Exaltation of Inanna'' and ''In-nin sa-gur-ra''. A third work, the ''Temple Hymns'', a collection of specific hymns, addresses the sacred temples and their occupants, the deity to whom they were consecrated. The works of this poet are significant, because although they start out using the third person, they shift to the first person voice of the poet herself, and they mark a significant development in the use of cuneiform. As poet, princess, and priestess, she was a personality who, according to William W Hallo, \"set standards in all three of her roles for many succeeding centuries\"\n\nIn the ''Exultation of Inanna'',\n\n\n===Curse of Akkad===\nLater material described how the fall of Akkad was due to Nara-Sin's attack upon the city of Nipper. When prompted by a pair of inauspicious oracles, the king sacked the E-kur temple, supposedly protected by the god Enlil, head of the pantheon. As a result of this, eight chief deities of the Anunnaki pantheon were supposed to have come together and withdrawn their support from Akkad.\n\n\n:For the first time since cities were built and founded,\n:The great agricultural tracts produced no grain,\n:The inundated tracts produced no ostriches,\n:The irrigated orchards produced neither wine nor syrup,\n:The gathered clouds did not rain, the masgurum did not grow.\n:At that time, one shekel's worth of oil was only one-half quart,\n:One shekel's worth of grain was only one-half quart. . . .\n:These sold at such prices in the markets of all the cities!\n:He who slept on the roof, died on the roof,\n:He who slept in the house, had no burial,\n:People were flailing at themselves from hunger.\n\n\nThe kings of Akkad were legendary among later Mesopotamian civilizations, with Sargon understood as the prototype of a strong and wise leader, and his grandson Naram-Sin considered the wicked and impious leader (''Unheilsherrscher'' in the analysis of Hans Gustav Güterbock) who brought ruin upon his kingdom.\n", "Bassetki Statue from the reign of Naram-Sin of Akkad with an inscription mentioning the construction of a temple in Akkad\|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a statue consisting of an inscribed, round pedestal on top of which sits a seated, nude, male figure of which only the legs and lower torso are preserved Tablets from the periods reads, ''\"(From the earliest days) no-one had made a statue of lead, (but) Rimush king of Kish, had a statue of himself made of lead. It stood before Enlil; and it recited his (Rimush's) virtues to the idu of the gods\"''. The copper Bassetki Statue, cast with the lost wax method, testifies to the high level of skill that craftsmen achieved during the Akkadian period.\n", "The empire was bound together by roads, along which there was a regular postal service. Clay seals that took the place of stamps bear the names of Sargon and his son. A cadastral survey seems also to have been instituted, and one of the documents relating to it states that a certain Uru-Malik, whose name appears to indicate his Canaanite origin, was governor of the land of the Amorites, or ''Amurru'' as the semi-nomadic people of Syria and Canaan were called in Akkadian. It is probable that the first collection of astronomical observations and terrestrial omens was made for a library established by Sargon. The earliest \"year names\", whereby each year of a king's reign was named after a significant event performed by that king, date from Sargon's reign. Lists of these \"year names\" henceforth became a calendrical system used in most independent Mesopotamian city-states. In Assyria, however, years came to be named for the annual presiding ''limmu'' official appointed by the king, rather than for an event.\n", "\n* Cities of the ancient Near East\n* Religions of the ancient Near East\n* History of Mesopotamia\n* Timeline of the Assyrian Empire\n", "\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n* Liverani, Mario, ed. (1993). ''Akkad: The First World Empire: Structure, Ideology Traditions\". Padova: Sargon srl. \n* Oates, Joan (2004). \"Archaeology in Mesopotamia: Digging Deeper at Tell Brak\". 2004 Albert Reckitt Archaeological Lecture. In ''Proceedings of the British Academy: 2004 Lectures''; Oxford University Press, 2005. .\n* \n* Zettler, Richard (2003). \" Reconstructing the World of Ancient Mesopotamia: Divided Beginnings and Holistic History\". ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 46(1).\n", "\n* Iraq's Ancient Past — Penn Museum\n* Year Names of Narim-Sin – CDLI\n* Year Named of Shar-kali-Sharri – CDLI\n* Site on Enheduanna at Virginia Tech University\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History of research", "Dating and periodization", "Development of the empire", "Government", "Economy", "Culture", "Technology", "Achievements", "See also", "Notes", "External links" ]	Akkadian Empire
[ "Ajax the Lesser raping Cassandra\n'''Ajax''' ( ''Aias'') was a Greek mythological hero, son of Oileus, the king of Locris. He was called the \"lesser\" or \"Locrian\" Ajax, to distinguish him from Ajax the Great, son of Telamon. He was the leader of the Locrian contingent during the Trojan War. \nHe is a significant figure in Homer's ''Iliad'' and is also mentioned in the ''Odyssey'', in Virgil's ''Aeneid'' and in Euripides' ''The Trojan Women''. In Etruscan legend, he was known as ''Aivas Vilates''.\n\nAjax's mother's name was Eriopis. According to Strabo, he was born in Naryx in Locris, where Ovid calls him ''Narycius Heroes''. \nAccording to the ''Iliad'', he led his Locrians in forty ships against Troy. \nHe is described as one of the great heroes among the Greeks. In battle, he wore a linen cuirass (), was brave and intrepid, especially skilled in throwing the spear and, next to Achilles, the swiftest of all the Greeks.\n\nIn the funeral games at the pyre of Patroclus, he contended with Odysseus and Antilochus for the prize in the footrace; but Athena, who was hostile towards him and favored Odysseus, made him stumble and fall, so that he won only the second prize. On his return from Troy, his vessel was wrecked on the Whirling Rocks (), but he escaped upon a rock through the assistance of Poseidon. He would have been saved in spite of Athena, but he then audaciously declared that he would escape the dangers of the sea in defiance of the immortals. Offended by this presumption, Poseidon split the rock with his trident and Ajax was swallowed up by the sea.\n\nIn later traditions, this Ajax is called a son of Oileus and the nymph Rhene and is also mentioned among the suitors of Helen. After the taking of Troy, he rushed into the temple of Athena, where Cassandra had taken refuge, and was embracing the statue of the goddess in supplication. Ajax violently dragged her away to the other captives. \nAccording to some writers, he raped Cassandra inside the temple. Odysseus, accused him of this crime and Ajax was to be stoned to death, but saved himself by establishing his innocence with an oath to Athena, clutching her statue in supplication.\n", "Ajax in Troy drags Cassandra from Palladium before eyes of Priam, Roman mural from the Casa del Menandro, Pompeii\n\nSince Ajax dragged a supplicant from her temple, Athena had cause to be indignant. According to the ''Bibliotheca'', no one was aware that Ajax had raped Cassandra until Calchas, the Greek seer, warned the Greeks that Athena was furious at the treatment of her priestess and she would destroy the Greek ships if they didn't kill him immediately. Despite this, Ajax managed to hide in the altar of a deity where the Greeks, fearing divine retribution should they kill him and destroy the altar, allowed him to live. When the Greeks left without killing Ajax, despite their sacrifices, Athena became so angry that she persuaded Zeus to send a storm that sank many of their ships.\n\nPoseidon killing Ajax the Lesser\n\nWhen Ajax finally left Troy during the Returns from Troy, Athena hit his ship with a thunderbolt, but Ajax still survived with some of his men, managing to cling onto a rock. He boasted that even the gods could not kill him and Poseidon, upon hearing this, split the rock with his trident, causing Ajax to eventually drown. \nThetis buried him when the corpse washed up on Myconos. Other versions depict a different death for Ajax, showing him dying when on his voyage home. In these versions, when Ajax came to the Capharean Rocks on the coast of Euboea, his ship was wrecked in a fierce storm, he himself was lifted up in a whirlwind and impaled with a flash of rapid fire from Athena in his chest, and his body thrust upon sharp rocks, which afterwards were called the rocks of Ajax.\n\nAfter his death, his spirit dwelt in the island of Leuce. The Opuntian Locrians worshiped Ajax as their national hero, and so great was their faith in him that when they drew up their army in battle, they always left one place open for him, believing that, although invisible to them, he was fighting for and among them. The story of Ajax was frequently made use of by ancient poets and artists, and the hero who appears on some Locrian coins with the helmet, shield, and sword is probably this Ajax.\n\nOther accounts of his death are offered by Philostratus and the scholiast on Lycophron.\n", "Ajax and Cassandra'' by Solomon J. Solomon (1886). In the collection of the Art Gallery of Ballarat in Victoria, Australia\n\nThe abduction of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently represented in Greek works of art, such as the chest of Cypselus described by Pausanias and in extant works.\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Death", "Art", "References", "Sources" ]	Ajax the Lesser
[ "\nAjax battling Hektor. Engraving by John Flaxman, 1795.\n\n'''Ajax''' or '''Aias''' ( or ; , gen. Αἴαντος ''Aiantos'') is a mythological Greek hero, the son of King Telamon and Periboea, and the half-brother of Teucer. He plays an important role, and is portrayed as a towering figure and a warrior of great courage in Homer's ''Iliad'' and in the Epic Cycle, a series of epic poems about the Trojan War. He is also referred to as \"'''Telamonian Ajax'''\", \"'''Greater Ajax'''\", or \"'''Ajax the Great'''\", which distinguishes him from Ajax, son of Oileus (Ajax the Lesser). In Etruscan mythology, he is known as '''Aivas Tlamunus'''.\n", "Ajax is the son of Telamon, who was the son of Aeacus and grandson of Zeus, and his first wife Periboea. He is the cousin of Achilles, and is the elder half-brother of Teucer. Many illustrious Athenians, including Cimon, Miltiades, Alcibiades and the historian Thucydides, traced their descent from Ajax. On an Etruscan tomb dedicated to Racvi Satlnei in Bologna (5th century BC) there is an inscription that says, \"aivastelmunsl\" which means \"family of Telamonian Ajax\".\n", "The Belvedere Torso, a marble sculpture carved in the first Century BC depicting Ajax.\nIn Homer's ''Iliad'' he is described as of great stature, colossal frame and strongest of all the Achaeans. Known as the \"bulwark of the Achaeans\", he was trained by the centaur Chiron (who had trained Ajax' father Telamon and Achilles' father Peleus and would later die of an accidental wound inflicted by Heracles, whom he was at the time training), at the same time as Achilles. He was described as fearless, strong and powerful but also with a very high level of combat intelligence. Ajax commands his army wielding a huge shield made of seven cow-hides with a layer of bronze. Most notably, Ajax is not wounded in any of the battles described in the ''Iliad'', and he is the only principal character on either side who does not receive substantial assistance from any of the gods who take part in the battles, although, in book 13, Poseidon strikes Ajax with his staff, renewing his strength. Unlike Diomedes and Achilles, Ajax appears as a mainly defensive warrior, instrumental in the defence of the Greek camp and ships and that of Patroclus' body. When the Trojans are on the offensive, he is often seen covering the retreat of the Achaeans. Significantly, while one of the deadliest heroes in the whole poem, Ajax has no aristeia depicting him on the offensive.\n\n===Trojan War===\nIn the ''Iliad'', Ajax is notable for his abundant strength and courage, seen particularly in two fights with Hector. In Book 7, Ajax is chosen by lot to meet Hector in a duel which lasts most of a whole day. Ajax at first gets the better of the encounter, wounding Hector with his spear and knocking him down with a large stone, but Hector fights on until the heralds, acting at the direction of Zeus, call a draw, with the two combatants exchanging gifts, Ajax giving Hector a purple sash and Hector giving Ajax his sharp sword.\n\nThe second fight between Ajax and Hector occurs when the latter breaks into the Mycenaean camp, and fights with the Greeks among the ships. In Book 14, Ajax throws a giant rock at Hector which almost kills him. In Book 15, Hector is restored to his strength by Apollo and returns to attack the ships. Ajax, wielding an enormous spear as a weapon and leaping from ship to ship, holds off the Trojan armies virtually single-handedly. In Book 16, Hector and Ajax duel once again. Hector then disarms Ajax (although Ajax is not hurt) and Ajax is forced to retreat, seeing that Zeus is clearly favoring Hector. Hector and the Trojans succeed in burning one Greek ship, the culmination of an assault that almost finishes the war. Ajax is responsible for the death of many Trojans lords, including Phorcys.\n\nAjax often fought in tandem with his brother Teucer, known for his skill with the bow. Ajax would wield his magnificent shield, as Teucer stood behind picking off enemy Trojans.\n\nAchilles was absent during these encounters because of his feud with Agamemnon. In Book 9, Agamemnon and the other Mycenaean chiefs send Ajax, Odysseus and Phoenix to the tent of Achilles in an attempt to reconcile with the great warrior and induce him to return to the fight. Although Ajax speaks earnestly and is well received, he does not succeed in convincing Achilles.\n\nWhen Patroclus is killed, Hector tries to steal his body. Ajax, assisted by Menelaus, succeeds in fighting off the Trojans and taking the body back with his chariot; however, the Trojans had already stripped Patroclus of Achilles' armor. Ajax's prayer to Zeus to remove the fog that has descended on the battle to allow them to fight or die in the light of day has become proverbial. According to Hyginus, in total, Ajax killed 28 people at Troy.\n\n====Death====\n''Sorrowful Ajax'' (Asmus Jacob Carstens, ca. 1791)\nLike most of the other Greek leaders, Ajax is alive and well as the ''Iliad'' comes to a close. When Achilles dies, killed by Paris (with help from Apollo), Ajax and Odysseus are the heroes who fight against the Trojans to get the body and bury it with his companion, Patroclus. Ajax, with his great shield and spear, manages to recover the body and carry it to the ships, while Odysseus fights off the Trojans. After the burial, each claims Achilles' magical armor for himself as recognition for his heroic efforts. After several days of competition, Odysseus and Ajax are tied for the ownership of the divine armor, which had been forged on Mount Olympus by the smith-god Hephaestus. It is then that a competition is held to determine who deserves the armor. Ajax argues that because of his strength and the fighting he has done for the Greeks, including saving the ships from Hector, and driving him off with a massive rock, he deserves the armor. However, Odysseus proves to be more eloquent, and with the aid of Athena, the council gives him the armor. Ajax, \"Unconquered\", and furious, becomes crazed and commits outrages against the Achaians' herds of captured livestock, and falls upon his own sword, \"conquered by his own sorrow\". \nThe Belvedere Torso, a marble torso now in the Vatican Museums, is considered to depict Ajax \"in the act of contemplating his suicide\".\n\nIn Sophocles' play ''Ajax'', a famous retelling of Ajax's demise, after the armor is awarded to Odysseus Ajax feels so insulted that he wants to kill Agamemnon and Menelaus. Athena intervenes and clouds his mind and vision, and he goes to a flock of sheep and slaughters them, imagining they are the Achaean leaders, including Odysseus and Agamemnon. When he comes to his senses, covered in blood, he realizes that what he has done has diminished his honor, and decides that he prefers to kill himself rather than live in shame. He does so with the same sword which Hector gave him when they exchanged presents. From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus, which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name ''Ai,'' also expressive of lament. His ashes were deposited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory at the entrance of the Hellespont.\n\nAjax's half-brother Teucer stood trial before his father for not bringing Ajax's body or famous weapons back. Teucer was acquitted for responsibility but found guilty of negligence. He was disowned by his father and was not allowed to return to his home, the island of Salamis off the coast of Athens.\n\nHomer is somewhat vague about the precise manner of Ajax's death but does ascribe it to his loss in the dispute over Achilles' armor; when Odysseus visits Hades, he begs the soul of Ajax to speak to him, but Ajax, still resentful over the old quarrel, refuses and descends silently back into Erebus.\n\nLike Achilles, he is represented (although not by Homer) as living after his death on the island of Leuke at the mouth of the Danube. Ajax, who in the post-Homeric legend is described as the grandson of Aeacus and the great-grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero of the island of Salamis, where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called ''Aianteia'' was celebrated in his honour. At this festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was placed, a practice which recalls the Roman Lectisternium. The identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the Athenians, after Salamis had come into their possession, on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted a line in the ''Iliad'' (2.557–558), for the purpose of supporting the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic hero; he was worshiped at Athens, where he had a statue in the market-place, and the tribe ''Aiantis'' was named after him. Pausanias also relates that a gigantic skeleton, its kneecap in diameter, appeared on the beach near Sigeion, on the Trojan coast; these bones were identified as those of Ajax.\n\n\nFile:Ajax suicide BM F480.jpg\|The suicide of Ajax. Etrurian red-figured calyx-krater, ca. 400–350 BC.\nFile:Antimenes Painter - Black-figure Amphora with Ajax Carrying the Dead Achilles - Walters 4817 - Side A.jpg\|A Black-figure Amphora with Ajax Carrying the Dead Achilles. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.\nFile:Achilles Ajax dice Louvre MNB911 n2.jpg\|Achilles and Ajax play a game of dice on this early 5th-century BC lekythos, a type of oil-storing vessel associated with funeral rites\n\n\n===Other===\nThere is a legend that Ajax founded the city of Ajaccio in the mediterranean island of Corsica (now part of France) and gave it his name.\n", "In 2001, Yannos Lolos began excavating a Mycenaean palace on the island of Salamis which he supposed to be the home of the mythological Aiacid dynasty. The ruins have been excavated at a site near the village of Kanakia of Salamis, a few miles off the coast of Athens. The multi-story structure covers and had perhaps 30 rooms. The Trojan War is supposed by many to have occurred at the height of the Mycenaean civilization (see discussion of Troy VII), roughly the point at which this palace appears to have been abandoned.\n", "* Corpus vasorum antiquorum\n* List of suicides in fiction\n", "\n", "* Homer. ''Iliad'', 7.181–312.\n* Homer, ''Odyssey'' 11.543–67.\n* ''Bibliotheca''. ''Epitome'' III, 11-V, 7.\n* Ovid. ''Metamorphoses'' 12.620–13.398.\n* Friedrich Schiller, '' Das Siegerfest''.\n* Pindar's ''Nemeans'', 7, 8; ''Isthmian 4''\n", "\n* A translation of the debate and Ajax's death. http://classics.mit.edu/Ovid/metam.13.thirteenth.html\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Family", "Description", "Palace", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Ajax (mythology)
[ "\n'''Ajax''' may refer to:\n\n", "* Ajax (mythology), son of Telamon, ruler of Salamis and a hero in the Trojan War, also known as \"Ajax the Great(er)\"\n* Ajax the Lesser, son of Oileus, ruler of Locris and the leader of the Locrian contingent during the Trojan War\n", "* Ajax (missionary), Arian missionary who converted the Suevi to Christianity (c. 466)\n* Ajax, pen name of Australian nature writer Sidney William Jackson\nLisa Ajax, Swedish singer\n", " Ajax (programming), Asynchronous JavaScript and XML, a method used in web application development, and a software framework for it\n* Ajax (floppy disk controller), a floppy disk controller fitted to the Atari STE\n", "\n=== Football ===\n* AFC Ajax, a football club from Amsterdam, Netherlands\n* Aias Salamina F.C., a football club based in Salamina, Greece\n* Ajax Cape Town FC, a South African football club\n* Ajax de Ouenzé, a Congolese football club\n* Ajax Futebol Clube, a Brazilian football club\n* Ajax Kenitra, a Moroccan futsal (indoor football) club\n* Ajax Orlando Prospects, also known as Ajax America, an American soccer team from Orlando, Florida\n* Ajax Paramaribo, a Surinamese football club\n* Ajax Sportman Combinatie (ASC), a cricket and football club in Leiden, Netherlands\n* FC Ajax Lasnamäe, an Estonian football club\n* Rabat Ajax F.C., a Maltese football club\n* Unión Ájax, a football club in Trujillo, Honduras\n\n=== Handball ===\n* Ajax Heroes, a Danish handball team\n\n=== Racing ===\n* Ajax (horse) (b. 1901), a French Champion racehorse\n* Ajax II (b. 1934), an Australian Champion racehorse\n", "* Ajax (Scout SV), a family of armoured fighting vehicles for the British Army.\n* Ajax (1906 automobile), Aigner, Switzerland\n* Ajax (1913 automobile), Briscoe, France\n* Ajax (1914 automobile), Seattle, Washington, U.S.\n* Ajax (1921 automobile), prototype, U.S.\n* Ajax (American automobile), Nash Motors, 1925–1926, U.S.\n* HMS ''Ajax'', several ships of the Royal Navy\n* USS ''Ajax'', several ships of the United States Navy\n* ''Ajax'' (locomotive), an 0-4-2 steam locomotive purchased by the Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway in 1841, believed to be the oldest preserved steam locomotive on the European mainland\n* ''Ajax'', one of the eight South Devon Railway Dido class steam locomotives, in service 1860–1884\n* ''Ajax'', a LMS Royal Scot Class express locomotive, in service 1927–1962\n* Ayaks, a Soviet top secret aerospacecraft project\n* Nike Ajax, an American anti-aircraft missile\n\n", "* ''Ajax'' (Sophocles), a play by the ancient Greek tragedian Sophocles\n* Ajax (Disney), a fictional company (the Disney equivalent of Looney Tunes' Acme Corporation)\n* Ajax Duckman, a character in the animated television series ''Duckman''\n* Martian Manhunter, a comic superhero, called Ajax in Brazil and Portugal\n* Ajax (comics), the name of two fictional villain characters from the Marvel Universe\n* Ajak, a Marvel Comics character, a member of the Eternals, sometimes known as \"Ajax the Greater\"\n* Ajax, a character in the 1979 film ''The Warriors''\n* Ajax, any of several fictional businesses used as a humor device in the radio comedy skits of Hudson & Landry\n", "* Ajax (band), an electronic band from New York City\n* Ajax (DJ), an Australian electro mashup DJ\n* Ajax Records (Quebec) (1921–1926), a North American record company\n* A-Jax (band), a South Korean boy band\n* AjaX, keyboardist for The Pop Culture Suicides\n* \"Ajax\" (song), a song by Tante Leen\n", "* A Jax, an arcade game\n* Ajax, a character in the 2013 first-person shooter ''Call of Duty: Ghosts''\n* R70 Ajax, a Light Machine Gun/supply-drop weapon-in ''Call of Duty: Black Ops III''\n", "* ''Ajax'' (painting), a painting by John Steuart Curry\n", "=== Canada ===\n* Ajax, Ontario, a town in the Greater Toronto Area\n Ajax GO Station, a station in the GO Transit network located in the town\n Ajax High School, a public high school located in the town\n** Ajax (electoral district), an electoral district consisting of the town\n* Kanichee Mine, Temagami, Ontario, also known as Ajax Mine\n\n=== United States ===\n* Ajax, Louisiana, an unincorporated community \n* Ajax, Missouri, a ghost town\n* Ajax, South Dakota, an unincorporated community\n* Ajax, Utah, a ghost town\n* Ajax, West Virginia, an unincorporated community\n* Aspen Mountain (Colorado), United States, also known as Ajax Mountain\n", "* Ajax (cleanser), a brand of cleaning products.\n* Operation Ajax, the 1953 Iranian coup d'état\nAJAX furnace, type of open hearth furnace\n", " \n* \n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Mythology ", " People ", " Information technology ", " Sports ", " Vehicles ", " Literature and fiction ", " Music ", " Video games ", " Visual art ", " Places ", " Other uses ", "See also" ]	Ajax
[ "\n\n'''Alaric I''' ( - \"supreme chief/ruler\"; ; 370 (or 375)410 AD) was the first King of the Visigoths from 395–410, son (or paternal grandson) of chieftain Rothestes. Alaric is best known for his sack of Rome in 410, which marked a decisive event in the decline of the Roman Empire.\n\nAlaric began his career under the Goth soldiers Gainas and later joined the Roman army. Alaric's first appearance was as the leader of a mixed band of Goths and allied peoples who invaded Thrace in 391 and were stopped by the half-Vandal Roman General Stilicho. In 394 he led a Gothic force of 20,000 that helped the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius defeat the Frankish usurper Arbogast at the Battle of Frigidus. Despite sacrificing around 10,000 of his men, Alaric received little recognition from the Emperor. Disappointed, he left the army and was elected reiks of the Visigoths in 395, and marched toward Constantinople until he was diverted by Roman forces. He then moved southward into Greece, where he sacked Piraeus (the port of Athens) and destroyed Corinth, Megara, Argos, and Sparta. As a response, the Eastern emperor Flavius Arcadius appointed Alaric magister militum (\"master of the soldiers\") in Illyricum.\n\nIn 401 Alaric invaded Italy, but he was defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia (modern Pollenza) on April6, 402. A second invasion that same year also ended in defeat at the Battle of Verona, though Alaric forced the Roman Senate to pay a large subsidy to the Visigoths. During Radagaisus' Italian invasion in 406, Alaric remained idle in Illyria. In 408, Western Emperor Flavius Honorius ordered the execution of Stilicho and his family, amid rumours that the general had made a deal with Alaric. Honorius then incited the Roman population to massacre tens of thousands of wives and children of foederati Goths serving in the Roman military. Subsequently, around 30,000 Gothic soldiers defected to Alaric, and joined his march on Rome to avenge their murdered families.\n\nMoving swiftly along Roman roads, Alaric sacked the cities of Aquileia and Cremona and ravaged the lands along the Adriatic Sea. The Visigothic leader thereupon laid siege to Rome in 408. Eventually, the Senate granted him a substantial subsidy. In addition, Alaric forced the Senate to liberate all 40,000 Gothic slaves in Rome. Honorius, however, refused to appoint Alaric as the commander of the Western Roman Army, and in 409 the Visigoths again surrounded Rome. Alaric lifted his blockade after proclaiming Attalus Western Emperor. Attalus appointed him magister utriusque militiae (\"master of both services\") but refused to allow him to send an army into Africa. Negotiations with Honorius broke down, and Alaric deposed Attalus in the summer of 410, and besieged Rome for the third time. Allies within the capital opened the gates for him on August24, and for three days his troops sacked the city. Although the Visigoths plundered Rome, they treated its inhabitants humanely and burned only a few buildings. Having abandoned a plan to occupy Sicily and North Africa after the destruction of his fleet in a storm, Alaric died as the Visigoths were marching northward.\n", "Portrait of Alaric in C. Strahlheim, ''Das Welttheater'', 4. Band, Frankfurt a.M., 1836\nBorn on Peuce Island at the mouth of the Danube Delta in present-day Romania, Alaric belonged to the noble Balti dynasty of the Tervingian Goths. The Goths suffered setbacks against the Huns, made a mass migration across the Danube, and fought a war with Rome. Alaric was probably a child during this period.\n", "During the fourth century, the Roman emperors commonly employed ''foederati'': irregular troops under Roman command, but organized by tribal structures. To spare the provincial populations from excessive taxation and to save money, emperors began to employ units recruited from Germanic tribes. The largest of these contingents was that of the Goths, who in 382 (376 in some sources), had been allowed to settle within the imperial boundaries, keeping a large degree of autonomy.\n\nIn 394 Alaric served as a leader of ''foederati'' under Theodosius I in the campaign which crushed the usurper Eugenius. As the Battle of the Frigidus, which terminated this campaign, was fought at the passes of the Julian Alps, Alaric probably learned the weakness of Italy's natural defences on its northeastern frontier at the head of the Adriatic Sea.\n\nTheodosius died in 395, leaving the Empire to be divided between his two sons Arcadius and Honorius, the former taking the eastern and the latter the western portion of the Empire. Arcadius showed little interest in ruling, leaving most of the actual power to his Praetorian Prefect Rufinus. Honorius was still a minor; as his guardian, Theodosius had appointed the ''magister militum'' Stilicho. Stilicho also claimed to be the guardian of Arcadius, causing much rivalry between the western and eastern courts.\n\nAccording to Edward Gibbon in ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', during the shifting of offices that took place at the beginning of the new reigns, Alaric apparently hoped he would be promoted from a mere commander to the rank of general in one of the regular armies. He was denied the promotion, however. Among the Visigoths settled in Lower Moesia (now part of Bulgaria and Romania), the situation was ripe for rebellion. They had suffered disproportionately great losses at Frigidus. According to rumour, exposing the Visigoths in battle was a convenient way of weakening the Gothic tribes. This, combined with their post-battle rewards, prompted them to raise Alaric \"on a shield\" and proclaim him king; according to Jordanes, a 6th-century Roman bureaucrat of Gothic origin who later turned his hand to history, both the new king and his people decided \"rather to seek new kingdoms by their own work, than to slumber in peaceful subjection to the rule of others.\"\n", "Alaric in Athens by Ludwig Thiersch, 1894\nAlaric struck first at the eastern empire. He marched to the neighborhood of Constantinople but, finding himself unable to undertake a siege, retraced his steps westward and then marched southward through Thessaly and the unguarded pass of Thermopylae into Greece.\n\nThe armies of the eastern empire were occupied with Hunnic incursions in Asia Minor and Syria. Instead, Rufinus attempted to negotiate with Alaric in person, which only aroused suspicions in Constantinople that Rufinius was in league with the Goths. Stilicho now marched east against Alaric. According to Claudian, Stilicho was in a position to destroy the Goths when he was ordered by Arcadius to leave Illyricum. Soon after, Rufinus' own soldiers hacked him to death. Power in Constantinople now passed to the eunuch Chamberlain Eutropius.\n\nRufinus' death and Stilicho's departure gave free rein to Alaric's movements; he ravaged Attica but spared Athens, which capitulated at once to the conqueror. In 396, he wiped out the last remnants of the Mysteries at Eleusis in Attica, ending a tradition of esoteric religious ceremonies that had lasted since the Bronze Age. Then he penetrated into the Peloponnesus and captured its most famous cities—Corinth, Argos, and Sparta—selling many of their inhabitants into slavery.\n\nHere, however, his victorious career suffered a serious setback. In 397 Stilicho crossed the sea to Greece and succeeded in trapping the Goths in the mountains of Pholoe, on the borders of Elis and Arcadia in the peninsula. From there Alaric escaped with difficulty, and not without some suspicion of connivance by Stilicho, who supposedly had again received orders to depart. Alaric then crossed the Gulf of Corinth and marched with the plunder of Greece northward to Epirus. Here his rampage continued until the eastern government appointed him ''magister militum per Illyricum'', giving him the Roman command he had desired, as well as the authority to resupply his men from the imperial arsenals.\n", "\nIt was probably in 401 that Alaric made his first invasion of Italy, originally with the intention to petition for a position closer to Rome. Alaric had a fascination for the 'golden age' of Rome and insisted on his tribesmen calling him 'Alaricus'. Supernatural influences were not lacking to urge him to this great enterprise. Some lines of the Roman poet Claudian inform us that he heard a voice proceeding from a sacred grove, \"Break off all delays, Alaric. This very year thou shalt force the Alpine barrier of Italy; thou shalt penetrate to the city.\" But the prophecy was not to be fulfilled at this time. After spreading desolation through North Italy and striking terror into the citizens of Rome, Alaric was met by Stilicho at Pollentia, today in Piedmont. The battle which followed on April 6, 402 (coinciding with Easter), was a victory for Rome, though a costly one. But it effectively halted the Goths' progress.\n\nStilicho's enemies later reproached him for having gained his victory by taking impious advantage of the great Christian festival. Alaric, too, was outwardly a Christian, though an Arian, not Orthodox though he continued to practice the Pagan rituals of his ancestors as well as observing Christian ritual practices. He had trusted to the sanctity of Easter for immunity from attack.\n\nAlaric's wife was reportedly taken prisoner after this battle; it is not unreasonable to suppose that he and his troops were hampered by the presence of large numbers of women and children, which gave his invasion of Italy the character of a human migration.\n\nAfter another defeat before Verona, Alaric left Italy, probably in 403. He had not \"penetrated to the city\" but his invasion of Italy had produced important results. It caused the imperial residence to be transferred from Milan to Ravenna, and necessitated the withdrawal of Legio XX ''Valeria Victrix'' from Britain.\n", "Alaric became the friend and ally of his erstwhile opponent, Stilicho. By 407, the estrangement between the eastern and western courts had become so bitter that it threatened civil war. Stilicho actually proposed using Alaric's troops to enforce Honorius' claim to the prefecture of Illyricum. The death of Arcadius in May 408 caused milder counsel to prevail in the western court, but Alaric, who had actually entered Epirus, demanded in a somewhat threatening manner that if he were thus suddenly requested to desist from war, he should be paid handsomely for what modern language would call the \"expenses of mobilization\". The sum which he named was a large one, 4,000 pounds of gold. Under strong pressure from Stilicho, the Roman Senate consented to promise its payment.\n\nBut three months later, Stilicho and the chief ministers of his party were treacherously slain on Honorius' orders. In the unrest that followed throughout Italy, the wives and children of the foederati were slain. Consequently, these 30,000 men flocked to Alaric's camp, clamouring to be led against their cowardly enemies. He accordingly led them across the Julian Alps and, in September 408, stood before the walls of Rome (now with no capable general like Stilicho as a defender) and began a strict blockade.\n\nNo blood was shed this time; Alaric relied on hunger as his most powerful weapon. When the ambassadors of the Senate, entreating for peace, tried to intimidate him with hints of what the despairing citizens might accomplish, he laughed and gave his celebrated answer: \"The thicker the hay, the easier mowed!\" After much bargaining, the famine-stricken citizens agreed to pay a ransom of 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 silken tunics, 3,000 hides dyed scarlet, and 3,000 pounds of pepper. Along came 40,000 freed Gothic slaves. Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome.\n\n===Second siege of Rome===\nThe Sack of Rome by the Visigoths on 24 August 410 by J-N Sylvestre (1890)\nThroughout his career, Alaric's primary goal was not to undermine the Empire, but to secure for himself a regular and recognized position within the Empire's borders. His demands were certainly grand: the concession of a block of territory 200 miles long by 150 wide between the Danube and the Gulf of Venice (to be held probably on some terms of nominal dependence on the Empire) and the title of commander-in-chief of the Imperial Army. Immense as his terms were, the emperor would have been well advised to grant them. Honorius, however, refused to see beyond his own safety, guaranteed by the dikes and marshes of Ravenna. As all attempts to conduct a satisfactory negotiation with this emperor failed, Alaric, after instituting a second siege and blockade of Rome in 409, came to terms with the Senate. With their consent, he set up a rival emperor, the prefect of the city, a Greek named Priscus Attalus.\n\n===Third siege of Rome===\n\nAlaric cashiered his ineffectual puppet emperor after eleven months and again tried to reopen negotiations with Honorius. These negotiations might have succeeded had it not been for the influence of another Goth, Sarus, an Amali, and therefore hereditary enemy of Alaric and his house. Alaric, again outwitted by an enemy's machinations, marched southward and in deadly earnest, began his third siege of Rome. Apparently, defence was impossible; there are hints, not well substantiated, of treachery; surprise is a more likely explanation. However, this may be—for our information at this point of the story is meagre—on August 24, 410, Alaric and his Visigoths burst in by the Porta Salaria on the northeast of the city. Rome, for so long victorious against its enemies, was now at the mercy of its foreign conquerors.\n\nThe contemporary ecclesiastics recorded with wonder many instances of the Visigoths' clemency: Christian churches saved from ravage; protection granted to vast multitudes both of pagans and Christians who took refuge therein; vessels of gold and silver which were found in a private dwelling, spared because they \"belonged to St. Peter\"; at least one case in which a beautiful Roman matron appealed, not in vain, to the better feelings of the Gothic soldier who attempted her dishonor. But even these exceptional instances show that Rome was not entirely spared the horrors which usually accompany the storming of a besieged city. Nonetheless, the written sources do not mention damages wrought by fire, save the Gardens of Sallust, which were situated close to the gate by which the Goths had made their entrance; nor is there any reason to attribute any extensive destruction of the buildings of the city to Alaric and his followers. The Basilica Aemilia in the Roman Forum did burn down, which perhaps can be attributed to Alaric: the archaeological evidence was provided by coins dating from 410 found melted in the floor. The pagan emperors' tombs of the Mausoleum of Augustus and Castel Sant'Angelo were rifled and the ashes scattered.\n\n===Death and funeral===\nThe burial of Alaric in the bed of the Busento River. 1895 wood engraving.\n\nAlaric, having penetrated the city, marched southwards into Calabria. He desired to invade Africa, which, thanks to its grain, had become the key to holding Italy. But a storm battered his ships into pieces and many of his soldiers drowned. Alaric died soon after in Cosenza, probably of fever, and his body was, according to legend, buried under the riverbed of the Busento in accordance with the pagan practices of the Visigothic people. The stream was temporarily turned aside from its course while the grave was dug wherein the Gothic chief and some of his most precious spoils were interred. When the work was finished, the river was turned back into its usual channel and the captives by whose hands the labor had been accomplished were put to death that none might learn their secret.\n\nAlaric was succeeded in the command of the Gothic army by his brother-in-law, Ataulf, who married Honorius' sister Galla Placidia three years later.\n", "The chief authorities on the career of Alaric are: the historian Orosius and the poet Claudian, both contemporary, neither disinterested; Zosimus, a historian who lived probably about half a century after Alaric's death; and Jordanes, a Goth who wrote the history of his nation in 551, basing his work on Cassiodorus's ''Gothic History''. The legend of Alaric's burial in the Buzita River comes from Jordanes.\n", "* Alaric II\n", "\n", "* Henry Bradley, ''The Goths: from the Earliest Times to the End of the Gothic Dominion in Spain'', chapter 10. Second edition, 1883, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.\n* \n* Peter Heather, ''The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians'', Oxford University Press (2006)pg.151\n* Ammianus Marcellinus, ''The Later Roman Empire: AD 354-378 Book XXXI''\n* \n", "\n\n* Alaric I\n* Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', Chapter 30 and Chapter 31.\n* The Legend of Alaric's Burial\n* For a modern-day novel exploring the historical sources relating to Alaric's riverbed grave see Alaric's Gold by Robert Fortune\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "In Roman service", "In Greece", "First invasion of Italy", "Second invasion of Italy", "Sources", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Alaric I
[ "Anastasius I\n\n'''Alaric II''' (August 507) — from Gothic: Alareiks II, also known as '''Alarik''', '''Alarich''', and '''Alarico''' in Spanish and Portuguese or '''Alaricus''' in Latin — succeeded his father Euric as king of the Visigoths in Toulouse on December 28, 484. He established his capital at Aire-sur-l'Adour (''Vicus Julii'') in Aquitaine. His dominions included not only the majority of Hispania (excluding its northwestern corner) but also Gallia Aquitania and the greater part of an as-yet undivided Gallia Narbonensis.\n", "Herwig Wolfram opens his chapter on the eighth Visigothic king, \"Alaric's reign gets no full treatment in the sources, and the little they do contain is overshadowed by his death in the Battle of Vouillé and the downfall of the Toulosan kingdom.\" One example is Isidore of Seville's account of Alaric's reign: consisting of a single paragraph, it is primarily about Alaric's death in that battle.\n\nThe earliest documented event in Alaric's reign concerned providing refuge to Syagrius, the former ruler of the Domain of Soissons (in what is now northwestern France) who had been defeated by Clovis I, King of the Franks. According to Gregory of Tours' account, Alaric was intimidated by Clovis into surrendering Syagrius to Clovis; Gregory then adds that \"the Goths are a timorous race.\" The Franks then imprisoned Syagrius, and once his control over Syagrius' former kingdom was secure, Clovis had him beheaded. However, Wolfram points out that at the time \"Clovis got no farther than the Seine; only after several more years did the Franks succeed in occupying the rest of the Gallo-Roman buffer state north of the Loire.\" Any threat of war Clovis could make would only be effective if they were neighbors; \"it is nowhere written that Syagrius was handed over in 486 or 487.\"\n\nAn artist's imagining of Alaric II in an illustration at the Biblioteca Nacional de España\n\nDespite Frankish advances in the years that followed, Alaric was not afraid to take the military initiative when it presented itself. In 490, Alaric assisted his fellow Gothic king, Theodoric the Great, in his conquest of Italy by dispatching an army to raise Odoacer's siege of Pavia, where Theodoric had been trapped. Then when the Franks attacked the Burgundians in the decade after 500, Alaric assisted the ruling house, and according to Wolfram the victorious Burgundian king Gundobad ceded Avignon to Alaric. By 502 Clovis and Alaric met on an island in the Loire near Amboise for face-to-face talks, which led to a peace treaty.\n\nIn 506, the Visigoths captured the city of Dertosa in the Ebro valley. There they captured the Roman usurper Peter and had him executed.\n", "The Kingdom of the Visigoths under Alaric II\n\nAfter a few years, however, Clovis violated the peace treaty negotiated in 502. Despite the diplomatic intervention of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths and father-in-law of Alaric, Clovis led his followers into Visigothic territory. Alaric was forced by his magnates to meet Clovis in the Battle of Vouillé (summer 507) near Poitiers; there the Goths were defeated and Alaric slain, according to Gregory of Tours, by Clovis himself.\n\nThe most serious consequence of this battle was not the loss of their possessions in Gaul to the Franks; with Ostrogothic help, much of the Gallic territory was recovered, Herwig Wolfram notes, perhaps as far as Toulouse. Nor was it the loss of the royal treasury at Toulouse, which Gregory of Tours writes Clovis took into his possession. As Peter Heather notes, the Visigothic kingdom was thrown into disarray \"by the death of its king in battle.\" Alaric's heirs were his eldest son, the illegitimate Gesalec, and his younger son, the legitimate Amalaric who was still a child. Gesalec proved incompetent, and in 511 King Theodoric assumed the throne of the kingdom ostensibly on behalf of Amalaric—Heather uses the word \"hijacked\" to describe his action. Although Amalaric eventually became king in his own right, the political continuity of the Visigothic kingdom was broken; \"Amalaric's succession was the result of new power structures, not old ones,\" as Heather describes it. With Amalaric's death in 531, the Visigothic kingdom entered an extended period of unrest which lasted until Leovigild assumed the throne in 568.\n", "In religion Alaric was an Arian, like all the early Visigothic nobles, but he greatly mitigated the persecution policy of his father Euric toward the Catholics and authorized them to hold in 506 the council of Agde. He was on uneasy terms with the Catholic bishops of Arelate (modern Arles) as epitomized in the career of the Frankish Caesarius, bishop of Arles, who was appointed bishop in 503. Caesarius was suspected of conspiring with the Burgundians, whose king had married the sister of Clovis, to assist the Burgundians capture Arles. Alaric exiled him for a year to Bordeaux in Aquitania, then allowed him to return unharmed when the crisis had passed.\n\nAlaric displayed similar wisdom in political affairs by appointing a commission headed by the referendary Anianus to prepare an abstract of the Roman laws and imperial decrees, which would form the authoritative code for his Roman subjects. This is generally known as the ''Breviarium Alaricianum'' or Breviary of Alaric.\n", "The Montagne d'Alaric (Alaric's Mountain) near Carcassonne is named after the Visigoth king. Local rumour has it that he left a vast treasure buried in the caves beneath the mountain.\n\nThe Canal d'Alaric (Alaric's Canal) in the Hautes-Pyrénées department is named after him.\n", "\n", "Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' Chapter 38\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Reign", "Battle of Vouillé and aftermath", " His ability as a king ", "Legacy", "References", " Further reading " ]	Alaric II
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Albertus Magnus''', O.P. (c. 1200 – November 15, 1280), also known as '''Saint Albert the Great''' and '''Albert of Cologne''', was a German Catholic Dominican friar and bishop. Later canonised as a Catholic saint, he was known during his lifetime as ''Doctor universalis'' and ''Doctor expertus'' and, late in his life, the sobriquet ''Magnus'' was appended to his name. Scholars such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages. The Catholic Church distinguishes him as one of the 36 Doctors of the Church.\n", "It seems likely that Albert was born sometime before 1200, given well-attested evidence that he was aged over 80 on his death in 1280. More than one source says that Albert was 87 on his death, which has led 1193 to be commonly given as the date of Albert's birth. Albert was probably born in Lauingen (now in Bavaria), since he called himself 'Albert of Lauingen', but this might simply be a family name. Most probably his family was of ''ministerial'' class; his familiar connection with (being son of the count) Bollstädt noble family was a 15th-century misinterpretation that is now completely disproved.\n\nAlbert was probably educated principally at the University of Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's writings. A late account by Rudolph de Novamagia refers to Albertus' encounter with the Blessed Virgin Mary, who convinced him to enter Holy Orders. In 1223 (or 1229) he became a member of the Dominican Order, and studied theology at Bologna and elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, Germany, where the Dominicans had a house, he taught for several years there, as well as in Regensburg, Freiburg, Strasbourg, and Hildesheim. During his first tenure as lecturer at Cologne, Albert wrote his ''Summa de bono'' after discussion with Philip the Chancellor concerning the transcendental properties of being. In 1245, Albert became master of theology under Gueric of Saint-Quentin, the first German Dominican to achieve this distinction. Following this turn of events, Albert was able to teach theology at the University of Paris as a full-time professor, holding the seat of the Chair of Theology at the College of St. James. During this time Thomas Aquinas began to study under Albertus.\n\nBust of Albertus Magnus by Vincenzo Onofri, c. 1493\n\nAlbert was the first to comment on virtually all of the writings of Aristotle, thus making them accessible to wider academic debate. The study of Aristotle brought him to study and comment on the teachings of Muslim academics, notably Avicenna and Averroes, and this would bring him into the heart of academic debate.\n\nIn 1254 Albert was made provincial of the Dominican Order, and fulfilled the duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During his tenure he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the University of Paris, commented on John the Evangelist, and answered what he perceived as errors of the Islamic philosopher Averroes.\n\nIn 1259 Albert took part in the General Chapter of the Dominicans at Valenciennes together with Thomas Aquinas, masters Bonushomo Britto, Florentius, and Peter (later Pope Innocent V) establishing a ''ratio studiorum'' or program of studies for the Dominicans that featured the study of philosophy as an innovation for those not sufficiently trained to study theology. This innovation initiated the tradition of Dominican scholastic philosophy put into practice, for example, in 1265 at the Order's ''studium provinciale'' at the convent of Santa Sabina in Rome, out of which would develop the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, the \"Angelicum\"\n\nRoman sarcophagus containing the relics of Albertus Magnus in the crypt of St. Andrew's Church, Cologne, Germany\n\nIn 1260 Pope Alexander IV made him bishop of Regensburg, an office from which he resigned after three years. During the exercise of his duties he enhanced his reputation for humility by refusing to ride a horse, in accord with the dictates of the Order, instead traversing his huge diocese on foot. This earned him the affectionate sobriquet \"boots the bishop\" from his parishioners. In 1263 Pope Urban IV relieved him of the duties of bishop and asked him to preach the eighth Crusade in German-speaking countries. After this, he was especially known for acting as a mediator between conflicting parties. In Cologne he is not only known for being the founder of Germany's oldest university there, but also for \"the big verdict\" (der Große Schied) of 1258, which brought an end to the conflict between the citizens of Cologne and the archbishop. Among the last of his labors was the defense of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas Aquinas, whose death in 1274 grieved Albert (the story that he travelled to Paris in person to defend the teachings of Aquinas can not be confirmed).\n\nAfter suffering a collapse of health in 1278, he died on November 15, 1280, in the Dominican convent in Cologne, Germany. Since November 15, 1954, his relics are in a Roman sarcophagus in the crypt of the Dominican St. Andreas Church in Cologne. Although his body was discovered to be incorrupt at the first exhumation three years after his death, at the exhumation in 1483 only a skeleton remained.\n\nAlbert was beatified in 1622. He was canonized and proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on December 16, 1931, by Pope Pius XI and the patron saint of natural scientists in 1941. St. Albert's feast day is November 15.\n", "Albertus Magnus monument at the University of Cologne\n\nAlbert's writings collected in 1899 went to thirty-eight volumes. These displayed his prolific habits and encyclopedic knowledge of topics such as logic, theology, botany, geography, astronomy, astrology, mineralogy, alchemy, zoology, physiology, phrenology, justice, law, friendship, and love. He digested, interpreted, and systematized the whole of Aristotle's works, gleaned from the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, in accordance with Church doctrine. Most modern knowledge of Aristotle was preserved and presented by Albert.\n\nHis principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard (''Magister Sententiarum''), and the ''Summa Theologiae'' in two volumes. The latter is in substance a more didactic repetition of the former.\n\nAlbert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see Scholasticism). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the 21 volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics, and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master. Albert believed that Aristotle's approach to natural philosophy did not pose any obstacle to the development of a Christian philosophical view of the natural order.\n\n''De animalibus'' (1450–1500 ca., cod. fiesolano 67, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana)\n\nAlbert's knowledge of physical science was considerable and for the age remarkably accurate. His industry in every department was great, and though we find in his system many gaps which are characteristic of scholastic philosophy, his protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great power of systematic thought and exposition. An exception to this general tendency is his Latin treatise \"De falconibus\" (later inserted in the larger work, ''De Animalibus'', as book 23, chapter 40), in which he displays impressive actual knowledge of a) the differences between the birds of prey and the other kinds of birds; b) the different kinds of falcons; c) the way of preparing them for the hunt; and d) the cures for sick and wounded falcons. His scholarly legacy justifies his contemporaries' bestowing upon him the honourable surname ''Doctor Universalis.''\n\nIn ''De Mineralibus'' Albert claims, \"The aim of natural philosophy (science) is not simply to accept the statements of others, but to investigate the causes that are at work in nature.\" Aristotelianism greatly influences Albert's view on nature and philosophy. Another example of his reason to formally search for the causes is in his treatises on plants, he begins with the principle, experiment is the only safe guide in such investigations. His studies of Aristotle and theology show their colors in nearly all of his works and volumes.\n\nAlbert placed emphasis on experiment as well as investigation, but he respected authority and tradition so much that many of his investigations or experiments were unpublished. Albert would often keep silent about many issues such as astronomy, physics and such because he felt that his theories were too advanced for the time in which he was living.\n", " Albertus Magnus, Chimistes Celebres, Liebig's Extract of Meat Company Trading Card, 1929\n\nIn the centuries since his death, many stories arose about Albert as an alchemist and magician. \"Much of the modern confusion results from the fact that later works, particularly the alchemical work known as the ''Secreta Alberti'' or the ''Experimenta Alberti'', were falsely attributed to Albertus by their authors to increase the prestige of the text through association.\" On the subject of alchemy and chemistry, many treatises relating to alchemy have been attributed to him, though in his authentic writings he had little to say on the subject, and then mostly through commentary on Aristotle. For example, in his commentary, ''De mineralibus'', he refers to the power of stones, but does not elaborate on what these powers might be. A wide range of Pseudo-Albertine works dealing with alchemy exist, though, showing the belief developed in the generations following Albert's death that he had mastered alchemy, one of the fundamental sciences of the Middle Ages. These include ''Metals and Materials''; the ''Secrets of Chemistry''; the ''Origin of Metals''; the ''Origins of Compounds'', and a ''Concordance ''which is a collection of ''Observations on the philosopher's stone''; and other alchemy-chemistry topics, collected under the name of ''Theatrum Chemicum''. He is credited with the discovery of the element arsenic and experimented with photosensitive chemicals, including silver nitrate. He did believe that stones had occult properties, as he related in his work ''De mineralibus''. However, there is scant evidence that he personally performed alchemical experiments.\n\nAccording to legend, Albert is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it on to his pupil Thomas Aquinas, shortly before his death. Albert does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by \"transmutation.\" Given that Thomas Aquinas died six years before Albert's death, this legend as stated is unlikely.\n", "\nAlbert was deeply interested in astrology, as has been articulated by scholars such as Paola Zambelli. Throughout the Middle Ages –and well into the early modern period –astrology was widely accepted by scientists and intellectuals who held the view that life on earth is effectively a microcosm within the macrocosm (the latter being the cosmos itself). It was believed that correspondence therefore exists between the two and thus the celestial bodies follow patterns and cycles analogous to those on earth. With this worldview, it seemed reasonable to assert that astrology could be used to predict the probable future of a human being. Albert made this a central component of his philosophical system, arguing that an understanding of the celestial influences affecting us could help us to live our lives more in accord with Christian precepts. The most comprehensive statement of his astrological beliefs is to be found in a work he authored around 1260, now known as the ''Speculum astronomiae''. However, details of these beliefs can be found in almost everything he wrote, from his early ''De natura boni'' to his last work, the ''Summa theologiae''.\n", "Albert believed that all natural things were compositions of matter and form, he referred to it as ''quod est'' and ''quo est''. Albert also believed that God alone is the absolute ruling entity. Albert's version of hylomorphism is very similar to the Aristotelian doctrine.\n", "Albert is known for his commentary on the musical practice of his times. Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle's ''Poetics''. He rejected the idea of \"music of the spheres\" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposed, is incapable of generating sound. He wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which plainchant could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to 20th-century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music.\n", "Both of his early treatises, ''De natura boni'' and ''De bono'', start with a metaphysical investigation into the concepts of the good in general and the physical good. Albert refers to the physical good as ''bonum naturae''. Albert does this before directly dealing with the moral concepts of metaphysics. In Albert's later works, he says in order to understand human or moral goodness, the individual must first recognize what it means to be good and do good deeds. This procedure reflects Albert's preoccupations with neo-Platonic theories of good as well as the doctrines of Pseudo-Dionysius. Albert's view was highly valued by the Catholic Church and his peers.\n", "Albert devoted the last tractatus of ''De Bono'' to a theory of justice and natural law. Albert places God as the pinnacle of justice and natural law. God legislates and divine authority is supreme. Up until his time, it was the only work specifically devoted to natural law written by a theologian or philosopher.\n", "\nAlbert mentions friendship in his work, ''De bono'', as well as presenting his ideals and morals of friendship in the very beginning of ''Tractatus II''. Later in his life he published ''Super Ethica''. With his development of friendship throughout his work it is evident that friendship ideals and morals took relevance as his life went on. Albert comments on Aristotle's view of friendship with a quote from Cicero, who writes, \"friendship is nothing other than the harmony between things divine and human, with goodwill and love\". Albert agrees with this commentary but he also adds in harmony or agreement. Albert calls this harmony, ''consensio'', itself a certain kind of movement within the human spirit. Albert fully agrees with Aristotle in the sense that friendship is a virtue. Albert relates the inherent metaphysical contentedness between friendship and moral goodness. Albert describes several levels of goodness; the useful (''utile''), the pleasurable (''delectabile'') and the authentic or unqualified good (''honestum''). Then in turn there are three levels of friendship based on each of those levels, namely friendship based on usefulness (''amicitia utilis''), friendship based on pleasure (''amicitia delectabilis''), and friendship rooted in unqualified goodness (''amicitia honesti''; ''amicitia quae fundatur super honestum'').\n", "tympanum and archivolts of Strasbourg Cathedral, with iconography inspired by Albertus Magnus\n\nThe iconography of the tympanum and archivolts of the late 13th-century portal of Strasbourg Cathedral was inspired by Albert's writings. Albert is recorded as having made a mechanical automaton in the form of a brass head that would answer questions put to it. Such a feat was also attributed to Roger Bacon.\n\nAlbert is frequently mentioned by Dante, who made his doctrine of free will the basis of his ethical system. In his ''Divine Comedy'', Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom (''Spiriti Sapienti'') in the Heaven of the Sun. Albert is also mentioned, along with Agrippa and Paracelsus, in Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein'', in which his writings influence a young Victor Frankenstein.\n\nIn ''The Concept of Anxiety'', Søren Kierkegaard wrote that Albert, \"arrogantly boasted of his speculation before the deity and suddenly became stupid.\" Kierkegaard cites Gotthard Oswald Marbach whom he quotes as saying \"''Albertus repente ex asino factus philosophus et ex philosopho asinus''\" Albert was suddenly transformed from an ass into a philosopher and from a philosopher into an ass.\n\nIn Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s post-apocalyptic novel ''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' there is an order of monks devoted to saving knowledge named the Albertian Order of Leibowitz in reference to Albert.\n\nJohann Eduard Erdmann considers Albert greater and more original than his pupil Aquinas.\n", "Joos (Justus) van Gent, Urbino, c. 1475\n\nA number of schools have been named after Albert, including Albertus Magnus High School in Bardonia, New York; Albertus Magnus Lyceum in River Forest, Illinois; and Albertus Magnus College in New Haven, Connecticut.\n\nAlbertus Magnus Science Hall at Thomas Aquinas College, in Santa Paula, California, is named in honor of Albert. The main science buildings at Providence College and Aquinas College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, are also named after him.\n\nThe central square at the campus of the University of Cologne features a statue of Albert and is named after him.\n\nThe Academy for Science and Design in New Hampshire honored Albert by naming one of its four houses Magnus House.\n\nAs a tribute to the scholar's contributions to the law, the University of Houston Law Center displays a statue of Albert. It is located on the campus of the University of Houston.\n\nThe Albertus-Magnus-Gymnasium is found in Regensburg, Germany.\n\nIn Managua, Nicaragua, the Albertus Magnus International Institute, a business and economic development research center, was founded in 2004.\n\nUniversity of Santo Tomas in the Philippines\n\nIn The Philippines, the Albertus Magnus Building at the University of Santo Tomas that houses the Conservatory of Music, College of Tourism and Hospitality Management, College of Education, and UST Education High School is named in his honor. The Saint Albert the Great Science Academy in San Carlos City, Pangasinan, which offers preschool, elementary and high school education, takes pride in having St. Albert as their patron saint. Its main building was named Albertus Magnus Hall in 2008. San Alberto Magno Academy in Tubao, La Union is also dedicated in his honor. This century-old Catholic high school continues to live on its vision-mission up to this day, offering Senior High school courses.\nDue to his contributions to natural philosophy, the plant species ''Alberta magna'' and the asteroid 20006 Albertus Magnus were named after him.\n\nNumerous Catholic elementary and secondary schools are named for him, including schools in Toronto; Calgary; Cologne; and Dayton, Ohio.\n\nThe Albertus typeface is named after him.\n\nAt the University of Notre Dame du Lac in South Bend, Indiana, USA, the Zahm House Chapel is dedicated to St. Albert the Great. Fr. John Zahm, C.S.C., after whom the men's residence hall is named, looked to St. Albert's example of using religion to illumine scientific discovery. Fr. Zahm's work with the Bible and evolution is sometimes seen as a continuation of St. Albert's legacy.\n\nLocated in Groningen, The second largest student's fraternity of the Netherlands is named Albertus Magnus, in honour of the Saint.\n", "\n===Translations===\n* ''On the Causes of the Properties of the Elements'', translated by Irven M. Resnick, (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 2010) translation of ''Liber de causis proprietatum elementorum''\n* ''Questions concerning Aristotle's on Animals'', translated by Irven M Resnick and Kenneth F Kitchell, Jr, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2008) translation of ''Quaestiones super De animalibus''\n* ''The Cardinal Virtues: Aquinas, Albert, and Philip the Chancellor'', translated by RE Houser, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2004) contains translations of ''Parisian Summa, part six: On the good'' and ''Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard'', book 3, dist. 33 & 36\n* ''The Commentary of Albertus Magnus on Book 1 of Euclid's Elements of Geometry'', edited by Anthony Lo Bello, (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003) translation of ''Priumus Euclidis cum commento Alberti''\n* ''On Animals: A Medieval Summa Zoologica'', translated by Kenneth F Kitchell, Jr. and Irven Michael Resnick, (Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999) translation of ''De animalibus''\n* Paola Zambelli, ''The Speculum Astronomiae and Its Enigma: Astrology, Theology, and Science in Albertus Magnus and His Contemporaries'', (Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992) includes Latin text and English translation of ''Speculum astronomiae''\n* ''Albert & Thomas: Selected Writings'', translated by Simon Tugwell, Classics of Western Spirituality, (New York: Paulist Press, 1988) contains translation of ''Super Dionysii Mysticam theologiam''\n* ''On Union with God'', translated by a Benedictine of Princethorpe Priory, (London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1911) reprinted as (Felinfach: Llanerch Enterprises, 1991) and (London: Continuum, 2000) translation of ''De adherendo Deo''\n", "* Brazen Head\n* Christian mysticism\n* Incorruptibles\n* List of Catholic saints\n* List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics\n* River Forest Thomism\n* Science in the Middle Ages\n", "\n", "* \n* \n", "* Collins, David J. \"Albertus, Magnus or Magus?: Magic, Natural Philosophy, and Religious Reform in the Late Middle Ages.\" ''Renaissance Quarterly'' 63, no. 1 (2010): 1–44.\n* Honnefelder, Ludger (ed.) ''Albertus Magnus and the Beginnings of the Medieval Reception of Aristotle in the Latin West. From Richardus Rufus to Franciscus de Mayronis'', (collection of essays in German and English), Münster : Aschendorff, 2005.\n* Kovach, Francis J. & Shahan, Robert W. ''Albert the Great. Commemorative Essays'', Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980.\n* Miteva, Evelina. \"The Soul between Body and Immortality: The 13th Century Debate on the Definition of the Human Rational Soul as Form and Substance\", in: Philosophia: E-Journal of Philosophy and Culture, 1/2012. .\n* Resnick, Irven (ed.), ''A Companion to Albert the Great: Theology, Philosophy, and the Sciences'', Leiden, Brill, 2013.\n* Resnick, Irven e Kitchell Jr, Kenneth (eds.), ''Albert the Great: A Selective Annotated Bibliography'', (1900–2000), Tempe, Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2004.\n* \n", "\n\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Alberti Magni Works in Latin Online\n* Albertus Magnus on Astrology & Magic\n* \"Albertus Magnus & Prognostication by the Stars\"\n* Albertus Magnus: \"Secrets of the Virtues of Herbs, Stones and Certain Beasts\" London, 1604, full online version.\n* ''Albertus Magnus – De Adhaerendo Deo – On Cleaving to God\n* Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Albertus Magnus in .jpg and .tiff format.\n* Albertus Magnus works at SOMNI in the collection of the Duke of Calabria.\n Alberti Magni De laudibus beate Mariae Virginis, Italian digitized codex of 1476 with a completed transcription of his work \"Liber de laudibus gloriosissime Dei genitricis Marie\"\n Albertus Magnus De mirabili scientia Dei, Italian digitized codex of 1484 with a transcription of the first part of his ''Summa Theologicae''.\n* ''Compendium theologicae veritatis''. s.l. : s.n., 1480. 322 p. - available online at University Library in Bratislava Digital Library \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Writings", "Alchemy", "Astrology", "Matter and form", "Music", "Metaphysics of morals", "Natural law", "Friendship", "Cultural references", "Influence and tribute", "Bibliography", "See also", "References", "Sources", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Albertus Magnus
[ "\n\n\n'''Alboin''' (530sJune 28, 572) was king of the Lombards from about 560 until 572. During his reign the Lombards ended their migrations by settling in Italy, the northern part of which Alboin conquered between 569 and 572. He had a lasting effect on Italy and the Pannonian Basin; in the former his invasion marked the beginning of centuries of Lombard rule, and in the latter his defeat of the Gepids and his departure from Pannonia ended the dominance there of the Germanic peoples.\n\nThe period of Alboin's reign as king in Pannonia following the death of his father, Audoin, was one of confrontation and conflict between the Lombards and their main neighbors, the Gepids. The Gepids initially gained the upper hand, but in 567, thanks to his alliance with the Avars, Alboin inflicted a decisive defeat on his enemies, whose lands the Avars subsequently occupied. The increasing power of his new neighbours caused Alboin some unease however, and he therefore decided to leave Pannonia for Italy, hoping to take advantage of the Byzantine Empire's reduced ability to defend its territory in the wake of the Gothic War.\n\nAfter gathering a large coalition of peoples, Alboin crossed the Julian Alps in 568, entering an almost undefended Italy. He rapidly took control of most of Venetia and Liguria. In 569, unopposed, he took northern Italy's main city, Milan. Pavia offered stiff resistance however, and was taken only after a siege lasting three years. During that time Alboin turned his attention to Tuscany, but signs of factionalism among his supporters and Alboin's diminishing control over his army increasingly began to manifest themselves.\n\nAlboin was assassinated on June 28, 572, in a coup d'état instigated by the Byzantines. It was organized by the king's foster brother, Helmichis, with the support of Alboin's wife, Rosamund, daughter of the Gepid king whom Alboin had killed some years earlier. The coup failed in the face of opposition from a majority of the Lombards, who elected Cleph as Alboin's successor, forcing Helmichis and Rosamund to flee to Ravenna under imperial protection. Alboin's death deprived the Lombards of the only leader who could have kept the newborn Germanic entity together, the last in the line of hero-kings who had led the Lombards through their migrations from the vale of the Elbe to Italy. For many centuries following his death Alboin's heroism and his success in battle were celebrated in Saxon and Bavarian epic poetry.\n", "The Lombards under King Wacho had migrated towards the east into Pannonia, taking advantage of the difficulties facing the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy following the death of its founder, Theodoric in 526. Wacho's death in about 540 brought his son Walthari to the throne, but as the latter was still a minor the kingdom was governed in his stead by Alboin's father, Audoin, of the Gausian clan. Seven years later Walthari died, giving Audoin the opportunity to crown himself and overthrow the reigning Lethings.\n\nAlboin was probably born in the 530s in Pannonia, the son of Audoin and his wife, Rodelinda. She may have been the niece of King Theodoric and betrothed to Audoin through the mediation of Emperor Justinian. Like his father, Alboin was raised a pagan, although Audoin had at one point attempted to gain Byzantine support against his neighbours by professing himself a Christian. Alboin took as his first wife the Christian Chlothsind, daughter of the Frankish King Chlothar. This marriage, which took place soon after the death of the Frankish ruler Theudebald in 555, is thought to reflect Audoin's decision to distance himself from the Byzantines, traditional allies of the Lombards, who had been lukewarm when it came to supporting Audoin against the Gepids. The new Frankish alliance was important because of the Franks' known hostility to the Byzantine empire, providing the Lombards with more than one option. However, the ''Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire'' interprets events and sources differently, believing that Alboin married Chlothsind when already a king in or shortly before 561, the year of Chlothar's death.\n\nAlboin first distinguished himself on the battlefield in a clash with the Gepids. At the Battle of Asfeld (552), he killed Turismod, son of the Gepid king Thurisind, in a victory that resulted in the Emperor Justinian's intervention to maintain equilibrium between the rival regional powers. After the battle, according to a tradition reported by Paul the Deacon, to be granted the right to sit at his father's table, Alboin had to ask for the hospitality of a foreign king and have him donate his weapons, as was customary. For this initiation, he went to the court of Thurisind, where the Gepid king gave him Turismod's arms. Walter Goffart believes it is probable that in this narrative Paul was making use of an oral tradition, and is sceptical that it can be dismissed as merely a typical ''topos'' of an epic poem.\n", "\nAlboin came to the throne after the death of his father, sometime between 560 and 565. As was customary among the Lombards, Alboin took the crown after an election by the tribe's freemen, who traditionally selected the king from the dead sovereign's clan. Shortly afterwards, in 565, a new war erupted with the Gepids, now led by Cunimund, Thurisind's son. The cause of the conflict is uncertain, as the sources are divided; the Lombard Paul the Deacon accuses the Gepids, while the Byzantine historian Menander Protector places the blame on Alboin, an interpretation favoured by historian Walter Pohl.\n\nAn account of the war by the Byzantine Theophylact Simocatta sentimentalises the reasons behind the conflict, claiming it originated with Alboin's vain courting and subsequent kidnapping of Cunimund's daughter Rosamund, that Alboin proceeded then to marry. The tale is treated with scepticism by Walter Goffart, who observes that it conflicts with the ''Origo Gentis Langobardorum'', where she was captured only after the death of her father. The Gepids obtained the support of the Emperor in exchange for a promise to cede him the region of Sirmium, the seat of the Gepid kings. Thus in 565 or 566 Justinian's successor Justin II sent his son-in-law Baduarius as ''magister militum'' (field commander) to lead a Byzantine army against Alboin in support of Cunimund, ending in the Lombards' complete defeat.\n\nFaced with the possibility of annihilation, Alboin made an alliance in 566 with the Avars under Bayan I, at the expense of some tough conditions: the Avars demanded a tenth of the Lombards' cattle, half of the war booty, and on the war's conclusion all of the lands held by the Gepids. The Lombards played on the pre-existing hostility between the Avars and the Byzantines, claiming that the latter were allied with the Gepids. Cunimund, on the other hand, encountered hostility when he once again asked the Emperor for military assistance, as the Byzantines had been angered by the Gepids' failure to cede Sirmium to them, as had been agreed. Moreover, Justin II was moving away from the foreign policy of Justinian, and believed in dealing more strictly with bordering states and peoples. Attempts to mollify Justin II with tributes failed, and as a result the Byzantines kept themselves neutral if not outright supportive of the Avars.\n\nIn 567 the allies made their final move against Cunimund, with Alboin invading the Gepids' lands from the northwest while Bayan attacked from the northeast. Cunimund attempted to prevent the two armies joining up by moving against the Lombards and clashing with Alboin somewhere between the Tibiscus and Danube rivers. The Gepids were defeated in the ensuing battle, their king slain by Alboin, and Cunimund's daughter Rosamund taken captive, according to references in the ''Origo''. The full destruction of the Gepid kingdom was completed by the Avars, who overcame the Gepids in the east. As a result, the Gepids ceased to exist as an independent people, and were partly absorbed by the Lombards and the Avars. Some time before 568, Alboin's first wife Chlothsind died, and after his victory against Cunimund Alboin married Rosamund, to establish a bond with the remaining Gepids. The war also marked a watershed in the geo-political history of the region, as together with the Lombard migration the following year, it signalled the end of six centuries of Germanic dominance in the Pannonian Basin.\n", "\nDespite his success against the Gepids, Alboin had failed to greatly increase his power, and was now faced with a much stronger threat from the Avars. Historians consider this the decisive factor in convincing Alboin to undertake a migration, even though there are indications that before the war with the Gepids a decision was maturing to leave for Italy, a country thousands of Lombards had seen in the 550s when hired by the Byzantines to fight in the Gothic War. Additionally, the Lombards would have known of the weakness of Byzantine Italy, which had endured a number of problems after being retaken from the Goths. In particular the so-called Plague of Justinian had ravaged the region and conflict remained endemic, with the Three-Chapter Controversy sparking religious opposition and administration at a standstill after the able governor of the peninsula, Narses, was recalled. Nevertheless, the Lombards viewed Italy as a rich land which promised great booty, assets Alboin used to gather together a horde which included not only Lombards but many other peoples of the region, including Heruli, Suebi, Gepids, Thuringii, Bulgars, Sarmatians, the remaining Romans and a few Ostrogoths. But the most important group, other than the Lombards, were the Saxons, of whom 20,000 male warriors with their families participated in the trek. These Saxons were tributaries to the Frankish King Sigebert, and their participation indicates that Alboin had the support of the Franks for his venture.\n\nThe precise size of the heterogeneous group gathered by Alboin is impossible to know, and many different estimates have been made. Neil Christie considers 150,000–500,000 to be a realistic size, a number which would make the Lombards a more numerous force than the Ostrogoths on the eve of their invasion of Italy. Jörg Jarnut proposes 100,000–150,000 as an approximation; Wilfried Menghen in ''Die Langobarden'' estimates 150,000 to 200,000; while Stefano Gasparri cautiously judges the peoples united by Alboin to be somewhere between 100,000 and 300,000.\n\nThe Vipava Valley in Slovenia, through which Alboin led the Lombards into ItalyAs a precautionary move Alboin strengthened his alliance with the Avars, signing what Paul calls a ''foedus perpetuum'' (\"perpetual treaty\") and what is referred to in the 9th-century ''Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani'' as a ''pactum et foedus amicitiae'' (\"pact and treaty of friendship\"), adding that the treaty was put down on paper. By the conditions accepted in the treaty, the Avars were to take possession of Pannonia and the Lombards were promised military support in Italy should the need arise; also, for a period of 200 years the Lombards were to maintain the right to reclaim their former territories if the plan to conquer Italy failed, thus leaving Alboin with an alternative open. The accord also had the advantage of protecting Alboin's rear, as an Avar-occupied Pannonia would make it difficult for the Byzantines to bring forces to Italy by land. The agreement proved immensely successful, and relations with the Avars were almost uninterruptedly friendly during the lifetime of the Lombard Kingdom.\n\nA further cause of the Lombard migration into Italy may have been an invitation from Narses. According to a controversial tradition reported by several medieval sources, Narses, out of spite for having been removed by Justinian's successor Justin II, called the Lombards to Italy. Often dismissed as an unreliable tradition, it has been studied with attention by modern scholars, in particular Neil Christie, who see in it a possible record of a formal invitation by the Byzantine state to settle in northern Italy as ''foederati'', to help protect the region against the Franks, an arrangement that may have been disowned by Justin II after Narses' removal.\n\n=== March to Italy ===\n\n\n \"This Albuin led into Italy the Langobards who were invited by Narses (chief) of the secretaries. And Albuin, king of the Langobards, moved out of Pannonia in the month of April after Easter in the first indiction. In the second indiction, indeed, they began to plunder in Italy, but in the third indiction he became master of Italy.\"\n\n '''''The Origin of the Nation of the Langobards''''', Chapter V\n\n\nThe Lombard migration started on Easter Monday, April 2, 568. The decision to combine the departure with a Christian celebration can be understood in the context of Alboin's recent conversion to Arian Christianity, as attested by the presence of Arian Gothic missionaries at his court. The conversion is likely to have been motivated mostly from political considerations, and intended to consolidate the migration's cohesion, distinguishing them from the Catholic Romans. It also connected Alboin and his people to the Gothic heritage, and in this way obtain the support of the Ostrogoths serving in the Byzantine army as ''foederati''. It has been speculated that Alboin's migration could have been partly the result of a call from surviving Ostrogoths in Italy.\n\nThe season chosen for leaving Pannonia was unusually early; the Germanic peoples generally waited until autumn before beginning a migration, giving themselves time to do the harvesting and replenish their granaries for the march. The reason behind the spring departure could be the anxiety induced by the neighboring Avars, despite the friendship treaty. Nomadic peoples like the Avars also waited for autumn to begin their military campaigns, as they needed enough forage for their horses. A sign of this anxiety can also be seen in the decision taken by Alboin to ravage Pannonia, which created a safety zone between the Lombards and the Avars.\n\nThe road followed by Alboin to reach Italy has been the subject of controversy, as is the length of the trek. According to Neil Christie the Lombards divided themselves into migrational groups, with a vanguard scouting the road, probably following the Poetovio – Celeia – Emona – Forum Iulii route, while the wagons and most of the people proceeded slowly behind because of the goods and chattels they brought with them, and possibly also because they were waiting for the Saxons to join them on the road. By September raiding parties were looting Venetia, but it was probably only in 569 that the Julian Alps were crossed at the Vipava Valley; the eyewitness Secundus of Non gives the date as May 20 or 21. The 569 date for the entry into Italy is not void of difficulties however, and Jörg Jarnut believes the conquest of most of Venetia had already been completed in 568. According to Carlo Guido Mor, a major difficulty remains in explaining how Alboin could have reached Milan on September 3 assuming he had passed the border only in the May of the same year.\n", "\n=== Foundation of the Duchy of Friuli ===\n\n\n \"When Alboin without any hindrance had thence entered the territories of Venetia ... – that is, the limits of the city or rather of the fortress of Forum Julii (Cividale) – he began to consider to whom he should especially commit the first of the provinces that he had taken. ... he determined ... to put over the city of Forum Julii and over its whole district, his nephew Gisulf ... This Gisulf announced that he would not first undertake the government of the city and people unless Alboin would give him the \"faras\", that is, the families or stocks of the Langobards that he himself wished to choose. And this was done\"\n\n '''''Paul the Deacon''''' Historia Langobardorum, Book II, Ch. 9\n\n\nThe Lombards penetrated into Italy without meeting any resistance from the border troops (''milities limitanei''). The Byzantine military resources available on the spot were scant and of dubious loyalty, and the border forts may well have been left unmanned. What seems certain is that archaeological excavations have found no sign of violent confrontation in the sites that have been excavated. This agrees with Paul the Deacon's narrative, who speaks of a Lombard takeover in Friuli \"without any hindrance\".\n\nThe first town to fall into the Lombards' hands was Forum Iulii (Cividale del Friuli), the seat of the local ''magister militum''. Alboin chose this walled town close to the frontier to be capital of the Duchy of Friuli and made his nephew and shield bearer, Gisulf, duke of the region, with the specific duty of defending the borders from Byzantine or Avar attacks from the east. Gisulf obtained from his uncle the right to choose for his duchy those ''farae'', or clans, that he preferred.\n\nAlboin's decision to create a duchy and designate a duke were both important innovations; until then, the Lombards had never had dukes or duchies based on a walled town. The innovation adopted was part of Alboin's borrowing of Roman and Ostrogothic administrative models, as in Late Antiquity the ''comes civitatis'' (city count) was the main local authority, with full administrative powers in his region. But the shift from count (''comes'') to duke (''dux'') and from county (''comitatus'') to duchy (''ducatus'') also signalled the progressive militarization of Italy. The selection of a fortified town as the centre for the new duchy was also an important change from the time in Pannonia, for while urbanized settlements had previously been ignored by the Lombards, now a considerable part of the nobility settled itself in Forum Iulii, a pattern that was repeated regularly by the Lombards in their other duchies.\n\n=== Conquest of Milan ===\nFrom Forum Iulii, Alboin next reached Aquileia, the most important road junction in the northeast, and the administrative capital of Venetia. The imminent arrival of the Lombards had a considerable impact on the city's population; the Patriarch of Aquileia Paulinus fled with his clergy and flock to the island of Grado in Byzantine-controlled territory.\n\nFrom Aquileia, Alboin took the Via Postumia and swept through Venetia, taking in rapid succession Tarvisium (Treviso), Vicentia (Vicenza), Verona, Brixia (Brescia) and Bergomum (Bergamo). The Lombards faced difficulties only in taking Opitergium (Oderzo), which Alboin decided to avoid, as he similarly avoided tackling the main Venetian towns closer to the coast on the Via Annia, such as Altinum, Patavium (Padova), Mons Silicis (Monselice), Mantua and Cremona. The invasion of Venetia generated a considerable level of turmoil, spurring waves of refugees from the Lombard-controlled interior to the Byzantine-held coast, often led by their bishops, and resulting in new settlements such as Torcello and Heraclia.\n\nAlboin moved west in his march, invading the region of Liguria (north-west Italy) and reaching its capital Mediolanum (Milan) on September 3, 569, only to find it already abandoned by the ''vicarius Italiae'' (vicar of Italy), the authority entrusted with the administration of the diocese of Annonarian Italy. Archbishop Honoratus, his clergy, and part of the laity accompanied the ''vicarius Italiae'' to find a safe haven in the Byzantine port of Genua (Genoa). Alboin counted the years of his reign from the capture of Milan, when he assumed the title of ''dominus Italiae'' (Lord of Italy). His success also meant the collapse of Byzantine defences in the northern part of the Po plain, and large movements of refugees to Byzantine areas.\n\nSeveral explanations have been advanced to explain the swiftness and ease of the initial Lombard advance in northern Italy. It has been suggested that the towns' doors may have been opened by the betrayal of the Gothic auxiliaries in the Byzantine army, but historians generally hold that Lombard success occurred because Italy was not considered by Byzantium as a vital part of the empire, especially at a time when the empire was imperilled by the attacks of Avars and Slavs in the Balkans and Sassanids in the east. The Byzantine decision not to contest the Lombard invasion reflects the desire of Justinian's successors to reorient the core of the Empire's polices eastward.\n\n=== Impact of the migration on Annonarian Italy ===\nThe impact of the Lombard migration on the Late Roman aristocracy was disruptive, especially in combination with the Gothic War; the latter conflict had finished in the north only in 562, when the last Gothic stronghold, Verona, was taken. Many men of means (Paul's ''possessores'') either lost their lives or their goods, but the exact extent of the despoliation of the Roman aristocracy is a subject of heated debate. The clergy was also greatly affected. The Lombards were mostly pagans, and displayed little respect for the clergy and Church property. Many churchmen left their sees to escape from the Lombards, like the two most senior bishops in the north, Honoratus and Paulinus. However, most of the suffragan bishops in the north sought an accommodation with the Lombards, as did in 569 the bishop of Tarvisium Felix when he journeyed to the Piave river to parley with Alboin, obtaining respect for the Church and its goods in return for this act of homage. It seems certain that many sees maintained an uninterrupted episcopal succession through the turmoil of the invasion and the following years. The transition was eased by the hostility existing among the northern Italian bishops towards the papacy and the empire due to the religious dispute involving the \"Three-Chapter Controversy\". In Lombard territory, churchmen were at least sure to avoid imperial religious persecution.\n\nIn the view of Pierre Riché, the disappearance of 220 bishops' seats indicates that the Lombard migration was a crippling catastrophe for the Church. Yet according to Walter Pohl the regions directly occupied by Alboin suffered less devastation and had a relatively robust survival rate for towns, whereas the occupation of territory by autonomous military bands interested mainly in raiding and looting had a more severe impact, with the bishoprics in such places rarely surviving.\n\n=== Siege of Ticinum ===\n\nA modern rendering of Alboin's entrance into Ticinum\n\nThe first attested instance of strong resistance to Alboin's migration took place at the town of Ticinum (Pavia), which he started to besiege in 569 and captured only after three years. The town was of strategic importance, sitting at the confluence of the rivers Po and Ticino and connected by waterways to Ravenna, the capital of Byzantine Italy and the seat of the Praetorian prefecture of Italy. Its fall cut direct communications between the garrisons stationed on the Alpes Maritimae and the Adriatic coast.\n\nCareful to maintain the initiative against the Byzantines, by 570 Alboin had taken their last defences in northern Italy except for the coastal areas of Liguria and Venetia and a few isolated inland centres such as Augusta Praetoria (Aosta), Segusio (Susa), and the island of Amacina in the Larius Lucus (Lake Como). During Alboin's kingship the Lombards crossed the Apennines and plundered Tuscia, but historians are not in full agreement as to whether this took place under his guidance and if this constituted anything more than raiding. According to Herwig Wolfram, it was probably only in 578–579 that Tuscany was conquered, but Jörg Jarnut and others believe this began in some form under Alboin, although it was not completed by the time of his death.\n\nAlboin's problems in maintaining control over his people worsened during the siege of Ticinum. The nature of the Lombard monarchy made it difficult for a ruler to exert the same degree of authority over his subjects as had been exercised by Theodoric over his Goths, and the structure of the army gave great authority to the military commanders or ''duces'', who led each band (''fara'') of warriors. Additionally, the difficulties encountered by Alboin in building a solid political entity resulted from a lack of imperial legitimacy, as unlike the Ostrogoths, they had not entered Italy as ''foederati'' but as enemies of the Empire.\n\nThe king's disintegrating authority over his army was also manifested in the invasion of Frankish Burgundy which from 569 or 570 was subject to yearly raids on a major scale. The Lombard attacks were ultimately repelled following Mummolus' victory at Embrun. These attacks had lasting political consequences, souring the previously cordial Lombard-Frankish relations and opening the door to an alliance between the Empire and the Franks against the Lombards, a coalition agreed to by Guntram in about 571. Alboin is generally thought not to have been behind this invasion, but an alternative interpretation of the transalpine raids presented by Gian Piero Bognetti is that Alboin may actually have been involved in the offensive on Guntram as part of an alliance with the Frankish king of Austrasia, Sigebert I. This view is met with scepticism by scholars such as Chris Wickham.\n\nThe weakening of royal authority may also have resulted in the conquest of much of southern Italy by the Lombards, in which modern scholars believe Alboin played no role at all, probably taking place in 570 or 571 under the auspices of individual warlords. However it is far from certain that the Lombard takeover occurred during those years, as very little is known of Faroald and Zotto's respective rise to power in Spoletium (Spoleto) and Beneventum (Benevento).\n", "\n=== Earliest narratives ===\n\n \"When his wife Chlotsinda died, Albin married another wife whose father he had killed a short time before. For this reason the woman always hated her husband and awaited an opportunity to avenge the wrong done her father, and so it happened that she fell in love with one of the household slaves and poisoned her husband. When he died she went off with the slave but they were overtaken and put to death together.\"\n\n '''''Gregory of Tours''''' Historia Francorum, Book II, Ch. 41\n\n\nTicinum eventually fell to the Lombards in either May or June 572. Alboin had in the meantime chosen Verona as his seat, establishing himself and his treasure in a royal palace built there by Theodoric. This choice may have been another attempt to link himself with the Gothic king.\n\nIt was in this palace that Alboin was killed on June 28, 572. In the account given by Paul the Deacon, the most detailed narrative on Alboin's death, history and saga intermingle almost inextricably. Much earlier and shorter is the story told by Marius of Aventicum in his ''Chronica'', written about a decade after Alboin's murder. According to his version the king was killed in a conspiracy by a man close to him, called Hilmegis (Paul's Helmechis), with the connivance of the queen. Helmichis then married the widow, but the two were forced to escape to Byzantine Ravenna, taking with them the royal treasure and part of the army, which hints at the cooperation of Byzantium. Roger Collins describes Marius as an especially reliable source because of his early date and his having lived close to Lombard Italy.\n\nAlso contemporary is Gregory of Tours' account presented in the ''Historia Francorum'', and echoed by the later Fredegar. Gregory's account diverges in several respects from most other sources. In his tale it is told how Alboin married the daughter of a man he had slain, and how she waited for a suitable occasion for revenge, eventually poisoning him. She had previously fallen in love with one of her husband's servants, and after the assassination tried to escape with him, but they were captured and killed. However, historians including Walter Goffart place little trust in this narrative. Goffart notes other similar doubtful stories in the ''Historia'' and calls its account of Alboin's demise \"a suitably ironic tale of the doings of depraved humanity\".\n\n=== Skull cup ===\nElements present in Marius' account are echoed in Paul's ''Historia Langobardorum'', which also contains distinctive features. One of the best known aspects unavailable in any other source is that of the skull cup. In Paul, the events that led to Alboin's downfall unfold in Verona. During a great feast, Alboin gets drunk and orders his wife Rosamund to drink from his cup, made from the skull of his father-in-law Cunimund after he had slain him in 567 and married Rosamund. Alboin \"invited her to drink merrily with her father\". This reignited the queen's determination to avenge her father.\nThe fatal banquet as painted by Peter Paul Rubens in 1615\n\nThe tale has been often dismissed as a fable and Paul was conscious of the risk of disbelief. For this reason, he insists that he saw the skull cup personally during the 740s in the royal palace of Ticinum in the hands of king Ratchis. The use of skull cups has been noticed among nomadic peoples and, in particular, among the Lombards' neighbors, the Avars. Skull cups are believed to be part of a shamanistic ritual, where drinking from the cup was considered a way to assume the dead man's powers. In this context, Stefano Gasparri and Wilfried Menghen see in Cunimund's skull cup the sign of nomadic cultural influences on the Lombards: by drinking from his enemy's skull Alboin was taking his vital strength. As for the offering of the skull to Rosamund, that may have been a ritual request of complete submission of the queen and her people to the Lombards, and thus a cause of shame or humiliation. Alternatively, it may have been a rite to appease the dead through the offering of a libation. In the latter interpretation, the queen's answer reveals her determination not to let the wound opened by the killing of her father be healed through a ritual act, thus openly displaying her thirst for revenge.\n\nThe episode is read in a radically different way by Walter Goffart. According to him, the whole story assumes an allegorical meaning, with Paul intent on telling an edifying story of the downfall of the hero and his expulsion from the promised land, because of his human weakness. In this story, the skull cup plays a key role as it unites original sin and barbarism. Goffart does not exclude the possibility that Paul had really seen the skull, but believes that by the 740s the connection between sin and barbarism as exemplified by the skull cup had already been established.\n\n=== Death ===\nAlboin is killed by Peredeo while Rosamund steals his sword, in a 19th-century painting by Charles Landseer\n\nIn her plan to kill her husband she found an ally in Helmichis, the king's foster brother and ''spatharius'' (arms bearer). According to Paul the queen then recruited the king's ''cubicularius'' (bedchamberlain), Peredeo, into the plot, after having seduced him. When Alboin retired for his midday rest on June 28, care was taken to leave the door open and unguarded. Alboin's sword was also removed, leaving him defenceless when Peredeo entered his room and killed him. Alboin's remains were allegedly buried beneath the palace steps.\n\nPeredeo's figure and role is mostly introduced by Paul; the ''Origo'' had for the first time mentioned his name as \"Peritheus\", but there his role had been different, as he was not the assassin, but the instigator of the assassination. In the vein of his reading of the skull cup, Goffart sees Peredeo as not as a historical figure but as an allegorical character: he notes a similarity between Peredeo's name and the Latin word ''peritus'', meaning \"lost\", a representation of those Lombards who entered into the service of the Empire.\n\nAlboin's death had a lasting impact, as it deprived the Lombards of the only leader they had that could have kept together the newborn Germanic entity. His end also represents the death of the last of the line of the hero-kings that had led the Lombards through their migrations from the Elba to Italy. His fame survived him for many centuries in epic poetry, with Saxons and Bavarians celebrating his prowess in battle, his heroism, and the magical properties of his weapons.\n", "{\| class=\"toccolours\" style=\"float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;\" cellspacing=\"5\"\n \"Helmegis then, upon the death of his king, attempted to usurp his kingdom, but he could not at all do this, because the Langobards, grieving greatly for the king's death, strove to make way with him. And straightway Rosemund sent word to Longinus, prefect of Ravenna, that he should quickly send a ship to fetch them. Longinus, delighted by such a message, speedily sent a ship in which Helmegis with Rosemund his wife embarked, fleeing at night.\"\n\n '''''Paul the Deacon''''' Historia Langobardorum, Book II, Ch. 29\n\n\nTo complete the coup d'état and legitimize his claim to the throne, Helmichis married the queen, whose high standing arose not only from being the king's widow but also from being the most prominent member of the remaining Gepid nation, and as such her support was a guarantee of the Gepids' loyalty to Helmichis. The latter could also count on the support of the Lombard garrison of Verona, where many may have opposed Alboin's aggressive policy and could have cultivated the hope of reaching an entente with the Empire. The Byzantines were almost certainly deeply involved in the plot. It was in their interest to stem the Lombard tide by bringing a pro-Byzantine regime into power in Verona, and possibly in the long run break the unity of the Lombards' kingdom, winning over the dukes with honors and emoluments.\n\nThe coup ultimately failed, as it met with the resistance of most of the warriors, who were opposed to the king's assassination. As a result, the Lombard garrison in Ticinum proclaimed Duke Cleph the new king, and Helmichis, rather than going to war against overwhelming odds, escaped to Ravenna with Longinus' assistance, taking with him his wife, his troops, the royal treasure and Alboin's daughter Albsuinda. In Ravenna the two lovers became estranged and killed each other. Subsequently, Longinus sent Albsuinda and the treasure to Constantinople.\n\nLombard and Byzantine territories at Alboin's death (572)\n\nCleph kept the throne for only 18 months before being assassinated by a slave. Possibly he too was killed at the instigation of the Byzantines, who had every interest in avoiding a hostile and solid leadership among the Lombards. An important success for the Byzantines was that no king was proclaimed to succeed Cleph, opening a decade of interregnum, thus making them more vulnerable to attacks from Franks and Byzantines. It was only when faced with the danger of annihilation by the Franks in 584 that the dukes elected a new king in the person of Authari, son of Cleph, who began the definitive consolidation and centralization of the Lombard kingdom while the remaining imperial territories were reorganized under the control of an exarch in Ravenna with the capacity to defend the country without the Emperor's assistance.\n\nThe consolidation of Byzantine and Lombard dominions had long-lasting consequences for Italy, as the region was from that moment on fragmented among multiple rulers until Italian unification in 1861.\n", "List of kings of the Lombards\n", "\n", "\n Amory, Patrick. ''People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489–554''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, .\n* Ausenda, Giorgio. \"Current issues and future directions in the study of Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian period\", ''Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective''. Ian Wood (ed.). Woodbridge: Boydell, 1998, pp. 371–455. .\n* Azzara, Claudio. ''L'Italia dei barbari''. Bologna: il Mulino, 2009, 978-88-15-08812-3.\n* Bertolini, Paolo. \"Alboino, re dei Longobardi\", ''Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani''. Alberto M. Ghisalberti (ed.). v. 2, Rome: Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Treccani, 1960, pp. 34–38.\n* Christie, Neil. ''The Lombards: The Ancient Longobards''. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 1995 1998, .\n* Collins, Roger. ''Early Medieval Europe 300–1000''. London: Macmillan, 1991, .\n* \n* \n* Gasparri, Stefano. \"I longobardi: all origini del medioevo italiano\". ''Storia Dossier'', (1990) 42, Florence: Giunti. .\n* Goffart, Walter. ''The Narrators of Barbarian History (A.D. 550–800): Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988, .\n* Gregory of Tours. ''History of the Franks''. Ernest Brehaut (translator). New York: Columbia University Press, 1916.\n* Humphries, Mark. \"Italy, A. D. 425–605\", ''Cambridge Ancient History – Volume XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A. D. 425–600''. Averil Cameron, Bryan Ward-Perkins and Michael Whitby (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 525–552. .\n* Jarnut, Jörg. ''Storia dei Longobardi''. Turin: Einaudi, 1982 1995, .\n* Lane, Frederic C.. ''Storia di Venezia''. Turin: Einaudi, 1973 1991, .\n* Madden, Thomas F.. \"Aquileia\", ''Medieval Italy: an encyclopedia''. Christopher Kleinhenz (ed.). v. 1, New York: Routledge, 2004, pp. 44–45. .\n* Martindale, John R. (ed.), ''Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire – Volume III: A.D. 527–641'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, .\n* Moorhead, John. \"Ostrogothic Italy and the Lombard invasions\", ''The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume I c. 500 – c. 700''. Paul Fouracre (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 140–162. .\n* Ostrogorsky, Georg. ''Storia dell'impero bizantino''. Turin: Einaudi, 1963 1993, .\n* Palmieri, Stefano. \"Duchi, Principi e Vescovi nella Longobardia meridionale\", ''Longobardia e longobardi nell'Italia meridionale: le istituzioni ecclesiastiche''. Giancarlo Andenna e Giorgio Picasso (eds.). Milan: Vita e Pensiero, 1996, pp. 43–99. .\n* Paul the Deacon. ''History of the Langobards''. William Dudley Foulke (translator). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1907.\n* Pohl, Walter. \"The Empire and the Lombards: treaties and negotiations in the sixth century\", ''Kingdoms of the Empire: the integration of barbarians in late Antiquity''. Walter Pohl (ed.). Leiden: Brill, 1997, pp. 75–134. .\n* Richards, Jeffrey. ''The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476–752''. London: Routledge, 1979, .\n* Rovagnati, Sergio. ''I Longobardi''. Milan: Xenia, 2003, .\n* Schutz, Herbert. ''Tools, Weapons and Ornaments: Germanic Material Culture in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400–750''. Leiden: Brill, 2001, .\n* Whitby, Michael. \"The successors of Justinian\", ''The Cambridge Ancient History – Volume XIV''. pp. 86–112.\n* Wickham, Chris. ''Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society 400–1000''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981 1989, .\n* Wickham, Chris. ''Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, .\n* Wolfram, Herwig. ''The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990 1997, .\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Father's rule ", " Reign in Pannonia ", " Preparations and departure from Pannonia ", " Invasion of Italy ", " Assassination ", " Aftermath ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]	Alboin
[ "\n\n'''Afonso de Albuquerque, Duke of Goa''' (; 1453 – 16 December 1515) (also spelled '''Aphonso''' or '''Alfonso'''), was a Portuguese general, a \"great conqueror\", a statesman, and an empire builder.\n\nAfonso advanced the three-fold Portuguese grand scheme of combating Islam, spreading Christianity, and securing the trade of spices by establishing a Portuguese Asian empire. Among his achievements, Afonso was the first European of his Renaissance to raid the Persian Gulf, and he led the first voyage by a European fleet into the Red Sea. His military and administrative works are generally regarded as among the most vital to building and securing the Portuguese Empire in the Orient, the Middle East, and the spice routes of eastern Oceania.\n\nAfonso is generally considered a military genius, and \"probably the greatest naval commander of the age\" given his successful strategy—he attempted to close all the Indian Ocean naval passages to the Atlantic, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and to the Pacific, transforming it into a Portuguese ''mare clausum'' established over the opposition of the Ottoman Empire and its Muslim and Hindu allies. In the expansion of the Portuguese Empire, Afonso initiated a rivalry that would become known as the Ottoman–Portuguese war, which would endure for many years. Many of the Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts in which he was directly involved took place in the Indian Ocean, in the Persian Gulf regions for control of the trade routes, and on the coasts of India. It was his military brilliance in these initial campaigns against the much larger Ottoman Empire and its allies that enabled Portugal to become the first global empire in history. He had a record of engaging and defeating much larger armies and fleets. For example, his capture of Ormuz in 1507 against the Persians was accomplished with a fleet of seven ships. Other famous battles and offensives which he led include the conquest of Goa in 1510 and the capture of Malacca in 1511. He became admiral of the Indian Ocean, and was appointed head of the \"fleet of the Arabian and Persian sea\" in 1506.\n\nDuring the last five years of his life, he turned to administration, where his actions as the second governor of Portuguese India were crucial to the longevity of the Portuguese Empire. He pioneered European sea trade with China during the Ming Dynasty with envoy Rafael Perestrello, Thailand with Duarte Fernandes as envoy, and with Timor, passing through Malaysia and Indonesia in a voyage headed by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão. He also aided diplomatic relations with Ethiopia using priest envoys João Gomes and João Sanches, and established diplomatic ties with Persia, during the Safavid dynasty.\n\nHe became known as \"the Great\", \"the Terrible\", \"the Caesar of the East\", \"the Lion of the Seas\", and \"the Portuguese Mars\".\n", "Afonso de Albuquerque was born in 1453 in Alhandra, near Lisbon. He was the second son of Gonçalo de Albuquerque, Lord of Vila Verde dos Francos, and Dona Leonor de Menezes. His father held an important position at court and was connected by remote illegitimate descent with the Portuguese monarchy. He was educated in mathematics and Latin at the court of Afonso V of Portugal, where he befriended Prince John, the future King John II of Portugal.\n\nAfonso’s early training is described by Diogo Barbosa Machado:\n''“D. Alfonso de Albuquerque, surnamed the Great, by reason of the heroic deeds wherewith he filled Europe with admiration, and Asia with fear and trembling, was born in the year 1453, in the Estate called, for the loveliness of its situation, the Paradise of the Town of Alhandra, six leagues distant from Lisbon. He was the second son of Gonçalo de Albuquerque, Lord of Villaverde, and of D. Leonor de Menezes, daughter of D. Álvaro Gonçalves de Athayde, Count of Atouguia, and of his wife D. Guiomar de Castro, and corrected this injustice of nature by climbing to the summit of every virtue, both political and moral. He was educated in the Palace of the King D. Afonso V, in whose palaestra he strove emulously to become the rival of that African Mars”.\n", "Afonso served 10 years in North Africa, where he gained military experience in fierce campaigns against Muslim powers and Ottoman Turks.\n\nIn 1471, under the command of Afonso V of Portugal, he was present at the conquest of Tangier and Arzila in Morocco, serving there as an officer for some years. In 1476 he accompanied Prince John in wars against Castile, including the Battle of Toro. He participated in the campaign on the Italian peninsula in 1480 to rescue Ferdinand II of Aragon from the Ottoman invasion of Otranto that ended in victory. On his return in 1481, when Prince John was crowned as King John II, Afonso was made Master of the Horse for his distinguished exploits, chief equerry (''estribeiro-mor'') to the King, a post which he held throughout John's reign (1481–95). In 1489 he returned to military campaigns in North Africa, as commander of defense in the Graciosa fortress, an island in the river Luco near the city of Larache, and in 1490 was part of the guard of King John II, returning to Arzila in 1495, where his younger brother Martim died fighting by his side.\n\nAfonso made his mark under the stern John II, and won military campaigns in Africa and the Mediterranean sea, yet Asia is where he would make his greatest impact.\n\n===First expedition to India, 1503===\n\nWhen King Manuel I of Portugal was enthroned, he showed some reticence towards Afonso, a close friend of his dreaded predecessor and seventeen years his senior. Eight years later, on 6 April 1503, after a long military career and at a mature age, Afonso was sent on his first expedition to India together with his cousin Francisco de Albuquerque. Each commanded three ships, sailing with Duarte Pacheco Pereira and Nicolau Coelho. They engaged in several battles against the forces of the Zamorin of Calicut (''Calecute'', Kozhikode) and succeeded in establishing the King of Cohin (''Cohim'', Kochi) securely on his throne. In return, the King gave them permission to build the Portuguese fort ''Immanuel'' (Fort Kochi) and establish trade relations with Quilon (''Coulão'', Kollam). This laid the foundation for the eastern Portuguese Empire.\n\n===Second expedition to India, 1506===\n\nMap of the Arabian Peninsula showing the Red Sea with Socotra island (red) and the Persian Gulf (blue) with the Strait of Hormuz (Cantino planisphere, 1502)\nAfonso returned home in July 1504, and was well received by King Manuel I. After he assisted with the creation of a strategy for the Portuguese efforts in the east, King Manuel entrusted him with the command of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen sailing for India in early 1506 headed by Tristão da Cunha.\nTheir aim was to conquer Socotra and build a fortress there, hoping to close the trade in the Red Sea.\nAfonso went as \"chief-captain for the Coast of Arabia\", sailing under da Cunha's orders until reaching Mozambique. He carried a sealed letter with a secret mission ordered by the King: after fulfilling the first mission, he was to replace the first viceroy of India, Francisco de Almeida, whose term ended two years later. Before departing, he legitimized a natural son born in 1500, and made his will.\n\n====First conquest of Socotra and Ormuz, 1507====\n\nThe fleet left Lisbon on 6 April 1506. Afonso piloted his ship himself, having lost his appointed pilot on departure. In Mozambique Channel, they rescued Captain João da Nova, who had encountered difficulties on his return from India; da Nova and his ship, the ''Frol de la mar'', joined da Cunha's fleet. From Malindi, da Cunha sent envoys to Ethiopia, which at the time was thought to be closer than it actually is. Those included the priest João Gomes, João Sanches and Tunisian Sid Mohammed who, having failed to cross the region, headed for Socotra; from there, Afonso managed to land them in Filuk.\nAfter successful attacks on Arab cities on the east Africa coast, they conquered Socotra and built a fortress at Suq, hoping to establish a base to stop the Red Sea commerce to the Indian Ocean. However, Socotra was abandoned four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base.\nFort of Our Lady of the Conception, Hormuz Island, Iran\nAt Socotra, they parted ways: Tristão da Cunha sailed for India, where he would relieve the Portuguese besieged at Cannanore, while Afonso took seven ships and 500 men to Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, one of the chief eastern centers of commerce. On his way, he conquered the cities of Curiati (Kuryat), Muscat in July 1507, and Khor Fakkan, accepting the submission of the cities of Kalhat and Sohar. He arrived at Ormuz on 25 September and soon captured the city, which agreed to become a tributary state of the Portuguese king. A few days later, the King of Ormuz was met by an envoy demanding the payment of tribute to Shah Ismail I from Persia. He was sent back with the answer that the only tribute would be in cannonballs and guns, thus beginning the connection between Alfonso and Shah Ismail I (often named Xeque Ismael). Afonso began building the Fort of Our Lady of Victory (later renamed Fort of Our Lady of the Conception), engaging his men of all ranks in the work.\n\nHowever, some of his officers revolted against the heavy work and climate and, claiming that Afonso was exceeding his orders, departed for India. With the fleet reduced to two ships and left without supplies, he was unable to maintain this position for long. Forced to abandon Ormuz in January 1508, he raided coastal villages to resupply the settlement of Socotra, returned to Ormuz, and then headed to India.\n\n====Arrest at Cannanore, 1509====\nAfonso arrived at Cannanore on the Malabar coast in December 1508, where he opened before the viceroy, Dom Francisco de Almeida, the sealed letter which he had received from the King, and which named as governor to succeed Almeida.\nThe viceroy, supported by the officers who had abandoned Afonso at Ormuz, had a matching royal order, but declined to yield, protesting that his term ended only in January and stating his intention to avenge his son's death by fighting the Mamluk fleet of Mirocem, refusing Afonso's offer to fight him himself. Afonso avoided confrontation, which could have led to civil war, and moved to Kochi, India, to await further instruction from the King, maintaining his entourage himself. He was described by Fernão Lopes de Castanheda as patiently enduring open opposition from the group that had gathered around Almeida, with whom he kept formal contact. Increasingly isolated, he wrote to Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, who arrived in India with a new fleet, but was ignored as Sequeira joined the Viceroy. At the same time, Afonso refused approaches from opponents of the Viceroy, who encouraged him to seize power.\n\nOn 3 February 1509, Almeida fought the naval Battle of Diu against a joint fleet of Mamluks, Ottomans, the Zamorin of Calicut, and the Sultan of Gujarat, regarding it as personal revenge for the death of his son. His victory was decisive: the Ottomans and Mamluks abandoned the Indian Ocean, easing the way for Portuguese rule there for the next century. In August, after a petition from Afonso's former officers with the support of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira claiming him unfit for governance, Afonso was sent in custody to St. Angelo Fort in Cannanore. There he remained under what he considered to be imprisonment.\n\nIn September 1509, Sequeira tried to establish contact with the Sultan of Malacca but failed, leaving behind 19 Portuguese prisoners.\n", "Afonso was released after three months' confinement, on the arrival at Cannanore of the Marshal of Portugal with a large fleet.\nThe Portuguese Marshal was the most important Portuguese noble ever to visit India and he brought an armada of fifteen ships and 3,000 men sent by the King to defend Afonso's rights, and to take Calicut.\n\nOn 4 November 1509, Afonso became the second Governor of the State of India, a position he would hold until his death. Almeida having returned home in 1510, Afonso speedily showed the energy and determination of his character. He intended to dominate the Muslim world and control the Spice trade.\n\nInitially King Manuel I and his council in Lisbon tried to distribute the power, outlining three areas of jurisdiction in the Indian Ocean. In 1509, the nobleman Diogo Lopes de Sequeira was sent with a fleet to Southeast Asia, to seek an agreement with Sultan Mahmud Shah of Malacca, but failed and returned to Portugal. To Jorge de Aguiar was given the region between the Cape of Good Hope and Gujarat. He was succeeded by Duarte de Lemos, but left for Cochin and then for Portugal, leaving his fleet to Afonso.\n\n===Conquest of Goa, 1510===\n\nIllustration depicts the aftermath of the Portuguese conquest of Goa, from the forces of Yusuf Adil Shah.\nIn January 1510, obeying the orders from the King and aware of the absence of Zamorin, Afonso advanced on Calicut. The attack was unsuccessful, as Marshal Fernando Coutinho ventured into the inner city against instructions, fascinated by its richness, and was ambushed. During the rescue, Afonso was wounded and had to retreat.\n\nSoon after the failed attack, Afonso assembled a fleet of 23 ships and 1200 men. Contemporary reports state that he wanted to fight the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate fleet in the Red Sea or return to Hormuz. However, he had been informed by Timoji (a privateer in the service of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire) that it would be easier to fight them in Goa, where they had sheltered after the Battle of Diu, and also of the illness of the Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah, and war between the Deccan sultanates. So he relied on surprise in the capture of Goa from the Sultanate of Bijapur. He thus completed another mission, for Portugal wanted not to be seen as an eternal \"guest\" of Kochi and had been coveting Goa as the best trading port in the region.\n\nA first assault took place in Goa from 4 March to 20 May 1510. After initial occupation, feeling unable to hold the city given the poor condition of its fortifications, the cooling of Hindu residents' support and insubordination among his ranks following an attack by Ismail Adil Shah, Afonso refused a truce offered by the Sultan and abandoned the city in August. His fleet was scattered, and a palace revolt in Kochi hindered his recovery, so he headed to Fort Anjediva. New ships arrived from Portugal, which were intended for the nobleman Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos at Malacca, who had been given a rival command of the region.\n\nThree months later, on 25 November Afonso reappeared at Goa with a renovated fleet. Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos was compelled to accompany him with the reinforcements for Malacca and about 300 Malabari reinforcements from Cannanore. In less than a day, they took Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on 10 December. It is estimated that 6000 of the 9000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either in the fierce battle in the streets or by drowning while trying to escape. Alfonso regained the support of the Hindu population, although he frustrated the initial expectations of Timoji, who aspired to become governor. Afonso rewarded him by appointing him chief \"Aguazil\" of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people, as a knowledgeable interpreter of the local customs. He then made an agreement to lower the yearly tribute.\n\nIn Goa, Afonso established the first Portuguese mint in the East, after Timoja's merchants had complained of the scarcity of currency, taking it as an opportunity to solidify the territorial conquest. The new coin, based on the existing local coins, showed a cross on the obverse and an armillary sphere (or \"esfera\"), King Manuel's badge, on the reverse. Gold cruzados or ''manueis'', silver ''esferas'' and ''alf-esferas'', and bronze \"leais\" were issued. Another mint was established at Malacca in 1511.\n\nAlbuquerque founded at Goa the ''Hospital Real de Goa'' or Royal Hospital of Goa, by the Church of Santa Catarina. Upon hearing that the doctors were extorting the sickly with excessive fees, Albuquerque summoned them, declaring that \"You charge a physicians' pay and don't know what disease the men who serve our lord the King suffer from. Thus, I want to teach you what is it that they die from\" and put them to work building the city walls all day till nightfall before releasing them.\n\nDespite constant attacks, Goa became the center of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighbouring kingdoms: the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut sent embassies, offering alliances and local grants to fortify.\n\nAfonso then used Goa to secure the Spice trade in favor of Portugal and sell Persian horses to Vijayanagara and Hindu princes in return for their assistance.\n\n===Conquest of Malacca, 1511===\n\nAfonso explained to his armies why the Portuguese wanted to capture Malacca:\n:\"''The King of Portugal has often commanded me to go to the Straits, because...this was the best place to intercept the trade which the Moslems...carry on in these parts. So it was to do Our Lord’s service that we were brought here; by taking Malacca, we would close the Straits so that never again would the Moslems be able to bring their spices by this route.... I am very sure that, if this Malacca trade is taken out of their hands, Cairo and Mecca will be completely lost.''\" (The Commentaries of the Great Afonso de Albuquerque)\nThe surviving gate of the A Famosa Portuguese fortress in Malacca\nIn February 1511, through a friendly Hindu merchant, Nina Chatu, Afonso received a letter from Rui de Araújo, one of the nineteen Portuguese held at Malacca since 1509. It urged moving forward with the largest possible fleet to demand their release, and gave details of the fortifications. Afonso showed it to Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos, as an argument to advance in a joint fleet. In April 1511, after fortifying Goa, he gathered a force of about 900 Portuguese, 200 Hindu mercenaries and about eighteen ships. He then sailed to Malacca against orders and despite the protest of Diogo Mendes, who claimed command of the expedition. Afonso eventually centralized the Portuguese government in the Indian Ocean. After the Malaccan conquest he wrote a letter to the King to explain his disagreement with Diogo Mendes, suggesting that further divisions could be harmful to the Portuguese in India. Under his command was Ferdinand Magellan, who had participated in the failed embassy of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in 1509.\n\nAfter a false start towards the Red Sea, they sailed to the Strait of Malacca. It was the richest city that the Portuguese tried to take, and a focal point in the trade network where Malay traders met Gujarati, Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, Bengali, Persian and Arabic, among others, described by Tomé Pires as of invaluable richness. Despite its wealth, it was mostly a wooden-built city, with few masonry buildings but was defended by a mercenary force estimated at 20,000 men and more than 2000 pieces of artillery. Its greatest weakness was the unpopularity of the government of Sultan Mahmud Shah, who favoured Muslims, arousing dissatisfaction amongst other merchants.\n\nAfonso made a bold approach to the city, his ships decorated with banners, firing cannon volleys. He declared himself lord of all the navigation, demanded the Sultan release the prisoners and pay for damages, and demanded consent to build a fortified trading post. The Sultan eventually freed the prisoners, but was unimpressed by the small Portuguese contingent. Afonso then burned some ships at the port and four coastal buildings as a demonstration. The city being divided by the Malacca River, the connecting bridge was a strategic point, so at dawn on 25 July the Portuguese landed and fought a tough battle, facing poisoned arrows, taking the bridge in the evening. After fruitlessly waiting for the Sultan's reaction, they returned to the ships and prepared a junk (offered by Chinese merchants), filling it with men, artillery and sandbags. Commanded by António de Abreu, it sailed upriver at high tide to the bridge. The day after, all had landed. After a fierce fight during which the Sultan appeared with an army of war elephants, the defenders were dispersed and the Sultan fled. Afonso waited for the reaction of the Sultan. Merchants approached, asking for Portuguese protection. They were given banners to mark their premises, a sign that they would not be looted. On 15 August, the Portuguese attacked again, but the Sultan had fled the city. Under strict orders, they looted the city, but respected the banners.\n\nAfonso prepared Malacca's defenses against a Malay counterattack, building a fortress, assigning his men to shifts and using stones from the mosque and the cemetery. Despite the delays caused by heat and malaria, it was completed in November 1511, its surviving door now known as \"A Famosa\" ('the famous'). It was possibly then that Afonso had a large stone engraved with the names of the participants in the conquest. To quell disagreements over the order of the names, he had it set facing the wall, with the single inscription ''Lapidem quem reprobaverunt aedificantes'' (Latin for \"The stone the builders rejected\", from David's prophecy, Psalm 118:22–23) on the front.\n\nHe settled the Portuguese administration, reappointing Rui de Araújo as factor, a post assigned before his 1509 arrest, and appointing rich merchant Nina Chatu to replace the previous ''bendahara'', representative of the ''Kafir'' people and adviser. Besides assisting in the governance of the city and first Portuguese coinage, he provided the junks for several diplomatic missions. Meanwhile, Afonso arrested and had executed the powerful Javanese merchant Utimuti Raja who, after being appointed to a position in the Portuguese administration as representative of the Javanese population, had maintained contacts with the exiled royal family.\n\nAfonso arranged for the shipping of many Órfãs d'El-Rei to Portuguese Malacca.\n\n====Shipwreck on the ''Flor de la mar'', 1511====\nOn 20 November 1511 Afonso sailed from Malacca to the coast of Malabar on the old ''Flor de la mar'' carrack that had served to support the conquest of Malacca. Despite its unsound condition, he used it to transport the treasure amassed in the conquest, given its large capacity. He wanted to give the court of King Manuel a show of Malaccan treasures. There were also the offers from the Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) to the King of Portugal and all his own fortune. On the voyage the ''Flor De La Mar'' was wrecked in a storm, and Afonso barely escaped drowning.\n\n===Missions from Malacca===\n\n====Embassies to Pegu, Sumatra and Siam, 1511====\nMost Muslim and Gujarati merchants having fled the city, Afonso invested in diplomatic efforts demonstrating generosity to Southeast Asian merchants, like the Chinese, to encourage good relations with the Portuguese. Trade and diplomatic missions were sent to continental kingdoms: Rui Nunes da Cunha was sent to Pegu (Burma), from where King Binyaram sent back a friendly emissary to Kochi in 1514 and Sumatra, Sumatran kings of Kampar and Indragiri sending emissaries to Afonso accepting the new power, as vassal states of Malacca. Knowing of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Afonso sent Duarte Fernandes in a diplomatic mission to the Kingdom of Siam (Thailand), returning in a Chinese junk. He was one of the Portuguese who had been arrested in Malacca, having gathered knowledge about the culture of the region. There he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations between the kingdom of Portugal and the court of the King of Siam Ramathibodi II, returning with a Siamese envoy bearing gifts and letters to Afonso and the King of Portugal.\n\n====Expedition to the \"spice islands\" (Maluku islands), 1512====\nDepiction of Ternate with São João Baptista Fort, built in 1522\nIn November, after having secured Malacca and learning the location of the then secret \"spice islands\", Afonso sent three ships to find them, led by trusted António de Abreu with deputy commander Francisco Serrão. Malay sailors were recruited to guide them through Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands and the Ambon Island to Banda Islands, where they arrived in early 1512. There they remained for a month, buying and filling their ships with nutmeg and cloves. António de Abreu then sailed to Amboina whilst Serrão sailed towards the Moluccas, but he was shipwrecked near Seram. Sultan Abu Lais of Ternate heard of their stranding, and, seeing a chance to ally himself with a powerful foreign nation, brought them to Ternate in 1512 where they were permitted to build a fort on the island, the '''Forte de São João Baptista de Ternate''' (pt, built in 1522.)\n\n====China expeditions, 1513====\nIn early 1513, Jorge Álvares, sailing on a mission under Afonso's orders, was allowed to land in Lintin Island, on the Pearl River Delta in southern China. Soon after, Afonso sent Rafael Perestrello to southern China, seeking trade relations with the Ming dynasty. In ships from Portuguese Malacca, Rafael sailed to Canton (Guangzhou) in 1513, and again from 1515 to 1516 to trade with Chinese merchants. These ventures, along with those of Tomé Pires and Fernão Pires de Andrade, were the first direct European diplomatic and commercial ties with China. However, after the death of the Chinese Zhengde Emperor on 19 April 1521, conservative factions at court seeking to limit eunuch influence rejected the new Portuguese embassy, fought sea battles with the Portuguese around Tuen Mun, and Tomé was forced to write letters to Malacca stating that he and other ambassadors would not be released from prison in China until the Portuguese relinquished their control of Malacca and returned it to the deposed Sultan of Malacca (who was previously a Ming tributary vassal). Nonetheless, Portuguese relations with China became normalized again by the 1540s and in 1557 a permanent Portuguese base at Macau in southern China was established with consent from the Ming court.\n\n===Return to Cochin and Goa===\nAfonso de Albuquerque as governor of India\nAfonso returned from Malacca to Cochin, but could not sail to Goa as it faced a serious revolt headed by the forces of Ismael Adil Shah, the Sultan of Bijapur, commanded by Rasul Khan and his countrymen. During Afonso's absence from Malacca, Portuguese who opposed the taking of Goa had waived its possession, even writing to the King that it would be best to let it go. Held up by the monsoon and with few forces available, Afonso had to wait for the arrival of reinforcement fleets headed by his nephew D. Garcia de Noronha, and Jorge de Mello Pereira.\n\nWhile at Cochin, Albuquerque started a school. In a private letter to King Manuel I, he states that he had found a chest full of books with which to teach the children of married Portuguese settlers (''casados'') and Christian converts to read and write which, according to Albuquerque, there were about a hundred in his time, \"all very sharp and easily learn what they are taught\".\n\nOn 10 September 1512, Afonso sailed from Cochin to Goa with fourteen ships carrying 1,700 soldiers. Determined to recapture the fortress, he ordered trenches dug and a wall breached. But on the day of the planned final assault, Rasul Khan surrendered. Afonso demanded the fort be handed over with its artillery, ammunition and horses, and the deserters to be given up. Some had joined Rasul Khan when the Portuguese were forced to flee Goa in May 1510, others during the recent siege. Rasul Khan consented, on condition that their lives be spared. Afonso agreed and he left Goa. He did spare the lives of the deserters, but had them horribly mutilated. One such renegade was Fernão Lopes, bound for Portugal in custody, who escaped at the island of Saint Helena and led a 'Robinson Crusoe' life for many years. After such measures the town became the most prosperous Portuguese settlement in India.\n\n===Campaign in the Red Sea, 1513===\nIn December 1512 an envoy from Ethiopia arrived at Goa. Mateus was sent by the regent queen Eleni, following the arrival of the Portuguese from Socotra in 1507, as an ambassador for the king of Portugal in search of a coalition to help face growing Ottoman influence. He was received in Goa with great honour by Afonso, as a long-sought \"Prester John\" envoy. His arrival was announced by King Manuel to Pope Leo X in 1513. Although Mateus faced the distrust of Afonso's rivals, who tried to prove he was some impostor or Muslim spy, Afonso sent him to Portugal. The King is described as having wept with joy at their report.\n\nIn February 1513, while Mateus was in Portugal, Afonso sailed to the Red Sea with a force of about 1000 Portuguese and 400 Malabaris. He was under orders to secure that channel for Portugal. Socotra had proved ineffective to control the Red Sea entrance and was abandoned, and Afonso's hint that Massawa could be a good Portuguese base might have been influenced by Mateus' reports.\n\nKnowing that the Mamluks were preparing a second fleet at Suez, he wanted to advance before reinforcements arrived in Aden, and accordingly laid siege to the city. Aden was a fortified city, but although he had scaling ladders they broke and after half a day of fierce battle Afonso was forced to retreat. He cruised the Red Sea inside the Bab al-Mandab, with the first European fleet to have sailed this route. He attempted to reach Jeddah, but the winds were unfavourable and so he sheltered at Kamaran island in May, until sickness among the men and lack of fresh water forced him to retreat. In August 1513, after a second attempt to reach Aden, he returned to India with no substantial results. In order to destroy the power of Egypt, he is said to have entertained the idea of diverting the course of the Nile river to render the whole country barren. Perhaps most tellingly, he intended to steal the body of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, and hold it for ransom until all Muslims had left the Holy Land.\n\n===Administration and diplomacy in Goa, 1514===\nCoining of money for d'Albuquerque at Goa (1510)\nDürer's Rhinoceros, woodcut (1515)\nIn 1514 Afonso devoted himself to governing Goa, concluding peace with Calicut and receiving embassies from Indian governors, strengthening the city and encouraging marriages of Portuguese men and local women. At that time, Portuguese women were barred from traveling overseas. In 1511 under a policy which Afonso promulgated, the Portuguese government encouraged their explorers to marry local women. To promote settlement, the King of Portugal granted freeman status and exemption from Crown taxes to Portuguese men (known as ''casados'', or \"married men\") who ventured overseas and married local women. With Afonso's encouragement, mixed marriages flourished. He appointed local people for positions in the Portuguese administration and did not interfere with local traditions (except \"sati\", the practice of immolating widows, which he banned).\n\nIn March 1514 King Manuel sent to Pope Leo X a huge and exotic embassy led by Tristão da Cunha, who toured the streets of Rome in an extravagant procession of animals from the colonies and wealth from the Indies. His reputation reached its peak, laying foundations of the Portuguese Empire in the East.\n\nIn early 1514, Afonso sent ambassadors to Gujarat's Sultan Muzaffar Shah II, ruler of Cambay, to seek permission to build a fort on Diu, India. The mission returned without an agreement, but diplomatic gifts were exchanged, including an Indian rhinoceros. Alfonso sent the gift, named ''ganda'', and its Indian keeper, Ocem, to King Manuel. In late 1515, Manuel sent it as a gift, the famous Dürer's Rhinoceros to Pope Leo X. Dürer never saw the actual rhinoceros, which was the first living example seen in Europe since Roman times.\n\n===Conquest of Ormuz and Illness===\nAfonso de Albuquerque as Viceroy of India\nIn 1513, at Cannanore, Afonso was visited by a Persian ambassador from Shah Ismail I, who had sent ambassadors to Gujarat, Ormuz and Bijapur. The shah's ambassador to Bijapur invited Afonso to send back an envoy to Persia. Miguel Ferreira was sent via Ormuz to Tabriz, where he had several interviews with the shah about common goals on defeating the Mamluk sultan.\n\nHaving returned with rich presents and an ambassador, on the journey back in March 1515 they were met by Afonso at Ormuz. Fueled by the shah's offers, Afonso had decided to recapture Ormuz. He had learned that after the Portuguese retreat in 1507, a young king was reigning under the influence of a powerful Persian vizier, Reis Hamed, whom the king greatly feared. At Ormuz, Afonso met the king and asked the vizier to be present. He then had him immediately stabbed and killed by his entourage, thus \"freeing\" the dominated king, so the island in the Persian Gulf yielded to him without resistance and remained a vassal state of the Portuguese Empire. Ormuz itself would not be Persian territory for another century, until a British-Persian alliance finally expelled the Portuguese in 1622. There in Ormuz, Afonso remained, engaging in diplomatic efforts and receiving envoys while becoming increasingly ill. In November 1515, he decided to return to Goa, but he fell increasingly ill during the journey and died in the harbour of Goa.\n\n====Death====\nAfonso's life ended on a bitter note, with a painful and ignominious close. At this time, his political enemies at the Portuguese court were planning his downfall. They had lost no opportunity in stirring up the jealousy of King Manuel against him, insinuating that Afonso intended to usurp power in Portuguese India.\n\nSince at least the beginning of November 1515, Afonso knew that he had been replaced in the government of India by a political adversary, Lopo Soares de Albergaria. Reportedly, he even received a letter from the ambassador of the Persian potentate Shah Ismael, inviting Afonso to become a leading lord in Persia. His illness was reported as early as September 1515.\n\nWhile on his return voyage from Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, near the harbor of Goa, he received news of a Portuguese fleet arriving from Europe, bearing dispatches announcing that he was to be replaced by his personal foe, the Portuguese Lopo Soares de Albergaria. Feeling himself near death, he drew up his will, appointed the captain and senior officials of Ormuz, and organized a final council with his captains to decide the main matters affecting the Estado da Índia.\n\nHe wrote a long letter to King Manuel, voicing his bitterness: \"I am in ill favor with the King for love of men, and with men for love of the King.\" He asked the King to confer onto his natural son \"all of the high honors and rewards\" that were justly due to Afonso. He wrote in dignified and affectionate terms, assuring Manuel of his loyalty. On 16 December 1515, Afonso de Albuquerque died within sight of Goa. The gentiles were reported as saying, \"It could not be that he was dead, but that God had need of him for some war and had therefore sent for him\".\n\nIn Portugal, King Manuel's zigzagging policies continued, still trapped by the constraints of real-time medieval communication between Lisbon and India and unaware that Afonso was dead. Hearing rumours that the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt was preparing a magnificent army at Suez to prevent the conquest of Ormuz, he repented of having replaced Afonso, and in March 1516 urgently wrote to Albergaria to return the command of all operations to Afonso and provide him with resources to face the Egyptian threat. He organized a new Portuguese navy in Asia, with orders that Afonso (if he was still in India), be made commander-in-chief against the Sultan of Cairo's armies. Manuel would afterwards learn that Afonso had died many months earlier, and that his reversed decision had been delivered many months too late.\n\nAfonso's body was buried in Goa, according to his will, in the Church of Nossa Senhora da Serra (Our Lady of the Hill), which he had caused to be built in 1513 to thank the Madonna for his escape from Kamaran island. After 51 years, in 1566, his body was moved to Nossa Senhora da Graça church in Lisbon, which was ruined and rebuilt after the 1755 Great Lisbon earthquake.\n", "Albuquerque Monument on Afonso de Albuquerque Square in Lisbon (1902)\nKing Manuel I of Portugal was belatedly convinced of Afonso's loyalty, and endeavoured to atone for his lack of confidence in Afonso by heaping honours upon his son, Brás de Albuquerque (1500–1580), whom he renamed \"Afonso\" in memory of the father.\n\nAfonso de Albuquerque was a prolific writer, having sent numerous letters to the king during his governorship, covering topics from minor issues to major strategies. In 1557 his son published a collection of his letters under the title ''Commentarios do Grande Affonso d'Alboquerque''- a clear reference to Caesar's Commentaries- which he reviewed and re-published in 1576. There Afonso was described as \"a man of middle stature, with a long face, fresh complexion, the nose somewhat large. He was a prudent man, and a Latin scholar, and spoke in elegant phrases; his conversation and writings showed his excellent education. He was of ready words, very authoritative in his commands, very circumspect in his dealings with the Moors, and greatly feared yet greatly loved by all, a quality rarely found united in one captain. He was very valiant and favoured by fortune.\"\n\nIn 1572, Afonso's feats were described in ''The Lusiads'', the Portuguese main epic poem by Luís Vaz de Camões (Canto X, strophes 40–49). The poet praises his achievements, but has the muses frown upon the harsh rule of his men, of whom Camões was almost a contemporary fellow. In 1934, Afonso was celebrated by Fernando Pessoa in ''Mensagem'', a symbolist epic. In the first part of this work, called \"Brasão\" (Coat-of-Arms), he relates Portuguese historical protagonists to each of the fields in the Portuguese coat-of-arms, Afonso being one of the wings of the griffin headed by Henry the Navigator, the other wing being King John II.\n\nA variety of mango that he used to bring on his journeys to India has been named in his honour.\n\nNumerous homages have been paid to Afonso; he is featured in the Padrão dos Descobrimentos monument; there is a square carrying his name in the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, which also features a bronze statue; two Portuguese Navy ships have been named in his honour: the sloop NRP ''Afonso de Albuquerque'' (1884) and the warship NRP ''Afonso de Albuquerque'', the latter belonging to a sloop class named Albuquerque.\n\n===Global legacy===\nPortuguese discoveries and explorations: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean (blue)\nThe fabled Spice Islands were on the imagination of Europe since ancient times. In the 2nd century AD, Malaya was known by the Greek philosopher Ptolemy, who labeled it 'Aurea Chersonesus\"; and who said that it was believed the fabled area held gold in abundance. Even Indian traders referred to the East Pacific region as \"Land of Gold\" and made regular visits to Malaya in search of the precious metal, tin and sweet scented jungle woods. But neither Ptolemy, nor Rome, nor Alexander was able to see the fabled regions of the East Pacific. Afonso de Albuquerque became the first European to reach the Spice Islands. Upon discovering Malaysia, he proceeded in 1511 to conquer Malacca, then commissioned an expedition under the command of António de Abreu and Vice-Commander Francisco Serrão (the latter being a cousin of Magellan) to further explore the extremities of the region in east Indonesia. As a result of these voyages of exploration, the Portuguese became the first Europeans to discover and to reach the fabled Spice Islands of Malaysia, Indonesia and the Indies in addition to discovering their sea routes. Afonso found what had evaded Columbus' grasp — the wealth of the Orient. His discoveries did not go unnoticed, and it took little time for Magellan to arrive in the same region a few years later and discover the Philippines for Spain, giving birth to the Papal Treaty of Zaragoza.\n\nAfonso's operations sent a voyage pushing further south which made the European discovery of Timor in the far south of Oceania, and the discovery of Papua New Guinea in 1512. This was followed up by another Portuguese, Jorge de Menezes in 1526, who named Papua New Guinea, the \"Island of the Papua\".\nThrough Alfonso's diplomatic activities, Portugal opened the sea between Europe and China. As early as 1513, Jorge de Albuquerque, a Portuguese commanding officer in Malacca, sent his subordinate Jorge Álvares to sail to China on a ship loaded with pepper from Sumatra. After sailing across the sea, Jorge Álvares and his crew dropped anchor in Tamao, an island located at the mouth of the Pearl River. This was the first Portuguese to set foot in the territory known as China, the mythical \"Middle Kingdom\" where they erected a stone Padrão. Álvares is the first European to reach Chinese land by sea, and, the first European to enter Hong Kong. In 1514 Afonso de Albuquerque, the Viceroy of the Estado da India dispatched Rafael Perestrello to sail to China in order to pioneer European trade relations with the Chinese nation. Rafael Perestrelo was quoted as saying, \"being a very good and honest people, the Chinese hope to make friends with the Portuguese.\" In spite of initial harmony and excitement between the two empires, difficulties soon arose. Portugal's efforts in establishing lasting ties with China did pay off in the long run; the Portuguese colonized Macau, and established the first European permanent settlement on Chinese soil, which served as a permanent colonial base in southern China, and the two empires maintained an exchange in culture and trade for nearly 500 years. The longest empire in history (1515–1999), begun by Alfonso de Albuquerque five centuries earlier, ended when Portugal ceded the government of Macau to China.Allegorical mural of Afonso de Albuquerque and his work\n\nAfonso de Albuquerque pioneered trade relations with Thailand, and was as such the first recorded European to contact Thailand.\n", "\n* Governor and Captain-General of the Seas of India\n* 2nd Governor of India\n* 1st Duke of Goa (posthumous)\n* A knight of the Portuguese Order of Saint James of the Sword\n* Fidalgo of the Royal Household\n", "Afonso de Albuquerque had a bastard son with an unrecorded woman. He legitimized the boy in February 1506. Before his death, he asked King Manuel I to leave to the son all his wealth and that the King oversee the son's education. When Alfonso died, Manuel I renamed the child \"Afonso\" in his father's memory. Brás Afonso de Albuquerque, or Braz in the old spelling, was born in 1500 and died in 1580.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n", "\n* Crowley, Roger. ''Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire'' (2015) online review\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===In other languages===\n\nAlbuquerque, Afonso de, D. Manuel I, António Baião, \"Cartas para el-rei d. Manuel I\", Editora Livraria Sá de Costa (1957)\n\n===Primary sources===\n* (volume 6, chapter I)\n", "\n* Paul Lunde, ''The coming of the Portuguese'', 2006, Saudi Aramco World\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Early military service", "Governor of Portuguese India, 1509–1515", "Legacy", "Titles and honours", "Son", "Ancestry", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Afonso de Albuquerque
[ "Alcaeus and Sappho, Attic red-figure kalathos, c. 470 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2416)\n\n'''Alcaeus of Mytilene''' (; , ''Alkaios''; c. 620 – 6th century BC) was a lyric poet from the Greek island of Lesbos who is credited with inventing the Alcaic stanza. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. He was an older contemporary and an alleged lover of Sappho, with whom he may have exchanged poems. He was born into the aristocratic governing class of Mytilene, the main city of Lesbos, where he was involved in political disputes and feuds.\n", "Alcaeus \"A probably authentic Lesbian coin has been preserved, bearing upon the obverse ... a profile head of Alcaeus, and upon the reverse ...a profile head of Pittacus. This coin is said to have belonged to Fulvius Ursinus. It passed through various hands and collections into the Royal Museum\nat Paris, and was engraved by the Chevalier Visconti.\" — J. Easby-Smith\nPittacus\n\nThe broad outlines of the poet's life are well known. He was born into the aristocratic, warrior class that dominated Mytilene, the strongest city-state on the island of Lesbos and, by the end of the seventh century BC, the most influential of all the North Aegean Greek cities, with a strong navy and colonies securing its trade-routes in the Hellespont. The city had long been ruled by kings born to the Penthilid clan but, during the poet's life, the Penthilids were a spent force and rival aristocrats and their factions contended with each other for supreme power. Alcaeus and his older brothers were passionately involved in the struggle but experienced little success. Their political adventures can be understood in terms of three tyrants who came and went in succession:\n* Melanchrus – he was overthrown sometime between 612 BC and 609 BC by a faction that, in addition to the brothers of Alcaeus, included Pittacus (later renowned as one of the Seven Sages of Greece); Alcaeus at that time was too young to be actively involved;\n* Myrsilus – it is not known when he came to power but some verses by Alcaeus (frag. 129) indicate that the poet, his brothers and Pittacus made plans to overthrow him and that Pittacus subsequently betrayed them; Alcaeus and his brothers fled into exile where the poet later wrote a drinking song in celebration of the news of the tyrant's death (frag. 332);\n* Pittacus – the dominant political figure of his time, he was voted supreme power by the political assembly of Mytilene and appears to have governed well (590-580 BC), even allowing Alcaeus and his faction to return home in peace.\n\nSometime before 600 BC, Mytilene fought Athens for control of Sigeion and Alcaeus was old enough to participate in the fighting. According to the historian Herodotus, the poet threw away his shield to make good his escape from the victorious Athenians then celebrated the occasion in a poem that he later sent to his friend, Melanippus. It is thought that Alcaeus travelled widely during his years in exile, including at least one visit to Egypt. His older brother, Antimenidas, appears to have served as a mercenary in the army of Nebuchadnezzar II and probably took part in the conquest of Askelon. Alcaeus wrote verses in celebration of Antimenides' return, including mention of his valour in slaying the larger opponent (frag. 350), and he proudly describes the military hardware that adorned their family home (frag. 357).\n\n\n''Sappho and Alcaeus'' by \nLawrence Alma-Tadema. The Walters Art Museum.\nAlcaeus was a contemporary and a countryman of Sappho and, since both poets composed for the entertainment of Mytilenean friends, they had many opportunities to associate with each other on a quite regular basis, such as at the ''Kallisteia'', an annual festival celebrating the island's federation under Mytilene, held at the 'Messon' (referred to as ''temenos'' in frs. 129 and 130), where Sappho performed publicly with female choirs. Alcaeus' reference to Sappho in terms more typical of a divinity, as ''holy/pure, honey-smiling Sappho'' (fr. 384), may owe its inspiration to her performances at the festival. The Lesbian or Aeolic school of poetry \"reached in the songs of Sappho and Alcaeus that high point of brilliancy to which it never after-wards approached\" and it was assumed by later Greek critics and during the early centuries of the Christian era that the two poets were in fact lovers, a theme which became a favourite subject in art (as in the urn pictured above).\n", "The poetic works of Alcaeus were collected into ten books, with elaborate commentaries, by the Alexandrian scholars Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace sometime in the 3rd century BC, and yet his verses today exist only in fragmentary form, varying in size from mere phrases, such as ''wine, window into a man'' (fr. 333) to entire groups of verses and stanzas, such as those quoted below (fr. 346). Alexandrian scholars numbered him in their canonic nine (one lyric poet per Muse). Among these, Pindar was held by many ancient critics to be pre-eminent, but some gave precedence to Alcaeus instead. The canonic nine are traditionally divided into two groups, with Alcaeus, Sappho and Anacreon, being 'monodists' or 'solo-singers', with the following characteristics:\n* They composed and performed personally for friends and associates on topics of immediate interest to them;\n* They wrote in their native dialects (Alcaeus and Sappho in Aeolic dialect, Anacreon in Ionic);\n* They preferred quite short, metrically simple stanzas or 'strophes' which they re-used in many poems — hence the 'Alcaic' and 'Sapphic' stanzas, named after the two poets who perfected them or possibly invented them.\nThe other six of the canonic nine composed verses for public occasions, performed by choruses and professional singers and typically featuring complex metrical arrangements that were never reproduced in other verses. However, this division into two groups is considered by some modern scholars to be too simplistic and often it is practically impossible to know whether a lyric composition was sung or recited, or whether or not it was accompanied by musical instruments and dance. Even the private reflections of Alcaeus, ostensibly sung at dinner parties, still retain a public function.\n\nCritics often seek to understand Alcaeus in comparison with Sappho:\n\n\n\nThe Roman poet, Horace, also compared the two, describing Alcaeus as \"more full-throatedly singing\" — see Horace's tribute below. Alcaeus himself seems to underscore the difference between his own 'down-to-earth' style and Sappho's more 'celestial' qualities when he describes her almost as a goddess (as cited above), and yet it has been argued that both poets were concerned with a balance between the divine and the profane, each emphasising different elements in that balance.\n\nDionysius of Halicarnassus exhorts us to \"Observe in Alcaeus the sublimity, brevity and sweetness coupled with stern power, his splendid figures, and his clearness which was unimpaired by the dialect; and above all mark his manner of expressing his sentiments on public affairs,\" while Quintilian, after commending Alcaeus for his excellence \"in that part of his works where he inveighs against tyrants and contributes to good morals; in his language he is concise, exalted, careful and often like an orator;\" goes on to add: \"but he descended into wantonness and amours, though better fitted for higher things.\"\n\n===Poetic genres===\nThe works of Alcaeus are conventionally grouped according to five genres.\n* '''Political songs''': Alcaeus often composed on a political theme, covering the power struggles on Lesbos with the passion and vigour of a partisan, cursing his opponents, rejoicing in their deaths, delivering blood-curdling homilies on the consequences of political inaction and exhorting his comrades to heroic defiance, as in one of his 'ship of state' allegories. Commenting on Alcaeus as a political poet, the scholar Dionysius of Halicarnassus once observed that \"...if you removed the meter you would find political rhetoric.\"\n* '''Drinking songs''': According to the grammarian Athenaeus, Alcaeus made every occasion an excuse for drinking and he has provided posterity several quotes in proof of it. Alcaeus exhorts his friends to drink in celebration of a tyrant's death, to drink away their sorrows, to drink because life is short and along the lines ''in vino veritas'', to drink through winter storms and to drink through the heat of summer. The latter poem in fact paraphrases verses from Hesiod, re-casting them in Asclepiad meter and Aeolian dialect.\n* '''Hymns''': Alcaeus sang about the gods in the spirit of the Homeric hymns, to entertain his companions rather than to glorify the gods and in the same meters that he used for his 'secular' lyrics. There are for example fragments in 'Sapphic' meter praising the Dioscuri, Hermes and the river Hebrus (a river significant in Lesbian mythology since it was down its waters that the head of Orpheus was believed to have floated singing, eventually crossing the sea to Lesbos and ending up in a temple of Apollo, as a symbol of Lesbian supremacy in song). According to Porphyrion, the hymn to Hermes was imitated by Horace in one of his own 'sapphic' odes (C.1.10: ''Mercuri, facunde nepos Atlantis'').\n* '''Love songs''': Almost all Alcaeus' amorous verses, mentioned with disapproval by Quintilian above, have vanished without trace. There is a brief reference to his love poetry in a passage by Cicero. Horace, who often wrote in imitation of Alcaeus, sketches in verse one of the Lesbian poet's favourite subjects — Lycus of the black hair and eyes (C.1.32.11-12: ''nigris oculis nigroque/crine decorum''). It is possible that Alcaeus wrote amorously about Sappho, as indicated in an earlier quote.\n* '''Miscellaneous''': Alcaeus wrote on such a wide variety of subjects and themes that contradictions in his character emerge. The grammarian Athenaeus quoted some verses about perfumed ointments to prove just how unwarlike Alcaeus could be and he quoted his description of the armour adorning the walls of his house as proof that he could be unusually warlike for a lyric poet. Other examples of his readiness for both warlike and unwarlike subjects are lyrics celebrating his brother's heroic exploits as a Babylonian mercenary and lyrics sung in a rare meter (Sapphic Ionic in minore) in the voice of a distressed girl, \"Wretched me, who share in all ills!\" — possibly imitated by Horace in an ode in the same meter (C.3.12: ''Miserarum est neque amori dare ludum neque dulci''). He also wrote Sapphic stanzas on Homeric themes but in unHomeric style, comparing Helen of Troy unfavourably with Thetis, the mother of Akhilles.\n\n===A drinking poem (fr. 346)===\nThe following verses demonstrate some key characteristics of the Alcaic style (square brackets indicate uncertainties in the ancient text):\n\n\nThe Greek meter here is relatively simple, comprising the Greater Asclepiad, adroitly used to convey, for example, the rhythm of jostling cups (). The language of the poem is typically direct and concise and comprises short sentences — the first line is in fact a model of condensed meaning, comprising an exhortation (\"Let's drink!), a rhetorical question (\"Why are we waiting for the lamps?\") and a justifying statement (Only an inch of daylight left.) The meaning is clear and uncomplicated, the subject is drawn from personal experience, and there is an absence of poetic ornament, such as simile or metaphor. Like many of his poems (e.g., frs. 38, 326, 338, 347, 350), it begins with a verb (in this case \"Let's drink!\") and it includes a proverbial expression (\"Only an inch of daylight left\") though it is possible that he coined it himself.\n\n===A hymn (fr. 34)===\nAlcaeus rarely used metaphor or simile and yet he had a fondness for the allegory of the storm-tossed ship of state. The following fragment of a hymn to Castor and Polydeuces (the Dioscuri) is possibly another example of this though some scholars interpret it instead as a prayer for a safe voyage.\n\nHither now to me from your isle of Pelops,\nYou powerful children of Zeus and Leda,\nShowing youselves kindly by nature, Castor\nAnd Polydeuces!\n\nTravelling abroad on swift-footed horses,\nOver the wide earth, over all the ocean,\nHow easily you bring deliverance from\nDeath's gelid rigor,\n\nLanding on tall ships with a sudden, great bound,\nA far-away light up the forestays running,\nBringing radiance to a ship in trouble,\nSailed in the darkness!\n\n\nThe poem was written in Sapphic stanzas, a verse form popularly associated with his compatriot, Sappho, but in which he too excelled, here paraphrased in English to suggest the same rhythms. There were probably another three stanzas in the original poem but only nine letters of them remain. The 'far-away light' () is a reference to St Elmo's Fire, an electrical discharge supposed by ancient Greek mariners to be an epiphany of the Dioscuri, but the meaning of the line was obscured by gaps in the papyrus until reconstructed by a modern scholar—such reconstructions are typical of the extant poetry (see Scholars, fragments and sources below). This poem doesn't begin with a verb but with an adverb (Δευτέ) but still communicates a sense of action. He probably performed his verses at drinking parties for friends and political allies—men for whom loyalty was essential, particularly in such troubled times.\n", "\n===Horace===\nThe Roman poet Horace modelled his own lyrical compositions on those of Alcaeus, rendering the Lesbian poet's verse-forms, including 'Alcaic' and 'Sapphic' stanzas, into concise Latin — an achievement he celebrates in his third book of odes. In his second book, in an ode composed in Alcaic stanzas on the subject of an almost fatal accident he had on his farm, he imagines meeting Alcaeus and Sappho in Hades:\n\n\n===Ovid===\nOvid compared Alcaeus to Sappho in Letters of the Heroines, where Sappho is imagined to speak as follows:\n\n", "A 2nd century AD papyrus of Alcaeus, one of the many such fragments that have contributed to our greatly improved knowledge of Alcaeus' poetry during the 20th century (P.Berol. inv. 9810 = fr. 137 L.–P.).\nThe story of Alcaeus is partly the story of the scholars who rescued his work from oblivion. His verses have not come down to us through a manuscript tradition — generations of scribes copying an author's collected works, such as delivered intact into the modern age four entire books of Pindar's odes — but haphazardly, in quotes from ancient scholars and commentators whose own works have chanced to survive, and in the tattered remnants of papyri uncovered from an ancient rubbish pile at Oxyrhynchus and other locations in Egypt: sources that modern scholars have studied and correlated exhaustively, adding little by little to the world's store of poetic fragments.\n\nAncient scholars quoted Alcaeus in support of various arguments. Thus for example Heraclitus 'The Allegorist' quoted fr. 326 and part of fr. 6, about ships in a storm, in his study on Homer's use of allegory. The hymn to Hermes, fr308(b), was quoted by Hephaestion (grammarian) and both he and Libanius, the rhetorician, quoted the first two lines of fr. 350, celebrating the return from Babylon of Alcaeus' brother. The rest of fr. 350 was paraphrased in prose by the historian/geographer Strabo. Many fragments were supplied in quotes by Athenaeus, principally on the subject of wine-drinking, but fr. 333, \"wine, window into a man\", was quoted much later by the Byzantine grammarian, John Tzetzes.\n\nThe first 'modern' publication of Alcaeus' verses appeared in a Greek and Latin edition of fragments collected from the canonic nine lyrical poets by Michael Neander, published at Basle in 1556. This was followed by another edition of the nine poets, collected by Henricus Stephanus and published in Paris in 1560. Fulvius Ursinus compiled a fuller collection of Alcaic fragments, including a commentary, which was published at Antwerp in 1568. The first separate edition of Alcaeus was by Christian David Jani and it was published at Halle in 1780. The next separate edition was by August Matthiae, Leipzig 1827.\n\nSome of the fragments quoted by ancient scholars were able to be integrated by scholars in the nineteenth century. Thus for example two separate quotes by Athenaeus were united by Theodor Bergk to form fr. 362. Three separate sources were combined to form fr. 350, as mentioned above, including a prose paraphrase from Strabo that first needed to be restored to its original meter, a synthesis achieved by the united efforts of Otto Hoffmann, Karl Otfried Muller and Franz Heinrich Ludolf Ahrens. The discovery of the Oxyrhynchus papyri towards the end of the nineteenth century dramatically increased the scope of scholarly research. In fact, eight important fragments have now been compiled from papyri — frs. 9, 38A, 42, 45, 34, 129, 130 and most recently S262. These fragments typically feature lacunae or gaps that scholars fill with 'educated guesses', including for example a \"brilliant supplement\" by Maurice Bowra in fr. 34, a hymn to the Dioscuri that includes a description of St Elmo's fire in the ship's rigging. Working with only eight letters ( or ''pro...tr...ntes''), Bowra conjured up a phrase that brilliantly develops the meaning and the euphony of the poem ( or ''proton' ontrechontes''), describing luminescence \"running along the forestays\".\n", "\n", "* ''Greek Lyric Poetry''. D.A. Campbell (ed.) Bristol Classical Press, London, 1982. \n* ''Greek Lyric 1: Sappho and Alcaeus''. D. A. Campbell (ed.). Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. \n* ''Alcée. Fragments''. Gauthier Liberman (ed.). Collection Budé, Paris, 1999. \n* ''Sappho and the Greek Lyric Poets''. Translated by Willis Barnstone. Schoken Books Inc., New York, 1988. \n", "\n\n* \n* \n* Poems by Alcaeus – English translations\n* A. M. Miller, ''Greek Lyric'': – Alcaeus, many fragments\n* Alcaeus Bilingual Anthology (in Greek and English, side by side)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Poetry", "Tributes from other poets", "Scholars, fragments and sources", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Alcaeus of Mytilene
[ "Herm of Hermes, Roman copy of a late 5th century BC original, the forefront inscription states the herm was made by Alcamenes and dedicated by Pergamios, Istanbul Museums.\n\n'''Alcamenes''' () was an ancient Greek sculptor of Lemnos and Athens, who flourished in the 2nd half of the 5th century BC. He was a younger contemporary of Phidias and noted for the delicacy and finish of his works, among which a Hephaestus and an Aphrodite \"of the Gardens\" were conspicuous.\n\nPausanias says that he was the author of one of the pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, but this seems a chronological and stylistic impossibility. Pausanias also refers to a statue of Ares by Alcamenes that was erected on the Athenian agora, which some have related to the Ares Borghese. However, the temple of Ares to which he refers had only been moved from Acharnes and re-sited in the Agora in Augustus's time, and statues known to derive from Alcamenes' statue show the god in a breastplate, so the identification of Alcamenes' Ares with the Ares Borghese is not secure.\n\nAt Pergamum there was discovered in 1903 a Hellenistic copy of the head of the Hermes \"Propylaeus\" of Alcamenes. As, however, the deity is represented in an Neo-Attic, archaistic and conventional character, this copy cannot be relied on as giving us much information as to the usual style of Alcamenes, who was almost certainly a progressive and original artist.\n\nIt is safer to judge him by the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon, in which he must almost certainly have taken a share under the direction of Phidias. He is said to be the most eminent sculptor in Athens after the departure of Phidias for Olympia, but enigmatic in that none of the sculptures associated with his name in classical literature can be securely connected with existing copies.\n", "\n", "* \n* Julius Sillig, ''Dictionary of the artists of antiquity''; 1837\n* Andrew Stewart, ''One hundred Greek Sculptors : Their Careers and Extant Works''\n* Sir Charles Waldstein, ''Alcamenes and the establishment of the classical type in Greek art''; 1926\n", "\n* Scholars Resource: Works by Alkamenes\n* Perseus Digital Library: Alcamenes\n* Herma by Alcamenes - Uni Graz\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Alcamenes
[ "\n\n\n\nIn Greek mythology, '''Alcmene''' or '''Alcmena''' ( or Ἀλκμάνα Doric) was the wife of Amphitryon by whom she bore two children, Iphicles and Laonome. She is, however, better known as the mother of Heracles whose father was the god Zeus.\n", "\n===Background===\nAccording to the ''Bibliotheca'', Alcmene was born to Electryon, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, and king of Tiryns and Mycenae or Medea in Argolis. Her mother was Anaxo, daughter of Alcaeus and Astydamia. Other accounts say her mother was Lysidice, the daughter of Pelops and Hippodameia, or Eurydice the daughter of Pelops. According to Pausanias, the poet Asius made Alcmene the daughter of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle.\n\nHesiod describes Alcmene as the tallest, most beautiful woman with wisdom surpassed by no person born of mortal parents. It is said that her face and dark eyes were as charming as Aphrodite's, and that she honoured her husband like no woman before her.\n\n===Exile to Thebes===\nAccording to the ''Bibliotheca'', Alcmene went with Amphitryon to Thebes, where he was purified by Creon for accidentally killing Electryon. Alcmene refused to marry Amphitryon until he had avenged the death of her brothers. During Amphitryon's expedition against the Taphians and Teleboans, Zeus visited Alcmene disguised as Amphitryon. Extending one night into three, Zeus slept with Alcmene, his great-granddaughter, thereby conceiving Heracles, while recounting Amphitryon's victories against the Teleboans. When Amphitryon finally returned to Thebes, Alcmene told him that he had come the night before and slept with her; he learned from Tiresias what Zeus had done.\n\n===Birth of Heracles===\n\n====Homer====\nIn Homer's ''Iliad'', when Alcmene was about to give birth to Heracles, Zeus announced to all the gods that on that day a child by Zeus himself, would be born and rule all those around him. Hera, after requesting Zeus to swear an oath to that effect, descended from Olympus to Argos and made the wife of Sthenelus (son of Perseus) give birth to Eurystheus after only seven months, while at the same time preventing Alcmene from delivering Heracles. This resulted in the fulfilment of Zeus's oath in that it was Eurystheus rather than Heracles.\n\n====Ovid====\nAccording to Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'', while in labour, Alcmene was having great difficulty giving birth to such a large child. After seven days and nights of agony, Alcmene stretched out her arms and called upon Lucina, the goddess of childbirth (the Roman equivalent of Eileithyia). While Lucina did go to Alcmene, she had been previously instructed by Juno (Hera) to prevent the delivery. With her hands clasped and legs crossed, Lucina muttered charms, thereby preventing Alcmene from giving birth. Alcmene writhed in pain, cursed the heavens, and came close to death. Galanthis, a maid of Alcmene who was nearby, observed Lucina's behaviour and quickly deduced that it was Juno's doing. To put an end to her mistress's suffering, she announced that Alcmene had safely delivered her child, which surprised Lucina so much that she immediately jumped up and unclenched her hands. As soon as Lucina leapt up, Alcmene was released from her spell, and gave birth to Heracles. As punishment for deceiving Lucina, Galanthis was transformed into a weasel; she continued to live with Alcmene.\n\n====Pausanias====\nIn Pausanias' recounting, Hera sent witches (as they were called by the Thebans) to hinder Alcmene's delivery of Heracles. The witches were successful in preventing the birth until Historis, daughter of Tiresias, thought of a trick to deceive the witches. Like Galanthis, Historis announced that Alcmene had delivered her child; having been deceived, the witches went away, allowing Alcmene to give birth.\n\n====Plautus====\nIn contrast to the depictions of a difficult labor above, an alternative version is presented in ''Amphitryon'', a comedic play by Plautus. Here Alcmene calls upon Jupiter, who performs a miracle allowing her to give birth quickly and without pain. After a crash of thunder and light, the baby arrives without anyone's assistance.\n\n===Death===\nAfter the death of Amphitryon, Alcmene married Rhadamanthys, son of Zeus, and lived with him in exile at Ocaleae in Boeotia. It is said that after Heracles was apotheosised, Hyllus, having pursued and killed Eurystheus, cut off Eurystheus' head and gave it to Alcmene, who gouged out the eyes with weaving pins. In Metamorphoses, an aging Alcmene recounted the story of the birth of Heracles to Iole.\n\nThere are two accounts of Alcmene's death. In the first, according to the Megarians, Alcmene was walking from Argos to Thebes when she died at Megara. The Heracleidae fell into disagreement about where to take Alcmene's body, with some wishing to take her corpse back to Argos, and others wishing to take it to Thebes to be buried with Amphitryon and Heracles' children by Megara. However, the god in Delphi gave the Heracleidae an oracle that it was better to bury Alcmene in Megara. In the second account given by the Thebans, when Alcmene died, she was turned from human form to a stone.\n\nPausanias indicated that an altar to Alcmene had been built in the Cynosarges in Athens, alongside altars to Heracles, Hebe, and Iolaus. Pausanias also said that Alcmene's tomb is located near the Olympieum at Megara.\n", "\n\n", "Apollodorus. ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes''. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.\n Diodorus Siculus, ''The Library of History'', Oldfather, C. H. (Translator) (1935). Library of History: Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press.\nHesiod. ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White''. \"Shield of Heracles\". Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.\nHomer. ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes''. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.\nOvid. ''Metamorphoses''. Arthur Golding. London. W. Seres. 1567.\nPausanias. ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes''. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.\nPlutarch. ''Plutarch's Lives with an English Translation by Bernadotte Perrin''. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.\nPlautus. ''The Comedies of Plautus''. Henry Thomas Riley. London. G. Bell and Sons. 1912.\n* Smith, William; ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873). \"Alcmene\" \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Mythology ", "Notes", "References" ]	Alcmene
[ "'''Alcidamas''' (), of Elaea, in Aeolis, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished in the 4th century BC.\n", "He was the pupil and successor of Gorgias and taught at Athens at the same time as Isocrates, whose rival and opponent he was. We possess two declamations under his name: ''On Sophists'' (Περὶ Σοφιστῶν), directed against Isocrates and setting forth the superiority of extempore over written speeches (a more recently discovered fragment of another speech against Isocrates is probably of later date); ''Odysseus'' (perhaps spurious) in which Odysseus accuses Palamedes of treachery during the siege of Troy.\n\nAccording to Alcidamas, the highest aim of the orator was the power of speaking ''extempore'' on every conceivable subject. Aristotle (''Rhet.'' iii. 3) criticizes his writings as characterized by pomposity of style and an extravagant use of poetical epithets and compounds and far-fetched metaphors.\n\nOf other works only fragments and the titles have survived: ''Messeniakos'', advocating the freedom of the Messenians and containing the sentiment that \"God has left all men free; nature has made no man a slave\"; a ''Eulogy of Death'', in consideration of the wide extent of human sufferings; a ''Techne'' or instruction-book in the art\nof rhetoric; and a ''Phusikos logos''. Lastly, his ''Mouseion'' (a word invoking the Muses) seems to have contained the narrative of the ''Contest of Homer and Hesiod'', of which the version that has survived is the work of a grammarian in the time of Hadrian, based on Alcidamas. This hypothesis of the contents of the ''Mouseion'', originally suggested by Nietzsche (''Rheinisches Museum'' 25 (1870) & 28 (1873)), appears to have been confirmed by three papyrus findsone 3rd century BC (''Flinders Petrie Papyri'', ed. Mahaffy, 1891, pl. xxv.), one 2nd century BC (Basil Mandilaras, 'A new papyrus fragment of the ''Certamen Homeri et Hesiodi''' ''Platon'' 42 (1990) 45–51) and one 2nd or 3rd century AD (University of Michigan pap. 2754: Winter, J. G., 'A New Fragment on the Life of Homer' ''TAPA'' 56 (1925) 120–129 ).\n", "\n", "\nO'Sullivan, N. (2008) 'The authenticity of Alcidamas ''Odysseus'': two new linguistic arguments', ''Classical Quarterly'' 58, 638-647\n", "Alcidamas' surviving works\nGuido Avezzù (ed.), ''Alcidamante. Orazioni e frammenti'' (now the standard text, with Italian translation, 1982)\nJ.V. Muir (ed.), ''Alcidamas. The works and fragments'' (text with English translation, 2001) – reviewed in ''BMCR''\nRuth Mariss, ''Alkidamas: Über diejenigen, die schriftliche Reden schreiben, oder über die Sophisten: eine Sophistenrede aus dem 4. Jh. v. Chr., eingeleitet und kommentiert'' (Orbis Antiquus, 36), 2002\nFriedrich Blass, Teubner edition of the Greek text (1908) online\nAlcidamas, \"Against the Sophists,\" trans. Van Hook (1919)\nAbout Alcidamas\nAristotle, ''Rhetoric'' III.3\nJ. Vahlen, \"Der Rhetor Alkidamas\", ''Sitzungsberichte der wiener Akademie, Phil.-Hist. Cl.'', 43 (1863) 491–528 online(=''Gesammelte philologische Schriften'' (Leipzig & Berlin 1911) 1.117–155)\nFriedrich Blass, ''Die attische Beredsamkeit'', part 2 (1892) online, pp. 345–363\nM.L. West (1967) for Alcidamas' invention of the contest of Homer and Hesiod , N.J. Richardson (1981) against \n Various articles on Alcidamas (1856–1919, with links to further online material)\nAdditional bibliography is available online at \n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Notes", "References", "Further reading" ]	Alcidamas
[ "thumb\n'''Aldine Press''' was the printing office started by Aldus Manutius in 1494 in Venice, from which were issued the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics (Latin and Greek masterpieces plus a few more modern works). The first book that was dated and printed under his name appeared in 1495.\n\nThe Aldine Press is famous in the history of typography, among other things, for the introduction of italics. The press was the first to issue printed books in the small octavo size, similar to that of a modern paperback, and like that intended for portability and ease of reading. According to Curt Buhler, the press issued 132 books during twenty years of activity under Aldus. After Aldus’ death in 1515 the press was continued by his wife, Maria and her father, Andrea Torresani, until his son, Paulus Manutius (1512–1574) took over. His grandson Aldus Manutius the Younger then ran the firm until his death in 1597. Today, antique books printed by the Aldine Press in Venice are referred to as ''Aldines''.\n\nThe press enjoyed a monopoly of works printed in Greek in the Republic of Venice, effectively giving it copyright protection. Protection outside the Republic was more problematic, however. The firm maintained an agency in Paris, but its commercial success was affected by many counterfeit editions, produced in Lyons and elsewhere.", "Italian translation of Herodotus' Histories by Count Matteo Maria Boiardo, published in Venice, Aldine Press in 1502 (1533?).\nAldus Manutius the founder of the Aldine Press was originally a humanist scholar and teacher. Manutius met Andrea Torresani who had acquired publishing equipment from Nicholas Jensen's widow. The Aldine Press was originally owned half by Pier Francesco Barbarigo, the nephew of the current doge of the time, Agostino Barbarigo, and the other half by Andrea Torresani. Manutius owned one fifth of Torresani's share. Manutius mainly was in charge of the scholarship and editing, leaving financial and operating concerns to Barbarigo and Torresani. In 1496, Aldus established his own location in a building called the ''Thermae'' in the Sestiere di San Polo. The building was later demolished in 1873. Manutius lived and worked in the ''Thermae'' to produce published books from the Aldine Press. This was also the location of the \"New Academy\" where a group of Manutius' friends, associates, and editors came together to translate Greek and Latin texts.", "The press was started by Manutius based on his love of classics and the need of preservation of Hellenic studies, at first the press printed new copies of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek and Latin classics. He also printed dictionaries and grammars to help people interpret the books, which scholars wanting to learn Greek used to employ learned Greeks to teach them directly. Historian Elizabeth Eisenstein claimed that the fall of Constantinople in 1453 had threatened the importance and survival of Greek scholarship, but publications such as those by the Aldine Press secured it. Erasmus was one of the scholars learned in Greek that the Aldine Press partnered with to provide accurately translated text. The Aldine Press also expanded into current languages, mainly Italian and French.Aldus Manutius LOC photo meetup 2012\n===Humanist typefaces===\nAldus Manutius hired Francesco Griffo to create a typeface designed to reproduce the written hand of the humanists. This resulted in the first roman face adapted and known today as italic type. It was first used to print Cardinal Pietro Bembo's ''De Aetna'' in 1495. Before this time print publishing used block letters, the look of handwriting as print was a new phenomenon and try as he might to prevent it, Manutius' typeface was illegally copied, spreading through Europe.\n===Aldus Manutius the Elder's portable books===\nIn 1505 Manutius produced plain texts in useful form, using the term ''enchiridion'', meaning a manual or small, hand-held weapon. The octavo was the first appearance of the editio minor, a straightforward text, established as well as the editor can manage. Although these new, portable books were not cheap, the books of the Aldine Press did not force upon their buyers a substantial investment that large volumes of text and commentary demanded during this era. The editio minor, instead, brought financial and logistical benefits to those interested in the classics. An individual didn't have to go to the book, rather now the book came along with them.\n\n===Imprint and motto===\nIn 1501, Aldus used as his publisher's device, the image of a dolphin wrapped around an anchor. \"The dolphin and anchor device owed its origins, most immediately to Pietro Bembo. Aldus was to tell Erasmus six years later that Bembo had given him a silver coin minted under the Emperor Vesparian and bearing an image of this device\" The image of the dolphin and anchor on the coin came with a saying, \"Festina Lente\" meaning \"make haste slowly\". This would become the motto for the Aldine Press.", "Aldus Manutius the Elder died on February 6, 1515. After his death the firm was run by Andrea Torresani and his daughter, Maria, the widow of Aldus Manutius. The Aldine Press was named in 1508 as \"In the House of Aldus and Andrea Torresano\" which kept this name until 1529. In 1533, Paulus Manutius managed the firm, starting it up again and changing its name to \"Heirs of Aldus and Andrea Torresano\". In 1539 the imprint changed to \"Sons of Aldo Manuzio\". In 1567 Aldus Manutius the Younger continued the business until his death.\n", "A partial list of publications from the Aldine Press cited from Aldus Manutius: A Legacy More Lasting than Bronze.\n''Musarum Panagyris'' Aldus Manutius, after March 1497 and before March 1491.\n''Erotemata cum interpretatione Latina'' Constantine Lascaris, 8 March 1495.\n''Opusculum de Herone et Leandro, quod et in Latinam Linguam ad verbum tralatum est'' Musaeus, before November 1495 (Greek text) and 1497/98 (Latin text).\n''Dictionarium Graecum'' Johannes Crastonus, December 1497.\n''Institutiones Graecae grammatices'' Urban Valeriani, January 1497.\n''Rudimenta grammatices latinae linguae'' Aldus Manutius, June 1501.\n''Poetae Christiani veteres'', June 1502.\n''Institutionum grammaticarum libri quatuor'' Aldus Manutius, December 1514.\n''Suda'', February 1514.\n\nWorks published from the Greeks. Manutius printed thirty editiones principes of Greek texts, allowing these texts to escape the fragility of the manuscript tradition.\n\n''Eclogae triginta...'' Theocritus, February 1496.\n''Theophrastus de historia plantarum...'' Aristotle, 1 June 1497.\n''De mysteriis Aegyptiorum, Chaldaeorum, Assyriorum...'' Iamblichus, September 1497.\n''Aristophanis Comoediae novem'' Aristophanes, 15 July 1498.\n''Omnia opera Angeli Politiani...'' Angeloa Ambrogini Poliziano, July 1498.\n''Scriptores astronomici veteres'' Firmicus Maternus, 17 October 1499.\n''Herodoti libri novem quibus musarum indita sunt nomina'' Herodotus, September 1502.\n''Omnia Platonis opera'' Plato, May 1513.\n''Oratores Graeci'', May 1513.\n''Deipnosophistae'' Athenaeus, August 1514.\n''Petri Bembi de Aetna ad Angelum Chabrielem liber'' Pietro Bembo, February 1496.\n''Diaria de Bello Carolino'' Alessandro Benedetti, 1496 (the first published work of the Aldine Press using the humanist typeface).\n''Libellus de epidemia, quam vulgo morgum Gallicum vocant'' Niccolò Leoniceno, June 1497.\n''Hypnerotomachia Poliphili'' Francesco Colonna, December 1499.\n''Epistole devotissime de Sancta Catharina da Siena'' St. Catherina of Siena, 19 September 1500.\n''Opera'' Publius Vergilius Maro, April 1501.\n''Opera'' Quintus Horatius Flaccus, May 1501.\n''Rhetoricorum ad C. Herennium...libri'' Marcus Tullius Cicero, March 1514.\n\nLibelli Portatiles\n''Le cose volgari de Messer Francesco Petrarcha'' Francesco Petrarca, July 1501.\n''Opera'' Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius, January 1502.\n''Epistolae ad familiares'' Marcus Tullius Cicero, April 1502.\n''Le terze rime'' Dante Alighieri, August 1502.\n''Pharsalia'' Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, April 1502.\n''Tragaediae septem cum commentariis'' Sophocles, August 1502.\n''Tragoediae septendecim'' Euripides, February 1503.\n''Fastorum...libri, de tristibus...,de ponto'' Publius Ovidius Naso, February 1503.\n''Florilegium diversorum epigrammatum in septem libros'' Greek Anthology, November 1503.\n''Opera'' Homer, after 31 October 1504.\n''Urania sive de stellis'' Joannes Jovianus Pontanus, May & August 1505.\n''Vita, et Fabellae Aesopi...'' Aesop, October 1505.\n''Epistolarum libri decem'' Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, November 1508.\n''Commentariorum de Bello Gallico libri'' Gaius Julius Caesar, December 1513.\n''Odes'' Pindar, January 1513.\n''Sonetti et Canzoni. Triumphi'' Francesco Petrarca, August 1514.\n===Archives===\nThe most nearly complete collection of Aldine editions ever brought together was in the Althorp library of the 2nd Earl Spencer, now in the John Rylands Library, Manchester.\n\nIn North America, the most substantial Aldine holdings can be found in the Ahmanson-Murphy Aldine Collection at University of California, Los Angeles, at the Harry Ransom Center at University of Texas at Austin, and at the Harold B. Lee Library at Brigham Young University.\n", "", " Barolini, Helen. ''Aldus and His Dream Book: An Illustrated Essay.'' New York: Italica Press, 1992.\n* Braida, L. (2003) ''Stampa e cultura in Europa''. Roma-Bari: Laterza\n* Davies, Martin (1995) ''Aldus Manutius: printer and publisher of Renaissance Venice''. London: British Library\n* Febvre, L. & Martin, H. (2001) ''La nascita del libro''. Roma-Bari: Laterza\n* Fletcher, H. G., III (1988) ''New Aldine Studies: documentary essays on the life and work of Aldus Manutius''. San Francisco\n* Lowry, Martin (1984) ''Il mondo di Aldo Manuzio – Affari e cultura della Venezia del Rinascimento''. Roma: Il Veltro, pp. 441 (Translated from: ''The World of Aldus Manutius: Business and Scholarship in Renaissance Venice'', Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1979). II edizione, con aggiornamento bibliografico, Roma 2000.\n\n Renouard, A. A. (1834) ''Annales de l'imprimerie des Aldes, ou l'histoire des trois Manuce et de leurs éditions''; 3ème édition. Paris (the standard bibliography)\n* Soave, Fiammetta (1991) ''Bibliotheca Aldina: a collection of one hundred publications of Aldus Pius Manutius and the Aldine Press, including some valuable Aldine conterfeits'' . Rome: F. Soave", "* Aldus Manutius exhibition at UCLA\n* 1502, Venice: ALDUS MANUTIUS\n* Rylands Aldine collection\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Beginnings", "Accomplishments of the Aldine Press", "The Aldine Press after 1515", "Publications", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Aldine Press
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Ealdred''' (or '''Aldred'''; died 11 September 1069) was Abbot of Tavistock, Bishop of Worcester, and Archbishop of York in Anglo-Saxon England. He was related to a number of other ecclesiastics of the period. After becoming a monk at the monastery at Winchester, he was appointed Abbot of Tavistock Abbey in around 1027. In 1046 he was named to the Bishopric of Worcester. Ealdred, besides his episcopal duties, served Edward the Confessor, the King of England, as a diplomat and as a military leader. He worked to bring one of the king's relatives, Edward the Exile, back to England from Hungary to secure an heir for the childless king.\n\nIn 1058 he undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the first bishop from England to do so. As administrator of the Diocese of Hereford, he was involved in fighting against the Welsh, suffering two defeats at the hands of raiders before securing a settlement with Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, a Welsh ruler.\n\nIn 1060, Ealdred was elected to the archbishopric of York, but had difficulty in obtaining papal approval for his appointment, only managing to do so when he promised not to hold the bishoprics of York and Worcester simultaneously. He helped secure the election of Wulfstan as his successor at Worcester. During his archiepiscopate, he built and embellished churches in his diocese, and worked to improve his clergy by holding a synod which published regulations for the priesthood.\n\nSome sources state that following King Edward the Confessor's death in 1066, it was Ealdred who crowned Harold Godwinson as King of England. Ealdred supported Harold as king, but when Harold was defeated at the Battle of Hastings, Ealdred backed Edgar the Ætheling and then endorsed King William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy and a distant relative of King Edward's. Ealdred crowned King William on Christmas Day in 1066. William never quite trusted Ealdred or the other English leaders, and Ealdred had to accompany William back to Normandy in 1067, but he had returned to York by the time of his death in 1069. Ealdred supported the churches and monasteries in his diocese with gifts and building projects.\n", "Ealdred was probably born in the west of England, and could be related to Lyfing, his predecessor as bishop of Worcester. His family, from Devonshire, may have been well-to-do. Another relative was Wilstan or Wulfstan, who under Ealdred's influence became Abbot of Gloucester. Ealdred was a monk in the cathedral chapter at Winchester Cathedral before becoming abbot of Tavistock Abbey about 1027, an office he held until about 1043. Even after leaving the abbacy of Tavistock, he continued to hold two properties from the abbey until his death. No contemporary documents relating to Ealdred's time as abbot have been discovered.\n\nEaldred was made bishop of Worcester in 1046, a position he held until his resignation in 1062. He may have acted as suffragan, or subordinate bishop, to his predecessor Lyfing before formally assuming the bishopric, as from about 1043 Ealdred witnessed as an ''episcopus'', or bishop, and a charter from 1045 or early 1046 names Sihtric as abbot of Tavistock. Lyfing died on 26 March 1046, and Ealdred became bishop of Worcester shortly after. However, Ealdred did not receive the other two dioceses that Lyfing had held, Crediton and Cornwall; King Edward the Confessor (reigned 1043–1066) granted these to Leofric, who combined the two sees at Crediton in 1050.\n", "Harold Godwinson, from the alt=Tapestry image of a man on horseback holding a falcon\n\nEaldred was an advisor to King Edward the Confessor, and was often involved in the royal government. He was also a military leader, and in 1046 he led an unsuccessful expedition against the Welsh. This was in retaliation for a raid led by the Welsh rulers Gruffydd ap Rhydderch, Rhys ap Rhydderch, and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. Ealdred's expedition was betrayed by some Welsh soldiers who were serving with the English, and Ealdred was defeated.\n\nIn 1050, Ealdred went to Rome \"on the king's errand\", apparently to secure papal approval to move the seat, or centre, of the bishopric of Crediton to Exeter. It may also have been to secure the release of the king from a vow to go on pilgrimage, if sources from after the Norman Conquest of England are to be believed. While in Rome, he attended a papal council, along with his fellow English bishop Herman. That same year, as Ealdred was returning to England he met Sweyn, a son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and probably absolved Sweyn for having abducted the abbess of Leominster Abbey in 1046. Through Ealdred's intercession, Sweyn was restored to his earldom, which he had lost after abducting the abbess and murdering his cousin Beorn Estrithson. Ealdred helped Sweyn not only because Ealdred was a supporter of Earl Godwin's family but because Sweyn's earldom was close to his bishopric. As recently as 1049 Irish raiders had allied with Gruffydd ap Rhydderch of Gwent in raiding along the River Usk. Ealdred unsuccessfully tried to drive off the raiders, but was again routed by the Welsh. This failure underscored Ealdred's need for a strong earl in the area to protect against raids. Normally, the bishop of Hereford would have led the defence in the absence of an Earl of Hereford, but in 1049 the incumbent, Æthelstan, was blind, so Ealdred took on the role of defender.\n", "Earl Godwin's rebellion against the king in 1051 came as a blow to Ealdred, who was a supporter of the earl and his family. Ealdred was present at the royal council at London that banished Godwin's family. Later in 1051, when he was sent to intercept Harold Godwinson and his brothers as they fled England after their father's outlawing, Ealdred \"could not, or would not\" capture the brothers. The banishment of Ealdred's patron came shortly after the death of Ælfric Puttoc, the Archbishop of York. York and Worcester had long had close ties, and the two sees had often been held in plurality, or at the same time. Ealdred probably wanted to become Archbishop of York after Ælfric's death, but his patron's eclipse led to the king appointing Cynesige, a royal chaplain, instead. In September 1052, though, Godwin returned from exile and his family was restored to power. By late 1053 Ealdred was once more in royal favour. At some point, he was alleged to have accompanied Swein on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but proof is lacking.\n\nIn 1054 King Edward sent Ealdred to Germany to obtain Emperor Henry III's help in returning Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside, to England. Edmund (reigned 1016) was an elder half-brother of King Edward the Confessor, and Edmund's son Edward was in Hungary with King Andrew I, having left England as an infant after his father's death and the accession of Cnut as King of England. In this mission Ealdred was somewhat successful and obtained insight into the working of the German church during a stay of a year with Hermann II, the Archbishop of Cologne. He also was impressed with the buildings he saw, and later incorporated some of the German styles into his own constructions. The main objective of the mission, however, was to secure the return of Edward; but this failed, mainly because Henry III's relations with the Hungarians were strained, and the emperor was unable or unwilling to help Ealdred. Ealdred was able to discover that Edward was alive, and had a place at the Hungarian court. Although some sources state that Ealdred attended the coronation of Emperor Henry IV, this is not possible, as on the date that Henry was crowned, Ealdred was in England consecrating an abbot.\n\nEaldred had returned to England by 1055, and brought with him a copy of the ''Pontificale Romano-Germanicum'', a set of liturgies, with him. An extant copy of this work, currently manuscript Cotton Vitellus E xii, has been identified as a copy owned by Ealdred. It appears likely that the ''Rule of Chrodegang'', a continental set of ordinances for the communal life of secular canons, was introduced into England by Ealdred sometime before 1059. Probably he brought it back from Germany, possibly in concert with Harold.\n\nAfter Ealdred's return to England he took charge of the sees of Hereford and Ramsbury. Ealdred also administered Winchcombe Abbey and Gloucester Abbey. The authors of the ''Handbook of British Chronology Third Edition'' say he was named bishop of Hereford in 1056, holding the see until he resigned it in 1060, but other sources say that he merely administered the see while it was vacant, or that he was bishop of Hereford from 1055 to 1060.\n\nEaldred became involved with the see of Ramsbury after its bishop Herman got into a dispute with King Edward over the movement of the seat of his bishopric to Malmesbury Abbey. Herman wished to move the seat of his see, but Edward refused permission for the move. Ealdred was a close associate of Herman's, and the historian H. R. Loyn called Herman \"something of an alter ego\" to Ealdred. According to the medieval chronicler John of Worcester, Ealdred was given the see of Ramsbury to administer while Herman remained outside England. Herman returned in 1058, and resumed his bishopric. There is no contemporary documentary evidence of Ealdred's administration of Ramsbury.\n", "The king again employed Ealdred as a diplomat in 1056, when he assisted earls Harold and Leofric in negotiations with the Welsh. Edward sent Ealdred after the death in battle of Bishop Leofgar of Hereford, who had attacked Gruffydd ap Llywelyn after encouragement from the king. However, Leofgar lost the battle and his life, and Edward had to sue for peace. Although details of the negotiations are lacking, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn swore loyalty to King Edward, but the oath may not have had any obligations on Gruffydd's part to Edward. The exact terms of the submission are not known in total, but Gruffydd was not required to assist Edward in war nor attend Edward's court. Ealdred was rewarded with the administration of the see of Hereford, which he held until 1061, and was appointed Archbishop of York. The diocese had suffered a serious raid from the Welsh in 1055, and during his administration, Ealdred continued the rebuilding of the cathedral church as well as securing the cathedral chapter's rights. Ealdred was granted the administration in order that the area might have someone with experience with the Welsh in charge.\n\nIn 1058 Ealdred made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the first English bishop to make the journey. He travelled through Hungary, and the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' stated that \"he went to Jerusalem in such state as no-one had done before him\". While in Jerusalem he made a gift of a gold chalice to the church of the Holy Sepulchre. It is possible that the reason Ealdred travelled through Hungary was to arrange the travel of Edward the Exile's family to England. Another possibility is that he wished to search for other possible heirs to King Edward in Hungary. It is not known exactly when Edward the Exile's family returned to England, whether they returned with Edward in 1057, or sometime later, so it is only a possibility that they returned with Ealdred in 1058.\n\nVery little documentary evidence is available from Ealdred's time as Bishop of Worcester. Only five leases that he signed survive, and all date from 1051 to 1053. Two further leases exist in ''Hemming's Cartulary'' as copies only. How the diocese of Worcester was administered when Ealdred was abroad is unclear, although it appears that Wulfstan, the prior of the cathedral chapter, performed the religious duties in the diocese. On the financial side, the ''Evesham Chronicle'' states that Æthelwig, who became abbot of Evesham Abbey in 1058, administered Worcester before he became abbot.\n", "The funeral cortege of Edward the Confessor, from the alt=Tapestry image of a procession of men carrying a coffin heading towards a church building.\nCynesige, the archbishop of York, died on 22 December 1060, and Ealdred was elected Archbishop of York on Christmas Day, 1060. Although a bishop was promptly appointed to Hereford, none was named to Worcester, and it appears that Ealdred intended to retain Worcester along with York, which several of his predecessors had done. There were a few reasons for this, one of which was political, as the kings of England preferred to appoint bishops from the south to the northern bishoprics, hoping to counter the northern tendency towards separatism. Another reason was that York was not a wealthy see, and Worcester was. Holding Worcester along with York allowed the archbishop sufficient revenue to support himself.\n\nIn 1061 Ealdred travelled to Rome to receive the pallium, the symbol of an archbishop's authority. Journeying with him was Tostig, another son of Earl Godwin, who was now earl of Northumbria. William of Malmesbury says that Ealdred, by \"amusing the simplicity of King Edward and alleging the custom of his predecessors, had acquired, more by bribery than by reason, the archbishopric of York while still holding his former see.\" On his arrival in Rome, however, charges of simony, or the buying of ecclesiastical office, and lack of learning were brought against him, and his elevation to York was refused by Pope Nicholas II, who also deposed him from Worcester. The story of Ealdred being deposed comes from the ''Vita Edwardi'', a life of Edward the Confessor, but the ''Vita Wulfstani'', an account of the life of Ealdred's successor at Worcester, Wulfstan, says that Nicholas refused the pallium until a promise to find a replacement for Worcester was given by Ealdred. Yet another chronicler, John of Worcester, mentions nothing of any trouble in Rome, and when discussing the appointment of Wulfstan, says that Wulfstan was elected freely and unanimously by the clergy and people. John of Worcester also claims that at Wulfstan's consecration, Stigand, the archbishop of Canterbury extracted a promise from Ealdred that neither he nor his successors would lay claim to any jurisdiction over the diocese of Worcester. Given that John of Worcester wrote his chronicle after the eruption of the Canterbury–York supremacy struggle, the story of Ealdred renouncing any claims to Worcester needs to be considered suspect.\n\nFor whatever reason, Ealdred gave up the see of Worcester in 1062, when papal legates arrived in England to hold a council and make sure that Ealdred relinquished Worcester. This happened at Easter in 1062. Ealdred was succeeded by Wulfstan, chosen by Ealdred, but John of Worcester relates that Ealdred had a hard time deciding between Wulfstan and Æthelwig. The legates had urged the selection of Wulfstan because of his saintliness. Because the position of Stigand, the archbishop of Canterbury, was irregular, Wulfstan sought and received consecration as a bishop from Ealdred. Normally, Wulfstan would have gone to the archbishop of Canterbury, as the see of Worcester was within Canterbury's province. Although Ealdred gave up the bishopric, the appointment of Wulfstan was one that allowed Ealdred to continue his considerable influence on the see of Worcester. Ealdred retained a number of estates belonging to Worcester. Even after the Norman Conquest, Ealdred still controlled some events in Worcester, and it was Ealdred, not Wulfstan, who opposed Urse d'Abetot's attempt to extend the castle of Worcester into the cathedral after the Norman Conquest.\n\nWhile archbishop, Ealdred built at Beverley, expanding on the building projects begun by his predecessor Cynesige, as well as repairing and expanding other churches in his diocese. He also built refectories for the canons at York and Southwell. He also was the one bishop that published ecclesiastical legislation during Edward the Confessor's reign, attempting to discipline and reform the clergy. He held a synod of his clergy shortly before 1066.\n", "alt=Coin image of a crowned male head with a sceptre in the background\nJohn of Worcester, a medieval chronicler, stated that Ealdred crowned King Harold II in 1066, although the Norman chroniclers mention Stigand as the officiating prelate. Given Ealdred's known support of Godwin's family, John of Worcester is probably correct. Stigand's position as archbishop was canonically suspect, and as earl Harold had not allowed Stigand to consecrate one of the earl's churches, it is unlikely that Harold would have allowed Stigand to perform the much more important royal coronation. Arguments for Stigand having performed the coronation, however, rely on the fact that no other English source names the ecclesiastic who performed the ceremony; all Norman sources name Stigand as the presider. In all events, Ealdred and Harold were close, and Ealdred supported Harold's bid to become king. Ealdred perhaps accompanied Harold when the new king went to York and secured the support of the northern magnates shortly after Harold's consecration.\n\nAccording to the medieval chronicler Geoffrey Gaimar, after the Battle of Stamford Bridge Harold entrusted the loot gained from Harold Hardrada to Ealdred. Gaimar asserts that King Harold did this because he had heard of Duke William's landing in England, and needed to rush south to counter it. After the Battle of Hastings, Ealdred joined the group who tried to elevate Edgar the Ætheling, Edward the Exile's son, as king, but eventually he submitted to William the Conqueror at Berkhamsted. John of Worcester says that the group supporting Edgar vacillated over what to do while William ravaged the countryside, which led to Ealdred and Edgar's submission to William.\n\nEaldred crowned William king on Christmas Day 1066. An innovation in William's coronation ceremony was that before the actual crowning, Ealdred asked the assembled crowd, in English, if it was their wish that William be crowned king. The Bishop of Coutances then did the same, but in Norman French. In March 1067, William took Ealdred with him when William returned to Normandy, along with the other English leaders Earl Edwin of Mercia, Earl Morcar, Edgar the Ætheling, and Archbishop Stigand. Ealdred at Whitsun 1068 performed the coronation of Matilda, William's wife. The ''Laudes Regiae'', or song commending a ruler, that was performed at Matilda's coronation may have been composed by Ealdred himself for the occasion. In 1069, when the northern thegns rebelled against William and attempted to install Edgar the Ætheling as king, Ealdred continued to support William. He was the only northern leader to support William, however. Ealdred was back at York by 1069; he died there on 11 September 1069, and was buried in his episcopal cathedral. He may have taken an active part in trying to calm the rebellions in the north in 1068 and 1069. The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury records a story that when the new sheriff of Worcester, Urse d'Abetot, encroached on the cemetery of the cathedral chapter for Worcester Cathedral, Ealdred pronounced a rhyming curse on him, saying \"Thou are called Urse. May you have God's curse.\"\n", "After Ealdred's death, one of the restraints on William's treatment of the English was removed. Ealdred was one of a few native Englishmen who William appears to have trusted, and his death led to fewer attempts to integrate Englishmen into the administration, although such efforts did not entirely stop. In 1070, a church council was held at Westminster and a number of bishops were deposed. By 1073 there were only two Englishmen in episcopal sees, and by the time of William's death in 1089, there was only one, Wulfstan II of Worcester.\n\nEaldred did much to restore discipline in the monasteries and churches under his authority, and was liberal with gifts to the churches of his diocese. He built the monastic church of St Peter at Gloucester (now Gloucester Cathedral, though nothing of his fabric remains), then part of his diocese of Worcester. He also repaired a large part of Beverley Minster in the diocese of York, adding a presbytery and an unusually splendid painted ceiling covering \"all the upper part of the church from the choir to the tower...intermingled with gold in various ways, and in a wonderful fashion\". He added a pulpit \"in German style\" of bronze, gold and silver, surmounted by an arch with a rood cross in the same materials; these were examples of the lavish decorations added to important churches in the years before the conquest.\n\nEaldred encouraged Folcard, a monk of Canterbury, to write the ''Life'' of Saint John of Beverley. This was part of Ealdred's promotion of the cult of Saint John, who had only been canonised in 1037. Along with the ''Pontificale'', Ealdred may have brought back from Cologne the first manuscript of the ''Cambridge Songs'' to enter England, a collection of Latin Goliardic songs which became famous in the Middle Ages. The historian Michael Lapidge suggests that the ''Laudes Regiae'', which are included in Cotton Vitellius E xii, might have been composed by Ealdred, or a member of his household. Another historian, H. J. Cowdrey, argued that the ''laudes'' were composed at Winchester. These praise songs are probably the same performed at Matilda's coronation, but might have been used at other court ceremonies before Ealdred's death.\n\nHistorians have seen Ealdred as an \"old-fashioned prince-bishop\". Others say that he \"raised the see of York from its former rustic state\". He was known for his generosity and for his diplomatic and administrative abilities. After the Conquest, Ealdred provided a degree of continuity between the pre- and post-Conquest worlds. One modern historian feels that it was Ealdred who was behind the compilation of the D version of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', and gives a date in the 1050s as its composition. Certainly, Ealdred is one of the leading figures in the work, and it is likely that one of his clerks compiled the version.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \n\n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Bishop and royal advisor", "Diplomatic travels", "Welsh affairs, Jerusalem, and Worcester", "Archbishop of York", "After the death of Edward the Confessor", "Legacy", "Notes", "Citations", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Ealdred (archbishop of York)
[ "Alexander the Molossian, King of Epeiros 350-330 BC.\n'''Alexander I of Epirus''' (, 370 BC – 331 BC), also known as '''Alexander Molossus''' (), was a king of Epirus (350–331 BC) of the Aeacid dynasty.\n\nAs the son of Neoptolemus I and brother of Olympias, Alexander I was an uncle of Alexander the Great. He was also an uncle of Pyrrhus of Epirus. He was brought at an early age to the court of Philip II of Macedon, and after the Hellenic fashion became the object of his attachment. At the age of about 20, Philip made him king of Epirus, after dethroning his uncle Arybbas.\n\nWhen Olympias was repudiated by her husband, 337 BC, she went to her brother, and endeavoured to induce him to make war on Philip.\n\nAlexander, however, declined the contest, and formed a second alliance with Philip by taking to wife the daughter of Philip (Alexander's niece) Cleopatra in marriage (336 BC). At the wedding Philip was assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis.\n\nIn 334 BC, Alexander I, at the request of the Greek colony of Taras (in Magna Graecia), crossed over into Italy, to aid them in battle against several Italic tribes, the Lucanians and Bruttii. After a victory over the Samnites and Lucanians near Paestum, 332 BC, he made a treaty with the Romans. Success still followed his arms. He took Heraclea from the Lucanians, and Terina and Sipontum from the Bruttii. Through the treachery of some Lucanian exiles, he was compelled to engage under unfavourable circumstances in the battle of Pandosia and was killed by a Lucanian. He left a son, Neoptolemus, and a daughter, Cadmea.\n\nIn a famous passage that is often considered the first specimen of alternative history, Livy speculates on what would have been the outcome of a military showdown between Alexander the Great and the Roman Republic. He reports there that as Alexander of Epirus lay mortally wounded on the battlefield at Pandosia he compared his fortunes to those of his famous nephew and said that the latter \"waged war against women\".\n", "\n", "* Lendering, Jona. \"Alexander of Molossis\". ''Livius.org'', 2004.\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ]	Alexander I of Epirus
[ "\n\n'''Alexander I Balas''' (), was the ruler of the Greek Seleucid kingdom in 150–146 BC. Alexander defeated his brother Demetrius Soter for the crown in 150 BC. Ruling briefly, he lost the crown to his brother during his defeat at the Battle of Antioch (145 BC) in Syria, dying shortly after.\n\nHe is the title character of the oratorio ''Alexander Balus'', written in 1747 by George Frideric Handel.\n", "===Early life and reign===\nAlexander Balas and Cleopatra Thea. \nHe was a native of Smyrna of humble origin, but gave himself out to be the son of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and Laodice IV and heir to the Seleucid throne. Along with his sister Laodice VI, the youngster Alexander was \"discovered\" by Heracleides, a former minister of Antiochus IV and brother of Timarchus, an usurper in Media who had been executed by the reigning king Demetrius I Soter.\n\nAlexander's claims were recognized by the Roman Senate, Ptolemy Philometor of Egypt and others. He married Cleopatra Thea, a daughter of the Ptolemaic dynasty. At first unsuccessful, Alexander finally defeated Demetrius Soter in 150 BC. Being now master of the empire, he is said to have abandoned himself to a life of debauchery. Whatever the truth behind this, the young king was forced to depend heavily on his Ptolemaic support and even struck portraits with the characteristic features of king Ptolemy I.\n\n===Final battle and death===\nSeleucid era, corresponding to 150–149 BC.\nDemetrius Soter's son Demetrius II profited by the opportunity to regain the throne. Ptolemy Philometor, who was Alexander's father-in-law, went over to his side, and Alexander was defeated in the battle of Antioch (145 BC) in Syria, sometimes known as the battle of the Oenoparus.\n\nHe fled for refuge to a Nabataean prince, who murdered him and sent his head to Ptolemy Philometor, who had been mortally wounded in the engagement.\n", "\n* List of Syrian monarchs\n* Timeline of Syrian history\n", "\n", "\n", "1 Maccabees 10 ff.\nJustin xxxv. 1 and 2\nJosephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' ()\nAppian, ''Syrian Wars'' (=''Roman History'' book 11), 67\nPolybius, ''The Histories'' xxxiii. 14.\n", "\n* Alexander Balas, article in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Alexander Balas
[ "'''Alexander''' () was ''tagus'' or despot of Pherae in Thessaly, and ruled from 369 BC to 358 BC.\n", "The accounts of how he came to power vary somewhat in minor points. Diodorus Siculus tells us that upon the assassination of the tyrant Jason of Pherae, in 370 BC, his brother Polydorus ruled for a year, but he was then poisoned by Alexander, another brother. However, according to Xenophon, Polydorus was murdered by his brother Polyphron, who was, in turn, murdered by his nephew Alexander —son of Jason, in 369 BC. Plutarch relates that Alexander worshiped the spear he slew his uncle with as if it were a god. Alexander governed tyrannically, and according to Diodorus, differently from the former rulers, but Polyphron, at least, seems to have set him the example. The states of Thessaly, which had previously acknowledged the authority of Jason of Pherae, were not so willing to submit to Alexander the tyrant, (especially the old family of the Aleuadae of Larissa, who had most reason to fear him). Therefore, they applied for help from Alexander II of Macedon.\n\nAlexander of Pherae prepared to meet his enemy in Macedonia, but the king anticipated him, and, reaching Larissa, was admitted into the city. Alexander withdrew to Pherae whilst the Macedonian King placed a garrison in Larissa, as well as in Crannon, which had also come over to him. But once the bulk of the Macedonian army had retired, the states of Thessaly feared the return and vengeance of Alexander, and so sent for aid to Thebes, whose policy it was to put a check on any neighbor who might otherwise become too formidable. Thebes accordingly dispatched Pelopidas to the aid of Thessaly. On arrival of Pelopidas at Larissa, whence according to Diodorus, he dislodged the Macedonian garrison, Alexander presented himself and offered submission. When Pelopidas expressed indignation at the tales of Alexander's profligacy and cruelty, Alexander took alarm and fled.\n\nThese events appear to refer to the early part of the year 368 BC. In the summer of that year Pelopidas was again sent into Thessaly, in consequence of fresh complaints against Alexander. Accompanied by Ismenias, he went merely as a negotiator, without any military force, and was seized by Alexander and thrown into prison. The scholar William Mitford suggested that Pelopidas was taken prisoner in battle, but the language of Demosthenes hardly supports such an inference. The Thebans sent a large army into Thessaly to rescue Pelopidas, but they could not keep the field against the superior cavalry of Alexander, who, aided by auxiliaries from Athens, pursued them with great slaughter. The destruction of the whole Theban army is said to only have been averted by the ability of Epaminondas, who was serving in the campaign, but not as general.\n\nIn 367 BC, Alexander carried out a massacre of the citizens of Skotousa;. A fresh Theban expedition into Thessaly, under Epaminondas resulted, according to Plutarch, in a three-year truce and the release of prisoners, including Pelopidas. During the next three years, Alexander seemed to renew his attempts to subdue the states of Thessaly, especially Magnesia and Phthiotis, for upon the expiry of the truce, in 364 BC, they again applied to Thebes for protection from him. The Theban army under Pelopidas is said to have been dismayed by an eclipse (on July 13, 364, see 4th century BC eclipses), and Pelopidas, leaving the bulk of his army behind, entered Thessaly at the head of three hundred volunteer horsemen and some mercenaries. At Cynoscephalae, the Thebans defeated Alexander, but Pelopidas was killed. This was closely followed by another Theban victory under Malcites and Diogiton. Alexander was then forced to restore the conquered towns to the Thessalians, confine himself to Pherae, join the Boeotian League, and become a dependent ally of Thebes.\n\nIf the death of Epaminondas in 362 BC freed Athens from fear of Thebes, it appears at the same time to have exposed it to further aggression from Alexander of Pherae, who made a piratical raid on Tinos and other cities of the Cyclades, plundering them, and making slaves of the inhabitants. He also besieged Peparethus, and \"even landed troops in Attica itself, and seized the port of Panormus, a little eastward of Sounion.\" The Athenian admiral Leosthenes defeated Alexander and managed to relieve Peparethus, but Alexander escaped from being blockaded in Panormus, took several Attic triremes, and plundered the Piraeus.\n", "The murder of Alexander is assigned by Diodorus to 357/356 BC. Plutarch gives a detailed account of it, with a lively picture of the palace. Guards watched throughout the night, except at Alexander's bedchamber, which was at the top of a ladder with a ferocious chained dog guarding the door. Thebe, Alexander's wife and cousin (or half-sister, as the daughter of Jason of Pherae), concealed her three brothers in the house during the day, had the dog removed when Alexander had gone to rest, and, having covered the steps of the ladder with wool, brought up the young men to her husband's chamber. Though she had taken away Alexander's sword, they feared to set about the deed until she threatened to wake him. Her brothers then entered and killed Alexander. His body was cast into the streets, and exposed to every indignity.\n\nOf Thebe's motive for the murder different accounts are given. Plutarch states it to have been fear of her husband, together with hatred of his cruel and brutal character, and ascribes these feelings principally to the representations of Pelopidas, when she visited him in his prison. In Cicero the deed is ascribed to jealousy. Other accounts have it that Alexander had taken Thebe's youngest brother as his eromenos and tied him up. Exasperated by his wife's pleas to release the youth, he murdered the boy, which drove her to revenge.\n\n", "It is written in Plutarch's Second Oration On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great (see ''Moralia''), and in Claudius Aelianus' ''Varia Historia'' that Alexander Pherae left a tragedy in a theatre because he did not wish to weep at fiction when unmoved by his own cruelty. This suggests that while Alexander was a tyrant, perhaps his iron heart could be softened. The actor was threatened with punishment because Alexander was so moved while watching.\n", "\n\n===Other sources===\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Reign", "Death", "Other", "References" ]	Alexander of Pherae
[ "Illustration of silver coin of Alexander\n'''Alexander II''' was a king of Epirus, and the son of Pyrrhus and Lanassa, the daughter of the Sicilian tyrant Agathocles.\n", "He succeeded his father as king in 272 BC, and continued the war which his father had begun with Antigonus II Gonatas, whom he succeeded in driving from the kingdom of Macedon.\nHe was, however, dispossessed of both Macedon and Epirus by Demetrius II of Macedon, the son of Antigonus II; upon which he took refuge amongst the Acarnanians. By their assistance and that of his own subjects, who entertained a great attachment for him, he recovered Epirus. It appears that he was in alliance with the Aetolians. \n\nAlexander married his paternal half-sister Olympias, by whom he had two sons, Pyrrhus, Ptolemy and a daughter, Phthia. On the death of Alexander, around 242 BC, Olympias assumed the regency on behalf of her sons, and married Phthia to Demetrius. \nThere are extant silver and copper coins of this king. \nThe former bear a youthful head covered with the skin of an elephant's head. \nThe reverse represents Pallas holding a spear in one hand and a shield in the other, and before her stands an eagle on a thunderbolt.\n", "Alexander II of Epirus on a cameo of agate\nOne Alexander is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka, as one of several rulers in the West to receive the \"religious emissionaries\" of the third Indian Emperor of the Maruya-dynasty Ashoka around 250 BCE. However, Alexander of Corinth and Alexander, Seleucid vicegerent at Sardis have more arguments on their side.\n", "\n", "Connop Thirlwall, ''History of Greece,'' vol. viii\nJohann Gustav Droysen, ''Hellenismus''\nBenediktus Niese, ''Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten''\nKarl Julius Beloch, ''Griechische Geschichte'' vol. iii.\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Reign", "Relations with India", "References", "Sources" ]	Alexander II of Epirus
[ "\n\n'''Alexander I Jagiellon''' (; ) (5 August 1461 – 19 August 1506) of the House of Jagiellon was the Grand Duke of Lithuania and later also King of Poland. He was the fourth son of Casimir IV Jagiellon. He was elected Grand Duke of Lithuania on the death of his father (1492), and King of Poland on the death of his brother John I Albert (1501).\n", "'''Alexander''' was born as son of the King Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland and Elisabeth Habsburg of Hungary, daughter of the King Albert of Hungary. Alexander's shortage of funds immediately made him subservient to the Polish Senate and nobility (szlachta), who deprived him of control of the mint (then one of the most lucrative sources of revenue for the Polish kings), curtailed his prerogatives, and generally endeavored to reduce him to a subordinate position. For want of funds, Alexander was unable to resist the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights or prevent Grand Duke of Muscovy Ivan III from ravaging Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Tatars. The most the Grand Duke of Lithuania could do was to garrison Smolensk and other strongholds and employ his wife Helena, the Tsar's daughter, to mediate a truce between his father-in-law and himself after the disastrous Battle of Vedrosha (1500). In the terms of the truce, Lithuania had to surrender about a third of its territory to the nascent expansionist Russian state.\n\nCoat of Arms of Alexander I Jagiellon\n\nDuring his reign, Poland suffered much humiliation at the hands of her subject principality, Moldavia. Only the death of Stephen, the great ''hospodar'' of Moldavia, enabled Poland still to hold her own on the Danube River; while the liberality of Pope Julius II, who issued no fewer than 29 bulls in favor of Poland and granted Alexander Peter's Pence and other financial help, enabled him to restrain somewhat the arrogance of the Teutonic Order.\n\nAlexander Jagellon never felt at home in Poland, and bestowed his favor principally upon his fellow Lithuanians, the most notable of whom was the wealthy Lithuanian magnate Michael Glinski, who justified his master's confidence by his great victory over the Tatars at Kleck (5 August 1506), news of which was brought to Alexander on his deathbed in Vilnius.\n\nIt is important to note that Alexander was the last known ruler of the Gediminids dynasty to have maintained the family's ancestral Lithuanian language. From his death, Polish became the sole language of the family, thus fully Polonising the Jagiello family.\n\nIn 1931, during the refurbishment of Vilnius Cathedral, the forgotten sarcophagus of Alexander was discovered, and has since been put on display.\n", "\nFile:Johann_Haller,_Commune_Incliti_Poloniae_regni_privilegium_constitutionum_et_indultuum_publicitus_decretorum_approbatorumque_(1506,_cropped).jpg\|King Alexander in Polish Senate, 1506.\nFile:Kanclerz.jpg\|Alexander and his ''kanclerz'' Jan Łaski.\nFile:Vilnius.Sv.Onos baznycia.Saint Ann's church2.jpg\|Gothic St. Anne's Church in Vilnius was constructed on his initiative in 1495–1500. \nFile:Krakow Wawel 20070804 0930.jpg\|In 1504 he ordered to rebuild the Wawel in a Renaissance style. \nFile:Alexander of Poland.PNG\|Portrait by Bacciarelli\n\n", "\n\n\n", "\n* History of Poland (1385–1569)\n* Sejm walny\n* St. Anne's Church, Vilnius\n", "\n\n", "\n\n* Pages and Forums on the Lithuanian History\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Gallery", "Ancestors", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alexander Jagiellon
[ "\n\n'''Alexander III''' (; 1845 1894) was the Emperor of Russia, King of Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland from until his death on . He was highly conservative and reversed some of the liberal reforms of his father, Alexander II. During Alexander's reign Russia fought no major wars, for which he was styled \"'''The Peacemaker'''\" ().\n", "\n===Disposition===\nAlexander III as Tsesarevich, by Sergei Lvovich Levitsky, 1865\n\nGrand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich was born on 10 March 1845 at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, the second son and third child of Emperor Alexander II of Russia and his first wife Marie of Hesse.\n\nIn disposition Alexander bore little resemblance to his soft-hearted, liberal father, and still less to his refined, philosophic, sentimental, chivalrous, yet cunning great-uncle, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, who could have been given the title of \"the first gentleman of Europe\". Although an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of the ballet, Alexander was seen as lacking refinement and elegance. Indeed, he rather relished the idea of being of the same rough texture as some of his subjects. His straightforward, abrupt manner savoured sometimes of gruffness, while his direct, unadorned method of expressing himself harmonized well with his rough-hewn, immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements. His education was not such as to soften these peculiarities. More than six feet tall (about 1.9 m), he was also noted for his immense physical strength. A sebaceous cyst on the left side of his nose caused him to be mocked by some of his contemporaries, and he sat for photographs and portraits with the right side of his face most prominent.\n\nAn account from the memoirs of the artist Alexander Benois gives one impression of Alexander III:\n\nAfter a performance of the ballet ''Tsar Kandavl'' at the Mariinsky Theatre, I first caught sight of the Emperor. I was struck by the size of the man, and although cumbersome and heavy, he was still a mighty figure. There was indeed something of the muzhik ''Russian peasant'' about him. The look of his bright eyes made quite an impression on me. As he passed where I was standing, he raised his head for a second, and to this day I can remember what I felt as our eyes met. It was a look as cold as steel, in which there was something threatening, even frightening, and it struck me like a blow. The Tsar's gaze! The look of a man who stood above all others, but who carried a monstrous burden and who every minute had to fear for his life and the lives of those closest to him. In later years I came into contact with the Emperor on several occasions, and I felt not the slightest bit timid. In more ordinary cases Tsar Alexander III could be at once kind, simple, and even almost homely.\n\n===Education===\nThough he was destined to be a strongly counter-reforming emperor, Alexander had little prospect of succeeding to the throne during the first two decades of his life, as he had an elder brother, Nicholas, who seemed of robust constitution. Even when Nicholas first displayed symptoms of delicate health, the notion that he might die young was never taken seriously, and he was betrothed to Princess Dagmar of Denmark, daughter of King Christian IX of Denmark and Queen Louise of Denmark, and whose siblings included King Frederick VIII of Denmark, Alexandra, Queen of the United Kingdom and King George I of Greece. Great solicitude was devoted to the education of Nicholas as tsesarevich, whereas Alexander received only the training of an ordinary Grand Duke of that period. This included acquaintance with French, English and German, and military drill.\n\n===As Tsesarevich===\nGrand painting by the artist Georges Becker of the coronation of Tsar Alexander III and Empress Maria Fyodorovna, which took place on at the Uspensky Sobor of the Moscow Kremlin. On the left of the dais can be seen his young son and heir, the Tsesarevich Nicholas, and behind Nicholas can be seen a young Grand Duke George.\nAlexander became Tsesarevich upon Nicholas's sudden death in 1865; it was then that he began to study the principles of law and administration under Konstantin Pobedonostsev, then a professor of civil law at Moscow State University and later (from 1880) chief procurator of the Holy Synod of the Orthodox Church in Russia. Pobedonostsev instilled into the young man's mind the belief that zeal for Russian Orthodox thought was an essential factor of Russian patriotism to be cultivated by every right-minded emperor. While he was heir apparent from 1865 to 1881 Alexander did not play a prominent part in public affairs, but allowed it to become known that he had ideas which did not coincide with the principles of the existing government.\n\nOn his deathbed the previous tsesarevich was said to have expressed the wish that his fiancée, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry his successor. This wish was swiftly realized when on in the Grand Church of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, Alexander wed Dagmar, who converted to Orthodox Christianity and took the name Maria Feodorovna. The union proved a happy one to the end; unlike his father's, there was no adultery in his marriage. The couple spent their wedding night at the Tsesarevich's private dacha known as \"My Property\".\n\nLater on the Tsesarevich became estranged from his father; this was due to their vastly differing political views, as well was his resentment towards Alexander II's long-standing relationship with Catherine Dolgorukov (with whom he had several illegitimate children) while his mother, the Empress, was suffering from chronic ill-health. To the scandal of many at court, including the Tsesarevich himself, Alexander II married Catherine a mere month after Marie Alexandrovna's death in 1880.\n", "On 1 March 1881 (O.S.) Alexander's father, Alexander II, was assassinated by members of the terrorist organization Narodnaya Volya. As a result, he ascended to the Russian imperial throne in Nennal on 13 March 1881. He and Maria Feodorovna were officially crowned and anointed at the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow on 27 May 1883.\n\n===Domestic policies===\nOn the day of his assassination Alexander II had signed an ukaz setting up consultative commissions to advise the monarch. On ascending to the throne, however, Alexander III took Pobedonostsev's advice and canceled the policy before its publication. He made it clear that his autocracy would not be limited.\n\nEmpress Maria Fyodorovna on holiday in Copenhagen in 1893.\nAlexander receiving rural district elders in the yard of Petrovsky Palace in Moscow, by Ilya Repin.\n\nAll of Alexander III's internal reforms aimed to reverse the liberalization that had occurred in his father's reign. The new Emperor believed that remaining true to Russian Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality (the ideology introduced by his grandfather, emperor Nicholas I) would save Russia from revolutionary agitation. Alexander's political ideal was a nation composed of a single nationality, language, and religion, as well as one form of administration. He attempted to realize this by the institution of mandatory teaching of the Russian language throughout the empire, including to his German, Polish, and other non-Russian subjects (with the exception of the Finns), by the patronization of Eastern Orthodoxy, by the destruction of the remnants of German, Polish, and Swedish institutions in the respective provinces, and by the weakening of Judaism through persecution of the Jews. The latter policy was implemented in the \"May Laws\" of 1882, which banned Jews from inhabiting rural areas and shtetls (even within the Pale of Settlement) and restricted the occupations in which they could engage.\n\nAlexander weakened the power of the ''zemstvo'' (elective local administrative bodies resembling British parish councils) and placed the administration of peasant communes under the supervision of land-owning proprietors appointed by his government. These \"land captains\" (''zemskiye nachalniki'') were feared and resented throughout the Empire's peasant communities. These acts weakened the nobility and the peasantry and brought Imperial administration under the Emperor's personal control.\n\nIn such policies Alexander III had the encouragement of Konstantin Pobedonostsev, who retained control of the Church in Russia through his long tenure as Procurator of the Holy Synod (from 1880 to 1905) and who became tutor to Alexander's son and heir, Nicholas. (Pobedonostsev appears as \"Toporov\" in Tolstoy's novel ''Resurrection''.) Other conservative advisors included Count D. A. Tolstoy (minister of education, and later of internal affairs) and I. N. Durnovo (D. A. Tolstoy's successor in the latter post). Mikhail Katkov and other journalists supported the emperor in his autocracy.\n\nEncouraged by its successful assassination of Alexander II, the Narodnaya Volya movement began planning the murder of Alexander III. The Okhrana uncovered the plot and five of the conspirators, including Alexander Ulyanov, the older brother of Vladimir Lenin, were captured and hanged on . On the Imperial train derailed in an accident at Borki. At the moment of the crash, the imperial family was in the dining car. Its roof collapsed, and Alexander supposedly held its remains on his shoulders as the children fled outdoors. The onset of Alexander’s kidney failure was later attributed to the blunt trauma suffered in this incident.\n\nThe famine of 1891–1892 and the ensuing cholera epidemic permitted some liberal activity, as the Russian government could not cope with the crisis and had to allow zemstvos to help with relief (among others, Tolstoy helped organize soup-kitchens, and Chekhov directed anti-cholera precautions in several villages).\n\nThe Borki Cathedral was one of many churches built all over the empire to commemorate the Tsar's \"miraculous\" survival in the train crash.\n\n===Foreign policy===\nIn foreign affairs Alexander III was a man of peace, but not at any price, and held that the best means of averting war is to be well-prepared for it. Though he was indignant at the conduct of German chancellor Otto von Bismarck towards Russia, he avoided an open rupture with Germany—even reviving the League of Three Emperors for a period of time—and in 1887, signed the Reinsurance Treaty with the Germans. However, in 1890, the expiration of the treaty coincided with the dismissal of Bismarck by the new German emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm II (for whom the Tsar had an immense dislike), and the unwillingness of Wilhelm II's government to renew the treaty. In response Alexander III then began cordial relations with France, eventually entering into an alliance with the French in 1892.\n\n5-ruble coin of Alexander III, 1888\n\nDespite chilly relations with Berlin, the Tsar nevertheless confined himself to keeping a large number of troops near the German frontier. With regard to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control. The efforts of Prince Alexander and afterwards of Stambolov to destroy Russian influence in the principality roused his indignation, but he vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of arms.\n\nIn Central Asian affairs he followed the traditional policy of gradually extending Russian domination without provoking conflict with the United Kingdom (see Panjdeh Incident), and he never allowed the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand. His reign cannot be regarded as an eventful period of Russian history; but under his hard rule the country made considerable progress.\n\nAlexander and his wife regularly spent their summers at Langinkoski manor near Kotka on the Finnish coast, where their children were immersed in a Scandinavian lifestyle of relative modesty.\n\nAlexander deprecated foreign influence, German influence in particular, thus the adoption of local national principles was off in all spheres of official activity, with a view to realizing his ideal of a Russia homogeneous in language, administration and religion. These ideas conflicted with those of his father, who had German sympathies despite being a patriot; Alexander II often used the German language in his private relations, occasionally ridiculed the Slavophiles and based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance. Equestrian statue of Alexander III, by Prince Paolo Troubetzkoy, shows the Emperor sitting heavily on the back of a ponderous horse\n\nSome differences had first appeared during the Franco-Prussian War, when Alexander II supported the cabinet of Berlin while the Tsesarevich made no effort to conceal his sympathies for the French. These sentiments would resurface during 1875-1879, when the Eastern Question excited Russian society. At first the Tsesarevich was more Slavophile than the government, but his phlegmatic nature restrained him from many exaggerations, and any popular illusions he may have imbibed were dispelled by personal observation in Bulgaria, where he commanded the left wing of the invading army. Never consulted on political questions, Alexander confined himself to military duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious and unobtrusive manner. After many mistakes and disappointments, the army reached Constantinople and the Treaty of San Stefano was signed, but much that had been obtained by that important document had to be sacrificed at the Congress of Berlin.\n\nBismarck failed to do what was expected of him by the Russian emperor. In return for the Russian support which had enabled him to create the German Empire, it was thought that he would help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance with Russian interests, but to the surprise and indignation of the cabinet of Saint Petersburg he confined himself to acting the part of \"honest broker\" at the Congress, and shortly afterwards contracted an alliance with Austria-Hungary for the purpose of counteracting Russian designs in Eastern Europe.\n\nThe Tsesarevich could refer to these results as confirmation of the views he had expressed during the Franco-Prussian War; he concluded that for Russia, the best thing was to recover as quickly as possible from her temporary exhaustion, and prepare for future contingencies by military and naval reorganization. In accordance with this conviction, he suggested that certain reforms should be introduced.\n\n=== Family life ===\nGeorge V of the United Kingdom), Marie Feodorovna, Maria of Greece, Tsesarevich Nicholas (Later Emperor Nicholas II of Russia). Probably taken on the imperial yacht near Denmark, 1893.\nFollowing his father's assassination, Alexander III was advised that it would be difficult for him to be kept safe at the Winter Palace. As a result, Alexander relocated his family to the Gatchina Palace, located twenty miles south of St. Petersburg, making it his primary residence. Under heavy guard he would make occasional visits into St. Petersburg, but even then he would stay in the Anichkov Palace, as opposed to the Winter Palace.\n\nIn the 1860s Alexander fell madly in love with his mother's lady-in-waiting, Princess Maria Elimovna Meshcherskaya. Dismayed to learn that Prince Wittgenstein had proposed to her in spring 1866, he told his parents that he was prepared to give up his rights of succession in order to marry his beloved \"Dusenka\". On 19 May 1866, Alexander II informed his son that Russia had come to an agreement with the parents of Princess Dagmar of Denmark, his fourth cousin. Before then, she had been the fiancée of his late elder brother Nicholas. At first Alexander refused to travel to Copenhagen, declaring that he did not love Dagmar and his desire to marry Maria. In response the enraged emperor ordered Alexander to go straight to Denmark and propose to Princess Dagmar. The Tsesarevich then realised that he was not a free man and that duty had to come first and foremost; the only thing left to do was to write in his diary \"Farewell, dear Dusenka.\" Maria was forced to leave Russia, accompanied by her aunt, Princess Chernyshova. Almost a year after her first appearance in Paris, Pavel Pavlovich Demidov, 2nd Prince di San Donato, fell in love with her and the couple married in 1867. Maria would die giving birth to her son Elim Pavlovich Demidov, 3rd Prince di San Donato. Alexander's reaction to the news of her death and the birth of her child is unknown.\n\nAlexander soon grew fond of Dagmar and had six children by her, five of whom survived into adulthood: Nicholas (b. 1868), George (b. 1871), Xenia (b. 1875), Michael (b. 1878) and Olga (b. 1882). Of his five surviving children, he was closest to his youngest two.\n\nEach summer his parents-in-law, King Christian IX and Queen Louise, held family reunions at the Danish royal palaces of Fredensborg and Bernstorff, bringing Alexander, Maria and their children to Denmark. His sister-in-law, the Princess of Wales, would come from Great Britain with some of her children, and his brother-in-law, King George I of Greece, his wife, Queen Olga, who was a first cousin of Alexander and a Romanov Grand Duchess by birth, came with their children from Athens. In contrast to the strict security observed in Russia, Alexander and Maria revelled in the relative freedom that they enjoyed in Denmark, Alexander once commenting to the Prince and Princess of Wales near the end of a visit that he envied them being able to return to a happy home in England, while he was returning to his Russian prison. In Denmark, he was able to enjoy joining his children in muddy ponds looking for tadpoles, sneaking into his father-in-law's orchard to steal apples, and playing pranks, such as turning a water hose on the visiting King Oscar II of Sweden.\n\nAs Tsesarevich—and then as Tsar—Alexander had an extremely poor relationship with his brother Grand Duke Vladimir. This tension was reflected in the rivalry between Maria Feodorovna and Vladimir's wife, Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna. Alexander had better relationships with his other brothers: Alexei (whom he made rear admiral and then a grand admiral of the Russian Navy), Sergei (whom he made governor of Moscow) and Paul.\n\nDespite the antipathy that Alexander had towards his stepmother, Princess Catherine Dolgorukov, he nevertheless allowed her to remain in the Winter Palace for some time after his father's assassination and to retain various keepsakes of him. These included Alexander II's blood-soaked uniform that he died wearing, and his reading glasses.\n", "In 1894 Alexander III became ill with terminal kidney disease (nephritis). In the fall of that year, Maria Fyodorovna's sister-in-law, Queen Olga of Greece, offered her villa of Mon Repos, on the island of Corfu, in the hope that it might improve the Tsar's condition. However, by the time that they reached Crimea, they stayed at the Maly Palace in Livadia, as Alexander was too weak to travel any further. Recognizing that the Tsar's days were numbered, various imperial relatives began to descend on Livadia. Even the famed clergyman, John of Kronstadt, paid a visit and administered Communion to the Tsar. On 21 October, Alexander received Nicholas's fiancée, Princess Alix, who had come from her native Darmstadt to receive the Tsar's blessing. Despite being exceedingly weak, Alexander insisted on receiving Alix in full dress uniform, an event that left him exhausted. Soon after, his health began to deteriorate more rapidly. He eventually died in the arms of his wife at Maly Palace in Livadia on the afternoon of at the age of forty-nine, and was succeeded by his eldest son Tsesarevich Nicholas, who took the throne as Nicholas II. After leaving Livadia on 6 November and traveling to St. Petersburg by way of Moscow, his remains were interred on 18 November at the Peter and Paul Fortress.\n", "Alexander III with his wife and their children\n\nAlexander III had six children (five of whom survived to adulthood) of his marriage with Princess Dagmar of Denmark, also known as Marie Feodorovna.\n\n(Note: all dates prior to 1918 are in the Old Style Calendar)\n\n\n\nName!!Birth!!Death!!Notes\n\nEmperor Nicholas II of Russia\n18 May 1868\n17 July 1918\nmarried 26 November 1894, Princess Alix of Hesse (1872–1918); had five children\n\nGrand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich of Russia\n7 June 1869\n2 May 1870\ndied of meningitis, aged 10 months and 26 days\n\nGrand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia\n9 May 1871\n9 August 1899\ndied of tuberculosis, aged 28; had no issue\n\nGrand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia\n6 April 1875\n20 April 1960\nmarried 6 August 1894, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia (1866–1933); sep. 11 April 1919; had seven children\n\nGrand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia\n4 December 1878\n13 June 1918\nmarried 16 October 1912, Natalia Sergeyevna Wulfert (1880–1952); had one child\n\nGrand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia\n13 June 1882\n24 November 1960\nmarried 9 August 1901, Duke Peter Alexandrovich of Oldenburg (1868–1924); div. 16 October 1916; had no issue.\nmarried 16 November 1916, Colonel Nikolai Kulikovsky (1881–1958); had two children\n\n", "\n\n\n", "Memorial dedicated to the Russian Emperor Alexander III in Pullapää, Estonia\nIn 1909 a bronze equestrian statue of Alexander III sculpted by Paolo Troubetzkoy was placed in Znamenskaya Square in front of the Moscow Rail Terminal in St. Petersburg. Both the horse and rider were sculpted in massive form, leading to the nickname of \"hippopotamus\". Troubetzkoy envisioned the statue as a caricature, jesting that he wished \"to portray an animal atop another animal\", and it was quite controversial at the time, with many, including the members of the Imperial Family, opposed to the design, but it was approved because of the Empress Dowager unexpectedly liking the monument. Following the Revolution of 1917 the statue remained in place as a symbol of tsarist autocracy until 1937 when it was placed in storage. In 1994 it was again put on public display, in front of the Marble Palace.\nAnother memorial is located in the city of Irkutsk at the Angara embankment.\n", "\n\n===Titles and styles===\n* '''10 March 18452 March 1865''': ''His Imperial Highness'' Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich of Russia\n* '''2 March 186513 March 1881''': ''His Imperial Highness'' The Tsesarevich of Russia\n* '''13 March 18811 November 1894''': ''His Imperial Majesty'' The Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias\n\n===Honours===\n;Domestic\n* Order of St. Andrew (17 March 1845)\n* Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (17 May 1845)\n* Order of St. Anna 1st class (17 May 1845)\n* Order of the White Eagle (17 May 1845)\n* Order of St. Vladimir, 4th class (6 August 1864)\n* Order of St. Stanislaus, 1st class (11 June 1865)\n* Order of St. Vladimir, 2nd class (30 August 1870)\n* Order of St. Vladimir, 1st class with swords (15 September 1877)\n* Order of St. George, 2nd class (30 November 1877)\n\n;Foreign\n* : Order of the Black Eagle (27 July 1857)\n* : Ludwig Order (27 August 1857)\n* : Order of the Crown (8 September 1864)\n* : Order of St. George (16 May 1865)\n* : Royal Guelphic Order (16 May 1865)\n* : Order of the Netherlands Lion (19 May 1865)\n* : Order of the Elephant (22 May 1865)\n* : Royal Order of the Seraphim (2 June 1865)\n* : Order of St. Hubert (3 June 1865)\n* : Order of Leopold (11 June 1865)\n* : House Order of the Wendish Crown (22 June 1865)\n* : Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation (5 July 1865)\n* : Légion d'Honneur (18 July 1865)\n* : Order of the Tower and Sword (14 August 1865)\n* : Order of the White Falcon (20 September 1865)\n* : Order of the Golden Fleece (3 December 1865)\n* : Order of the Southern Cross (14 January 1866)\n* : Order of Pedro I (15 September 1868)\n* : Order of Osmanieh (1 April 1866)\n* : Order of the Mexican Eagle (10 April 1866)\n* : Order of the Dannebrog (11 June 1866)\n* : Order of the Redeemer (15 July 1866)\n* : Order of St. Stephen of Hungary (24 October 1866)\n* : Order of the Rue Crown (25 November 1866)\n* : Order of Prince Danilo I (4 January 1867)\n* : Royal Portrait of the Shah of Persia (15 December 1869)\n* : Order of Aviz (19 August 1873)\n* (22 January 1876)\n* : Order of the Star of Romania (15 November 1877)\n* : Pour le Mérite (3 December 1877)\n* : Order of Military Merit (3 December 1877)\n* : Military Virtue Medal (17 January 1878)\n* : Order of the Cross of Takovo (26 March 1878)\n* : Crossing of the Danube Medal (10 May 1879)\n* : Order of St. Olav (20 August 1879)\n* : Order of the Rising Sun (28 August 1879)\n\n===Arms===\nLesser CoA of the empire of Russia\n", "* Tsars of Russia family tree\n", "\n* \n", "* John F. Hutchinson, ''Late Imperial Russia: 1890–1917''\n* Charles Lowe, ''Alexander III of Russia''\n", "\n* \"Alexander III\", a poem by Florence Earle Coates\n* Alexander III. Historical photos.\n* A short biography\n* Another biography\n* \n* – Historical reconstruction \"The Romanovs\". StarMedia. Babich-Design(Russia, 2013)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Reign", "Illness and death", "Issue", "Ancestors", "Monuments", "Titles, styles, honours and arms", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Alexander III of Russia
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Alexander I''' (medieval Gaelic: ''Alaxandair mac Maíl Coluim''; modern Gaelic: ''Alasdair mac Mhaol Chaluim''; c. 1078 – 23 April 1124), posthumously nicknamed '''The Fierce''', was the King of Scotland from 1107 to his death.\n", "Alexander was the fifth son of Malcolm III by his wife Margaret of Wessex, grandniece of Edward the Confessor. Alexander was named after Pope Alexander II.\n\nHe was the younger brother of King Edgar, who was unmarried, and his brother's heir presumptive by 1104 (and perhaps earlier). In that year he was the senior layman present at the examination of the remains of Saint Cuthbert at Durham prior to their re-interment. He held lands in Scotland north of the Forth and in Lothian.\n\nOn the death of Edgar in 1107 he succeeded to the Scottish crown; but, in accordance with Edgar's instructions, their brother David was granted an appanage in southern Scotland. Edgar's will granted David the lands of the former kingdom of Strathclyde or Cumbria, and this was apparently agreed in advance by Edgar, Alexander, David and their brother-in-law Henry I of England. In 1113, perhaps at Henry's instigation, and with the support of his Anglo-Norman allies, David demanded, and received, additional lands in Lothian along the Upper Tweed and Teviot. David did not receive the title of king, but of \"prince of the Cumbrians\", and his lands remained under Alexander's final authority.\n\nThe dispute over Tweeddale and Teviotdale does not appear to have damaged relations between Alexander and David, although it was unpopular in some quarters. A Gaelic poem laments:It's bad what Malcolm's son has done,dividing us from Alexander;he causes, like each king's son before,the plunder of stable Alba.\n\nThe dispute over the eastern marches does not appear to have caused lasting trouble between Alexander and Henry of England. In 1114 he joined Henry on campaign in Wales against Gruffudd ap Cynan of Gwynedd. Alexander's marriage with Henry's illegitimate daughter Sybilla of Normandy may have occurred as early as 1107, or as at late as 1114.\n\nWilliam of Malmesbury's account attacks Sybilla, but the evidence argues that Alexander and Sybilla were a devoted but childless couple and Sybilla was of noteworthy piety. Sybilla died in unrecorded circumstances at ''Eilean nam Ban'' (Kenmore on Loch Tay) in July 1122 and was buried at Dunfermline Abbey. Alexander did not remarry and Walter Bower wrote that he planned an Augustinian Priory at the ''Eilean nam Ban'' dedicated to Sybilla's memory, and he may have taken steps to have her venerated.\nseal of Alexander I, enhanced as a 19th-century steel engraving.\nAlexander had at least one illegitimate child, Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, who was later to be involved in a revolt against David I in the 1130s. He was imprisoned at Roxburgh for many years afterwards, perhaps until his death some time after 1157.\n\nAlexander was, like his brothers Edgar and David, a notably pious king. He was responsible for foundations at Scone and Inchcolm. His mother's chaplain and hagiographer Thurgot was named Bishop of Saint Andrews (or ''Cell Rígmonaid'') in 1107, presumably by Alexander's order. The case of Thurgot's would-be successor Eadmer shows that Alexander's wishes were not always accepted by the religious community, perhaps because Eadmer had the backing of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Ralph d'Escures, rather than Thurstan of York. Alexander also patronised Saint Andrews, granting lands intended for an Augustinian Priory, which may have been the same as that intended to honour his wife.\n\nFor all his religiosity, Alexander was not remembered as a man of peace. John of Fordun says of him:\n\n\nHe manifested the terrible aspect of his character in his reprisals in the Mormaerdom of Moray. Andrew of Wyntoun's ''Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland'' says that Alexander was holding court at Invergowrie when he was attacked by \"men of the Isles\". Walter Bower says the attackers were from Moray and Mearns. Alexander pursued them north, to \"Stockford\" in Ross (near Beauly) where he defeated them. This, says Wyntoun, is why he was named the \"Fierce\". The dating of this is uncertain, as are his enemies' identity. However, in 1116 the Annals of Ulster report: \"Ladhmann son of Domnall, grandson of the king of Scotland, was killed by the men of Moray.\" The king referred to is Alexander's father, Malcolm III, and Domnall was Alexander's half brother. The Mormaerdom or Kingdom of Moray was ruled by the family of Macbeth (Mac Bethad mac Findláich) and Lulach (Lulach mac Gille Coemgáin): not overmighty subjects, but a family who had ruled Alba within little more than a lifetime. Who the Mormaer or King was at this time is not known; it may have been Óengus of Moray or his father, whose name is not known. As for the Mearns, the only known Mormaer of Mearns, Máel Petair, had murdered Alexander's half-brother Duncan II (Donnchad mac Maíl Coluim) in 1094.\n\nAlexander died in April 1124 at his court at Stirling; his brother David, probably the acknowledged heir since the death of Sybilla, succeeded him.\n", "\nAlexander I has been depicted in a fantasy novel.:\n* ''Pater Nostras Canis Dirus: The Garrison Effect'' (2010). Alexander is depicted troubled by his lack of direct heirs, having no child with his wife Sybilla of Normandy. He points that his father-in-law Henry I of England is asking them for a grandson.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "* \n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Fictional portrayals", "Ancestry", "References", "Sources", "Further reading" ]	Alexander I of Scotland
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Alexander II''' (Mediaeval Gaelic: ''''; Modern Gaelic: ''''; 24 August 11986 July 1249) was King of Scots from\n1214 until his death in 1249.\n", "\nHe was born at Haddington, East Lothian, the only son of the Scottish king William the Lion and Ermengarde of Beaumont. He spent time in England (John of England knighted him at Clerkenwell Priory in 1213) before succeeding to the kingdom on the death of his father on 4 December 1214, being crowned at Scone on 6 December the same year.\n", "\nIn 1215, the year after his accession, the clans Meic Uilleim and MacHeths, inveterate enemies of the Scottish crown, broke into revolt; but loyalist forces speedily quelled the insurrection. In the same year Alexander joined the English barons in their struggle against John of England, and led an army into the Kingdom of England in support of their cause. This action led to the sacking of Berwick-upon-Tweed as John's forces ravaged the north.\n\nThe Scottish forces reached the south coast of England at the port of Dover where in September 1216, Alexander paid homage to the pretender Prince Louis of France for his lands in England, chosen by the barons to replace King John. But John having died, the Pope and the English aristocracy changed their allegiance to his nine-year-old son, Henry, forcing the French and the Scots armies to return home.\n\nPeace between Henry III, Louis of France, and Alexander followed on 12 September 1217 with the treaty of Kingston. Diplomacy further strengthened the reconciliation by the marriage of Alexander to Henry's sister Joan of England on 18 June or 25 June 1221.\n\nAlexander the warrior and knight: the reverse side of Alexander II's Great Seal, enhanced as a 19th-century steel engraving. Legend: (Alexander, with God as his guide, king of the Scots)\n\nThe next year marked the subjection of the hitherto semi-independent district of Argyll (much smaller than the modern area by that name, it only comprised Craignish, Ardscotnish, Glassary, Glenary, and Cowal; Lorn was a separate province, while Kintyre and Knapdale were part of Suðreyar). Royal forces crushed a revolt in Galloway in 1235 without difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon afterwards by its exiled leaders meet with success. Soon afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of England drew forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English counties. The two kingdoms, however, settled this dispute by a compromise in 1237. This was the Treaty of York which defined the boundary between the two kingdoms as running between the Solway Firth (in the west) and the mouth of the River Tweed (in the east).\n\nJoan died in March 1238 in Essex. Alexander married his second wife, Marie de Coucy, the following year on 15 May 1239. Together they had one son, the future Alexander III, born in 1241.\n\nA threat of invasion by Henry in 1243 for a time interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries; but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his attack, and the disinclination of the English barons for war, compelled him to make peace next year at Newcastle. Alexander now turned his attention to securing the Western Isles, which were still part of the Norwegian domain of Suðreyjar. He repeatedly attempted negotiations and purchase, but without success.\n\nThe English chronicler Matthew Paris in his Chronica Majora described Alexander as red-haired:\n\n\"King John taunted King Alexander, and because he was red-headed, sent word to him, \nsaying, 'so shall we hunt the red fox-cub from his lairs.\"\n", "\nHistoria Anglorum''). The inverted shield represents the king's death in 1249.\n\nAlexander attempted to persuade Ewen, the son of Duncan, Lord of Argyll, to sever his allegiance to Haakon IV of Norway. When Ewen rejected these attempts, Alexander sailed forth to compel him, but on the way he suffered a fever at the Isle of Kerrera in the Inner Hebrides. He died there in 1249 and was buried at Melrose Abbey\n", "1. '''Joan of England''', (22 July 12104 March 1238), was the eldest legitimate daughter and third child of John of England and Isabella of Angoulême. She and Alexander II married on 21 June 1221, at York Minster. Alexander was 23. Joan was 11. They had no children. Joan was Alexander's 3rd cousin, their closest common ancestor being Henry I of England. Joan died in Essex in 1238, and was buried at Tarant Crawford Abbey in Dorset.\n\n2. '''Marie de Coucy''', who became mother of Alexander III of Scotland. She was Alexander's 3rd cousin once removed by their common ancestor Hugh I, Count of Vermandois.\n", "\nAlexander II has been depicted in historical novels:\n\n* ''Sword of State'' (1999) by Nigel Tranter. The novel depicts the friendship between Alexander II and Patrick II, Earl of Dunbar. \"Their friendship withstands treachery, danger and rivalry\".\n* ''Child of the Phoenix'' by Barbara Erskine.\n", "\n\n\n\n", "\n", "\n\n \n''Worcester Annals''\n''Rotuli Litterarum Patencium''\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "King of Scots", "Death", "Wives", "Fictional portrayals", "Ancestry", "References", "Further reading" ]	Alexander II of Scotland
[ "\n\n\n'''Alexander I''' or '''Aleksandar Obrenović''' (Cyrillic: Александар Обреновић; 14 August 187611 June 1903) was king of Serbia from 1889 to 1903 when he and his wife, Queen Draga, were assassinated by a group of Army officers, led by Captain Dragutin Dimitrijević.\n", "Milan in 1888 less than a year before Milan abdicated the throne in favour of his underage son.\nAlexander was born on 14 August 1876 to King Milan and Queen Natalie of Serbia. He belonged to the Obrenović dynasty.\n\nIn 1889, King Milan unexpectedly abdicated and withdrew to private life, proclaiming Alexander king of Serbia under a regency until he should attain his majority at eighteen years of age. His mother became his regent. His parents were second cousins. In 1893, King Alexander, aged sixteen, arbitrarily proclaimed himself of full age, dismissed the regents and their government, and took the royal authority into his own hands. His action won popular support, as did his appointment of a radical ministry. In May 1894 King Alexander arbitrarily abolished King Milan's liberal constitution of 1888 and restored the conservative one of 1869. His attitude during the Greco-Turkish War (1897) was one of strict neutrality.\n\nIn 1894 the young King brought his father, Milan, back to Serbia and, in 1898, appointed him commander-in-chief of the Serbian army. During that time, Milan was regarded as the ''de facto'' ruler of the country.\n", "In the summer of 1900, King Alexander suddenly announced his engagement to the widowed Madame Draga Mašin, formerly a lady-in-waiting to his mother and 12 years older than him. The proposed union aroused great opposition: not only was Draga of unequal birth and obscure family, but at 36 years of age, the chances of her bearing an heir were slim. Alexander was an only child, and it was imperative to secure the succession.\nKing Alexander 1894.\nBefore making the announcement, Alexander did not consult with his father, who had been on vacation in Karlovy Vary and making arrangements to secure the hand of German princess Alexandra zu Schaumburg-Lippe for his son, or his Prime Minister Dr. Vladan Đorđević, who was visiting the Paris Universal Exhibition at the time of the announcement. Both immediately resigned from their respective offices and Alexander had difficulty in forming a new cabinet. Alexander's mother also opposed the marriage and was subsequently banished from the kingdom. She was known to have been seen in the nearby countries, such as Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria.\n\nOpposition to the union seemed to subside somewhat for a time upon the publication of Tsar Nicholas II's congratulations to the king on his engagement and of his acceptance to act as the principal witness at the wedding. The marriage duly took place in August 1900. Even so, the unpopularity of the union weakened the King's position in the eyes of the army and of the country at large.\n", "King Alexander and Queen Draga\nSummer residence of King Alexander in Smederevo.\nKing Alexander tried to reconcile political parties by unveiling a liberal constitution of his own initiative, introducing for the first time in the constitutional history of Serbia the system of two chambers (''skupština'' and ''senate''). This reconciled the political parties but did not reconcile the army which, already dissatisfied with the king's marriage, became still more so at the rumors that one of the two unpopular brothers of Queen Draga, Lieutenant Nikodije, was to be proclaimed heir-presumptive to the throne.\n\nMeanwhile, the independence of the senate and of the council of state caused increasing irritation to King Alexander. In March 1903 the King suspended the constitution for half an hour, time enough to publish the decrees dismissing and replacing the old senators and councillors of state. This arbitrary act increased dissatisfaction in the country.\n", "\nThe general impression was that, as much as the senate was packed with men devoted to the royal couple and the government obtained a large majority at the general elections, King Alexander would not hesitate any longer to proclaim Queen Draga's brother as the heir presumptive to the throne. In spite of this, it had been agreed with the Serbian Government that Prince Mirko of Montenegro, who was married to Natalija Konstantinovic, the granddaughter of Princess Anka Obrenović, an aunt of King Milan, would be proclaimed heir-presumptive in the event that the marriage of King Alexander and Queen Draga was childless.\n\nApparently to prevent Queen Draga's brother being named heir-presumptive, but in reality to replace Alexander Obrenović with Peter Karađorđević, a conspiracy was organized by a group of Army officers headed by Captain Dragutin Dimitrijević also known as \"Apis\", and Norman Perović, a young Greek Orthodox militant who was in the pay of the Russians, as well as the leader of the Black Hand secret society which would assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914. Several politicians were also part of the conspiracy, and allegedly included former Prime Minister, Nikola Pašić. The royal couple's palace was invaded and they hid in a cupboard in the Queen's bedroom. (There is another possibility, used in a Serbian TV history series \"The End of the Obrenović Dynasty\" in which the royal couple was hidden in a secret panic room hidden behind the mirror in a common bedroom. The room contained an entrance to a secret passage leading out of the palace, but the entrance was inaccessible due to the placement of the queen's wardrobe over it after the wedding.)\n\nThe conspirators searched the palace and eventually discovered the royal couple and murdered them in the early morning of June 11, 1903. King Alexander and Queen Draga were shot and their bodies mutilated and disemboweled and, according to eyewitness accounts, thrown from a second floor window of the palace onto piles of garden manure. The King was only 26 years old at the time of his death. King Alexander and Queen Draga were buried in the crypt of St. Mark's Church, Belgrade.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Accession", "Marriage", " Politics and the constitution ", "Assassination", "Ancestry", "Notes", "References" ]	Alexander I of Serbia
[ "\n\n'''Alexander III''' married at the age of 9 ''Alaxandair mac Alaxandair''; Modern Gaelic: ''Alasdair mac Alasdair'') (4 September 1241 – 19 March 1286) was King of Scots from 1249 to his death.\n", "Alexander Crowned as King of Scotland\nAlexander was born at Roxburgh, the only son of Alexander II by his second wife Marie de Coucy. Alexander III was also the grandson of William the Lion. Alexander's father died on 8 July 1249 and he became king at the age of seven, inaugurated at Scone on 13 July 1249.\n\nThe years of his minority featured an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two rival parties, the one led by Walter Comyn, Earl of Menteith, the other by Alan Durward, Justiciar of Scotia. The former dominated the early years of Alexander's reign. At the marriage of Alexander to Margaret of England in 1251, Henry III of England seized the opportunity to demand from his son-in-law homage for the Scottish kingdom, but Alexander did not comply. In 1255 an interview between the English and Scottish kings at Kelso led to Menteith and his party losing to Durward's party. But though disgraced, they still retained great influence, and two years later, seizing the person of the king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of a regency representative of both parties.\n\nOn attaining his majority at the age of 21 in 1262, Alexander declared his intention of resuming the projects on the Western Isles which the death of his father thirteen years before had cut short. He laid a formal claim before the Norwegian king Haakon. Haakon rejected the claim, and in the following year responded with a formidable invasion. Sailing around the west coast of Scotland he halted off the Isle of Arran, and negotiations commenced. Alexander artfully prolonged the talks until the autumn storms should begin. At length Haakon, weary of delay, attacked, only to encounter a terrific storm which greatly damaged his ships. The Battle of Largs (October 1263) proved indecisive, but even so, Haakon's position was hopeless. Baffled, he turned homewards, but died in Orkney on 15 December 1263. The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in 1266 Haakon's successor concluded the Treaty of Perth by which he ceded the Isle of Man and the Western Isles to Scotland in return for a monetary payment. Norway retained only Orkney and Shetland in the area.\n\n'Alexander III being Rescued from the Fury of a Stag by the Intrepidity of Colin Fitzgerald', by Benjamin West\n", "\nAlexander had married Margaret (his 4th cousin by Henry I of England), daughter of King Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence, on 26 December 1251. She died in 1275, after they had three children.\n:\n# Margaret (28 February 1261 – 9 April 1283), who married King Eric II of Norway\n# Alexander, Prince of Scotland (21 January 1264 Jedburgh – 28 January 1284 Lindores Abbey); buried in Dunfermline Abbey\n# David (20 March 1272 – June 1281 Stirling Castle); buried in Dunfermline Abbey\n\nAccording to the Lanercost Chronicle, Alexander did not spend his decade as a widower alone: \"he used never to forbear on account of season nor storm, nor for perils of flood or rocky cliffs, but would visit none too creditably nuns or matrons, virgins or widows as the fancy seized him, sometimes in disguise.\"\n\nAlexander III Monument at KinghornTowards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all three of his children within a few years made the question of the succession one of pressing importance. In 1284 he induced the Estates to recognize as his heir-presumptive his granddaughter Margaret, the \"Maid of Norway\". The need for a male heir led him to contract a second marriage to Yolande de Dreux on 1 November 1285.\n\nAlexander died in a fall from his horse while riding in the dark to visit the queen at Kinghorn in Fife on 18 March 1286 because it was her birthday the next day. He had spent the evening at Edinburgh Castle celebrating his second marriage and overseeing a meeting with royal advisors. He was advised by them not to make the journey to Fife because of weather conditions, but he travelled anyway. Alexander became separated from his guides and it is assumed that in the dark his horse lost its footing. The 44-year-old king was found dead on the shore the following morning with a broken neck. Some texts have said that he fell off a cliff. Although there is no cliff at the site where his body was found, there is a very steep rocky embankment, which \"would have been fatal in the dark.\" After Alexander's death, his strong realm was plunged into a period of darkness that would eventually lead to war with England. He was buried in Dunfermline Abbey.\n\nAs Alexander left no surviving children, the heir to the throne was his unborn child by Queen Yolande. When Yolande's pregnancy ended, probably with a miscarriage, Alexander's seven-year-old granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway, became the heir. Margaret died, still uncrowned, on her way to Scotland in 1290. The inauguration of John Balliol as king on 30 November 1292 ended the six years of the Guardians of Scotland governing the land.\n\nThe death of Alexander and the subsequent period of instability in Scotland was lamented in an early Scots poem recorded by Andrew of Wyntoun in his Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland.\n\n\n\nIn 1886, a monument to Alexander III was erected at the approximate location of his death in Kinghorn.\n", "\nStatue of Alexander on the west door of St. Giles, Edinburgh\nAlexander III has been depicted in historical novels. They include:\n\n''The Thirsty Sword'' (1892) by Robert Leighton. The novel depicts the \"Norse invasion of Scotland\" (1262–1263, part of the Scottish–Norwegian War) and the Battle of Largs. It includes depictions of Alexander III and his opponent Haakon IV of Norway.\n''Alexander the Glorious'' (1965) by Jane Oliver. The novel covers the entire reign of Alexander III (1249–1286), \"almost entirely from Alexander's viewpoint\".\n''The Crown in Darkness'' (1988) by Paul C. Doherty. A crime fiction novel where Hugh Corbett investigates the \"mysterious death\" of Alexander III (1286). Alexander supposedly suffered a fatal fall from his horse. But there are suspicions of murder. The novel concludes that Alexander was indeed murdered \"by a fanatical servant\" of Edward I of England. The killer acting according to \"Edward's secret desire to overwhelm and control Scotland\". Doherty suggests that the personal relations of the two kings were strained by constant arguments, though this is not confirmed by historical sources.\n''Quest For A Maid'' (1988) by Frances Mary Hendry. The novel depicts the life of Meg, her power-hungry older sister Inge, Lady Marjorie, Countess of Carrick and their part in securing the succession of Lady Marjorie's son Robert the Bruce to the Scottish throne. It includes depictions of Alexander III's death as \"falling off a cliff\" with sorcery as the cause.\n''Insurrection'' (2010) by Robyn Young. This novel is the first of a series of novels primarily about the life and times of Robert the Bruce. However, it covers Alexander III and the circumstances surrounding his death in some detail.\nRaphael Holinshed, in his oft-fanciful history of England, stated that at Alexander III's wedding, a horrible monster, mostly skeleton but with raw flesh, appeared at the end of the procession and caused the wedding to be hurriedly concluded. This was, in tradition, an omen of death.\n''Crusader'' (1991) by Nigel Tranter. This novel follows the minority of Alexander III and his relationship with David de Lindsay. Tranter, who has written scores of historical novels spanning the range of Scotland's history, also wrote \"Envoy Extraordinary\" (1999) (about Patrick Earl of Dunbar) and \"True Thomas\" (1981) (about Thomas the Rhymer), both of which take place during the reign of Alexander III, and in which Alexander is a featured character.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n", "Anderson, Alan Orr (ed.),'' Early Sources of Scottish History: AD 500–1286'', 2 Vols, (Edinburgh, 1922), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1991)\nidem (ed.), ''Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD 500–1286'', (London, 1908), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1991)\n.\n\n \n\n\n.\n \n\nScott, Robert McNair. ''Robert the Bruce: King of Scots'', 1996\n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Succession", "Fictional portrayals", "Ancestry", "Notes", "Sources", "Further reading" ]	Alexander III of Scotland
[ "'''Alexander of Greece''' may refer to:\n\n* Alexander of Greece (1893–1920), king of Greece from 1917\n* Alexander of Greece (rhetorician) ()\n* Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), ancient Greek king and general\n", "* Alexander § People with the given name Alexander\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Alexander of Greece (disambiguation)
[ "Opening paragraph of the treatise ''On Fate'' (''Peri eimarmenes'') by Alexander of Aphrodisias dedicated to Emperors (autokratoras). From an anonymous edition published in 1658.\n'''Alexander of Aphrodisias''' (; fl. 200 AD) was a Peripatetic philosopher and the most celebrated of the Ancient Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle. He was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria, and lived and taught in Athens at the beginning of the 3rd century, where he held a position as head of the Peripatetic school. He wrote many commentaries on the works of Aristotle, extant are those on the ''Prior Analytics'', ''Topics'', ''Meteorology'', ''Sense and Sensibilia'', and ''Metaphysics''. Several original treatises also survive, and include a work ''On Fate'', in which he argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity; and one ''On the Soul''. His commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was styled, by way of pre-eminence, \"the commentator\" ().\n", "Alexander was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria and came to Athens towards the end of the 2nd century. He was a student of the two Stoic, or possibly Peripatetic, philosophers Sosigenes and Herminus, and perhaps of Aristotle of Mytilene. At Athens he became head of the Peripatetic school and lectured on Peripatetic philosophy. Alexander's dedication of ''On Fate'' to Septimius Severus and Caracalla, in gratitude for his position at Athens, indicates a date between 198 and 209. A recently published inscription from Aphrodisias confirms that he was head of one of the Schools at Athens and gives his full name as Titus Aurelius Alexander. His full nomenclature shows that his grandfather or other ancestor was probably given Roman citizenship by the emperor Antoninus Pius, while proconsul of Asia. The inscription honours his father, also called Alexander and also a philosopher. This fact makes it plausible that some of the suspect works that form part of Alexander's corpus should be ascribed to his father.\n\n===Commentaries===\n''Commentaria in Analytica priora Aristotelis'', 1549\nAndrea Briosco, ''Aristotle and Alexander of Aphrodisias'', 16th century plaquette, Bode-Museum\nAlexander composed several commentaries on the works of Aristotle, in which he sought to escape a syncretistic tendency and to recover the pure doctrines of Aristotle. His extant commentaries are on ''Prior Analytics'' (Book 1), ''Topics'', ''Meteorology'', ''Sense and Sensibilia'', and ''Metaphysics'' (Books 1-5). The commentary on the ''Sophistical Refutations'' is deemed spurious, as is the commentary on the final nine books of the ''Metaphysics''. The lost commentaries include works on the ''De Interpretatione'', ''Posterior Analytics'', ''Physics'', ''On the Heavens'', ''On Generation and Corruption'', ''On the Soul'', and ''On Memory''. Simplicius of Cilicia mentions that Alexander provided commentary on the quadrature of the lunes, and the corresponding problem of squaring the circle. In April 2007, it was reported that imaging analysis had discovered an early commentary on Aristotle's ''Categories'' in the Archimedes Palimpsest, and Robert Sharples suggested Alexander as the most likely author.\n\n===Original treatises===\nThere are also several extant original writings by Alexander. These include: ''On the Soul'', ''Problems and Solutions'', ''Ethical Problems'', ''On Fate'', and ''On Mixture and Growth''. Three works attributed to him are considered spurious: ''Medical Questions'', ''Physical Problems'', and ''On Fevers''. Additional works by Alexander are preserved in Arabic translation, these include: ''On the Principles of the Universe'', ''On Providence'', and ''Against Galen on Motion''.\n\n''On the Soul'' (''De anima'') is a treatise on the soul written along the lines suggested by Aristotle in his own ''De anima''. Alexander contends that the undeveloped reason in man is material (''nous hylikos'') and inseparable from the body. He argued strongly against the doctrine of the soul's immortality. He identified the active intellect (''nous poietikos''), through whose agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God. A second book is known as the ''Supplement to On the Soul'' (''Mantissa''). The ''Mantissa'' is a series of twenty-five separate pieces of which the opening five deal directly with psychology. The remaining twenty pieces cover problems in physics and ethics, of which the largest group deals with questions of vision and light, and the final four with fate and providence. The ''Mantissa'' was probably not written by Alexander in its current form, but much of the actual material may be his.\n\n''Problems and Solutions'' (''Quaestiones'') consists of three books which, although termed \"problems and solutions of physical questions,\" treat of subjects which are not all physical, and are not all problems. Among the sixty-nine items in these three books, twenty-four deal with physics, seventeen with psychology, eleven with logic and metaphysics, and six with questions of fate and providence. It is unlikely that Alexander wrote all of the ''Quaestiones'', some may be Alexander's own explanations, while others may be exercises by his students.\n\n''Ethical Problems'' was traditionally counted as the fourth book of the ''Quaestiones''. The work is a discussion of ethical issues based on Aristotle, and contains responses to questions and problems deriving from Alexander's school. It is likely that the work was not written by Alexander himself, but rather by his pupils on the basis of debates involving Alexander.\n\n''On Fate'' is a treatise in which Alexander argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity. In ''On Fate'' Alexander denied three things - necessity (), the foreknowledge of fated events that was part of the Stoic identification of God and Nature, and determinism in the sense of a sequence of causes that was laid down beforehand () or predetermined by antecedents (). He defended a view of moral responsibility we would call libertarianism today.\n\n''On Mixture and Growth'' discusses the topic of mixture of physical bodies. It is both an extended discussion (and polemic) on Stoic physics, and an exposition of Aristotelian thought on this theme.\n\n''On the Principles of the Universe'' is preserved in Arabic translation. This treatise is not mentioned in surviving Greek sources, but it enjoyed great popularity in the Muslim world, and a large number of copies have survived. The main purpose of this work is to give a general account of Aristotelian cosmology and metaphysics, but it also has a polemical tone, and it may be directed at rival views within the Peripatetic school. Alexander was concerned with filling the gaps of the Aristotelian system and smoothing out its inconsistencies, while also presenting a unified picture of the world, both physical and ethical. The topics dealt with are the nature of the heavenly motions and the relationship between the unchangeable celestial realm and the sublunar world of generation and decay. His principal sources are the ''Physics'' (book 7), ''Metaphysics'' (book 12), and the Pseudo-Aristotelian ''On the Universe''.\n\n''On Providence'' survives in two Arabic versions. In this treatise, Alexander opposes the Stoic view that divine Providence extends to all aspects of the world; he regards this idea as unworthy of the gods. Instead, providence is a power that emanates from the heavens to the sublunar region, and is responsible for the generation and destruction of earthly things, without any direct involvement in the lives of individuals.\n", "By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as \"the commentator\" (). His commentaries were greatly esteemed among the Arabs, who translated many of them, and he is heavily quoted by Maimonides.\n\nIn 1210, the Church Council of Paris issued a condemnation, which probably targeted the writings of Alexander among others.\n\nIn the early Renaissance his doctrine of the soul's mortality was adopted by Pietro Pomponazzi (against the Thomists and the Averroists), and by his successor Cesare Cremonini. This school is known as Alexandrists.\n\nAlexander's band, an optical phenomenon, is named after him.\n", "Several of Alexander's works were published in the Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495–1498; his ''De Fato'' and ''De Anima'' were printed along with the works of Themistius at Venice (1534); the former work, which has been translated into Latin by Grotius and also by Schulthess, was edited by J. C. Orelli, Zürich, 1824; and his commentaries on the Metaphysica by H. Bonitz, Berlin, 1847. In 1989 the first part of his ''On Aristotle Metaphysics'' was published as part of the Ancient commentators project. Since then, other works of his have been translated into English.\n", "Free will in antiquity\n", "\n", "\n===Translations===\n Alexandre D'Aphrodise. ''De l’Âme. Textes & Commentaires.'' Bergeron, M. and R. Dufour (trans., comm.). Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 2008. 416 p. \n* R. W. Sharples, 1990, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: Ethical Problems''. Duckworth. \n* W. E. Dooley, 1989, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 1''. Duckworth. \n* W. E. Dooley, A. Madigan, 1992, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 2-3''. Duckworth. \n* A. Madigan, 1993, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 4''. Duckworth. \n* W. Dooley, 1993, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 5''. Duckworth. \n* E. Lewis, 1996, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Meteorology 4''. Duckworth. \n* E. Gannagé, 2005, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On Coming-to-Be and Perishing 2.2-5''. Duckworth. \n* A. Towey, 2000, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On Sense Perception''. Duckworth. \n* V. Caston, 2011, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On the Soul''. Duckworth. \n* J. Barnes, S. Bobzien, K. Flannery, K. Ierodiakonou, 1991, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.1-7''. Duckworth. \n* I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.8-13''. Duckworth. \n* I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.14-22''. Duckworth. \n* I. Mueller, 2006, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.23-31''. Duckworth. \n* I. Mueller, 2006, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.32-46''. Duckworth. \n* J. M. Van Ophuijsen, 2000, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Topics 1''. Duckworth. \n* R. W. Sharples, 1983, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Fate''. Duckworth. \n* R. W. Sharples, 1992, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 1.1-2.15''. Duckworth. \n* R. W. Sharples, 1994, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 2.16-3.15''. Duckworth. \n* R. W. Sharples, 2004, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: Supplement to On the Soul''. Duckworth. \n* Charles Genequand, 2001, ''Alexander of Aphrodisias: On the Cosmos''. BRILL. \n\n===Studies===\n* Fazzo, S. ''Aporia e sistema. La materia, la forma e il divino nelle Quaestiones di Alessandro di Afrodisia'', Pisa: ETS, 2002. \n* Flannery, Kevin L. ''Ways into the Logic of Alexander of Aphrodisias'', Leiden: Brill, 1995. \n* Gili, Luca. ''La sillogistica di Alessandro di Afrodisia. Sillogistica categorica e sillogistica modale nel commento agli \"Analitici Primi\" di Aristotele'', Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 2011. \n* \n* Moraux, Paul. ''Der Aristotelismus bei den Griechen, Von Andronikos bis Alexander von Aphrodisias'', III: ''Alexander von Aphrodisias'', Berlin: Walter Gruyter, 2001.\n* Rescher, Nicholas & Marmura, Michael E., ''The Refutation by Alexander of Aphrodisias of Galen's Treatise on the Theory of Motion'', Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute, 1965. \n* Todd, Robert B., 'Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic Physics. A Study of the \"De Mixtione\" with Preliminary Essays, Text, Translation and Commentary'', Leiden: Brill, 1976. \n", "* \n* Alexander on Information Philosopher\n* Online Greek texts:\n '' Scripta minora'', ed. Bruns\n Aristotelian commentaries: ''Metaphysics'', ''Prior Analytics'' I, ''Topics'', ''De sensu'' and ''Meteorology'',\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life and career", "Influence", "Modern editions", "See also", "Notes", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Alexander of Aphrodisias
[ "\n\n\n'''Severus Alexander''' (; 1 October 20819 March 235) was Roman Emperor from 222 to 235 and the last emperor of the Severan dynasty. He succeeded his cousin Elagabalus, upon the latter's assassination in 222, and was ultimately assassinated himself, marking the epoch event for the Crisis of the Third Century — nearly 50 years of civil wars, foreign invasion, and collapse of the monetary economy, though this last part is now disputed.\n\nAlexander was the heir to his cousin, the 18-year-old Emperor who had been murdered along with his mother Julia Soaemias, by his own guards, who, as a mark of contempt, had their remains cast into the river Tiber. He and his cousin were both grandsons of the influential and powerful Julia Maesa, who had arranged for Elagabalus' acclamation as emperor by the famous Third Gallic Legion. It was the rumor of Alexander's death that triggered the assassination of Elagabalus and his mother. His 13-year reign was the longest reign of a ''sole'' emperor since Antoninus Pius.\n\nAs emperor, Alexander's peace time reign was prosperous. However, Rome was militarily confronted with the rising Sassanid Empire and growing incursions from the tribes of Germania. He managed to check the threat of the Sassanids. But when campaigning against Germanic tribes, Alexander attempted to bring peace by engaging in diplomacy and bribery. This alienated many in the Roman Army and led to a conspiracy to assassinate and replace him.\n", "''Denarius'' of Severus Alexander.\nUnder the influence of his mother, Alexander did much to improve the morals and condition of the people, and to enhance the dignity of the state. He employed noted jurists to oversee the administration of justice, such as the famous jurist Ulpian. His advisers were men like the senator and historian Cassius Dio, and it is claimed that he created a select board of 16 senators, although this claim is disputed. He also created a municipal council of 14 who assisted the urban prefect in administering the affairs of the 14 districts of Rome. Excessive luxury and extravagance at the imperial court were diminished, and he restored the Baths of Nero in 227 or 229; consequently, they are sometimes also known as the Baths of Alexander after him.\n\nUpon his accession he reduced the silver purity of the denarius from 46.5% to 43% — the actual silver weight dropped from 1.41 grams to 1.30 grams; however, in 229 he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity and weight to 45% and 1.46 grams, respectively. The following year he decreased the amount of base metal in the denarius while adding more silver, raising the silver purity and weight again to 50.5% and 1.50 grams. Also during his reign taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged; and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest.\n\nIn religious matters, Alexander preserved an open mind. It is said that he was desirous of erecting a temple to Jesus but was dissuaded by the pagan priests. He allowed a synagogue to be built in Rome, and he gave as a gift to this synagogue a scroll of the Torah known as the Severus Scroll.\n\nIn legal matters, Alexander did much to aid the rights of his soldiers. He confirmed that soldiers could name anyone as heirs in their will, whereas civilians had strict restrictions over who could become heirs or receive a legacy. Alexander also confirmed that soldiers could free their slaves in their wills. Additionally, he protected the rights of soldiers to their property when they were off on campaign and reasserted that a soldier's property acquired in or because of military service (his ''castrense peculium'') could be claimed by no one else, not even the soldier's father.\n", "On the whole, Alexander's reign was prosperous until the rise, in the east, of the Sassanids under Ardashir I. Of the war that followed there are various accounts. According to Herodian, the Roman armies suffered a number of humiliating setbacks and defeats, while according to the Historia Augusta as well as Alexander's own dispatch to the Roman Senate, he gained great victories. Making Antioch his base, he marched at the head of his troops towards Ctesiphon, but a second army was destroyed by the Persians, and further losses were incurred by the retreating Romans in Armenia.\n\nNevertheless, although the Sassanids were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. In 232 there was a mutiny in the Syrian legion, who proclaimed Taurinus emperor. Alexander managed to suppress the uprising, and Taurinus drowned while attempting to flee across the Euphrates. The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233.\n", "\nAfter the Persian war, Alexander returned to Antioch with the famous Origen, one of the greatest Fathers of the Christian Church. Alexander's mother, Julia Mammaea, asked for Origen to tutor Alexander in Christianity.\n\nWhile Alexander was being educated in the Christian doctrines, the northern portion of his empire was being invaded by Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. A new and menacing enemy started to emerge directly after Alexander's success in the Persian war. In A.D 234, the barbarians crossed the Rhine and Danube in hordes that even caused panic at the gates of Rome. The soldiers serving under Alexander, who were already demoralized after their costly war against the Persians, were further discontented with their emperor when their homes were destroyed by the barbarian invaders.\n\nAs word of the invasion spread, the Emperor took the front line and went to battle against the Germanic invaders. The Romans prepared heavily for the war, building a brigade of ships to carry the entire battalion across. However, at this point in Alexander's career, he still knew little about being a general. Because of this, he hoped the sole threat of his armies might be enough to persuade the Germanics to surrender. Severus enforced a strict military discipline in his men that sparked a rebellion among the Germanic legions. Due to incurring heavy losses against the Persians, and on the advice of his mother, Alexander attempted to buy the Germanic tribes off, so as to gain time.\n\nIt was this decision that resulted in the legionaries' looking down upon Alexander. They considered him dishonorable and feared he was unfit to be Emperor. Under these circumstances the army swiftly looked to replace Alexander.\n\nGaius Iulius Verus Maximinus was the next best option. He was a soldier from Thrace who had a golden reputation and was working hard to increase his military status. He was also a man with superior personal strength, who rose from peasantry to ultimately being the one chosen for the throne. With the Thracian's hailing came the end of the Severan Dynasty. With Severus' own army growing with animosity and turning against him, the path for his assassination was paved.\n", "\nAlexander was forced to face his German enemies in the early months of 235. By the time he and his mother arrived, the situation had settled, and so his mother convinced him that to avoid violence, trying to bribe the German army to surrender was the more sensible course of action. According to historians, it was this tactic combined with insubordination from his own men that destroyed his reputation and popularity. Pusillanimity was responsible for the revolt of Alexander’s army, resulting in Severus' falling victim to the swords of his own men, following the nomination of Maximinus as emperor.\n\nAlexander was assassinated on March 19, 235 together with his mother, in a mutiny of the Legio XXII ''Primigenia'' at Moguntiacum (Mainz) while at a meeting with his generals. These assassinations secured the throne for Maximinus.\nA Denarius of Severus Alexander\n\nLampridius documents two theories that elaborate on Severus's assassination. The first claims that the disaffection of Mammaea was the main motive behind the homicide. However, Lampridius makes it clear that he is more supportive of an alternative theory, that Alexander was murdered in Sicilia (located in Britain).\n\nThis theory has it that, in an open tent after his lunch, Alexander was consulting with his insubordinate troops, who compared him to his cousin Elagabalus, the divisive and unpopular Emperor whose own assassination paved the way for Alexander's reign. A German servant entered the tent and initiated the call for Alexander's assassination, at which point many of the troops joined in the attack. Alexander's attendants fought against the other troops but could not hold off the combined might of those seeking the Emperor's assassination. Within minutes, Alexander was dead.\n\nAfter Alexander's death his economic policies were completely discarded, and the Roman currency was devalued. This marked the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century, a time period in which the Roman empire came close to falling apart entirely.\n", "Alexander was the last of the Syrian emperors and the first emperor to be overthrown by military discontent on a wide scale. His death signaled the end of the Severan dynasty and the beginning of the chaotic period known as the Crisis of the Third Century, which brought the empire to near collapse.\n\nAlexander's death at the hands of his troops can also be seen as the heralding of a new role for Roman emperors. Though they were not yet expected to personally fight in battle during Alexander's time, emperors were increasingly expected to display general competence in military affairs. Thus, Alexander's taking of his mother's advice to not get involved in battle, his dishonorable and unsoldierly methods of dealing with the Germanic threat, and the relative failure of his military campaign against the Persians were all deemed highly unacceptable by the soldiers. Indeed, Maximinus was able to overthrow Alexander by \"harping on his own military excellence in contrast to that feeble coward.\" Yet by arrogating the power to dethrone their emperor, the legions paved the way for a half-century of widespread chaos and instability.\n\nAlexander's reign was also characterized by a significant breakdown of military discipline. In 223, the Praetorian Guard murdered their prefect, Ulpian, in Alexander's presence and despite the emperor's pleas. The soldiers then fought a three-day battle against the populace of Rome, and this battle ended after several parts of the city were set on fire.\n\nDio was among those who gave a highly critical account of military discipline during the time, saying that they would rather just surrender to the enemy. Different reasons are given for this breakdown of military discipline: Campbell points to \"...the decline in the prestige of the Severan dynasty, the feeble nature of Alexander himself, who appeared to be no soldier and to be completely dominated by his mother's advice, and lack of real military success at a time during which the empire was coming under increasing pressure.\"\nHerodian, on the other hand, was convinced that \"the emperor's miserliness (partly the result of his mother's greed) and slowness to bestow donatives\" were instrumental in the fall of military discipline under Alexander.\n\nAccording to Canduci, Alexander is remembered as an emperor who was \"level headed, well meaning, and conscientious,\" but his fatal flaw was his domination by his mother and grandmother. Not only did this undermine his authority, but his mother's influence was the cause of Alexander's least popular actions (convincing him not to take part in battle and trying to buy off the warring Germanic barbarians).\n\nAlthough the Senate declared the emperor and his rule damned upon the report of his death and the ascension of a replacement emperor, Alexander was deified after the death of Maximinus in 238. His ''Damnatio memoriae'' was also reversed after Maximinus's death.\n", "\nSeverus Alexander became emperor when he was 13 years old, making him the youngest emperor in Rome's history, until the ascension of Gordian III. Alexander's grandmother believed that he had more potential to rule than her other grandson, the increasingly unpopular emperor Elagabalus, whom Alexander replaced. Thus, to preserve her own position, she had Elagabalus adopt the young Alexander and then arranged for Elagabulus' assassination, securing the throne for Alexander. The Roman army hailed Alexander as emperor on March 13, 222, immediately instilling him with the titles of Augustus,'' pater patriae'', and ''pontifex maximus.''\n\nThroughout his life, Alexander relied heavily on guidance from his grandmother, Maesa, and mother, Julia Mamaea. Maesa died in 223, leaving Mamaea as the sole influence upon Alexander's actions.\n\nAs a young, immature, and inexperienced 13-year-old, Alexander knew little about government, warcraft, or the role of ruling over an empire. Because of this, throughout his entire reign he was a puppet of his mother's advice and entirely under her jurisdiction, a prospect that was not popular among the soldiers.\n\nAlexander was married three times. His most famous wife was Sallustia Orbiana, ''Augusta,'' whom he married in 225 when she was 16 years old. Their marriage was arranged by Alexander's mother, Mamaea. However, as soon as Orbiana received the title of ''Augusta,'' Mamaea became increasingly jealous and resentful of Alexander's wife due to Mamaea's excessive desire of all regal female titles. Alexander divorced and exiled Orbiana in 227, after her father, Seius Sallustius, was executed after being accused of attempting to assassinate the emperor.\n\nAlexander's second wife was Sulpicia Memmia, a member of one of the most ancient Patrician families in Rome. Her father was a man of consular rank; her grandfather's name was ''Catulus''.\n\nThe identity of Alexander's third wife is unknown. Alexander did not father children with any of his wives.\n\nAccording to the Augustan History, a late Roman work containing biographies of emperors and others, and considered by scholars to be a work of very dubious historical reliability, Alexander prayed every morning in his private chapel. He was extremely tolerant of Jews and Christians alike. He continued all privileges towards Jews during his reign, and the Augustan History relates that Alexander placed images of Abraham and Jesus in his oratory, along with other Roman deities and classical figures.\n", "* Severan dynasty family tree\n", "\n", "\n===Primary===\n* Cassius Dio, ''Roman History, Book 80''\n* Herodian, ''Roman History, Book 6''\n* Historia Augusta, ''Life of Severus Alexander''\n* Aurelius Victor, ''Epitome de Caesaribus''\n* Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: ''Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284''\n* Zosimus, ''Historia Nova''\n\n===Secondary===\nBirley, A.R., ''Septimius Severus: The African Emperor'', Routledge, 2002\nSouthern, Pat. ''The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine'', Routledge, 2001\n* Benario, Herbert W., ''Alexander Severus (A.D. 222–235)'', ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' (2001)\n* \nGibbon. Edward ''Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1888)\nCampbell, J.B., ''The Emperor and the Roman Army 31 BCAD 235'', Clarenden, 1984\nWells, Colin, ''The Roman Empire'', Harvard University Press, 1997\n Although a few phrases appear to be copied from this encyclopedia, all of them are attributed here to primary sources.\n", "\n\n\n Alexander a site devoted to this emperor\n* Severus Alexander on NumisWiki\n* Coins of Severus Alexander\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Domestic achievements", "Persian War", "Germanic War", " Death ", "Legacy", "Personal life", "See also", "References", " Bibliography ", "External links" ]	Severus Alexander
[ "\n\n\n'''Alexander''' (, ) is a male first name, and less common surname derived from the Greek \"Αλέξανδρος\" (Aléxandros). The most famous is Alexander the Great, who created one of the largest empires in ancient history.\n", "The name ''Alexander'' is derived from the Greek (Aléxandros), meaning \"Defender of the people\" or \"Defending men\" and also, \"Protector of men\", a compound of the verb ''alexein'', \"to ward off, to avert, to defend\" and the noun ''anēr'', \"man\" (GEN ''andros''). It is an example of the widespread motif of Greek (or Indo-European more generally) names expressing \"battle-prowess\", in this case the ability to withstand or push back an enemy battle line.\n\nThe earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek feminine anthroponym , ''a-re-ka-sa-da-ra'' (transcribed as ''Alexandra''), written in the Linear B syllabic script.\n\nThe name was one of the titles (\"epithets\") given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean \"one who comes to save warriors\". In the Iliad, the character Paris is known also as Alexander. The name's popularity was spread throughout the Greek world by the military conquests of King Alexander III, commonly known as \"Alexander the Great\". Most later Alexanders in various countries were directly or indirectly named for him.\n", "Alexander has been the name of many rulers, including kings of Macedon, of Scotland, emperors of Russia and popes.\n\n===Rulers of antiquity===\nAlexander (''Alexandros of Ilion''), more often known as Paris of Troy\nAlexander of Corinth, 10th king of Corinth (816–791 BC)\nAlexander I of Macedon\nAlexander II of Macedon\nAlexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great\nAlexander IV of Macedon\nAlexander V of Macedon\nAlexander of Pherae despot of Pherae between 369 and 358 BC\nAlexander I of Epirus king of Epirus about 342 BC\nAlexander II of Epirus king of Epirus 272 BC\nAlexander, viceroy of Antigonus Gonatas and ruler of a rump state based on Corinth c. 250 BC\nAlexander Balas, ruler of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria between 150 and 146 BC\nAlexander Zabinas, ruler of part of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria based in Antioch between 128 and 123 BC\nAlexander Jannaeus king of Judea, 103-76 BC\nAlexander of Judaea, son of Aristobulus II, king of Judaea\nAlexander Severus (208–235), Roman emperor\nJulius Alexander, lived in the 2nd century, an Emesene nobleman\nDomitius Alexander, Roman usurper who declared himself emperor in 308\n\n===Rulers of the Middle Ages===\nAlexander, Byzantine Emperor (912–913)\nAlexander I of Scotland (c. 1078–1124)\nAlexander II of Scotland (1198–1249)\nAlexander Nevsky (1220–1263), Prince of Novgorod and Grand Prince of Vladimir\nAlexander III of Scotland (1241–1286)\nAlexander I of Georgia (1412–1442)\nAlexander II of Georgia (1483-1510)\nAleksander (1338–before 1386), Prince of Podolia (son of Narymunt)\nAlexandru I Aldea, ruler of the principality of Wallachia (1431–1436)\nEskender, Emperor of Ethiopia (1472–1494)\nAlexander Jagiellon (Alexander of Poland) (1461–1506), King of Poland\nAlexandru Lăpuşneanu, Voivode of Moldavia (1552–1561 and 1564–1568)\n\n===Modern rulers===\nAlexander I of Russia (1777–1825), emperor of Russia\nAlexander II of Russia (1818–1881), emperor of Russia\nAlexander III of Russia (1845–1894), emperor of Russia\nAlexander Karađorđević, Prince of Serbia (1842–1858)\nAlexander of Bulgaria (1857–1893), first prince of Bulgaria\nAlexandru Ioan Cuza, prince of Romania (1859–1866)\nAlexander I Obrenović of Serbia (1876–1903), king of Serbia\nAlexander, Prince of Lippe (1831–1905), prince of Lippe\nAlexander I of Yugoslavia (1888–1934), first king of Yugoslavia\nAlexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia (born 1945), head of the Yugoslav Royal Family\nZog I, also known as Skenderbeg III (1895–1961), king of Albanians\nAlexander of Greece (1893–1920), king of Greece\nLeka, Crown Prince of Albania (1939-2011), king of Albanians (throne pretender)\nWillem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands (born 1967), eldest child of Queen Beatrix and Prince Claus\n\n====Other royalty====\nAlexander, Judean Prince, one of the sons of Herod the Great from his wife Mariamne\nAlexander, Judean Prince, son to the above Alexander and Cappadocian Princess Glaphyra\nAlexander (d. 1418), son of Bulgarian tsar Ivan Shishman\nPrince Alexander John of Wales (1871), short-lived son of Edward VII\nPrince Alexandre of Belgium (1942–2009)\nPrince Alexander of Sweden (b. 2016), son of Prince Carl Philip\n\nSeveral other princes have borne the name '''Alexander''':\nGeorge V of Hanover (1819–1878)\nPrince Alfred of Edinburgh and Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1874–1899)\nPrince George, Duke of Kent (1902–1942)\nOlav V of Norway (1903–1991)\nPrince Richard, Duke of Gloucester (born 1944)\nPrince George of Cambridge (born 2013)\n\n===Religious leaders===\nPope Alexander I (pope 97–105)\nAlexander of Apamea, 5th-century bishop of Apamea\nPope Alexander II (pope 1058–1061)\nPope Alexander III (pope 1164–1168)\nPope Alexander IV (pope 1243–1254)\nPope Alexander V (\"Peter Philarges\" c. 1339–1410)\nPope Alexander VI (1492–1503), Roman pope\nPope Alexander VII (1599–1667)\nPope Alexander VIII (pope 1689–1691)\nAlexander of Constantinople, bishop of Constantinople (314–337)\nSt. Alexander of Alexandria, Coptic Pope, Patriarch of Alexandria between 313 and 328\nPope Alexander II of Alexandria, Coptic Pope (702–729)\nAlexander of Lincoln, bishop of Lincoln\nAlexander of Jerusalem\nSee also Saint Alexander, various saints with this name\n\n===Other people===\nOther people using the name Alexander include:\n\n====Antiquity====\nAlexander, the name of a number of artists of ancient Greece and Rome\nAlexander, 3rd-century BC general, commanded the cavalry under Antigonus III Doson\nAlexander of Athens, Athenian comic poet\nAlexander Lyncestes, contemporary of Alexander the Great\nAlexander Aetolus, poet and member of the Alexandrian Pleiad\nAlexander, son of Lysimachus, 3rd-century BC Macedonian royal\nAlexander, Aetolian general, briefly conquered Aegira in 220 BC\nAlexander, son of Polyperchon, the regent of Macedonia\nAlexander Isius, 2nd-century military commander of the Aetolians\nAlexander of Acarnania (d. 191 BC), confidante of Antiochus III the Great\nAlexander Lychnus, early 1st-century BC poet and historian\nAlexander Polyhistor, Greek scholar of the 1st century\nAlexander of Myndus, ancient Greek writer on zoology and divination\nAlexander of Aegae, peripatetic philosopher of the 1st century\nAlexander of Cotiaeum, 2nd-century Greek grammarian and tutor of Marcus Aurelius\nAlexander Numenius, or Alexander, son of Numenius, 2nd century AD, Greek rhetorician\nAlexander the Paphlagonian, 2nd-century Greek imposter\nAlexander Peloplaton, Greek rhetorician of the 2nd century\nAlexander of Lycopolis, 4th-century author of an early Christian treatise against Manicheans\nAlexander of Aphrodisias, Greek commentator and philosopher\nAlexander, a member of the Jerusalem Temple Sanhedrin mentioned in Acts 4:6\n\n====Middle Ages====\nAlexander of Hales, 13th-century Medieval theologian\n\n====Modern====\nAlexander (1880–1954), stage magician specializing in mentalism\nJeffrey C. Alexander (b. 1947), American sociologist\nAlexander McQueen (1969-2010), British fashion designer and couturier\nOlivinha (b. 1983), Brazilian basketball player also known as Alexandre\nAlex Rodriguez (b. 1975), Major League Baseball star, won 3 AL MVP awards, also known as A-Rod\nAlexander Van der Bellen (b. 1944), President of Austria\n", "Internationally famous people with the given name Alexander or variants include:\n\nAlexander Argov (1914–95), Russian-born Israeli composer\nAleksandr Averbukh (born 1974), Israeli European champion pole vaulter\nAlec Baldwin (born 1958), American actor\nAlexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), Scottish inventor of the first practical telephone\nAlexandre Grothendieck (1928-2014), Important European mathematician of the 20th century.\n* Alexander Davidovich (born 1967), Israeli Olympic wrestler\nAlexander Day, British 18th-century confidence trickster\nAleksandar Djordjevic (born 1967), Serbian basketball player\nAlexander Dubček (1921–1992), leader of Czechoslovakia (1968–1969)\nAlexandre Dumas (1802–1870), French writer\nAlexander Lee Eusebio (born 1988), also known as Alexander or Xander, South Korean solo singer, ex-member of South Korean band U-KISS\nAlex Ferguson (born 1941), ex-manager of Manchester United FC\nAlexander Fleming (1881–1955), Scottish discoverer of penicillin\nAlexander Zusia Friedman (1897-1943), Polish rabbi, educator, activist, and journalist\nAlexander Gomelsky (1928–2005), Russian head coach of USSR basketball national team for 30 years\nAleksandr Gorelik (born 1945), Soviet figure skater\nAlexander Gould (born 1994), American actor\nAlexander Gustafsson (born 1987), Swedish mixed martial arts fighter\nAlexander Haig (1924–2010), United States general and politician\nAlexander Hamilton (1755–1804), a Founding Father of the United States\nAlex Higgins (1949-2010), Northern Irish former snooker world champion\nAlexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), Prussian naturalist and explorer\nAlexander Korda (1893–1956), Hungarian film director\nAlexander Levinsky (1910–90), Canadian NHL ice hockey player\nAlexander Ivanovich Levitov (1835–1877), Russian writer\nAlexander Lévy (born 1990), French golfer\nAlexandre Lippmann (1881–1960), French two-time Olympic champion épée fencer\nAlexander Ludwig, Canadian actor\nAlexander \"Sandy\" Lyle (born 1958), Scottish golfer\nAlexander Lukashenko (born 1954), President of Belarus\nAlex Manninger, Austrian footballer\nAlessandro Manzoni (1785–1873), Italian poet and novelist\nAlexander \"Ali\" Marpet (born 1993), American football player in the NFL\nAlexander McQueen (1969–2010), British fashion designer\nAlessandro Moreschi (1858-1922), Italian castrato singer\nAlexander Nikolov (born 1940), bronze medalist at 1964 Olympics (boxing)\nAlexander O'Neal (born 1953), American singer\nAlexander Ovechkin (born 1985), Russian hockey player for the Washington Capitals\nAlexander Pechtold (born 1965), Dutch politician\nAlexander Penn (1906–72), Israeli poet\nAlexander Pope (1688–1744), English poet\nAlexander Popov (born 1971) Russian swimmer\nAlexander Ptushko (1900–1973), Russian film director\nAlexander Pushkin (1799–1837), Russian writer\nAlexander Rou (1906–1973), Russian film director\nAlexander Rowe (born 1992), Australian athlete\nAlexander Rudolph (\"Al McCoy\"; 1894–1966), American world champion middleweight boxer\nAlexander Rybak, Norwegian artist and violinist\nAlexander Salkind (1921–1997), French film producer\nAlexander Semin (born 1984), Russian hockey player for the Carolina Hurricanes\nAlexander Shatilov (born 1987), Uzbek-Israeli artistic gymnast\nAlexander Skarsgård, Swedish actor\nAlexander McCall Smith (born 1948), Scottish writer\nAleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918–2008), Russian writer, Nobel laureate, Soviet dissident\nLex van Dam (born 1968), Dutch trader and TV personality\nAleksander Veingold (born 1953), Estonian and Soviet chess player and coach\nAlessandro Volta (1745–1827), Italian physicist\nAlexander Yusuf, Somali-British architect\nAlex Zanardi (born 1966), Italian racing driver and paracyclist\n", "Alex (disambiguation)\nJustice Alexander (disambiguation)\n\n*Hera Alexandros, epithet of the Greek goddess Hera\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "People known as Alexander", "Given name", "See also", "References" ]	Alexander
[ "'''Alexander I''' may refer to:\n\nAlexander I of Macedon, king of Macedon 495–450 BC\nAlexander I of Epirus (370 BC–331 BC) King of Epirus about 342 BC\nPope Alexander I, Pope from 106 to 115\nPope Alexander I of Alexandria, Patriarch of Alexandria about 320\nAlexander I of Scotland (c. 1078–1124), King of Scotland\nAlexandru I cel Bun (Alexander the Good) (?-1432) a Voivode of Moldavia\nAlexander I of Georgia (1412–1442), King of Georgia\nAlexander I Jagiellon (1461–1506), King of Poland\nAlexander I of Kakheti (1476–1511), King of Kakheti\nAlexander I of Russia (1801–1825), Emperor of Russia\nAlexander of Bulgaria (1857–1893), Prince of Bulgaria\nAlexander I of Serbia (1889–1903), King of Serbia\nAlexander of Greece (1917–1920), King of Greece\nAlexander I of Yugoslavia (1929–1934), King of Yugoslavia\n", "*King Alexander (disambiguation)\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Alexander I
[ "'''Alexander II''' may refer to:\n\n* Alexander II of Macedon, King of Macedon from 370 to 368 BC\n* Alexander II of Epirus (died 260 BC), King of Epirus in 272 BC\n* Pope Alexander II, Pope from 1061 to 1073\n* Alexander II of Scotland (1198–1249), King of Scots\n* Alexander II of Imereti (1478, 1483–1510), King of Georgia and of Imereti\n* Alexander II of Kakheti (1574–1605), King of Kakheti\n* Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881), Emperor of Russia\n* Alexander II of Yugoslavia (born 1945), Crown Prince of Serbia\n", "*King Alexander (disambiguation)\n \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Alexander II
[ "'''Alexander III''' may refer to:\n\n* Alexander III of Macedon (356 BC–323 BC), also known as Alexander the Great\n* Alexander (emperor), Byzantine Emperor (912–913)\n* Pope Alexander III, pope from 1159 to 1181\n* Alexander III of Vladimir, Grand Duke of Vladimir (1328-1331), Prince of Suzdal\n* Alexander III of Scotland (1241–1286), king of Scotland\n* Alexander III of Imereti (1609–1660), king of Imereti\n* Alexander III of Russia (1845–1894), emperor of Russia\n Pont Alexandre III, an arch bridge that spans the Seine\n Russian battleship ''Imperator Aleksandr III'' Russian warship\n", "* King Alexander (disambiguation)\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Alexander III
[ "\n\n'''Alexander Aetolus''' () was a Greek poet and grammarian, the only known representative of Aetolian poetry.\n", "He was the son of Satyrus and Stratocleia, and was a native of Pleuron in Aetolia, although he spent the greater part of his life at Alexandria, where he was reckoned one of the seven tragic poets who constituted the Tragic Pleiad. \n \nHe flourished about 280 BC, in the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus.\nHe had an office in the Library of Alexandria, and was commissioned by Ptolemy to make a collection of all the tragedies and satyric dramas that were extant. \nHe spent some time, together with Antagoras and Aratus, at the court of Antigonus II Gonatas. \n\nNotwithstanding the distinction he enjoyed as a tragic poet, he appears to have had greater merit as a writer of epic poems, elegies, epigrams, and cynaedi. Among his epic poems, we possess the titles and some fragments of three pieces: the ''Fisherman'', ''Kirka'' or ''Krika'', which, however, is designated by Athenaeus as doubtful, and ''Helena'', Of his elegies, some beautiful fragments are still extant. His Cynaedi, or ''Ionic poems'' (), are mentioned by Strabo and Athenaeus. Some anapaestic verses in praise of Euripides are preserved in Gellius.\n", "Meineke, ''Analecta Alexandrina'' (1843)\nBergk, ''Poetae Lyrici Graeci''\nAuguste Couat, ''La Poésie alexandrine'' (1882)\nJ U Powell (ed), Collectanea Alexandrina: reliquiae minores poetarum graecorum aetatis ptolemaicae, 323–146 A.C. (1972)\nEnrico Magnelli (ed), Alexandri Aetoli Testimonia et Fragmenta. Studi e Testi 15. (1999)\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "See also", "References", "Sources" ]	Alexander Aetolus
[ ":''To see other rulers related or affiliated with Alexander Jannaeus, see List of Hasmonean and Herodian rulers''\n\n\n\n'''Alexander Jannaeus''' (also known as '''Alexander Jannai/Yannai'''; Hebrew: אלכסנדר ינאי) was the second Hasmonean king of Judaea from 103 to 76 BC. A son of John Hyrcanus, he inherited the throne from his brother Aristobulus I, and married his brother's widow, Queen Salome Alexandra. From his conquests to expand the kingdom to a bloody civil war, Alexander's reign has been generalized as cruel and oppressive with never ending conflict. Although Josephus and other historians refer to him by the name of \"Alexander Yannai\", his full name was \"Alexander Jonathan\" as attested to by his coins wherein he calls himself \"Yehonathan the king\".\n", "Alexander Jannaeus was the third son of John Hyrcanus, by his second wife. When Aristobulus I, Hyrcanus' son by his first wife, became king, he deemed it necessary for his own security to imprison his half-brother. Aristobulus died after a reign of one year. Upon his death, his widow, Salome Alexandra had Alexander and his brothers released from prison.\n\nAlexander, as the oldest living brother, had the right not only to the throne but also to Salome, the widow of his deceased brother, who had died childless; and, although she was thirteen years older than him, he married her in accordance with Jewish law. By her, he had two sons, the eldest, Hyrcanus II became high-priest in 62 BC and Aristobulus II who was high-priest from 66 - 62 BC and started a bloody civil war with his brother, ending in his capture by Pompey the Great. Like his brother he was an avid supporter of the aristocratic priestly faction known as the Sadducees, his wife Salome on the other hand came from a pharisaic family (her brother was Simeon ben Shetach a famous pharisee leader), and was more sympathetic to their cause and protected them throughout his turbulent reign. Like his father Alexander also served as the high priest. This raised the ire of the Rabbis who insisted that these two offices should not be combined. According to the Talmud Yannai was a questionable desecrated priest (rumor had it that his mother was captured in Modiin and violated) and was not allowed to serve in the temple according to the rabbis, this infuriated the king and sided with the Sadducees who defended him. This incident led the king to turn against the pharisees and persecute them until his death.\n", "Hasmonean Kingdom under Alexander Jannaeus\n===War with Ptolemy Lathyrus===\nAlexander's first expedition was against the city of Ptolemais (Acre). While Alexander went forward to siege the city, Zoilus, ruler of the coastal city Dora and Straton's Tower took the opportunity to see if he could perhaps save Ptolemais in hopes of gaining territory. Alexander's Hasmonean army quickly defeated Zoilus's forces with little trouble. Ptolemais and Zoilus then requested aid from Ptolemy IX Lathyros, who had been cast out by his mother Cleopatra III. Ptolemy founded a kingdom in Cyprus after being cast out by his mother. The situation at Ptolemais was seized as an opportunity by Ptolemy to possibly gain a stronghold and control the Judean coast in order to invade Egypt.\n\nPtolemy landed a large army for the relief of the town; but Alexander met him with treachery, arranging an alliance with him openly while secretly he sought to obtain the help of his mother against him. When Alexander formed an alliance with Ptolemy, Ptolemy in good gesture, handed over Ptolemais, Zoilus, Dora, and Straton's Tower to Alexander. As soon as Ptolemy learned of Alexander's scheme, he invaded the Galilee region capturing Asochis. Ptolemy also initiated an attack upon Sepphoris but failed.\n\nAlexander might easily have lost his crown and Judea its independence as the result of this battle, had it not been for the assistance extended by Egypt. Cleopatra's two Jewish generals, Helkias and Ananias, persuaded the queen of the dangers of allowing her banished son Ptolemy to remain victorious and she entrusted them with an army against him. As a result, Ptolemy was forced to withdraw to Cyprus, and Alexander was saved. The Egyptians, as compensation for their aid, desired to annex Judea to their country, but considerations touching the resident Egyptian Jews, who were the main support of her throne, induced Cleopatra to modify her longings for conquest. The Egyptian army withdrawn, Alexander found his hands free; and forthwith he planned new campaigns.\n\n===Transjordan and coastal conquest===\nAlexander captured Gadara and the strong fortress Amathus in the Transjordan region; but, in an ambush set for him by Theodorus, ruler of Amathus, he lost the battle. Alexander was more successful in his expedition against the Hellenized coastal cities (what had once been Philistia), capturing Raphia and Anthedon. Finally, in 96 BC Jannaeus outlasted the inhabitants of Gaza in a year-long siege, which he occupied through treachery, and gave up to be pillaged and burned by his soldiery. This victory gained Judean control over the Mediterranean outlet for the Nabatean trade routes.\n", "Alexander Jannaeus feasting during the crucifixion of the Pharisees, engraving by Willem Swidde, seventeenth century\nThe Judean Civil War initially began after the conquest of Gaza by Jannaeus around 99 BC. Due to Jannaeus's victory at Gaza, the Nabatean kingdom no longer controlled their main trade route to the Mediterranean Sea at Gaza and to the road leading to Damascus. Therefore, the Nabatean king Obodas I launched an ambush on Alexander in a steep valley in Gadara where Jannaeus \"was lucky to escape alive\". After Jannaeus was defeated in the Battle of Gadara against the Nabataeans, he returned to fierce Jewish opposition in Jerusalem. Alexander had to cede the acquired territories to the Nabataeans so that he could dissuade Obodas from supporting his opponents in Judea.\n\nDuring the Jewish holiday of Feast of Tabernacles, Alexander Jannaeus, while officiating as the High Priest at the Temple in Jerusalem, demonstrated his support of the Sadducees by refusing to perform the water libation ceremony properly: instead of pouring it on the altar, he poured it on his feet. The crowd responded with shock at his mockery and showed their displeasure by pelting Alexander with the etrogim (citrons) that they were holding in their hands. Outraged, he ordered soldiers to kill those who insulted him, more than 6,000 people in the Temple courtyard were massacred. With further frustration, Alexander had wooden barriers build around the altars preventing people from sacrificing and deny daily offerings except for the priests. He also allied himself with foreign troops such as the Pisidians and the Cilicians who would later help his regime during the civil war. This incident during the Feast of Tabernacles was a major factor leading up to the Judean Civil War by igniting popular opponents of Jannaeus.\n\nOverall, the war lasted six years and left 50,000 Judeans dead. After Jannaeus succeeded early in the war, the rebels asked for Seleucid assistance. Judean insurgents joined forces with Demetrius III Eucaerus to fight against Jannaeus. The Seleucid forces defeated Jannaeus at Shechem and forced him to take refuge in the mountains. However, these Judean rebels ultimately decided that it was better to live under a terrible Jewish king than backtrack to a Seleucid ruler. After 6,000 Jews returned to Jannaeus, Demetrius was defeated. The end of the Civil War brought a sense of national solidarity against Seleucid influence. Nevertheless, Jannaeus was uninterested in reconciliation within the Judean State.\n\nThe aftermath of the Judean Civil War consisted of popular unrest, poverty and grief over the fallen soldiers on both sides. The greatest impact of the war was the victor's revenge. Josephus reports that Jannaeus brought 800 Pharisee rebels to Jerusalem and had them crucified, and had the throats of the rebel's wives and children cut before their eyes as Jannaeus ate with his concubines.\n", "The coinage of Alexander Jannaeus is characteristic of the early Jewish coinage in that it avoided human or animal representations, in opposition to the surrounding Greek, and later Roman types of the period. Jewish coinage instead focused on symbols, either natural, such as the palm tree, the pomegranate or the star, or man-made, such as the Temple, the Menorah, trumpets or cornucopia.\n\nCoin of Alexander Jannaeus (103 BC to 76 BC).\n'''Obv:''' Seleucid anchor and Greek Legend: BASILEOS ALEXANDROU \"King Alexander\".\n'''Rev:''' Eight-spoke wheel or star within diadem. Hebrew legend inside the spokes: \"Yehonatan the King\".\nAlexander Jannaeus was the first of the Jewish kings to introduce the \"eight-ray star\" or \"eight-spoked wheel\" symbol, in his bronze \"Widow's mite\" coins, in combination with the widespread Seleucid numismatic symbol of the anchor. Depending on the make, the star symbol can be shown with straight spokes connected to the outside circle, in a style rather indicative of a wheel. On others, the spokes can have a more \"flame-like\" shape, more indicative of the representation of a star within a diadem.\n\nIt is not clear what the wheel or star may exactly symbolize, and interpretations vary, from the morning star, to the sun or the heavens. The influence of some Persian symbols of a star within a diadem, or the eight-spoked Buddhist wheel (see the coins of the Indo-Greek king Menander I with this symbol) have also been suggested. The eight-spoked Macedonian star (a variation of which is the Vergina Sun), emblem of the royal Argead dynasty and the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, within a Hellenistic diadem symbolizing royalty (many of the coins depict a small knot with two ends on top of the diadem), seem to be the most probable source for this symbol.\n\nThe most likely explanation is that the symbol is a star encased in a diadem and it is a religious explanation. Biblical law forbids the making of graven images (especially see ), yet the image of a monarch is a staple of Hellenistic coins. In place of an image of himself, therefore, it is likely that Alexander Jannaeus chose a star, in keeping with , \"A star rises from Jacob, a scepter comes forth from Israel\". This verse generally was seen as a biblical support for monarchy (and specifically as support for a Davidic monarchy). Jannaeus, however, could have seen it as an image of his achievements, if not his own rule. This is how the rest of Numbers 24:17 and verses 18 and 19 continue: The star, it says, \"smashes the brow of Moab, the foundation of all children of Seth. Edom becomes a possession, yea, Seir a possession of its enemies; but Israel is triumphant. A victor issues from Jacob to wipe out what is left of Ir\". Considering Jannaeus' conquests—creating a kingdom that rivalled those of David and Solomon and may have even exceeded those—the \"star\" envisioned in the prophecy of Balaam in Numbers was a perfect match for him.\n", "Coins of Alexander Jannaeus\nHasmonean coinage\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* Shachar, Ilan, \"The Historical and Numismatic Significance of Alexander Jannaeus's Later Coinage as Found in Archaeological Excavations,\" ''Palestine Exploration Quarterly'', '''136'''(1) (April 2004), 5–33.\n* Paul Romanoff, ''Jewish symbols on ancient Jewish coins'', New York American Israel Numismatic Association, 1971.\n* This article incorporates some content from the public domain 1911 edition of ''The New Century Book of Facts'' published by the King-Richardson Company, Springfield, Massachusetts. (This reference gives a death date of 78 BC, but consensus seems to be 76 BC.)\n", "* Leptons and Prutahs of Alexander Jannaeus\n* Miniature 'shield' showing the 8-spoked star of the Argead\n* Information on Salome Alexandra and Alexander Jannaeus by the author of Queen of the Jews\n* \"Jannaeus, His Brother Absalom,and Judah the Essene,\" By Stephen Goranson. Jannaeus as the Qumran text's \"Wicked Priest.\"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Family", "Conquests", "Judean Civil War", "Coinage", "See also", "Citations", "Bibliography", "Sources", " External links " ]	Alexander Jannaeus
[ "'''Alexander IV''' may refer to:\n* Pope Alexander IV (1199 or ca. 1185–1261), Pope from 1254 until his death\n* Alexander IV of Macedon (323 BC–309 BC), son of Alexander the Great\n* Alexander IV of Imereti (died 1695), of the Bagrationi Dynasty, king of Imereti (western Georgia)\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Alexander IV
[ "\n\nThe '''Alexandrists''' were a school of Renaissance philosophers who, in the great controversy on the subject of personal immortality, adopted the explanation of the ''De Anima'' given by Alexander of Aphrodisias.\n\nAccording to the orthodox Thomism of the Roman Catholic Church, Aristotle rightly regarded reason as a facility of the individual soul. Against this, the Averroists, led by Agostino Nifo, introduced the modifying theory that universal reason in a sense individualizes itself in each soul and then absorbs the active reason into itself again. These two theories respectively evolved the doctrine of individual and universal immortality, or the absorption of the individual into the eternal One.\n\nThe Alexandrists, led by Pietro Pomponazzi, assailed these beliefs and denied that either was rightly attributed to Aristotle. They held that Aristotle considered the soul as a material and therefore a mortal entity which operates during life only under the authority of universal reason. Hence the Alexandrists denied the Aristotle viewed the soul as immortal, because in their view, since they believed that Aristotle viewed the soul as organically connected with the body, the dissolution of the latter involves the extinction of the former.\n", "\n\n\n'''Attribution:'''\n*\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References" ]	Alexandrists
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Alexios I Komnenos''' (, c. 1048 – 15 August 1118) was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. Although he was not the founder of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during his reign that the Komnenos family came to full power. Inheriting a collapsing empire and faced with constant warfare during his reign against both the Seljuq Turks in Asia Minor and the Normans in the western Balkans, Alexios was able to curb the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as the ''Komnenian restoration''. The basis for this recovery were various reforms initiated by Alexios. His appeals to Western Europe for help against the Turks were also the catalyst that likely contributed to the convoking of the Crusades.\n", "Alexios was the son of the Domestic of the Schools John Komnenos and Anna Dalassena, and the nephew of Isaac I Komnenos (emperor 1057–1059). Alexios' father declined the throne on the abdication of Isaac, who was thus succeeded by four emperors of other families between 1059 and 1081. Under one of these emperors, Romanos IV Diogenes (1067–1071), Alexios served with distinction against the Seljuq Turks. Under Michael VII Doukas ''Parapinakes'' (1071–1078) and Nikephoros III Botaneiates (1078–1081), he was also employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, against rebels in Asia Minor, Thrace, and in Epirus.\n\nIn 1074, western mercenaries led by Roussel de Bailleul rebelled in Asia Minor, but Alexios successfully subdued them by 1076. In 1078, he was appointed commander of the field army in the West by Nikephoros III. In this capacity, Alexios defeated the rebellions of Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder (whose son or grandson later married Alexios' daughter Anna) and Nikephoros Basilakes, the first at the Battle of Kalavrye and the latter in a surprise night attack on his camp. Alexios was ordered to march against his brother-in-law Nikephoros Melissenos in Asia Minor but refused to fight his kinsman. This did not, however, lead to a demotion, as Alexios was needed to counter the expected invasion of the Normans of Southern Italy, led by Robert Guiscard.\n\n===Conspiracy and revolt of the Komnenoi against Botaneiates===\nWhile Byzantine troops were assembling for the expedition, the Doukas faction at court approached Alexios and convinced him to join a conspiracy against Nikephoros III. The mother of Alexios, Anna Dalassena, was to play a prominent role in this coup d'état of 1081, along with the current empress, Maria of Alania. First married to Michael VII Doukas and secondly to Nikephoros III Botaneiates, she was preoccupied with the future of her son by Michael VII, Constantine Doukas. Nikephoros III intended to leave the throne to one of his close relatives, and this resulted in Maria's ambivalence and alliance with the Komnenoi, though the real driving force behind this political alliance was Anna Dalassena.\n\nThe empress was already closely connected to the Komnenoi through Maria's cousin Irene's marriage to Isaac Komnenos, so the Komnenoi brothers were able to see her under the pretense of a friendly family visit. Furthermore, to aid the conspiracy Maria had adopted Alexios as her son, though she was only five years older than he. Maria was persuaded to do so on the advice of her own \"Alans\" and her eunuchs, who had been instigated by Isaac Komnenos. Given Anna's tight hold on her family, Alexios must have been adopted with her implicit approval. As a result, Alexios and Constantine, Maria's son, were now adoptive brothers, and both Isaac and Alexios took an oath that they would safeguard his rights as emperor. By secretly giving inside information to the Komnenoi, Maria was an invaluable ally.\n\nGrand Domestic of the West\"\n\nAs stated in the Alexiad, Isaac and Alexios left Constantinople in mid-February 1081 to raise an army against Botaneiates. However, when the time came, Anna quickly and surreptitiously mobilized the remainder of the family and took refuge in the Hagia Sophia. From there she negotiated with the emperor for the safety of family members left in the capital, while protesting her sons' innocence of hostile actions. Under the falsehood of making a vesperal visit to worship at the church, she deliberately excluded the grandson of Botaneiates and his loyal tutor, met with Alexios and Isaac, and fled for the forum of Constantine. The tutor discovered they were missing and eventually found them on the palace grounds, but Anna was able to convince him that they would return to the palace shortly. Then to gain entrance to both the outer and inner sanctuary of the church, the women pretended to the gatekeepers that they were pilgrims from Cappadocia who had spent all their funds and wanted to worship before starting their return trip. However, before they were to gain entry into the sanctuary, Straboromanos and royal guards caught up with them to summon them back to the palace. Anna then protested that the family was in fear for their lives, her sons were loyal subjects (Alexios and Isaac were discovered absent without leave), and had learned of a plot by enemies of the Komnenoi to have them both blinded and had, therefore, fled the capital so they may continue to be of loyal service to the emperor. She refused to go with them and demanded that they allow her to pray to the Mother of God for protection. This request was granted and Anna then manifested her true theatrical and manipulative capabilities:\n\n\nAlexios I. Manuscript illustration.\nNikephoros III Botaneiates was forced into a public vow that he would grant protection to the family. Straboromanos tried to give Anna his cross, but for her it was not sufficiently large enough for all bystanders to witness the oath. She also demanded that the cross be personally sent by Botaneiates as a vow of his good faith. He obliged, sending a complete assurance for the family with his own cross. At the emperor's further insistence, and for their own protection, they took refuge at the convent of Petrion, where they were eventually joined by Maria of Bulgaria, mother of Irene Doukaina. Botaneiates allowed them to be treated as refugees rather than as guests. They were allowed to have family members bring in their own food and were on good terms with the guards from whom they learned the latest news. Anna was highly successful in three important aspects of the revolt: she bought time for her sons to steal imperial horses from the stables and escape the city; she distracted the emperor, giving her sons time to gather and arm their troops; and she gave a false sense of security to Botaneiates that there was no real treasonous coup against him. After bribing the Western troops guarding the city, Isaac and Alexios Komnenos entered the capital victoriously on April 1, 1081.\n\nDuring this time, Alexios was rumored to be the lover of Empress Maria of Alania, the daughter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia, who had been successively married to Michael VII Doukas and his successor Nikephoros III Botaneiates, and who was renowned for her beauty. Alexios arranged for Maria to stay on the palace grounds, and it was thought that he was considering marrying her. However, his mother consolidated the Doukas family connection by arranging the Emperor's marriage to Irene Doukaina, granddaughter of the Caesar John Doukas, the uncle of Michael VII, who would not have supported Alexios otherwise. As a measure intended to keep the support of the Doukai, Alexios restored Constantine Doukas, the young son of Michael VII and Maria, as co-emperor and a little later betrothed him to his own first-born daughter Anna, who moved into the Mangana Palace with her fiancé and his mother.\n\nThis situation changed drastically, however, when Alexios' first son John II Komnenos was born in 1087: Anna's engagement to Constantine was dissolved, and she was moved to the main Palace to live with her mother and grandmother. Alexios became estranged from Maria, who was stripped of her imperial title and retired to a monastery, and Constantine Doukas was deprived of his status as co-emperor. Nevertheless, he remained in good relations with the imperial family and succumbed to his weak constitution soon afterwards.\n\n===Wars against the Normans, Pechenegs, and Tzachas===\n\n\nThe nearly thirty-seven year reign of Alexios was full of struggle. At the outset he faced the formidable attack of the Normans, led by Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund, who took Dyrrhachium and Corfu and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly (see Battle of Dyrrhachium). Alexios suffered several defeats before he was able to strike back with success. He enhanced his resistance by bribing the German king Henry IV with 360,000 gold pieces to attack the Normans in Italy, which forced the Normans to concentrate on their defenses at home in 1083–84. He also secured the alliance of Henry, Count of Monte Sant'Angelo, who controlled the Gargano Peninsula and dated his charters by Alexios' reign. Henry's allegiance would be the last example of Byzantine political control on peninsular Italy. The Norman danger subsided with the death of Guiscard in 1085, and the Byzantines recovered most of their losses.\n\nAlexios next had to deal with disturbances in Thrace, where the heretical sects of the Bogomils and the Paulicians revolted and made common cause with the Pechenegs from beyond the Danube. Paulician soldiers in imperial service likewise deserted during Alexios' battles with the Normans. As soon as the Norman threat had passed, Alexios set out to punish the rebels and deserters, confiscating their lands. This led to a further revolt near Philippopolis, and the commander of the field army in the west, Gregory Pakourianos, was defeated and killed in the ensuing battle. In 1087 the Pechenegs raided into Thrace, and Alexios crossed into Moesia to retaliate but failed to take Dorostolon (Silistra). During his retreat, the emperor was surrounded and worn down by the Pechenegs, who forced him to sign a truce and to pay protection money. In 1090 the Pechenegs invaded Thrace again, while Tzachas, the brother-in-law of the Sultan of Rum, launched a fleet and attempted to arrange a joint siege of Constantinople with the Pechenegs. Alexios overcame this crisis by entering into an alliance with a horde of 40,000 Cumans, with whose help he crushed the Pechenegs at Levounion in Thrace on 29 April 1091.\n\nThis put an end to the Pecheneg threat, but in 1094 the Cumans began to raid the imperial territories in the Balkans. Led by a pretender claiming to be Constantine Diogenes, a long-dead son of the Emperor Romanos IV, the Cumans crossed the mountains and raided into eastern Thrace until their leader was eliminated at Adrianople. With the Balkans more or less pacified, Alexios could now turn his attention to Asia Minor, which had been almost completely overrun by the Seljuq Turks.\n\n===Byzantine-Seljuq Wars and the First Crusade===\n\n\n\nBy the time Alexios ascended the throne, the Seljuqs had taken most of Asia Minor. Alexios was able to secure much of the coastal regions by sending peasant soldiers to raid the Seljuq camps, but these victories were unable to stop the Turks altogether. As early as 1090, Alexios had taken reconciliatory measures towards the Papacy, with the intention of seeking western support against the Seljuqs. In 1095 his ambassadors appeared before Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza. The help he sought from the West was simply some mercenary forces, not the immense hosts that arrived, to his consternation and embarrassment, after the pope preached the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont later that same year. Not quite ready to supply this number of people as they traversed his territories, the emperor saw his Balkan possessions subjected to further pillage at the hands of his own allies. Alexios dealt with the first disorganized group of Crusaders, led by the preacher Peter the Hermit, by sending them on to Asia Minor, where they were massacred by the Turks in 1096.\n\nThe second and much more formidable host of crusaders gradually made its way to Constantinople, led in sections by Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond of Taranto, Raymond IV of Toulouse, and other important members of the western nobility. Alexios used the opportunity to meet the crusader leaders separately as they arrived, extracting from them oaths of homage and the promise to turn over conquered lands to the Byzantine Empire. Transferring each contingent into Asia, Alexios promised to supply them with provisions in return for their oaths of homage. The crusade was a notable success for Byzantium, as Alexios recovered a number of important cities and islands. The siege of Nicaea by the crusaders forced the city to surrender to the emperor in 1097, and the subsequent crusader victory at Dorylaion allowed the Byzantine forces to recover much of western Asia Minor. John Doukas re-established Byzantine rule in Chios, Rhodes, Smyrna, Ephesus, Sardis, and Philadelphia in 1097–1099. This success is ascribed by Alexios' daughter Anna to his policy and diplomacy, but by the Latin historians of the crusade to his treachery and deception. In 1099, a Byzantine fleet of ten ships was sent to assist the crusaders in capturing Laodicea and other coastal towns as far as Tripoli. The crusaders believed their oaths were made invalid when the Byzantine contingent under Tatikios failed to help them during the siege of Antioch; Bohemund, who had set himself up as Prince of Antioch, briefly went to war with Alexios in the Balkans, but he was blockaded by the Byzantine forces and agreed to become a vassal of Alexios by the Treaty of Devol in 1108.\n\nIn 1116, though already terminally ill, Alexios conducted a series of defensive operations in Bythinia and Mysia to defend his Anatolian territories against the inroads of Malik Shah, the Seljuq Sultan of Iconium. In 1117 he moved onto the offensive and pushed his army deep into the Turkish-dominated Anatolian Plateau, where he defeated the Seljuq sultan at the Battle of Philomelion.\n\n===Personal life===\nDuring the last twenty years of his life Alexios lost much of his popularity. The years were marked by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies—one of his last acts was to publicly burn at the stake Basil, a Bogomil leader, with whom he had engaged in a theological dispute. In spite of the success of the First Crusade, Alexios also had to repel numerous attempts on his territory by the Seljuqs in 1110–1117.\n\nAlexios was for many years under the strong influence of an ''eminence grise'', his mother Anna Dalassene, a wise and immensely able politician whom, in a uniquely irregular fashion, he had crowned as ''Augusta'' instead of the rightful claimant to the title, his wife Irene Doukaina. Dalassena was the effective administrator of the Empire during Alexios' long absences in military campaigns: she was constantly at odds with her daughter-in-law and had assumed total responsibility for the upbringing and education of her granddaughter Anna Komnene.\n\n===Succession===\nAlexios' last years were also troubled by anxieties over the succession. Although he had crowned his son John II Komnenos co-emperor at the age of five in 1092, his wife, Irene Doukaina wished to alter the succession in favor of their daughter Anna and Anna's husband, Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger. Bryennios had been made ''kaisar'' (Caesar) and received the newly created title of ''panhypersebastos'' (\"honoured above all\"), and remained loyal to both Alexios and John. Nevertheless, the intrigues of Irene and Anna disturbed even Alexios' dying hours.\n", "Apart from all of his external enemies, a host of rebels also sought to overthrow Alexios from the imperial throne, thereby posing another major threat to his reign. Due to the troubled times the empire was enduring, he had by far the greatest number of rebellions against him of all the Byzantine emperors. These included:\n\n===Pre First Crusade===\n* Raictor, a Byzantine monk who claimed to be the emperor Michael VII. He presented himself to Robert Guiscard who used him as a pretext to launch his invasion of the Byzantine Empire.\n* A conspiracy in 1084 involving several senators and officers of the army. This was uncovered before too many followers were enlisted. In order to conceal the importance of the conspiracy, Alexios merely banished the wealthiest plotters and confiscated their estates.\n* Tzachas, a Seljuq Turkic emir who assumed the title of emperor in 1092.\n* Constantine Humbertopoulos, who had assisted Alexios in gaining the throne in 1081 conspired against him in 1091 with an Armenian called Ariebes.\n* John Komnenos, Alexios' nephew, governor of Dyrrachium, accused of a conspiracy by Theophylact of Bulgaria.\n* Theodore Gabras, the quasi-independent governor of Trebizond and his son Gregory.\n* Michael Taronites, the brother-in-law of Alexios.\n* Nikephoros Diogenes, the son of emperor Romanos IV.\n* Pseudo-Diogenes, an impostor who assumed the identity of another of Romanos' sons, Leo Diogenes.\n* Karykes, the leader of a revolt in Crete.\n* Rhapsomates, who tried to create an independent kingdom in Cyprus.\n\n===Post First Crusade===\n* Salomon, a senator of great wealth who in 1106 engaged in a plot with four brothers of the Anemas family.\n* Gregory Taronites, another governor of Trebizond.\n* The illegitimate descendant of a Bulgarian prince named Aron formed a plot in 1107 to murder Alexios as he was encamped near Thessalonica. The presence of the empress Irene and her attendants, however, made the execution of the plot difficult. In an attempt to have her return to Constantinople, the conspirators produced pamphlets that mocked and slandered the empress, and left them in her tent. A search for the author of the publications uncovered the whole plot, yet Aron was only banished due to his connection of the royal line of Bulgaria, whose blood also flowed in the veins of the empress Irene.\n", "Scyphate (cup-shaped) ''hyperpyron'' minted under Manuel I Komnenos.\nUnder Alexios the debased ''solidus'' (''tetarteron'' and ''histamenon'') was discontinued and a gold coinage of higher fineness (generally .900–.950) was established in 1092, commonly called the ''hyperpyron'' at 4.45 grs. The ''hyperpyron'' was slightly smaller than the ''solidus''.\n\nIt was introduced along with the electrum ''aspron trachy'' worth a third of a ''hyperpyron'' and about 25% gold and 75% silver, the billon ''aspron trachy'' or ''stamenon'', valued at 48 to the ''hyperpyron'' and with 7% silver wash and the copper ''tetarteron'' and ''noummion'' worth 18 and 36 to the billon ''aspron trachy''.\n\nAlexios' reform of the Byzantine monetary system was an important basis for the financial recovery and therefore supported the so-called Komnenian restoration, as the new coinage restored financial confidence.\n", "Rare seal of Alexios I with a depiction of the Resurrection\nAlexios I had overcome a dangerous crisis and stabilized the Byzantine Empire, inaugurating a century of imperial prosperity and success. He had also profoundly altered the nature of the Byzantine government. By seeking close alliances with powerful noble families, Alexios put an end to the tradition of imperial exclusivity and co-opted most of the nobility into his extended family and, through it, his government. Those who did not become part of this extended family were deprived of power and prestige. This measure, which was intended to diminish opposition, was paralleled by the introduction of new courtly dignities, like that of ''panhypersebastos'' given to Nikephoros Bryennios, or that of ''sebastokrator'' given to the emperor's brother Isaac Komnenos. Although this policy met with initial success, it gradually undermined the relative effectiveness of imperial bureaucracy by placing family connections over merit. Alexios' policy of integration of the nobility bore the fruit of continuity: every Byzantine emperor who reigned after Alexios I Komnenos was related to him by either descent or marriage.\n", "\nBy his marriage with Irene Doukaina, Alexios I had the following children:\n# Anna Komnene, who married the ''Caesar'' Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger.\n# Maria Komnene, who married (1) Gregory Gabras and (2) Nikephoros Katakalon.\n# John II Komnenos, who succeeded as emperor.\n# Andronikos Komnenos, ''sebastokrator''.\n# Isaac Komnenos, ''sebastokrator''.\n# Eudokia Komnene, who married the son of Constantine Iasites.\n# Theodora Komnene, who married (1) Constantine Kourtikes and (2) Constantine Angelos. By him she was the grandmother of Emperors Isaac II Angelos and Alexios III Angelos, as well as the progenitor of the ruling dynasty of the Despotate of Epirus.\n# Manuel Komnenos\n# Zoe Komnene.\n", "\nByzantine army (Komnenian era)\nList of Byzantine emperors\n", "\n", "\n===Primary Sources===\n\n\n===Secondary Sources===\n \n* \n* \n* \n\n \n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* , Vols. A1, A2 & B\n", "* Alexius coinage\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Life ", "Pretenders and rebels", "Reform of the monetary system", "Legacy", " Family ", "See also", "Notes", " Sources ", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Alexios I Komnenos
[ "'''Alexis''' (; c. 375 – c. 275 BC) was a Greek comic poet of the Middle Comedy period. He was born at Thurii (in present-day Calabria, Italy) in Magna Graecia and taken early to Athens, where he became a citizen, being enrolled in the deme ''Oion'' () and the tribe Leontides. It is thought he lived to the age of 106 and died on the stage while being crowned. According to the ''Suda'', a 10th-century encyclopedia, Alexis was the paternal uncle of the dramatist Menander and wrote 245 comedies, of which only fragments now survive, including some 130 preserved titles.\n", "It was said he had a son, called Stephanus, who also wrote comedies. He appears to have been rather addicted to the pleasures of the table, according to Athenaeus.\n\nHe won his first Lenaean victory in the 350s BC, most likely, where he was sixth after Eubulus, and fourth after Antiphanes. While being a Middle Comic poet, Alexis was contemporary with several leading figures of New Comedy, such as Philippides, Philemon, Diphilus, and even Menander. There is also some evidence that, during his old age, he wrote plays in the style of New Comedy.\n\nPlutarch says that he lived to the age of 106 and 5 months, and that he died on the stage while being crowned victor. He was certainly alive after 345 BC, for Aeschines mentions him as alive in that year. He was also living at least as late as 288 BC, from which his birth date is calculated. According to the ''Suda'' he wrote 245 comedies, of which only fragments including some 130 titles survive. His plays include ''Meropis'', ''Ankylion'', ''Olympiodoros'', ''Parasitos'' (exhibited in 360 BC, in which he ridiculed Plato), ''Agonis'' (in which he ridiculed Misgolas), and the ''Adelphoi'' and the ''Stratiotes'', in which he satirized Demosthenes, and acted shortly after 343 BC.\nAlso ''Hippeis'' (316 BC) (in which he referred to the decree of Sophocles against the philosophers), ''Pyraunos'' (312 BC), ''Pharmakopole'' (306 BC) , ''Hypobolimaios'' (306 BC), and ''Ankylion''.\n\nBecause he wrote a lot of plays, the same passages often appear in more than 3 plays. It was said that he also borrowed from Eubulus and many other playwrights in some of his plays. According to Carytius of Pergamum, Alexis was the first to use the part of the parasite. Alexis was known in Roman times; Aulus Gellius noted that Alexis' poetry was used by Roman comedians, including Turpilius and possibly Plautus.\n", "Only fragments have survived from any of Alexis's plays - about 340 in all, totaling about 1,000 lines. They attest to the author's wit and refinement, which Athenaeus praises. The surviving fragments also show that Alexis invented a great many words, mostly compound words, that he used normal words in an unusual way, and made strange and unusual forms of common words. The main sources of the fragments of Alexis are Stobaeus and Athenaeus.\n\nThe following 139 titles of Alexis's plays have been preserved:\n\n''Achaiis'' (\"The Achaean Woman\")\n''Adelphoi'' (\"The Brothers\")\n''Agonis'', or ''Hippiskos''\n''Aichmalotos'' (\"The Prisoner of War\")\n''Aiopoloi'' (\"Goat-Herders\")\n''Aisopos'' (\"Aesop\")\n''Aleiptria'' (\"Female Physical Trainer\")\n''Ampelourgos'' (\"The Vine-Dresser\")\n''Amphotis''\n''Ankylion''\n''Anteia''\n''Apeglaukomenos''\n''Apobates'' (\"The Trick Rider\")\n''Apokoptomenos''\n''Archilochos''\n''Asklepiokleides''\n''Asotodidaskalos'' (\"Teacher of Debauchery\")\n''Atalante''\n''Atthis''\n''Bomos'' (\"The Altar\")\n''Bostrychos'' (\"Lock of Hair\")\n''Brettia'' (\"The Bruttian Woman\")\n''Choregis''\n''Daktylios'' (\"The Ring\")\n''Demetrios'', or ''Philetairus''\n''Diapleousai'' (\"Women Sailing Across The Sea\")\n''Didymoi'' (\"The Twins\")\n''Dis Penthon'' (\"Twice Grieving\")\n''Dorkis'', or ''Poppyzousa'' (\"Lip-Smacking Woman\")\n''Dropides''\n''Eis To Phrear'' (\"Into The Well\")\n''Eisoikizomenos'' (\"The Banished Man\")\n''Ekkeryttomenos''\n''Ekpomatopoios'' (\"The Cup-Maker\")\n''Epidaurios'' (\"The Man From Epidaurus\")\n''Epikleros'' (\"The Heiress\")\n''Epistole'' (\"The Letter\")\n''Epitropos'' (\"The Guardian\", or \"Protector\")\n''Eretrikos'' (\"Man From Eretria\")\n''Erithoi'' (\"Weavers\"), or ''Pannychis'' (\"All-Night Festival\")\n''Galateia'' (\"Galatea\")\n''Graphe'' (\"The Document\")\n''Gynaikokratia'' (\"Government By Women\")\n''Helene'' (\"Helen\")\n''Helenes Arpage'' (\"Helen's Capture\")\n''Helenes Mnesteres'' (\"Helen's Suitors\")\n''Hellenis'' (\"The Greek Woman\")\n''Hepta Epi Thebais'' (\"Seven Against Thebes\")\n''Hesione'' (\"Hesione\")\n''Hippeis'' (\"Knights\")\n''Homoia''\n''Hypnos'' (\"Sleep\")\n''Hypobolimaios'' (\"The Changeling\")\n''Iasis'' (\"The Cure, or Remedy\")\n''Isostasion''\n''Kalasiris''\n''Karchedonios'' (\"The Man From Carthage\")\n''Katapseudomenos'' (\"The False Accuser\")\n''Kaunioi'' (\"The Men From Kaunos\")\n''Keryttomenos''\n''Kitharodos''\n''Kleobouline'' (\"Cleobuline\")\n''Knidia'' (\"The Woman From Cnidus\")\n''Koniates'' (\"Plasterer\")\n''Kouris'' (\"The Lady Hairdresser\")\n''Krateuas'', or ''Pharmakopoles'' (\"Pharmacist\")\n''Kybernetes'' (\"The Pilot or Helmsman\")\n''Kybeutai'' (\"The Dice-Players\")\n''Kyknos'' (\"The Swan\")\n''Kyprios'' (\"The Man from Cyprus\")\n''Lampas'' (\"The Torch\")\n''Lebes'' (\"The Cauldron\")\n''Leukadia'' (\"Woman From Leucas\"), or ''Drapetai'' (\"Female Runaways\")\n''Leuke''\n''Lemnia'' (\"The Woman From Lemnos\")\n''Linos'' (\"Linus\")\n''Lokroi'' (\"The Locrians\")\n''Lykiskos''\n''Mandragorizomene'' (\"Mandrake-Drugged Woman\")\n''Manteis'' (\"Diviners,\" or \"Seers\")\n''Meropis'' (\"Meropis\")\n''Midon'' (\"Midon\")\n''Milesia'' (\"Milesian Woman\")\n''Milkon'' (\"Milcon\")\n''Minos'' (\"Minos\")\n''Mylothros'' (\"The Miller\")\n''Odysseus Aponizomenos'' (\"Odysseus Washing Himself\")\n''Odysseus Hyphainon'' (\"Odysseus Weaving Cloth\")\n''Olympiodoros''\n''Olynthia'' (\"The Woman From Olynthos\")\n''Opora'' (\"Autumn\")\n''Orchestris'' (\"The Dancing-Girl\")\n''Orestes'' (\"Orestes\")\n''Pallake'' (\"The Concubine\")\n''Pamphile''\n''Pankratiastes''\n''Parasitos'' (\"The Parasite\")\n''Pezonike''\n''Phaidon'', or ''Phaidrias''\n''Phaidros'' (\"Phaedrus\")\n''Philathenaios'' (\"Lover of the Athenian People\")\n''Philiskos''\n''Philokalos'', or ''Nymphai'' (\"Nymphs\")\n''Philotragodos'' (\"Lover of Tragedies\")\n''Philousa''\n''Phryx'' (\"The Phrygian\")\n''Phygas'' (\"The Fugitive\")\n''Poietai'' (\"Poets\")\n''Poietria'' (\"The Poetess\")\n''Polykleia'' (\"Polyclea\")\n''Ponera'' (\"The Wicked Woman\")\n''Pontikos'' (\"The Man From Pontus\")\n''Proskedannymenos''\n''Protochoros'' (\"First Chorus\")\n''Pseudomenos'' (\"The Lying Man\")\n''Pylaia''\n''Pyraunos''\n''Pythagorizousa'' (\"Female Disciple of Pythagoras\")\n''Rhodion'', or ''Poppyzousa'' (\"Lip-Smacking Woman\")\n''Sikyonios'' (\"The Man From Sicyon\")\n''Skeiron''\n''Sorakoi''\n''Spondophoros'' (\"The Libation-Bearer\")\n''Stratiotes'' (\"The Soldier\")\n''Synapothneskontes'' (\"Men Dying Together\")\n''Syntrechontes''\n''Syntrophoi''\n''Syrakosios'' (\"Man From Syracuse\")\n''Tarantinoi'' (\"Men From Tarentum\")\n''Thebaioi'' (\"Men From Thebes\")\n''Theophoretos'' (\"Possessed by a God\")\n''Thesprotoi'' (\"Men From Thesprotia\")\n''Theteuontes'' (\"Serfs\")\n''Thrason'' (\"Thrason\")\n''Titthe'' (\"The Wet-Nurse\")\n''Tokistes'' (\"Money-Lender\"), or ''Katapseudomenos'' (\"The False Accuser\")\n''Traumatias'' (\"The Wounded Man\")\n''Trophonios'' (\"Trophonius\")\n''Tyndareos'' (\"Tyndareus\")\n\n", "Augustus Meineke. ''Poetarum Graecorum comicorum fragmenta'', (1855).\nTheodor Kock. ''Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta'', i. (1880).\nColin Austin and Rudolf Kassel. ''Poetae Comici Graeci''. vol. 2.\n\n", "\n", "Arnott, W. Geoffrey. Alexis: The Fragments. A Commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Surviving titles and fragments", "Editions of fragments", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Alexis (poet)
[ "\n\n\n'''Alexios II Komnenos''' or '''Alexius II Comnenus''' () (10 September 1169October 1183) was Byzantine emperor from 1180 to 1183. He was the son of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos and Maria, daughter of Raymond of Poitiers, prince of Antioch. He was the long-awaited male heir and was named Alexius as a fulfilment of the AIMA prophecy.\n", "On Manuel's death in 1180, Maria, who became a nun under the name Xene, took the position of regent (according to some historians). She excluded her young son from power, entrusting it instead to Alexios the ''prōtosebastos'' (a cousin of Alexios II), who was popularly believed to be her lover. Friends of the young Alexios II now tried to form a party against the empress mother and the ''prōtosebastos''; Alexios II's half-sister Maria, wife of Caesar John (Renier of Montferrat), stirred up riots in the streets of the capital.\n\nTheir party was defeated on 2 May 1182, but Andronikos Komnenos, a first cousin of Emperor Manuel, took advantage of the disorder to aim at the crown. He entered Constantinople, received with almost divine honours, and overthrew the government. His arrival was celebrated by a massacre of 80,000 Latins in Constantinople, especially the Venetian merchants, which he made no attempt to stop. He allowed Alexios II to be crowned but was responsible for the death of most of the young emperor's actual or potential defenders, including his mother, his half-sister, and the Caesar, and he refused to allow him any voice in public affairs.\n\nThe Empire in 1180, when Alexios II became Emperor.\n\nThe betrothal in 1180 of Alexios II to Agnes of France, daughter of Louis VII of France and his third wife Adèle of Champagne and at the time a child of nine, had not apparently been followed by their marriage. Andronikos was now formally proclaimed as co-emperor before the crowd on the terrace of the Church of Christ of the Chalkè, and not long afterwards, on the pretext that divided rule was injurious to the Empire, he caused Alexios II to be strangled with a bow-string in October 1183. During the reign of Alexius II, the Byzantine Empire was invaded by King Béla III, losing Syrmia and Bosnia to the Kingdom of Hungary in 1181; later even Dalmatia was lost to the Venetians. Kilij Arslan II invaded the empire in 1182, defeating the Byzantines at the Siege of Cotyaeum, resulting in the Empire losing Cotyaeum and Sozopolis.\n", "Alexios is a character in the historical novel ''Agnes of France'' (1980) by Greek writer Kostas Kyriazis. The novel describes the events of the reigns of Manuel I, Alexios II, and Andronikos I through the eyes of Agnes.\n", "\nList of Byzantine emperors\nPseudo-Alexios II\n", "\n\n", "* Harris, Jonathan, ''Byzantium and the Crusades'', Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n* , Vols. A1, A2 & B\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "His reign and death", "Portrayal in fiction", "See also", "Notes", "References" ]	Alexios II Komnenos
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Alexios III Angelos''' () (1211) was Byzantine Emperor from March 1195 to July 17/18, 1203. A member of the extended imperial family, Alexios came to throne after deposing, blinding, and imprisoning his younger brother Isaac II Angelos. The most significant event of his reign was the attack of the Fourth Crusade on Constantinople in 1203, on behalf of Alexios IV Angelos. Alexios III took over the defense of the city, which he mismanaged, then fled the city at night with one of his three daughters. From Adrianople, and then Mosynopolis, he unsuccessfully attempted to rally his supporters, only to end up a captive of Marquis Boniface of Montferrat. He was ransomed, sent to Asia Minor where he plotted against his son-in-law Theodore Laskaris, but was eventually arrested and spent his last days confined to the Monastery of Hyakinthos in Nicaea, where he died.\n", "Alexios III Angelos was the second son of Andronikos Doukas Angelos and Euphrosyne Kastamonitissa. Andronikos was himself a son of Theodora Komnene, the youngest daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. Thus Alexios Angelos was a member of the extended imperial family. Together with his father and brothers, Alexios had conspired against Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos (), and thus he spent several years in exile in Muslim courts, including that of Saladin.\n\nHis younger brother Isaac was threatened with execution under orders of Andronikos I, their first-cousin once-removed, on September 11, 1185. Isaac made a desperate attack on the imperial agents and soon killed their leader Stephen Hagiochristophorites. He then took refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia and from there appealed to the populace. His actions provoked a riot, which resulted in the deposition of Andronikos I and the proclamation of Isaac as Emperor. Alexios was now closer to the imperial throne than ever before.\n", "By 1190 Alexios had returned to the court of his younger brother, from whom he received the elevated title of ''sebastokratōr''. In March 1195 while Isaac II was away hunting in Thrace, Alexios was acclaimed as emperor by the troops with the covert support of Alexios' wife Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera. Alexios captured Isaac at Stagira in Macedonia, put out his eyes, and thenceforth kept him a close prisoner, despite having previously been redeemed by Alexios from captivity at Antioch and showered with honours.\n\nTo compensate for this crime and to solidify his position as emperor, Alexios had to scatter money so lavishly as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically defenceless. These actions inevitably led to the financial ruin of the state. At Christmas 1196, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI attempted to force Alexios to pay him a tribute of 5,000 pounds (later negotiated down to 1,600 pounds) of gold or face invasion. Alexios gathered the money by plundering imperial tombs at the church of the Holy Apostles and taxing the people heavily, though Henry's death in September 1197 meant the gold was never dispatched. The able and forceful empress Euphrosyne tried in vain to sustain his credit and his court; Vatatzes, the favourite instrument in her attempts at reform, was assassinated by the emperor's orders.\n\nIn the east the Empire was overrun by the Seljuk Turks; from the north, the Kingdom of Hungary and the rebellious Bulgarians and Vlachs descended unchecked to ravage the Balkan provinces of the Empire, sometimes penetrating as far as Greece, while Alexios squandered the public treasure on his palaces and gardens and attempted to deal with the crisis through diplomatic means. The Emperor's attempts to bolster the empire's defences by special concessions to pronoiars (notables) in the frontier zone backfired, as the latter increased their regional autonomy. Byzantine authority survived, but in a much weakened state.\n", "Soon Alexios was threatened by a new and more formidable danger. In 1202, soldiers assembled at Venice to launch the Fourth Crusade. Alexios IV Angelos, the son of the deposed Isaac II, had recently escaped from Constantinople and now appealed for support to the crusaders, promising to end the schism of East and West, to pay for their transport, and to provide military support if they would help him depose his uncle and ascend to his father's throne.\n\nThe crusaders, whose objective had been Egypt, were persuaded to set their course for Constantinople, arriving there in June 1203, proclaiming Alexios IV as Emperor, and inviting the populace of the capital to depose his uncle. Alexios III took no effective measures to resist, and his attempts to bribe the crusaders failed. His son-in-law, Theodore Laskaris, who was the only one to attempt anything significant, was defeated at Scutari, and the siege of Constantinople began. Unfortunately for the city, misgovernment by Alexios III had left the Byzantine navy with only 20 worm-eaten hulks by the time the crusaders arrived.\n\nIn July, the crusaders, led by the aged Doge Enrico Dandolo, scaled the walls and took control of a major section of the city. In the ensuing fighting, the crusaders set the city on fire, ultimately leaving 20,000 people homeless. On 17 July Alexios III finally took action and led 17 divisions from the St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering the crusaders. His courage failed, however, and the Byzantine army returned to the city without a fight. His courtiers demanded action, and Alexios III promised to fight. Instead, that night (July 17/18), Alexios III hid in the palace, and finally, with one of his daughters, Eirene, and as much treasure (1,000 pounds of gold) as he could collect, got into a boat and escaped to Debeltos in Thrace, leaving his wife and his other daughters behind. Isaac II, drawn from his prison and robed once more in the imperial purple, received his son, Alexios IV, in state.\n", "Alexios III attempted to organize resistance to the new regime from Adrianople and then Mosynopolis, where he was joined by the later usurper Alexios V Doukas ''Mourtzouphlos'' in April 1204, after the definitive fall of Constantinople to the crusaders and the establishment of the Latin Empire. At first Alexios III received Alexios V well, even allowing him to marry his daughter Eudokia Angelina. Later Alexios V was blinded and deserted by his father-in-law, who fled from the crusaders into Thessaly. Here Alexios III eventually surrendered, with Euphrosyne, to Marquis Boniface of Montferrat, who was establishing himself as ruler of the Kingdom of Thessalonica.\n\nAlexios III attempted to escape Boniface's \"protection\" in 1205, seeking shelter with Michael I Komnenos Doukas, the ruler of Epirus. Captured by Boniface, Alexios and his retinue were sent to Montferrat before being brought back to Thessalonica in . At that point the deposed emperor was ransomed by Michael I, who sent him to Asia Minor, where Alexios' son-in-law Theodore Laskaris - now emperor of Nicaea - was holding his own against the Latins. Here Alexios conspired against his son-in-law after the latter refused to recognize Alexios' authority, receiving the support of Kaykhusraw I, the sultan of Rûm. In the Battle of Antioch on the Meander in 1211, the sultan was defeated and killed, and Alexios was captured by Theodore Laskaris. Alexios was then confined to a monastery at Nicaea, where he died later in 1211.\n", "By his marriage to Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera, Alexios had three daughters:\n* Eirene Angelina, who married (1) Andronikos Kontostephanos, and (2) Alexios Palaiologos, by whom she was the grandmother of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.\n* Anna Angelina, who married (1) the ''sebastokratōr'' Isaac Komnenos, great-nephew of emperor Manuel I Komnenos, and (2) Theodore Laskaris, emperor of Nicaea.\n* Eudokia Angelina, who married (1) Serbian King Stefan Nemanjić, then (2) Emperor Alexios V Doukas, and (3) Leo Sgouros, ruler of Corinth.\n", "\nList of Byzantine emperors\n", "\n", " \n* Michael Angold, ''The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History'', second edition (London and New York, 1997)\n* C.M. Brand, ''Byzantium Confronts the West'' (Cambridge, MA, 1968)\n\n Jonathan Harris, ''Byzantium and the Crusades'', (2nd ed. London and New York, 2014). \n* Jonathan Harris, ''Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium'' (London and New York, 2007)\n* \n* \n* K. Varzos, ''Ē genealogia tōn Komnēnōn'' (Thessalonica, 1984)\n* \n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Reign", "Fourth Crusade", "Life in exile", "Family", "See also", "Notes", "References" ]	Alexios III Angelos
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Alexios V Doukas''' or '''Alexius V Ducas''' (; December 1204) was the Byzantine emperor from 5 February to 12 April 1204 during the second and final siege of Constantinople by the participants of the Fourth Crusade. He was a member of the Doukas family, nicknamed '''Mourtzouphlos''' or '''Murtzuphlus''' (), either in reference to bushy, overhanging eyebrows or a sullen, gloomy character.\n\nA Byzantine nobleman, his participation in the attempted overthrow of Alexios III Angelos by John Komnenos the Fat in 1200 had led to his imprisonment until the restoration to the throne of Isaac II Angelos. Isaac II, along with his son Alexios IV Angelos, were restored to the throne through the intervention of leaders of the Fourth Crusade in July 1203. Released, Murtzuphlus was allowed the court position of ''protovestiarios''. He had been married twice but was allegedly the lover of Eudokia Angelina, a daughter of Emperor Alexios III Angelos.\n\nBy the beginning of 1204, Isaac II and Alexios IV had inspired little confidence among the people of Constantinople in their efforts to defend the city from the Latins and Venetians, who were restless and rioted when the money and aid promised by Alexios IV was not forthcoming. Alexios Doukas emerged as a leader of the anti-Latin movement and personally led some skirmishes against the crusaders. When the populace rebelled in late January 1204, the two emperors barricaded themselves in the palace and entrusted Alexios Doukas with a mission to seek help from the crusaders. Instead, Alexios Doukas used his access to the palace to arrest the emperors. The young Alexios IV was strangled in prison, while his father Isaac died shortly afterwards, his death variously attributed to fright, sorrow, or foul play. Alexios V Doukas was crowned in early February 1204.\n\nAfter his coronation, Alexios V began to strengthen the defenses of Constantinople and ended negotiations with the Latins. It was too late, however, for the new Emperor to make much of a difference. An attempted surprise attack against the crusader camp failed despite the Emperor's personal leadership. During the ensuing fight, the defenders of Constantinople held out against the crusader counterattack of 9 April. The crusaders' second attack proved too strong to repel, and Alexios V fled towards Thrace on the night of 12 April 1204, accompanied by Eudokia Angelina and her mother Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera. Constantinople was under Latin control by the next day.\n\nThe refugees reached Mosynopolis, the base of the deposed emperor Alexios III Angelos, where they were initially well received, with Alexios V marrying Eudokia Angelina. Later, however, Alexios III arranged for his new son-in-law to be ambushed and blinded, making him ineligible for the imperial throne. Abandoned by his supporters and enemies alike, Alexios V was captured near Mosynopolis by the advancing Latins under Thierry de Loos in November 1204. Brought back to Constantinople, Alexios V was condemned to death for treason against Alexios IV, and was thrown from the top of the Column of Theodosius. He was the last Byzantine Emperor to reign in Constantinople before the establishment of the Latin Empire, which controlled the city for the next 57 years, until it was recovered by the Nicaean Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.\n", "\nList of Byzantine emperors\n", " Jonathan Harris, ''Byzantium and the Crusades'' (London and New York, 2nd ed., 2014). \n* \nJohn Julius Norwich, ''A Short History of Byzantium'' (London, 1999).\n Jonathan Phillips, ''The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople'' (London and New York, 2004)\n\n \n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References" ]	Alexios V Doukas
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Alexei Petrovich Romanov''' (28 February 1690- 7 July 1718) was a Russian Tsarevich. He was born in Moscow, the son of Tsar Peter I and his first wife, Eudoxia Lopukhina.\n", "The young Alexei was brought up by his mother, who fostered an atmosphere of disdain towards Peter the Great, Alexei's father. Alexei's relations with his father suffered from the hatred between his father and his mother, as it was very difficult for him to feel affection for his mother's worst persecutor. From the ages of 6 to 9, Alexei was educated by his tutor Vyazemsky, but after the removal of his mother by Peter the Great to the Suzdal Intercession Convent, Alexei was confined to the care of educated foreigners, who taught him history, geography, mathematics and French.\n", "In 1703, Alexei was ordered to follow the army to the field as a private in a bombardier regiment. In 1704, he was present at the capture of Narva. At this period, the preceptors of the Tsarevich had the highest opinion of his ability. Alexei had strong leanings towards archaeology and ecclesiology. However, Peter had wished his son and heir to dedicate himself to the service of new Russia, and demanded from him unceasing labour in order to maintain Russia's new wealth and power. Painful relations between father and son, quite apart from the prior personal antipathies, were therefore inevitable. It was an additional misfortune for Alexei that his father should have been too busy to attend to him just as he was growing up from boyhood to manhood. He was left in the hands of reactionary boyars and priests, who encouraged him to hate his father and wish for the death of the Tsar.\n\nGrand Duchess Charlotte of Russia\nIn 1708 Peter sent Alexei to Smolensk to collect provender and recruits, and after that to Moscow to fortify it against Charles XII of Sweden. At the end of 1709, Alexei went to Dresden for one year. There, he finished lessons in French, German, mathematics and fortification. After his education, Alexei married, Princess Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, whose family was connected by marriage to many of the great families of Europe (i.e., Charlotte's sister Elizabeth was married to Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, ruler of the Habsburg Monarchy). He met with Princess Charlotte, both were pleased with each other and the marriage went forward. In theory, Alexei could have refused the marriage, and he had been encouraged by his father to at least meet his intended. \"Why haven't you written to tell me what you thought about her?\" wrote Peter (in a tone that can only be guessed) in a letter dated 13 August 1710.\n\nThe marriage contract was signed in September. The wedding was celebrated at Torgau, Germany, on 14 October 1711. One of the terms of the marriage contract agreed to by Alexei was that while any forthcoming children were to be raised in the Orthodox faith, Charlotte herself was allowed to retain her Protestant faith, an agreement opposed by Alexei's followers.\n\nAs for the marriage itself, the first 6 months went well but quickly became a failure within 6 months. Alexis was drunk constantly and Alexei pronounced his bride \"pock-marked\" and \"too thin\". He insisted on separate apartments and ignored her in public.\n\nThree weeks later, the bridegroom was hurried away by his father to Toruń to superintend the provisioning of the Russian troops in Poland. For the next twelve months Alexei was kept constantly on the move. His wife joined him at Toruń in December, but in April 1712 a peremptory ukase ordered him off to the army in Pomerania, and in the autumn of the same year he was forced to accompany his father on a tour of inspection through Finland. Alexis in 1703\n\nHe had two children with Charlotte:\n\nNatalia Alexeievna Romanova (3 March 1714 – 3 November 1728)\nPeter Alexeyevich Romanov (23 October 1715 – 30 January 1730)\n\nPeter Alexeyevich would succeed as the Emperor Peter II in 1727. With his death in 1730, the direct male-line of the House of Romanov became extinct.\n\nAfter the birth of Natalia in 1714, Alexei brought his long-time Finnish serf mistress Afrosinia to live in the palace. Some historians speculate that it was his conservative powerbase's disapproval of his foreign, non-Orthodox bride, more so than her appearance, that caused Alexei to spurn Charlotte. Another influence was Alexander Kikin, a high-placed official who had fallen out with the Tsar and had been deprived of his estates.\n", "Immediately on his return from Finland, Alexei was dispatched by his father to Staraya Russa and Lake Ladoga to see to the building of new ships. This was the last commission entrusted to him, since Peter had not been satisfied with his son's performance and his lack of enthusiasm. Nevertheless, Peter made one last effort to \"reclaim\" his son. On 11 October 1715, Charlotte died, after giving birth to a son, the grand-duke Peter, the future Emperor Peter II. On the day of the funeral, Peter sent Alexei a stern letter, urging him to take interest in the affairs of the state. Peter threatened to cut him off if he did not acquiesce in his father's plans. Alexei wrote a pitiful reply to his father, offering to renounce the succession in favour of his infant son Peter. Peter would agree but on the condition that Alexei remove himself as a dynastic threat and become a monk.\n\nWhile Alexei was pondering his options, on 26 August 1716 Peter wrote to Alexei from abroad, urging him, if he desired to remain tsarevich, to join him and the army without delay. Rather than face this ordeal, Alexei fled to Vienna and placed himself under the protection of his brother-in-law, the emperor Charles VI, who sent him for safety first to the Tirolean fortress of Ehrenberg (near Reutte), and finally to the castle of Sant'Elmo at Naples. He was accompanied throughout his journey by Afrosinia. That the emperor sincerely sympathized with Alexei, and suspected Peter of harbouring murderous designs against his son, is plain from his confidential letter to George I of Great Britain, whom he consulted on this delicate affair. Peter felt insulted: the flight of the tsarevich to a foreign potentate was a reproach and a scandal, and he had to be recovered and brought back to Russia at all costs. This difficult task was accomplished by Count Peter Tolstoi, the most subtle and unscrupulous of Peter's servants.\n\n''Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich at Peterhof'', history painting by Nikolai Ge, 1871, Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow\n", "Alexei would only consent to return on his father solemnly swearing, that if he came back he should not be punished in the least, but cherished as a son and allowed to live quietly on his estates and marry Afrosinia.\n\nOn 31 January 1718, the tsarevich reached Moscow. Peter had already determined to institute a searching inquisition in order to get at the bottom of the mystery of the flight. On 18 February a \"confession\" was extorted from Alexei which implicated most of his friends, and he then publicly renounced the succession to the throne in favour of the baby grand-duke Peter Petrovich. A brutal reign of terror ensued, in the course of which the ex-tsaritsa Eudoxia was dragged from her monastery and publicly tried for alleged adultery, while all who had in any way befriended Alexei were impaled or broken on the wheel while having their flesh torn with red-hot pincers or their bare backs or bare feet slowly roasted over burning coals, and were otherwise lingeringly done to death. All this was done to terrorize the reactionaries and isolate the tsarevich.\n\nIn April 1718 fresh confessions were extorted from, and in regard to, Alexei. This included the words of Afrosinia, who had turned state's evidence. \"I shall bring back the old people...\" Alexei is reported to have told her,\n\"...and choose myself new ones according to my will;\nwhen I become sovereign I shall live in Moscow and leave Saint Petersburg simply as any other town; I won't launch any ships; I shall maintain troops only for defense, and won't make war on anyone; I shall be content with the old domains. In winter I shall live in Moscow, and in summer in Iaroslavl.\"\n\nDespite this and other hearsay evidence, there were no facts to go upon. The worst that could be brought against him was that he had wished his father's death. In the eyes of Peter, his son was now a self-convicted and most dangerous traitor, whose life was forfeit. But there was no getting over the fact that his father had sworn to pardon him and let him live in peace if he returned to Russia. The whole matter was solemnly submitted to a grand council of prelates, senators, ministers and other dignitaries on 13 June 1718. The clergy, for their part, declared the Tsarevich Alexei,\n\n\"...had placed his Confidence in those who loved the ancient Customs, and that he had become acquainted with them by the Discourses they held, wherein they had constantly praised the ancient Manners, and spoke with Distaste of the Novelties his Father had introduced.\"\n\nDeclaring this to be a civil rather than an ecclesiastical matter, the clergy left the matter to the tsar's own decision.\n\nAt noon on 24 June, the temporal dignitaries—the 126 members of both the Senate and magistrates that comprised the court—declared Alexei guilty and sentenced him to death. But the examination by torture continued, so desperate was Peter to uncover any possible collusion.\n\nOn 19 June, the weak and ailing tsarevich received twenty-five strokes with the knout, and then, on the 24th, he was subject to fifteen more. On 26 June, Alexei died in the Peter and Paul fortress in Saint Petersburg, two days after the senate had condemned him to death for conspiring rebellion against his father, and for hoping for the cooperation of the common people and the armed intervention of his brother-in-law, the emperor.\n", "\n\n;Attribution\n\n", "Matthew S. Anderson, ''Peter the Great'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978).\nRobert Nisbet Bain, ''The First Romanovs 1613–1725'' (London, 1905).\nRobert K. Massie, ''Peter the Great, His Life and World'' (New York: Ballantine, 1981).\nB.H. Sumner, ''Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia'' (London: 1950), pp 91–100.\nFredrick Charles Weber, ''The Present State of Russia'' (2 vols.), (1723; reprint, London: Frank Cass and Co, 1968).\n*Lindsey Hughes, ''Russia in the Age of Peter the Great'' (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Childhood", "Military career", "Flight", "Return", "References", "Further reading" ]	Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia
[ "\n\n\n'''Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn''' (; , ; 11 December 1918 – 3 August 2008) (often Romanized to Alexandr or Alexander) was a Russian novelist, historian, and short story writer. He was an outspoken critic of the Soviet Union and communism and helped to raise global awareness of its Gulag forced labor camp system. He was allowed to publish only one work in the Soviet Union, ''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' (1962), in the periodical ''Novy Mir''. After this he had to publish in the West, most notably ''Cancer Ward'' (1968), ''August 1914'' (1971), and ''The Gulag Archipelago'' (1973). Solzhenitsyn was awarded the 1970 Nobel Prize in Literature \"for the ethical force with which he has pursued the indispensable traditions of Russian literature\". Solzhenitsyn was afraid to go to Stockholm to receive his award for fear that he would not be allowed to reenter. He was eventually expelled from the Soviet Union in 1974, but returned to Russia in 1994 after the state's dissolution.\n", "\n===Early years===\nSolzhenitsyn was born in Kislovodsk, RSFSR (now in Stavropol Krai, Russia). His mother, Taisiya Zakharovna (née Shcherbak) was of Ukrainian descent. Her father had risen from humble beginnings to become a wealthy landowner, acquiring a large estate in the Kuban region in the northern foothills of the Caucasus. During World War I, Taisiya went to Moscow to study. While there she met and married Isaakiy Solzhenitsyn, a young officer in the Imperial Russian Army of Cossack origins and fellow native of the Caucasus region. The family background of his parents is vividly brought to life in the opening chapters of ''August 1914'', and in the later ''Red Wheel'' novels.\n\nIn 1918, Taisia became pregnant with Aleksandr. On 15 June, shortly after her pregnancy was confirmed, Isaakiy was killed in a hunting accident. Aleksandr was raised by his widowed mother and aunt in lowly circumstances. His earliest years coincided with the Russian Civil War. By 1930 the family property had been turned into a collective farm. Later, Solzhenitsyn recalled that his mother had fought for survival and that they had to keep his father's background in the old Imperial Army a secret. His educated mother (who never remarried) encouraged his literary and scientific learnings and raised him in the Russian Orthodox faith; she died in 1944.\n\nAs early as 1936, Solzhenitsyn began developing the characters and concepts for a planned epic work on World War I and the Russian Revolution. This eventually led to the novel ''August 1914'' – some of the chapters he wrote then still survive. Solzhenitsyn studied mathematics at Rostov State University. At the same time he took correspondence courses from the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History, at this time heavily ideological in scope. As he himself makes clear, he did not question the state ideology or the superiority of the Soviet Union until he spent time in the camps.\n\n===World War II===\nDuring the war Solzhenitsyn served as the commander of a sound-ranging battery in the Red Army, was involved in major action at the front, and twice decorated. He was awarded the Order of the Red Star on 8 July 1944 for sound-ranging two German artillery batteries and adjusting counterbattery fire onto them, resulting in their destruction.\n\nA series of writings published late in his life, including the early uncompleted novel ''Love the Revolution!'', chronicles his wartime experience and his growing doubts about the moral foundations of the Soviet regime.\n\nWhile serving as an artillery officer in East Prussia, Solzhenitsyn witnessed war crimes against local German civilians by Soviet military personnel. The noncombatants and the elderly were robbed of their meager possessions and women and girls were gang-raped to death. A few years later, in the forced labor camp, he memorized a poem entitled \"Prussian Nights\" about these incidents. In this poem, which describes the gang-rape of a Polish woman whom the Red Army soldiers mistakenly thought to be a German, the first-person narrator comments on the events with sarcasm and refers to the responsibility of official Soviet writers like Ilya Ehrenburg.\n\nIn ''The Gulag Archipelago'', Solzhenitsyn wrote, \"There is nothing that so assists the awakening of omniscience within us as insistent thoughts about one's own transgressions, errors, mistakes. After the difficult cycles of such ponderings over many years, whenever I mentioned the heartlessness of our highest-ranking bureaucrats, the cruelty of our executioners, I remember myself in my Captain's shoulder boards and the forward march of my battery through East Prussia, enshrouded in fire, and I say: 'So were ''we'' any better?'\"\n\n=== Imprisonment ===\n\nIn February 1945, while serving in East Prussia, Solzhenitsyn was arrested by SMERSH for writing derogatory comments in private letters to a friend, Nikolai Vitkevich, about the conduct of the war by Joseph Stalin, whom he called \"Khozyain\" (\"the boss\"), and \"Balabos\" (Yiddish rendering of Hebrew ''baal ha-bayit'' for \"master of the house\").\nHe was accused of anti-Soviet propaganda under Article 58 paragraph 10 of the Soviet criminal code, and of \"founding a hostile organization\" under paragraph 11.\nSolzhenitsyn was taken to the Lubyanka prison in Moscow, where he was interrogated. On 9 May 1945, it was announced that Germany had surrendered and all of Moscow broke out in celebrations with fireworks and searchlights illuminating the sky to celebrate the victory in the Great Patriotic War as Russians call the war with Germany. From his cell in the Lubyanka, Solzhenitsyn remembered: \"Above the muzzle of our window, and from all the other cells of the Lubyanka, and from all the windows of the Moscow prisons, we too, former prisoners of war and former front-line soldiers, watched the Moscow heavens, patterned with fireworks and crisscrossed with beams of searchlights. There was no rejoicing in our cells and no hugs and no kisses for us. That victory was not ours\". On 7 July 1945, he was sentenced in his absence by Special Council of the NKVD to an eight-year term in a labour camp. This was the normal sentence for most crimes under Article 58 at the time.\n\nThe first part of Solzhenitsyn's sentence was served in several different work camps; the \"middle phase,\" as he later referred to it, was spent in a ''sharashka'' (i.e., a special scientific research facility run by Ministry of State Security), where he met Lev Kopelev, upon whom he based the character of ''Lev Rubin'' in his book ''The First Circle'', published in a self-censored or \"distorted\" version in the West in 1968 (an English translation of the full version was eventually published by Harper Perennial in October 2009).\nIn 1950, he was sent to a \"Special Camp\" for political prisoners. During his imprisonment at the camp in the town of Ekibastuz in Kazakhstan, he worked as a miner, bricklayer, and foundry foreman. His experiences at Ekibastuz formed the basis for the book ''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich''. One of his fellow political prisoners, Ion Moraru, remembers that Solzhenitsyn spent some of his time at Ekibastuz writing.\nWhile there Solzhenitsyn had a tumor removed. His cancer was not diagnosed at the time.\n\nIn March 1953, after his sentence ended, Solzhenitsyn was sent to internal exile for life at Birlik''',''' a village in Baidibek district of South Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan (Kok-terek rural district). His undiagnosed cancer spread until, by the end of the year, he was close to death. In 1954, he was permitted to be treated in a hospital in Tashkent, where his tumor went into remission. His experiences there became the basis of his novel ''Cancer Ward'' and also found an echo in the short story \"The Right Hand.\" It was during this decade of imprisonment and exile that Solzhenitsyn abandoned Marxism and developed the philosophical and religious positions of his later life, gradually becoming a philosophically-minded Eastern Orthodox Christian as a result of his experience in prison and the camps.\nHe repented for some of his actions as a Red Army captain, and in prison compared himself to the perpetrators of the Gulag: \"I remember myself in my captain's shoulder boards and the forward march of my battery through East Prussia, enshrouded in fire, and I say: 'So were we any better?'\" His transformation is described at some length in the fourth part of ''The Gulag Archipelago'' (\"The Soul and Barbed Wire\"). The narrative poem ''The Trail'' (written without benefit of pen or paper in prison and camps between 1947 and 1952) and the 28 poems composed in prison, forced-labour camp, and exile also provide crucial material for understanding Solzhenitsyn's intellectual and spiritual odyssey during this period. These \"early\" works, largely unknown in the West, were published for the first time in Russian in 1999 and excerpted in English in 2006.\n\n===Marriages and children===\nOn 7 April 1940, while at the university, Solzhenitsyn married Natalia Alekseevna Reshetovskaya. They had just over a year of married life before he went into the army, then to the Gulag. They divorced in 1952, a year before his release, because wives of Gulag prisoners faced loss of work or residence permits. After the end of his internal exile, they remarried in 1957, divorcing a second time in 1972.\n\nThe following year Solzhenitsyn married his second wife, Natalia Dmitrievna Svetlova, a mathematician who had a son from a brief prior marriage. He and Svetlova (born 1939) had three sons: Yermolai (1970), Ignat (1972), and Stepan (1973).\n\nSolzhenitsyn's adopted son Dmitri Turin died on March 18, 1994, age 32 in Cavendish, Vermont, shortly before he could return with his father to Russia.\n\n===After prison===\nAfter Khrushchev's Secret Speech in 1956, Solzhenitsyn was freed from exile and exonerated. Following his return from exile, Solzhenitsyn was, while teaching at a secondary school during the day, spending his nights secretly engaged in writing. In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech he wrote that \"during all the years until 1961, not only was I convinced I should never see a single line of mine in print in my lifetime, but, also, I scarcely dared allow any of my close acquaintances to read anything I had written because I feared this would become known.\"\n\nIn 1960, aged 42, he approached Aleksandr Tvardovsky, a poet and the chief editor of the ''Novyi Mir'' magazine, with the manuscript of ''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich''. It was published in edited form in 1962, with the explicit approval of Nikita Khrushchev, who defended it at the presidium of the Politburo hearing on whether to allow its publication, and added: \"There's a Stalinist in each of you; there's even a Stalinist in me. We must root out this evil.\" The book quickly sold out and became an instant hit. In the 1960s, while he was publicly known to be writing ''Cancer Ward'', he was simultaneously writing ''The Gulag Archipelago''. During Khrushchev's tenure, ''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' was studied in schools in the Soviet Union, as were three more short works of Solzhenitsyn's, including his acclaimed short story ''Matryona's Home'', published in 1963. These would be the last of his works published in the Soviet Union until 1990.\n\n''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' brought the Soviet system of prison labour to the attention of the West. It caused as much of a sensation in the Soviet Union as it did in the West—not only by its striking realism and candor, but also because it was the first major piece of Soviet literature since the 1920s on a politically charged theme, written by a non-party member, indeed a man who had been to Siberia for \"libelous speech\" about the leaders, and yet its publication had been officially permitted. In this sense, the publication of Solzhenitsyn's story was an almost unheard of instance of free, unrestrained discussion of politics through literature. Most Soviet readers realized this, but after Khrushchev had been ousted from power in 1964, the time for such raw exposing works came to an end.\n\n===Later years in the Soviet Union===\n\nSolzhenitsyn made an unsuccessful attempt, with the help of Tvardovsky, to get his novel, ''Cancer Ward'', legally published in the Soviet Union. This had to get the approval of the Union of Writers. Though some there appreciated it, the work ultimately was denied publication unless it was to be revised and cleaned of suspect statements and anti-Soviet insinuations.\n\nAfter Krushchev's removal in 1964, the cultural climate again became more repressive. Publishing of Solzhenitsyn's work quickly stopped; as a writer, he became a non-person, and, by 1965, the KGB had seized some of his papers, including the manuscript of ''The First Circle''. Meanwhile, Solzhenitsyn continued to secretly and feverishly work upon the most well-known of all his writings, ''The Gulag Archipelago''. The seizing of his novel manuscript first made him desperate and frightened, but gradually he realized that it had set him free from the pretenses and trappings of being an \"officially acclaimed\" writer, something which had come close to second nature, but which was becoming increasingly irrelevant.\n\nAfter the KGB had confiscated Solzhenitsyn's materials in Moscow, during 1965–67 the preparatory drafts of ''The Gulag Archipelago'' were turned into finished typescript in hiding at his friends' homes in Estonia. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn had befriended Arnold Susi, a lawyer and former Estonian Minister of Education in a Lubyanka Prison cell. After completion, Solzhenitsyn's original handwritten script was kept hidden from the KGB in Estonia by Arnold Susi's daughter Heli Susi until the collapse of the Soviet Union.\n\nIn 1969 Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Union of Writers. In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. He could not receive the prize personally in Stockholm at that time, since he was afraid he would not be let back into the Soviet Union. Instead, it was suggested he should receive the prize in a special ceremony at the Swedish embassy in Moscow. The Swedish government refused to accept this solution because such a ceremony and the ensuing media coverage might upset the Soviet Union and damage Swedish-Soviet relations. Instead, Solzhenitsyn received his prize at the 1974 ceremony after he had been expelled from the Soviet Union.\n\n''The Gulag Archipelago'' was composed from 1958 to 1967. It was a three-volume, seven part work on the Soviet prison camp system (Solzhenitsyn never had all seven parts of the work in front of him at one time). The book was based upon Solzhenitsyn's own experience as well as the testimony of 256 former prisoners and Solzhenitsyn's own research into the history of the Russian penal system. It discussed the system's origins from the founding of the Communist regime, with Vladimir Lenin having responsibility, detailing interrogation procedures, prisoner transports, prison camp culture, prisoner uprisings and revolts, and the practice of internal exile. ''The Gulag Archipelago'' has sold over thirty million copies in thirty-five languages.\n\nAccording to fellow gulag historian Anne Applebaum, ''The Gulag Archipelago'''s rich and varied authorial voice, its unique weaving together of personal testimony, philosophical analysis, and historical investigation, and its unrelenting indictment of communist ideology made ''The Gulag Archipelago'' one of the most impactful books of the 20th century.\n\nEven though ''The Gulag Archipelago'' was not published in the Soviet Union, it was extensively criticized by the Party-controlled Soviet press. An editorial in ''Pravda'' on 14 January 1974 accused Solzhenitsyn of supporting \"Hitlerites\" and making \"excuses for the crimes of the Vlasovites and Bandera gangs.\" According to the editorial, Solzhenitsyn was \"choking with pathological hatred for the country where he was born and grew up, for the socialist system, and for Soviet people.\"\n\nDuring this period, he was sheltered by the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, who suffered considerably for his support of Solzhenitsyn and was eventually forced into exile himself.\n\nIn August 1971 the KGB allegedly made an attempt to assassinate Solzhenitsyn using an unknown biological agent (most likely ricin) with an experimental gel-based delivery method. The attempt left him seriously ill but was unsuccessful.\n\n===Expulsion from the Soviet Union===\n\nIn a discussion of its options in dealing with Solzhenitsyn the members of the Politburo considered his arrest and imprisonment and his expulsion to a socialist country. Guided by KGB chief Yury Andropov, and with encouraging statements from Willy Brandt, it was decided to deport the writer directly to West Germany.\n\n===In the West===\nSolzhenitsyn in Cologne, West Germany, in 1974\nOn 12 February 1974, Solzhenitsyn was arrested and deported the next day from the Soviet Union to Frankfurt, West Germany and stripped of his Soviet citizenship. The KGB had found the manuscript for the first part of ''The Gulag Archipelago'' and, less than a week later, Yevgeny Yevtushenko suffered reprisals for his support of Solzhenitsyn. U.S. military attaché William Odom managed to smuggle out a large portion of Solzhenitsyn's archive, including the author's membership card for the Writers' Union and Second World War military citations; Solzhenitsyn subsequently paid tribute to Odom's role in his memoir ''Invisible Allies'' (1995).\n\nIn West Germany, Solzhenitsyn lived in Heinrich Böll's house in Cologne. He then moved to Zürich, Switzerland before Stanford University invited him to stay in the United States to \"facilitate your work, and to accommodate you and your family.\" He stayed on the 11th floor of the Hoover Tower, part of the Hoover Institution, before moving to Cavendish, Vermont in 1976. He was given an honorary Literary Degree from Harvard University in 1978 and on Thursday, 8 June 1978 he gave his Commencement Address condemning, among other things, anthropocentrism in modern western culture.\n\nOver the next 17 years, Solzhenitsyn worked on his dramatized history of the Russian Revolution of 1917, ''The Red Wheel''. By 1992, four \"knots\" (parts) had been completed and he had also written several shorter works.\n\nDespite spending almost two decades in the United States, Solzhenitsyn did not become fluent in spoken English. He had, however, been reading English-language literature since his teens, encouraged by his mother. More importantly, he resented the idea of becoming a media star and of tempering his ideas or ways of talking in order to suit television. Solzhenitsyn's warnings about the dangers of Communist aggression and the weakening of the moral fiber of the West were generally well received in Western conservative circles (e.g. Ford administration staffers Richard Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld advocated on Solzhenitsyn's behalf for him to speak directly to President Gerald Ford about the Soviet threat), prior to and alongside the tougher foreign policy pursued by US President Ronald Reagan. At the same time, liberals and secularists became increasingly critical of what they perceived as his reactionary preference for Russian nationalism and the Russian Orthodox religion.\n\nSolzhenitsyn also harshly criticised what he saw as the ugliness and spiritual vapidity of the dominant pop culture of the modern West, including television and much of popular music: \"...the human soul longs for things higher, warmer, and purer than those offered by today's mass living habits... by TV stupor and by intolerable music.\" Despite his criticism of the \"weakness\" of the West, Solzhenitsyn always made clear that he admired the political liberty which was one of the enduring strengths of western democratic societies. In a major speech delivered to the International Academy of Philosophy in Liechtenstein on 14 September 1993, Solzhenitsyn implored the West not to \"lose sight of its own values, its historically unique stability of civic life under the rule of law—a hard-won stability which grants independence and space to every private citizen.\"\n\nIn a series of writings, speeches, and interviews after his return to his native Russia in 1994, Solzhenitsyn spoke about his admiration for the local self-government he had witnessed first hand in Switzerland and New England. He \"praised 'the sensible and sure process of grassroots democracy, in which the local population solves most of its problems on its own, not waiting for the decisions of higher authorities.'\" Solzhenitsyn's patriotism was inward-looking. He called for Russia to \"renounce all mad fantasies of foreign conquest and begin the peaceful long, long long period of recuperation,\" as he put it in a 1979 BBC interview with Janis Sapiets.\n\n===Return to Russia===\nAleksandr Solzhenitsyn looks out from a train, in Vladivostok, summer 1994, before departing on a journey across Russia. Solzhenitsyn returned to Russia after nearly 20 years in exile.\nIn 1990, his Soviet citizenship was restored, and, in 1994, he returned to Russia with his wife, Natalia, who had become a United States citizen. Their sons stayed behind in the United States (later, his oldest son Yermolai returned to Russia to work for the Moscow office of a leading management consultancy firm). From then until his death, he lived with his wife in a dacha in Troitse-Lykovo (Троице-Лыково) in west Moscow between the dachas once occupied by Soviet leaders Mikhail Suslov and Konstantin Chernenko. A staunch believer in traditional Russian culture, Solzhenitsyn expressed his disillusionment with post-Soviet Russia in works such as ''Rebuilding Russia'', and called for the establishment of a strong presidential republic balanced by vigorous institutions of local self-government. The latter would remain his major political theme. Solzhenitsyn also published eight two-part short stories, a series of contemplative \"miniatures\" or prose poems, a literary memoir on his years in the West (''The Grain Between the Millstones''), among many other writings. Once back in Russia Solzhenitsyn hosted a television talk show program. Its eventual format was Solzhenitsyn delivering a 15-minute monologue twice a month; it was discontinued in 1995.\n\nAll of Solzhenitsyn's sons became US citizens. One, Ignat, is acclaimed as a pianist and conductor in the United States.\n", "Solzhenitsyn died of heart failure near Moscow on 3 August 2008, at the age of 89. A burial service was held at Donskoy Monastery, Moscow, on Wednesday, 6 August 2008. He was buried the same day in the monastery in a spot he had chosen. Russian and world leaders paid tribute to Solzhenitsyn following his death.\n", "Solzhenitsyn with Vladimir Putin.\nSolzhenitsyn in 1998\nThe most complete 30-volume edition of Solzhenitsyn's collected works is soon to be published in Russia. The presentation of its first three volumes, already in print, recently took place in Moscow. Unhappy with the economic and social malaise of the Yeltsin era, Solzhenitsyn expressed his admiration for President Vladimir Putin's attempts to restore a sense of national pride. Putin signed a decree conferring on Solzhenitsyn the State Prize of the Russian Federation for his humanitarian work and personally visited the writer at his home on 12 June 2007 to present him with the award.\n\nYermolai Solzhenitsyn has translated some of his father's works. Stepan Solzhenitsyn lives and works in Moscow. Ignat Solzhenitsyn is the music director of The Chamber Orchestra of Philadelphia.\n", "On 8 August 1971, Solzhenitsyn was poisoned with what was later determined to be ricin, but survived.\n\nOn 19 September 1974, Yuri Andropov approved a large-scale operation to discredit Solzhenitsyn and his family and cut his communications with Soviet dissidents. The plan was jointly approved by Vladimir Kryuchkov, Philipp Bobkov, and Grigorenko (heads of First, Second and Fifth KGB Directorates). The residencies in Geneva, London, Paris, Rome and other European cities participated in the operation. Among other active measures, at least three StB agents became translators and secretaries of Solzhenitsyn (one of them translated the poem Prussian Nights), keeping KGB informed regarding all contacts by Solzhenitsyn.\n\nThe KGB sponsored a series of hostile books about Solzhenitsyn, most notably a \"memoir published under the name of his first wife, Natalia Reshetovskaya, but probably mostly composed by Service\", according to historian Christopher Andrew. Andropov also gave an order to create \"an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion between Pauk and the people around him\" by feeding him rumors that everyone in his surrounding was a KGB agent and deceiving him in all possible ways. Among other things, the writer constantly received envelopes with photographs of car accidents, brain surgery and other frightening illustrations. After the KGB harassment in Zürich, Solzhenitsyn settled in Cavendish, Vermont, reduced communications with others and surrounded his property with a barbed wire fence. His influence and moral authority for the West diminished as he became increasingly isolated and critical of Western individualism. KGB and CPSU experts finally concluded that he alienated American listeners by his \"reactionary views and intransigent criticism of the US way of life\", so no further active measures would be required.\n", "\n=== \"Men have forgotten God\"===\nRegarding atheism, Solzhenitsyn declared:\n\n\n===On Russia and the Jews===\nIn his 1974 essay \"Repentance and Self-Limitation in the Life of Nations\", Solzhenitsyn called for Russian Gentiles and Jews alike to take moral responsibility for the \"renegades\" from both communities who enthusiastically created a Marxist-Leninist police state after the October Revolution. In a November 13, 1985 review of Solzhenitsyn's novel ''August 1914'' in the ''New York Times'', Jewish-American historian Richard Pipes commented: \"Every culture has its own brand of anti-Semitism. In Solzhenitsyn's case, it's not racial. It has nothing to do with blood. He's certainly not a racist; the question is fundamentally religious and cultural. He bears some resemblance to Fyodor Dostoyevsky, who was a fervent Christian and patriot and a rabid anti-Semite. Solzhenitsyn is unquestionably in the grip of the Russian extreme right's view of the Revolution, which is that it was the doing of the Jews\".\n\nJewish Holocaust survivor Elie Wiesel denied this claim and insisted that Solzhenitsyn was not an anti-Semite: \"He is too intelligent, too honest, too courageous, too great a writer.\" He added he wished Solzhenitsyn were more sensitive to Jewish suffering, but believed his insensitivity to be unconscious.\n\nIn his 1998 book ''Russia in Collapse'', Solzhenitsyn excoriated the Russian extreme right's obsession with anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic conspiracy theories.\n\nIn 2001, however, Solzhenitsyn published a two-volume work on the history of Russian-Jewish relations (''Two Hundred Years Together'' 2001, 2002). A bestseller in Russia, the book triggered renewed accusations of anti-Semitism.\n\nThe controversy was fueled by the similarities between ''Two Hundred Years Together'' and an anti-Semitic essay titled \"Jews in the USSR and in the Future Russia\". According to professor of Jewish history Semyon Reznik, textological analyses of the essay indicate Solzhenitsyn's authorship. Solzhenitsyn responded by saying that the essay was written using manuscripts stolen from him by the KGB forty years before. They were then carefully edited as part of the Soviet State's \"active measures\" against him.\n\n===On Post-Soviet Russia===\nIn some of his later political writings, such as ''Rebuilding Russia'' (1990) and ''Russia in Collapse'' (1998), Solzhenitsyn criticized the oligarchic excesses of the new Russian 'democracy,' while opposing any nostalgia for Soviet Communism. He defended moderate and self-critical patriotism (as opposed to extreme nationalism), urged local self-government to a free Russia, and expressed concerns for the fate of the 25 million ethnic Russians in the \"near abroad\" of the former Soviet Union.\n\nIn a 2007 interview with ''Der Spiegel'', Solzhenitsyn expressed disappointment that the \"conflation of 'Soviet' and 'Russian', against which I spoke so often in the 1970s, has not passed away in the West, in the ex-socialist countries, or in the former Soviet republics. The elder political generation in communist countries is not ready for repentance, while the new generation is only too happy to voice grievances and level accusations, with present-day Moscow as a convenient target. They behave as if they heroically liberated themselves and lead a new life now, while Moscow has remained communist. Nevertheless, I dare to hope that this unhealthy phase will soon be over, that all the peoples who have lived through communism will understand that communism is to blame for the bitter pages of their history.\"\n\n===The West===\nDelivering the commencement address at Harvard University in 1978, he called the United States spiritually weak and mired in vulgar materialism. Americans, he said, speaking in Russian through a translator, suffered from a \"decline in courage\" and a \"lack of manliness.\" Few were willing to die for their ideals, he said. He condemned both the United States government and American society for its \"hasty\" capitulation in the Vietnam War. He criticized the country's music as intolerable and attacked its unfettered press, accusing it of violations of privacy. He said that the West erred in measuring other civilizations by its own model. While faulting Soviet society for denying fair legal treatment of people, he also faulted the West for being too legalistic: \"A society which is based on the letter of the law and never reaches any higher is taking very scarce advantage of the high level of human possibilities.\" Solzhenitsyn also argued that the West erred in \"denying Russian culture's autonomous character and therefore never understood it\".\n\n===Communism, Russia, and nationalism===\nSolzhenitsyn emphasized the significantly more oppressive character of the Soviet totalitarian regime, in comparison to the Russian Empire of the House of Romanov. He asserted that Imperial Russia did not practice any real censorship in the style of the Soviet Glavlit, that political prisoners typically were not forced into labor camps, and that the number of political prisoners and exiles was only one ten-thousandth of those in the Soviet Union. He noted that the Tsar's secret police, or Okhrana, was only present in the three largest cities, and not at all in the Imperial Russian Army.\n\nShortly before his return to Russia, Solzhenitsyn delivered a speech in Lucs-sur-Boulogne to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Vendée Uprising. During his speech, Solzhenitsyn compared Lenin's Bolsheviks with the Jacobin Party during the French Revolution. He also compared the Vendean rebels with the Russian, Ukrainian, and Cossack peasants who rebelled against the Bolsheviks, saying that both were destroyed mercilessly by revolutionary despotism. However, he commented that, while the French Reign of Terror ended with the toppling of the Jacobins and the execution of Maximilien Robespierre, its Soviet equivalent continued to accelerate until the Khrushchev thaw of the 1950s.\n\nAccording to Solzhenitsyn, Russians were not the ruling nation in the Soviet Union. He believed that all the traditional culture of all ethnic groups were equally oppressed in favor of an atheism and Marxist-Leninism. Russian culture was even more repressed than any other culture in the Soviet Union, since the regime was more afraid of ethnic uprisings among Russian Christians than among any other ethnicity. Therefore, Solzhenitsyn argued, Russian nationalism and the Orthodox Church should not be regarded as a threat by the West but rather as allies.\n\nIn \"Rebuilding Russia,\" an essay first published in 1990 in ''Komsomolskaya Pravda'' Solzhenitsyn urged Russia to grant independence to all the non-Slav republics, which he claimed were sapping the Russian nation and he called for the creation of a new Slavic state bringing together Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and parts of Kazakhstan that he considered to be Russified.\n\nIn 2006 Solzhenitsyn accused NATO of trying to bring Russia under its control; he claimed this was visual because of its \"ideological support for the 'colour revolutions' and the paradoxical forcing of North Atlantic interests on Central Asia\". In an 2006 interview with ''Der Spiegel'' he stated \"This was especially painful in the case of Ukraine, a country whose closeness to Russia is defined by literally millions of family ties among our peoples, relatives living on different sides of the national border. At one fell stroke, these families could be torn apart by a new dividing line, the border of a military bloc.\"\n\nDaniel J. Mahoney, however, has accused those who paint Solzhenitsyn as an uncritical adherent of Tsarism of \"traducing\" his real philosophy. Mahoney has written, \"...if one opens almost any page of Solzhenitsyn's 1994 essay \"The Russian Question\" at the End of the Twentieth Century\" one finds Solzhenitsyn attacking the cruelties and injustice of serfdom, faulting Tsarist authorities for their blindness about the need for political liberty in Russia, and for their wasting of the nation's strength in unnecessary and counterproductive foreign adventures. Moreover, he attacks Pan-Slavism, the idea that Russia had a mission to unite Slavic peoples and to come to the defense of the Orthodox wherever they were under threat, as a 'wretched idea'.\"\n\n===The Holodomor===\nSolzhenitsyn gave a speech to AFL–CIO in Washington, D.C. on 30 June 1975, where he mentioned how the system created by Bolsheviks in 1917 caused dozens of problems in the Soviet Union. He described how this system \"in time of peace, artificially created a famine, causing 6 million people to die in the Ukraine in 1932 and 1933.\" Following this, he stated that \"they died on the very edge of Europe. And Europe didn't even notice it. The world didn't even notice it—6 million people!\" Solzhenitsyn opined on 2 April 2008 in ''Izvestia'' that the 1930s famine in the Ukraine was no different from the Russian famine of 1921 as both were caused by the ruthless robbery of peasants by Bolshevik grain procurements. He claimed that the \"provocatory shriek about a 'genocide' was started in the minds of Ukrainian chauvinists decades later, who are also viciously opposed to 'Moskals.'\" The writer cautioned that the genocidal claim has its chances to be accepted by the West due to the general western ignorance of Russian and Ukrainian history.\n\n===World War II===\nSolzhenitsyn criticized the Allies for not opening a new front against Nazi Germany in the west earlier in World War II. This resulted in Soviet domination and oppression of the nations of Eastern Europe. Solzhenitsyn claimed the Western democracies apparently cared little about how many died in the East, as long as they could end the war quickly and painlessly for themselves in the West.\n\n===Vietnam War===\nOnce in the United States, Solzhenitsyn urged the United States to reconsider its attitude towards the Vietnam War (which had ended in April 1975). In his commencement address at Harvard University in 1978, Solzhenitsyn alleged that many in the U.S. did not understand the Vietnam War. He rhetorically asked if the American Anti-War Movement ever realized the contemptuous laughter which, he said, their actions had always provoked among the elderly men in the Soviet Politburo. Solzhenitsyn also accused American anti-war activists of moral responsibility for the political repression that followed the Fall of Saigon: \"But members of the U.S. antiwar movement wound up being involved in the betrayal of Far Eastern nations, in a genocide and in the suffering today imposed on 30 million people there. Do those convinced pacifists hear the moans coming from there?\"\n", "\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* \n* , a.k.a. ''The Prisoner and the Camp Hooker'' or ''The Tenderfoot and the Tart''.\n* .\n* . The beginning of a history of the birth of the USSR. Centers on the disastrous loss in the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914, and the ineptitude of the military leadership. Other works, similarly titled, follow the story: see The Red Wheel (overall title).\n* (3 vols.), not a memoir, but a history of the entire process of developing and administering a police state in the Soviet Union.\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* ; separate publication of chapters on Vladimir Lenin, none of them published before this point, from ''The Red Wheel''. The first of them was later incorporated into the 1984 edition of the expanded ''August 1914'' (though it had been written at the same time as the original version of the novel) and the rest in ''November 1916'' and ''March 1917''.\n* .\n* (Also here with video)\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* \n* \n* on Russian-Jewish relations since 1772, aroused ambiguous public response.\n* .\n", "Solzhenitsyn's philosophy plays a key role in the 2012 film ''Cloud Atlas'', where a character previously kept ignorant and subservient is illegally educated, and is shown reading and quoting his works.\n\n===TV documentaries on Solzhenitsyn===\nIn 1998, Russian filmmaker Alexander Sokurov shot TV documentary ''Besedy s Solzhenitsynym'' (''The Dialogues with Solzhenitsyn'') of four parts. The documentary shot in Solzhenitsyn's home shows his everyday life and covers his reflections on Russian history and literature.\n\nOn 12 December 2009, the Russian channel ''Rossiya K'' showed the French television documentary ''L'Histoire Secrète de l'Archipel du Goulag'' The Secret History of the Goulag Archipel made by Jean Crépu and Nicolas Miletitch and translated into Russian under the title ''Taynaya Istoriya \"Arkhipelaga Gulag\"'' (''Secret History: The Gulag Archipelago''). The documentary covers events related to creation and publication of ''The Gulag Archipelago''.\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* \nKriza, Elisa (2014) ''Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Cold War Icon, Gulag Author, Russian Nationalist? A Study of the Western Reception of his Literary Writings, Historical Interpretations, and Political Ideas''. Stuttgart: Ibidem Press. \n \n* \n* \n", "\n\n===Biographies===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n===Reference works===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* .\n* ; Prof. Vittorio Strada, Dott. Julija Dobrovol'skaja.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Anatoly Livry, « Soljénitsyne et la République régicide », Les Lettres et Les Arts, Cahiers suisses de critique littéraire et artistiques, Association de la revue Les Lettres et les Arts, Suisse, Vicques, 2011, pp. 70–72. http://anatoly-livry.e-monsite.com/medias/files/soljenitsine-livry-1.pdf\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* \n* \n* .\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* .\n* \n* .\n* \n* .\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* .\n* \n* .\n* \n\n", "\n\n* \n* The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970\n* The Nobel Prize Internet Archive's page on Solzhenitsyn\n* Negative Analysis of Alexander Solzhenitsyn by the ''Stalin Society''\n* .\n* Der Spiegel interviews Alexander Solzhenitsyn: 'I Am Not Afraid of Death' ''Der Spiegel'' 23 July 2007\n* Vermont Recluse Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn\n* The Solzhenitsyn Reader: New and Essential Writings, 1947–2005\n* \n* The Leaders and the Dreamers – Russia Profile\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Death", "Legacy", "KGB operations against Solzhenitsyn", "Views on history and politics", "Published works and speeches", "Popular media", "Notes", "References", "Bibliography", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
[ "\n\nThe coat of arms of Benedict XIII displayed the papal tiara and cross. During this period, papal heraldry varied greatly and the crossed keys had not yet fully developed as a symbol of the papacy.\n\nAn '''antipope''' () is a person who, in opposition to the one who is generally seen as the legitimately elected Pope, makes a significantly accepted competing claim to be the Pope, the Bishop of Rome and leader of the Catholic Church. At times between the 3rd and mid-15th century, antipopes were supported by a fairly significant faction of religious cardinals and secular monarchs and kingdoms. Persons who claim to be pope, but have few followers, such as the modern sedevacantist antipopes, are not classified with the historical antipopes.\n", "Hippolytus of Rome (d. 235) is commonly considered to be the earliest antipope, as he headed a separate group within the Church in Rome against Pope Callixtus I. Hippolytus was reconciled to Callixtus's second successor, Pope Pontian, and both he and Pontian are honoured as saints by the Roman Catholic Church with a shared feast day on 13 August. Whether two or more persons have been confused in this account of Hippolytus and whether Hippolytus actually declared himself to be the Bishop of Rome, remains unclear, since no such claim by Hippolytus has been cited in the writings attributed to him.\n\nEusebius quotes from an unnamed earlier writer the story of Natalius, a 3rd-century priest who accepted the bishopric of the Adoptionists, a heretical group in Rome. Natalius soon repented and tearfully begged Pope Zephyrinus to receive him into communion.\n\nNovatian (d. 258), another third-century figure, certainly claimed the See of Rome in opposition to Pope Cornelius, and if Natalius and Hippolytus were excluded because of the uncertainties concerning them, Novatian could then be said to be the first antipope.\n\nThe period in which antipopes were most numerous was during the struggles between the popes and the Holy Roman Emperors of the 11th and 12th centuries. The emperors frequently imposed their own nominees to further their own causes. The popes, likewise, sometimes sponsored rival imperial claimants (anti-kings) in Germany to overcome a particular emperor.\n\nThe Western Schism — which began in 1378, when the French cardinals, claiming that the election of Pope Urban VI was invalid, elected antipope Clement VII as a rival to the Roman Pope — led eventually to two competing lines of antipopes: the Avignon line (Clement VII took up residence in Avignon, France), and the Pisan line. The Pisan line was named after the town of Pisa, Italy, where the (Pisan) council had elected antipope Alexander V as a third claimant. To end the schism, in May 1415, the Council of Constance deposed antipope John XXIII of the Pisan line. Pope Gregory XII of the Roman line resigned in July 1415. In 1417, the Council also formally deposed antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon, but he refused to resign. Afterwards, Pope Martin V was elected and was accepted everywhere except in the small and rapidly diminishing area that remained faithful to Benedict XIII. The scandal of the Western Schism created anti-papal sentiment and fed into the Protestant Reformation at the turn of the 16th century.\n", "\nThe following table gives the names of the antipopes included in the list of popes and antipopes in the ''Annuario Pontificio'', with the addition of the names of Natalius (in spite of doubts about his historicity) and Antipope Clement VIII (whose following was insignificant).\n \nAn asterisk marks those who were included in the conventional numbering of later Popes who took the same name. More commonly, the antipope is ignored in later papal regnal numbers; for example, there was an Antipope John XXIII, but the new Pope John elected in 1958 was also called John XXIII. For the additional confusion regarding Popes named John, see Pope John (numbering).\n\nThe list of popes and antipopes in the ''Annuario Pontificio'' attaches the following note to the name of Pope Leo VIII (963–965):\n\nAt this point, as again in the mid-11th century, we come across elections in which problems of harmonising historical criteria and those of theology and canon law make it impossible to decide clearly which side possessed the legitimacy whose factual existence guarantees the unbroken lawful succession of the successors of Saint Peter. The uncertainty that in some cases results has made it advisable to abandon the assignation of successive numbers in the list of the popes.\n\n\nThus, because of the obscurities about mid-11th-century canon law and the historical facts, the ''Annuario Pontificio'' lists Sylvester III as a pope, without thereby expressing a judgement on his legitimacy. The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' places him in its ''List of Popes'', but with the annotation: \"Considered by some to be an antipope\". Other sources classify him as an antipope.\n\nThose with asterisks () were counted in subsequent Papal numbering.\n\n\n Pontificate\n Common English name\n Regnal (Latin) name\n Personal name\n Place of birth\n Age at Election / Death or Resigned\n # years as Antipope\n Notes\n In opposition to\n\n c. 199 - c. 200 \nNatalius \n \n \n \n \n \n Later reconciled (see above) \n Zephyrinus\n\n 217–235 \n Saint Hippolytus \n Hippolytus \n \n \n \n \n Later reconciled with Pope Pontian (see above) \n Callixtus I\n\nUrban I\n\nPontian\n\n 251–258 \nNovatian \n Novatianus \n \n \n \n \n Founder of Novatianism \n Cornelius\n\nLucius I\n\nStephen I\n\nSixtus II\n\n c. 309/310 \nHeraclius \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Eusebius\n\n355–365 \nFelix II \n Felix secundus \n \n \n \n \n Installed by Roman Emperor Constantius II \n Liberius\n\n366–367 \nUrsicinus \n Ursicinus \n Ursinus \n \n \n \n \n Damasus I\n\n418–419 \nEulalius \n Eulalius \n \n \n \n \n \n Boniface I\n\n498–499 501–506 \nLaurentius \n Laurentius \n \n \n \n \n Supported by Byzantine emperor Anastasius I \n Symmachus\n\n530 \nDioscorus \n Dioscurus \n \n \n \n \n \n Boniface II\n\n687 \nTheodore \n Theodorus \n \n \n \n \n \n Sergius I\n\n687 \nPaschal (I) \n Paschalis \n \n \n \n \n\n\n767–768 \nConstantine II \n Constantinus secundus \n \n \n \n \n \n Between Paul I and Stephen III\n\n768 \nPhilip \n Philippus \n \n \n \n \n Installed by envoy of Lombard King Desiderius \n Stephen III\n\n844 \nJohn VIII \n Joannes octavus \n \n \n \n \n Elected by acclamation \n Sergius II\n\n855 \nAnastasius III Bibliothecarius \n Anastasius tertius \n \n \n \n \n \n Benedict III\n\n903–904 \nChristopher \n Christophorus \n \n \n \n \n \nBetween Leo V and Sergius III\n\n974 \nBoniface VII* \n Bonifacius \n \n \n \n \n \nBetween Benedict VI and Benedict VII\n\n984–985 \n Between John XIV and John XV\n\n997–998 \nJohn XVI* \n Joannes \n John Filagatto \n \n \n \n Supported by Byzantine emperor Basil II \n Gregory V\n\n1012 \nGregory VI \n Gregorius \n \n \n \n \n \n Benedict VIII\n\n1058–1059 \nBenedict X* \n Benedictus \n John Mincius \n \n \n \n Supported by the Counts of Tusculum \n Nicholas II\n\n1061–1064 \n Honorius II \n Honorius \n Pietro Cadalus \n \n \n \n Supported by Agnes, regent of the Holy Roman Empire \n Alexander II\n\n 1080, 1084–1100 \nClement III \n Clemens \n Guibert of Ravenna \n \n \n \nSupported by Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor \n Gregory VII\n\nVictor III\n\nUrban II\n\nPaschal II\n\n1100–1101 \nTheodoric \n Theodoricus \n \n \n \n \n Successor to Clement III \nPaschal II\n\n1101 \nAdalbert or Albert \n Adalbertus \n \n \n \n \n Successor to Theodoric\n\n1105–1111 \nSylvester IV \n Sylvester \n Maginulf \n \n \n \n Supported by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor\n\n 1118–1121 \nGregory VIII \n Gregorius \nMaurice Burdanus \n \n \n \n Gelasius II\n\n Callixtus II\n\n1124 \nCelestine II \n Cœlestinus \nThebaldus Buccapecus \n \n \n \n \n Honorius II\n\n1130–1138 \nAnacletus II \n Anacletus \nPietro Pierleoni \n \n \n \n \n Innocent II\n\n1138 \nVictor IV \n Victor \nGregorio Conti \n \n \n \n Successor to Anacletus II\n\n1159–1164 \nVictor IV \n Victor \nOttavio di Montecelio \n \n \n \nSupported by Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor \nAlexander III\n\n1164–1168 \n Paschal III\n Paschalis \n Guido di Crema \n \n \n\n\n1168–1178 \n Callixtus III\n Callixtus \n Giovanni of Struma \n \n \n\n\n1179–1180 \n Innocent III \n Innocentius \nLanzo of Sezza \n \n \n \n\n\n1328–1330 \nNicholas V\n Nicolaus \n Pietro Rainalducci \n \n \n \n Supported by Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor \n John XXII\n\n 1378–1394\n Clement VII\n Clemens \n Robert of Geneva \n Geneva\n 36/52\n 15 y, 11 m, 27 d \n ''Avignon'' \nUrban VI\n\n Boniface IX\n\n 1394–1423\n Benedict XIII\n Benedictus\n Pedro de Luna\n Illueca, Aragon\n 66/95\n 28 y, 7 m, 25 d\n ''Avignon''\n\nInnocent VII\n\nGregory XII\n\nMartin V\n\n1409–1410 \nAlexander V* \n Alexander \n Pietro Philarghi \n \n \n \n ''Pisa'' \nGregory XII\n\n1410–1415 \n John XXIII \n Joannes \n Baldassare Cossa \n \n \n \n ''Pisa''\n\n1423–1429 \n Clement VIII \n Clemens \n Gil Sánchez Muñoz \n \n \n \n Avignon \n Martin V\n\n1424–1429 \n Benedict XIV \n Benedictus \n Bernard Garnier \n \n \n \n Claimed successor to Benedict XIII \n\n1430–1437 \n Benedict XIV \n Benedictus \n Jean Carrier \n \n \n \n The \"hidden pope\" \n\n 1439–1449\n Felix V\n Fœlix \n Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy \n Chambéry, Savoy\n 56/65 (†67)\n 9 y, 5 m, 2 d \n Elected by the Council of Basel \nEugene IV\n\n Nicholas V\n\n\n\n=== Quasi-cardinal-nephews ===\n\nMany antipopes created cardinals, known as ''quasi-cardinals'', and a few created cardinal-nephews, known as ''quasi-cardinal-nephews''.\n\n Quasi-cardinal\n Nephew of\n Elevated\n Notes\n\nGiacomo Alberti\nAntipope Nicholas V\n15 May 1328\nExcommunicated by Pope John XXII.\n\nAmedeo Saluzzo\nAntipope Clement VII\n23 December 1383\nAbandoned Antipope Benedict XIII after having been deposed by him on 21 October 1408; participated in the Council of Pisa, the election of Pope Alexander V (now regarded as an antipope), the Council of Constance, and the conclave of Pope Martin V.\n\nTommaso Brancaccio\nAntipope John XXIII\n6 June 1411\nAttended the Council of Constance, and the conclave of Pope Martin V.\n\nGil Sánchez Muñoz\nAntipope Clement VIII\n26 July 1429\nSubmitted to Pope Martin V after his uncle abdicated.\n\n", "\n\nIn modern times various people claim to be pope and, though they do not fit the technical definition of \"antipope\", are sometimes referred to as such. They are usually leaders of sedevacantist groups who view the See of Rome as vacant and elect someone to fill it. They are sometimes referred to as conclavists because of their claim, on the basis of an election by a \"conclave\" of perhaps half a dozen laypeople, as in the case of David Bawden (\"Pope Michael I\"), to have rendered the See no longer vacant. A significant number of these have taken the name \"Peter II\", owing to its special significance. From the point of view of the Roman Catholic Church, they are schismatics, and as such are automatically excommunicated.\n\n=== Collinites ===\n\n* Michel Collin, self-proclaimed Pope Clement XV (1961–1974) in France, founder of the Apostles of Infinite Love)\n* Jean-Gaston Tremblay, Gregory XVII (1968–2011), in Canada\n\n=== Palmarian Catholic Church ===\n\n* Clemente Domínguez y Gómez (Pope Gregory XVII), mystically self-proclaimed (1978–2005) in Spain\n* Manuel Corral (Pope Peter II) (2005–11)\n* Ginés Jesús Hernández (Pope Gregory XVIII) (2011–2016)\n* Joseph Odermatt (Pope Peter III) (2016–present)\n\nThe Palmarian Catholic Church regards Pope Paul VI, whom they revere as a martyr, and his predecessors as true popes, but hold, on the grounds of claimed apparitions, that the Pope of Rome is excommunicated and that the position of the Holy See has, since 1978, been transferred to the See of El Palmar de Troya.\n\n=== Other examples ===\nThe following were elected by allegedly faithful Catholics, none of whom was a cardinal:\n* Popes of the \"Legio Maria\", based in western Kenya (not technically Conclavist): Timothy Joseph Blasio Atila (1963–1998). Pius Lawrence Jairo Chiaji Adera (1998–2004). Raphael Titus Otieno (2004–present).\n* David Bawden (Pope Michael I), (1990–present) elected in Kansas, USA.\n* Victor von Pentz (Pope Linus II), (1994–present). Another conclave, this time held in Assisi, Italy, elected the South African Victor von Pentz, an ex-seminarian of the Society of St Pius X, as ''Pope Linus II'' in 1994. Linus took up residence in Hertfordshire, England.\n* Pope of the \"True Catholic Church\": Lucian Pulvermacher (Pope Pius XIII), (1998–2009), elected in Montana, USA.\n* Mirko Fabris (Pope Krav I), (1978–2012), elected in Zagreb, Croatia.\n* Joaquín Llorens (Pope Alexander IX), (2005–present), elected in Elx, Spain.\n* Popes of the \"Iglesia Católica Apostólica Remanente\", based in Buenos Aires, Argentina: Oscar Michaelli, elected on 24 March 2006 by a group of 34 episcopi vagantes as Pope Leo XIV. On his death on 14 February 2007, he was succeeded by Juan Bautista Bonetti, who took the name of Pope Innocent XIV, but resigned on 29 May 2007. Alexander IX was chosen in his place.\n", "As the Patriarch of Alexandria, Egypt, has historically also held the title of Pope, a person who, in opposition to someone who is generally accepted as a legitimate Pope of Alexandria, claims to hold that position may also be considered an Antipope. In 2006, the defrocked married Coptic lector Max Michel became an Antipope of Alexandria, calling himself Maximos I. His claim to the Alexandrine Papacy was dismissed by both the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III and Pope Theodore II of the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. The Coptic Pope of Alexandria and the Greek Pope of Alexandria currently view one another, not as Antipopes, but rather as successors to differing lines of apostolic succession that formed as a result of christological disputes in the fifth century.\n\nAnother Coptic (Alexandrian) Antipope is known to have laid claim in the Fourth Century. His name was Gregory of Cappadocia.\n", "Antipopes have appeared as fictional characters. These may be either in historical fiction, as fictional portraits of well-known historical antipopes or as purely imaginary antipopes.\n* Jean Raspail's novel ''l'Anneau du pêcheur'' (The Fisherman's Ring), and Gérard Bavoux's ''\"Le Porteur de lumière\"'' (The Light-bringer).\n* The fictional synth-pop artist Zladko Vladcik claims to be \"The Anti-Pope\" in one of his songs.\n* Dan Simmons's novels ''Endymion'' and ''Rise of Endymion'' feature a Father Paul Duré who is the routinely murdered antipope Teilhard I. At the end of the last novel, it is mentioned that the person calling himself the pope of the Technocore loyal Catholics is recognized by very few even among those, and he is referred to as an antipope.\n* In the ''Girl Genius'' comics series, set in a gaslamp fantasy version of Europe thrown into chaos by mad science (among other things), there is a brief reference to the existence of seven Popes—all of whom apparently ordered a particular text burned.\n* Ralph McInerny's novel ''The Red Hat'' features a schism between liberals and conservatives following the election of a conservative African Pope; the liberal faction elect an Italian cardinal who calls himself \"Pius XIII\".\n* In the video game ''Crusader Kings II'' by Swedish developer Paradox Interactive, Catholic rulers may appoint one of their bishops as an antipope. An emperor-tier ruler such as the Holy Roman Emperor may declare war on the Papal States to install their antipope as the \"true\" pope, thereby vassalizing the Papacy.\n* In episode 3 of ''The Black Adder'' (set in the late 15th century), \"The Archbishop\", Baldrick remarks on selling counterfeit papal pardons, that one for the highest crimes requires the signatures of \"both popes\" (implying one pope and one antipope). At the end of the episode, the Mother Superior of the local convent informs Edmund that he has been excommunicated by \"all three popes\".\n", "* Avignon Papacy\n* List of papal elections\n* List of popes\n* List of tombs of antipopes\n* Papal conclave\n* Papal selection before 1059\n", "\n", "\n* ''Catholic Encyclopedia'': \"Antipope\"\n* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'': \"Antipope\"\n* ''The Pope Encyclopaedia'': \"Antipope\"\n* Kelly, J.N.D, ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes'', Oxford University Press, USA (1 June 1986), .\n* Raspail, Jean, '''L'Anneau du pêcheur'', Paris: Albin Michel, 1994. 403 pp. .\n* Bavoux, Gérard, ''Le Porteur de lumière'', Paris: Pygmalion, 1996. 329 pp .\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", " List of historical antipopes ", " Modern claimants to papacy ", " Antipope of Alexandria ", " Fiction ", "See also", " References ", " External links and bibliography " ]	Antipope
[ "\n\n\n'''Aquaculture''' (less commonly spelled '''aquiculture'''), also known as '''aquafarming''', is the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish. Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats.\n\nAccording to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) , aquaculture \"is understood to mean the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated.\" The reported output from global aquaculture operations in 2014 supplied over one half of the fish and shellfish that is directly consumed by humans; however, there are issues about the reliability of the reported figures. Further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several pounds of wild fish are used to produce one pound of a piscivorous fish like salmon.\n\nParticular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, algaculture (such as seaweed farming), and the cultivation of ornamental fish. Particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and plant farming.\n\n", "alt=Photo of dripping, cup-shaped net, approximately in diameter and equally tall, half full of fish, suspended from crane boom, with four workers on and around larger, ring-shaped structure in water\n\nThe indigenous Gunditjmara people in Victoria, Australia, may have raised eels as early as 6000 BC. Evidence indicates they developed about of volcanic floodplains in the vicinity of Lake Condah into a complex of channels and dams, and used woven traps to capture eels, and preserve them to eat all year round.\n\nAquaculture was operating in China ''circa'' 2500 BC. When the waters subsided after river floods, some fish, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes. Early aquaculturists fed their brood using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate them. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the emergence of goldfish during the Tang dynasty.\n\nJapanese cultivated seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores.\n\nRomans bred fish in ponds and farmed oysters in coastal lagoons before 100 CE.\n\nIn central Europe, early Christian monasteries adopted Roman aquacultural practices. Aquaculture spread in Europe during the Middle Ages since away from the seacoasts and the big rivers, fish had to be salted so they did not rot. Improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fresh fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, making aquaculture less popular. The 15th-century fishponds of the Trebon Basin in the Czech Republic are maintained as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\n\nHawaiians constructed oceanic fish ponds. A remarkable example is a fish pond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. Legend says that it was constructed by the mythical Menehune dwarf people.\n\nIn first half of 18th century, German Stephan Ludwig Jacobi experimented with external fertilization of brown trouts and salmon. He wrote an article ''\"Von der künstlichen Erzeugung der Forellen und Lachse\".'' By the latter decades of the 18th century, oyster farming had begun in estuaries along the Atlantic Coast of North America.\n\nThe word aquaculture appeared in an 1855 newspaper article in reference to the harvesting of ice. It also appeared in descriptions of the terrestrial agricultural practise of subirrigation in the late 19th century before becoming associated primarily with the cultivation of aquatic plant and animal species.\n\nIn 1859, Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, New York, began experiments with brook trout. By 1864, Seth Green had established a commercial fish-hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester, New York. By 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord, Massachusetts, artificial fish hatcheries were under way in both Canada and the United States. When the Dildo Island fish hatchery opened in Newfoundland in 1889, it was the largest and most advanced in the world. The word aquaculture was used in descriptions of the hatcheries experiments with cod and lobster in 1890.\n\nBy the 1920s, the American Fish Culture Company of Carolina, Rhode Island, founded in the 1870s was one of the leading producers of trout. During the 1940s, they had perfected the method of manipulating the day and night cycle of fish so that they could be artificially spawned year around.\n\nCalifornians harvested wild kelp and attempted to manage supply around 1900, later labeling it a wartime resource.\n\n\n", "\nHarvest stagnation in wild fisheries and overexploitation of popular marine species, combined with a growing demand for high-quality protein, encouraged aquaculturists to domesticate other marine species. At the outset of modern aquaculture, many were optimistic that a \"Blue Revolution\" could take place in aquaculture, just as the Green Revolution of the 20th century had revolutionized agriculture. Although land animals had long been domesticated, most seafood species were still caught from the wild. Concerned about the impact of growing demand for seafood on the world's oceans, prominent ocean explorer Jacques Cousteau wrote in 1973: \"With earth’s burgeoning human populations to feed, we must turn to the sea with new understanding and new technology.”\n\nAbout 430 (97%) of the species cultured as of 2007 were domesticated during the 20th and 21st centuries, of which an estimated 106 came in the decade to 2007. Given the long-term importance of agriculture, to date, only 0.08% of known land plant species and 0.0002% of known land animal species have been domesticated, compared with 0.17% of known marine plant species and 0.13% of known marine animal species. Domestication typically involves about a decade of scientific research. Domesticating aquatic species involves fewer risks to humans than do land animals, which took a large toll in human lives. Most major human diseases originated in domesticated animals, including diseases such as smallpox and diphtheria, that like most infectious diseases, move to humans from animals. No human pathogens of comparable virulence have yet emerged from marine species. \n\nBiological control methods to manage parasites are already being used, such as cleaner fish (e.g. lumpsuckers and wrasse) to control sea lice populations in salmon farming. Models are being used to help with spatial planning and siting of fish farms in order to minimize impact.\n\nThe decline in wild fish stocks has increased the demand for farmed fish. However, finding alternative sources of protein and oil for fish feed is necessary so the aquaculture industry can grow sustainably; otherwise, it represents a great risk for the over-exploitation of forage fish.\n\nAnother recent issue following the banning in 2008 of organotins by the International Maritime Organization is the need to find environmentally friendly, but still effective, compounds with antifouling effects.\n\nMany new natural compounds are discovered every year, but producing them on a large enough scale for commercial purposes is almost impossible.\n\nIt is highly probable that future developments in this field will rely on microorganisms, but greater funding and further research is needed to overcome the lack of knowledge in this field.\n", "\n\n===Aquatic plants===\nCultivating emergent aquatic plants in floating containers\n\n\nMicroalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae, constitute the majority of cultivated algae. Macroalgae commonly known as seaweed also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and specific requirements, they are not easily cultivated on a large scale and are most often taken in the wild.\n\n===Fish===\n\nThe farming of fish is the most common form of aquaculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks, fish ponds, or ocean enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species used in fish farming are, in order, carp, salmon, tilapia, and catfish.\n\nIn the Mediterranean, young bluefin tuna are netted at sea and towed slowly towards the shore. They are then interned in offshore pens where they are further grown for the market. In 2009, researchers in Australia managed for the first time to coax southern bluefin tuna to breed in landlocked tanks. Southern bluefin tuna are also caught in the wild and fattened in grow-out sea cages in southern Spencer Gulf, South Australia.\n\nA similar process is used in the salmon-farming section of this industry; juveniles are taken from hatcheries and a variety of methods are used to aid them in their maturation. For example, as stated above, some of the most important fish species in the industry, salmon, can be grown using a cage system. This is done by having netted cages, preferably in open water that has a strong flow, and feeding the salmon a special food mixture that aids their growth. This process allows for year-round growth of the fish, thus a higher harvest during the correct seasons. An additional method, known sometimes as sea ranching, has also been used within the industry. Sea ranching involves raising fish in a hatchery for a brief time and then releasing them into marine waters for further development, whereupon the fish are recaptured when they have matured.\n\n===Crustaceans===\n\nCommercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply thereafter. Global production reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003, worth about US$9 billion. About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand. The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin America, where Brazil is the largest producer. Thailand is the largest exporter.\n\nShrimp farming has changed from its traditional, small-scale form in Southeast Asia into a global industry. Technological advances have led to ever higher densities per unit area, and broodstock is shipped worldwide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are penaeids (i.e., shrimp of the family Penaeidae), and just two species of shrimp, the Pacific white shrimp and the giant tiger prawn, account for about 80% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial monocultures are very susceptible to disease, which has decimated shrimp populations across entire regions. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure and criticism from both nongovernmental organizations and consumer countries led to changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulations. In 1999, governments, industry representatives, and environmental organizations initiated a program aimed at developing and promoting more sustainable farming practices through the Seafood Watch program.\n\nFreshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, including many problems with, marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by the developmental lifecycle of the main species, the giant river prawn.\n\nThe global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding crayfish and crabs) in 2003 was about 280,000 tonnes, of which China produced 180,000 tonnes followed by India and Thailand with 35,000 tonnes each. Additionally, China produced about 370,000 tonnes of Chinese river crab.\n\n===Molluscs===\nAbalone farm\n\nAquacultured shellfish include various oyster, mussel, and clam species. These bivalves are filter and/or deposit feeders, which rely on ambient primary production rather than inputs of fish or other feed. As such, shellfish aquaculture is generally perceived as benign or even beneficial.\n\nDepending on the species and local conditions, bivalve molluscs are either grown on the beach, on longlines, or suspended from rafts and harvested by hand or by dredging. In May 2017 a Belgian consortium installed the first of two trial mussel farms on a wind farm in the North Sea.\n\nAbalone farming began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China. Since the mid-1990s, this industry has become increasingly successful. Overfishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to the extent that farmed abalone now supplies most abalone meat. Sustainably farmed molluscs can be certified by Seafood Watch and other organizations, including the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). WWF initiated the \"Aquaculture Dialogues\" in 2004 to develop measurable and performance-based standards for responsibly farmed seafood. In 2009, WWF co-founded the Aquaculture Stewardship Council with the Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative to manage the global standards and certification programs.\n\nAfter trials in 2012, a commercial \"sea ranch\" was set up in Flinders Bay, Western Australia, to raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5000 () separate concrete units called ''abitats'' (abalone habitats). The 900 kg abitats can host 400 abalone each. The reef is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery. The abalone feed on seaweed that has grown naturally on the abitats, with the ecosystem enrichment of the bay also resulting in growing numbers of dhufish, pink snapper, wrasse, and Samson fish, among other species.\n\nBrad Adams, from the company, has emphasised the similarity to wild abalone and the difference from shore-based aquaculture. \"We're not aquaculture, we're ranching, because once they're in the water they look after themselves.\"\n\n===Other groups===\nOther groups include aquatic reptiles, amphibians, and miscellaneous invertebrates, such as echinoderms and jellyfish. They are separately graphed at the top right of this section, since they do not contribute enough volume to show clearly on the main graph.\n\nCommercially harvested echinoderms include sea cucumbers and sea urchins. In China, sea cucumbers are farmed in artificial ponds as large as .\n\n\n", "\n<!-- Change to ", "China overwhelmingly dominates the world in reported aquaculture output, reporting a total output which is double that of the rest of the world put together. However, there are some historical issues with the accuracy of China's returns.\n\nIn 2001, the fisheries scientists Reg Watson and Daniel Pauly expressed concerns in a letter to ''Nature'', that China was over reporting its catch from wild fisheries in the 1990s. They said that made it appear that the global catch since 1988 was increasing annually by 300,000 tonnes, whereas it was really shrinking annually by 350,000 tonnes. Watson and Pauly suggested this may be have been related to Chinese policies where state entities that monitored the economy were also tasked with increasing output. Also, until more recently, the promotion of Chinese officials was based on production increases from their own areas.\n\nChina disputed this claim. The official Xinhua News Agency quoted Yang Jian, director general of the Agriculture Ministry's Bureau of Fisheries, as saying that China's figures were \"basically correct\". However, the FAO accepted there were issues with the reliability of China's statistical returns, and for a period treated data from China, including the aquaculture data, apart from the rest of the world.\n\n\n", "\n===Mariculture===\nHigh Island, Hong Kong\n\n\n\nMariculture refers to the cultivation of marine organisms in seawater, usually in sheltered coastal waters. The farming of marine fish is an example of mariculture, and so also is the farming of marine crustaceans (such as shrimp), molluscs (such as oysters), and seaweed.\n\nMariculture may consist of raising the organisms on or in artificial enclosures such as in floating netted enclosures for salmon and on racks for oysters. In the case of enclosed salmon, they are fed by the operators; oysters on racks filter feed on naturally available food. Abalone have been farmed on an artificial reef consuming seaweed which grows naturally on the reef units.\n\n===Integrated===\n\nIntegrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice in which the byproducts (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs (fertilizers, food) for another. Fed aquaculture (for example, fish, shrimp) is combined with inorganic extractive and organic extractive (for example, shellfish) aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction) and social acceptability (better management practices).\n\n\"Multi-trophic\" refers to the incorporation of species from different trophic or nutritional levels in the same system. This is one potential distinction from the age-old practice of aquatic polyculture, which could simply be the co-culture of different fish species from the same trophic level. In this case, these organisms may all share the same biological and chemical processes, with few synergistic benefits, which could potentially lead to significant shifts in the ecosystem. Some traditional polyculture systems may, in fact, incorporate a greater diversity of species, occupying several niches, as extensive cultures (low intensity, low management) within the same pond. The term \"integrated\" refers to the more intensive cultivation of the different species in proximity of each other, connected by nutrient and energy transfer through water.\n\nIdeally, the biological and chemical processes in an IMTA system should balance. This is achieved through the appropriate selection and proportions of different species providing different ecosystem functions. The co-cultured species are typically more than just biofilters; they are harvestable crops of commercial value. A working IMTA system can result in greater total production based on mutual benefits to the co-cultured species and improved ecosystem health, even if the production of individual species is lower than in a monoculture over a short term period.\n\nSometimes the term \"integrated aquaculture\" is used to describe the integration of monocultures through water transfer. For all intents and purposes, however, the terms \"IMTA\" and \"integrated aquaculture\" differ only in their degree of descriptiveness. Aquaponics, fractionated aquaculture, integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems, integrated peri-urban-aquaculture systems, and integrated fisheries-aquaculture systems are other variations of the IMTA concept.\n", "Various materials, including nylon, polyester, polypropylene, polyethylene, plastic-coated welded wire, rubber, patented rope products (Spectra, Thorn-D, Dyneema), galvanized steel and copper are used for netting in aquaculture fish enclosures around the world. All of these materials are selected for a variety of reasons, including design feasibility, material strength, cost, and corrosion resistance.\n\n\nRecently, copper alloys have become important netting materials in aquaculture because they are antimicrobial (i.e., they destroy bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and other microbes) and they therefore prevent biofouling (i.e., the undesirable accumulation, adhesion, and growth of microorganisms, plants, algae, tubeworms, barnacles, mollusks, and other organisms). By inhibiting microbial growth, copper alloy aquaculture cages avoid costly net changes that are necessary with other materials. The resistance of organism growth on copper alloy nets also provides a cleaner and healthier environment for farmed fish to grow and thrive.\n", "\nIf performed without consideration for potential local environmental impacts, aquaculture in inland waters can result in more environmental damaging than wild fisheries, though with less waste produced on a per kg on a global scale. Local concerns with aquaculture in inland waters may include waste handling, side-effects of antibiotics, competition between farmed and wild animals, and the potential introduction of invasive plant and animal species, or foreign pathogens, particularly if unprocessed fish are used to feed more marketable carnivorous fish. If non-local live feeds are used, aquaculture may introduce plant of animal. Improvements in methods resulting from advances in research and the availability of commercial feeds has reduced some of these concerns since their greater prevalence in 1990s and 2000s .\n\nFish waste is organic and composed of nutrients necessary in all components of aquatic food webs. In-ocean aquaculture often produces much higher than normal fish waste concentrations. The waste collects on the ocean bottom, damaging or eliminating bottom-dwelling life. Waste can also decrease dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, putting further pressure on wild animals. An alternative model to food being added to the ecosystem, is the installation of artificial reef structures to increase the habitat niches available, without the need to add any more than ambient feed and nutrient. This has been used in the \"ranching\" of abalone in Western Australia.\n\n===Fish oils===\n\n\nTilapia from aquaculture has been shown to contain more fat and a much higher ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 oils.\n\n===Impacts on wild fish===\nSome carnivorous and omnivorous farmed fish species are fed wild forage fish. Although carnivorous farmed fish represented only 13 percent of aquaculture production by weight in 2000, they represented 34 percent of aquaculture production by value.\n\nFarming of carnivorous species like salmon and shrimp leads to a high demand for forage fish to match the nutrition they get in the wild. Fish do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids, but instead accumulate them from either consuming microalgae that produce these fatty acids, as is the case with forage fish like herring and sardines, or, as is the case with fatty predatory fish, like salmon, by eating prey fish that have accumulated omega-3 fatty acids from microalgae. To satisfy this requirement, more than 50 percent of the world fish oil production is fed to farmed salmon.\n\nFarmed salmon consume more wild fish than they generate as a final product, although the efficiency of production is improving. To produce one pound of farmed salmon, products from several pounds of wild fish are fed to them - this can be described as the \"fish-in-fish-out\" (FIFO) ratio. In 1995, salmon had a FIFO ratio of 7.5 (meaning 7.5 pounds of wild fish feed were required to produce 1 pound of salmon); by 2006 the ratio had fallen to 4.9. Additionally, a growing share of fish oil and fishmeal come from residues (byproducts of fish processing), rather than dedicated whole fish. In 2012, 34 percent of fish oil and 28 percent of fishmeal came from residues. However, fishmeal and oil from residues instead of whole fish have a different composition with more ash and less protein, which may limit its potential use for aquaculture.\n\nAs the salmon farming industry expands, it requires more wild forage fish for feed, at a time when seventy five percent of the worlds monitored fisheries are already near to or have exceeded their maximum sustainable yield. The industrial scale extraction of wild forage fish for salmon farming then impacts the survivability of the wild predator fish who rely on them for food. An important step in reducing the impact of aquaculture on wild fish is shifting carnivorous species to plant-based feeds. Salmon feeds, for example, have gone from containing only fishmeal and oil to containing 40 percent plant protein. The USDA has also experimented with using grain-based feeds for farmed trout. When properly formulated (and often mixed with fishmeal or oil), plant-based feeds can provide proper nutrition and similar growth rates in carnivorous farmed fish.\n\nAnother impact aquaculture production can have on wild fish is the risk of fish escaping from coastal pens, where they can interbreed with their wild counterparts, diluting wild genetic stocks. Escaped fish can become invasive, out-competing native species.\n\n===Coastal ecosystems===\nAquaculture is becoming a significant threat to coastal ecosystems. About 20 percent of mangrove forests have been destroyed since 1980, partly due to shrimp farming. An extended cost–benefit analysis of the total economic value of shrimp aquaculture built on mangrove ecosystems found that the external costs were much higher than the external benefits. Over four decades, of Indonesian mangroves have been converted to shrimp farms. Most of these farms are abandoned within a decade because of the toxin build-up and nutrient loss.\n\n==== Pollution from sea cage aquaculture ====\nSalmon farms are typically sited in pristine coastal ecosystems which they then pollute. A farm with 200,000 salmon discharges more fecal waste than a city of 60,000 people. This waste is discharged directly into the surrounding aquatic environment, untreated, often containing antibiotics and pesticides.\" There is also an accumulation of heavy metals on the benthos (seafloor) near the salmon farms, particularly copper and zinc.\n\nIn 2016, mass fish kill events impacted salmon farmers along Chile's coast and the wider ecology. Increases in aquaculture production and its associated effluent were considered to be possible contributing factors to fish and molluscan mortality.\n\nSea cage aquaculture is responsible for nutrient enrichment of the waters in which they are established. This results from fish wastes and uneaten feed inputs. Elements of most concern are nitrogen and phosphorus which can promote algal growth, including harmful algal blooms which can be toxic to fish. Flushing times, current speeds, distance from the shore and water depth are important considerations when locating sea cages in order to minimize the impacts of nutrient enrichment on coastal ecosystems.\n\nThe extent of the effects of pollution from sea-cage aquaculture varies depending on where the cages are located, which species are kept, how densely cages are stocked and what the fish are fed. Important species-specific variables include the species' food conversion ratio (FCR) and nitrogen retention. Studies prior to 2001 determined that the amount of nitrogen introduced as feed which is lost to the water column and seafloor as waste varies from 52 to 95%.\n\n===Genetic modification===\nA type of salmon called the AquAdvantage salmon has been genetically modified for faster growth, although it has not been approved for commercial use, due to controversy. The altered salmon incorporates a growth hormone from a Chinook salmon that allows it to reach full size in 16–28 months, instead of the normal 36 months for Atlantic salmon, and while consuming 25 percent less feed. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration reviewed the AquAdvantage salmon in a draft environmental assessment and determined that it \"would not have a significant impact (FONSI) on the U.S. environment.\"\n", "\nAs with the farming of terrestrial animals, social attitudes influence the need for humane practices and regulations in farmed marine animals. Under the guidelines advised by the Farm Animal Welfare Council good animal welfare means both fitness and a sense of well being in the animal's physical and mental state. This can be defined by the Five Freedoms:\n* Freedom from hunger & thirst\n* Freedom from discomfort\n* Freedom from pain, disease, or injury\n* Freedom to express normal behaviour\n* Freedom from fear and distress\n\nHowever, the controversial issue in aquaculture is whether fish and farmed marine invertebrates are actually sentient, or have the perception and awareness to experience suffering. Although no evidence of this has been found in marine invertebrates, recent studies conclude that fish do have the necessary receptors (nociceptors) to sense noxious stimuli and so are likely to experience states of pain, fear and stress. Consequently, welfare in aquaculture is directed at vertebrates; finfish in particular.\n\n===Common welfare concerns===\nWelfare in aquaculture can be impacted by a number of issues such as stocking densities, behavioural interactions, disease and parasitism. A major problem in determining the cause of impaired welfare is that these issues are often all interrelated and influence each other at different times.\n\nOptimal stocking density is often defined by the carrying capacity of the stocked environment and the amount of individual space needed by the fish, which is very species specific. Although behavioural interactions such as shoaling may mean that high stocking densities are beneficial to some species, in many cultured species high stocking densities may be of concern. Crowding can constrain normal swimming behaviour, as well as increase aggressive and competitive behaviours such as cannibalism, feed competition, territoriality and dominance/subordination hierarchies. This potentially increases the risk of tissue damage due to abrasion from fish-to-fish contact or fish-to-cage contact. Fish can suffer reductions in food intake and food conversion efficiency. In addition, high stocking densities can result in water flow being insufficient, creating inadequate oxygen supply and waste product removal. Dissolved oxygen is essential for fish respiration and concentrations below critical levels can induce stress and even lead to asphyxiation. Ammonia, a nitrogen excretion product, is highly toxic to fish at accumulated levels, particularly when oxygen concentrations are low.\n\nMany of these interactions and effects cause stress in the fish, which can be a major factor in facilitating fish disease. For many parasites, infestation depends on the host's degree of mobility, the density of the host population and vulnerability of the host's defence system. Sea lice are the primary parasitic problem for finfish in aquaculture, high numbers causing widespread skin erosion and haemorrhaging, gill congestion, and increased mucus production. There are also a number of prominent viral and bacterial pathogens that can have severe effects on internal organs and nervous systems.\n\n===Improving welfare===\nThe key to improving welfare of marine cultured organisms is to reduce stress to a minimum, as prolonged or repeated stress can cause a range of adverse effects. Attempts to minimise stress can occur throughout the culture process. During grow out it is important to keep stocking densities at appropriate levels specific to each species, as well as separating size classes and grading to reduce aggressive behavioural interactions. Keeping nets and cages clean can assist positive water flow to reduce the risk of water degradation.\n\nNot surprisingly disease and parasitism can have a major effect on fish welfare and it is important for farmers not only to manage infected stock but also to apply disease prevention measures. However, prevention methods, such as vaccination, can also induce stress because of the extra handling and injection. Other methods include adding antibiotics to feed, adding chemicals into water for treatment baths and biological control, such as using cleaner wrasse to remove lice from farmed salmon.\n\nMany steps are involved in transport, including capture, food deprivation to reduce faecal contamination of transport water, transfer to transport vehicle via nets or pumps, plus transport and transfer to the delivery location. During transport water needs to be maintained to a high quality, with regulated temperature, sufficient oxygen and minimal waste products. In some cases anaesthetics may be used in small doses to calm fish before transport.\n\nAquaculture is sometimes part of an environmental rehabilitation program or as an aid in conserving endangered species.\n", "Global wild fisheries are in decline, with valuable habitat such as estuaries in critical condition. The aquaculture or farming of piscivorous fish, like salmon, does not help the problem because they need to eat products from other fish, such as fish meal and fish oil. Studies have shown that salmon farming has major negative impacts on wild salmon, as well as the forage fish that need to be caught to feed them. Fish that are higher on the food chain are less efficient sources of food energy.\n\nApart from fish and shrimp, some aquaculture undertakings, such as seaweed and filter-feeding bivalve mollusks like oysters, clams, mussels and scallops, are relatively benign and even environmentally restorative. Filter-feeders filter pollutants as well as nutrients from the water, improving water quality. Seaweeds extract nutrients such as inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus directly from the water, and filter-feeding mollusks can extract nutrients as they feed on particulates, such as phytoplankton and detritus.\n\nSome profitable aquaculture cooperatives promote sustainable practices. New methods lessen the risk of biological and chemical pollution through minimizing fish stress, fallowing netpens, and applying Integrated Pest Management. Vaccines are being used more and more to reduce antibiotic use for disease control.\n\nOnshore recirculating aquaculture systems, facilities using polyculture techniques, and properly sited facilities (for example, offshore areas with strong currents) are examples of ways to manage negative environmental effects.\n\nRecirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) recycle water by circulating it through filters to remove fish waste and food and then recirculating it back into the tanks. This saves water and the waste gathered can be used in compost or, in some cases, could even be treated and used on land. While RAS was developed with freshwater fish in mind, scientist associated with the Agricultural Research Service have found a way to rear saltwater fish using RAS in low-salinity waters. Although saltwater fish are raised in off-shore cages or caught with nets in water that typically has a salinity of 35 parts per thousand (ppt), scientists were able to produce healthy pompano, a saltwater fish, in tanks with a salinity of only 5 ppt. Commercializing low-salinity RAS are predicted to have positive environmental and economical effects. Unwanted nutrients from the fish food would not be added to the ocean and the risk of transmitting diseases between wild and farm-raised fish would greatly be reduced. The price of expensive saltwater fish, such as the pompano and combia used in the experiments, would be reduced. However, before any of this can be done researchers must study every aspect of the fish's lifecycle, including the amount of ammonia and nitrate the fish will tolerate in the water, what to feed the fish during each stage of its lifecycle, the stocking rate that will produce the healthiest fish, etc.\n\nSome 16 countries now use geothermal energy for aquaculture, including China, Israel, and the United States. In California, for example, 15 fish farms produce tilapia, bass, and catfish with warm water from underground. This warmer water enables fish to grow all year round and mature more quickly. Collectively these California farms produce 4.5 million kilograms of fish each year.\n\n==See also==\n\n* Agroecology\n* Alligator farm\n* Aquaponics\n* Copper alloys in aquaculture\n* Maggots used as food for fish\n* Fish hatchery\n* Fisheries science\n* Industrial aquaculture\n* List of harvested aquatic animals by weight\nRecirculating aquaculture system\n'''Aquaculture by Country:'''\nAquaculture in Australia\nAquaculture in Canada\nAquaculture in Chile\nAquaculture in China\nAquaculture in East Timor\nAquaculture in the Federated States of Micronesia\nAquaculture in Fiji\nAquaculture in Indonesia\nAquaculture in Kiribati\nAquaculture in the Marshall Islands\nAquaculture in Nauru\nAquaculture in New Zealand\nAquaculture in Palau\nAquaculture in Papua New Guinea\nAquaculture in Samoa\nAquaculture in the Solomon Islands\nAquaculture in South Africa\nAquaculture in South Korea\nAquaculture in Tonga\nAquaculture in Tuvalu\nAquaculture in Vanuatu\n\n", "\n", "\n* \n* Duarte, Carlos M; Marbá, Nùria and Holmer, Marianne (2007) ''Rapid Domestication of Marine Species.'' Science. Vol 316, no 5823, pp 382–383. podcast\n* \n* GESAMP (2008) ''Assessment and communication of environmental risks in coastal aquaculture'' FAO Reports and Studies No 76. \n* Hepburn, J. 2002. ''Taking Aquaculture Seriously''. Organic Farming, Winter 2002 © Soil Association.\n* Kinsey, Darin, 2006 \"'Seeding the water as the earth' : epicentre and peripheries of a global aquacultural revolution. Environmental History 11, 3: 527-66\n* \n* The Scottish Association for Marine Science and Napier University. 2002. Review and synthesis of the environmental impacts of aquaculture\n* Higginbotham James ''Piscinae: Artificial Fishponds in Roman Italy'' University of North Carolina Press (June 1997)\n* Wyban, Carol Araki (1992) ''Tide and Current: Fishponds of Hawai'I'' University of Hawaii Press:: \n* Timmons, M.B., Ebeling, J.M., Wheaton, F.W., Summerfelt, S.T., Vinci, B.J., 2002. Recirculating Aquaculture Systems: 2nd edition. Cayuga Aqua Ventures.\n* \n* \n\n", "* \n* ''AquaLingua'' \n* ''Rice–Fish Culture in China'' (1995), , \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n* The Coastal Resources Center\n* NOAA aquaculture\n* The University of Hawaii's AquacultureHub\n* TED-Ed lesson on aquaculture\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "21st-century practice", "Species groups", "Around the world", "Over-reporting", "Aquacultural methods", "Netting materials", "Issues", "Animal welfare", "Prospects", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Aquaculture
[ "\nThis image illustrates part of the Mandelbrot set fractal. Simply storing the 24-bit color of each pixel in this image would require 1.62 million bits, but a small computer program can reproduce these 1.62 million bits using the definition of the Mandelbrot set and the coordinates of the corners of the image. Thus, the Kolmogorov complexity of the raw file encoding this bitmap is much less than 1.62 million bits in any pragmatic model of computation.\n\nIn algorithmic information theory (a subfield of computer science and mathematics), the '''Kolmogorov complexity''' of an object, such as a piece of text, is the length of the shortest computer program (in a predetermined programming language) that produces the object as output.\nIt is a measure of the computational resources needed to specify the object, and is also known as '''descriptive complexity''', '''Kolmogorov–Chaitin complexity''', '''algorithmic entropy''', or '''program-size complexity'''. It is named after Andrey Kolmogorov, who first published on the subject in 1963.\n\nThe notion of Kolmogorov complexity can be used to state and prove impossibility results akin to Cantor's diagonal argument, Gödel's incompleteness theorem, and Turing's halting problem.\nIn particular, for almost each object it is not possible to compute even a lower bound for its Kolmogorov complexity (Chaitin 1964), let alone its exact value.\n", "Consider the following two strings of 32 lowercase letters and digits:\n\nabababababababababababababababab\n4c1j5b2p0cv4w1x8rx2y39umgw5q85s7\n\nThe first string has a short English-language description, namely \"ab 16 times\", which consists of '''11''' characters. The second one has no obvious simple description (using the same character set) other than writing down the string itself, which has '''32''' characters.\n\nMore formally, the complexity of a string is the length of the shortest possible description of the string in some fixed universal description language (the sensitivity of complexity relative to the choice of description language is discussed below). It can be shown that the Kolmogorov complexity of any string cannot be more than a few bytes larger than the length of the string itself. Strings like the ''abab'' example above, whose Kolmogorov complexity is small relative to the string's size, are not considered to be complex.\n\nThe Kolmogorov complexity can be defined for any mathematical object, but for simplicity the scope of this article is restricted to strings. We must first specify a description language for strings. Such a description language can be based on any computer programming language, such as Lisp, Pascal, or Java virtual machine bytecode. If '''P''' is a program which outputs a string ''x'', then '''P''' is a description of ''x''. The length of the description is just the length of '''P''' as a character string, multiplied by the number of bits in a character (e.g. 7 for ASCII).\n\nWe could, alternatively, choose an encoding for Turing machines, where an ''encoding'' is a function which associates to each Turing Machine '''M''' a bitstring . If '''M''' is a Turing Machine which, on input ''w'', outputs string ''x'', then the concatenated string ''w'' is a description of ''x''. For theoretical analysis, this approach is more suited for constructing detailed formal proofs and is generally preferred in the research literature. In this article, an informal approach is discussed.\n\nAny string ''s'' has at least one description, namely the program:\n\n '''function''' GenerateFixedString()\n '''return''' ''s''\n\nIf a description of ''s'', ''d''(''s''), is of minimal length (i.e. it uses the fewest bits), it is called a '''minimal description''' of ''s''. Thus, the length of ''d''(''s'') (i.e. the number of bits in the description) is the '''Kolmogorov complexity''' of ''s'', written ''K''(''s''). Symbolically,\n\n:''K''(''s'') = \|''d''(''s'')\|.\n\nThe length of the shortest description will depend on the choice of description language; but the effect of changing languages is bounded (a result called the ''invariance theorem'').\n", "\n===Informal treatment===\nThere are some description languages which are optimal, in the following sense: given any description of an object in a description language, said description may be used in the optimal description language with a constant overhead. The constant depends only on the languages involved, not on the description of the object, nor the object being described.\n\nHere is an example of an optimal description language. A description will have two parts:\n\n* The first part describes another description language.\n* The second part is a description of the object in that language.\n\nIn more technical terms, the first part of a description is a computer program, with the second part being the input to that computer program which produces the object as output.\n\n'''The invariance theorem follows:''' Given any description language ''L'', the optimal description language is at least as efficient as ''L'', with some constant overhead.\n\n'''Proof:''' Any description ''D'' in ''L'' can be converted into a description in the optimal language by first describing ''L'' as a computer program ''P'' (part 1), and then using the original description ''D'' as input to that program (part 2). The\ntotal length of this new description ''D′'' is (approximately):\n\n:\|''D′''\| = \|''P''\| + \|''D''\|\n\nThe length of ''P'' is a constant that doesn't depend on ''D''. So, there is at most a constant overhead, regardless of the object described. Therefore, the optimal language is universal up to this additive constant.\n\n===A more formal treatment===\n'''Theorem''': If ''K''1 and ''K''2 are the complexity functions relative to Turing complete description languages ''L''1 and ''L''2, then there is a constant ''c'' – which depends only on the languages ''L''1 and ''L''2 chosen – such that\n\n:∀''s''. -''c'' ≤ ''K''1(''s'') - ''K''2(''s'') ≤ ''c''.\n\n'''Proof''': By symmetry, it suffices to prove that there is some constant ''c'' such that for all strings ''s''\n\n:''K''1(''s'') ≤ ''K''2(''s'') + ''c''.\n\nNow, suppose there is a program in the language ''L''1 which acts as an interpreter for ''L''2:\n\n '''function''' InterpretLanguage('''string''' ''p'')\n\nwhere ''p'' is a program in ''L''2. The interpreter is characterized by the following property:\n\n: Running InterpretLanguage on input ''p'' returns the result of running ''p''.\n\nThus, if '''P''' is a program in ''L''2 which is a minimal description of ''s'', then InterpretLanguage('''P''') returns the string ''s''. The length of this description of ''s'' is the sum of\n\n# The length of the program InterpretLanguage, which we can take to be the constant ''c''.\n# The length of '''P''' which by definition is ''K''2(''s'').\n\nThis proves the desired upper bound.\n", "Algorithmic information theory is the area of computer science that studies Kolmogorov complexity and other complexity measures on strings (or other data structures).\n\nThe concept and theory of Kolmogorov Complexity is based on a crucial theorem first discovered by Ray Solomonoff, who published it in 1960, describing it in \"A Preliminary Report on a General Theory of Inductive Inference\" as part of his invention of algorithmic probability. He gave a more complete description in his 1964 publications, \"A Formal Theory of Inductive Inference,\" Part 1 and Part 2 in ''Information and Control''.\n\nAndrey Kolmogorov later independently published this theorem in ''Problems Inform. Transmission'' in 1965. Gregory Chaitin also presents this theorem in ''J. ACM'' – Chaitin's paper was submitted October 1966 and revised in December 1968, and cites both Solomonoff's and Kolmogorov's papers.\n\nThe theorem says that, among algorithms that decode strings from their descriptions (codes), there exists an optimal one. This algorithm, for all strings, allows codes as short as allowed by any other algorithm up to an additive constant that depends on the algorithms, but not on the strings themselves. Solomonoff used this algorithm, and the code lengths it allows, to define a \"universal probability\" of a string on which inductive inference of the subsequent digits of the string can be based. Kolmogorov used this theorem to define several functions of strings, including complexity, randomness, and information.\n\nWhen Kolmogorov became aware of Solomonoff's work, he acknowledged Solomonoff's priority. For several years, Solomonoff's work was better known in the Soviet Union than in the Western World. The general consensus in the scientific community, however, was to associate this type of complexity with Kolmogorov, who was concerned with randomness of a sequence, while Algorithmic Probability became associated with Solomonoff, who focused on prediction using his invention of the universal prior probability distribution. The broader area encompassing descriptional complexity and probability is often called Kolmogorov complexity. The computer scientist Ming Li considers this an example of the Matthew effect: \"... to everyone who has more will be given ...\"\n\nThere are several other variants of Kolmogorov complexity or algorithmic information. The most widely used one is based on self-delimiting programs, and is mainly due to Leonid Levin (1974).\n\nAn axiomatic approach to Kolmogorov complexity based on Blum axioms (Blum 1967) was introduced by Mark Burgin in the paper presented for publication by Andrey Kolmogorov (Burgin 1982).\n", "In the following discussion, let ''K''(''s'') be the complexity of the string ''s''.\n\nIt is not hard to see that the minimal description of a string cannot be too much larger than the string itself — the program GenerateFixedString above that outputs ''s'' is a fixed amount larger than ''s''.\n\n'''Theorem''': There is a constant ''c'' such that\n\n:∀''s''. ''K''(''s'') ≤ \|''s''\| + ''c''.\n\n===Uncomputability of Kolmogorov complexity===\n\n'''Theorem''': There exist strings of arbitrarily large Kolmogorov complexity. Formally: for each ''n'' ∈ ℕ, there is a string ''s'' with ''K''(''s'') ≥ ''n''.\n\n'''Proof:''' Otherwise all of the infinitely many possible finite strings could be generated by the finitely many programs with a complexity below ''n'' bits.\n\n'''Theorem''': ''K'' is not a computable function. In other words, there is no program which takes a string ''s'' as input and produces the integer ''K''(''s'') as output.\n\nThe following indirect '''proof''' uses a simple Pascal-like language to denote programs; for sake of proof simplicity assume its description (i.e. an interpreter) to have a length of bits.\nAssume for contradiction there is a program\n\n '''function''' KolmogorovComplexity('''string''' s)\n\nwhich takes as input a string ''s'' and returns ''K''(''s''); for sake of proof simplicity, assume the program's length to be bits.\nNow, consider the following program of length bits:\n\n '''function''' GenerateComplexString()\n '''for''' i = 1 '''to''' infinity:\n '''for each''' string s '''of''' length exactly i\n '''if''' KolmogorovComplexity(s) >= 8000000000\n '''return''' s\n\nUsing KolmogorovComplexity as a subroutine, the program tries every string, starting with the shortest, until it returns a string with Kolmogorov complexity at least bits, i.e. a string that cannot be produced by any program shorter than bits. However, the overall length of the above program that produced ''s'' is only bits, which is a contradiction. (If the code of KolmogorovComplexity is shorter, the contradiction remains. If it is longer, the constant used in GenerateComplexString can always be changed appropriately.)\n\nThe above proof used a contradiction similar to that of the Berry paradox: \"The smallest positive integer that cannot be defined in fewer than twenty English words\". It is also possible to show the non-computability of ''K'' by reduction from the non-computability of the halting problem ''H'', since ''K'' and ''H'' are Turing-equivalent.\n\nThere is a corollary, humorously called the \"full employment theorem\" in the programming language community, stating that there is no perfect size-optimizing compiler.\n\n'''A naive attempt at a program for K'''\n\nAt first glance it might seem trivial to write a program which can compute ''K''(''s'') for any ''s'' (thus disproving the above theorem), such as the following:\n\n '''function''' KolmogorovComplexity('''string''' s)\n '''for''' i = 1 '''to''' infinity:\n '''for each''' string p '''of''' length exactly i\n '''if''' isValidProgram(p) '''and''' evaluate(p) == s\n '''return''' i\n\nThis program iterates through all possible programs (by iterating through all possible strings and only considering those which are valid programs), starting with the shortest. Each program is executed to find the result produced by that program, comparing it to the input ''s''. If the result matches the length of the program is returned.\n\nHowever this will not work because some of the programs ''p'' tested will not terminate, e.g. if they contain infinite loops. There is no way to avoid all of these programs by testing them in some way before executing them due to the non-computability of the halting problem.\n\n===Chain rule for Kolmogorov complexity===\n\nThe chain rule for Kolmogorov complexity states that\n\n:''K''(''X'',''Y'') ≤ ''K''(''X'') + ''K''(''Y''\|''X'') + ''O''(log(''K''(''X'',''Y''))).\n\nIt states that the shortest program that reproduces ''X'' and ''Y'' is no more than a logarithmic term larger than a program to reproduce ''X'' and a program to reproduce ''Y'' given ''X''. Using this statement, one can define an analogue of mutual information for Kolmogorov complexity.\n", "It is straightforward to compute upper bounds for ''K''(''s'') – simply compress the string ''s'' with some method, implement the corresponding decompressor in the chosen language, concatenate the decompressor to the compressed string, and measure the length of the resulting string – concretely, the size of a self-extracting archive in the given language.\n\nA string ''s'' is compressible by a number ''c'' if it has a description whose length does not exceed \|''s''\|−''c'' bits. This is equivalent to saying that ''K''(''s'') ≤ \|''s''\|-''c''. Otherwise, ''s'' is incompressible by ''c''. A string incompressible by 1 is said to be simply ''incompressible'' – by the pigeonhole principle, which applies because every compressed string maps to only one uncompressed string, incompressible strings must exist, since there are 2''n'' bit strings of length ''n'', but only 2''n'' - 1 shorter strings, that is, strings of length less than ''n'', (i.e. with length 0,1,...,''n − 1).\n\nFor the same reason, most strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be significantly compressed – their ''K''(''s'') is not much smaller than \|''s''\|, the length of ''s'' in bits. To make this precise, fix a value of ''n''. There are 2''n'' bitstrings of length ''n''. The uniform probability distribution on the space of these bitstrings assigns exactly equal weight 2−''n'' to each string of length ''n''.\n\n'''Theorem''': With the uniform probability distribution on the space of bitstrings of length ''n'', the probability that a string is incompressible by ''c'' is at least 1 - 2−''c''+1 + 2−''n''.\n\nTo prove the theorem, note that the number of descriptions of length not exceeding ''n''-''c'' is given by the geometric series:\n\n:1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2''n''-''c'' = 2''n''-''c''+1 - 1.\n\nThere remain at least\n\n:2''n'' - 2''n''-''c''+1 + 1\n\nbitstrings of length ''n'' that are incompressible by ''c''. To determine the probability, divide by 2''n''.\n", "Kolmogorov complexity , and two computable lower bound functions , . The horizontal axis (logarithmic scale) enumerates all strings ''s'', ordered by length; the vertical axis (linear scale) measures Kolmogorov complexity in bits. Most strings are incompressible, i.e. their Kolmogorov complexity exceeds their length by a constant amount. 17 compressible strings are shown in the picture, appearing as almost vertical slopes. Due to Chaitin's incompleteness theorem (1974), the output of any program computing a lower bound of the Kolmogorov complexity cannot exceed some fixed limit, which is independent of the input string ''s''.\nWe know that, in the set of all possible strings, most strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be described in any significantly \"compressed\" way. However, it turns out that the fact that a specific string is complex cannot be formally proven, if the complexity of the string is above a certain threshold. The precise formalization is as follows. First, fix a particular axiomatic system '''S''' for the natural numbers. The axiomatic system has to be powerful enough so that, to certain assertions '''A''' about complexity of strings, one can associate a formula '''F''''''A''' in '''S'''. This association must have the following property:\n\nIf '''F''''''A''' is provable from the axioms of '''S''', then the corresponding assertion '''A''' must be true. This \"formalization\" can be achieved, either by an artificial encoding such as a Gödel numbering, or by a formalization which more clearly respects the intended interpretation of '''S'''.\n\n'''Theorem''': There exists a constant ''L'' (which only depends on the particular axiomatic system and the choice of description language) such that there does not exist a string ''s'' for which the statement\n\n:''K''(''s'') ≥ ''L'' (as formalized in '''S''')\n\ncan be proven within the axiomatic system '''S'''.\n\nNote that, by the abundance of nearly incompressible strings, the vast majority of those statements must be true.\n\nThe proof of this result is modeled on a self-referential construction used in Berry's paradox. The proof is by contradiction. If the theorem were false, then\n\n:'''Assumption (X)''': For any integer ''n'' there exists a string ''s'' for which there is a proof in '''S''' of the formula \"''K''(''s'') ≥ ''n''\" (which we assume can be formalized in '''S''').\n\nWe can find an effective enumeration of all the formal proofs in '''S''' by some procedure\n\n '''function''' NthProof('''int''' ''n'')\nwhich takes as input ''n'' and outputs some proof. This function enumerates all proofs. Some of these are proofs for formulas we do not care about here, since every possible proof in the language of '''S''' is produced for some ''n''. Some of these are complexity formulas of the form ''K''(''s'') ≥ ''n'' where ''s'' and ''n'' are constants in the language of '''S'''. There is a program\n\n '''function''' NthProofProvesComplexityFormula('''int''' ''n'')\n\nwhich determines whether the ''n''th proof actually proves a complexity formula ''K''(''s'') ≥ ''L''. The strings ''s'', and the integer ''L'' in turn, are computable by programs:\n\n '''function''' StringNthProof('''int''' ''n'')\n\n '''function''' ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof('''int''' ''n'')\n\nConsider the following program\n\n '''function''' GenerateProvablyComplexString('''int''' ''n'')\n '''for''' i = 1 to infinity:\n '''if''' NthProofProvesComplexityFormula(i) '''and''' ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof(i) ≥ ''n''\n '''return''' StringNthProof(''i'')\n\nGiven an ''n'', this program tries every proof until it finds a string and a proof in the formal system '''S''' of the formula ''K''(''s'') ≥ ''L'' for some ''L'' ≥ ''n''. The program terminates by our '''Assumption (X)'''. Now, this program has a length ''U''. There is an integer ''n''0 such that ''U'' + log2(''n''0) + ''C'' 0, where ''C'' is the overhead cost of\n\n '''function''' GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString()\n '''return''' GenerateProvablyComplexString(''n''0)\n\n(note that ''n''0 is hard-coded into the above function, and the summand log2(''n''0) already allows for its encoding). The program GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString outputs a string ''s'' for which there exists an ''L'' such that ''K''(''s'') ≥ ''L'' can be formally proved in '''S''' with ''L'' ≥ ''n''0. In particular, ''K''(''s'') ≥ ''n''0 is true. However, ''s'' is also described by a program of length ''U'' + log2(''n''0) + ''C'', so its complexity is less than ''n''0. This contradiction proves '''Assumption (X)''' cannot hold.\n\nSimilar ideas are used to prove the properties of Chaitin's constant.\n", "\nThe minimum message length principle of statistical and inductive inference and machine learning was developed by C.S. Wallace and D.M. Boulton in 1968. MML is Bayesian (i.e. it incorporates prior beliefs) and information-theoretic. It has the desirable properties of statistical invariance (i.e. the inference transforms with a re-parametrisation, such as from polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates), statistical consistency (i.e. even for very hard problems, MML will converge to any underlying model) and efficiency (i.e. the MML model will converge to any true underlying model about as quickly as is possible). C.S. Wallace and D.L. Dowe (1999) showed a formal connection between MML and algorithmic information theory (or Kolmogorov complexity).\n", "\n''Kolmogorov randomness'' defines a string (usually of bits) as being random if and only if it is shorter than any computer program that can produce that string. To make this precise, a universal computer (or universal Turing machine) must be specified, so that \"program\" means a program for this universal machine. A random string in this sense is \"incompressible\" in that it is impossible to \"compress\" the string into a program whose length is shorter than the length of the string itself. A counting argument is used to show that, for any universal computer, there is at least one algorithmically random string of each length. Whether any particular string is random, however, depends on the specific universal computer that is chosen.\n\nThis definition can be extended to define a notion of randomness for ''infinite'' sequences from a finite alphabet. These algorithmically random sequences can be defined in three equivalent ways. One way uses an effective analogue of measure theory; another uses effective martingales. The third way defines an infinite sequence to be random if the prefix-free Kolmogorov complexity of its initial segments grows quickly enough — there must be a constant ''c'' such that the complexity of an initial segment of length ''n'' is always at least ''n''−''c''. This definition, unlike the definition of randomness for a finite string, is not affected by which universal machine is used to define prefix-free Kolmogorov complexity.\n\n", "For dynamical systems, entropy rate and algorithmic complexity of the trajectories are related by a theorem of Brudno, that the equality K(x;T) = h(T) holds for almost all x.\n\nIt can be shown that for the output of Markov information sources, Kolmogorov complexity is related to the entropy of the information source. More precisely, the Kolmogorov complexity of the output of a Markov information source, normalized by the length of the output, converges almost surely (as the length of the output goes to infinity) to the entropy of the source.\n", "\nThe conditional Kolmogorov complexity of two strings is, roughly speaking, defined as the Kolmogorov complexity of ''x'' given ''y'' as an auxiliary input to the procedure.\n\nThere is also a length-conditional complexity , which is the complexity of ''x'' given the length of ''x'' as known/input.\n", "* Berry paradox\n* Code golf\n* Data compression\n* Inductive inference\n* Kolmogorov structure function\n* Important publications in algorithmic information theory\n* Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference\n* Levenshtein distance\n* Grammar induction\n* Demoscene, a computer art discipline whose certain branches are centered around the creation of smallest programs that achieve certain effects\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n* Brudno, A. Entropy and the complexity of the trajectories of a dynamical system., Transactions of the Moscow Mathematical Society, 2:127{151, 1983.\n* Burgin, M. (1982), \"Generalized Kolmogorov complexity and duality in theory of computations\", ''Notices of the Russian Academy of Sciences'', v.25, No. 3, pp. 19–23.\n* Cover, Thomas M. and Thomas, Joy A., ''Elements of information theory'', 1st Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1991. . 2nd Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 2006. .\n* Lajos, Rónyai and Gábor, Ivanyos and Réka, Szabó, ''Algoritmusok''. TypoTeX, 1999. \n* First chapter on citeseer\n* Yu Manin, ''A Course in Mathematical Logic'', Springer-Verlag, 1977. \n* Sipser, Michael, ''Introduction to the Theory of Computation'', PWS Publishing Company, 1997. .\n* Wallace, C. S. and Dowe, D. L., Minimum Message Length and Kolmogorov Complexity, Computer Journal, Vol. 42, No. 4, 1999).\n", "* The Legacy of Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov\n* Chaitin's online publications\n* Solomonoff's IDSIA page\n* Generalizations of algorithmic information by J. Schmidhuber\n* Ming Li and Paul Vitanyi, An Introduction to Kolmogorov Complexity and Its Applications, 2nd Edition, Springer Verlag, 1997.\n* Tromp's lambda calculus computer model offers a concrete definition of K()\n* Universal AI based on Kolmogorov Complexity by M. Hutter: \n* David Dowe's Minimum Message Length (MML) and Occam's razor pages.\n* P. Grunwald, M. A. Pitt and I. J. Myung (ed.), Advances in Minimum Description Length: Theory and Applications, M.I.T. Press, April 2005, .\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Definition", "Invariance theorem", "History and context", "Basic results", "Compression", "Chaitin's incompleteness theorem", "Minimum message length", "Kolmogorov randomness", "Relation to entropy", "Conditional versions", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Kolmogorov complexity
[ "“'''Hymn to Proserpine'''” is a poem by Algernon Charles Swinburne, published in ''Poems and Ballads'' in 1866. The poem is addressed to the goddess Proserpina, the Roman equivalent of Persephone, but laments the rise of Christianity for displacing the pagan goddess and her pantheon.\n\nThe epigraph at the beginning of the poem is the phrase ''Vicisti, Galilaee'', Latin for \"You have conquered, O Galilean\", the apocryphal dying words of the Emperor Julian. He had tried to reverse the official endorsement of Christianity by the Roman Empire. The poem is cast in the form of a lament by a person professing the paganism of classical antiquity and lamenting its passing, and expresses regret at the rise of Christianity. Lines 35 and 36 express this best:\n\n''Thou hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath;''\n''We have drunken of things Lethean, and fed on the fullness of death.''\n\nThe line \"Time and the Gods are at strife\" inspired the title of Lord Dunsany's ''Time and the Gods''.\n\nThe poem is quoted by Sue Bridehead in Thomas Hardy's 1895 novel, ''Jude the Obscure'' and also by Edward Ashburnham in Ford Madox Ford's ''The Good Soldier''.\n", "* “The Garden of Proserpine”, another poem by A. C. Swinburne\n* Poems and Ballads\n", "\n", "\n* Full text at the University of Toronto Library\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Hymn to Proserpine
[ "\n\"'''The Triumph of Time'''\" is a poem by Algernon Charles Swinburne, published in ''Poems and Ballads'' in 1866. It is in adapted ottava rima and is full of elaborate use of literary devices, particularly alliteration. The theme, which purports to be autobiographical, is that of rejected love. The speaker deplores the ruin of his life, and in tones at times reminiscent of ''Hamlet'', craves oblivion, for which the sea serves as a constant metaphor.\n", "\n", "Poems and Ballads\n", "\n Complete text of the poem\n* ''Victorian Web'' article on the poem\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Notes", "See also", "External links" ]	The Triumph of Time
[ "\n\n\n\n \n", "224 – The Battle of Hormozdgān is fought. Ardashir I defeats and kills Artabanus V effectively ending the Parthian Empire.\n357 – Emperor Constantius II enters Rome for the first time to celebrate his victory over Magnus Magnentius.\n1192 – Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I), King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title to the throne is confirmed by election. The killing is carried out by Hashshashin.\n1253 – Nichiren, a Japanese Buddhist monk, propounds ''Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō'' for the very first time and declares it to be the essence of Buddhism, in effect founding Nichiren Buddhism.\n1503 – The Battle of Cerignola is fought. It is noted as the first battle in history won by small arms fire using gunpowder.\n1611 – Establishment of the Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, The Catholic University of the Philippines, the largest Catholic university in the world.\n1788 – Maryland becomes the seventh state to ratify the United States Constitution.\n1789 – Mutiny on the ''Bounty'': Lieutenant William Bligh and 18 sailors are set adrift and the rebel crew returns to Tahiti briefly and then sets sail for Pitcairn Island.\n1792 – France invades the Austrian Netherlands (present day Belgium and Luxembourg), beginning the French Revolutionary Wars.\n1796 – The Armistice of Cherasco is signed by Napoleon Bonaparte and Vittorio Amedeo III, King of Sardinia, expanding French territory along the Mediterranean coast.\n1869 – Chinese and Irish laborers for the Central Pacific Railroad working on the First Transcontinental Railroad lay ten miles of track in one day, a feat which has never been matched.\n1881 – Billy the Kid escapes from the Lincoln County jail in Mesilla, New Mexico.\n1887 – A week after being arrested by the Prussian Secret Police, French police inspector Guillaume Schnaebelé is released on order of William I, German Emperor, defusing a possible war.\n1910 – Frenchman Louis Paulhan wins the 1910 London to Manchester air race, the first long-distance aeroplane race in England.\n1920 – Azerbaijan is added to the Soviet Union.\n1923 – Wembley Stadium is opened, named initially as the Empire Stadium.\n1930 – The Independence Producers hosted the first night game in the history of Organized Baseball in Independence, Kansas. \n1941 – The Ustaše massacre nearly 200 Serbs in the village of Gudovac, the first massacre of their genocidal campaign against Serbs of the Independent State of Croatia.\n1944 – World War II: Nine German E-boats attacked US and UK units during Exercise Tiger, the rehearsal for the Normandy landings, killing 946.\n1945 – Benito Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci are executed by a firing squad consisting of members of the Italian resistance movement.\n1947 – Thor Heyerdahl and five crew mates set out from Peru on the ''Kon-Tiki'' to prove that Peruvian natives could have settled Polynesia.\n1948 – Igor Stravinsky conducted the premier of his American ballet, ''Orpheus'' at the New York City Center.\n1949 – The Hukbalahap are accused of assassinating former First Lady of the Philippines Aurora Quezon, while she is ''en route'' to dedicate a hospital in memory of her late husband; her daughter and ten others are also killed.\n1952 – Dwight D. Eisenhower resigns as Supreme Allied Commander of NATO.\n* 1952 – Occupied Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers: The United States occupation of Japan ends as the Treaty of San Francisco, ratified September 8, 1951, comes into force.\n* 1952 – The Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty (Treaty of Taipei) is signed in Taipei, Taiwan between Japan and the Republic of China to officially end the Second Sino-Japanese War.\n1965 – United States occupation of the Dominican Republic: American troops land in the Dominican Republic to \"forestall establishment of a Communist dictatorship\" and to evacuate U.S. Army troops.\n1967 – Vietnam War: Boxer Muhammad Ali refuses his induction into the United States Army and is subsequently stripped of his championship and license.\n1969 – Charles de Gaulle resigns as President of France.\n1970 – Vietnam War: U.S. President Richard Nixon formally authorizes American combat troops to fight communist sanctuaries in Cambodia.\n1973 – The Dark Side of the Moon by Pink Floyd, recorded in Abbey Road Studios goes to number 1 in the US charts, beginning a record-breaking 741-week chart run.\n1975 – General Cao Văn Viên, chief of the South Vietnamese military, departs for the US as the North Vietnamese Army closed in on victory.\n1977 – The Red Army Faction trial ends, with Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin and Jan-Carl Raspe found guilty of four counts of murder and more than 30 counts of attempted murder.\n1978 – President of Afghanistan, Mohammed Daoud Khan, is overthrown and assassinated in a coup led by pro-communist rebels.\n1986 – The United States Navy aircraft carrier becomes the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier to transit the Suez Canal, navigating from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea to relieve the .\n 1986 – High levels of radiation resulting from the Chernobyl disaster are detected at a nuclear power plant in Sweden, leading Soviet authorities to publicly announce the accident.\n1988 – Near Maui, Hawaii, flight attendant Clarabelle \"C.B.\" Lansing is blown out of Aloha Airlines Flight 243, a Boeing 737, and falls to her death when part of the plane's fuselage rips open in mid-flight.\n1994 – Former Central Intelligence Agency counterintelligence officer and analyst Aldrich Ames pleads guilty to giving U.S. secrets to the Soviet Union and later Russia.\n1996 – Whitewater controversy: President Bill Clinton gives a 4½ hour videotaped testimony for the defense.\n 1996 – Port Arthur massacre, Tasmania: A gunman, Martin Bryant, opens fire at the Broad Arrow Cafe in Port Arthur, Tasmania, killing 35 people and wounding 23 others.\n2011 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 1980 relating to Ivorian crisis is adopted.\n", "\n AD 32 – Otho, Roman emperor (d. 69 AD)\n1402 – Nezahualcoyotl, Acolhuan philosopher, warrior, poet and ruler (d. 1472)\n1442 – Edward IV of England (d. 1483)\n1545 – Yi Sun-sin, Korean commander (d. 1598)\n1573 – Charles de Valois, Duke of Angoulême, natural son of Charles IX of France (d. 1650)\n1604 – Joris Jansen Rapelje, Early Dutch settler in colonial North America (d. 1662)\n1623 – Wilhelmus Beekman, Dutch politician (d. 1707)\n1630 – Charles Cotton, English poet and author (d. 1687)\n1715 – Franz Sparry, Austrian composer and educator (d. 1767)\n1758 – James Monroe, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 5th President of the United States (d. 1831)\n1761 – Marie Harel, French cheesemaker (d. 1844)\n1765 – Sylvestre François Lacroix, French mathematician and academic (d. 1834)\n1819 – Ezra Abbot, American scholar and academic (d. 1884)\n1827 – William Hall, Canadian soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1904)\n1838 – Tobias Asser, Dutch lawyer and scholar, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1913)\n1848 – Ludvig Schytte, Danish pianist, composer, and educator (d. 1909)\n1854 – Hertha Marks Ayrton, Polish-British engineer, mathematician, and physicist. (d. 1923)\n1855 – José Malhoa, Portuguese painter (d. 1933)\n1863 – Josiah Thomas, English-Australian miner and politician, 7th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 1933)\n1865 – Charles W. Woodworth, American entomologist and academic (d. 1940)\n1868 – Lucy Booth, English composer (d. 1953)\n* 1868 – Georgy Voronoy, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1908)\n1874 – Karl Kraus, Austrian journalist and author (d. 1936)\n 1874 – Sidney Toler, American actor and director (d. 1947)\n1876 – Nicola Romeo, Italian engineer and businessman (d. 1938)\n1878 – Lionel Barrymore, American actor and director (d. 1954)\n1886 – Art Shaw, American hurdler (d. 1955)\n1888 – Walter Tull, English footballer and soldier (d. 1918)\n1889 – António de Oliveira Salazar, Portuguese economist and politician, 100th Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1970)\n1896 – Na Hye-sok, South Korean journalist, poet, and painter (d. 1948)\n1897 – Ye Jianying, Chinese general and politician, Head of State of the People's Republic of China (d. 1986)\n1900 – Heinrich Müller, German SS officer (d. 1945)\n* 1900 – Jan Oort, Dutch astronomer and academic (d. 1992)\n1901 – H. B. Stallard, English runner and surgeon (d. 1973)\n1902 – Johan Borgen, Norwegian author and critic (d. 1979)\n1906 – Kurt Gödel, Czech-American mathematician, philosopher, and academic (d. 1978)\n 1906 – Paul Sacher, Swiss conductor and philanthropist (d. 1999)\n1908 – Ethel Catherwood, American-Canadian high jumper and javelin thrower (d. 1987)\n 1908 – Jack Fingleton, Australian cricketer, journalist, and sportscaster (d. 1981)\n* 1908 – Oskar Schindler, Czech-German businessman (d. 1974)\n1909 – Arthur Võõbus, Estonian-American theologist and orientalist (d. 1988)\n1910 – Sam Merwin, Jr., American author (d. 1996)\n1911 – Lee Falk, American director, producer, and playwright (d. 1999)\n1912 – Odette Hallowes, French soldier and spy (d. 1995)\n* 1912 – Kaneto Shindō, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)\n1913 – Rose Murphy, American singer (d. 1989)\n1916 – Ferruccio Lamborghini, Italian businessman, created Lamborghini (d. 1993)\n1917 – Robert Cornthwaite, American actor (d. 2006)\n1921 – Rowland Evans, American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 2001)\n* 1921 – Simin Daneshvar, Iranian author and academic (d. 2012)\n1923 – Carolyn Cassady, American author (d. 2013)\n 1923 – William Guarnere, American sergeant (d. 2014)\n1924 – Dick Ayers, American author and illustrator (d. 2014)\n 1924 – Blossom Dearie, American singer and pianist (d. 2009)\n* 1924 – Kenneth Kaunda, Zambian educator and politician, 1st President of Zambia\n1925 – T. John Lesinski, American judge and politician, 51st Lieutenant Governor of Michigan (d. 1996)\n 1925 – John Leonard Thorn, English lieutenant, author, and academic\n1926 – James Bama, American artist and illustrator\n 1926 – Bill Blackbeard, American historian and author (d. 2011)\n* 1926 – Harper Lee, American novelist (d. 2016)\n* 1926 – Hulusi Sayın, Turkish general (d. 1991)\n1928 – Yves Klein, French painter (d. 1962)\n 1928 – Eugene Merle Shoemaker, American geologist and astronomer (d. 1997)\n1930 – James Baker, American lawyer and politician, 61st United States Secretary of State\n 1930 – Carolyn Jones, American actress (d. 1983)\n1933 – Miodrag Radulovacki, Serbian-American neuropharmacologist and academic (d. 2014)\n1934 – Lois Duncan, American journalist and author (d. 2016)\n1935 – Pedro Ramos, Cuban baseball player\n 1935 – Jimmy Wray, Scottish boxer and politician (d. 2013)\n1936 – Tariq Aziz, Iraqi journalist and politician, Iraqi Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2015)\n1937 – Saddam Hussein, Iraqi general and politician, 5th President of Iraq (d. 2006)\n* 1937 – Jean Redpath, Scottish singer-songwriter (d. 2014)\n* 1937 – John White, Scottish footballer (d. 1964)\n1938 – Madge Sinclair, Jamaican-American actress (d. 1995)\n1941 – Ann-Margret, Swedish-American actress, singer, and dancer\n* 1941 – Lucien Aimar, French cyclist\n* 1941 – John Madejski, English businessman and academic\n* 1941 – Karl Barry Sharpless, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1941 – Iryna Zhylenko, Ukrainian poet and author (d. 2013)\n1942 – Mike Brearley, English cricketer and psychoanalyst\n1943 – Aryeh Bibi, Iraqi-born Israeli politician\n1944 – Elizabeth LeCompte, American director and producer\n 1944 – Jean-Claude Van Cauwenberghe, Belgian politician, 10th Minister-President of the Walloon Region\n* 1944 – Alice Waters, American chef and author\n1946 – Nour El-Sherif, Egyptian actor and producer (d. 2015)\n 1946 – Ginette Reno, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress\n* 1946 – Larissa Grunig, American theorist and activist\n1947 – Christian Jacq, French historian and author \n 1947 – Nicola LeFanu, English composer and academic\n1948 – Terry Pratchett, English journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 2015)\n 1948 – Marcia Strassman, American actress and singer (d. 2014)\n1949 – Jeremy Cooke, English lawyer and judge\n 1949 – Paul Guilfoyle, American actor\n* 1949 – Bruno Kirby, American actor and director (d. 2006)\n1950 – Willie Colón, Puerto Rican-American trombonist and producer \n 1950 – Jay Leno, American comedian, talk show host, and producer\n* 1950 – Steve Rider, English journalist and sportscaster\n1951 – Tim Congdon, English economist and politician\n 1951 – Larry Smith, Canadian football player and politician\n1952 – Chuck Leavell, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player \n 1952 – Mary McDonnell, American actress\n1953 – Roberto Bolaño, Chilean novelist, short-story writer, poet, and essayist (d. 2003)\n 1953 – Kim Gordon, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n* 1953 – Brian Greenhoff, English footballer and coach (d. 2013)\n1954 – Timothy Curley, American educator\n 1954 – Michael P. Jackson, American politician, 3rd Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security\n* 1954 – Vic Sotto, Filipino actor-producer, singer-songwriter, comedian and television personality\n* 1954 – Ron Zook, American football player and coach\n1955 – Eddie Jobson, English keyboard player and violinist \n1956 – Jimmy Barnes, Scottish-Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1957 – Wilma Landkroon, Dutch singer\n1958 – Hal Sutton, American golfer\n* 1960 – Tom Browning, American baseball player\n* 1960 – Elena Kagan, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States\n* 1960 – Phil King, English bass player \n* 1960 – Ian Rankin, Scottish author\n* 1960 – Jón Páll Sigmarsson, Icelandic strongman and weightlifter (d. 1993)\n1963 – Sandrine Dumas, French actress, director, and screenwriter\n 1963 – Lloyd Eisler, Canadian figure skater and coach\n* 1963 – Marc Lacroix, Belgian biochemist and academic\n1964 – Stephen Ames, Trinidadian golfer\n 1964 – Noriyuki Iwadare, Japanese composer\n* 1964 – Ajay Kakkar, Baron Kakkar, English surgeon and academic\n* 1964 – Barry Larkin, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster\n* 1964 – L'Wren Scott, American model and fashion designer (d. 2014)\n1965 – Jennifer Rardin, American author (d. 2010)\n1966 – John Daly, American golfer\n* 1966 – Too Short, American rapper, producer and actor\n1967 – Chris White, English engineer and politician\n1968 – Howard Donald, English singer-songwriter and producer \n* 1968 – Andy Flower, South-African-Zimbabwean cricketer and coach\n1970 – Richard Fromberg, Australian tennis player\n 1970 – Nicklas Lidström, Swedish ice hockey player and scout\n* 1970 – Diego Simeone, Argentinian footballer and manager\n1971 – Brad McEwan, Australian journalist\n1972 – Violent J, American rapper, Insane Clown Posse\n* 1972 – Helena Tulve, Estonian composer\n* 1972 – Jean-Paul van Gastel, Dutch footballer and manager\n1973 – Jorge Garcia, American actor and producer\n 1973 – Earl Holmes, American football player and coach\n* 1973 – Andrew Mehrtens, South African-New Zealand rugby player\n1974 – Penélope Cruz, Spanish actress and producer\n 1974 – Margo Dydek, Polish basketball player and coach (d. 2011)\n* 1974 – Richel Hersisia, Dutch boxer\n* 1974 – Vernon Kay, English radio and television host\n* 1974 – Dominic Matteo, Scottish footballer and journalist\n1976 – Shane Jurgensen, Australian cricketer \n1978 – Lauren Laverne, English singer and television host\n* 1978 – Nate Richert, American actor\n1979 – Scott Fujita, American football player and sportscaster\n1980 – Bradley Wiggins, English cyclist\n1981 – Jessica Alba, American model and actress\n 1981 – Pietro Travagli, Italian rugby player\n1982 – Nikki Grahame, English model and journalist\n 1982 – Chris Kaman, American basketball player\n1983 – Josh Brookes, Australian motorcycle racer\n 1983 – David Freese, American baseball player\n* 1983 – Roger Johnson, English footballer\n* 1983 – Graham Wagg, English cricketer\n* 1983 – Thomas Waldrom, New Zealand-English rugby player\n1984 – Dmitri Torbinski, Russian footballer\n1985 – Lucas Jakubczyk, German sprinter and long jumper\n* 1985 – Deividas Stagniūnas, Lithuanian ice dancer\n1986 – Roman Polák, Czech ice hockey player\n 1986 – Jenna Ushkowitz, Korean-American actress, singer, and dancer\n1987 – Ryan Conroy, Scottish footballer\n 1987 – Bradley Johnson, English footballer\n* 1987 – Zoran Tošić, Serbian footballer\n1988 – Jonathan Biabiany, French footballer\n 1988 – Juan Manuel Mata, Spanish footballer\n* 1988 – Katariina Tuohimaa, Finnish tennis player\n1989 – Emil Salomonsson, Swedish footballer\n1990 – Niels-Peter Mørck, Danish footballer\n1993 – Craig Garvey, Australian rugby league player\n1995 – Jonathan Benteke, Belgian footballer\n1995 – Melanie Martinez, American singer\n\n", " 224 – Artabanus V of Parthia (b. 191)\n* 948 – Hu Jinsi, Chinese general and prefect\n1192 – Conrad of Montferrat (b. 1140)\n1197 – Rhys ap Gruffydd, prince of Deheubarth (b. 1132)\n1257 – Shajar al-Durr, sovereign sultana of Egypt\n1260 – Luchesius Modestini, founding member of the Third Order of St. Francis\n1400 – Baldus de Ubaldis, Italian jurist (b. 1327)\n1489 – Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, English politician (b. 1449)\n1533 – Nicholas West, English bishop and diplomat (b. 1461)\n1643 – Francisco de Lucena, Portuguese politician (b. 1578)\n1710 – Thomas Betterton, English actor and manager (b. 1630)\n1716 – Louis de Montfort, French priest and saint (b. 1673)\n1726 – Thomas Pitt, English merchant and politician (b. 1653)\n1741 – Magnus Julius De la Gardie, Swedish general and politician (b. 1668)\n1772 – Johann Friedrich Struensee, German physician and politician (b. 1737)\n1781 – Cornelius Harnett, American merchant, farmer, and politician (b. 1723)\n1813 – Mikhail Kutuzov, Russian field marshal (b. 1745)\n1816 – Johann Heinrich Abicht, German philosopher, author, and academic (b. 1762)\n1841 – Peter Chanel, French priest, missionary, and martyr (b. 1803)\n1853 – Ludwig Tieck, German author and poet (b. 1773)\n1858 – Johannes Peter Müller, German physiologist and anatomist (b. 1801)\n1865 – Samuel Cunard, Canadian-English businessman, founded Cunard Line (b. 1787)\n1881 – Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon, French sculptor and photographer (b. 1818)\n1883 – John Russell, English hunter and dog breeder (b. 1795)\n1902 – Cyprien Tanguay, Canadian priest and historian (b. 1819)\n1905 – Fitzhugh Lee, American general and politician, 40th Governor of Virginia (b. 1835)\n1925 – Richard Butler, English-Australian politician, 23rd Premier of South Australia (b. 1850)\n1929 – Hendrik van Heuckelum, Dutch footballer (b. 1879)\n1936 – Fuad I of Egypt (b. 1868)\n1944 – Mohammed Alim Khan, Manghud ruler (b. 1880)\n* 1944 – Frank Knox, American journalist and politician, 46th United States Secretary of the Navy (b. 1874)\n1945 – Roberto Farinacci, Italian soldier and politician (b. 1892)\n 1945 – Hermann Fegelein, German general (b. 1906)\n* 1945 – Benito Mussolini, Italian journalist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1883)\n1946 – Louis Bachelier, French mathematician and academic (b. 1870)\n1954 – Léon Jouhaux, French union leader, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1879)\n1956 – Fred Marriott, American racing driver (b. 1872)\n1957 – Heinrich Bär, German colonel and pilot (b. 1913)\n1963 – Wilhelm Weber, German gymnast (b. 1880)\n1970 – Ed Begley, American actor (b. 1901)\n1973 – Clas Thunberg, Finnish speed skater (b. 1893)\n1976 – Richard Hughes, American author and poet (b. 1900)\n1977 – Ricardo Cortez, American actor (b. 1900)\n 1977 – Sepp Herberger, German footballer and coach (b. 1897)\n1978 – Mohammed Daoud Khan, Afghan commander and politician, 1st President of Afghanistan (b. 1909)\n1980 – Tommy Caldwell, American bass player (b. 1949)\n1987 – Ben Linder, American engineer and activist (b. 1959)\n1991 – Steve Broidy, American film producer (b. 1905)\n1992 – Francis Bacon, Irish painter (b. 1909)\n1993 – Diva Diniz Corrêa, Brazilian zoologist (b. 1918)\n* 1993 – Jim Valvano, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster (b. 1946)\n1994 – Berton Roueché, American journalist and author (b. 1910)\n1996 – Lester Sumrall, American minister, founded LeSEA (b. 1913)\n1997 – Ann Petry, American novelist (b. 1908)\n1998 – Jerome Bixby, American author and screenwriter (b. 1923)\n1999 – Rory Calhoun, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1922)\n 1999 – Rolf Landauer, German-American physicist and engineer (b. 1927)\n* 1999 – Alf Ramsey, English footballer and manager (b. 1920)\n* 1999 – Arthur Leonard Schawlow, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1921)\n2000 – Jerzy Einhorn, Polish-Swedish physician and politician (b. 1925)\n 2000 – Penelope Fitzgerald, English author and poet (b. 1916)\n2002 – Alexander Lebed, Russian general and politician (b. 1950)\n 2002 – Lou Thesz, American wrestler and trainer (b. 1916)\n2005 – Percy Heath, American bassist (b. 1923)\n 2005 – Taraki Sivaram, Sri Lankan journalist and author (b. 1959)\n2006 – Steve Howe, American baseball player (b. 1958)\n2007 – Dabbs Greer, American actor (b. 1917)\n* 2007 – René Mailhot, Canadian journalist (b. 1942)\n* 2007 – Tommy Newsom, American saxophonist and bandleader (b. 1929)\n* 2007 – Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, German physicist and philosopher (b. 1912)\n* 2007 – Bertha Wilson, Scottish-Canadian lawyer and jurist (b. 1923)\n2009 – Ekaterina Maximova, Russian ballerina and actress (b. 1939)\n 2009 – Richard Pratt, Polish-Australian businessman (b. 1934)\n2011 – Erhard Loretan, Swiss mountaineer (b. 1959)\n2012 – Fred Allen, New Zealand rugby player and coach (b. 1920)\n* 2012 – Matilde Camus, Spanish poet and author (b. 1919)\n* 2012 – Al Ecuyer, American football player (b. 1937)\n* 2012 – Patricia Medina, English actress (b. 1919)\n* 2012 – Milan N. Popović, Serbian psychiatrist and author (b. 1924)\n* 2012 – Aberdeen Shikoyi, Kenyan rugby player (b. 1985)\n2013 – Brad Lesley, American baseball player (b. 1958)\n 2013 – Fredrick McKissack, American author (b. 1939)\n* 2013 – John C. Reynolds, American computer scientist and academic (b. 1935)\n* 2013 – Jack Shea, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1928)\n* 2013 – János Starker, Hungarian-American cellist and educator (b. 1924)\n* 2013 – Paulo Vanzolini, Brazilian singer-songwriter and zoologist (b. 1924)\n* 2013 – Bernie Wood, New Zealand journalist and author (b. 1939)\n2014 – William Honan, American journalist and author (b. 1930)\n 2014 – Dennis Kamakahi, American guitarist and composer (b. 1953)\n* 2014 – Edgar Laprade, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1919)\n* 2014 – Jack Ramsay, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster (b. 1925)\n* 2014 – Idris Sardi, Indonesian violinist and composer (b. 1938)\n* 2014 – Frederic Schwartz, American architect, co-designed Empty Sky (b. 1951)\n* 2014 – Ryan Tandy, Australian rugby player (b. 1981)\n2015 – Antônio Abujamra, Brazilian actor and director (b. 1932)\n 2015 – Marcia Brown, American author and illustrator (b. 1918)\n* 2015 – Michael J. Ingelido, American general (b. 1916)\n2016 – Jenny Diski, English author and screenwriter (b. 1947)\n2017 – Mariano Gagnon, American Catholic priest and author (b. 1929)\n\n", "Christian feast day:\nGianna Beretta Molla\nLouis de Montfort\nPeter Chanel\nVitalis and Valeria of Milan\nApril 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nLawyers' Day (Odisha, India)\nMujahideen Victory Day (Afghanistan)\nNational Day (Sardinia, Italy)\nNational Heroes Day (Barbados)\nRestoration of Sovereignty Day (Japan)\nWorkers' Memorial Day and World Day for Safety and Health at Work (international)\nNational Day of Mourning (Canada)\n", "\n BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	April 28
[ "\n\n'''Alessandro Algardi''' (31 July 159810 June 1654) was an Italian high-Baroque sculptor active almost exclusively in Rome, where for the latter decades of his life, he was, along with Francesco Borromini and Pietro da Cortona, one of the major rivals of Gian Lorenzo Bernini.\n", "Algardi was born in Bologna, where at a young age, he was apprenticed in the studio of Agostino Carracci. However, his aptitude for sculpture led him to work for Giulio Cesare Conventi (1577–1640), an artist of modest talents. His two earliest known works date back to this period: two statues of saints, made of chalk, in the Oratory of Santa Maria della Vita in Bologna. By the age of twenty, Ferdinando I, Duke of Mantua, began commissioning works from him, and he was also employed by local jewelers for figurative designs. After a short residence in Venice, he went to Rome in 1625 with an introduction from the Duke of Mantua to the late pope's nephew, Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi, who employed him for a time in the restoration of ancient statues.\n", "Propelled by the Borghese and Barberini patronage, Gian Lorenzo Bernini and his studio garnered most of the major Roman sculptural commissions. For nearly a decade, Algardi struggled for recognition. In Rome he was aided by friends that included Pietro da Cortona and his fellow Bolognese, Domenichino. His early Roman commissions included terracotta and some marble portrait busts, while he supported himself with small works like crucifixes. In the 1630s he worked on the tombs of the Mellini family in the Mellini Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo.\n\nTomb of Leo XI'' \nAlgardi's first major commission came about in 1634, when Cardinal Ubaldini (Medici) contracted for a funeral monument for his great-uncle, Pope Leo XI, the third of the Medici popes, who had reigned for less than a month in 1605. The monument was started in 1640, and mostly completed by 1644. The arrangement mirrors the one designed by Bernini for the Tomb of Urban VIII (1628–47), with a central hieratic sculpture of the pope seated in full regalia and offering a hand of blessing, while at his feet, two allegorical female figures flank his sarcophagus. However, in Bernini's tomb, the vigorous upraised arm and posture of the pope is counterbalanced by an active drama below, wherein the figures of ''Charity'' and ''Justice'' are either distracted by ''putti'' or lost in contemplation, while skeletal ''Death'' actively writes the epitaph. Algardi's tomb is much less dynamic. The allegorical figures of ''Magnanimity'' and ''Liberality'' have an impassive, ethereal dignity. Some have identified the helmeted figure of ''Magnanimity'' with that of Athena and iconic images of ''Wisdom''. ''Liberality'' resembles Duquesnoy's famous ''Santa Susanna'', but rendered more elegant. The tomb is somberly monotone and lacks the polychromatic excitement that detracts from the elegiac mood of Urban VIII's tomb.\n\nIn 1635–38, Pietro Boncompagni commissioned from Algardi a colossal statue of Philip Neri with kneeling angels for Santa Maria in Vallicella, completed in 1640. Immediately after this, Algardi produced an interactive sculptural group representing the beheading of Saint Paul with two figures: a kneeling, resigned saint and the executioner poised to strike the sword-blow, for the church of San Paolo, Bologna. These works established his reputation. Like Bernini's characteristic works, they often express the Baroque aesthetic of depicting dramatic attitudes and emotional expressions, yet Algardi's sculpture has a restraining sobriety in contrast to those of his rival.\n", "''Pope Innocent X'', Capitoline Museums.\n\nWith the death of the Barberini Pope Urban VIII in 1644 and the accession of the Pamphilj Pope Innocent X, the Barberini family and their favorite artist, Bernini, fell into disrepute. Algardi, on the other hand, was embraced by the new pope and the pope's nephew, Camillo Pamphilj. Algardi's portraits were highly prized, and their formal severity contrasts with Bernini's more vivacious expression. A large hieratic bronze of Innocent X by Algardi is now to be found in the Capitoline Museums.\n\nAlgardi was not renowned for his architectural abilities. Although he was in charge of the project for the papal villa, the Villa Pamphili, now Villa Doria Pamphili, outside the Porta San Pancrazio in Rome, he may have had professional guidance on the design of the casino from the architect/engineer Girolamo Rainaldi and help with supervising its construction from his assistant Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi. The casino was a showcase for the Pamphili collection of sculpture, ancient and contemporary, on which Algardi was well able to advise. In the villa grounds, Algardi and his studio executed sculpture-encrusted fountains and other garden features, where some of his free-standing sculpture and bas-reliefs remain.\n\nIn 1650 Algardi met Diego Velázquez, who obtained commissions for his work from Spain. As a consequence there are four chimney-pieces by Algardi in the Royal Palace of Aranjuez, and in the gardens, the figures on the fountain of Neptune are also by him. The Augustinian monastery at Salamanca contains the tomb of the Count and Countess de Monterey, another work by Algardi.\n\n''Fuga d'Attila'', St. Peter's Basilica.\n", "Algardi's large dramatic marble high-relief panel of Pope Leo and Attila(1646–53) for St Peter's Basilica, and reinvigorated the use of such marble reliefs. There had been large marble reliefs used previously in Roman churches, but for most patrons, sculpted marble altarpieces were far too costly. In this relief, the two principal figures, the stern and courageous pope and the dismayed and frightened Attila, surge forward from the center into three dimensions. Only they two see the descending angelic warriors rallying to the pope's defense, while all others in the background reliefs, persist in performing their respective earthly duties.\n\nThe subject was apt for a papal state seeking clout, since it depicts the historical legend when the greatest of the popes Leo, with supernatural aid, deterred the Huns from looting Rome. From a baroque standpoint it is a moment of divine intervention in the affairs of man. No doubt part of his patron's message would be that all viewers would be sternly reminded of the papal capacity to invoke divine retribution against enemies.\n\nAlgardi died in Rome within a year of completing his famous relief, which was admired by contemporaries.\n\nIn his later years Algardi controlled a large studio and amassed a great fortune. Algardi's classicizing manner was carried on by pupils (including Ercole Ferrata and Domenico Guidi). Antonio Raggi initially trained with him. The latter two completed his design for an altarpiece of the ''Vision of Saint Nicholas'' (San Nicola da Tolentino, Rome) using two separate marble pieces linked together in one event and place, yet successfully separating the divine and earthly spheres. Other lesser known assistants from his studio include Francesco Barrata, Girolamo Lucenti, and Giuseppe Peroni.\n", "\nAlgardi was also known for his portraiture which shows an obsessive attention to details of psychologically revealing physiognomy in a sober but immediate naturalism, and minute attention to costume and draperies, such as in the busts of Laudivio Zacchia, Camillo Pamphilj, and of Muzio Frangipane and his two sons Lello and Roberto.\n\nIn temperament, his style was more akin to the classicized and restrained baroque of Duquesnoy than to the emotive works of other baroque artists. From an artistic point of view, he was most successful in portrait-statues and groups of children, where he was obliged to follow nature most closely. His terracotta models, some of them finished works of art, were prized by collectors. An outstanding series of terracotta models is at the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg.\n", "\nAlessandro algardi, ritratto d'uomo 01.JPG\|A Gentleman\nAlessandro algardi, busto di maurizio frangipane.jpg\|Maurizio Frangipane\nAlessandro algardi, ritratto di olimpio pamphili.JPG\|Olimpia Pamphili\nAlessandro algardi, il cardinale paolo emilio zacchia, 1650 ca..JPG\|Cardinal Paolo Emilio Zacchia\nDa alessandro algardi, papa innocenzo X, metà del 17mo secolo.JPG\| Pope Innocent X\nCamillo Pamphili.jpg\|Camillo Pamphili\nGasparoMolo.jpg\|Gasparo Molo\n\n\n", "* \n* \n* Alessandro Algardi in the \"History of Art\"\n* Artnet Resource Library: Alessandro Algardi\n* Web Gallery of Art: Algardi, sculptures\n* Roderick Conway-Morris, \"Casting light on a Baroque sculptor\", ''International Herald Tribune'', March 20, 1999: Review of exhibition \"Algardi: The Other Face of the Baroque,\", 1999\n* A landscape pen-and-ink drawing by Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, c 1650, to which Algardi has added figures of the Holy Family (Getty Museum)\n* Images of nearly all works\n* Roberto Piperno, \"Three busts by Alessandro Algardi\" Busts of members of the Frangipane family in S. Marcello al Corso\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early years", "Tomb of Pope Leo XI", "Papal favour under Innocent X and Spanish commissions", "The ''Fuga d'Attila'' relief", "Critical assessment and legacy", "Gallery", "Sources", "Notes", "References" ]	Alessandro Algardi
[ "'''Alger of Liège''' (1055–1131), known also as Alger of Cluny and Algerus Magister, was a learned clergyman from Liège author of several notable works.\n\nAlger was first deacon of church of St Bartholomew in his native Liège and was then appointed () to St. Lambert's Cathedral. He declined offers from German bishops and finally retired to the monastery of Cluny, where he died at a high age, leaving behind a solid reputation for piety and intelligence.\n\nHis ''History of the Church of Liège'', and many of his other works, are lost. The most important remaining are:\n#''De Misericordia et Justitia'' (On Mercy and Justice), a collection of biblical extracts and sayings of Church Fathers with commentary (an important work for the history of church law and discipline), which is to be found in the ''Anecdota'' of Martène, vol. v.\n#''De Sacramentis Corporis et Sanguinis Domini''; a treatise, in three books, against the Berengarian heresy, highly commended by Peter of Cluny and Erasmus.\n#''De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio''; given in Bernard Pez's ''Anecdota'', vol. iv.\n#''De Sacrificio Missae''; given in the ''Collectio Scriptor. Vet.'' of Angelo Mai, vol. ix. p. 371.\n", "\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References" ]	Alger of Liège
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Algiers''' (, ''al-Jazā’er''; Algerian Arabic pronunciation: دزاير Dzayer, , ) is the capital and largest city of Algeria. In 2011, the city's population was estimated to be around 3,500,000. An estimate puts the population of the larger metropolitan city to be around 5,000,000. Algiers is located on the Mediterranean Sea and in the north-central portion of Algeria.\n\nSometimes nicknamed ''El-Behdja'' (البهجة) or alternatively ''Alger la Blanche'' (\"Algiers the White\") for the glistening white of its buildings as seen rising up from the sea, Algiers is situated on the west side of a bay of the Mediterranean Sea. The modern part of the city is built on the level ground by the seashore; the old part, the ancient city of the deys, climbs the steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the casbah or citadel, above the sea. The casbah and the two quays form a triangle.\n\n==Etymology==\nThe city name is derived (via French ''Alger'' and Catalan ''Alger'') from the Arabic name الجزائر ''al-Jazā’ir'', which translates as \"The Islands\", referring to the four islands which used to lie off the city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525. ''Al-Jazā’ir'' is itself a truncated form of the city's older name جزائر بني مزغانة ''Jaza'ir Bani Mazghana'', \"The Islands of the Sons of Mazghana\", used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi.\n", "\nA Phoenician commercial outpost called ''Ikosim'' which later developed into a small Roman town called ''Icosium'' existed on what is now the marine quarter of the city. The ''rue de la Marine'' follows the lines of what used to be a Roman street. Roman cemeteries existed near ''Bab-el-Oued'' and ''Bab Azoun''. The city was given Latin rights by Emperor Vespasian. The bishops of Icosium are mentioned as late as the 5th century.\n\nThe present-day city was founded in 944 by Bologhine ibn Ziri, the founder of the Berber Zirid–Sanhaja dynasty. He had earlier (935) built his own house and a Sanhaja center at Ashir, just south of Algiers. Although his Zirid dynasty was overthrown by Roger II of Sicily in 1148, the Zirids had already lost control of Algiers to their cousins the Hammadids in 1014. The city was wrested from the Hammadids by the Almohads in 1159, and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Ziyanid sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate of Tlemcen, Algiers had a large measure of independence under amirs of its own due to Oran being the chief seaport of the Ziyanids.\n\nAs early as 1302 the islet of Peñón in front of Algiers harbour had been occupied by Spaniards. Thereafter, a considerable amount of trade began to flow between Algiers and Spain. However, Algiers continued to be of comparatively little importance until after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, many of whom sought asylum in the city. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, the Spaniards fortified the islet of Peñon and imposed a levy intended to suppress corsair activity.\n\n===Ottoman rule===\nAbraham Duquesne delivering Christian captives in Algiers after the bombing in 1683.\nIn 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin ''Barbarossa'' to expel the Spaniards. Aruj came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers (1516). Hayreddin, succeeding Aruj after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards in the Fall of Tlemcen (1517), was the founder of the ''pashaluk'', which subsequently became the ''beylik'', of Algeria. Barbarossa lost Algiers in 1524 but regained it with the Capture of Algiers (1529), and then formally invited the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to accept sovereignty over the territory and to annex Algiers to the Ottoman Empire.\n\nHistoric map of Algiers by Piri Reis\n\nAlgiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary pirates. In October 1541 in the Algiers expedition, the King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly made up of Spaniards, was defeated by the Algerians under their Pasha, Hassan.\nThe bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth, August 1816, painted by Thomas Luny\nOttoman cannon found in Algiers on 8 October 1581 by Ca'fer el-Mu'allim. Length: 385 cm, cal:178 mm, weight: 2910 kg, stone projectile. Seized by France during the invasion of Algiers in 1830. Musée de l'Armée, Paris.\n\nFormally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in the 16th century Algiers turned to piracy and ransoming. Due to its location on the periphery of both the Ottoman and European economic spheres, and depending for its existence on a Mediterranean that was increasingly controlled by European shipping, backed by European navies, piracy became the primary economic activity. Repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland. The United States fought two wars (the First and Second Barbary Wars) over Algiers' attacks on shipping.\n\nAmong the notable people held for ransom was the future Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes, who was captive in Algiers almost five years, and who wrote two plays set in Algiers of the period. The primary source for knowledge of Algiers of this period, since there are no contemporary local sources, is the ''Topografía e historia general de Argel'' (1612, but written earlier), published by Diego de Haedo, but whose authorship is disputed. This work describes in detail the city, the behavior of its inhabitants, and its military defenses, with the unsuccessful hope of facilitating an attack by Spain so as to end the piracy.\n\nA significant number of renegades lived in Algiers at the time, Christians converted voluntarily to Islam, many fleeing the law or other problems at home. Once converted to Islam, they were safe in Algiers. Many occupied positions of authority, such as Samson Rowlie, an Englishman who became Treasurer of Algiers.\n\nThe city under Ottoman control was enclosed by a wall on all sides, including along the seafront. In this wall, five gates allowed access to the city, with five roads from each gate dividing the city and meeting in front of the Ketchaoua Mosque. In 1556, a citadel was constructed at the highest point in the wall. A major road running north to south divided the city in two: The upper city (al-Gabal, or 'the mountain') which consisted of about fifty small quarters of Andalusian, Jewish, Moorish and Kabyle communities, and the lower city (al-Wata, or 'the plains') which was the administrative, military and commercial centre of the city, mostly inhabited by Turkish dignitaries and other upper-class families.\n\nIn August 1816, the city was bombarded by a British squadron under Lord Exmouth (a descendant of Thomas Pellew, taken in an Algerian slave raid in 1715), assisted by Dutch men-of-war, destroying the corsair fleet harboured in Algiers.\n\n===French rule===\nAlgiers depot and station grounds of Algerian Railway, 1894\nThe history of Algiers from 1830 to 1962 is bound to the larger history of Algeria and its relationship to France. On July 4, 1830, under the pretext of an affront to the French consul—whom the dey had hit with a fly-whisk when the consul said the French government was not prepared to pay its large outstanding debts to two Algerian merchants—a French army under General de Bourmont attacked the city in the 1830 invasion of Algiers. The city capitulated the following day. Algiers became the capital of French Algeria.\n\nMany Europeans settled in Algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the city's population. During the 1930s, the architect Le Corbusier drew up plans for a complete redesign of the colonial city. Le Corbusier was highly critical of the urban style of Algiers, describing the European district as \"nothing but crumbling walls and devastated nature, the whole a sullied blot\". He also criticised the difference in living standards he perceived between the European and African residents of the city, describing a situation in which \"the 'civilised' live like rats in holes\" whereas \"the 'barbarians' live in solitude, in well-being\". However, these plans were ultimately ignored by the French administration.\n\nDuring World War II, Algiers was the last city to be seized from the Germans by the Allies during Operation Torch.\nCity and harbour of Algiers, \n\nIn 1962, after a bloody independence struggle in which hundreds of thousands (estimates range between 350,000 and 1,500,000) died (mostly Algerians but also French and Pieds-Noirs) during fighting between the French Army and the Algerian Front de Libération Nationale, Algeria gained its independence, with Algiers as its capital. Since then, despite losing its entire ''pied-noir'' population, the city has expanded massively. It now has about five million inhabitants, or 10 percent of Algeria's population—and its suburbs now cover most of the surrounding Mitidja plain.\n\n===Algerian War===\nAlgiers also played a pivotal role in the Algerian War (1954–1962), particularly during the Battle of Algiers when the 10th Parachute Division of the French Army, starting on January 7, 1957, and on the orders of then French Minister of Justice François Mitterrand (who authorized any means \"to eliminate the insurrectionists\"), led attacks against the Algerian fighters for independence. Algiers remains marked by this battle, which was characterized by merciless fighting between FLN forces which carried out a guerrilla campaign against the French military and police and pro-French Algerian soldiers, and the French Army which responded with a bloody repression, torture and blanket terrorism against the native population. The demonstrations of May 13 during the crisis of 1958 provoked the fall of the Fourth Republic in France, as well as the return of General de Gaulle to power.\n\n===Independence===\nAlgeria achieved independence on July 5, 1962. Run by the FLN that had secured independence, Algiers became a member of Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold War. In October 1988, one year before the fall of the Berlin Wall, Algiers was the site of demonstrations demanding the end of the single party system and the creation of a ''real'' democracy baptized the \"Spring of Algier\". The demonstrators were repressed by the authorities (more than 300 dead), but the movement constituted a turning point in the political history of modern Algeria. In 1989, a new constitution was adopted that put an end to the one-party rule and saw the creation of more than fifty political parties, as well as official freedom of the press.\n\n===Crisis of the 1990s===\nThe city became the theatre of many political demonstrations of all descriptions until 1992. In 1991, a political entity dominated by religious conservatives called the Islamic Salvation Front engaged in a political test of wills with the authorities. In the 1992 elections for the Algerian National Assembly, the Islamists garnered a large amount of support in the first round, helped by a massive abstention from disillusioned Algerian voters by the turn of events. Fearing an eventual win by the Islamists, the army cancelled the election process, setting off a civil war between the State and armed religious conservatives which would last for a decade.\n\nOn December 11, 2007, two car bombs exploded in Algiers. One bomb targeted two United Nations buildings and the other targeted a government building housing the Supreme Court. The death toll was at least 62, with over two hundred injured in the attacks. However, only 26 remained hospitalized the following day. , it is speculated that the attack was carried out by the Al Qaida cell within the city.\n\nIndigenous terrorist groups have been actively operating in Algeria since around 2002.\n", "\n===Districts of Algiers===\nNotre Dame d'Afrique, built by European settlers in 1872\n* '''The Casbah''' (of '' Al Qasbah'', “the Citadel”), Ier District of Algiers: called '' Al-Djazaïr Al Mahroussa '' (“Well Kept Algiers”), it is founded on the ruins of old Icosium. It is a small city which, built on a hill, goes down towards the sea, divided in two: the High city and the Low city. One finds there masonries and mosques of the 17th century; Ketchaoua mosque (built in 1794 by the Dey Baba Hassan) flanked by two minarets, mosque el Djedid (built in 1660, at the time of Turkish regency) with its large finished ovoid cupola points some and its four coupolettes, mosque El Kébir (oldest of the mosques, it was built by Almoravid Youssef Ibn Tachfin and rebuilt later in 1794), mosque Ali Betchnin (Raïs, 1623), Dar Aziza, palate of Jénina. In the Kasbah, there are also labyrinths of lanes and houses that are very picturesque, and if one gets lost there, it is enough to go down again towards the sea to reposition oneself.\n* ''' Bab El Oued''': Literally ''the River's Gate'', the popular district which extends from the Casbah beyond \"the gate of the river\". It is the capital's darling and best liked borough. Famous for its square with “the three clocks” and for its “market Triplet”, it is also a district of workshops and manufacturing plants.\n* ''' Edge of sea''': from 1840, the architects Pierre-August Guiauchain and Charles Frédéric Chassériau designed new buildings apart from the Casbah, town hall, law courts, buildings, theatre, palace of the Governor, and casino, to form an elegant walk bordered by arcades which is today the boulevard Che Guevara (formerly the Boulevard of the Republic).\n* ''' Kouba''' (will daira of Hussein-dey): Kouba is an old village which was absorbed by the expansion of the town of Algiers. Of village, Kouba quickly developed under the French colonial era then continued growing due to formidable demographic expansion that Algiers saw after the independence of Algeria in 1962. It is today a district of Algiers which is largely made up of houses, villas and buildings not exceeding five stories.\n* El Harrach, a suburb of Algiers, is located about to the east of the city.\n* The communes of Hydra, Ben Aknoun, El-Biar and Bouzareah form what the inhabitants of Algiers call the heights of Algiers. These communes shelter the majority of the foreign embassies of Algiers, of many ministries and university centers, which makes it one of the administrative and policy centers of the country.\n* The '''Didouche Mourad street''' is located in the 3rd district Of Algiers. It extends from the '''Grande Post office''' to the Heights of Algiers. It crosses in particular the '''place Audin''', '''the Faculty of Algiers''', '''The Crowned Heart''' and '''the park of Galland'''. It is bordered by smart stores and restaurants along most of its length. It is regarded as the heart of the capital.\nAstronautical view of Algiers\n\n===Climate===\nAlgiers has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification ''Csa''). Its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea aids in moderating the city's temperatures. As a result, Algiers usually does not see the extreme temperatures that are experienced in the adjacent interior deserts. Algiers on average receives roughly of rain per year, the bulk of which is seen between October and April. The precipitation is very similar to coastal mediterranean Spain as opposed to the interior North African arid climate.\n\nSnow is very rare; in 2012, the city received , its first snowfall in eight years.\n\n\n", ":''See also: Algiers politics and administration (fr) and List of mayors of Algiers''\n", "Algiers waterfront\nCosmopolitan Algiers\n\nThere are many public buildings of interest, including the whole Kasbah quarter, Martyrs Square (''Sahat ech-Chouhada'' ساحة الشهداء), the government offices (formerly the British consulate), the \"Grand\", \"New\", and Ketchaoua Mosques, the Roman Catholic cathedral of Notre Dame d'Afrique, the Bardo Museum (a former Turkish mansion), the old ''Bibliothèque Nationale d'Alger''—a Turkish palace built in 1799–1800—and the new National Library, built in a style reminiscent of the British Library.\n\nThe main building in the Kasbah was begun in 1516 on the site of an older building, and served as the palace of the deys until the French conquest. A road has been cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into barracks, and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin. There still remain a minaret and some marble arches and columns. Traces exist of the vaults in which were stored the treasures of the dey.\n\nThe Great Mosque (''Jamaa-el-Kebir'' الجامع الكبير) is the oldest mosque in Algiers. It was first built by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, but reconstructed many times. The pulpit (''minbar'' منبر) bears an inscription showing that the building existed in 1097. The minaret was built by the sultan of Tlemcen, in 1324. The interior of the mosque is square and is divided into aisles by columns joined by Moorish arches.\n\nThe New Mosque (''Jamaa-el-Jedid'' الجامع الجديد), dating from the 17th century, is in the form of a Greek cross, surmounted by a large white cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque.\n\nThe church of the Holy Trinity (built in 1870) stands at the southern end of the ''rue d'Isly'' near the site of the demolished Fort Bab Azoun باب عزون. The interior is richly decorated with various coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial inscriptions relating to the British residents (voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, the first English consul, in 1580 (NB Some sources give 1585). One tablet records that in 1631 two Algerine pirate crews landed in Ireland, sacked Baltimore, and enslaved its inhabitants.\n\nThe Ketchaoua Mosque\n\nThe Ketchaoua mosque (''Djamaa Ketchaoua'' جامع كتشاوة), at the foot of the Casbah, was before independence in 1962 the cathedral of St Philippe, itself made in 1845 from a mosque dating from 1612. The principal entrance, reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico supported by four black-veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of Moorish plaster work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to the original mosque. In one of the chapels was a tomb containing the bones of San Geronimo. The building seems a curious blend of Moorish and Byzantine styles.\n\nAlgiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, science and letters. The college buildings are large and handsome. The Bardo Museum in Tunisia holds some of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together with medals and Algerian money.\n\nThe port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are two harbours, both artificial—the old or northern harbour and the southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers an area of . An opening in the south jetty affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its southern side. The inner harbour was begun in 1518 by Khair-ad-Din Barbarossa (see History, below), who, to accommodated his pirate vessels, caused the island on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a mole. The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon was built in 1544.\n\nAlgiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until the close of the 19th century. The French, after their occupation of the city (1830), built a rampart, parapet and ditch, with two terminal forts, Bab Azoun باب عزون to the south and Bab-el-Oued اد to the north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished at the beginning of the 20th century, when a line of forts occupying the heights of Bouzareah بوزريعة (at an elevation of above the sea) took their place.\n\nNotre Dame d'Afrique, a church built (1858–1872) in a mixture of the Roman and Byzantine styles, is conspicuously situated overlooking the sea, on the shoulder of the Bouzareah hills, \nto the north of the city. Above the altar is a statue of the Virgin depicted as a black woman. The church also contains a solid silver statue of the archangel Michael, belonging to the confraternity of Neapolitan fishermen.\n\nVilla Abd-el-Tif, former residence of the dey, was used during the French period, to accommodate French artists, chiefly painters, and winners of the Abd-el-Tif prize, among whom Maurice Boitel, for a while of two years. Nowadays, Algerian artists are back in the villa's studios.\n", "The Monument of the Martyrs (Maquam E’chahid)\nGrand Post Office\n* '''Notre Dame d'Afrique''', accessible by one cable car, is one of the city's most outstanding monuments: located in the district of Z' will ghara, the basilica was built around 1858.\n* ''' Monument des Martyrs ''' (''Marquand E' chahid''): an iconic concrete monument commemorating the Algerian war for independence. The monument was opened in 1982 on the 20th anniversary of Algeria's independence. It is fashioned in the shape of three standing palm leaves which shelter the \"Eternal Flame\" beneath. At the edge of each palm leaf stands a statue of a soldier, each representing a stage of Algeria's struggle.\nThe El Jedid mosque at the Place des Martyrs\n* ''' The El Jedid mosque ''' at the Place des Martyrs near the port.\n* ''' Place of the Emir Abdelkader ''' (formerly Bugeaud): in memory of the famous emir Abd El-Kader, resistant during French conquest of Algeria.\n* '''Grand Post Office ''' (1910, by Voinot and Tondoire): construction of the neo-Moorish type which is in full centre town of Algiers.\n* The ''' Jardin d'essai ''' (''Garden of Test''; ''El-Hamma''): situated in the east of Algiers, it extends over and contains exotic plants and gardens. It was created in 1832 by A. Hardy.\n* '''Villa Abd-el-Hair''', with the top of the Garden of test, one of the old residences of the dey, where until 1962, were placed the artists prizes winner of Price Abd-el-Hair, and in particular Maurice Boitel and Andre Hamburg.\n* '''Citadel'''.\n* '''Riadh El-Feth ''' (shopping centre and art gallery).\n* '''Ketchaoua Mosque ''' (This mosque became the Saint-Philippe cathedral during colonization before becoming again a mosque).\n* '''National Library''', is in the district of El HAMMA and was built in the 1990s.\n* '''The Great Mosque of Algiers ''' at the Rue de la Marine. It is the oldest mosque of Algiers and was built during the reign of the Almoravid sultan Yusuf ibn Tashfin.\n* '''Le Bastion 23 - Palais des Rais''', built in 1576 by Dey Ramdhan Pacha and located in the lower Casbah in the Bab El Oued neighborhood.\n", "{\| style=\"float: right;\" border=\"1\" \|-\n Year\n Population\n\n 1977 (Census) \n 1,353,826\n\n 1987 (Census) \n 1,507,241\n\n 1998 (Census) \n 1,519,570\n\n 2007 (Estimate) \n 2,072,993\n\n\nAlgiers has a population of about 3,335,418(2012 estimate).\n\nThe ethnic distribution is 53% from an Arabic-speaking background, 44% from a Berber-speaking background and 3% foreign-born.\n* 1940 – 300,000 people lived in Algiers.\n* 1960 – 900,000 people lived in Algiers.\n* 1963 – 600,000 people lived in Algiers.\n", "\"Centre Commercial Al Qods\" in Algiers\nMinistry of Finance of Algeria\nAlgiers is an important economic, commercial and financial center, with in particular a stock exchange with a capitalisation of 60 million euros. The city has the highest cost of living of any city in North Africa, as well as the 50th highest worldwide, as of March 2007, having gained one position compared to the previous year.\n\nMohamed Ben Ali El Abbar, president of the Council of Administration of the Emirate Group EMAAR, presented five \"megaprojects\" to Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, during a ceremony which took place Saturday, July 15, within the Palace of the People of Algiers. These projects will transform the city of Algiers and its surroundings by equipping them with a retail area and restoration and leisure facilities.\n\nThe first project will concentrate on the reorganization and the development of the infrastructures of the railway station \"Aga\" located in the downtown area. The ultramodern station intended to accommodate more than 80.000 passengers per day, will become a center of circulation in the heart of the grid system, surrounded by commercial offices and buildings and hotels intended for travelers in transit. A shopping centre and three high-rise office buildings rising with the top of the commercial zone will accompany the project.\n\nThe second project will not relate to the bay of Algiers and aims to revitalize the sea front. The development of the sea front will include marinas, channels, luxury hotels, offices, apartments of great standing, luxury stores and leisure amenities. A crescent-shaped peninsula will be set up on the open sea. The project of the bay of Algiers will also comprise six small islands, of which four of round form, connected to each other by bridges and marinas and will include tourist and residential complexes.\nAir Algérie head office in Place Audin near the University of Algiers, in Alger-Centre\nThe third project will relate to restructuring an area of Algiers, qualified by the originators of the project of \"city of wellness\". El Abbar indicated to the journalists that the complex would be \"agreeable for all those which will want to combine tourism and well-being or tourism and relaxation\". The complex will include a university, a research center and a medical centre. It should also include a hospital complex, a care centre, a hotel zone, an urban centre and a thermal spa with villas and apartments. The university will include a medical school and a school for care male nurses which will be able to accommodate 500 students. The university campus will have the possibility of seeing setting up broad ranges of buildings of research laboratories and residences.\n\nAnother project relates to technological implantation of a campus in Sidi Abdellah, south-east from Algiers. This site will include shopping centres, residential zones with high standard apartments and a golf course surrounded by villas and hotels. Two other residential zones, including 1.800 apartments and 40 high standard villas, will be built on the surrounding hills.\n\nThe fifth project is that of the tourist complex Colonel Abbès, which will be located west from Algiers. This complex will include several retail zones, meeting places, and residential zones composed of apartments and villas with views of the sea.\n\nCurrently there is another project under construction, by the name of Algiers Medina. The first step of the project is nearly complete.\n\nA Hewlett Packard office for French-speaking countries in Africa is in Algiers.\n", "Panorama of the city as seen from Bologhine district\n\nSome to the west of Algiers are such seaside resorts as Sidi Fredj (ex-Sidi Ferruch), Palm Beach, Douaouda, Zéralda, and the '' Club of the Pines '' (residence of State); there are tourist complexes, Algerian and other restaurants, souvenir shops, supervised beaches, and other amenities. The city is also equipped with important hotel complexes such as the hotel Hilton, El-Aurassi or El Djazair. Algiers also has the first water park in the country. The tourism of Algiers is growing but is not as developed as that of the larger cities in Morocco or Tunisia.\n", "\n\nInternational schools for foreign residents include:\n* Lycée International Alexandre Dumas (French school)\n* Roma Italian School of Algiers\n* Russian Embassy School in Algiers\n* El Kalimat School (English-language school)\n\nThere was formerly the École japonaise d'Alger (アルジェ日本人学校 ''Aruje Nihonjin Gakkō''), a school for Japanese children.\n", "Public transport of Algiers\n* ETUSA (urban and suburban bus transportation for Algiers) operates bus service in Algiers and the surrounding suburbs. 54 lines are currently operating, with service from 5:30 a.m. to 12:45 a.m.\n* SNTF (national railroad company) operates commuter-rail lines connecting the capital to the surrounding suburbs.\n* Algiers Metro, opened November 1, 2011.\n* Algiers tramway, opened on May 8, 2011.\n* Houari Boumediene Airport is located from the city. The airport serves domestics, many European cities, West Africa, the Middle East, Asia and North America. On July 5, 2006, a new international air terminal was opened for service. The terminal is managed by Aéroports de Paris.\n\n4 urban ropeways:\n* El Madania – Belouizdad\n* Notre Dame d’Afrique – Bologhine\n* Memorial des Martyres/Riad el Feth – Jardin d’essais\n* Palais de la culture – Oued Kniss\n", "Several ongoing projects aim to solve Algiers deficit and transportation problems. A tram connecting the downtown area to Dergana is expected to open by the end of 2010. Subway lines connecting Tafourah-Large Harrach Post office-El were expected in 2008, in addition to three Regional Express Network (RER) lines: Algiers-Aga-Thenia, Algiers-Aga-Elafroun, Algiers-Aga-Zeralda. Three new cable cars, reconstruction of roads and restoration of the city station—which will accommodate the High-speed rail line connecting Annaba, Algiers and Oran—are also ongoing. Congestion control measures including new roundabouts and motorways are also being added to the city.\n\nNew residential developments aim to solve Algiers current housing shortage.\n", "Algiers is the sporting centre of Algeria. The city has a number of professional clubs in the variety of sports, which have won national and international titles. Among the sports facilities within the city, there is an enormous sporting complex – Complex of OCO – Mohamed Boudiaf. This includes the Stade 5 Juillet 1962 (capacity ), a venue for athletics, an Olympic swimming pool, a multisports room (the Cupola), an 18-hole golf course, and several tennis courts.\n\nThe following major sporting events have been held in Algiers (not-exhaustive list):\n \n\n* Mediterranean Games 1975.\n* All-Africa Games 1978, 2007.\n* African Cup of Nations 1990.\n* African Handball Nations Championship 1989, 2001.\n\n* Pan Arab Games 2004.\n* FIBA Africa Championship 2005.\n* Men's U19 World Championship 2005.\n\n\n===Football clubs===\nMajor association football club based in Algiers include:\n\n\n* MC Alger\n* USM Alger\n* CR Belouizdad\n* NA Hussein Dey\n* Paradou AC\n\n* USM El Harrach\n* RC Kouba\n* OMR El Annasser\n* JH Djazaïr (now defunct)\n\n", "\n\n\n===Twin towns – Sister cities===\nAlgiers is twinned with:\n\n\n\n* Amman, Jordan\n* Beijing, China\n* Berlin, Germany\n* Tunis, Tunisia\n\n\n* Montreal, Quebec, Canada\n* London, United Kingdom\n* Moscow, Russia\n* Tyre, Lebanon\n* Sofia, Bulgaria\n* Rome, Italy\n\n\n\n* Amsterdam, Netherlands\n* São Paulo, Brazil\n* Shanghai, China\n* Tripoli, Libya\n* Surakarta, Indonesia (Since 2011)\n* Singapore, Singapore\n\n\n===Cooperation agreements===\nAlgiers has cooperation agreements with:\n* Lisbon, Portugal\n* Paris, France\n\n''In addition, many of the wards and cities within Algiers maintain sister-city relationships with other foreign cities.''\n", "* ''Algiers'', 1938, directed by John Cromwell;\n* ''The Battle of Algiers'', 1966, directed by Gillo Pontecorvo;\n* ''Tahya ya Didou, Alger Insolite'', 1970, Mohammed Zinet;\n* ''Bab El-Oued City'', 1994, directed by Merzak Allouache;\n* ''Viva Laldjérie'', 2003, directed by Nadir Moknèche, with Biyouna and Lubna Azabal;\n* ''Bab el Web'', 2004, directed by Merzak Allouache, with Samy Naceri, Julie Gayet, Faudel;\n* ''Once upon a time in the Oued'', 2005, directed by Djamel Bensalah;\n* ''Beur, White, Red'', 2005, directed by Mahmoud Zemmouri.\n* ''Delice Paloma'', 2007, directed by Nadir Moknèche, with Biyouna and Nadia Kaci.\n* ''Abbott and Costello in the Foreign Legion, 1950, Bud Abbott and Lou Costello\n", "\n* Barbary pirates\n* Botanical Garden Hamma\n* List of Ottoman governors of Algiers\n", "* \n* ''This article was originally based on a translation of the French Wikipedia's article of the same name.\n\n===Notes===\n\n", "\n* Nacéra Benseddik, ''Chronique d’une cité antique'', ''dans Alger. Lumières sur la ville'', Actes du colloque de l’EPAU 4–6 May 2001, Alger 2004, p. 29–34.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Government", "Local architecture", "Monuments", "Demographics", "Economy", "Tourist installations", "Education", "Public transport", "Province projects", "Sports", "International relations", "Films about Algiers", "See also", "References", "Bibliography" ]	Algiers
[ "\n\n\n'''Ibn al-Haytham''' (also known by the Latinization '''Alhazen''' or '''Alhacen''', full name '''' ) was a Muslim scientist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher. Ibn al-Haytham made significant contributions to the principles of optics, astronomy, mathematics and visual perception. He has been dubbed the \"father of optics\". \nHe was the first to explain that vision occurs when light bounces on an object and then is directed to one's eyes. He spent most of his life close to the court of the Fatimid Caliphate in Cairo and earned his living authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities.\n\nIbn al-Haytham is widely considered to be one of the first theoretical physicists, and an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be proved by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence—hence understanding the scientific method five centuries before Renaissance scientists.\n\nIn medieval Europe, Ibn al-Haytham was honored as '''''''''' (the \"Second Ptolemy\") or simply called \"The Physicist\". He is also sometimes called ''al-Baṣrī'' after his birthplace, Basra in Iraq, or ''al-Miṣrī'' (\"of Egypt\").\n", "\n=== Biography ===\n\nIbn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was born c. 965 in Basra, which was then part of the Buyid emirate, to an Arab family.\nAlhazen arrived in Cairo under the reign of Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim, a patron of the sciences who was particularly interested in astronomy. He proposed to the Caliph a hydraulic project to improve regulation of the flooding of the Nile, a task requiring an early attempt at building a dam at the present site of the Aswan Dam, but later his field work convinced him of the technical impracticality of this scheme. Alhazen continued to live in Cairo, in the neighborhood of the famous University of al-Azhar, until his death in 1040. Legend has it that after deciding the scheme was impractical and fearing the caliph's anger, Alhazen feigned madness and was kept under house arrest from 1011 until al-Hakim's death in 1021. During this time, he wrote his influential ''Book of Optics'' and continued to write further treatises on astronomy, geometry, number theory, optics and natural philosophy.\n\nAmong his students were Sorkhab (Sohrab), a Persian from Semnan who was his student for over three years, and Abu al-Wafa Mubashir ibn Fatek'','' an Egyptian prince who learned mathematics from Alhazen.\n", "\n\nAlhazen's most famous work is his seven-volume treatise on optics ''Kitab al-Manazir'' (''Book of Optics''), written from 1011 to 1021.\n\n''Optics'' was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century. It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, with the title ''Opticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus'' (English : Thesaurus of Optics: seven books of the Arab Alhazeni, first edition: concerning twilight and the advancement of clouds). Risner is also the author of the name variant \"Alhazen\"; before Risner he was known in the west as Alhacen, which is the correct transcription of the Arabic name. This work enjoyed a great reputation during the Middle Ages. Works by Alhazen on geometric subjects were discovered in the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris in 1834 by E. A. Sedillot. In all, A. Mark Smith has accounted for 18 full or near-complete manuscripts, and five fragments, which are preserved in 14 locations, including one in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and one in the library of Bruges.\n \n=== Theory of vision ===\nFront page of the ''Opticae Thesaurus'', which included the first printed Latin translation of Alhazen's ''Book of Optics''. The illustration incorporates many examples of optical phenomena including perspective effects, the rainbow, mirrors, and refraction.\nTwo major theories on vision prevailed in classical antiquity. The first theory, the emission theory, was supported by such thinkers as Euclid and Ptolemy, who believed that sight worked by the eye emitting rays of light. The second theory, the intromission theory supported by Aristotle and his followers, had physical forms entering the eye from an object. Previous Islamic writers (such as al-Kindi) had argued essentially on Euclidean, Galenist, or Aristotelian lines. The strongest influence on the ''Book of Optics'' was from Ptolemy's ''Optics'', while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based on Galen's account. Alhazen's achievement was to come up with a theory that successfully combined parts of the mathematical ray arguments of Euclid, the medical tradition of Galen, and the intromission theories of Aristotle. Alhazen's intromission theory followed al-Kindi (and broke with Aristotle) in asserting that \"from each point of every colored body, illuminated by any light, issue light and color along every straight line that can be drawn from that point\". This however left him with the problem of explaining how a coherent image was formed from many independent sources of radiation; in particular, every point of an object would send rays to every point on the eye. What Alhazen needed was for each point on an object to correspond to one point only on the eye. He attempted to resolve this by asserting that the eye would only perceive perpendicular rays from the object—for any one point on the eye only saw the ray that reached it directly, without being refracted by any other part of the eye, would be perceived. He argued using a physical analogy that perpendicular rays were stronger than oblique rays; in the same way that a ball thrown directly at a board might break the board, whereas a ball thrown obliquely at the board would glance off, perpendicular rays were stronger than refracted rays, and it was only perpendicular rays which were perceived by the eye. As there was only one perpendicular ray that would enter the eye at any one point, and all these rays would converge on the centre of the eye in a cone, this allowed him to resolve the problem of each point on an object sending many rays to the eye; if only the perpendicular ray mattered, then he had a one-to-one correspondence and the confusion could be resolved. He later asserted (in book seven of the ''Optics'') that other rays would be refracted through the eye and perceived ''as if'' perpendicular.\n\nHis arguments regarding perpendicular rays do not clearly explain why ''only'' perpendicular rays were perceived; why would the weaker oblique rays not be perceived more weakly? His later argument that refracted rays would be perceived as if perpendicular does not seem persuasive. However, despite its weaknesses, no other theory of the time was so comprehensive, and it was enormously influential, particularly in Western Europe: Directly or indirectly, his ''De Aspectibus'' inspired much activity in optics between the 13th and 17th centuries. Kepler's later theory of the retinal image (which resolved the problem of the correspondence of points on an object and points in the eye) built directly on the conceptual framework of Alhazen.\n\nAlhazen showed through experiment that light travels in straight lines, and carried out various experiments with lenses, mirrors, refraction, and reflection. His analyses of reflection and refraction considered the vertical and horizontal components of light rays separately.\n\nThe camera obscura was known to the ancient Chinese, and was described by the Han Chinese polymathic genius Shen Kuo in his scientific book ''Dream Pool Essays'', published in the year 1088 C.E.. Aristotle had discussed the basic principle behind it in his ''Problems'', however Alhazen's work also contained the first clear description, outside of China, of camera obscura in the areas of the middle east, Europe, Africa and India. and early analysis of the device.\n\nAlhazen studied the process of sight, the structure of the eye, image formation in the eye, and the visual system. Ian P. Howard argued in a 1996 ''Perception'' article that Alhazen should be credited with many discoveries and theories previously attributed to Western Europeans writing centuries later. For example, he described what became in the 19th century Hering's law of equal innervation. He wrote a description of vertical horopters 600 years before Aguilonius that is actually closer to the modern definition than Aguilonius's—and his work on binocular disparity was repeated by Panum in 1858. Craig Aaen-Stockdale, while agreeing that Alhazen should be credited with many advances, has expressed some caution, especially when considering Alhazen in isolation from Ptolemy, who Alhazen was extremely familiar with. Alhazen corrected a significant error of Ptolemy regarding binocular vision, but otherwise his account is very similar; Ptolemy also attempted to explain what is now called Hering's law. In general, Alhazen built on and expanded the optics of Ptolemy. In a more detailed account of Ibn al-Haytham's contribution to the study of binocular vision based on Lejeune and Sabra, Raynaud showed that the concepts of correspondence, homonymous and crossed diplopia were in place in Ibn al-Haytham's optics. But contrary to Howard, he explained why Ibn al-Haytham did not give the circular figure of the horopter and why, by reasoning experimentally, he was in fact closer to the discovery of Panum's fusional area than that of the Vieth-Müller circle. In this regard, Ibn al-Haytham's theory of binocular vision faced two main limits: the lack of recognition of the role of the retina, and obviously the lack of an experimental investigation of ocular tracts.\n\nAlhazen's most original contribution was that after describing how he thought the eye was anatomically constructed, he went on to consider how this anatomy would behave functionally as an optical system. His understanding of pinhole projection from his experiments appears to have influenced his consideration of image inversion in the eye, which he sought to avoid. He maintained that the rays that fell perpendicularly on the lens (or glacial humor as he called it) were further refracted outward as they left the glacial humor and the resulting image thus passed upright into the optic nerve at the back of the eye. He followed Galen in believing that the lens was the receptive organ of sight, although some of his work hints that he thought the retina was also involved.\n\nAlhazen's synthesis of light and vision adhered to the Aristotelian scheme, exhaustively describing the process of vision in a logical, complete fashion.\n\n=== Scientific method ===\n\nAn aspect associated with Alhazen's optical research is related to systemic and methodological reliance on experimentation (''i'tibar'')(Arabic: إعتبار) and controlled testing in his scientific inquiries. Moreover, his experimental directives rested on combining classical physics (''ilm tabi'i'') with mathematics (''ta'alim''; geometry in particular). This mathematical-physical approach to experimental science supported most of his propositions in ''Kitab al-Manazir'' (''The Optics''; ''De aspectibus'' or ''Perspectivae'') and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics (the study of the reflection and refraction of light, respectively). \n\nAccording to Matthias Schramm, Alhazen \"was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up.\" G. J. Toomer expressed some skepticism regarding Schramm's view, arguing that caution is needed to avoid reading anachronistically particular passages in Alhazen's very large body of work, because at the time (1964), his ''Book of Optics'' had not yet been fully translated from Arabic. While acknowledging Alhazen's importance in developing experimental techniques, Toomer argued that Alhazen should not be considered in isolation from other Islamic and ancient thinkers. Toomer does concede that \"Schramm sums up Alhazen's achievement in the development of scientific method.\"\n\nMark Smith recounts Alhazen's elaboration of Ptolemy's experiments in double vision, reflection, and refraction: Alhazen's ''Optics'' book influenced the Perspectivists in Europe, Roger Bacon, Witelo, and Peckham. ''The Optics'' was incorporated into Risner's 1572 printing of ''Opticae Thesaurus'', through which Kepler finally resolved the contradictions inherent in Witelo's explanation of the imaging chain, from external object to the retina of the eye.\n\n=== Alhazen's problem ===\n\ntheorem of Ibn Haytham\nHis work on catoptrics in Book V of the Book of Optics contains a discussion of what is now known as Alhazen's problem, first formulated by Ptolemy in 150 AD. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circular billiard table at which a player must aim a cue ball at a given point to make it bounce off the table edge and hit another ball at a second given point. Thus, its main application in optics is to solve the problem, \"Given a light source and a spherical mirror, find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer.\" This leads to an equation of the fourth degree. This eventually led Alhazen to derive a formula for the sum of fourth powers, where previously only the formulas for the sums of squares and cubes had been stated. His method can be readily generalized to find the formula for the sum of any integral powers, although he did not himself do this (perhaps because he only needed the fourth power to calculate the volume of the paraboloid he was interested in). He used his result on sums of integral powers to perform what would now be called an integration, where the formulas for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid. Alhazen eventually solved the problem using conic sections and a geometric proof. His solution was extremely long and complicated and may not have been understood by mathematicians reading him in Latin translation. Later mathematicians used Descartes' analytical methods to analyse the problem, with a new solution being found in 1997 by the Oxford mathematician Peter M. Neumann. Recently, Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories (MERL) researchers Amit Agrawal, Yuichi Taguchi and Srikumar Ramalingam solved the extension of Alhazen's problem to general rotationally symmetric quadric mirrors including hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptical mirrors. They showed that the mirror reflection point can be computed by solving an eighth degree equation in the most general case. If the camera (eye) is placed on the axis of the mirror, the degree of the equation reduces to six. Alhazen's problem can also be extended to multiple refractions from a spherical ball. Given a light source and a spherical ball of certain refractive index, the closest point on the spherical ball where the light is refracted to the eye of the observer can be obtained by solving a tenth degree equation.\n\n=== Other contributions ===\nHevelius's ''Selenographia'', showing Alhasen representing reason, and Galileo representing the senses. The Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics) describes several experimental observations that Alhazen made and how he used his results to explain certain optical phenomena using mechanical analogies. He conducted experiments with projectiles and concluded that only the impact of perpendicular projectiles on surfaces was forceful enough to make them penetrate, whereas surfaces tended to deflect oblique projectile strikes. For example, to explain refraction from a rare to a dense medium, he used the mechanical analogy of an iron ball thrown at a thin slate covering a wide hole in a metal sheet. A perpendicular throw breaks the slate and passes through, whereas an oblique one with equal force and from an equal distance does not. He also used this result to explain how intense, direct light hurts the eye, using a mechanical analogy: Alhazen associated 'strong' lights with perpendicular rays and 'weak' lights with oblique ones. The obvious answer to the problem of multiple rays and the eye was in the choice of the perpendicular ray, since only one such ray from each point on the surface of the object could penetrate the eye.\n\nSudanese psychologist Omar Khaleefa has argued that Alhazen should be considered the founder of experimental psychology, for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception and optical illusions. Khaleefa has also argued that Alhazen should also be considered the \"founder of psychophysics\", a sub-discipline and precursor to modern psychology. Although Alhazen made many subjective reports regarding vision, there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques and the claim has been rebuffed.\n\nAlhazen offered an explanation of the Moon illusion, an illusion that played an important role in the scientific tradition of medieval Europe. Many authors repeated explanations that attempted to solve the problem of the Moon appearing larger near the horizon than it does when higher up in the sky. Alhazen argued against Ptolemy's refraction theory, and defined the problem in terms of perceived, rather than real, enlargement. He said that judging the distance of an object depends on there being an uninterrupted sequence of intervening bodies between the object and the observer. When the Moon is high in the sky there are no intervening objects, so the Moon appears close. The perceived size of an object of constant angular size varies with its perceived distance. Therefore, the Moon appears closer and smaller high in the sky, and further and larger on the horizon. Through works by Roger Bacon, John Pecham and Witelo based on Alhazen's explanation, the Moon illusion gradually came to be accepted as a psychological phenomenon, with the refraction theory being rejected in the 17th century. Although Alhazen is often credited with the perceived distance explanation, he was not the first author to offer it. Cleomedes ( 2nd century) gave this account (in addition to refraction), and he credited it to Posidonius ( 135-50 BC). Ptolemy may also have offered this explanation in his ''Optics'', but the text is obscure. Alhazen's writings were more widely available in the Middle Ages than those of these earlier authors, and that probably explains why Alhazen received the credit.\n", "\n=== Optical treatises ===\n\nBesides the ''Book of Optics'', Alhazen wrote several other treatises on the same subject, including his ''Risala fi l-Daw’'' (''Treatise on Light''). He investigated the properties of luminance, the rainbow, eclipses, twilight, and moonlight. Experiments with mirrors and magnifying lenses provided the foundation for his theories on catoptrics.\n\n=== Celestial physics ===\nAlhazen discussed the physics of the celestial region in his ''Epitome of Astronomy'', arguing that Ptolemaic models must be understood in terms of physical objects rather than abstract hypotheses—in other words that it should be possible to create physical models where (for example) none of the celestial bodies would collide with each other. The suggestion of mechanical models for the Earth centred Ptolemaic model \"greatly contributed to the eventual triumph of the Ptolemaic system among the Christians of the West\". Alhazen's determination to root astronomy in the realm of physical objects was important, however, because it meant astronomical hypotheses \"were accountable to the laws of physics\", and could be criticised and improved upon in those terms.\n\nHe also wrote ''Maqala fi daw al-qamar'' (''On the Light of the Moon'').\n\n=== Mechanics ===\n\nIn his work, Alhazen discussed theories on the motion of a body. In his ''Treatise on Place'', Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle's view that nature abhors a void, and he used geometry in an attempt to demonstrate that place (''al-makan'') is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body.\n\n\n", "\n=== On the Configuration of the World ===\n\nIn his ''On the Configuration of the World'' Alhazen presented a detailed description of the physical structure of the earth:\n\nThe book is a non-technical explanation of Ptolemy's Almagest, which was eventually translated into Hebrew and Latin in the 13th and 14th centuries and subsequently had an influence on astronomers such as Georg von Peuerbach during the European Middle Ages and Renaissance.\n\n=== Doubts Concerning Ptolemy ===\n\nIn his ''Al-Shukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs'', variously translated as ''Doubts Concerning Ptolemy'' or ''Aporias against Ptolemy'', published at some time between 1025 and 1028, Alhazen criticized Ptolemy's ''Almagest'', ''Planetary Hypotheses'', and ''Optics'', pointing out various contradictions he found in these works, particularly in astronomy. Ptolemy's ''Almagest'' concerned mathematical theories regarding the motion of the planets, whereas the ''Hypotheses'' concerned what Ptolemy thought was the actual configuration of the planets. Ptolemy himself acknowledged that his theories and configurations did not always agree with each other, arguing that this was not a problem provided it did not result in noticeable error, but Alhazen was particularly scathing in his criticism of the inherent contradictions in Ptolemy's works. He considered that some of the mathematical devices Ptolemy introduced into astronomy, especially the equant, failed to satisfy the physical requirement of uniform circular motion, and noted the absurdity of relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles:\n\n\n\nHaving pointed out the problems, Alhazen appears to have intended to resolve the contradictions he pointed out in Ptolemy in a later work. Alhazen believed there was a \"true configuration\" of the planets that Ptolemy had failed to grasp. He intended to complete and repair Ptolemy's system, not to replace it completely. In the ''Doubts Concerning Ptolemy'' Alhazen set out his views on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge and the need to question existing authorities and theories:\n\n\n\nHe held that the criticism of existing theories—which dominated this book—holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge.\n\n=== Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets ===\n\nAlhazen's ''The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets'' was written 1038. Only one damaged manuscript has been found, with only the introduction and the first section, on the theory of planetary motion, surviving. (There was also a second section on astronomical calculation, and a third section, on astronomical instruments.) Following on from his ''Doubts on Ptolemy'', Alhazen described a new, geometry-based planetary model, describing the motions of the planets in terms of spherical geometry, infinitesimal geometry and trigonometry. He kept a geocentric universe and assumed that celestial motions are uniformly circular, which required the inclusion of epicycles to explain observed motion, but he managed to eliminate Ptolemy's equant. In general, his model didn't try to provide a causal explanation of the motions, but concentrated on providing a complete, geometric description that could explain observed motions without the contradictions inherent in Ptolemy's model.\n\n=== Other astronomical works ===\n\nAlhazen wrote a total of twenty-five astronomical works, some concerning technical issues such as ''Exact Determination of the Meridian'', a second group concerning accurate astronomical observation, a third group concerning various astronomical problems and questions such as the location of the Milky Way; Alhazen argued for a distant location, based on the fact that it does not move in relation to the fixed stars. The fourth group consists of ten works on astronomical theory, including the ''Doubts'' and ''Model of the Motions'' discussed above.\n", "Alhazen's geometrically proven summation formula\nIn mathematics, Alhazen built on the mathematical works of Euclid and Thabit ibn Qurra and worked on \"the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry.\"\n\nHe developed a formula for summing the first 100 natural numbers, using a geometric proof to prove the formula.\n\n=== Geometry ===\n220px\nAlhazen explored what is now known as the Euclidean parallel postulate, the fifth postulate in Euclid's ''Elements'', using a proof by contradiction, and in effect introducing the concept of motion into geometry. He formulated the Lambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the \"Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral\".\n\nIn elementary geometry, Alhazen attempted to solve the problem of squaring the circle using the area of lunes (crescent shapes), but later gave up on the impossible task. The two lunes formed from a right triangle by erecting a semicircle on each of the triangle's sides, inward for the hypotenuse and outward for the other two sides, are known as the lunes of Alhazen; they have the same total area as the triangle itself.\n\n=== Number theory ===\n\nAlhazen's contributions to number theory include his work on perfect numbers. In his ''Analysis and Synthesis'', he may have been the first to state that every even perfect number is of the form 2''n''−1(2''n'' − 1) where 2''n'' − 1 is prime, but he was not able to prove this result; Euler later proved it in the 18th century.\n\nAlhazen solved problems involving congruences using what is now called Wilson's theorem. In his ''Opuscula'', Alhazen considers the solution of a system of congruences, and gives two general methods of solution. His first method, the canonical method, involved Wilson's theorem, while his second method involved a version of the Chinese remainder theorem.\n\n=== Calculus ===\nAlhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using a method that could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used this to find the volume of a paraboloid. He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula.\n", "\n=== Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals ===\n\nAlhazen also wrote a ''Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals'', although no copies have survived. It appears to have been concerned with the question of whether animals could react to music, for example whether a camel would increase or decrease its pace.\n\n=== Engineering ===\n\nIn engineering, one account of his career as a civil engineer has him summoned to Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, to regulate the flooding of the Nile River. He carried out a detailed scientific study of the annual inundation of the Nile River, and he drew plans for building a dam, at the site of the modern-day Aswan Dam. His field work, however, later made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and he soon feigned madness so he could avoid punishment from the Caliph.\n\n=== Philosophy ===\n\nIn his ''Treatise on Place'', Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle's view that nature abhors a void, and he used geometry in an attempt to demonstrate that place (''al-makan'') is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body. Abd-el-latif, a supporter of Aristotle's philosophical view of place, later criticized the work in ''Fi al-Radd ‘ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan'' (''A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham’s place'') for its geometrization of place.\n\nAlhazen also discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his ''Book of Optics''. In \"tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhazen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for\ncorrelation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things.\"\n\n=== Theology ===\n\nAlhazen was a devout Muslim, though it is uncertain which branch of Islam he followed. He may have been either a follower of the Ash'ari school of Sunni Islamic theology according to Ziauddin Sardar and Lawrence Bettany (and opposed to the views of the Mu'tazili school), a follower of the Mu'tazili school of Islamic theology according to Peter Edward Hodgson, or a possibly follower of Shia Islam according to A. I. Sabra.\n\nAlhazen wrote a work on Islamic theology in which he discussed prophethood and developed a system of philosophical criteria to discern its false claimants in his time. He also wrote a treatise entitled ''Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation'' in which he discussed finding the Qibla, where Salat prayers are directed towards, mathematically.\n\nHe wrote in his ''Doubts Concerning Ptolemy'':\n\n\n\nIn ''The Winding Motion'', Alhazen further wrote:\n\n\n\nAlhazen described his theology:\n\n\n", "\nAccording to medieval biographers, Alhazen wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects, of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known. Most of his works are now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent. Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics, with a few on other subjects. Not all his surviving works have yet been studied, but some of the ones that have are given below.\n\n# ''Book of Optics'' (كتاب المناظر)\n# ''Analysis and Synthesis'' (مقالة في التحليل والتركيب)\n# ''Balance of Wisdom'' (ميزان الحكمة)\n# ''Corrections to the Almagest'' (تصويبات على المجسطي)\n# ''Discourse on Place'' (مقالة في المكان) \n# ''Exact Determination of the Pole'' (التحديد الدقيق للقطب)\n# ''Exact Determination of the Meridian'' (رسالة في الشفق)\n# ''Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation'' (كيفية حساب اتجاه القبلة)\n# ''Horizontal Sundials'' (المزولة الأفقية)\n# ''Hour Lines''\n# ''Doubts Concerning Ptolemy'' (شكوك على بطليموس)\n# ''Maqala fi'l-Qarastun'' (مقالة في قرسطون)\n# ''On Completion of the Conics'' (إكمال المخاريط)\n# ''On Seeing the Stars'' (رؤية الكواكب)\n# ''On Squaring the Circle'' (مقالة فی تربیع الدائرة)\n# ''On the Burning Sphere'' ( المرايا المحرقة بالدوائر)\n# ''On the Configuration of the World'' (تكوين العالم)\n# ''On the Form of Eclipse'' (مقالة فی صورة ‌الکسوف)\n# ''On the Light of Stars'' (مقالة في ضوء النجوم)\n# ''On the Light of the Moon'' (مقالة في ضوء القمر)\n# ''On the Milky Way'' (مقالة في درب التبانة)\n# ''On the Nature of Shadows'' (كيفيات الإظلال)\n# ''On the Rainbow and Halo'' (مقالة في قوس قزح)\n# ''Opuscula'' \n# ''Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Almagest''\n# ''Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Winding Motion''\n# ''The Correction of the Operations in Astronomy''\n# ''The Different Heights of the Planets''\n# ''The Direction of Mecca'' (اتجاه القبلة)\n# ''The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets'' (نماذج حركات الكواكب السبعة)\n# ''The Model of the Universe'' (نموذج الكون)\n# ''The Motion of the Moon'' (حركة القمر)\n# ''The Ratios of Hourly Arcs to their Heights'' \n# ''The Winding Motion'' (الحركة المتعرجة)\n# ''Treatise on Light'' (رسالة في الضوء)\n# ''Treatise on Place'' (رسالة في المكان)\n# ''Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals'' (تأثير اللحون الموسيقية في النفوس الحيوانية)\n# كتاب في تحليل المسائل الهندسية\n# الجامع في أصول الحساب\n# قول فی مساحة الکرة\n# القول المعروف بالغریب فی حساب المعاملات\n# خواص المثلث من جهة العمود\n# رسالة فی مساحة المسجم المکافی\n# شرح أصول إقليدس\n# المرايا المحرقة بالقطوع\n\n=== Lost works ===\n# ''A Book in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book''\n", "Alhazen made significant contributions to optics, number theory, geometry, astronomy and natural philosophy. Alhazen's work on optics is credited with contributing a new emphasis on experiment.\nCover of the ''Book of Optics''\nHis main work, ''Kitab al-Manazir'' (''Book of Optics''), was known in the Muslim world mainly, but not exclusively, through the thirteenth-century commentary by Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī, the ''Tanqīḥ ''al-Manāẓir'' li-dhawī l-abṣār wa l-baṣā'ir''. In al-Andalus, it was used by the eleventh-century prince of the Banu Hud dynasty of Zaragossa and author of an important mathematical text, al-Mu'taman ibn Hūd. A Latin translation of the ''Kitab al-Manazir'' was made probably in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century. This translation was read by and greatly influenced a number of scholars in Christian Europe including: Roger Bacon, Robert Grosseteste, Witelo, Giambattista della Porta, Leonardo Da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Christiaan Huygens, René Descartes, and Johannes Kepler. His research in catoptrics (the study of optical systems using mirrors) centred on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. He made the observation that the ratio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant, and investigated the magnifying power of a lens. His work on catoptrics also contains the problem known as \"Alhazen's problem\". Meanwhile in the Islamic world, Alhazen's work influenced Averroes' writings on optics, and his legacy was further advanced through the 'reforming' of his ''Optics'' by Persian scientist Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (died ca. 1320) in the latter's ''Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir'' (''The Revision of'' Ibn al-Haytham's ''Optics''). Alhazen wrote as many as 200 books, although only 55 have survived. Some of his treatises on optics survived only through Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books on cosmology were translated into Latin, Hebrew and other languages. \n\nThe crater Alhazen on the Moon is named in his honour, as was the asteroid 59239 Alhazen. In honour of Alhazen, the Aga Khan University (Pakistan) named its Ophthalmology endowed chair as \"The Ibn-e-Haitham Associate Professor and Chief of Ophthalmology\". Alhazen, by the name Ibn al-Haytham, is featured on the obverse of the Iraqi 10,000-dinar banknote issued in 2003, and on 10-dinar notes from 1982.\n\nThe 2015 International Year of Light celebrated the 1000th anniversary of the works on optics by Ibn Al-Haytham.\n", "In 2014, the \"Hiding in the Light\" episode of ''Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey'', presented by Neil deGrasse Tyson, focused on the accomplishments of Ibn al-Haytham. He was voiced by Alfred Molina in the episode.\n\nOver forty years previously, Jacob Bronowski presented Alhazen's work in a similar television documentary (and the corresponding book), ''The Ascent of Man''. In episode 5 (''The Music of the Spheres''), Bronowski remarked that in his view, Alhazen was \"the one really original scientific mind that Arab culture produced\", whose theory of optics was not improved on till the time of Newton and Leibniz.\n\nUNESCO declared 2015 the International Year of Light. Amongst others, this was to celebrate Ibn Al-Haytham's achievements in optics, mathematics and astronomy. An international campaign, created by the ''1001 Inventions'' organisation, titled '''''1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al-Haytham''''' featuring a series of interactive exhibits, workshops and live shows about his work, partnering with science centers, science festivals, museums, and educational institutions, as well as digital and social media platforms. The campaign also produced and released the short educational film 1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al-Haytham, In honour of Alhazen, the Aga Khan University (Pakistan) named its Ophthalmology endowed chair as \"The Ibn-e-Haitham Associate Professor and Chief of Ophthalmology\"\n", "Mark Smith's critical editions of ''De Aspectibus'' contain a Latin glossary with page numbers of each occurrence of the words, to illustrate Alhazen's experimental viewpoint. Smith shows that Alhacen was received well in the West because he reinforced the importance of the Hellenic tradition to it.\n\n===Refraction===\n has noted that Alhazen's treatment of refraction describes an experimental setup without publication of data. Ptolemy published his experimental results for refraction, in contrast. One generation before Alhazen, Ibn Sahl discovered his statement of the lengths of the hypotenuse for each incident and refracted right triangle, respectively. This is equivalent to Descartes' formulation for refraction. Alhazen's convention for describing the incident and refracted angles is still in use.\n", "Ibn al-Haytham is the main character in ''The Prisoner of Al-Hakim'' by American novelist Bradley Steffens, which recounts the scholar's journey to Egypt, his ten-year imprisonment under Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, and his major discoveries in the field of optics.\n", "\"Hiding in the Light\"\nHistory of mathematics\nHistory of optics\nHistory of physics\nHistory of science\nHistory of scientific method\nHockney–Falco thesis\nMathematics in medieval Islam\nPhysics in medieval Islam\nScience in the medieval Islamic world\nFatima al-Fihri\nIslamic Golden Age\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n.\n\n \n\n* .\n\n* .\n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* . Reprinted in .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* . (Various editions.)\n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* \n* Books I-III (2001) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; Vol 2 English translation I:TOCp339-341, II:TOCp415-6, III:TOCp559-560, Notes 681ff, Bibl. via JSTOR\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* Books 4-5 (2006) '''95'''-4 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; '''95'''-5 Vol 2 English translation IV:TOCp289-294, V:TOCp377-384, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR\n\n* Book 6 (2008) '''98'''(#1, section 1)— Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; '''98'''(#1, section 2)— Vol 2 English translation VI:TOCp155-160, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR\n\n* Book 7 (2010) '''100'''(#3, section 1) — Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; '''100'''(#3, section 2) — Vol 2 English translation VII:TOCp213-218, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* .\n\n* .\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n\n", "\n=== Primary ===\n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* Books I-III (2001 — '''91'''(4)) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; — '''91'''(5) Vol 2 English translation, Book I:TOCpp.339-341, Book II:TOCpp.415-6, Book III:TOCpp.559-560, Notes 681ff, Bibl. via JSTOR\n\n* 2 vols: . (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2006 — '''95'''(#2) Books 4-5 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; '''95'''(#3) Vol 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR\n\n* Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2008) ''Alhacen on Image-formation and distortion in mirrors'' : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 6 of Alhacen's ''De aspectibus'', the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāzir'', ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', 2 vols: Vol 1 '''98'''(#1, section 1— Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text); '''98'''(#1, section 2 — Vol 2 English translation). (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2008. Book 6 (2008) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; Vol 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR\n* Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2010) ''Alhacen on Refraction'' : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's ''De aspectibus'', the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāzir'', ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', 2 vols: '''100'''(#3, section 1 — Vol 1, Introduction and Latin text); '''100'''(#3, section 2 — Vol 2 English translation). (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2010. Book 7 (2010) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; Vol 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR\n\n=== Secondary ===\n* Belting, Hans, ''Afterthoughts on Alhazen’s Visual Theory and Its Presence in the Pictorial Theory of Western Perspective'', in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies In the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42.\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* \n\n* Graham, Mark. ''How Islam Created the Modern World''. Amana Publications, 2006.\n* \n\n* Roshdi Rashed, Optics and Mathematics: Research on the history of scientific thought in Arabic, Variorum reprints, Aldershot, 1992.\n* Roshdi Rashed, Geometry and Dioptrics the tenth century: Ibn Sahl al-Quhi and Ibn al-Haytham (in French), Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 1993\n* Roshdi Rashed, Infinitesimal Mathematics, vols. 1-5, al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, London, 1993-2006\n* \n\n* Siegfried Zielinski & Franziska Latell, ''How One Sees'', in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies In the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42. \n", "\n* \n* ( PDF version)\n* \n* 'A Brief Introduction on Ibn al-Haytham' based on a lecture delivered at the Royal Society in London by Nader El-Bizri\n* Ibn al-Haytham on two Iraqi banknotes\n* The Miracle of Light – a UNESCO article on Ibn al-Haytham\n* Biography from Malaspina Global Portal\n* Short biographies on several \"Muslim Heroes and Personalities\" including Ibn al-Haytham\n* \n* \n* Biography from Trinity College (Connecticut)\n* Biography from Molecular Expressions\n* The First True Scientist from BBC News\n* Over the Moon From The UNESCO Courier on the occasion of the International Year of Astronomy 2009\n* The Mechanical Water Clock Of Ibn Al-Haytham, Muslim Heritage\n* Alhazen's (1572) ''Opticae thesaurus'' (English) - digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Overview ", " Book of Optics ", " Other works on physics ", " Astronomical works ", " Mathematical works ", " Other works ", " List of works ", " Legacy ", " Commemorations ", " Criticism ", "In literature", " See also ", " Notes ", "Sources", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Ibn al-Haytham
[ "\n\n'''Alessandro di Cristofano di Lorenzo del Bronzino Allori''' (Florence, 31 May 153522 September 1607) was an Italian portrait painter of the late Mannerist Florentine school.\n\n''Portrait of Grand Duchess Bianca Capello de Medici'', by Allori, Dallas Museum of Art\n\nIn 1540, after the death of his father, he was brought up and trained in art by a close friend, often referred to as his 'uncle', the mannerist painter Agnolo Bronzino, whose name he sometimes assumed in his pictures. In some ways, Allori is the last of the line of prominent Florentine painters, of generally undiluted Tuscan artistic heritage: Andrea del Sarto worked with Fra Bartolomeo (as well as Leonardo da Vinci), Pontormo briefly worked under Andrea, and trained Bronzino, who trained Allori. Subsequent generations in the city would be strongly influenced by the tide of Baroque styles pre-eminent in other parts of Italy.\n\nFreedberg derides Allori as derivative, claiming he illustrates \"the ideal of Maniera by which art (and style) are generated out of pre-existing art.\" The polish of figures has an unnatural marble-like form as if he aimed for cold statuary. It can be said of late phase mannerist painting in Florence, that the city that had early breathed life into statuary with the works of masters like Donatello and Michelangelo, was still so awed by them that it petrified the poses of figures in painting. While by 1600 the Baroque elsewhere was beginning to give life to painted figures, Florence was painting two-dimensional statues. Furthermore, in general, with the exception of the Counter-''Maniera'' (Counter-Mannerism) artists, it dared not stray from high themes or stray into high emotion.\n\nAmong his collaborators was Giovanni Maria Butteri and his main pupil was Giovanni Bizzelli. Cristoforo del Altissimo, Cesare Dandini, Aurelio Lomi, John Mosnier, Alessandro Pieroni, Giovanni Battista Vanni, and Monanni also were his pupils. Allori was one of the artists, working under Vasari, included in the decoration of the Studiola of Francesco I.\n\nHe was the father of the painter Cristofano Allori (1577–1621).\n", "Christ with Mary and Martha, oil on wood, 125 x 118 cmKunsthistorisches Museum\n* ''Portrait of a Young Man'' (1561; Ashmolean Museum, Oxford)\n* ''Christ and the Samaritan Woman'' (Altarpiece, 1575, Santa Maria Novella, now Prato)\n* ''Road to Calvary'' (1604, Rome)\n* ''Dead Christ and Angels'', (Museum Fine Arts, Budapest)\n* ''Portrait of Piero de Médici'', (São Paulo Art Museum, São Paulo)\n* ''Pearl Fishing'' (1570–72, Studiolo of Francesco I, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence) image\n* ''Sussana and the Elders'' (202 × 117 cm, musée Magnin, Dijon)\n* ''Allegory of Human Life''\n* ''The Miracle of St. Peter Walking on Water''\n* ''Venus and Cupid'', (musée Fabre, Montpellier)\n\nIn 2006 the BBC foreign correspondent Sir Charles Wheeler returned an original Alessandro Allori painting to the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. He had been given it in Germany in 1952, but only recently realized its origin and that it must have been looted in the wake of World War II. The work is possibly a portrait of Eleonora (Dianora) di Toledo de' Medici, niece of Eleonora di Toledo, and measures 12 cm x 16 cm.\n", "\n* Alessandro Allori in the \"History of Art\"\n* ''Painting in Italy 1500-1600'', Freedberg, S.J. (Penguin History of Art, 2nd Edition, 1983).\n* \n", "\n* Alessandro Allori Paitings Gallery (Public Domain Paintings - www.art.onilm.com)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Main works", " References ", " External links " ]	Alessandro Allori
[ "\n\n\n\nThe '''Almoravid dynasty''' (; , ''Al-Murābiṭūn'') was an imperial Berber Muslim dynasty centered in Morocco. It established an empire in the 11th century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Founded by Abdallah ibn Yasin, the Almoravid capital was Marrakesh, a city the ruling house founded in 1062. The dynasty originated among the Lamtuna and the Gudala, nomadic Berber tribes of the Sahara, traversing the territory between the Draa, the Niger, and the Senegal rivers.\n\nThe Almoravids were crucial in preventing the fall of Al-Andalus to the Iberian Christian kingdoms, when they decisively defeated a coalition of the Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086. This enabled them to control an empire that stretched 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) north to south. However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived. The Almoravids fell—at the height of their power—when they failed to quell the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 by the Almohad Caliphate, who replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus.\n", "The term \"Almoravid\" comes from the Arabic \"al-Murabitun\" (), which is the plural form of \"al-Murabit\"—literally meaning \"one who is tying\" but figuratively meaning \"one who is ready for battle at a fortress\". The term is related to the notion of Ribat, a frontier monastery-fortress, through the root r-b-t ( \"Rabat\": ''to tie to unite'' or \"Raabat\": ''to encamp'').\n\nThe name \"Almoravid\" was tied to a school of Malikite law called \"Dar al-Murabitin\" founded in Sus al-Aksa, modern day Morocco, by a certain scholar named Waggag Ibn Zallu. Ibn Zallu sent his student Abdallah ibn Yasin to preach Malikite Islam to the Sanhaja Berbers of the Sous and Adrar (present-day Mauritania). Hence, the name of the Almoravids comes from the followers of the Dar al-Murabitin, \"the house of those who were bound together in the cause of God.\" \n\nIt is uncertain exactly when or why the Almoravids acquired that appellation. al-Bakri, writing in 1068, before their apex, already calls them the ''al-Murabitun'', but does not clarify the reasons for it. Writing three centuries later, Ibn Abi Zar suggested it was chosen early on by Abdallah ibn Yasin because, upon finding resistance among the Gudala Berbers of Adrar (Mauritania) to his teaching, he took a handful of followers to erect a makeshift ''ribat'' (monastery-fortress) on an offshore island (possibly Tidra island, in the Bay of Arguin). Ibn Idhari wrote that the name was suggested by Ibn Yasin in the \"persevering in the fight\" sense, to boost morale after a particularly hard-fought battle in the Draa valley c. 1054, in which they had taken many losses. Whichever explanation is true, it seems certain the appellation was chosen by the Almoravids for themselves, partly with the conscious goal of forestalling any tribal or ethnic identifications.\n\nThe name might be related to the ''ribat'' of Waggag ibn Zallu in the village of Aglu (near present-day Tiznit), where the future Almoravid spiritual leader Abdallah ibn Yasin got his initial training. The 13th-century Moroccan biographer Ibn al-Zayyat al-Tadili, and Qadi Ayyad before him in the 12th century, note that Waggag's learning center was called ''Dar al-Murabitin'' (The house of the Almoravids), and that might have inspired Ibn Yasin's choice of name for the movement.\n\nContemporaries frequently referred to them as the ''al-mulathimun'' (\"the veiled ones\", from ''litham'', Arabic for \"veil\"). The Almoravids veiled themselves below the eyes with a tagelmust, a custom they adapted from southern Sanhaja Berbers. (This can still be seen among the modern Tuareg people, but it was unusual further north.) Although practical for the desert dust, the Almoravids insisted on wearing the veil everywhere, as a badge of \"foreignness\" in urban settings, partly as a way of emphasizing their puritan credentials. It served as the uniform of the Almoravids. Under their rule, sumptuary laws forbade anybody else from wearing the veil, thereby making it the distinctive dress of the ruling class. In turn, the succeeding Almohads made a point of mocking the Almoravid veil as symbolic of effeminacy and decadence.\n", "The Berbers of the Maghreb in the early Middle Ages could be roughly classified into three major groups: the Zenata across the north, the Masmuda concentrated in central Morocco, and the Sanhaja, clustered in two areas: the western part of the Sahara and the hills of the eastern Maghreb. The eastern Sanhaja included the Kutama Berbers, who had been the base of the Fatimid rise in the early 10th century, and the Zirid dynasty, who ruled Ifriqiya as vassals of the Fatimids after the latter moved to Egypt in 972. The western Sanhaja were divided into several tribes: the Gazzula and the Lamta in the Draa valley and the foothills of the Anti-Atlas range; further south, encamped in the western Sahara desert, were the Massufa, the Lamtuna and the Banu Warith; and most southerly of all, the Gudala (or Judala), in littoral Mauritania down to the borderlands of the Senegal River.\n\nThe western Sanhaja had been converted to Islam some time in the 9th century. They were subsequently united in the 10th century and, with the zeal of neophyte converts, launched several campaigns against the \"Sudanese\" (pagan peoples of sub-Saharan Africa). Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected (or captured) the citadel of Awdaghust, a critical stop on the trans-Saharan trade route. After the collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust passed over to the Ghana empire; and the trans-Saharan routes were taken over by the Zenata Maghrawa of Sijilmassa. The Maghrawa also exploited this disunion to dislodge the Sanhaja Gazzula and Lamta out of their pasturelands in the Sous and Draa valleys. Around 1035, the Lamtuna chieftain Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Tifat (alias Tarsina), tried to reunite the Sanhaja desert tribes, but his reign lasted less than three years.\n\nAround 1040, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, a chieftain of the Gudala (and brother-in-law of the late Tarsina), went on pilgrimage to Mecca. On his return, he stopped by Kairouan in Ifriqiya, where he met Abu Imran al-Fasi, a native of Fes and a jurist and scholar of the Sunni Maliki school. At this time, Ifriqiya was in ferment. The Zirid ruler al-Muizz ibn Badis, was openly contemplating breaking with his Shi'ite Fatimid overlords in Cairo, and the jurists of Kairouan were agitating for him to do so. Within this heady atmosphere, Yahya and Abu Imran fell into conversation on the state of the faith in their western homelands, and Yahya expressed his disappointment at the lack of religious education and negligence of Islamic law among his southern Sanhaja people. With Abu Imran's recommendation, Yahya ibn Ibrahim made his way to the ''ribat'' of Waggag ibn Zelu in the Sous valley of southern Morocco, to seek out a Maliki teacher for his people. Waggag assigned him one of his residents, Abdallah ibn Yasin.\n\nAbdallah ibn Yasin was a Gazzula Berber, and probably a convert rather than a born Muslim. His name can be read as \"son of Ya Sin\" (the title of the 36th Sura of the Qur'an), suggesting he had obliterated his family past and was \"re-born\" of the Holy Book. Ibn Yasin certainly had the ardor of a puritan zealot; his creed was mainly characterized by a rigid formalism and a strict adherence to the dictates of the Qur'an, and the Orthodox tradition. (Chroniclers such as al-Bakri allege Ibn Yasin's learning was superficial.) Ibn Yasin's initial meetings with the Gudala people went poorly. As he had more ardor than depth, Ibn Yasin's arguments were disputed by his audience. He responded to questioning with charges of apostasy and handed out harsh punishments for the slightest deviations. The Gudala soon had enough and expelled him almost immediately after the death of his protector, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, sometime in the 1040s.\n\nIbn Yasin, however, found a more favorable reception among the neighboring Lamtuna people. Probably sensing the useful organizing power of Ibn Yasin's pious fervor, the Lamtuna chieftain Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni invited the man to preach to his people. The Lamtuna leaders, however, kept Ibn Yasin on a careful leash, forging a more productive partnership between them. Invoking stories of the early life of Muhammad, Ibn Yasin preached that conquest was a necessary addendum to Islamicization, that it was not enough to merely adhere to God's law, but necessary to also destroy opposition to it. In Ibn Yasin's ideology, anything and everything outside of Islamic law could be characterized as \"opposition\". He identified tribalism, in particular, as an obstacle. He believed it was not enough to urge his audiences to put aside their blood loyalties and ethnic differences, and embrace the equality of all Muslims under the Sacred Law, it was necessary to make them do so. For the Lamtuna leadership, this new ideology dovetailed with their long desire to refound the Sanhaja union and recover their lost dominions. In the early 1050s, the Lamtuna, under the joint leadership of Yahya ibn Umar and Abdallah ibn Yasin—soon calling themselves the ''al-Murabitin'' (Almoravids)—set out on a campaign to bring their neighbors over to their cause.\n", "\n\n===Northern Africa===\nFrom the year 1053, the Almoravids began to spread their religious way to the Berber areas of the Sahara, and to the regions south of the desert. After winning over the Sanhaja Berber tribe, they quickly took control of the entire desert trade route, seizing Sijilmasa at the northern end in 1054, and Aoudaghost at the southern end in 1055. Yahya ibn Umar was killed in a battle in 1057, but Abdullah ibn Yasin, whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount, named his brother Abu Bakr ibn Umar as chief. Under him, the Almoravids soon began to spread their power beyond the desert, and conquered the tribes of the Atlas Mountains. They then came in contact with the Berghouata, a Berber tribal confederation, who followed an Islamic \"heresy\" preached by Salih ibn Tarif three centuries earlier. The Berghouata resisted. Abdullah ibn Yasin was killed in battle with them in 1059, in Krifla, a village near Rommani, Morocco. They were, however, completely conquered by Abu Bakr ibn Umar, and were forced to convert to orthodox Islam. Abu Bakr married a noble and wealthy Berber woman, Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyat, who would become very influential in the development of the dynasty. Zaynab was the daughter of a wealthy merchant from Houara, who was said to be from Kairouan.\n\nIn 1061, Abu Bakr ibn Umar made a division of the power he had established, handing over the more-settled parts to his cousin Yusuf ibn Tashfin as viceroy, and also assigning to him his favourite wife Zaynab. Ibn Umar kept the task of suppressing the revolts that had broken out in the desert. When he returned to resume control, he found his cousin too powerful to be superseded. In November 1087, Abu Bakr was killed in battle - according to oral tradition by an arrow, while fighting in the historic region of the Sudan.\n\nYusuf ibn Tashfin had in the meantime brought the large area of what is now known as Morocco, Western Sahara, and Mauritania into complete subjection. In 1062 he founded the city of Marrakech. In 1080, he conquered the kingdom of Tlemcen (in modern-day Algeria) and founded the present city of that name, his rule extending as far east as Oran.\n\n===Ghana Empire and the southern wing===\nAccording to Arab tradition, the Almoravids conquered the Ghana Empire sometime around 1076 CE. An example of this tradition is the record of historian Ibn Khaldun, who cited Shaykh Uthman, the faqih of Ghana, writing in 1394. According to this source, the Almoravids weakened Ghana and collected tribute from the Sudan, to the extent that the authority of the rulers of Ghana dwindled away, and they were subjugated and absorbed by the Susu, a neighboring people of the Sudan. Traditions in Mali related that the Soso attacked and took over Mali as well, and the ruler of the Soso, Sumaouro Kanté took over the land.\n\nHowever criticism from Conrad and Fisher (1982) argued that the notion of any Almoravid military conquest at its core is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation or naive reliance on Arabic sources. According to Professor Timothy Insoll, the archaeology of ancient Ghana simply does not show the signs of rapid change and destruction that would be associated with any Almoravid-era military conquests.\n\nDierke Lange agreed with the original military incursion theory but argues that this doesn't preclude Almoravid political agitation, claiming that the main factor of the demise of Ghana empire owed much to the latter. According to Lange, the Almoravid religious influence was gradual and not heavily involved in military strife; there the Almoravids increased in power by marrying among the nation's nobility. Lange attributes the decline of ancient Ghana to numerous unrelated factors, only one of which can be likely attributable to internal dynastic struggles that were instigated by Almoravid influence and Islamic pressures, but devoid of military conversion and conquest.\n\nThis interpretation of events has been disputed by later scholars like Sheryl L. Burkhalter (1992), who argued that, whatever the nature of the \"conquest\" in the south of the Sahara, the influence and success of the Almoravid movement in securing west African gold and circulating it widely necessitated a high degree of political control,.\n\nThe traditional position says that the ensuing war with the Almoravids pushed Ghana over the edge, ending the kingdom's position as a commercial and military power by 1100. It collapsed into tribal groups and chieftaincies, some of which later assimilated into the Almoravids while others founded the Mali Empire.\n\nThe Arab geographer Al-Zuhri wrote that the Almoravids ended Ibadism in Tadmekka in 1084 and that Abu Bakr \"arrived at the mountain of gold\" in the deep south.\nAfter the death of Abu Bakr (1087), the confederation of Berber tribes in the Sahara was divided between the descendants of Abu Bakr and his brother Yahya, and would have lost control of Ghana. Sheryl Burkhalter suggests that Abu Bakr’s son Yahya was the leader of the Almoravid expedition that conquered Ghana in 1076, and that the Almoravids would have survived the loss of Ghana and the defeat in the Maghreb by the Almohads, and would have ruled the Sahara until the end of the 12th century.\n\n===Southern Iberia and the northern wing===\n\nAlmoravid gold dinar coin from Seville, Spain, 1116. (British Museum); the Almoravid gold dinar would set the standard of the Iberian ''maravedi''.\nIn 1086 Yusuf ibn Tashfin was invited by the Muslim ''taifa'' princes of Al-Andalus in the Iberian Peninsula to defend their territories from the encroachment of Alfonso VI, King of León and Castile. In that year, Yusuf ibn Tashfin crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to Algeciras, and defeated Castile at the Battle of az-Zallaqah (Battle of Sagrajas). He was prevented from following up his victory by trouble in Africa, which he chose to settle in person.\n\nHe returned to Iberia in 1090, avowedly for the purpose of annexing the ''taifa'' principalities of Iberia. He was supported by most of the Iberian people, who were discontented with the heavy taxation imposed upon them by their spendthrift rulers. Their religious teachers, as well as others in the east, (most notably, al-Ghazali in Persia and al-Tartushi in Egypt, who was himself an Iberian by birth from Tortosa), detested the ''taifa'' rulers for their religious indifference. The clerics issued a ''fatwa'' (a non-binding legal opinion) that Yusuf was of sound morals and had the religious right to dethrone the rulers, whom he saw as heterodox in their faith. By 1094, Yusuf had annexed most of the major ''taifas'', with the exception of the one at Saragossa. The Almoravids were victorious at the Battle of Consuegra, during which the son of El Cid, Diego Rodríguez, perished. Alfonso, with some Leónese, retreated into the castle of Consuegra, which was besieged for eight days until the Almoravids withdrew to the south.\n\nAfter friendly correspondence with the caliph at Baghdad, whom he acknowledged as ''Amir al-Mu'minin'' (\"Commander of the Faithful\"), Yusuf ibn Tashfin in 1097 assumed the title of ''Amir al Muslimin'' (\"Commander of the Muslims\"). He died in 1106, when he was reputed to have reached the age of 100. The Almoravid power was at its height at Yusuf's death: the Moorish empire then included all of Northwest Africa as far eastward as Algiers, and all of Iberia south of the Tagus and as far eastward as the mouth of the Ebro, and including the Balearic Islands.\n\nIn 1108 Tamim Al Yusuf defeated the Kingdom of Castile at the Battle of Uclés. Yusuf did not reconquer much territory from the Christian kingdoms, except that of Valencia; but he did hinder the progress of the Christian Reconquista by uniting al-Andalus. In 1134 at the Battle of Fraga the Almoravids dynasty was victorious and even succeeded in slaying Alfonso I of Aragon in the battle.\n", "\nThree years afterwards, under Yusuf's son and successor, Ali ibn Yusuf, Sintra and Santarém were added, and he invaded Iberia again in 1119 and 1121, but the tide had turned, as the French had assisted the Aragonese to recover Zaragoza. In 1138, Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by Alfonso VII of León, and in the Battle of Ourique (1139), by Afonso I of Portugal, who thereby won his crown. Lisbon was conquered by the Portuguese in 1147.\n\nAccording to some scholars, Ali ibn Yusuf was a new generation of leadership that had forgotten the desert life for the comforts of the city. He was defeated by the combined action of his Christian foes in Iberia and the agitation of Almohads (the Muwahhids) in Morocco. After Ali ibn Yusuf's death in 1143, his son Tashfin ibn Ali lost ground rapidly before the Almohads. In 1146 he was killed in a fall from a precipice while attempting to escape after a defeat near Oran.\n\nHis two successors were Ibrahim ibn Tashfin and Ishaq ibn Ali, but their reigns were short. The conquest of the city of Marrakech by the Almohads in 1147 marked the fall of the dynasty, though fragments of the Almoravids (the Banu Ghaniya), continued to struggle in the Balearic Islands, and finally in Tunisia.\n", "Abdallah ibn Yassin imposed very strict discipline measures on his forces for every breach of his laws. The Almoravids' first military leader, Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni, gave them a good military organization. Their main force was infantry, armed with javelins in the front ranks and pikes behind, which formed into a phalanx; and was supported by camelmen and horsemen on the flanks. They also had a flag carrier at the front who guided the forces behind him; when the flag was upright, the combatants behind would stand and when it was turned down, they would sit.\n\nAl-Bakri reports that, while in combat, the Almoravids did not pursue those who fled in front of them. Their fighting was intense and they did not retreat when disadvantaged by an advancing opposing force; they preferred death over defeat. These characteristics were possibly unusual at the time.\n\n===Legends===\nAfter the death of El Cid, Christian chronicles reported a legend of a Turkish woman leading a band of 300 black African female archers. This legend was possibly inspired by the ominous veils on the faces of the warriors and the dark skin colored blue by the indigo of their robes.\n", "\n===Rulers===\nAbdallah ibn Yasin (1040–1059) – founder & spiritual leader\n Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni (c. 1050–1056)\n* Abu Bakr ibn Umar (1056–1087) – partitioned reign from 1072.\nYusuf ibn Tashfin (c. 1072–1106)\nAli ibn Yusuf (1106–43)\nTashfin ibn Ali (1143–45)\nIbrahim ibn Tashfin (1145–1147)\nIshaq ibn Ali (1147)\n\n===Family tree=== \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Timeline===\n\nImageSize = width:1000 height:auto barincrement:12\nPlotArea = top:10 bottom:30 right:130 left:20\nAlignBars = justify\n\nDateFormat = yyyy\nPeriod = from:1000 till:1150\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:50 start:1000\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:25 start:1000\n\nColors =\n id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,1)\n id:m value:rgb(0.4,0.8,0.4)\n id:w value:rgb(0.9,0.5,0.5)\n id:d value:yellow\n id:n value:rgb(0.5,0.5,0.5)\n id:a value:rgb(1,0.5,0.5)\n id:l value:rgb(0.6,0.4,1)\n id:y value:rgb(0.6,0.5,1)\n id:t value:rgb(0.5,0.8,0.5)\n id:s value:rgb(0.05,0.65,0.3)\n id:ss value:rgb(0.05,0.8,0.15)\n id:cw value:rgb(0.8,0.8,0.8)\n id:eon value:Black\n\nBackgroundcolors = canvas:canvas\n\nBarData =\n barset:Rulers\n bar:eon\n\nPlotData=\n align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:none width:25 shift:(0,-5)\n bar:eon color:eon\n\n from: 1040 till: 1147 color: s text: Almoravids (1040-1147)\n\n width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till\n barset:Rulers\n\n from:1040 till: 1059 color:ss text:\"Abdallah ibn Yasin\"\n from:1050 till: 1056 color:s text:\"Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni\"\n from:1056 till: 1087 color:s text:\"Abu Bakr ibn Umar\"\n from:1072 till: 1106 color:s text:\"Yusuf ibn Tashfin\"\n from:1106 till: 1143 color:s text:\"Ali ibn Yusuf\"\n from:1143 till: 1145 color:s text:\"Tashfin ibn Ali\"\n from: 1143 till: 1147 color:s text:\"Ibrahim ibn Tashfin\"\n from: 1147 till: 1147 color:s text:\"Ishaq ibn Ali\"\n\n barset:skip\n\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n Brett, M. and E. Fentress (1996), ''The Berbers''. Oxford: Blackwell.\n* Hrbek, I. and J. Devisse (1988), \"The Almoravids\", in M. Elfasi, ed., ''General History of Africa, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century'', UNESCO. 1992 edition, Ch. 13, pp. 336–66.\n* Lewicki, T. (1988), \"The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in relationships between north and south\", in M. Elfasi, ed., ''General History of Africa, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century'', UNESCO. 1992 edition, ch.11, p. 276-313.\n* Levtzion, N. and J. F. P. Hopkins, eds (1981), ''Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History'', Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2000 edition.\n* Messier, R. A. (2010), ''Almoravids and the Meanings of Jihad'', Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger.\n* Mones, H. (1988), \"The conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance\", in M. Elfasi, ed., ''General History of Africa, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century'', UNESCO. 1992 edition, Ch. 9, p. 224-46.\n* Moraes Farias, P. F. de (1967), \"The Almoravids: Some Questions Concerning the Character of the Movement\", ''Bulletin de l’IFAN'', series B, 29:3-4, pp. 794–878.\n\n Insoll, T. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. eScholarID\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Name", "Origins", "Conquests", "Decline", "Military organization", "Almoravids dynasty", "Notes", "References" ]	Almoravid dynasty
[ "\n\nSucculent plants, such as this aloe, store water in their enlarged fleshy leaves, stems, or roots, as shown in this split aloe leaf. This allows them to survive in arid environments. ''Aloe vossii''\n\n'''''Aloe''''' ( or ), also written ''Aloë'', is a genus containing over 500 species of flowering succulent plants. The most widely known species is ''Aloe vera'', or \"true aloe\", so called because it is cultivated as the standard source of so-called \"aloe vera\" for assorted pharmaceutical purposes. Other species, such as ''Aloe ferox'', also are cultivated or harvested from the wild for similar applications.\n\nThe APG IV system (2016) places the genus in the family Asphodelaceae, subfamily Asphodeloideae. In the past, it has been assigned to the family Aloaceae (now included in the Asphodelaceae) or to a broadly circumscribed family Liliaceae (the lily family). The plant ''Agave americana'', which is sometimes called \"American aloe\", belongs to the Asparagaceae, a different family.\n\nThe genus is native to tropical and southern Africa, Madagascar, Jordan, the Arabian Peninsula, and various islands in the Indian Ocean (Mauritius, Réunion, Comoros, etc.). A few species have also become naturalized in other regions (Mediterranean, India, Australia, North and South America, etc.).\n", "\nMost ''Aloe'' species have a rosette of large, thick, fleshy leaves. ''Aloe'' flowers are tubular, frequently yellow, orange, pink, or red, and are borne, densely clustered and pendant, at the apex of simple or branched, leafless stems. Many species of ''Aloe'' appear to be stemless, with the rosette growing directly at ground level; other varieties may have a branched or unbranched stem from which the fleshy leaves spring. They vary in color from grey to bright-green and are sometimes striped or mottled. Some aloes native to South Africa are tree-like (arborescent).\n", "\nThe APG IV system (2016) places the genus in the family Asphodelaceae, subfamily Asphodeloideae. In the past it has also been assigned to the families Liliaceae and Aloeaceae, as well as the family Asphodelaceae sensu stricto, before this was merged into the Asphodelaceae sensu lato.\n\nThe circumscription of the genus has varied widely. Many genera, such as ''Lomatophyllum'', have been brought into synonymy. Species at one time placed in ''Aloe'', such as ''Agave americana'', have been moved to other genera.\n\n=== Species ===\n\nOver 500 species are accepted in the genus ''Aloe'', plus even more synonyms and unresolved species, subspecies, varieties, and hybrids. Some of the accepted species are:\n\n\n''Aloe aculeata'' Pole-Evans \n''Aloe africana'' Mill. \n''Aloe albida'' (Stapf) Reynolds \n''Aloe albiflora'' Guillaumin \n''Aloe arborescens'' Mill. \n''Aloe arenicola'' Reynolds \n''Aloe argenticauda'' Merxm. & Giess \n''Aloe aristata'' Haw. \n''Aloe bakeri'' Scott-Elliot \n''Aloe ballii'' Reynolds \n''Aloe ballyi'' Reynolds \n''Aloe barberae'' Dyer \n''Aloe brevifolia'' Mill. \n''Aloe broomii'' Schönland \n''Aloe buettneri'' A.Berger\n''Aloe camperi'' Schweinf. \n''Aloe capitata'' Baker \n''Aloe ciliaris'' Haw. \n''Aloe commixta'' A.Berger \n''Aloe comosa'' Marloth & A.Berger \n''Aloe cooperi'' Baker\n''Aloe corallina'' Verd. \n''Aloe decumbens'' (Reynolds) van Jaarsv. \n''Aloe dewinteri'' Giess ex Borman & Hardy \n''Aloe dichotoma'' Masson \n''Aloe dinteri'' A.Berger \n''Aloe eminens'' Reynolds & Bally \n''Aloe erinacea'' D.S.Hardy \n''Aloe excelsa'' A.Berger \n''Aloe ferox'' Mill. \n''Aloe forbesii'' Balf.f. \n''Aloe gracilis'' Haw. \n''Aloe haemanthifolia'' Marloth & A.Berger \n''Aloe helenae'' Danguy \n''Aloe hereroensis'' Engl. \n''Aloe inermis'' Forssk. \n''Aloe inyangensis'' Christian \n''Aloe jawiyon'' S.J.Christie, D.P.Hannon & Oakman ex A.G.Mill. \n''Aloe jucunda'' Reynolds \n''Aloe juddii'' van Jaarsv. \n''Aloe khamiesensis'' Pillans\n''Aloe kilifiensis'' Christian \n''Aloe maculata'' All.\n''Aloe marlothii'' A.Berger \n''Aloe namibensis'' Giess \n''Aloe nyeriensis'' Christian & I.Verd. \n''Aloe pearsonii'' Schönland \n''Aloe peglerae'' Schönland \n''Aloe perfoliata'' L. \n''Aloe perryi'' Baker \n''Aloe petricola'' Pole-Evans \n''Aloe pillansii'' L.Guthrie\n''Aloe plicatilis'' (L.) Mill. \n''Aloe polyphylla'' Pillans \n''Aloe ramosissima'' Pillans\n''Aloe rauhii'' Reynolds \n''Aloe reynoldsii'' Letty \n''Aloe scobinifolia'' Reynolds & Bally \n''Aloe sinkatana'' Reynolds \n''Aloe sladeniana'' Pole-Evans \n''Aloe squarrosa'' Baker ex Balf.f. \n''Aloe striata'' Haw. \n''Aloe striatula'' Haw. \n''Aloe succotrina'' Lam. \n''Aloe suzannae'' Decary \n''Aloe tenuior'' Haw. \n''Aloe thraskii'' Baker \n''Aloe variegata'' L. \n''Aloe vera'' (L.) Burm.f. \n''Aloe viridiflora'' Reynolds \n''Aloe wildii'' (Reynolds) Reynolds \n\n\n\nIn addition to the species and hybrids between species within the genus, several hybrids with other genera have been created in cultivation, such as between ''Aloe'' and ''Gasteria'' (''×Gasteraloe''), and between ''Aloe'' and ''Astroloba'' (''×Aloloba'').\nMultiple ''Aloe'' species with a variety of growth forms.\n", "\nAloe species are frequently cultivated as ornamental plants both in gardens and in pots. Many aloe species are highly decorative and are valued by collectors of succulents. ''Aloe vera'' is used both internally and externally on humans as folk or alternative medicine. The plants can also be made into types of special soaps.\n\n===Historical uses===\n\nDepiction of Aloe, labeled in Greek \"ΑΛΟΗ\" (Aloë) from the Juliana Anicia Codex, a copy, written in Constantinople in 515 AD, of Dioscorides' 1st century AD work.\nHistorical use of various aloe species is well documented. Documentation of the clinical effectiveness is available, although relatively limited.\n\nOf the 500+ species, only a few were used traditionally as herbal medicines, ''Aloe vera'' again being the most commonly used species. Also included are ''A. perryi'' and ''A. ferox''. The Ancient Greeks and Romans used ''Aloe vera'' to treat wounds. In the Middle Ages, the yellowish liquid found inside the leaves was favored as a purgative. Unprocessed aloe that contains aloin is generally used as a laxative, whereas processed juice does not usually contain significant aloin.\n\nSome species, particularly ''Aloe vera'', are used in alternative medicine and first aid. Both the translucent inner pulp and the resinous yellow aloin from wounding the aloe plant are used externally for skin discomforts. As an herbal medicine, ''Aloe vera'' juice is commonly used internally for digestive discomfort.\n\nRelatively few studies about possible benefits of aloe gel taken internally have been conducted. Components of ''Aloe'' have shown the possibility of inhibiting tumor growth in animal studies, but these effects have not been demonstrated clinically in humans. Some studies in animal models indicate that extracts of ''Aloe'' have a significant antihyperglycemic effect, and may be useful in treating Type II diabetes, but these studies have not been confirmed in humans.\n\nAccording to Cancer Research UK, a potentially deadly product called T-UP is made of concentrated aloe, and promoted as a cancer cure. They say \"there is currently no evidence that aloe products can help to prevent or treat cancer in humans\".\n\n===Aloin in OTC laxative products===\nOn May 9, 2002, the US Food and Drug Administration issued a final rule banning the use of aloin, the yellow sap of the aloe plant, for use as a laxative ingredient in over-the-counter drug products. Most aloe juices today do not contain significant aloin.\n\n=== Chemical properties ===\nAccording to W. A. Shenstone, two classes of aloins are recognized: (1) nataloins, which yield picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, and do not give a red coloration with nitric acid; and (2) barbaloins, which yield aloetic acid (C7H2N3O5), chrysammic acid (C7H2N2O6), picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, being reddened by the acid. This second group may be divided into a-barbaloins, obtained from Barbados ''Aloe'', and reddened in the cold, and b-barbaloins, obtained from ''Aloe Socotrina'' and Zanzibar ''Aloe'', reddened by ordinary nitric acid only when warmed or by fuming acid in the cold. Nataloin (2C17H13O7·H2O) forms bright-yellow scales, barbaloin (C17H18O7) prismatic crystals. ''Aloe'' species also contain a trace of volatile oil, to which their odour is due.\n\n=== Flavoring ===\n''Aloe perryi'', ''A. barbadensis'', ''A. ferox'', and hybrids of this species with ''A. africana'' and ''A. spicata'' are listed as natural flavoring substances in the US government ''Electronic Code of Federal Regulations''. ''Aloe Socotrina'' is said to be used in yellow Chartreuse.\n", "\n''Aloe rubrolutea'' occurs as a charge in heraldry, for example in the Civic Heraldry of Namibia.\n", "\nFile:Aloe ferox.JPG\|''Aloe ferox'' (\"Cape Aloe\")\nFile:Aloe africana 1.jpg\|''Aloe africana'' (\"Africa Aloe\")\nFile:Aloe pluridens (3).jpg\|''Aloe pluridens'' (\"French Aloe\")\nFile:Aloe excelsa at Mount Coot-tha.JPG\|''Aloe excelsa'' (\"Zimbabwe Aloe\")\nFile:Aloe speciosa - tilt head aloe.jpg\|''Aloe hexapetala'' (\"Tilt-headed Aloe\")\nFile:Aloe thraskii close.JPG\|''Aloe thraskii'' (\"Dune Aloe\")\nFile:Babosa1.jpg\|''Aloe arborescens''\nFile:Blooming aloes wide view alternate, with bright sun behind.jpg\|Blooming ''Aloe arborescens''\nFile:Aloe aristata.jpg\|''Aloe aristata''\nFile:Aloe cooperi in flower IMG 1702e.JPG\|''Aloe cooperi'' (''Aloe plicatilis'' in background on the right)\nFile:Köcherbaum Köcherbaumwald 01.JPG\|''Aloe dichotoma''\nFile:Aloe hereroensis Auob C15.JPG\|''Aloe hereroensis''\nFile:Aloe parvula.JPG\|''Aloe parvula''\nFile:Aloe peglerae01.jpg\|''Aloe peglerae''\nFile:Aloe saponaria 1.jpg\|''Aloe maculata'' - prev. ''A. saponaria'' (\"Soap Aloe\")\nFile:Aloe striatula 1.jpg\|''Aloe striatula'' (\"Hardy Aloe\")\nFile:Aloe rauhii.jpg\|''Aloe rauhii\nFile:Aloe reitzii flowers.jpg\|''Aloe reitzii''\nFile:Aloe variegata.jpg\|''Aloe variegata''\n\n", " List of ''Aloe'' species\n* List of ineffective cancer treatments\n* List of Southern African indigenous trees\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Description", "Systematics", "Uses", " Heraldic occurrence ", "Images", " See also ", " References ", "External links" ]	Aloe
[ "\n'''Alyattes''', king of Lydia (619–560 BC), considered to be the founder of the Lydian empire, was the son of Sadyattes, of the house of the Mermnadae.\n", "For several years he continued the war against the Greek colony of Miletus begun by his father, but was obliged to turn his attention towards the Medes and Babylonians. On May 28, 585 BC, during the Battle of Halys fought against Cyaxares, king of Media, a solar eclipse took place; hostilities were suspended, peace concluded, and the Halys River was fixed as the boundary between the two kingdoms.\n\nAlyattes drove the Cimmerians from Asia Minor, with the help of war dogs. He further subdued the Carians, and took several Ionian cities, including Smyrna and Colophon. Smyrna was sacked and destroyed with its inhabitants forced to move into the countryside.\n\nHe standardised the weight of coins (1 stater = 168 grains of wheat). The coins were produced using an anvil die technique and stamped with a lion's head, the symbol of the Mermnadae.\n\nHe was succeeded by his son Croesus. His daughter Aryenis of Lydia was queen consort of Astyages, King of Media.\n\nHis tomb still exists on the plateau between Lake Gygaea and the river Hermus to the north of Sardis—a large mound of earth with a substructure of huge stones. It was excavated by Spiegelthal in 1854, who found that it covered a large vault of finely cut marble blocks approached by a flat-roofed passage of the same stone from the south. The sarcophagus and its contents had been removed by early plunderers of the tomb. All that was left were some broken alabaster vases, pottery and charcoal. On the summit of the mound were large phalli of stone.\n", "In ''The Histories'', Herodotus recounts how Alyattes continued his father's war against Miletus. According to Herodotus, Alyattes invaded Miletus annually to burn their crops over the course of several years. The troops left the horses and houses untouched so that the Milesians could plant a new crop, which the Lydians would then burn the following year. This continued until the end of the war eleven years later.\n", "\n'''Attribution:'''\n* This cites A. von Ölfers, \"Über die lydischen Königsgräber bei Sardes,\" Abh. Berl. Ak., 1858.\n", "* Livius, Alyattes of Lydia by Jona Lendering\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Life ", "Appearance in ''The Histories''", "References", "External links" ]	Alyattes of Lydia
[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''age of consent''' is the age at which a person is considered to be legally competent to consent to sexual acts, and is thus the minimum age of a person with whom another person is legally permitted to engage in sexual activity. The distinguishing aspect of the age of consent laws is that the person below the minimum age is regarded as the victim, and their sex partner as the offender.\n\nThe term ''age of consent'' rarely appears in legal statutes. Generally, a law will instead establish the age below which it is illegal to engage in sexual activity with that person. It has sometimes been used with other meanings, such as the age at which a person becomes competent to consent to marriage, but the meaning given above is the one now generally understood. It should not be confused with the age of majority, age of criminal responsibility, the voting age, the drinking age, the driving age, etc.\n\nAge of consent laws vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, though most jurisdictions set the age of consent in the range 14 to 18. The laws may also vary by the type of sexual act, the gender of the participants, or other restrictions such as being in a position of trust; some jurisdictions may also make allowances for minors engaged in sexual acts with each other, rather than a single age. Charges resulting from a breach of these laws may range from a misdemeanor such as ''corruption of a minor'', to what is popularly called ''statutory rape'' (which is considered equivalent to rape, both in severity and sentencing).\n\nThere are many \"grey areas\" in this area of law, some regarding unspecific and untried legislation, others brought about by debates regarding changing societal attitudes, and others due to conflicts between federal and state laws. These factors all make age of consent an often confusing subject, and a topic of highly charged debates.\n", "\n===Traditional attitudes===\nIn traditional societies, the age of consent for a sexual union was a matter for the family to decide, or a tribal custom. In most cases, this coincided with signs of puberty, menstruation for a woman, and pubic hair for a man. The ancient Greek poet Hesiod in ''Works and Days'' (c. 700 BC) suggests that a man should marry around the age of thirty, and that he should take a wife who is five years past puberty.\n\nReliable data for ages at marriage is scarce. In England, for example, the only reliable data in the early modern period comes from property records made after death. Not only were the records relatively rare, but not all bothered to record the participants' ages, and it seems that the more complete the records are, the more likely they are to reveal young marriages. Modern historians have sometimes shown reluctance to accept evidence of young ages of marriage, dismissing it as a 'misreading' by a later copier of the records.\n\nIn the 12th century, Gratian, the influential founder of canon law in medieval Europe, accepted age of puberty for marriage to be around 12 (girls) and around 14 (boys) but acknowledged consent to be meaningful if the children were older than 7. There were authorities that said that consent could take place earlier. Marriage would then be valid as long as neither of the two parties annulled the marital agreement before reaching puberty, or if they had already consummated the marriage. Judges sometimes honored marriages based on mutual consent at ages younger than 7: in contrast to established canon, there are recorded marriages of 2 and 3 year olds.\n\nThe first ''recorded'' age-of-consent law dates from 1275 in England; as part of its provisions on rape, the Statute of Westminster 1275 made it a misdemeanor to \"ravish\" a \"maiden within age,\" whether with or without her consent. The phrase \"within age\" was later interpreted by jurist Sir Edward Coke as meaning the age of marriage, which at the time was 12 years of age.\n\nThe American colonies followed the English tradition, and the law was more of a guide. For example, Mary Hathaway (Virginia, 1689) was only 9 when she was married to William Williams. Sir Edward Coke (England, 17th century) \"made it clear that the marriage of girls under 12 was normal, and the age at which a girl who was a wife was eligible for a dower from her husband's estate was 9 even though her husband be only four years old.\"\n\nIn the 16th century, a small number of Italian and German states set the minimum age for sexual intercourse for girls, setting it at 12 years. Towards the end of the 18th century, other European countries also began to enact similar laws. The first French Constitution of 1791 established the minimum age at 11 years. Portugal, Spain, Denmark and the Swiss cantons initially set the minimum age at 10–12 years.\n\nAge of consent laws were, historically, difficult to follow and enforce: legal norms based on ''age'' were not, in general, common until the 19th century, because clear proof of exact age and precise date of birth were often unavailable.\n\nIn Christian societies, sex outside marriage was forbidden. Older children were often punished themselves for being complicit in sexual interaction with an adult. Until the late 18th century, there was little understanding of childhood as a concept, and children were seen as \"little adults\". Indeed, prior to the 12th century, there was virtually no notion of childhood at all. Western Christianity also deemed that children were born into the original sin, and, as such, were perceived as inherently immoral. Children had very few rights and were considered the chattel of the father. From the late 18th century, and especially in the 19th century, attitudes started to change. By the mid-19th century there was increased concern over child sexual abuse.\n\n===Reforms in the 19th and 20th century===\nA general shift in social and legal attitudes toward issues of sex occurred during the modern era. Attitudes on the appropriate age of permission for females to engage in sexual activity drifted toward adulthood. While ages from 10 to 13 were typically regarded as acceptable ages for sexual consent in Western countries during the mid-19th century, by the end of the 19th century changing attitudes towards sexuality and childhood resulted in the raising of the age of consent.\n\nSeveral articles written by investigative journalist William Thomas Stead in the late 19th century on the issue of child prostitution in London led to public outrage and ultimately to the raising of the age of consent to 16.\n\nThe English common law had traditionally set the age of consent within the range of 10 to 12, but in 1875 the age was raised to 13. Early feminists of the Social Purity movement, such as Josephine Butler and others, instrumental in securing the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts, began to turn towards the problem of child prostitution by the end of the 1870s. Sensational media revelations about the scourge of child prostitution in London in the 1880s then caused outrage among the respectable middle-classes, leading to pressure for the age of consent to be raised again.\n\nThe investigative journalist William Thomas Stead of the ''Pall Mall Gazette'' was pivotal in exposing the problem of child prostitution in the London underworld through a publicity stunt. In 1885 he \"purchased\" one victim, Eliza Armstrong, the 13-year-old daughter of a chimney sweep, for five pounds and took her to a brothel where she was drugged. He then published a series of four exposés entitled ''The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon'', which shocked its readers with tales of child prostitution and the abduction, procurement, and sale of young English virgins to Continental \"pleasure palaces\". The \"Maiden Tribute\" was an instant sensation with the reading public, and Victorian society was thrown into an uproar about prostitution. Fearing riots on a national scale, the Home Secretary, Sir William Harcourt, pleaded in vain with Stead to cease publication of the articles. A wide variety of reform groups held protest meetings and marched together to Hyde Park demanding that the age of consent be raised. The government was forced to propose the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, which raised the age of consent to 16 and clamped down on prostitution.\n\nIn the United States, as late as the 1880s most States set the minimum age at 10–12, (in Delaware it was 7 in 1895). Inspired by the \"Maiden Tribute\" articles, female reformers in the US initiated their own campaign which petitioned legislators to raise the legal minimum age to at least 16, with the ultimate goal to raise the age to 18. The campaign was successful, with almost all states raising the minimum age to 16–18 years by 1920.\n\nIn France, Portugal, Denmark and the Swiss cantons and other countries, the minimum age was raised to between 13 and 16 years in the following decades. Though the original arguments for raising the age of consent were based on morality, since then the ''raison d'être'' of the laws has changed to child welfare and a so-called right to childhood or innocence.\n\nIn France, under the Napoleonic Code the age of consent was set in 1832 at 11, and was raised to 13 in 1863. It was increased to 15 in 1945.\n\nIn Spain, it was set in 1822 at \"puberty age\", and changed to 12 in 1870, which was kept until 1999, when it became 13; and in 2015 it was raised to 16.\n\n===21st century and present day situation===\nIn the 21st century, concerns about child sex tourism and commercial sexual exploitation of children gained international prominence, and have resulted in legislative changes in several jurisdictions, as well as in the adoption of several international instruments.\n\nThe Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (Lanzarote, 25 October 2007), and the European Union's ''Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council'' of 13 December 2011 on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography were adopted.\n\nThe Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography came into force in 2002.\n\nThe Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, which came into force in 2003, prohibits commercial sexual exploitation of children.\n\nThe Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (which came into force in 2008) also deals with commercial sexual exploitation of children.\n\nSeveral Western countries have raised their ages of consent recently. These include Canada (in 2008 - from 14 to 16); and in Europe, Iceland (in 2007 - from 14 to 15), Lithuania (in 2010 - from 14 to 16), Croatia (in 2013 - from 14 to 15), and Spain (in 2015 - from 13 to 16).\n\nThe International Criminal Court Statute does not provide a specific age of consent in its rape/sexual violence statute, but makes reference to sexual acts committed against persons \"''incapable of giving genuine consent''\"; and the explicative footnote states, \"It is understood that a person may be incapable of giving genuine consent if affected by natural, induced or ''age-related incapacity''.\" (see note 51)\n\n===Law===\nAge of consent for heterosexual sex by country:\n 12\n 13\n 14\n 15\n 16\n 17\n 18\n 19\n varies by state/province/region/territory\n must be married\n no data available\nSexual relations with a person under the age of consent is a crime in most countries. Jurisdictions use a variety of terms for the offense, including ''child sexual abuse'', ''statutory rape'', ''illegal carnal knowledge'', ''corruption of a minor'', besides others.\n\nThe enforcement practices of age-of-consent laws vary depending on the social sensibilities of the particular culture (see above). Often, enforcement is not exercised to the letter of the law, with legal action being taken only when a sufficiently socially-unacceptable age gap exists between the two individuals, or if the perpetrator is in a position of power over the minor (e.g., a teacher, minister, or doctor). The sex of each participant can also influence perceptions of an individual's guilt and therefore enforcement.\n\n===Age===\nThe threshold age for engaging in sexual activity varies between jurisdictions (see below). Most jurisdictions have set a fixed age of consent. However, some jurisdictions permit sex with a person after their puberty, such as Yemen, but only in marriage. Ages can also vary based on the type of calendar used, such as the Lunar calendar, how birth dates in leap years are handled, or even the method by which birth date is calculated.\n\n===Defenses and exceptions===\nThe age of consent is a legal barrier to the minor's ability to consent and therefore obtaining consent is not in general a defense to having sexual relations with a person under the prescribed age, for example:\n; Reasonable belief that the victim is over the age of consent: In some jurisdictions it is a defense if the accused can show that he or she reasonably believed the victim was over the age of consent. However, where such a defense is provided, it normally applies only when the victim is close to the age of consent or the accused can show due diligence in determining the age of the victim (e.g. an underage person who used a fake identification document claiming to be of legal age).\n; Marriage: In most jurisdictions, age of consent laws do not apply if the parties are legally married to each other.\n; : Some jurisdictions have laws explicitly allowing sexual acts with minors under the age of consent if their partner is close in age to them. For instance, in Canada, the age of consent is 16, but there are two close-in-age exemptions: sex with minors aged 14–15 is permitted if the partner is less than five years older, and sex with minors aged 12–13 is permitted if the partner is less than two years older. Other countries state that the sexual conduct with the minor is not to be punished if the partners are of a similar age and development: for instance, the age of consent in Finland is 16, but the law states that the act will not be punished if \"there is no great difference in the ages or the mental and physical maturity of the persons involved\". Another approach takes the form of a stipulation that sexual intercourse between a minor and an adult is legal under the condition that the latter does not exceed a certain age. For example, the age of consent in the US state of Delaware is 18, but it is allowed for teenagers aged 16 and 17 to engage in sexual intercourse as long as the older partner is younger than 30. In Slovenia, the age of consent is 15, but the law requires that there be \"a marked discrepancy between the maturity of the perpetrator and that of the victim\".\n; Homosexual and heterosexual age discrepancies: Some jurisdictions, such as the Bahamas, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Chile, Paraguay and Suriname have a higher age of consent for same-sex sexual activity. In both the United Kingdom and Western Australia, for example, the age of consent was originally 21 for same-sex sexual activity between males (with no laws regarding lesbian sexual activities), while it was 16 for heterosexual sexual activity; this is no longer the case. However, such discrepancies are increasingly being challenged. In Canada, the age of consent for anal sex is officially higher at 18 years, compared with 16 years for vaginal and oral sex. In the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Alberta, Ontario and Quebec, this discrepancy has been declared unconstitutional by courts.\n; Gender-age differentials: In some jurisdictions (such as Indonesia), there are different ages of consent for heterosexual sexual activity that are based on the gender of each person. In countries where there are gender-age differentials, the age of consent may be higher for girls—for example in Papua New Guinea, where the age of consent for heterosexual sex is 16 for girls and 14 for boys, or they may be higher for males, such as in Indonesia, where males must be 19 years old and females must be 16 years old. There are also numerous jurisdictions—such as Kuwait and the Palestinian Territories—in which marriage laws govern the gender-age differential. In these jurisdictions, it is illegal to have sexual intercourse outside of marriage so the ''de facto'' age of consent is the marriageable age. In Kuwait, this means that boys must be at least 17 and girls at least 15 years old.\n; Position of authority/trust: In most jurisdictions where the age of consent is below 18 (such as England and Wales), in cases where a person aged 18 or older is in a position of trust over a person under 18, the age of consent usually rises to 18 or higher. Examples of such positions of trust include relationships between teachers and students. For example, in England and Wales the age of consent is 16, but if the person is a student of the older person it becomes 18.\n\n; Circumstances of the relationship: In several jurisdictions, it is illegal to engage in sexual activity with a person under a certain age under certain circumstances regarding the relationship in question, such as if it involves taking advantage of or corrupting the morals of the young person. For example, while the age of consent is 14 in Germany and 16 in Canada, it is illegal in both countries to engage in sexual activity with a person under 18 if the activity exploits the younger person. Another example is in Mexico, where there is a crime called \"estupro\" defined as sexual activity with a person over the age of consent but under a certain age limit (generally 18) in which consent of the younger person was obtained through seduction and/or deceit. In Pennsylvania, the age of consent is officially 16 but if the older partner is 18 or older, he/she may still be prosecuted for corruption of minors if he/she corrupts or tends to corrupt the morals of the younger person.\n\n===Extraterritoriality===\n\nSome countries have age of consent laws which apply not only to acts committed within the country, but also to those committed by its citizens or inhabitants while they are on foreign soil. For example, a federal United States law bans sexual activity by its citizens with foreigners or with U.S. citizens from another state, if the partner is under 18 and the activity is illegal under the federal, state, or local law. This applies in cases where any of the partners travels into or out of the United States, or from one state into another, for the purpose of an illegal sexual encounter.\n", "\n===Gender of participants===\nThere is debate as to whether the gender of those involved should lead to different treatment of the sexual encounter, in law or in practice. Traditionally, age of consent laws regarding vaginal intercourse were often meant to protect the chastity of unmarried girls. Many feminists and social campaigners in the 1970s have objected to the social importance of virginity, and have also attempted to change the stereotypes of female passivity and male aggression; demanding that the law protect children from exploitation regardless of their gender, rather than dealing with concerns of chastity. This has led to gender-neutral laws in many jurisdictions. On the other hand, there is an opposing view which argues that the act of vaginal intercourse is an \"unequal act\" for males and females, due to issues such as pregnancy, increased risk of STDs, and risk of physical injury if the girl is too young and not physically ready. In the US, in ''Michael M. v. Superior Ct.450 U.S. 464 (1981)'' it was ruled that the double standard of offering more legal protection to girls is valid because \"the Equal Protection Clause does not mean that the physiological differences between men and women must be disregarded\".\n\nTraditionally, many age of consent laws dealt primarily with men engaging in sexual acts with underage girls and boys (the latter acts often falling under sodomy and buggery laws). This means that in some legal systems, women having sexual contact with underage youth were rarely acknowledged. For example, until 2000, in the UK, before the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000, there was no statutory age of consent for lesbian sex. In New Zealand, before 2005, there were no age of consent laws dealing with women having sex with underage boys. Previously, in Fiji, male offenders of child sexual abuse could receive up to life imprisonment, whilst female offenders would receive up to seven years. Situations like these have been attributed to societal views on traditional gender roles, and to constructs of male sexuality and female sexuality; according to E Martellozzo, \"Viewing females as perpetrators of sexual abuse goes against every stereotype that society has of women: women as mothers and caregivers and not as people who abuse and harm\". Alissa Nutting argues that women are not acknowledged as perpetrators of sex crimes because society does not accept that women have an autonomous sexuality of their own.\n\n===Marriage and the age of consent===\n\nThe age at which a person can be legally married can differ from the age of consent. In jurisdictions where the marriageable age is lower than the age of consent, those laws usually override the age of consent laws in the case of a married couple where one or both partners are below the age of consent. Some jurisdictions prohibit all sex outside of marriage irrespective of age, as in the case of Yemen.\n\n===Prostitution===\n\nIn many countries, there are specific laws dealing with child prostitution.\n\n===Pornography and 'jailbait' images===\n\n\nIn some countries, states, or other jurisdictions, the age of consent may be lower than the age at which a person can appear in pornographic images and films. In many jurisdictions, the minimum age for participation and even viewing such material is 18. As such, in some jurisdictions, films and images showing individuals under the age of 18, but above the age of consent, that meet the legal definition of child pornography are prohibited despite the fact that the sexual acts depicted are legal to engage in otherwise under that jurisdiction's age of consent laws. In those cases, it is only the filming of the sex act that is the crime as the act itself would not be considered a sex crime. For example, in the United States under federal law it is a crime to film minors below 18 in sexual acts, even in states where the age of consent is below 18. In those states, charges such as child pornography can be used to prosecute someone having sex with a minor, who could not be otherwise be prosecuted for statutory rape, provided they filmed or photographed the act.\n\nJailbait images can be differentiated from child pornography, as they do not feature minors before the onset of puberty, nor do they contain nudity. The images are, however, usually sexualized, often featuring tween or young teen girls in bikinis, skirts, underwear or lingerie. Whether or not these images are legal is debated. When questioned regarding their legality legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin stated he thought it was not illegal, though legal expert Sunny Hostin was more skeptical, describing jailbait images as \"borderline\" child pornography which may be illegal.\n\n===Health===\n\nThe human immune system continues to develop after puberty. The age of exposure has an influence upon if the immune system can fend off infections in general, and this is also true in the case of some sexually transmitted diseases. For example, a risk factor for HPV strains causing genital warts is sexual debut at a young age; if this extends to the cancer causing strains, then sexual debut at a young age would potentially also increase risk of persistence of HPV infections that cause the very HPV induced cancers that are being diagnosed in spiking numbers of relatively young people.\n", "\nAge-of-consent reform refers to the efforts of some individuals or groups, for different reasons, to alter or abolish age-of-consent laws. These efforts advocate five main positions:\n* Introductions of close-in-age exceptions.\n* A change in the way that age-of-consent laws are examined in court.\n* Either increases in the ages of consent or more severe penalties or both.\n* Either decreases in the ages of consent or less severe penalties or both.\n* Abolition of the age-of-consent laws either permanently or as a temporary, practical expedient.\n", "\nSpecific jurisdictions' laws relating to age of consent can be found, organized by region, on the following pages:\n\nAges of consent in Africa\nAges of consent in Asia\nAges of consent in Europe\nAges of consent in North America\n*Ages of consent in the United States\nAges of consent in Oceania\nAges of consent in South America\n", "\n\n Age of majority\n* Adult film industry regulations\n* Age of Consent Act, 1891 (British India)\n* Age disparity in sexual relationships\n* Age of accountability\n* Age of consent reform (UK)\n* Age of reason (canon law)\n* Child sexual abuse\n* Comprehensive sex education\n* Convention on the Rights of the Child\n* Emancipation of minors\n* Fitness to plead, ''law of England and Wales''\n* French petition against age of consent laws\n* Legal age\n* Mature minor doctrine\n* Minors and abortion\n* Sexual Morality and the Law\n* Sex-positive movement\n* Sodomy law\n* ''The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon''\nYouth\nYouth suffrage\nYouth rights\nAge of candidacy\n\n", "\n", "* Brewer, Holly. ''By Birth or Consent: Children, Law, & the Anglo-American Revolution in Authority''; Univ. of North Carolina Press (Chapel Hill, 2005) \n* Robertson, Stephen (University of Sydney). \" Age of Consent Laws.\" In: ''Children & Youth in History'', Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media (CHNM) at George Mason University and the University of Missouri–Kansas City. - Includes links to primary sources.\n* Waites, Matthew (2005). ''The Age of Consent: Young People, Sexuality and Citizenship'', (New York United States and Houndmills, Basingstoke United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan) \n* \n", "* Legislation of Interpol member states on sexual offenses against children (Some information may be out of date)\n* Links to the relevant state laws for all 50 States and Washington DC\n* Avert.org list\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History and social attitudes", "Other issues", "Initiatives to change the age of consent", "By country or region", "See also", "References", " Further reading ", "External links" ]	Age of consent
[ "'''Alypius of Antioch''' was a geographer and a vicarius of Roman Britain, probably in the late 350s AD. He replaced Flavius Martinus after that vicarius' suicide. His rule is recorded is Ammianus XXIII 1, 3.\n", "He came from Antioch and served under Constantius II and was probably appointed to ensure that nobody with western associations was serving in Britain during a time of mistrust, rebellion and suppression symbolised by the brutal acts of the imperial notary Paulus Catena. He may have had to deal with the insurrection of the usurper named Carausius II.\n\nAlypius was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem as part of Julian's systematic attempt to reverse the Christianization of the Roman Empire by restoring pagan and, in this case, Jewish practices. Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to Alypius; one inviting him to Rome, the other thanking him for a geographical treatise, which no longer exists.\n", "\n", "Todd, M., ''Roman Britain'', Fontana, London 1985\nSalway, P., ''Roman Britain'', Oxford, 1986\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "References", "Sources" ]	Alypius of Antioch
[ "\n\n'''Amalasuntha''' (also known as '''Amalasuentha''', '''Amalaswintha''', '''Amalasuintha''', '''Amalswinthe''' or '''Amalasontha''') (30 April 534/535) was a regent of the Ostrogoths from 526 to 534. She was the youngest daughter of Theoderic the Great, and firmly believed in the upholding of Roman virtues and values. She is best known for her diplomatic relationship with Justinian I, who would invade Italy in response to her assassination.\n", "In 515, Amalasuntha married Eutharic (522), an Ostrogoth noble of the old Amali dynasty who had been previously living in the Arian Kingdom of Hispania. Her husband was the son of Widerich (born ), grandson of Berismund (born ), and great-grandson of Thorismund (died after 400), king of the Ostrogoths . It was important to Amalasuntha's father, Theoderic the Great, that she marry into a legitimate royal family, lest her own family's legitimacy be questioned.\n\nShe was very much an intellectual, and was well known for her extensive knowledge, which included the study of three languages, Latin, Greek and Gothic. In addition, she was a student of philosophy and was said to possess the wisdom of Solomon. Amalasuntha was also described in her day as possessing all of the central Roman virtues expected of a noble woman: Happiness, fertility, and patience, although more emphasis was placed on her virtues within the political realm versus the feminine, something that separates her from other Ostrogoth princesses.\n\n===Regent===\nHer husband died, apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with two children, Athalaric and Matasuntha (after 550), wife of Germanus. On the death of her father on 28 August 526, her son succeeded him at the age of ten, but she held the power as regent for her son. Her tremendous influence in her position as regent can be seen in a diptych she appears in alongside her son, Athalaric, in 530. Deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects. Conscious of her unpopularity she banished — and afterwards put to death — three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of conspiring against her rule. At the same time, she opened negotiations with the Byzantine emperor Justinian I with the view of removing herself and the Gothic treasure to Constantinople. Her son's death in 534 made little change in the posture of affairs.\n\n=== Monarch ===\nAfter Athalaric's death, Amalasuntha became queen, ruling independently only for a short while before making her cousin Theodahad partner of her throne (not, as sometimes stated, her husband, for his wife was still living), with the intent of strengthening her position. Theodahad was a prominent leader of the Gothic military aristocracy, the very group that so opposed her pro-Roman stances. Amalasuntha believed this pairing would help to make supporters out of her harshest critics. The choice was unfortunate, for Theodahad fostered the disaffection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his permission, Amalasuntha was imprisoned in the island of Martana in the Tuscan lake of Bolsena, where on 30 April in the spring of 534/535 she was murdered in her bath.\n\n===Death===\n\nThe death of Amalasuntha would give Justinian a reason to go to war with the Ostrogoths and attempt to take Italy. According to the Eastern Roman historian Procopius, it is believed that Amalasuntha and Justinian I had a very close diplomatic relationship. More specifically, Procopius believed that Amalasuntha was thinking about handing over Italy to Justinian around the time of her death. Shortly after Amalasuntha's murder, Theodahad was replaced by Witigis, Amalasuntha's son-in-law. With the people's support, Witigis had Theodahad put to death.\n", "The letters of Cassiodorus, chief minister and literary adviser of Amalasuntha, and the histories of Procopius and Jordanes, give us our chief information as to the character of Amalasuntha. Cassiodorus was a part of a greater pro-Roman party that desired to Romanize the traditional Ostrogothic kingship, further evidence of the pro-Roman circle that Amalasuntha surrounded herself with.\n", "The life of Amalasuntha was made the subject of a tragedy, the first play written by the young Carlo Goldoni and presented at Milan in 1733.\n", "Asteroid 650 Amalasuntha is named in her honour.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Life ", " Sources ", "Fiction", "Legacy", " References " ]	Amalasuntha
[ "\n'''Amalric of Bena''' (; ; died 1204–1207 AD) was a French theologian and sect leader, after whom the Amalricians are named.\n", "Amalric was born in the latter part of the 12th century at Bennes, a village between Ollé and Chauffours in the diocese of Chartres.\n\nAmalric taught philosophy and theology at the University of Paris and enjoyed a great reputation as a subtle dialectician; his lectures developing the philosophy of Aristotle attracted a large circle of hearers. In 1204 his doctrines were condemned by the university, and, on a personal appeal to Pope Innocent III, the sentence was ratified, Amalric being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors.\n\nHis death was caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to which he had been subjected.\nIn 1209 ten of his followers were burnt before the gates of Paris, and Amalric's own body was exhumed and burnt and the ashes given to the winds. The doctrines of his followers, known as the Amalricians, were formally condemned by the fourth Lateran Council in 1215.\n", "Amalric appears to have derived his philosophical system from Eriugena, whose principles he developed in a one-sided and strongly pantheistic form.\n\nThree propositions only can with certainty be attributed to him:\n#that God is all (''omnia sunt deus'') and thus all things are one because whatever is, is God (''omnia unum, quia quidquid est, est Deus'');\n#that every Christian is bound to believe that he is a member of the body of Christ, and that this belief is necessary for salvation;\n#that he who remains in love of God can commit no sin.\n\nBecause of the first proposition, God himself is thought as invisible and only recognizable in his creation.\n\nThese three propositions were further developed by his followers, who maintained that God revealed Himself in a threefold revelation, the first in the Biblical patriarch Abraham, marking the ''epoch of the Father''; the second in Jesus Christ, who began the ''epoch of the Son''; and the third in Amalric and his disciples, who inaugurated the ''era of the Holy Ghost.''\n\nAmalricians taught:\nHell is ignorance, therefore Hell is within all men, \"like a bad tooth in a mouth\";\nGod is identical with all that is, even evil belongs to God and proves God's omnipotence;\nA man who knows that God works through everything cannot sin, because every human act is then the act of God;\nA man who recognizes the truth that God works through everything is already in Heaven and this is the only resurrection. There is no other life; man's fulfilment is in this life alone.\n\nDue to persecutions, this sect does not appear to have long survived the death of its founder. Not long after the burning of ten of their members (1210), the sect itself lost its importance, while some of the surviving Amalricians became Brethren of the Free Spirit.\n\nAccording to Hosea Ballou, then Pierre Batiffol and George T. Knight (1914) Amalric was a believer that all people would eventually be saved and this was one of the counts upon which he was declared a heretic by Pope Innocent III.\n", "Brethren of the Free Spirit\n", "\n'''Attribution:'''\n This cites:\n W. Preger, ''Geschichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter'' (Leipzig, 1874, i. 167-173)\n Hauréau, ''Histoire de la phil. scol.'' (Paris, 1872)\n C. Schmidt, ''Histoire de l'Église d'Occident pendant le moyen âge'' (Paris, 1885)\n Hefele, ''Conciliengeschichte'' (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1886)\n", "* Christoph Ulrich Hahn: ''Geschichte der Ketzer im Mittelalter'', Vol. 3 (Stuttgart, 1850)\n* Arno Borst: ''Religiöse und geistige Bewegungen im Hochmittelalter'', Propyläen Weltgeschichte, Ullstein 1963, Vol. 5, p. 537\n* Friedrich Heer ''Medieval World Europe 1100-1350''\n* Capelle, G. C., ''Amaury de Bène, étude sur son panthéisme formel'' (Paris, 1932).\n* Russell, J. B., ''The Influence of Amalric of Bene in Thirteenth Century Pantheism'' (Berkeley, 1957).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Propositions", "See also", "References", "Sources" ]	Amalric of Bena
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Afonso I''' (1106/ 25 July 1109 /11116 December 1185), nicknamed \"the Conqueror\" (), \"the Founder\" () or \"the Great\" () by the Portuguese, and ''El-Bortukali'' in Arabic البرتقالي (\"the Portuguese\") and ''Ibn-Arrink'' in Arabic ابن الرَّنك or ابن الرَنْق (\"son of Henry\", \"Henriques\") by the Moors whom he fought, was the first King of Portugal. He achieved the independence of the southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia, the County of Portugal, from Galicia's overlord, the King of León, in 1139, establishing a new kingdom and doubling its area with the ''Reconquista'', an objective that he pursued until his death, in 1185, after forty-six years of wars against the Moors.\n", "Afonso was the son of Henry of Burgundy and Theresa, the natural daughter of King Alfonso VI of León and Castile. According to Fernão Lopes' ''Crónica de Portugal de 1419,'' the future Portuguese king was born in Guimarães, which was at the time the most important political center of his parents. This was accepted by most Portuguese scholarship until Torquato de Sousa Soares proposed in 1990 Coimbra, the center of the county of Coimbra and another political center of Afonso's progenitors, as his birthplace, which caused a huge outrage in Guimarães and a polemic between this historian and José Hermano Saraiva. Almeida Fernandes later proposed Viseu as the birth place of Afonso basing himself on the ''Chronica Gothorum'', which states Afonso was born in 1109, a position followed by José Mattoso in his biography of the king. Abel Estefânio has suggested a different date and thesis, proposing 1106 as the birth date and the region of Tierra de Campos or even Sahagún as likely birth places based on the known itineraries of counts Henry and Teresa. \n\nThe pair reigned jointly as count and countess of Portugal until Henry's death on 22 May 1112 during the siege of Astorga, after which Theresa reigned alone.\n\nIt is not known who was the tutor of Afonso. Later traditions, probably started with João Soares Coelho (a bastard descendant of Egas Moniz through a female line) in the mid-13th century and ampliated by later chronicles such as the ''Crónica de Portugal de 1419'', asserted he had been Egas Moniz de Ribadouro, possibly with the help of oral memories that associated the tutor to the house of Ribadouto. Yet, contemporary documents, namely from the chancery of Afonso in his early years as count of Portucale, indicate according to José Mattoso that the most likely tutor of Afonso Henriques was Egas Moniz's oldest brother, Ermígio Moniz, who, besides being the senior brother within the family of Ribadouro, became the \"dapifer\" and \"majordomus\" of Afonso I from 1128 until his death in 1135, which indicates his closer proximity to the prince.\n\nIn an effort to pursue a larger share in the Leonese inheritance, his mother Theresa joined forces with Fernando Pérez de Trava, the most powerful count in Galicia. The Portuguese nobility disliked the alliance between Galicia and Portugal and rallied around Afonso. The Archbishop of Braga was also concerned with the dominance of Galicia, apprehensive of the ecclesiastical pretensions of his new rival the Galician Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, Diego Gelmírez, who had claimed an alleged discovery of relics of Saint James in his town, as a way to gain power and riches over the other cathedrals in the Iberian Peninsula. In 1122, Afonso turned fourteen, the adult age in the 12th century. He made himself a knight on his own account in the Cathedral of Zamora in 1125, with the permission of her mother and her husband. After the military campaign of Alfonso VII against his mother in 1127, Afonso revolted against her and proceeded to take control of the county from its queen.\n", "In 1128, near Guimarães, at the Battle of São Mamede Afonso and his supporters overcame troops under his Count Fernando Peres de Trava of Galicia. Afonso exiled his mother to Galicia, and took over rule of the County of Portucale. Thus the possibility of re-incorporating Portugal (up to then known as Southern Galicia) into a Kingdom of Portugal and Galicia as before was eliminated and Afonso became sole ruler following demands for independence from the county's church and nobles. He also vanquished his mother's nephew, Alfonso VII of León, who came to her rescue, and thus freed the country from political dependence on the crown of his cousin of León. On 6 April 1129, Afonso Henriques dictated the writ in which he proclaimed himself Prince of Portugal.\n\nAfonso then turned his arms against the persistent problem of the Moors in the south. His campaigns were successful and, on 25 July 1139, he obtained an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Ourique, and straight after was possibly unanimously proclaimed King of the Portuguese by his soldiers, establishing his equality in rank to the other realms of the Peninsula, although the first reference to his royal title dates from 1140. The first assembly of the Portuguese Cortes convened at Lamego (wherein he would have been given the crown from the Archbishop of Braga, to confirm his independence) is a 17th-century embellishment of Portuguese history.\n", "Independence from Alfonso VII of León's suzerainty, however, was not a thing he just could achieve militarily. The County of Portugal still had to be acknowledged diplomatically by the neighboring lands as a kingdom and, most importantly, by the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope. Afonso wed Mafalda of Savoy, daughter of Amadeus III, Count of Savoy, and sent ambassadors to Rome to negotiate with the Pope. He succeeded in renouncing the suzerainty of his cousin, Alfonso VII of León, becoming instead a vassal of the papacy, as the kings of Sicily and Aragon had done before him. In 1179 the bull ''Manifestis Probatum'' accepted the new king as vassal to the pope exclusively.\nKing Afonso I at the Siege of Lisbon.\nIn Portugal he built several monasteries and convents and bestowed important privileges to religious orders. He is notably the builder of Alcobaça Monastery, to which he called the Cistercian Order of his uncle Bernard of Clairvaux of Burgundy. In 1143, he wrote to Pope Innocent II to declare himself and the kingdom servants of the church, swearing to pursue driving the Moors out of the Iberian Peninsula. Bypassing any king of León, Afonso declared himself the direct liege man of the papacy. Afonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested Santarém (see Conquest of Santarém) and Lisbon in 1147 (see Siege of Lisbon). He also conquered an important part of the land south of the Tagus River, although this was lost again to the Moors in the following years.\n\nMeanwhile, King Alfonso VII of León (Afonso's cousin) regarded the independent ruler of Portugal as nothing but a rebel. Conflict between the two was constant and bitter in the following years. Afonso became involved in a war, taking the side of the Aragonese king, an enemy of Castile. To ensure the alliance, his son Sancho was engaged to Dulce, sister of the Count of Barcelona and Infanta of Aragon. Finally after winning the Battle of Valdevez, the Treaty of Zamora (1143) established peace between the cousins and the recognition by the Kingdom of León that Portugal was a sovereign kingdom.\n\nIn 1169 the now old Dom Afonso was possibly disabled in an engagement near Badajoz by a fall from his horse, and made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of León Fernando II also his son-in-law. From this time onward, the Portuguese king never rode a horse again, but it is not certain this was because of the disability: according to the later Portuguese chronistic tradition, this happened because Afonso would have to surrender himself again to Fernando II of León or risk war between the two kingdoms if he rode a horse. Portugal was obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests Afonso had made in Galicia (north of the Minho River) in the previous years.\nAfonso at the Battle of Ourique.\nIn 1179 the privileges and favours given to the Roman Catholic Church were compensated. In the papal bull '' Manifestis Probatum'', Pope Alexander III acknowledged Afonso as king and Portugal as an independent crown with the right to conquer lands from the Moors. With this papal blessing, Portugal was at last secured as a kingdom.\n\nIn 1184, the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf rallied a great Almohad force to retaliate against the Portuguese raids done since the end of a five year truce in 1178 and besieged Santarém, which was defended by the heir Sancho. The Almohad siege failed when news arrived the archbishop of Compostela had come to the defense of the city and Fernando II of León himself with his army. The Almohads ended the siege and their retreat turned into a rout due to panic in their camp, with the Almohad caliph being injured in the process (according to one version, because of a crossbow bolt) and dying on the way back to Seville. Afonso died shortly after, probably out of a sudden cause of death, on 6 December 1185. The Portuguese revere him as a hero, both on account of his personal character and as the founder of their nation. There are mythical stories that it took 10 men to carry his sword, and that Afonso wanted to engage other monarchs in personal combat, but no one would dare accept his challenge.\n", "Santa Cruz Monastery in Coimbra.\nIn July 2006, the tomb of the king (which is located in the Santa Cruz Monastery in Coimbra) was to be opened for scientific purposes by researchers from the University of Coimbra (Portugal) and the University of Granada (Spain). The opening of the tomb provoked considerable concern among some sectors of Portuguese society and IPPAR – ''Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico'' (Portuguese State Agency for Architectural Patrimony). The government halted the opening, requesting more protocols from the scientific team because of the importance of the king in the nation's formation.\n", "These are the known ancestors of Afonso Henriques, going back five generations.\n\n\n\n\n", "In 1146, Afonso married Mafalda, daughter of Amadeus III, Count of Savoy and Mahaut of Albon, both appearing together for the first time in May of that year confirming royal charters. They had the following issue:\n\n* Henry (5 March 11471155), named after his paternal grandfather, Henry, Count of Portugal, he died when he was only eight years old. Despite being just a child he represented his father at a council in Toledo at the age of three;\n* Urraca (11481211), married King Ferdinand II of León and was the mother of King Alfonso IX. The marriage was subsequently annulled in 1171 or 1172 and she retired in Zamora, one of the villas that she had received as part of her ''arras'', and later at the Monastery of Santa María in Wamba, Valladolid where she was buried.;\n* Theresa (11511218), Countess consort of Flanders due to her marriage to Philip I and Duchess consort of Burgundy through her second marriage to Odo III;\n* Mafalda(1153after 1162). In January 1160, her father and Ramón Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, negotiated the marriage of Mafalda to Alfonso, future King Alfonso II of Aragon who at that time was three or four years old. After the death of Ramón Berenguer IV in the summer of 1162, King Ferdinand II of León convinced his widow, Queen Petronilla, to cancel the infante's wedding plans with Mafalda and for Alfonso to marry instead Sancha, daughter of Alfonso VII of León and his second wife Queen Richeza of Poland. Mafalda died in her childhood at an unrecorded date.\n* Sancho, the future King Sancho I of Portugal (11 November 115426 March 1211). He was baptised with the name of Martin for having been born on the saint's feast day.;\n* John (1156–25 August 1164); and\n* Sancha (115714 February 1166/67), born ten days before the death of her mother, Sancha died before reaching the age of ten on the 14th of February according to the death registry at the Monastery of Santa Cruz (Coimbra) where she was buried.\n\nBefore his marriage to Mafalda, King Afonso fathered his first male son with Chamoa Gómez, daughter of Count Gómez Núñez and Elvira Pérez, sister of Fernando and Bermudo Pérez de Traba:\n\n* Afonso (11401207). Born around 1140, according to recent investigations, he is the same person as the one often called '''Fernando Afonso''' who was the ''alferes-mor'' of the king and later Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller. His presence in the court is first recorded in 1159. In 1169 he succeeded as alferes-mor his half-brother, Pedro Pais da Maia, the legitimate son of his mother and Paio Soares da Maia.\n\nThe extramarital offspring by Elvira Gálter were:\n* Urraca Afonso. In 1185, her father gave her Avô, stipulating that this villa was to be inherited only by the children that she had with her husband Pedro Afonso de Ribadouro (also known as Pedro Afonso Viegas), grandson of Egas Moniz, which could indicate another previous or subsequent marriage. In 1187, she exchanged with her half-brother, King Sancho, this villa for Aveiro. She died after 1216, the year she made a donation to the Monastery of Tarouca. \n* Teresa Afonso. In some genealogies she appears as the daughter of Elvira Gálter, and in others as the daughter of Chamoa Gómez. Her first marriage was with Sancho Nunes de Barbosa with whom she had a daughter, Urraca Sanches, who married Gonçalo Mendes de Sousa, the father of Mendo Gonçalves de Sousa known as \"Sousaõ\". Her second husband was Fernando Martins Bravo, Lord of Bragança and Chaves, with no issue from this marriage.\n\nKing Afonso was also the father of:\n* Pedro Afonso (died after 1183), Lord of Arega and Pedrógão, mayor of Abrantes in 1179, ''alferes'' of King Afonso I between 1181 and 1183, and Master of the Order of Aviz.\n", "\nPortugal\nGallaecia\nGalicia\nHistory of Portugal\nTimeline of Portuguese history\n", "\n", "\n", "\n \n* \n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "From birth to rebellion: Afonso's youth", " Sole count ", " Kingship ", "Scientific research", "Ancestors", "Descendants", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Afonso I of Portugal
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Afonso II''' (; English: ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' (Portuguese-Galician) or ''Alphonsus'' (Latin version), nicknamed \"the Fat\" (Portuguese ''o Gordo''), King of Portugal, was born in Coimbra on 23 April 1185 and died on 25 March 1223 in the same city. He was the second but eldest surviving son of Sancho I of Portugal by his wife, Dulce, ''Infanta'' of Aragon. Afonso succeeded his father on 27 March 1211.\n", "A 17th century depiction of Afonso.\nAs a king, Afonso II set a different approach of government. Hitherto, his father Sancho I and his grandfather Afonso I were mostly concerned with military issues either against the neighbouring Kingdom of Castile or against the Moorish lands in the south. Afonso did not pursue territory enlargement policies and managed to insure peace with Castile during his reign. Despite this, some towns, like Alcácer do Sal in 1217, were conquered from the Moors by the private initiative of noblemen. This does not mean that he was a weak or somehow cowardly man. The first years of his reign were marked instead by internal disturbances between Afonso and his brothers and sisters. The king managed to keep security within Portuguese borders only by outlawing and exiling his kin.\n\nSince military issues were not a government priority, Afonso established the state's administration and centralized power on himself. He designed the first set of Portuguese written laws. These were mainly concerned with private property, civil justice, and minting. Afonso also sent ambassadors to European kingdoms outside the Iberian Peninsula and began amicable commercial relations with most of them.\n\nOther reforms included the always delicate matters with the pope. In order to get the independence of Portugal recognized by Rome, his grandfather, Afonso I, had to legislate an enormous number of privileges to the Church. These eventually created a state within the state. With Portugal's position as a country firmly established, Afonso II endeavoured to weaken the power of the clergy and to apply a portion of the enormous revenues of the Roman Catholic Church to purposes of national utility. These actions led to a serious diplomatic conflict between the pope and Portugal. After being excommunicated for his audacities by Pope Honorius III, Afonso II promised to make amends to the church, but he died in Coimbra on 25 March 1223 before making any serious attempts to do so.\n\nKing Afonso was buried originally at the Monastery of Santa Cruz in Coimbra where his body remained for nearly ten years. His remains were transferred subsequently to Alcobaça Monastery, as he had stipulated in his will. He and his wife, Queen Urraca, were buried at its Royal Pantheon.\n", "\n\n\n", "In 1206, he married his fourth cousin Infanta Urraca of Castile, daughter of Alfonso VIII of Castile and Eleanor of England, both being descendants of King Alfonso VI of León. The offspring of this marriage were:\n\n* Infante Sancho (8 September 12074 January 1248), succeeded his father as Sancho II, 4th King of Portugal; \n* Infante Afonso (5 May 121016 February 1279), succeeded his brother Sancho as Afonso III, 5th King of Portugal;\n* Infanta Leonor (Eleanor) (1211–1231). Married Valdemar III of Denmark, son of Valdemar II of Denmark and Margaret of Bohemia, daughter of Ottokar I of Bohemia;\n* Infante Fernando (1218–1246), Lord of Serpa and married to Sancha Fernández de Lara with whom he had no issue. He was the father of an illegitimate son, Sancho Fernandes, prior of Santo Estêvão of Alfama.\n\nOut of wedlock, he had two illegitimate sons:\n* João Afonso (d. 9 October 1234), buried in the Alcobaça monastery;\n* Pedro Afonso (d. after 1249). Accompanied his brother King Afonso in the conquest of Faro in 1249. He had an illegitimate daughter named Constança Peres. \n", "\n", "\n\n \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Reign", "Ancestry", "Marriage and descendants", "References", "Bibliography" ]	Afonso II of Portugal
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Afonso III''' (; rare English alternatives: ''Alphonzo'' or ''Alphonse''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' (Portuguese-Galician) or ''Alphonsus'' (Latin), the ''Bolognian'' (Port. ''o Bolonhês''), King of Portugal (5 May 121016 February 1279) was the first to use the title ''King of Portugal and the Algarve'', from 1249. He was the second son of King Afonso II of Portugal and his wife, Urraca of Castile; he succeeded his brother, King Sancho II of Portugal, who died on 4 January 1248.\n", "Afonso was born in Coimbra. As the second son of King Afonso II of Portugal, he was not expected to inherit the throne, which was destined to go to his elder brother Sancho.\n\nHe lived mostly in France, where he married Matilda, the heiress of Boulogne, in 1238, thereby becoming Count of Boulogne, Mortain, Aumale and Dammartin-en-Goële ''jure uxoris''.\n", "Afonso III of Portugal\nPortrait of D. Afonso III as king of Portugal\nIn 1246, conflicts between his brother, the king, and the church became unbearable. In 1247, Pope Innocent IV ordered Sancho II to be removed from the throne and to be replaced by the Count of Boulogne. Afonso, of course, did not refuse the papal order and consequently marched to Portugal. Since Sancho was not a popular king and the order was not hard to enforce, he fled in exile to Toledo, Castile, where he died on 4 January 1248. Until his brother's death and his own eventual coronation, Afonso retained and used the title of ''Visitador, Curador e Defensor do Reino'' (Overseer, Curator and Defender of the Kingdom).\n\nIn order to ascend the throne Afonso abdicated his rights to the county of Boulogne in 1248. In 1253, he divorced Matilde in order to marry Beatrice of Castile, illegitimate daughter of Alfonso X, King of Castile, and Mayor Guillén de Guzmán.\n\nDetermined not to make the same mistakes as his brother, Afonso III paid special attention to what the middle class, composed of merchants and small land owners, had to say. In 1254, in the city of Leiria, he held the first session of the ''Cortes'', a general assembly comprising the nobility, the middle class and representatives of all municipalities. He also made laws intended to restrain the upper classes from abusing the least favored part of the population. Remembered as a notable administrator, Afonso III founded several towns, granted the title of city to many others and reorganized public administration.\n\nAfonso showed extraordinary vision for the time. Progressive measures taken during his kingship include: representatives of the commons, besides the nobility and clergy, were involved in governance; the end of preventive arrests such that henceforward all arrests had to be first presented to a judge to determine the detention measure; and fiscal innovation, such as negotiating extraordinary taxes with the mercantile classes and direct taxation of the Church, rather than debasement of the coinage. These may have led to his excommunication by the holy see and possibly precipitated his death, and his son Denis's premature rise to the throne at only 18 years old.\n\nSecure on the throne, Afonso III then proceeded to make war with the Muslim communities that still thrived in the south. In his reign the Algarve became part of the kingdom, following the capture of Faro.\n\n===Final years and death===\nFollowing his success against the Moors, Afonso III had to deal with a political situation concerning the country's borders with Castile. The neighbouring kingdom considered that the newly acquired lands of the Algarve should be Castilian, not Portuguese, which led to a series of wars between the two kingdoms. Finally, in 1267, the Treaty of Badajoz (1267) was signed in Badajoz, determining that the southern border between Castile and Portugal should be the River Guadiana, as it is today.\n\nAfonso died in Alcobaça, Coimbra or Lisbon, aged 68.\n", "Afonso's first wife was Matilda II, Countess of Boulogne, daughter of Renaud, Count of Dammartin, and Ida, Countess of Boulogne. They had no surviving children. He divorced Matilda in 1253 and, in the same year, married Beatrice of Castile, illegitimate daughter of Alfonso X, King of Castile, and Mayor Guillén de Guzmán.\n\n\n\nName!!Birth!!Death!!Notes\n\n'''By Matilda II of Boulogne''' (–1262; married in 1239)\n\n'''By Beatrice of Castile''' (1242–1303; married in 1253)\n\nBlanche\n 25 February 1259\n 17 April 1321\nLady of Las Huelgas\n\n Fernando (Ferdinand)\n1260\n1262\n \n\nDinis (Denis)\n 9 October 1261\n 7 January 1325\nSucceeded him as Denis, 6th King of Portugal. Married Infanta Isabel of Aragon.\n\nAfonso\n 8 February 1263\n 2 November 1312\nLord of Portalegre. Married to Violante Manuel of Castile (daughter of Manuel of Castile).\n\nSancha\n 2 February 1264\n\n \n\nMaria\n 21 November 1264\n 6 June 1304\nNun in the Convent of Saint John in Coimbra.\n\nConstança (Constance)\n1266\n1271\n \n\nVicente (Vincent)\n1268\n1271\n \n\n'''By Madragana (Mor Afonso)''' (-?)\n\nMartim Afonso Chichorro\n\na. 1313\nNatural son; Married Inês Lourenço de Valadres.\n\nUrraca Afonso\n\n?\nNatural daughter; Married twice: 1st to D. Pedro Anes de Riba Vizela, 2nd to João Mendes de Briteiros\n\n'''By Maria Peres de Enxara''' (?-?)\n\nAfonso Dinis\n\na. 1310\nNatural son; Married to D. Maria Pais Ribeira, Lady of the House of Sousa.\n\n'''Other natural offspring'''\n\nLeonor Afonso\n\n1291\nNatural daughter. Married twice: 1st to D. Estevão Anes de Sousa (without issue), 2nd to D. Gonçalo Garcia de Sousa, Count of Neiva (without issue).\n\nGil Afonso\n1250\n 31 December 1346\nNatural son; Knight of the Order of the Hospital.\n\nFernando Afonso\n?\n?\nNatural son; Knight of the Order of the Hospital.\n\nRodrigo Afonso\n1258\nabout 12 May 1272\nNatural son; Prior of the city of Santarém.\n\nLeonor Afonso (nun)\n?\n1259\nNatural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Santa Clara of Santarém.\n\nUrraca Afonso\n1250\n 4 November 1281\nNatural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Lorvão.\n\nHenrique Afonso\n?\n?\nNatural son; Married to Inês (last name unknown).\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Reign", "Marriages and descendants", "References", " Ancestors ", "External links" ]	Afonso III of Portugal
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Afonso IV''' (; 8 February 129128 May 1357), called '''the Brave''' (), was King of Portugal and the Algarves from 1325 until his death. He was the only legitimate son of King Denis of Portugal by his wife Elizabeth of Aragon.\n", "Afonso, born in Lisbon, was the rightful heir to the Portuguese throne. However, he was not Denis' favourite son, the old king preferring his illegitimate son, Afonso Sanches. The notorious rivalry between the half brothers led to civil war several times. On 7 January 1325, Afonso's father died and he became king, whereupon he exiled his rival to Castile, and stripped him of all the lands and fiefdom given by their father. From Castile, Afonso orchestrated a series of attempts to usurp the crown. After a few failed attempts at invasion, the brothers signed a peace treaty, arranged by Afonso's mother Queen Elizabeth.\n\nIn 1309, Afonso IV married Infanta Beatrice of Castile, daughter of King Sancho IV of Castile by his wife María de Molina. The first-born of this union was Infanta Maria of Portugal.\n", "In 1325 Alfonso XI of Castile entered a child-marriage with Constanza Manuel of Castile, the daughter of one of his regents. Two years later, he had the marriage annulled so he could marry Afonso's daughter, Maria of Portugal. Maria became Queen of Castile in 1328 upon her marriage to Alfonso XI, who soon became involved publicly with a mistress. Constanza was imprisoned in a castle in Toro while her father, Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena, waged war against Alfonso XI until 1329. Eventually, the two reached a peaceful accord after mediation by Juan del Campo, Bishop of Oviedo; this secured Constance's release from prison.\n\nThe public humiliation of his daughter led Afonso IV to have his son and heir, Peter, marry the no less aggrieved Castilian infanta, Constanza. Afonso subsequently started a war against Castile, peace arriving four years later, through the intervention of the Infanta Maria herself. A year after the peace treaty was signed in Seville, Portuguese troops played an important role in defeating the Moors at the Battle of Río Salado in October 1340.\n", "Inês on her knees in front of King Afonso\nPolitical intrigue marked the last part of Afonso IV's reign, although Castille was torn by civil war after Alfonso XI died. Henry of Trastámara challenged the new King Pedro of Castile, who sent many Castilian nobles into exile in Portugal. Afonso's heir, Pedro, fell in love with his new wife's lady-in-waiting, Inês de Castro. Inês was the daughter of an important noble family from Galicia, with links (albeit illegitimate) to both the royal houses of Castile and Portugal. Her brothers were aligned with the Trastamara faction, and became favorites of crown prince Pedro, much to the dismay of others at the Portuguese court, who considered them Castilian upstarts. When Constance of Peñafiel died weeks after giving birth to their third child, Pedro began living openly with Inês, recognized all her children as his and repudiated the idea of marrying anyone other than Inês herself. His father refused to go to war again against Castile, hoping his heir's infatuation would end, and tried to arrange another dynastic marriage for Pedro.\n\nThe situation became worse as the years passed and the aging Afonso lost control over his court. His grandson and Pedro's only legitimate son, future king Fernando of Portugal, was a sickly child, while Inês' illegitimate children thrived. Worried about his legitimate grandson's life, and the growing power of Castile within Portugal's borders, Afonso ordered Inês de Castro first imprisoned in his mother's old convent in Coimbra, and then murdered in 1355. He expected his son to give in and marry a princess, but the heir became enraged upon learning of his lover's decapitation in front of their young child. Pedro put himself at the head of an army and devastated the country between the Douro and the Minho rivers before he was reconciled to his father in early 1357. Afonso died almost immediately after, in Lisbon in May.\n\nAfonso IV's nickname ''the Brave'' alludes to his martial exploits. However, his most important accomplishments were the relative peace enjoyed by the country during his long reign and the support he gave to the Portuguese Navy. Afonso granted public funding to raise a proper commercial fleet and ordered the first Portuguese maritime explorations. The conflict with Pedro, and the explorations he initiated, eventually became the foundation of the Portuguese national epic, ''Os Lusíadas'' by Luís de Camões.\n\nThe dramatic circumstances of the relationship between father and son and Inês de Castro was used as the basis for the plot of more than twenty operas and ballets, as well as the \"Nise lastimosa\" and \"Nise laureada\" (1577) by Jerónimo Bermúdez, 'Reinar despues de morir' by Luís Vélez de Guevara, \"Inez de Castro\" by Mary Russell Mitford, and La Reine morte (The Dead Queen) by Henry de Montherlant. The story with its tragic denouement is immortalized in several plays and poems in Portuguese, such as ''The Lusíadas'' by Luís de Camões (canto iii, stanzas 118-135), and in Spanish, including ''Nise lastimosa'' and ''Nise laureada'' (1577) by Jerónimo Bermúdez, ''Reinar despues de morir'' by Luís Vélez de Guevara, as well as a play by French playwright Henry de Montherlant called ''La Reine morte'' (''The Dead Queen''). Mary Russell Mitford also wrote a drama based on the story entitled ''Inez de Castro''. ''Inês de Castro'' is a novel by Maria Pilar Queralt del Hierro in Spanish and Portuguese.\n", "\n\n\n", "On 12 September 1309, Afonso married Beatrice of Castile, daughter of Sancho IV of Castile, and María de Molina, and had four sons and three daughters. Afonso broke the tradition of previous kings and did not have any children out of wedlock.\n\n* Maria (131318 January 1357), was the wife of Alfonso XI of Castile, and mother of the future king Peter I of Castile. Due to the affair of her husband with his mistress Leonor de Guzmán \"it was an unfortunate union from the start, contributing to dampening the relations of both kingdoms\"; \n* Afonso (1315–1317), heir to the throne, died in his infancy. Buried at the disappeared Convento das Donas of the Dominican Order in Santarém; \n* Denis (born 12 February 1317), heir to the throne, died a few months after his birth, and was buried in Alcobaça Monastery; \n* Peter (8 April 132018 January 1367), the first surviving male offspring, he succeeded his father. When his wife Constance died in 1345, Queen Beatrice took care of the education of the two orphans, the ''infantes'' Maria and Ferdinand, who later reigned as King Ferdinand I of Portugal;\n* Isabel (21 December 132411 July 1326), buried at the Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Velha in Coimbra; \n* John (23 September 132621 June 1327), buried at the Monastery of São Dinis de Odivelas;\n* Eleanor (1328–1348), born in the same year as her sister Maria's wedding, she married King Peter IV of Aragon in November 1347 and died a year after her marriage succumbing to the Black Death.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life ", "King of Portugal and Algarve", " Later life ", "Ancestry", "Marriage and descendants", " Notes ", "References", " Bibliography " ]	Afonso IV of Portugal
[ "\n\n'''Afonso V''' () KG (15 January 1432 – 28 August 1481), called '''the African''' (), was King of Portugal and of the Algarves. His sobriquet refers to his conquests in Northern Africa. As of 1471, Afonso V was the first king of Portugal to claim dominion over a plural \"Kingdom of the Algarves,\" instead of the singular \"Kingdom of the Algarve.\" Territories added to the Portuguese crown lands in North Africa during the 15th century came to be referred to as possessions of the Kingdom of the Algarve (now a region of southern Portugal), not the Kingdom of Portugal. The \"Algarves\" then were considered to be the southern Portuguese territories on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar.\n", "Afonse V of Portugal\nAfonso was born in Sintra, the eldest son of King Edward of Portugal by his wife Eleanor of Aragon. Afonso V was only six years old when he succeeded his father in 1438.\n\nDuring his minority, Afonso V was placed under the regency of his mother in accordance with a will of his late father. As both a foreigner and a woman, the queen was not a popular choice for regent. Opposition rose and without any important ally among the Portuguese aristocracy other than Afonso, Count of Barcelos, the illegitimate half brother of King Edward, the queen's position was untenable. In 1439, the Portuguese Cortes (assembly of the kingdom) decided to replace the queen with Peter, Duke of Coimbra (Dom Pedro), the young king's oldest uncle.\n\nPeter's main policies were concerned with restricting the political power of the great noble houses and expanding the powers of the crown. The country prospered under his rule, but not peacefully, as his laws interfered with the ambition of powerful nobles. The count of Barcelos, a personal enemy of the Duke of Coimbra (despite being half-brothers) eventually became the king's favourite uncle and began a constant struggle for power. In 1442, the king made Afonso the first Duke of Braganza. With this title and its lands, he became the most powerful man in Portugal and one of the richest men in Europe. To secure his position as regent, Peter had Afonso marry his daughter, Isabella of Coimbra, in 1445.\n\nBut on 9 June 1448, when the king came of age, Peter had to surrender his power to Afonso V. The years of conspiracy by the Duke of Braganza finally came to a head. On 15 September of the same year, Afonso V nullified all the laws and edicts approved under the regency. In the following year, led by what were later discovered to be false accusations, Afonso declared Peter a rebel and defeated his army in the Battle of Alfarrobeira, in which his uncle (and father-in-law) was killed. After this battle and the loss of one of Portugal's most remarkable infantes, the Duke of Braganza became the ''de facto'' ruler of the country.\n", "\nAfonso V then turned his attentions to North Africa. In the reign of his grandfather John I, Ceuta had been conquered from the king of Morocco, and now the new king wanted to expand the conquests. The king's army conquered Alcácer Ceguer in 1458 and Arzila in 1471. Tangiers, on the other hand, was won and lost several times between 1460 and 1464. These achievements granted the king the nickname of ''the African'' or ''Africano''. The king also supported the exploration of the Atlantic Ocean led by prince Henry the Navigator but after Henry's death in 1460, he did nothing to continue Henry's work. Administratively, Afonso V was a passive king. He chose not to pursue the revision of laws or development of commerce, preferring instead to preserve the legacy of his father Edward and grandfather John I.\n\nIn 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull ''Dum Diversas'', which granted Afonso V the right to reduce \"Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers\" to hereditary slavery. This was reaffirmed and extended in the Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455 (also by Nicholas V). These papal bulls came to be seen by some as a justification for the subsequent era of slave trade and European colonialism.\n\nA copy of the Fra Mauro map was made under a commission by Afonso V in 1457. Finished on April 24, 1459, it was sent to Portugal with a letter to Prince Henry the Navigator, Afonso's uncle, encouraging further funding of exploration trips. Although the copy has been lost, the Andrea Bianco original is preserved at the Biblioteca Marciana (Venice).\n\nWhen the campaigns in Africa were over, Afonso V found new grounds for battle in neighboring Castile. On December 11, 1474 King Henry IV of Castile died without a male heir, leaving from his two marriages only a daughter, Joanna la Beltraneja (1462-1530). But her paternity was questioned; it was rumored that his queen Joan of Portugal had an affair with a nobleman named Beltrán de La Cueva. The birth of princess Joanna in 1462, openly called ''La Beltraneja'', caused the separation of her parents. She was never considered legitimate and, when the king was dying, no one took her as a serious contender for the crown. Her father's half-sister, the future Queen Isabella I of Castile, was due to inherit the crown, but Afonso V was persuaded to intervene in the succession. In 1475, he married his niece Joanna, whom he considered the legitimate heir to the crown. He proclaimed himself King of Castile and León and prepared to defend his wife's rights. After the indecisive Battle of Toro in 1476 against King Ferdinand II of Aragon, the husband of Isabella I of Castile, Afonso went to France to obtain the assistance of King Louis XI, but finding himself deceived by the French monarch, he returned to Portugal in 1477. Disillusioned, he abdicated for a few days in November 1477 in favor of his son John II, then after returning to the throne, he retired to a monastery in Sintra, where he died in 1481.\n", "Afonso married firstly, in 1447, with Isabella of Coimbra, with whom he had three children: \n\nJohn, Prince of Portugal (29 January 1451).\nJoan, Princess of Portugal (6 February 1452 – 12 May 1490): Known as Saint Joan of Portugal or Saint Joan Princess. \nJohn II of Portugal (3 March 1455 – 25 October 1495): Succeeded his father as 13th King of Portugal.\n\nAfonso married secondly, in 1475, with Joanna of Castile, known as \"La Beltraneja\", but no children was born of this marriage.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n\n", " MILLER, Townsend- ''The battle of Toro, 1476'', in History Today, volume 14, 1964.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Invasion of Morocco", "Marriages and descendants", "Ancestry", "Notes", "References" ]	Afonso V of Portugal
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Afonso VI''' (; English: ''Alphonzo'' or ''Alphonse'', Old Portuguese: ''Affonso''; 21 August 164312 September 1683), known as \"the Victorious\" (), was the second King of Portugal and the Algarves of the House of Braganza from 1656 until his death. He was initially under the regency of his mother, Luisa of Medina-Sidonia, until 1662, when he removed her to a convent and took power with the help of his favourite, the Count of Castelo Melhor.\n\nAfonso's reign saw the end of the Restoration War (1640–68) and Spain's recognition of Portugal's independence. He also negotiated a French alliance through his marriage. However, the king was physically and mentally weak. In 1668, his brother Pedro conspired to have him declared incapable of ruling and took power as regent. His French wife, Queen Marie Françoise, received an annulment and married Pedro. Afonso spent the rest of his life and reign practically a prisoner.\n", "At the age of three, Afonso suffered an illness that left him paralyzed on the left side of his body, also leaving him mentally unstable. His father created him 10th Duke of Braganza.\n\nAfter the death of his eldest brother Teodósio, Prince of Brazil in 1653, Afonso became the heir apparent to the throne of the kingdom. He received also the crown-princely title 2nd Prince of Brazil.\n", "''Portrait of Infante Afonso''; José de Avelar Rebelo, 1653.\nHe succeeded his father (João IV) in 1656 at the age of thirteen. His mother, Luisa of Medina-Sidonia, was named regent in his father's will. His mental instability and paralysis, plus his lack of interest in government, left his mother as regent for six years, until 1662. Afonso oversaw decisive military victories over the Spanish at Elvas (14 January 1659), Ameixial (8 June 1663) and Montes Claros (17 June 1665), culminating in the final Spanish recognition of sovereignty of Portugal's new ruling dynasty, the House of Braganza, on 13 February 1668 in the Treaty of Lisbon.\n", "Colonial affairs saw the Dutch conquest of Jaffnapatam, Portugal's last colony in Portuguese Ceylon (1658) and the cession of Bombay and Tangier to England (23 June 1661) as dowry for Afonso's sister, Catherine of Braganza, who had married King Charles II of England. English mediation in 1661 saw the Netherlands acknowledge Portuguese rule of Brazil in return for uncontested control of Ceylon.\n\nIn 1662, the Count of Castelo Melhor saw an opportunity to gain power at court by befriending the king. He managed to convince the king that his mother was out to steal his throne and exile her in Portugal. As a result, Afonso took control of the throne and his mother was sent to a convent.\n", "He married Marie Françoise of Nemours, the daughter of the Duke of Savoy in 1666, but the marriage was short-lived. Marie Françoise, or Maria Francisca in Portuguese, filed for an annulment in 1667 based on the impotence of the king. The Church granted her the annulment, and she married Afonso's brother, Pedro, Duke of Beja (the future Peter II).\n", "King Afonso VI imprisoned in the Palace of Sintra, by Alfredo Roque Gameiro.\nThat same year, Pedro managed to gain enough support to force the king to relinquish control of the government and he became Prince Regent in 1668. Afonso was exiled to the island of Terceira in the Azores for seven years, returning to mainland Portugal shortly before he died at Sintra in 1683.\n\nHis trial is the basis of João Mário Grilo's 1990 film, ''The King's Trial'' (''O Processo do Rei'').\n", "\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life ", " Succession ", " Colonial affairs ", " Marriage ", " Deposition ", " Ancestry ", " References " ]	Afonso VI of Portugal
[ "There has not been a monarch known as '''Alphonso''' or '''Alfonso I of Spain''', the first king of that name of the unified Spain being Alfonso XII of Spain (1874–1885).\n\nSeveral precursor kingdoms have had an '''Alfonso I'''. You may be looking for:\nAlfonso I of Asturias (739–757).\nAlfonso I of Aragon and Navarre (1104–1134), known as ''the Battler''\n*Alfonso II of Aragon, a.k.a. Alfons I, Count of Barcelona, (1162–1196) known as ''el Cast (the Chaste)'' or ''el Trobador (the Troubadour)''\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Alphonso I of Spain
[ "\n\n\n\nAlfonso II in the twelfth-century ''Libro de los Testamentos''.\n\n'''Alfonso II''' of Asturias (842), nicknamed '''the Chaste''' (), was the king of Asturias during two different periods: first in the year 783 and later from 791 until his death in 842. Upon his death, Nepociano, a family member of undetermined relation, attempted to usurp the crown in place of the future Ramiro I.\n\nDuring his reign, which covered a span of 51 years, Alfonso discovered the supposed tomb of apostle Santiago in the town of Compostela, which later became known as the city of Santiago de Compostela.\n\nHe was the son of Fruela I and the Basque Munia.\n", "He was born in Oviedo in 759 or 760. He was put under the guardianship of his aunt Adosinda after his father's death, but one tradition relates his being put in the monastery of Samos. He was the governor of the palace during the reign of Adosinda's husband Silo. On Silo's death, he was elected king by Adosinda's allies, but the magnates raised his uncle Mauregatus to the throne instead. Alfonso fled to Álava where he found shelter with his maternal relatives. Mauregatus was succeeded by Bermudo, Alfonso's cousin, who abdicated after his defeat at the Battle of the Burbia River.\n", "Alfonso was subsequently elected king on September 14, 791. Poets of a later generation invented the story of the secret marriage between his sister Ximena and Sancho, count of Saldana, and the feats of their son Bernardo del Carpio. Bernardo is the hero of a ''cantar de gesta'' (''chanson de geste'') written to please the anarchical spirit of the nobles.\n", "On accession to the throne, Hisham I, son of Abd al-Rahman I, commenced a string of military campaigns in the eastern Pyrenees and to the north-west. In 794, a raid spearheaded by Abd al-Karim dealt a major military blow to Alfonso II on the eastern fringes of the Kingdom of Asturias (Cantabria and Castile). The Asturian king asked for the assistance of the Basque Frankish vassal Belasco, master of Álava and bordering regions at the time. Abd al-Karim advanced deeper west into Asturias and pillaged the region, while his brother Abd al-Malik ventured into the western Asturian lands.\n", "Confronted with heavy fire, Alfonso II reached out to Charlemagne's Franks. He sent delegations to Toulouse and Aix-la-Chapelle in 796, 797, and 798. These diplomacy efforts may have aimed to strengthen his legitimacy and the government structures of Asturias against ongoing internal unrest——troubles in Galicia——and external attacks of the Ibn Mugait brothers, i.e. generals Abd al-Karim and Abd al-Malik.\n\nAlfonso was acknowledged as a king by Charlemagne and the Pope, and Asturias as a kingdom for the first time. The king showed an interest in the Frankish cult of Saint Martin of Tours, and most notably he encouraged Carolingian Church influence into Asturias. Unsurprisingly, during Alfonso's reign, the alleged resting-place of St. James was revealed. Alfonso's envoys to Charlemagne's courts may have also dealt with the adoptionist controversy, which had brought Bermudo's kingdom into Charlemagne's view. It seems that Carolingian support did much to spur his military raid into Andalusian territory up to Lisbon. The Andalusian city in turn was captured and sacked by his troops in 798.\n", "In 825 he defeated Cordovan forces at Narón and Anceo (825) and, thanks to these victories, the \"repopulation\" of parts of Galicia, León, and Castile was started—charter granting that confirmed the possession of the territories.\n\nAlfonso also moved the capital from Pravia, where Silo had located it, to Oviedo, the city of his father's founding and his birth. There he constructed churches and a palace. He built San Tirso, where he is buried, and Santullano, on the outskirts. The ''Crónica Sebastianense'' records his death in 842, saying:\n\n:''tras haber llevado por 52 años casta, sobria, inmaculada, piadosa y gloriosamente el gobierno del reino''\n\n:after having held for 52 years chastely, soberly, immaculately, piously, and gloriously the government of the realm\n\nTradition relates that in 814, the body of Saint James the Greater was discovered in Compostela and that Alfonso was the first pilgrim to that famous medieval (and modern) shrine.\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life ", " Alfonso proclaimed king ", " Andalusian raids into Asturias ", " Relations with Charlemagne and the Papacy ", " Later events ", "References", "Further reading" ]	Alfonso II of Asturias
[ "\nCover of a modern copy of Amara kosha\n'''Amara Sinha''' (or '''Amara Simha''', IAST: '''Amarasiṃha''') (c. CE 375) was a Sanskrit grammarian and poet, of whose personal history hardly anything is known. He is said to have been \"one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of Vikramaditya,\" and according to the evidence of Xuanzang, this is the Chandragupta Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) who flourished about CE 375. Other sources describe him as belonging to the period of Vikramaditya of 7th century. Most of Amarasiṃha's work was destroyed, with the exception of the celebrated ''Amara-Kosha'' (IAST: ''Amarakośa'') (''Treasury of Amara''). The first reliable mention of the ''Amarakosha'' is in the Amoghavritti of Shakatayana composed during the reign of Amoghavarsha (814-867CE)\n\nThe ''Amarakosha'' is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called ''Trikanda'' or the \"Tripartite\". It is also known as \"Namalinganushasana\". The ''Amarakosha'' contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory.\n\nThe first chapter of the ''Kosha'' was printed at Rome in Tamil character in 1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and an index by HT Colebrooke appeared at Serampore in 1808. The Sanskrit text was printed at Calcutta in 1831. A French translation by ALA Loiseleur-Deslongchamps was published at Paris in 1839. B. L. Rice compiled the text in Kannada script with meanings in English and Kannada in 1927.\n", "\n'''Attribution:'''\n* \n", "* Amarakosha Sanskrit text\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ]	Amara Sinha
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Alfonso XII''' (Alfonso Francisco de Asís Fernando Pío Juan María de la Concepción Gregorio Pelayo; 28 November 185725 November 1885) was King of Spain, reigning from 1874 to 1885, after a ''coup d'état'' restored the monarchy and ended the ephemeral First Spanish Republic.\n\nHaving been forced into exile after the Glorious Revolution deposed his mother Isabella II from the throne in 1868, Alfonso studied in Austria and France. His mother abdicated in his favour in 1870, and he returned to Spain as king in 1874 following a military coup. Alfonso died aged 27 in 1885, and was succeeded by his unborn son, who became Alfonso XIII on his birth the following year.\n", "\nPrince Alfonso.\n===Birth===\nAlfonso was born in Madrid as the eldest son of Queen Isabella II. Officially, his father was her husband, Infante Francis. Alfonso's biological paternity is uncertain: there is speculation that his biological father may have been Enrique Puigmoltó y Mayans (a captain of the guard). These rumours were used as political propaganda against Alfonso by the Carlists.\n\nHis mother's accession created the second cause of instability, which was the Carlist Wars. The supporters of the Count of Molina as king of Spain rose to have him enthroned. In addition, within the context of the post-Napoleonic restorations and revolutions which engulfed the West both in Europe and the Americas, both the Carlistas as well as the Isabelino conservatives were opposed to the new Napoleonic constitutional system. Much like in Britain, which subtracted itself from the liberal constitutional process, Spanish conservatives wanted to continue with the Traditional Spanish Organic Laws such as the Fuero Juzgo, the Novísima Recopilación and the Partidas of Alfonso X. This led to the third cause of instability of note, the \"Independence of the American Kingdoms\", recognized between 1823 and 1850.\n", "When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the Revolution of 1868, Alfonso accompanied them to Paris. From there, he was sent to the Theresianum at Vienna to continue his studies. On 25 June 1870, he was recalled to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, in the presence of a number of Spanish nobles who had tied their fortunes to that of the exiled queen. He assumed the name Alfonso XII, for although no King of united Spain had borne the name \"Alfonso XI\", the Spanish monarchy was regarded as continuous with the more ancient monarchy represented by the 11 kings of Asturias, León and Castile also named Alfonso.\nRoyal Monogram\n", "\nAfter Amadeo's abandonment in 1873, Parliament declared the Federal Republic (including Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Pacific Archipelagos), the first act of President Estanislao Figueras was to extend the Abolition Act to Puerto Rico. Cuban slaves would have to wait until 1889.\n\nBut the republicans were not in agreement either, and they had to contend with the War in Cuba, and Muslim uprisings in Spanish Morocco. In the midst of the crisis during and after the First Spanish Republic, the Carlist party made itself strong in areas with claims over their national and institutional specificity, such as Catalonia or the Basque districts. By 1872, the Third Carlist War erupted. This unrest led to the creation of a group in favor of the Bourbon restoration, made by some sectors of the conservatives led by Canovas del Castillo.\n\nThe Prince of Asturias, Alfonso, was the person chosen to develop the new road map proposed by Canovas, which led to the June 1870 abdication of Queen Isabel II in favour of her son Prince Alfonso. The new road map, which indeed ended the eternal crisis begun in 1810 was called 'Alfonsismo', and the moderate centrist Cánovas del Castillo became the spokesman. As having Alfonso in Spain would be a problem, Cánovas became responsible for his education. He sent Alfonso to the Sandhurst Military Academy in England, where the training Alfonso received was severe but more cosmopolitan than in Spain, given the current atmosphere.\n\nOn 1 December 1874, Alfonso issued the Sandhurst Manifesto, where he set the ideological basis of the Bourbon Restoration. It was drafted in reply to a birthday greeting from his followers, a manifesto proclaiming himself the sole representative of the Spanish monarchy. At the end of 1874, Brigadier Martínez Campos, who had long been working more or less openly for the king, led some battalions of the central army to Sagunto, rallied to his own flag the troops sent against him, and entered Valencia in the king's name. Thereupon the President resigned, and his power was transferred to the king's plenipotentiary and adviser, Antonio Cánovas. The 29 December 1874 military coup of Gen. Martinez Campos in Sagunto ended the failed republic and meant the rise of the young Prince Alfonso.\n", "Alfonso XII in the uniform of the Supreme Commander of the Spanish Navy.\n5 Peseta of Alfonso XII\nWithin a few days after Canovas del Castillo took power as Premier, the new king, proclaimed on 29 December 1874, arrived at Madrid, passing through Barcelona and Valencia and was acclaimed everywhere (1875). In 1876, a vigorous campaign against the Carlists, in which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of Don Carlos and the Duke's abandonment of the struggle.\n\nInitially led by Canovas del Castillo as moderate prime minister, what was thought at one time as a coup aimed at placing the military in the political-administrative positions of power, in reality ushered in a civilian regime that lasted until Primo de Rivera's 1923 coup d'état. Cánovas was the real architect of the new regime of the Restoration.\n\nIn order to eliminate one of the problems of the reign of Isabel II, the single party and its destabilizing consequences, the Liberal Party was allowed to incorporate and participate in national politics, and the 'turnismo' or alternation was to become the new system. Turnismo would be endorsed in the Constitution of 1876 and the Pact of Pardo Palace (1885). It meant that liberal and conservative prime ministers would succeed each other ending thus the troubles.\n\nThis led to the end of the Carlist revolts and the victory over the New York-backed Cuban revolutionaries, and led to a huge backing both by insular and peninsular Spaniards of Alfonso as a wise and able king.\n\nAlfonso's short reign established the foundations for the final socioeconomic recuperation of Spain after the 1808–1874 crisis. Both European (the coastal regions, such as the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Asturias) and Overseas – Antilles and Pacific were able to grow steadily. Cuba and Puerto Rico prospered to the point that Spain's first train was between Havana and Camaguey, and the world's first telegraph was in Puerto Rico, as Samuel Morse lived there with his daughter, married to a Puerto Rican businessman. Upon the American invasion of Puerto Rico, ten US dollars were needed to buy one Puerto Rican peso.\n\nOn 23 January 1878 at the Basilica of Atocha in Madrid, Alfonso married his first cousin, Princess Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of Antoine, Duke of Montpensier, but she died within six months of the marriage.\n", "Alfonso XII and his second wife Maria Christina of Austria, 1885.\nOn 29 November 1879 at the Basilica of Atocha in Madrid, Alfonso married a much more distant relative, Maria Christina of Austria, daughter of Archduke Karl Ferdinand and Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria. During the honeymoon, a pastry cook named Otero fired at the young sovereign and his wife as they were driving in Madrid.\n\nThe children of this marriage were:\n* María de las Mercedes, Princess of Asturias, (11 September 188017 October 1904), married on 14 February 1901 to Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, and titular heiress from the death of her father until the posthumous birth of her brother\n* María Teresa, (12 November 188223 September 1912), married to Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria on 12 January 1906\n* Alfonso XIII (17 May 188628 February 1941). Born posthumously. He married Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg\n\nAlfonso had two sons by Elena Armanda Nicolasa Sanz y Martínez de Arizala (Castellón de la Plana, 15 December 1849Paris, 24 December 1898):\n* Alfonso Sanz y Martínez de Arizala (28 January 1880, Madrid1970), married in 1922 to María de Guadalupe de Limantour y Mariscal (24 April 1897, Mexico City1977, Marbella), daughter of Julio de Limantour y Marquet (17 June 1863, Mexico City11 October 1909, Mexico City) and wife Elena Mariscal y ..., paternal granddaughter of French Joseph Yves de Limantour y Rence de la Pagame (1812, Ploemeur1885, Mexico City) and wife Adèle Marquet y Cabannes\n* Fernando Sanz y Martínez de Arizala (28 February 1881, Madrid1922, Nice, France), unmarried and without issue\n\nIn 1881 Alfonso refused to sanction a law by which the ministers were to remain in office for a fixed term of 18 months. Upon the consequent resignation of Canovas del Castillo, he summoned Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, the Liberal leader, to form a new cabinet.\n", "Funeral procession of Alfonso XII, from the 5 December 1885, issue of ''L'Illustration''\nMonument to Alfonso XII, erected in 1922 in the Buen Retiro Park, Madrid.\nIn November 1885, Alfonso died, just short of his 28th birthday, at the Royal Palace of El Pardo. He had been suffering from tuberculosis, but the immediate cause of his death was a recurrence of dysentery.\n\nIn 1902, his widow Maria Cristina initiated a national contest to build a monument in memory of Alfonso. The winning design, by José Grases Riera, was erected in an artificial lake in Madrid's Parque del Buen Retiro in 1922.\n\nComing to the throne at such an early age Alfonso had served no apprenticeship in the art of ruling. Benevolent and sympathetic in disposition, he won the affection of his people by fearlessly visiting districts ravaged by cholera or devastated by earthquake in 1885. His capacity for dealing with men was considerable, and he never allowed himself to become the instrument of any particular party. During his short reign, peace was established both at home and abroad, finances were well regulated, and the various administrative services were placed on a basis that afterwards enabled Spain to pass through the disastrous war with the United States without the threat of a revolution.\n", "* Monument to Alfonso XII\n", "\n", "\n\n\n", "\n* Historiaantiqua. ''Alfonso XII; (Spanish)'' (2008)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Political background, early life and paternity", "A split nation", "The Republic", "Return from exile", "Second marriage and rule", "Death and impact", "See also", "References", "Ancestry", "External links" ]	Alfonso XII of Spain
[ "\n\n'''Alfonso XIII''' (Spanish: ''Alfonso León Fernando María Jaime Isidro Pascual Antonio de Borbón y Habsburgo-Lorena''; 17 May 1886 – 28 February 1941) was King of Spain from 1886 until the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931. Alfonso was monarch from birth as his father, Alfonso XII, had died the previous year. Alfonso's mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as regent until he assumed full powers on his sixteenth birthday in 1902.\n\nDuring Alfonso's reign Spain experienced four major problems that contributed to the end of the liberal monarchy: the lack of real political representation of broad social groups, the poor situation of the popular classes, especially peasants, problems arising from the Rif War and Catalan nationalism. This political and social turbulence that began with the Spanish–American War prevented the turnaround parties from establishing a true liberal democracy, which led to the establishment of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. With the political failure of the dictatorship, Alfonso impelled a return to the democratic normality with the intention of regenerating the regime. Nevertheless, it was abandoned by all political classes, as they felt betrayed by the king's support of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.\n\nHe left Spain voluntarily after the municipal elections of April 1931, that was taken as a plebiscite between monarchy or republic. In exile, he retained his claim to the defunct throne until 1941, when he renounced his claim in favour of his third son Juan (whose eldest son, Juan Carlos, did eventually become king when the monarchy was restored) and died six weeks later. Buried in Rome, his remains were not transferred until 1980 to the Pantheon of the Kings in the monastery of El Escorial.\n", "\n===Birth and regency===\nAlfonso XIII and his mother, María Cristina (who served as regent until 1902). Painted by Luis Álvarez Catalá, 1898.\nAs he was born king, early coins from Alfonso's reign, such as this 20 pesetas from 1889, featured his portrait as a baby.\n\nAlfonso was born in Madrid on 17 May 1886. He was the posthumous son of Alfonso XII of Spain, who had died in November 1885, and became King of Spain upon his birth. Just after he was born, he was carried naked to the Spanish prime minister on a silver tray. Five days later he was carried in a solemn court procession with a golden fleece round his neck and was baptized with water specially brought from the River Jordan in Palestine. The French newspaper ''Le Figaro'' described the young king in 1889 as \"the happiest and best-loved of all the rulers of the earth\". His mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as his regent until his 16th birthday. During the regency, in 1898, Spain lost its colonial rule over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States as a result of the Spanish–American War.\n\nWhen he came of age in May 1902, the week of his majority was marked by festivities, bullfights, balls and receptions throughout Spain. He took his oath to the constitution before members of the Cortes on 17 May.\n\n===Engagement and marriage===\n\nBy 1905, Alfonso was looking for a suitable consort. On a state visit to the United Kingdom, he stayed at Buckingham Palace with King Edward VII. There he met Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, the Scottish-born daughter of Edward's youngest sister Princess Beatrice, and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. He found her attractive, and she returned his interest. There were obstacles to the marriage. Victoria was a Protestant, and would have to become a Catholic. Victoria's brother Leopold was a haemophiliac, so there was a 50 percent chance that Victoria was a carrier of the trait. Finally, Alfonso's mother Maria Christina wanted him to marry a member of her family, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine or some other Catholic princess, as she considered the Battenbergs to be non-dynastic.\n\nVictoria was willing to change her religion, and her being a haemophilia carrier was only a possibility. Maria Christina was eventually persuaded to drop her opposition. In January 1906 she wrote an official letter to Princess Beatrice proposing the match. Victoria met Maria Christina and Alfonso in Biarritz, France, later that month, and converted to Catholicism in San Sebastián in March.\n\nPhotograph taken moments after the assassination attempt on Alfonso and Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg on their wedding day.\nIn May, diplomats of both kingdoms officially executed the agreement of marriage. Alfonso and Victoria were married at the Royal Monastery of San Jerónimo in Madrid on 31 May 1906, with British royalty in attendance, including Victoria's cousins the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King George V and Queen Mary). The wedding was marred by an assassination attempt on Alfonso and Victoria by Catalan anarchist Mateu Morral. As the wedding procession returned to the palace, he threw a bomb from a window which killed or injured several bystanders and members of the procession.\n\nOn 10 May 1907, the couple's first child, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, was born. However, Victoria was in fact a haemophilia carrier, and Alfonso inherited the condition.\n\nNeither of the two daughters born to the King and Queen were haemophilia carriers, but another of their sons, Gonzalo (1914–1934), had the condition. Alfonso distanced himself from his Queen for transmitting the condition to their sons.\n\nFrom 1914 on, he had several mistresses, and fathered five illegitimate children. A sixth illegitimate child was born before his marriage.\n\n===World War I===\n\nDuring World War I, because of his family connections with both sides and the division of popular opinion, Spain remained neutral. The King established an office for assistance to prisoners of war on all sides. This office used the Spanish diplomatic and military network abroad to intercede for thousands of POWs – transmitting and receiving letters for them, and other services. The office was located in the Royal Palace.\n\nAlfonso became gravely ill during the 1918 flu pandemic. Spain was neutral and thus under no wartime censorship restrictions, so his illness and subsequent recovery were reported to the world, while flu outbreaks in the belligerent countries were concealed. This gave the misleading impression that Spain was the most-affected area and led to the pandemic being dubbed \"the Spanish Flu.\"\n\n===Rif War and the Marqués de Estella===\n\nEl Marqués de Estella.\n\nFollowing World War I, Spain entered the lengthy yet victorious Rif War (1920–1926) to preserve its colonial rule over northern Morocco. Critics of the monarchy thought the war was an unforgivable loss of money and lives, and nicknamed Alfonso ''el Africano'' (\"the African\"). Alfonso had not acted as a strict constitutional monarch, and supported the ''africanistas'' who wanted to conquer for Spain a new empire in Africa to compensate for the lost empire in the Americas and Asia. The Rif War had starkly polarized Spanish society between the ''africanistas'' who wanted to conquer an empire in Africa vs. the ''abandonistas'' who wanted to abandon Morocco as not worth the blood and treasure. Alfonso liked to play favourites with his generals, and one of his most favored generals was Manuel Fernández Silvestre. In 1921, when Silvestre advanced up into the Rif mountains of Morocco, Alfonso sent him a telegram whose first line read \"Hurrah for real men!\", urging Silvestre not to retreat at a time when Silvestre was experiencing major difficulties. Silvestre stayed the course, leading his men into the Battle of Annual, one of Spain's worst defeats. Alfonso, who was on holiday in the south of France at the time, was informed of the \"Disaster of the Annual\" while he was playing golf. Reportedly, Alfonso's response to the news was to shrug his shoulders and say \"Chicken meat is cheap\", before resuming his game of golf. Alfonso remained in France and did not return to Spain to comfort the families of the soldiers lost at the \"Disaster of the Annual\", which many people at the time saw as a callous and cold act, a sign that the King couldn't care less about the lives of his soldiers. In 1922, the ''Cortes'' started an investigation into the responsibility for the Annual disaster and soon discovered evidence that the King had been one of the main supporters of Silvestre's advance into the Rif mountains.\n\nAfter the \"Disaster of the Annual\", Spain's war in the Rif went from bad to worse, and as the Spanish were barely hanging onto Morocco, support for the ''abandonistas'' grew as many people could see no point to the war. In August 1923, Spanish soldiers embarking for Morocco mutinied, other soldiers in Malaga simply refused to board the ships that were to take them to Morocco, while in Barcelona huge crowds of left-wingers had staged anti-war protests at which Spanish flags were burned while the flag of the Rif Republic was waved about. With the ''africanistas'' comprising only a minority, it was clear that it was only a matter of time before the ''abandonistas'' forced the Spanish to give up on the Rif, which was part of the reason for the military coup d'état later in 1923. On September 13, 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera, 2nd Marqués de Estella, seized power in a military coup. He ruled as a dictator with Alfonso's support until 1930. It is believed that one of Alfonso's main reasons for supporting the coup was his desire to suppress the publication of the damning ''Cortes'' report into the Annual disaster. The poetic Generation of '27 and Catalan and Basque nationalism grew in this era\n\n===Downfall and Second Republic===\n\nPostage stamps featuring Alfonso XIII, such as this 1930 issue, were overprinted when the Second Spanish Republic was declared in 1931.\n\nIn January 1930, due to economic problems and general unpopularity, the 2nd Marqués de Estella resigned as Prime Minister. Alfonso, as the Marqués's ally, shared the popular dislike. The King had so closely associated with the Primo de Rivera dictatorship that it was difficult for him to distance himself from the regime he had supported for almost 7 years. In April 1931, General Le Marqués del Rif told him even the army was not loyal. On 12 April, the republican parties won a landslide victory in municipal elections. The municipal elections were fought as a virtual referendum on the future of the monarchy. On 14 April, he fled the country as the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed, but did not formally abdicate. He settled eventually in Rome.\n\nBy a law of 26 November 1931, Alfonso was accused by the Cortes of high treason. This law would later be repealed by a new law dated 15 December 1938, signed by Francisco Franco.\n", "In 1933, his two eldest sons, Alfonso and Jaime, renounced their claims to the throne, and in 1934 his youngest son Gonzalo died. This left his third son Juan, Count of Barcelona his only heir. Juan later was the father of Juan Carlos I.\n\n===Civil War===\nWhen the Army rose up against the democratically elected Republican Government, war broke out, Alfonso made it clear he favoured the \"Nationalist\" military rebels against the Republic. But in September 1936 the Nationalist leader, General Francisco Franco, declared that the Nationalists would not restore Alfonso as king. (The Nationalist army included many Carlist supporters of a rival pretender.)\n\nNevertheless, he sent his son Juan to Spain in 1936, to participate in the uprising. However, General Mola had Juan arrested near the French border and expelled from the country.\n\nOn 29 September 1936, upon the death of Infante Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime (the Carlist pretender), Alfonso also became the senior heir of Hugh Capet and so was hailed by some French legitimists as King Alphonse I of France and Navarre.\n\n===Renunciation of claims to the throne and death===\nOn 15 January 1941, Alfonso XIII abdicated his rights to the defunct Spanish throne in favour of Juan. He died in Rome on 28 February of that year.\n\nIn Spain, the dictator Franco ordered three days of national mourning. His funeral was held in Rome in the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri. Alfonso was buried in the Church of Santa Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli, the Spanish national church in Rome, immediately below the tombs of Pope Callixtus III and Pope Alexander VI. In January 1980 his remains were transferred to El Escorial in Spain.\n", "Madrid's Hotel Palace was built on Alfonso's wishes in 1912.\n\nAlfonso was a promoter of tourism in Spain. The need for the lodging of his wedding guests prompted the construction of the luxury Hotel Palace in Madrid. He also supported the creation of a network of state-run lodges (Parador) in historic buildings of Spain. His fondness for the sport of football led to the patronage of several \"Royal\" (\"Real\" in Spanish) football clubs, the first being Real Club Deportivo de La Coruña in 1907. Selected others include Real Madrid, Real Sociedad, Real Betis, Real Unión, Espanyol and Real Zaragoza.\n\nAn avenue in the northern Madrid neighbourhood of Chamartín, Avenida de Alfonso XIII, is named after him. A plaza or town center in Iloilo City, Philippines (now Plaza Libertad) was named in his honour called Plaza Alfonso XIII. A street in Merthyr Tydfil, in Wales, was built especially to house Spanish immigrants in the mining industry and named Alphonso Street after Alfonso XIII.\n\nAlfonso XIII appears as \"King Buby\" in Luis Coloma's story of Ratoncito Pérez (1894), which was written for the King when he was 8 years old. The story of Ratoncito Pérez has been adapted into further literary works and movies since then, with the character of Alfonso XIII appearing in some. Alfonso XIII is also mentioned on the plaque to Ratoncito Pérez on the second floor of \"la calle del Arenal\".\n", "\n\n\nOn 31 May 1906, Alfonso married Scottish-born Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (1887–1969). Only entitled to the style of ''Highness'' by birth, Ena, as she was known, was granted the higher honorific of ''Royal Highness'' one month before her wedding.\n\nAlfonso and Ena had six living children:\n\n\n Name\n Birth\n Death\n Marriage\n Their children\n\n Date !! Spouse\n\nHRH Alfonso, Prince of Asturias\n10 May 1907\n6 September 1938\n 21 June 1933Divorced 8 May 1937\n Edelmira Sampedro y Robato\n \n\n 3 July 1937Divorced 8 January 1938\n Marta Esther Rocafort-Altuzarra\n \n\nHRH Infante Jaime\n23 June 1908\n20 March 1975\n 4 March 1935Divorced 6 May 1947\n Emmanuelle de Dampierre\n Alfonso, Duke of Anjou and CádizGonzalo, Duke of Aquitaine\n\n 3 August 1949\n Charlotte Luise Auguste Tiedemann\n \n\n HRH Infanta Beatriz\n 22 June 1909\n 22 November 2002\n 14 January 1935\n Alessandro Torlonia, 5th Prince of Civitella-Cesi\n Doñna SandraMarco Torlonia, 6th Prince of Civitella-CesiDoñ MarinoDoña Olimpia\n\n HRH Infante Fernando of Spain\n stillborn, 1910\n 1910\n\n\n\n\n HRH Infanta ''María Cristina'' Teresa Alejandra Guadalupe María de la Concepción Victoria Eugenia of Spain\n 1911\n 1996\n\n Enrico Eugenio Marone-Cinzano, 1st Conte Marone-Cinzano\n\n\n HRH Infante Juan Carlos Teresa Silverio Alfonso of Spain heir-apparent to the throne 1941–1969, Count of Barcelona.\n 1913\n 1993\n\nPrincess María Mercedes of Bourbon-Two Sicilies\nInfanta Pilar, Duchess of BadajozJuan Carlos I of SpainInfanta Margarita, Duchess of Soria and HernaniInfante Alfonso\n\n HRH Infante Gonzalo Manuel María Bernardo Narciso Alfonso Mauricio of Spain\n 1914\n 1934, a haemophiliac, like his elder brother Alfonso. He died due to bleeding from injuries suffered in a car crash.\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\nAlfonso also had six known illegitimate children:\n\nBy French aristocrat Mélanie de Gaufridy de Dortan (1876–1937), married to Philippe de Vilmorin, he had \n* Roger Marie Vincent Philippe Lévêque de Vilmorin (12 September 1905 – 20 July 1980)\n\nBy Pauline of Saint Glen, he had \n* Charles Maxime Victor of Saint Glen (3 July 1914 – 20 May 1934).\n\nBy Béatrice Noon, he had \n* Juana Alfonsa Milán y Quiñones de León (19 April 1916 – 16 May 2005)\n\nBy Spanish actress María del Carmen Ruiz y Moragas (1898–1936):\n* Ana María Teresa Ruiz y Moragas (9 October 1925 – 6 September 1965)\n* Leandro Alfonso Luis Ruiz y Moragas (born 26 April 1929, died 18 June 2016), officially recognized by Spanish Courts on 21 May 2003 as Leandro Alfonso Luis de Borbón y Ruiz Moragas\n\nBy Marie Sousa, he had \n* Alonso of Borbon Sousa (28 December 1930 – 30 April 1934).\n", "\n\n\nHeraldry of Alfonso XIII of Spain\n\n\n\n\n\n150px\n150px\n300px\n\nCoat of arms of Alfonso XIII(1886–1931)\nCoat of arms of Alfonso XIII(1931)\nCoat of arms of Alfonso XIII with royal supporters(1931)\n\n\n\n\nRoyal Monogram\n", "\n===Spanish honours===\n\n* 1,072nd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain in 1886\n* Maestranza de Caballeria (Royal Cavalry Armory) de Ronda, Sevilla, Granada, Valencia y Zaragoza\n* Order of Charles III\n* Order of Santiago\n* Order of Calatrava\n* Order of Alcántara\n* Order of Montesa\n\n===Foreign honours===\n* 315th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword in 1900\n* 815th Knight of the Order of the Garter – ''16 May 1902'' – King Edward VII´s brother, the Duke of Connaught attended the festivities marking the King's enthronement, and invested him as a Knight in a special ceremony on 16 May 1902.\n* Knight of the Order of the Seraphim – ''16 May 1902'' – King Oscar II of Sweden sent his youngest son, Prince Prince Eugen to represent him at the festivities marking the King's enthronement, and he invested the King as a Knight in a special ceremony on 16 May 1902.\n* Order of the Aqdas – ''16 May 1902'' – The King received the Persian order in a special ceremony during his enthronement festivities.\n* Order of St Andrew – ''1902'' – During his enthronement festivities.\n* Order of the Chrysanthemum, 1930: Emperor Showa's second brother, Prince Takamatsu, travelled to Madrid to confer the Great Collar of the Chrysanthemum on King Alfonso. This honour was intended, in part, to commemorate the diplomatic and trading history which existed long before other Western nations were officially aware of Japan's existence. Prince Takamatsu travelled with his wife, Princess Takamatsu, to Spain. Her symbolic role in this unique mission to the Spanish Court was intended to emphasize the international links which were forged by her 16th-century ancestor, Ieyasu Tokugawa. In the years before the Tokugawa shogunate, that innovative ''daimyō'' from Western Japan had been actively involved in negotiating trade and diplomatic treaties with Spain and with the colonies of New Spain (Mexico) and the Philippines; and it was anticipated that the mere presence of the Princess could serve to underscore the range of possibilities which could be inferred from that little-known history.\nIn the Royal Library of Madrid, there are many books with different emblems and super libros of the king.\n", "\n\n\n\n", "\n1902 Copa de la Coronación\n", "\n\n", "\n \n* Churchill, Sir Winston. ''Great Contemporaries''. London: T. Butterworth, 1937. Contains the most famous single account of Alfonso in the English language. The author, writing shortly after the Spanish Civil War began, retained considerable fondness for the ex-sovereign.\n* Collier, William Miller. '' At the Court of His Catholic Majesty''. Chicago: McClurg, 1912. The author was American ambassador to Spain from 1905 to 1909.\n* Noel, Gerard. ''Ena: Spain's English Queen''. London: Constable, 1984. Considerably more candid than Petrie about Alfonso, the private man, and about the miseries the royal family experienced because of their haemophiliac children.\n* \n* Petrie, Sir Charles. ''King Alfonso XIII and His Age''. London: Chapman & Hall, 1963. Written as it was during Queen Ena's lifetime, this book necessarily omits the King's extramarital affairs; but it remains a useful biography, not least because the author knew Alfonso quite well, interviewed him at considerable length, and relates him to the wider Spanish intellectual culture of his time.\n* Pilapil, Vicente R. ''Alfonso XIII''. Twayne's rulers and statesmen of the world series 12. New York: Twayne, 1969.\n* Sencourt, Robert. ''King Alfonso: A Biography''. London: Faber, 1942.\n", "\n\n* Historiaantiqua. ''Alfonso XIII''; (2008)\n* Visit by Alphonso XIII to Deauville in 1922 (with images)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Reign", "Exile", "Legacy", "Marriage and children", "Illegitimate issue", " Heraldry ", "Honours", "Ancestry", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Alfonso XIII of Spain
[ "\n\n\n'''Alfonso I''' (1073/10747 September 1134), called '''the Battler''' or '''the Warrior''' (), was the king of Aragon and Pamplona from 1104 until his death in 1134. He was the second son of King Sancho Ramírez and successor of his brother Peter I. With his marriage to Urraca, queen regnant of Castile, León and Galicia, in 1109, he began to use, with some justification, the grandiose title Emperor of Spain, formerly employed by his father-in-law, Alfonso VI. Alfonso the Battler earned his sobriquet in the Reconquista. He won his greatest military successes in the middle Ebro, where he conquered Zaragoza in 1118 and took Ejea, Tudela, Calatayud, Borja, Tarazona, Daroca, and Monreal del Campo. He died in September 1134 after an unsuccessful battle with the Muslims at the Battle of Fraga.\n", "===Early life===\nA denarius minted by Alfonso in Toledo while he ruled Castile\nHis earliest years were passed in the monastery of Siresa, learning to read and write and to practice the military arts under the tutelage of Lope Garcés the Pilgrim, who was repaid for his services by his former charge with the county of Pedrola when Alfonso came to the throne.\n\nDuring his brother's reign, he participated in the taking of Huesca (the Battle of Alcoraz, 1096), which became the largest city in the kingdom and the new capital. He also joined El Cid's expeditions in Valencia. His father gave him the lordships of Biel, Luna, Ardenes, and Bailo.\n\nA series of deaths put Alfonso directly in line for the throne. His brother's children, Isabella and Peter (who married María Rodríguez, daughter of El Cid), died in 1103 and 1104 respectively.\n\n===Matrimonial conflicts===\nA passionate fighting-man (he fought twenty-nine battles against Christian or Moor), he was married (when well over 30 years and a habitual bachelor) in 1109 to the ambitious Queen Urraca of León, widow of Raymond of Burgundy, a passionate woman unsuited for a subordinate role. The marriage had been arranged by her father Alfonso VI of León in 1106 to unite the two chief Christian states against the Almoravids, and to supply them with a capable military leader. But Urraca was tenacious of her right as queen regnant and had not learnt chastity in the polygamous household of her father. Husband and wife quarrelled with the brutality of the age and came to open war, even placing Urraca under siege at Astorga in 1112. Alfonso had the support of one section of the nobles who found their account in the confusion. Being a much better soldier than any of his opponents he won the Battle of Candespina and the Battle of Viadangos, but his only trustworthy supporters were his Aragonese, who were not numerous enough to keep Castile and León subjugated. The marriage of Alfonso and Urraca was declared null by the Pope, as they were second cousins, in 1110, but he ignored the papal nuncio and clung to his liaison with Urraca until 1114. During his marriage, he had called himself \"King and Emperor of Castile, Toledo, Aragón, Pamplona, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza\" in recognition of his rights as Urraca's husband; of his inheritance of the lands of his father, including the kingdom of his great-uncle Gonzalo; and his prerogative to conquer Andalusia from the Muslims. He inserted the title of ''imperator'' on the basis that he had three kingdoms under his rule.\n\nAlfonso's late marriage and his failure to remarry and produce the essential legitimate heir that should have been a dynastic linchpin of his aggressive territorial policies have been adduced as a lack of interest in women. Ibn al-Athir (1166–1234) describes Alfonso as a tireless soldier who would sleep in his armor without benefit of cover, whom when asked why he did not take his pleasure from one of the captives of Muslim chiefs, responded that the man devoted to war needs the companionship of men not women.\n\n===Church relations===\nA ''denarius'' of Alfonso's, minted at Jaca, bearing his effigy and the inscription ANFUS-REX ARA-GON (''Anfusus rex Aragonensium'', King Alfonso of Aragon).\nThe king quarrelled with the church, and particularly the Cistercians, almost as violently as with his wife. As he defeated her, so he drove Archbishop Bernard into exile and expelled the monks of Sahagún. He was finally compelled to give way in Castile and León to his stepson, Alfonso VII of Castile, son of Urraca and her first husband. The intervention of Pope Calixtus II brought about an arrangement between the old man and his young namesake.\n\nIn 1122 in Belchite, he founded a confraternity of knights to fight against the Almoravids. It was the start of the military orders in Aragon. Years later, he organised a branch of the ''Militia Christi'' of the Holy Land at Monreal del Campo.\n\n===Military expansion===\nAlfonso spent his first four years as king in near-constant war with the Muslims. In 1105, he conquered Ejea and Tauste and refortified Castellar and Juslibol. In 1106, he defeated Ahmad II al-Musta'in of Zaragoza at Valtierra. In 1107, he took Tamarite de Litera and Esteban de la Litera. Then followed a period dominated by his relations with Castile and León through his wife, Urraca. He resumed his conquest in 1117 by conquering Fitero, Corella, Cintruénigo, Murchante, Monteagudo, and Cascante.\n\nIn 1118, the Council of Toulouse declared a crusade to assist in the conquest of Zaragoza. Many Frenchmen consequently joined Alfonso at Ayerbe. They took Almudévar, Gurrea de Gállego, and Zuera, besieging Zaragoza itself by the end of May. The city fell on 18 December, and the forces of Alfonso occupied the Azuda, the government tower. The great palace of the city was given to the monks of Bernard. Promptly, the city was made Alfonso's capital. Two years later, in 1120, he defeated a Muslim army intent on reconquering his new capital at the Battle of Cutanda. He promulgated the ''fuero'' of ''tortum per tortum'', facilitating taking the law into one's own hands, which among others reassumed the Muslim right to dwell in the city and their right to keep their properties and practice their religion under their own jurisdiction as long as they maintained tax payment and relocated to the suburbs.\n\nAlfonso receiving the homage of the men of the late Count Girard I of Roussillon. A miniature from the ''Liber feudorum Ceritaniae''.\nIn 1119, he retook Cervera, Tudejen, Castellón, Tarazona, Ágreda, Magallón, Borja, Alagón, Novillas, Mallén, Rueda, Épila and populated the region of Soria. He began the siege of Calatayud, but left to defeat the army at Cutanda trying to retake Zaragoza. When Calatayud fell, he took Bubierca, Alhama de Aragón, Ariza, and Daroca (1120). In 1123, he besieged and took Lleida, which was in the hands of the count of Barcelona. From the winter of 1124 to September 1125, he was on a risky expedition to Peña Cadiella deep in Andalusia.\n\nIn the great raid of 1125, he carried away a large part of the subject Christians from Granada, and in the south-west of France, he had claims as usurper-king of Navarre. From 1125 to 1126, he was on campaign against Granada, where he was trying to install a Christian prince, and Córdoba, where got only as far as Motril. In 1127, he reconquered Longares, but simultaneously lost all his Castilian possessions to Alfonso VII. He confirmed a treaty with Castile the next year (1128) with the Peace of Támara, which fixed the boundaries of the two realms.\n\nHe conquered Molina de Aragón and populated Monzón in 1129, before besieging Valencia, which had fallen again upon the Cid's death.\n\nHe went north of the Pyrenees in October 1130 to protect the Val d'Aran. Early in 1131, he besieged Bayonne. It is said he ruled \"from Belorado to Pallars and from Bayonne to Monreal.\"\n\nAt the Siege of Bayonne in October 1131, three years before his death, he published a will leaving his kingdom to three autonomous religious orders based in Palestine and politically largely independent - the Knights Templars, the Hospitallers, and the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, whose influences might have been expected to cancel one another out. The will has greatly puzzled historians, who have read it as a bizarre gesture of extreme piety uncharacteristic of Alfonso's character, one that effectively undid his life's work. Elena Lourie (1975) suggested instead that it was Alfonso's attempt to neutralize the papacy's interest in a disputed succession — Aragon had been a fief of the Papacy since 1068 — and to fend off Urraca's son from her first marriage, Alfonso VII of Castile, for the Papacy would be bound to press the terms of such a pious testament. Generous bequests to important churches and abbeys in Castile had the effect of making the noble churchmen there beneficiaries who would be encouraged by the will to act as a brake on Alfonso VII's ambitions to break it — and yet among the magnates witnessing the will in 1131 there is not a single cleric. In the event it was a will that his nobles refused to carry out — instead bringing his brother Ramiro from the monastery to assume royal powers — an eventuality that Lourie suggests was Alfonso's hidden intent.\n\nHis final campaigns were against Mequinenza (1133) and Fraga (1134), where García Ramírez, the future king of Navarre, and a mere 500 other knights fought with him. It fell on 17 July. He was dead by September. His tomb is in the monastery of San Pedro in Huesca.\n", "\n===Succession===\nA box (reliquary) containing the bones (relics) of Alfonso the Battler, with the skull centre, facing the viewer. Photograph by Enrique Capella (May 1920).\nThe testament of Alfonso leaving his kingdom to the three orders was dismissed out of hand by the nobility of his kingdoms, and possible successors were sought. Alfonso's only brother, Ramiro, had been a Benedictine monk since childhood, and his commitment to the church, his temperament and vow of celibacy made him ill-suited to rule a kingdom under constant military threat and in need of a stable line of succession. The step-son of the deceased king, Alfonso VII of León, as reigning monarch and legitimate descendant of Sancho III of Navarre, put himself forward but garnered no local support. The nobility of Navarre aligned behind Pedro de Atarés, the grandson of Alfonso's illegitimate uncle, while the Aragonese nobility rallied around the abbot-bishop Ramiro. A convention was called at Borja to develop a consensus, but there Peter so alienated his own partisans with perceived arrogance that they abandoned him, yet were unwilling to accept Ramiro. The convention broke up without arriving at a compromise and the two regional factions then acted independently.\n\nThe choice of the Navarrese lords fell on García Ramírez, Lord of Monzón, descendant of an illegitimate son of García Sánchez III and protégé of Alfonso VII to be their king. The Aragonese took Ramiro out of a monastery and made him king, marrying him without papal dispensation to Agnes, sister of the Duke of Aquitaine, then betrothing their newborn daughter to Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, who was then named Ramiro's heir. \"The result of the crisis produced by the result of Alfonso I's will was a major reorientation of the peninsula's kingdoms: the separation of Aragon and Navarre, the union of Aragon and Catalonia and — a moot point but stressed particularly by some Castilian historians — the affirmation of 'Castilian hegemony' in Spain\" by the rendering of homage for Zaragoza by Alfonso's eventual heir, Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona.\n\n===Pseudo-Alfonso the Battler===\nSometime during the reign of Alfonso II of Aragon, the Battler's grandnephew, a man came forward claiming to be Alfonso the Battler. The only contemporary references to this event are two letters of Alfonso II addressed to Louis VII of France; they were carried to Louis by Berengar, the Bishop of Lleida, but are not dated. According to the second of these, the pretender was then living in Louis's domains, meaning the Principality of Catalonia, which was ruled by Alfonso under Louis's suzerainty. This pretender was an old man (appropriately, since the Battler had died some decades earlier) and Alfonso II expressed confidence that Louis would arrest him at the earliest possible moment and bring him to justice. The first letter supplies sufficient information to date it approximately, since the Bishop sojourned at the court of Louis on his way to Rome. It is known from other sources that Berengar attended the Third Lateran Council in March 1179. The letters were probably written towards the end of 1178 or in January 1179 at the latest. According to an annalist source for the years 1089–1196, the pretender was received with honour and pomp in Zaragoza, Calatayud, and Daroca, which the Battler had conquered, but after it was found out that he was false he was executed before the city of Barcelona in 1181. Modern historian Antonio Ubieto Arteta has hypothesised that the Aragonese lords of the tenencies of Zaragoza, Calatayud, and Daroca — Pedro de Luesia, Loferrench de Luna, Pedro de Castillazuelo (lord of Calatayud), Pedro Cornel (lord of Murillo de Gállego), and the majordomo Jimeno de Artusilla, all of whom disappear between 1177 and 1181 in the documentation of their tenencies — supported, at least inititally, the pretender. These lords also appear in the later legend of the Bell of Huesca, which has no historical basis, as the victims of Ramiro II (1136). Since, historically, they were not active in the 1130s, it is possible that the historically-based legend of the pseudo-Alfonso had some influence on the genesis of the Bell of Huesca.\n\nThe earliest chronicle source for the imposture is Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, writing in the middle of the thirteenth century, who records that there were several legends then current about the death of Alfonso the Battler: some believed he perished in the battle of Fraga, some that his body had never been recovered, others that he was buried in the monastery of Montearagón, and still others that he had fled from Fraga in shame after his defeat and became a pilgrim as an act of penance. Some years later, Rodrigo writes, though he does not give a year, an impostor arose and was received by many as the Battler, though Alfonso II had him arrested and hanged. This is the earliest reference to the impostor's end. The legend was amplified in later years. According to the fourteenth-century ''Crónica de los Estados Peninsulares'', the Battler went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he lived for many years. The ''Crónica de San Juan de la Peña'' also recounts the incident, but it depends entirely on Rodrigo and the ''Estados Peninsulares''. It is not until the seventeenth-century historian Jerónimo Zurita penned his ''Anales de la Corona de Aragón'' that new details were added to the legend. Zurita dates the impostor's appearance to the death of Raymond Berengar IV of Barcelona, who had been exercising power in Aragon, and the succession of the child Alfonso II in 1162. The death of the impostor, by hanging, must have occurred in 1163.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n Candidates for the crowns of Navarre and Aragon in 1134\n\n \n Marriage and legitimate descent\n\n \n Liaison and illegitimate descent\n\n\n", "\n", "\nLourie, Elena. \"The Will of Alfonso I, ''El Batallador'', King of Aragon and Navarre: A Reassessment.\" ''Speculum'', '''50''':4 (October 1975), 635–51.\nUbieto Arteta, Antonio. \"La aparición del falso Alfonso I el Batallador.\" ''Argensola'', '''38''' (1958), 29–38.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Death", "Ancestry", "Notes", "References" ]	Alfonso the Battler
[ "\n\n\n\n'''''Amaryllis''''' () is the only genus in the subtribe Amaryllidinae (tribe Amaryllideae). It is a small genus of flowering bulbs, with two species. The better known of the two, ''Amaryllis belladonna'', is a native of the Western Cape region of South Africa, particularly the rocky southwest area between the Olifants River Valley to Knysna. For many years there was confusion among botanists over the generic names ''Amaryllis'' and ''Hippeastrum'', one result of which is that the common name \"amaryllis\" is mainly used for cultivars of the genus ''Hippeastrum'', widely sold in the winter months for their ability to bloom indoors. Plants of the genus ''Amaryllis'' are known as belladonna lily, Jersey lily, naked lady, amarillo, Easter lily in Southern Australia or, in South Africa, March lily due to its propensity to flower around March. This is one of numerous genera with the common name \"lily\" due to their flower shape and growth habit. However, they are only distantly related to the true lily, ''Lilium''.\n", "''Amaryllis belladonna'' flowers\n''Amaryllis'' is a bulbous plant, with each bulb being in diameter. It has several strap-shaped, green leaves, long and broad, arranged in two rows.\n\nEach bulb produces one or two leafless stems 30–60 cm tall, each of which bears a cluster of two to twelve funnel-shaped flowers at their tops. Each flower is diameter with six tepals (three outer sepals, three inner petals, with similar appearance to each other). The usual color is white with crimson veins, but pink or purple also occur naturally.\n", "\nThe single genus in subtribe Amaryllidinae, in the Amaryllideae tribe. The taxonomy of the genus has been controversial. In 1753 Carl Linnaeus created the name ''Amaryllis belladonna'', the type species of the genus ''Amaryllis''. At the time both South African and South American plants were placed in the same genus; subsequently they were separated into two different genera. The key question is whether Linnaeus's type was a South African plant or a South American plant. If the latter, ''Amaryllis'' would be the correct name for the genus ''Hippeastrum'', and a different name would have to be used for the genus discussed here. Alan W. Meerow et al. have briefly summarized the debate, which took place from 1938 onwards and involved botanists on both sides of the Atlantic. The outcome was a decision by the 14th International Botanical Congress in 1987 that ''Amaryllis'' L. should be a conserved name (i.e. correct regardless of priority) and ultimately based on a specimen of the South African ''Amaryllis belladonna'' from the Clifford Herbarium at the British Museum.\n\n=== Phylogeny ===\nAmaryllidinae are placed within Amaryllideae as follow:\n\nThese are phylogenetically related as follows:\n\n\n\n===Etymology ===\nThe name ''Amaryllis'' is taken from a shepherdess in Virgil's pastoral ''Eclogues'', (from the Greek (''''), meaning \"to sparkle\") and also from \"Amarella\" for the bitterness of the bulb.\n\nAlthough the 1987 decision settled the question of the scientific name of the genus, the common name \"amaryllis\" continues to be used differently. Bulbs sold as amaryllis and described as \"ready to bloom for the holidays\" belong to the allied genus ''Hippeastrum''. The common name \"naked lady\" used for ''Amaryllis'' is also used for other bulbs with a similar growth and flowering pattern; some of these have their own widely used and accepted common names, such as the resurrection lily (''Lycoris squamigera''). The common name \"naked lady\" comes from the plant's pattern of flowering when the foliage has died down.\n", "In areas of its native habitat with mountainous fynbos flowering tends to be suppressed until after bush fires as dense overhead vegetation prevents growth. In more open sandy areas of the Western Cape, the plant flowers annually. Plants tend to be very localized in dense concentrations due to the seeds' large size and heavy weight. Strong winds shake loose the seeds, which fall to ground and immediately start to germinate, aided by the first winter rains.\n", "The leaves are produced in the autumn or early spring in warm climates depending on the onset of rain and eventually die down by late spring. The bulb is then dormant until late summer. The plant is not frost-tolerant, nor does it do well in tropical environments since they require a dry resting period between leaf growth and flower spike production.\n\nOne or two leafless stems arise from the bulb in the dry ground in late summer (March in its native habitat and August in USDA zone 7).\n\nThe plant has a symbiotic relationship with carpenter bees. It is also visited by noctuid moths at night. The relative importance of these animals as pollinators has not yet been established; however, Carpenter bees are thought to be the main pollinators of amaryllis on the Cape Peninsula. The plant's main parasite is the lily borer ''Brithys crini'' and/or ''Diaphone eumela''.\n", "''Amaryllis belladonna'', illustration from \"Flore des serres\" v14, 1861\n''Amaryllis belladonna'' was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the eighteenth century. It reproduces slowly by either bulb division or seeds and has gradually naturalized from plantings in urban and suburban areas throughout the lower elevations and coastal areas in much of the West Coast of the USA since these environments mimic their native South African habitat. Hardiness zones 6-8. It is also naturalized in Australia.\n\nThere is an ''Amaryllis belladonna'' hybrid which was bred in the 1800s in Australia. No one knows the exact species it was crossed with to produce color variations of white, cream, peach, magenta and nearly red hues. The hybrids were crossed back onto the original ''Amaryllis belladonna'' and with each other to produce naturally seed-bearing crosses that come in a very wide range of flower sizes, shapes, stem heights and intensities of pink. Pure white varieties with bright green stems were bred as well. The hybrids are quite distinct in that the many shades of pink also have stripes, veining, darkened edges, white centers and light yellow centers, also setting them apart from the original light pink. In addition, the hybrids often produce flowers in a fuller circle rather than the \"side-facing\" habit of the \"old-fashioned\" pink. The hybrids are able to adapt to year-round watering and fertilization but can also tolerate completely dry summer conditions if need be.\n\n''A. belladonna'' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.\n\n''Amaryllis belladonna'' has been crossed in cultivation with ''Crinum moorei'' to produce a hybrid called × ''Amarcrinum'', which has named cultivars. Hybrids said to be between ''Amaryllis belladonna'' and ''Brunsvigia josephinae'' have been called × ''Amarygia''. Neither hybrid genus name is accepted by the ''World Checklist of Selected Plant Families''.\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Description ", "Taxonomy", " Habitat ", " Ecology ", "Cultivation", "References", " Bibliography " ]	Amaryllis
[ "\n\n\n'''Alfonso III''' (4 November 1265, in Valencia – 18 June 1291), called '''the Liberal''' (''el Liberal'') or '''the Free''' (also \"the Frank,\" from ''el Franc''), was the King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona (as '''Alfons II''') from 1285. He conquered the Kingdom of Majorca between his succession and 1287.\n\nHe was a son of King Peter III of Aragon and Constance, daughter and heiress of King Manfred of Sicily.\n\nSoon after assuming the throne, he conducted a campaign to reincorporate the Balearic Islands into the Kingdom of Aragon - which had been lost due to the division of the kingdom by his grandfather, James I of Aragon. Thus in 1285 he declared war on his uncle, James II of Majorca, and conquered both Majorca (1285) and Ibiza (1286), effectively reassuming suzerainty over the Kingdom of Majorca. He followed this with the conquest of Menorca - until then, an autonomous Muslim state (Manûrqa) within the Kingdom of Majorca - on 17 January 1287, the anniversary of which now serves as Menorca's national holiday.\n\nHe initially sought to maintain Aragonese control over Sicily early in his reign by supporting the claims to the island of his brother, James II of Aragon. However, he later retracted the support for his brother shortly before his death and instead tried to make peace with the Papal States France.\n\nHis reign was marred by a constitutional struggle with the Aragonese nobles, which eventually culminated in the articles of the Union of Aragon - the so-called \"Magna Carta of Aragon\", which devolved several key royal powers into the hands of lesser nobles. His inability to resist the demands of his nobles was to leave a heritage of disunity in Aragon and further dissent amongst the nobility, who increasingly saw little reason to respect the throne, and brought the Kingdom of Aragon close to anarchy.\n\nDuring his lifetime a dynastic marriage with Eleanor, daughter of King Edward I of England, was arranged. However Alfonso died before meeting his bride. He died at the age of 26 in 1291, and was buried in the Franciscan convent in Barcelona; since 1852 his remains have been buried in Barcelona Cathedral.\n\nDante Alighieri, in the Divine Comedy, recounts that he saw Alfonso's spirit seated outside the gates of Purgatory with the other monarchs whom Dante blamed for the chaotic political state of Europe during the 13th century.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n", "Alighieri, Dante, ''Purgatorio'', Canto VII, l. 115ff.\n\nNelson, Lynn. ''The Chronicle of San Juan De LA Pena: A Fourteenth-Century Official History of the Crown of Aragon'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991) \nO'Callaghan, Joseph. ''A History of Medieval Spain'' (Cornell University Press, 1983) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Ancestry", "Notes", "Sources" ]	Alfonso III of Aragon

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